int nee re ch cpaiben nt na cangracaeapien Pace a santee A eraser esate OLN SSN Ne A OT Oe es -r = a. ea gf Me fig eg (a ia J ¥ > ; Nature, ] March 25, 1999 Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE Nature, March 25, 1909 Mar Bex ses cal Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME: 7 BXxCx NOVEMBER, 1908, to FEBRUARY, 1909 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.”—WoRDSWORTH 2 O55 bh London Me SeNerinLAN AYNED- CO), Lawrie NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Nature, March 25, 1909 RICHARD CLAY AND Sons, LIMITED, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. Nature, March 25, 190, INDEX. ABDERHALDEN (EmiL), Text-book of Physiological Chemistry | in Thirty Lectures, 246; Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der speziellen Eiweisschemie, 275 Abetti (Prof. G.), the Parallax of 61 Cygni, 261; Inter- action of Sun-spots, 469 Abney (Sir W.), Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure, and Photographic Action, 23; New Three-colour Camera, 24 Aborigines of Tasmania, the Origin of the, H. Ling Roth, 3607; J. W. G., 367 Abraham (Henri), Monotelephone of Great Sensitiveness, 29 Acoustics: a Text-book of Sound, Prof. E. H. Barton, 425; Traité de Physique, O. D. Chwolson, 425 Actinium, on the Radio-active Deposits from, Prof. J. C. | McLennan, 487 Adam (J. C.), Field Natural History, 296 Adamovié (Prof. L.), Vertical Distribution of Plants in the | Balkan States, 199 Adloff (Dr. P.), das Gebiss des Menschen und der Anthro- pomorphen Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuchungen, Zugleich ein Beitrag zur menschlichen Stammgeschichte, 278 Advent, the Origin of, and other Three Weeks’ Celebra- tions, Rev. John Griffith, 36 Aéronautics : Aéroplane Flights, 15; the Progress of Avia- tion, Herbert Chatley, 67; Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., 67; Balloon Observations made at Birdhill, Captain C. H. Ley, 118; Flying Machines and their Stability, A. Mallock, F.R.S., 220; Remarkable Aéroplane Flight, Wilbur Wright, 227; Some Forms of Scientific Kites, Eric S. Bruce, 240; the Registering Balloon Ascents in the British Isles, July 27 to August 1, 1908, C. J. P. Cave, 240; Balloon Observations at Ditcham Park, C. J. P. Cave, 240; Results of Recent Balloon Ascents, 260; Long Flight, Wilbur Wright, 291; Wireless Tele- graphy by Balloons, 291; Formula for Velocity applic- able to Propulsion in Air, Alphonse Berget, 359; | Mechanical Flight, Herbert Chatley at Society of Engineers, 413; Participation of Various Countries in the Work of investigating the Upper Air from January to the Beginning of July, 1908, Dr. Hergesell, 468 Ether, Gravitation Stress of, Prof. F. Purser, 179 “Bther of Space, the, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., at Royal | Institution, 322 Afforestation: Report on Afforestation in the United Kingdom, 351; a National Scheme of Afforestation, 370; | the Chopwell Woods, 497 Africa: Geodetic Survey of South Africa, Colonel Sir W. G. Morris, K.C.M.G., C.B., Captain H. W. Gordon, | and Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., 103; the Forest | Region of Mount Kenia, 108; Dr. Sandberg on the Anti- clinal Structure of Tygerberg, Dr. A. W. Rogers, 149; Silk-producing Insects of West Africa, Gerald C. Dudgeon, 160; Underground Waters of Cape Colony, Dr. Juritz, 229 Agriculture: the A.B.C. of Lime Cultivation, Joseph Jones and J. C. Macintyre, 22; Citric Acid, Dr. Watts, 22; Agriculture for Southern Schools, J. F. Duggar, 65; Potato Black Scab, Prof. T. Johnson, 67; Prof. F. E. | A A A | .Weiss, 98; Chemical Industry in Relation to Agricul- ture, Prof. A. Frank, 89; Canada’s Fertile Northland, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 95; Sugar-cane Experiments in the Leeward Islands, 1906-7, 106; Use of Calcium Cyanamide in Agriculture, A. Miintz and P. Nottin, 119; the Soil, A. D. Hall, 127; Cotton and Cacao Culture at St. Vincent, 141; Cotton Cultivation in Tobago, T. Thornton, 229; Varieties of Wheat Grown in Central India, G. Evans, 141; the Organisation of Rural Education, 161; Value of Small Dressings of Lime on the Sugar Plantations, H. H. Cousins, 168; Increas- ing Use of Artificial Manures in South Australia, 168; Southern Agriculture, F. S. Earle, W. G. Freeman, 186; Work at Woburn Experimental Station, 197; Report on Economic Mycology for the Year 1907-8, E. S. Salmon, 199; Irrigation in Australia, a Suggestion, 199; Exercises in Elementary Quantitative Chemical Analysis for Students of Agriculture, Dr. A. T. Lincoln and Dr. J. H. Walton, jun., 217; Annual Report of the Trans- vaal Department of Agriculture, 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; Report of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Years 1905-6 and 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; the Agricultural Journal of India, 1908, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; Fungi and Plant Diseases, Pole Evans, 235; the Food of some British Birds, Robert Newstead, 254; Fruit Drying in California, 258; Hydrocyanic Acid as an Agent for Destruction of Insect Pests, Dr. Morrill, 259; Methods recommended for the Eradication of Weeds of North Dakota, 293; Progress of Agriculture in Malay States for 1907, 293; the Movement of Water in Soils, Dr. J. Walter Leather, 309; Dr. E. J. Russell, 310; Experi- ments with Nitro-bactrine, F. J. Chittenden, 317; Vaccination of Sheep against Blue Tongue, Dr. Theiler, 318; Insect Pests affecting Cocoa in West Africa, Mr. Graham, 409; Regeneration of Coffee Plantations by the Introduction of a New Species, Jean Dybowski, 419; Encyclopedia of Agriculture by the Most Eminent Authorities, Dr. E. J. Russell, 421; Crops, their Characteristics and their Cultivation, Primrose McConnell, 427; Methods and Causes of Evolution, O. F. Cook, 435; Dr. A. G. Bell, 435; Poisonous Properties of the Cape Tulip, 436; Method for checking Parasitic Diseases in Plants, Prof. Potter, 436; the Diffusion of Saline Manures in the Soil, A. Muntz and H. Gaudechon, 449; Use of Ferrous Arseniate against the Parasitic Insects of Plants, MM. Vermorel and Dantony, 449; Official Estimate of Probable Wheat Harvest for 1908-9 in South Australia, 467; Spraying Lime Trees with Emulsion of Kerosene, 467; Potato-growing in Central India, G. Evans, 467; Selective Permeability of the Coverings of the Seeds of Hordeum vulgare, Prof. Adrian J. Brown, 507 hlers (R. O.), a Manganese Deposit in Southern India, 118 itken (Dr. R. G.), One Hundred New Double Stars, 201 Ibe (E. E. Fournier d’), New Process of Contact Photo- graphy, 479 vi Lndex [ Nature, March 25, 1909 Albrecht (Dr.), the Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse Expedition, January, 1908, 70; Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse, 439 Albrecht (Prof. Th.), Formeln und Hilfstafeln fiir geo- graphische Ortsbestimmungen, 338 Alge: Alga growing on Fish, Kumagusu Minakata, 99; Geo. Massee, 99; die Algenflora der Danziger Bucht, ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Ostseeflora, Prof. Lako- witz, 126; a Monograph of the British Desmidiacez, W. West and Dr. G. S. West, 426 Algebra: Graphic Algebra, Dr. Arthur Schultze, 35; Elementary Algebra, W. D. Eggar, 64; a New Algebra, S. Barnard and J. M. Child, 64; Algebra for Secondary Schools, Dr. Charles Davison, 64; the Eton Algebra, P. Scoones and L. Todd, 64; Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra and Mensuration, P. Goyen, 156; a Method of Solving Algebraic Equations, Georg Sattler, 398; Prof. Ronald Ross, C.B., F.R.S., 398 Algué (Rev. Father), Bulletins of the Philippine Weather Bureau for September and October, 1907, Meteorology of the North Pacific, 46 Allen (Dr. R. W.), Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment, 423 Alloys, Metallic, their Structure and Constitution, G. H. Gulliver, 365 Alternation of Generations in Plants, 1 Ameisen, Weitere Beitrage zum socialen Paratismus und der Sklaverei bei den, E. Wasmann, W. F. Kirby, 51 America: the Fossil Turtles of North America, O. Perry Hay, 91; the American Annual of Photography, 1909, 188; the Financial Status of the Professor in America and in Germany, 249; Prehistoric Pottery in America, C. B. Moore, 265; the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, 295; Science and the Practical Problems of the Future, Prof. E. L. Nichols at American Association for Advancement of Science, 3253 Baltimore Meeting of the American Association, 344; Aboriginal American Industries, J. L. Cowan, 349; Bathyorographical Map of South America, 486 Ames (Dr. Azel), Death and Obituary Notice of, 165 Ampferer (Dr.), the Sonnwendgebirge, 470 Amundsen (Captain Roald), a Proposed North Polar Ex- pedition, 412 Anatomy: Albrecht von Haller, 38; Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, 93; Comparative Osteology of Man and the Higher Apes, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, 198 ; Systematic Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Dr. H. Solereder, 211; Mesenteric Sac and Thoracic Duct in Pig-embryos, W. A. Baetjer, 228; the Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, J. T. Share-Jones, 333; Anatomy of Human Thymus, Henri Rieffel and Jacques Le Mée, 360 Andamanese, an Investigation of the Sociology Religion of the, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 345 Andoyer (H.), Cours d’Astronomie, 395 : Animal Histology, a Text-book of the Principles of, Ulric Dahlgren and Wm. A. Kepner, 273 Animal Life, Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., 182 Animated Photographs in Natural Colours, Albert Smith, and 314 Annandale (Dr. N.), New Slow-lemur from the Lushai Hills, 147 Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society, 134 Antarctica: National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Meteor- ology, 202; vol. iv., Zoology, 355; Zoological Reports on the Discovery Collections, 355; Physical Observations of the National Antarctic Expedition, 320; Tidal Observa- tions, Sir G. H. Darwin, 321; Messrs. Selby and Hunter, 321; Pendulum Observations, Dr. Chree, 321; Earth- quake Records, Prof. Milne, 321; the Aurora, Mr. Bernacchi, 321; Results of the Magnetic Observations, Commander Chetwynd and Dr. Chree, 322; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Physique du Globe, G. Lecointe; Zoologie, P. P. C. Hoek, H. F. E. Jungersen, L. Béhmig, L. Plate; Oceanographie, H. Arctowski and H. R. Mill; Geologie, H. Arctowski, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Aufbau und Gestaltung von Ker- guelen, E. Werth; Geologische Beobachtungen auf Kerguelen, E. Philippi; Petrographische Beschreibung der Kerguelen-Gesteine, R. Reinisch, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Geographie von Heard-Eiland, E. | von Drygalski; Geologie der Heard-Insel, E. Philippi; Gesteine der Heard-Insel, R. Reinisch; Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, E. Vanhoffen; Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, W. Meinardus, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Anthracite, the Coals of South Wales, with Special Refer ence to the Origin and Distribution of, Aubrey Strahau and W. Pollard, 33 Anthropology: Remains of Primitive Man discovered in 1843 near Lagoa Santa, Brazil, Dr. Rivet, 46; Sympa- thetic Magic Figures Peculiar to the Laccadive Islands, E. Thurston, 46; Primitive Methods of Chartography employed by the Inhabitants of the Marshall Islands, T. A. Joyce, 78; Totemism in Fiji, Father W. Schmidt, 106; the Races of Egypt, Dr. C. S. Myers, 106; Death of Dr. E. T. Hamy, 138; Obituary Notice of, 166; Death of Dr. O. T. Mason, 138; the European Popula- tion of the United States, Prof. Ripley at Royal Anthro- pological Institute, 145; Royal Anthropological Institute, 148, 447, 478; Primitive Pottery and Iron-working in British East Africa, W. S. Routledge, 148; the Dawn of Human Intention, Eoliths, Prof. A. Schwartz and Sir Hugh R. Beevor, 210; Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scotland, J. F. Tocher, 223; Who Built the British Stone Circles? J. Gray, 236; ‘* Linked Totems,’’ A. Lang, 258; Studies in Anthropology, 264; the Natives of Portuguese East Africa, Dr. G. A. Turner, 264; Physical Characteristics of Medical Students at Aberdeen University, Dr. W. R. Macdonell, 264; Dis- covery of Human Skeleton at Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, 270; L’Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), Marcellin Boule, 312; Découverte d’un Squelette Humain mousterien ‘A La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, 312; das Gebiss des Menschen und der Anthropomorphen, Vergleichend- anatomische Untersuchungen, Zugleich ein Beitrag zur menschlichen Stammgeschichte, Dr. P. Adloff, 278; the Tinggians of the Philippine Islands, F. C. Cole, 293; the People of the Polar North, Knud Rasmussen, 311; an Investigation of the Sociology and Religion of the Andamanese, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 345; Aboriginal American Industries, J. L. Cowan, 349; Vélkerpsycho- logie, eine Untersuchung der Entwickelungsgesetze von Sprache, Mythus und Sitte, Wilhelm Wundt, 361; das Geschlechtsleben in der Vélkerpsychologie, Otto Stoll, 361; the Origin of the Aborigines of Tasmania, H. Ling Roth, 367; J. W. G., 367; Unsere Ahrenreihe (Progono- taxis hominis)—kritische Studien iiber phyletische Anthro- pologie (Festschrift zur 350-jahrigen Jubelfeier der Thiiringer Universitat Jena und der damit verbundenen Ubergabe des phyletischen Museums am 30 Juli 1908), Ernst Haeckel, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 3925 Light thrown by Anthropology on System of ,Egyptian Hieroglyphics, A. M. Blackman, 436; Anthropology and Classical Studies, Prof. Ridgeway, 447; Methods of Navigation among the Aborigines of Australia, H. R. Mathews, 467; Basketry as practised by the Pomo Tribe in California, S. A. Barrett, 467; Dene-holes, Rev. J. W. Hayes, 478; the Scope and Content of the Science of Anthropology, Juul Dieserud, 484 Antoniadi (M.), Martian Features, 378 Ants and their Guests, W. F. Kirby, 51 Apnoea in Man. the Production of Prolonged, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 458 Appendicitis, Microchemical Owen Williams, 78 Aquiculture: Apparatus for Hatching, Rearing, and Trans- porting Fishes, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Use of Apparatus in Hatching and Rearing Lobsters, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Dr. George W. Field, 110 6 Aquile, the Orbit of, Mr. Baker, 499 Arber (E. A. Newell), the Structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn., 86; Fossil Plants of the Waldershare and Fred- ville Series of the Kent Coalfield, 117 Arcana of Nature, Hudson Tuttle, 220 Archzology : Some Cromlechs in North Wales, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 9; the Origin of Advent and other Three Weeks’ Celebrations, Rev. John Griffith, 36; Captain Devoir’s Archwological Researches in Changes occurring in, Dr. * Nature, » a March ae 1909 Index Vil Brittany, 51; Objects of the Bronze Age found in Wilt- shire, E. H. Goddard, 78; the Archzological Survey of Nubia, 132; Nubian Cemeteries, Anatomical Report by Drs. Elliot Smith and F. Wood Jones, 132; Age of Prehistoric Excavations in Search of Flints at Brandon (Grime’s Graves), W. A. Sturge, 141; University of .Philadelphia’s Excavations in Crete, R. H. Seager, 168; the Dawn of Human Intention, Eoliths, Prof. A. Schwartz and Sir Hugh R. Beevor, 210; Who Built the British Stone Circles? J. Gray, 236; Stone Circles in Ireland, W. E. Hart, 488; the Reliquary and Illus- trated Archeologist, 249; Excavations in the Maumbury Ring Circle, H. St. John Gray, 256; Fort Ancient, the Great Prehistoric Earthwork of Warren County, Ohio, W. K. Moorhead, 258; Prehistoric Pottery in America, C. B. Moore, 265; Surveying for Archzologists, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 283; the Annual of the British School at Athens, H. R. Hall, 303; Late Celtic and Roman Pottery, A. G. Wright, 318; Arretine Ware from a Late Celtic Rubbish-heap at Oare, M. E. Cunnington, 319; Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age, Miss E. H. Hall, 349; Site of Meroe Discovered, Prof. Sayce, 406; Folk Memory, or the Continuity of British Archeology, Walter Johnson, 423; les Stations lacustres d’Europe aux Ages de la Pierre et du Bronze, Dr. Robert Munro, 427; Dowels of Egyptian Coffins of the Twelfth Dynasty, T. G. B. Osborn, 448; the Diatom- aceous Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley and Prehistoric Implements found therein, J. W. Jackson, 449; Alfarerias del Noroeste Argentinto, F. Outes, 502; Sobre el Hallazgo de Alfarerias Mexicanas en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, F. Outes, 502; Arqueologia de San Blas, F. Outes, 502 Arctica; Danish North-east Greenland Expedition, Lieut. A. Trollé, 197-8, 355; Aims and Objects of Modern Polar Exploration, Dr. William S. Bruce, 227; a Proposed North Polar Expedition, Captain Roald Amundsen, 412 Arctowski (H.), Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Oceanographie, 460, Geologie, 460 Argentina, Prehistoric, 502 Arithmetic: Arithmétique graphique, Gabriel Arnoux, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, 34; a School Arithmetic, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 156; a Modern Arithmetic, with Graphic and Practical Exercises, H. Sydney Jones, 156; Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra and Mensuration, P. Goyen, 156; Elementary Mensuration, W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, 156; Practical Arith- metic and Mensuration, Frank Castle, 156 Armistead (Wilson H.), Trout Waters, Management and Angling, 5 Armstrong (Prof. H. E.), Origin of Osmotic Effects, ii., Differential Septa, 507 Arnoux (Gabriel), Arithmétique graphique, 34 Ash (F. W.), Evolution of the Cetacean Tail-fin, 228 Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire, a Historical Account of the, 1880-1905, Frank Arthur Bellamy, 215 Ashworth (Dr. J. R.), Meteorological Elements of Roch- dale, 350 Askwith (Rev. E. H.), the Analytical Geometry of the Conic Sections, 337 ys Assam, the Ethnography of, 100 Astronomy: the 4-79 Period of Sun-spot Activity, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 7; a Large Group of Sun- spots, 80; Sun-spots in 1907, Dr. Rudolf Wolf, 261; on the Magnetic Action of Sun-spots, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 279; the Magnetic Field in Sun-spots, Prof. Hale, 351; Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum, Father Cortie, 438; Mr. Evershed, 439; Inter- action of Sun-spots, P. Fox and G. Abetti, 469; Some Cromlechs in North Wales, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 9; Our Astronomical Column, 20, 48, 80, 108, 142, 169, 200, 231, 260, 294, 320, 351, 378, 410, 438, 469, 499; the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1go8c, A. de la Baume Pluvinel and F. Baldet, 20; H. Deslandres and J. Bosler, 149, 169; M. Bernard, 169; Observations of the Comet 1908c, Luc Picart, 29; Photographs of the Morehouse Comet, L. Rabourdin, 29; Comet Morehouse, r1908c, M. Borrelly, 48; L. Rabourdin, 48; M. Gautier, 48; Prof. Barnard, 48; Prof. Kobold, 48; M. Quénisset, 80; MM. Deslandres and Bernard, 80; Dr. Smart, -108, 143; Prof. Frost, 142; Prof. E. C. Pickering, 142; Herr Winkler, 142; M. Geelmuyden, 143; Herr Ebell, 143; M. Flammarion, 231; MM. le Comte de la Baume Pluvinel and Baldet, 231; R. C. Johnson, 295; Spectroscopic Researches on the Morehouse Comet, 1908c, H. Deslandres and A. Bernard, 59; the Changes in the Tail of Comet More- house, 169; Prof. Max Wolf, 351; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, MM. Baldet and Quénisset, 200; Prof. Barnard, 200; Further Observations of Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, J. Guillaume, 260; Further Photographs of Morehouse’s Comet, Prof. Barnard, 320; the Spectrum and Form of Comet More- house, Prof, Frost and Mr. Parkhurst, 439; Prof. Barnard, 439; Prof. Campbell and Dr. S. Albrecht, 439 ; Solar Vortices and their Magnetic Effects, Prof. Zeeman, 20; the Wave-length of the Hd Line, Mr. Evershed, 20; Meteoric Iron and Artificial Steel, Prof. Fredk. Ber- werth, 20; November Meteors, W. F. Denning, 37; John R. Henry, 38; the Spectra of the Major Planets, Prof. Percival Lowell, 42; Prof. Beyerinck, 139; Death of Dr. Cecil G. Dolmage, 43; Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. John M. Thome, 43; Death and Obituary Notice of Andrew Graham, 44; Donati’s Comet and the Comet of 69 B.c., Herr Kritzinger, 48; Terrestrial Elec- tricity and Solar Activity, Dr. A. Nodon, 48; the “* Astro- nomischen Gesellschaft ’’ at Vienna, 48; New Catalogues of Proper Motions, Dr. Ristenpart, 48; K. Hirayama, 48; the Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Solar Spectra, Prof. A. Fowler, 58; the Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse Expedition, January, 1908, Prof. Camp- bell and Dr. Albrecht, William E. Rolston, 70; a New Spectroscopic Laboratory at Pasadena, 80; Biographical Memoir of Asaph Hall, G. W. Hill, 80; a Research on the Movement of Comet Wolf, M. Kamensky, 80; Leonid Meteors, W. F. Denning, 99; Astronomical Occurrences in December, 108; in January, 294; in February, 410; in March, 499; Halley’s Comet, Mr. Wendell, 108 ; Search- ephemeris for Halley’s Comet, 320; a Simple Instru- ment for finding the Correct Time, Prof. S. de Glasenapp, 108; Ephemeris for Jupiter’s Eighth Satellite, 108: Refraction Due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, M. Chevalier, 143; E. Esclangon, 143; Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s Principal Satellites and of Titan, J. Comas Sola, 232; Jupiter’s Eighth Moon, 410; Jupiter’s Seventh and Eighth Satellites, Sir _ William Christie, 469; Designations of Recently Discovered Variable Stars, 108; the Enumeration of Minor Planets, Prof. Bauschinger, 108; the Variation of Latitude, Mr. Hirayama, 108; the Stars of the Year, W. E. Rolston, 127; Star Calendar for 1909, W. E..Rolston, 127; the Star Almanack, W. E. Rolston, 127; Halley’s Grave, 139; the Change in the Physical Condition of Nova Persei, Prof. Barnard, 143 ; Observations of the Zodiacal Light, E. A. Fath, 143; 1’Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes, 143; Royal Astronomical Society, 147, 239; Roval Astronomical Society’s Medal Awards, 434; Deter- mination of Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 169; Spectroscopic Binaries, Mr. Plaskett, 169, 295; a Recent Observation of Nova Cygni, Dr. Karl Bohlin, 169; the Study of Stellar Evolution, an Account of some Recent Methods of Astrophysical Research, Prof. George Ellery Hale, William E. Rolston, 191; Popu- lare Astrophysik, Dr. J. Scheiner, William E. Rolston, 191; Water Vapour in the Atmosphere of Mars, | Prof. Lowell, 200; Quantitative Measures of the Water Vapour in the Martian Atmosphere, Prof. Very, 499; the South Polar Cap of Mars, Prof. Lowell, 232; the Spectrum of Mars, M. Slipher, 351; Martian Features, Prof. Lowell, 378; M. Antoniadi, 378; Characteristics of the Superior (K,) Layer of the Sun’s Atmosphere, M. Deslandres, 200; Liverpool Astronomical Society, 201; One Hundred New Double Stars, Dr. R. G. Aitken, 201; Double-star Astronomy, T. Lewis, 247; Double-star Orbits, Prof. Doberck, 320; the Poles of Double-star Orbits, Prof. Doberck, 378; Errors of Double-star Measures, Dr. H. E. Lau, 439; Corrections of the Position and Diameter of Mercury, Prof. Stroobant, 232; the Com- panion to the Observatory, 232; the Nizamiah Observa- tory at Haidarabad, 232; Comet of 1556, Prof. George Forbes, 239; Determination of the Apparent Diameter b vill Index e Nature, March 25, 1909 of a Fixed Star, Major P. A. MacMahon, 239; Death Atmospheric Electricity: die Luftelektrizitat, Prof. Albert and Obituary Notice of E. Stuyvaert, 256; Search for an Ultra-Neptunian Planet, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 260; the Figure of the Sun, Prof. Charles Lane Poor, 260; a Remarkable Meteor, Prof. Kopff, 261; the Parallax of 61 Cygni, Prof. G. Abetti, 261; Meteoric Shower of January, W. F. Denning, 266; the Total Solar Eclipse of 1911 April 28, Dr. Downing, 295; a Sixth Type of Stellar Spectra, Prof. Pickering, 295; the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America, 295; the Variable Star U Geminorum, J. van der Bilt, 295; the Heavens at a Glance, Mr. Mee, 295; Use of Coloured Screens and Orthochromatic Plates for the Photographic Observa- tion of the Fixed Stars, Gésten Bergstrand, 299; Death and Obituary Notice of Major Percy B. Molesworth, 315; the Distribution of Eruptive Prominences on the Solar Disc, Philip Fox, 320; Errors in Measures of Star Images and Spectra, Prof. Perrine, 320; the Judg- ment of Paris and some other Legends Astronomically Considered, Hon. Emmeline M. Plunket, H. R. Hall, 335; Formeln und Hilfstafeln fir geographische Orts- bestimmungen, Prof. Th. Albrecht, 338; Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. G. W. Hough, 347; Periodical Comets due to Return this Year, Mr. Lynn, 351; a Brilliant Meteor, P. Evans, 351; Camelopardalis, Camelopardalus, or Camelopardus? Prof. E. C. Picker- ing, 351; Parallax of 23 H Camelopardalis, Gustaf Strémberg, 439; Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star-finding Tables, Lieut.-Commander Armistead Rust, Captain H. C. Lockyer, 365; Recent Brilliant Fireballs, W. F. Denning, 378; H. Chapman, 378; Atmospheric Polarisation, Chr. Jensen, 378; Making a _ Forty- centimetre (15-7 inches) Cassegrain Reflector, M. Schaer, 378; Remarkably Dark Penumbral Eclipse of the Moon, 378; VAnnuaire Astronomique et Méteorologique, 1909, 379; Zenithal Photographic Telescope, A. de la Baume Pluvinel, 389; Cours d’Astronomie, H. Andoyer, 395; a February Meteoric Shower, W. F. Denning, 399; the Problem of Several Bodies, Prof. E. O. Lovett, 410; an Eccentric Variable Star, Mary W. Whitney, 410; the Minor Planet Patroclus (617), V. Heinrich, 410; Prof. Wolf, 410; Determination of the Apex and Vertex from the Stars in the Porter Catalogue, S. Beljawsky, ato; Colours of Stars in Galactic and Non-galactic Regions, Mr. Franks, 410; Popular Astronomy, 410; les Progrés récents de |’Astronomie, Prof. P. Stroobant, W. E. Rolston, 427; Essai d’une Explication du Méchanisme de la Périodicité dans le Soleil et les Etoiles rouges variables, A. Brester, 431; the Stars of the c and ac Subdivisions in the Maury Spectral Classification, E, Hertzsprung, 439; the Stars surrounding 59 Cygni, Prof. Jacoby, 439; Distribution of the Stars, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 469; the Anomalies of Refraction, Fr. Nusl and J. J. Fri¢, 469; the Story of the Telescope, Mr. Mee, 469; Observations of the Sun at Lyons Observatory during the Fourth Quarter of 1908, J. Guillaume, 479; a Brilliant Meteor and its Train, Rev. F. J. Jervis- Smith, F.R.S., 499; Annie L. Waud, 499; Dr. T. K. Rose, 499; Absorption of Light in Space, Prof. Kapteyn, 499; the Orbit of @ Aquila, Mr. Baker, 499 Astrophysics: the Study of Stellar Evolution, an Account of some Recent Methods of Astrophysical Research, Prof. George Ellery Hale, William E. Rolston, 191; Populdre Astrophysik, Dr. J. Scheiner, William E. Rolston, 191; the Zonal-belt Hypothesis, a New Explanation of the Cause of the Ice Ages, Joseph T. Wheeler, 426 Athens, the Annual of the British School at, H. R. Hall, 303 Atkins (W. R. G.), Absorption of Water by Seeds, 389 Atkinson (W. J.), Scientific Societies and the Admission of Women Fellows, 488 Atlas of Canada, 272 Atlas, the Edinburgh School, 366 Atlas of Physical, Political, Biblical, and Classical Geo- graphy, the Class-room, 249 Atmosphere, the Isothermal Layer of the, J. I. Craig, 281; W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 282, 459; Charles J. P. Cave, 308; R. F. Hughes, 340, 429 Atmosphere, the Wonder Book of the, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424 Gockel, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 455 Atmospheric Polarisation, Chr. Jensen, 378 Atmospheric Variations, Diurnal and Semi-diurnal, Henry Helm Clayton, 397 Atom, a Model, Harry Bateman, 159 Australasia: the Preservation of the Native Fauna and Flora in Australasia, Prof. Arthur Dendy, F.R.S., 73; Geological Notes on Mt. Kosciusko, Prof. T. W. Edge- worth David, 120; Australian Cormorants and Local Fisheries, 167; die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens, Ergeb- nisse der Hamburger siidwest-australischen Forschungs- reise, 1905, 396 Autumn and After, Alex. B. MacDowall, 221 Aviation, the Progress of, Herbert Chatley, 67; Prof. Go Hi. Bryan, F-R°S:, 167 Ayrton (Prof. W. E., F.R.S.), Death of, 43; Obituary Notice of, Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 74 Ayson (L. G.), Introduction of American Fishes into New Zealand, 110 Bach (Dr. Hugo), Climate of Davos, 230 Bacteriology: Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis, Prof. S. C. Prescott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 6; Bacteriology and Tuberculosis of Animals, the Tubercle Bacillus and Tuberculin, Prof. Koch, 49; Prof. Theobald Smith, 50; Prof. Sims Woodhead, 50; Opsonisation from a Bacterial Point of View, Dr. R. Greig-Smith, 120; a Manual of Bacteriology, Clinical and Applied, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 219; Piroplasma mutans, Dr. A. Theiler, 235; the Réle of Liquid Crystals in Nature, 286; Properties of the Tubercle Bacillus cultivated on Bile, H. Calmette and C. Guérin, 299: Experiments with Nitro-bactrine, F. J. Chittenden, 317; Physiology of Luminous Bacteria, G. A. Nadson, 467; Baden-Powell (Major B.), the Knowledge Calculator, 19 Baetjer (W. A.), Mesenteric Sac and Thoracic Duct in Pig-embryos, 228 Bahr (P. H.), Scaup-duck in Scotland, 257 Bailey (Dr. G. H.), the New Matriculation Chemistry, specially adapted to the London University Matriculation Syllabus, 363 Bailey (Mr.), the Weights of Developing Eggs, 105 Bainbridge (Mr.), Does the Kidney form an Internal Secretion? 466 Baker (E. C. Stuart), the Indian Ducks and their Allies, 274 Baker (Mr.), the Orbit of @ Aquila, 499 Baker (W. M.), Elementary Mensuration, 156 Baldet (F.), the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 20; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, 200; Morehouse’s Comet, 231 Ball (Sir Robert), Physical Applications of the Theory of Screws, 2 Ball (R. S.), Natural Sources of Power, 4 Balthazard (¥V.), Identification of the Imprint of a Blood- stained Hand on a Sheet, 179; Identification of Revolver Bullets, 389 Baltimore Meeting of the American Association, 344 Bamford (H.), Moving Loads on Railway Underbridges, including Diagrams of Bending Moments and Shearing Forces, and Tables of Equivalent Uniform Live Loads, 128 Banfield (E. J.), the Confessions of a Beachcomber, 403 Barber (C. A.), the Haustoria of Cansjera Rheedti, 408 Bardon (L.), Discovery of Human Skeleton at Chapelle- aux-Saints, 270; Découverte d’un Squelette Humain mousterien A la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), 312 Barillé (A.), the Réle of the Dissociation of the Carbono- phosphates in Nature, 479 Barnard (Prof. E.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 48; the Changes in the Physical Condition of Nova Persei, 143; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, 200; Further Photographs of Morehouse’s Comet, 320; the Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse, 439 Barnard (J. E.), Ultra-microscopic Vision, 489 Barnard (S.), a New Algebra, 64 Barnes (Dr. James), New Method of obtaining the Spectra in Flames, 26 ——— Nature, March 25, 1909. Index ix Barograph, New Form of Compensated Siphon, Prof. C. F. Marvin, 377 Barometric Oscillation, C. Braak, 459 Barometric Oscillation, the Semi-diurnal, W. E.R oS., 130) Barrett (S. A.), Basketry as practised by the Pomo Tribe in California, 467 Barrett (Prof. W. F.), New Three-colour Camera, 24 Barron (T.), Geology of the District between Cairo and Suez, 171 Barrow (G.), Additional Localities for Idocrase in Corn- wall, 448 Barrow (Mr.), Geology of Small Isles of Inverness-shire, 170 Barton (Prof. E. H.), a Text-book of Sound, 425 Bastian (Dr. H. Charlton, F.R.S.), Memory in the Germ Plasm, 7 Bateman (H.), Method of obtaining Solutions of Problems in Geometrical Optics by Conformal Transformations in Space of Four Dimensions, 25; Meaning of Valency, 26; the Constitution of the Atom, 118; a Model Atom, H. Dines, 159 Bather (Dr. F. A.), Methods of preparing Fossils, 44 Baud (E.), Aqueous Solutions of Pyridine, 359 Bauer (Ed.), Products of the Reaction of Sodium Amide on Ketones, 89; Temperature of Flame of Bunsen Burner, 270; General Method of Preparation of the Monoalkyl, Dialkyl, and Trialkyl-acetophenones, 350; General Method of Preparation of the ‘rialkylacetic Acids, 389 Bauer (Dr. L. A.), Meaning and Method of Scientific Re- search, Address at Philosophical Society of Washington, 473 Baume (George), Density of Methane and the Atomic Weight of Carbon, 330 Bauschinger (Prof.), The Enumeration of Minor Planets, 108 Bayliss (Dr. W. M., F.R.S.), the Nature of Enzyme Action, 275 Beachcomber, the Confessions of a, E. J. Banfield, 403 Beadle (Clayton), Chapters on Paper-making, 212 Beadnell (Hugh J. L.), Relations of the Nubian Sandstone and the Crystalline Rocks of Egypt, 117 Beddard (Mr.), Does the Kidney form an Internal Secre- tion? 466 Bedford (Duke of, K.G., F.R.S.), the Planting of Fruit Trees, Ninth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, 500 Bees: the Lore of the Honey-bee, F. W. L. Sladen, 6 Beevor (Dr. C. E.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 165, Tickner Edwardes, 197 Beevor (Sir Hugh R.), the Dawn of Human Intention, Eoliths, 210 Behal (A.), Preparation of Ether Salts of the Cyclic Series, 300; Preparation of Aldehydes and Anhydrides of Acids, 389 Beilby (G. T., F.R.S.), Mercury Bubbles and the Formation of Oxide Films by Water containing Oxygen in Solution, 190 Beljawsky (S.), Determination of the Apex and Vertex from the Stars in the Porter Catalogue, 410 Bell (Dr. A. G.), Methods and Causes of Evolution, 435 Bellamy (Frank Arthur), a Historical Account of the Ash- molean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire, 1880- 1905, 215 Benard (Henri), Formation of Centres of Gyration behind an Obstacle in Motion, 89 Benett (W.), the Ethical Aspects of Evolution, regarded as the Parallel Growth of Opposite Tendencies, 456 Bennett (Sanford), Exercising in Bed, 339 Benoit (Mr.), Study of the Relation between the Metre and the Wave-length of the Red Cadmium Line, 195 Bentley (C. A.), Black-water Fever, 313 Z Berget (Alphonse), Gravimetric Method of Constant Sensi- bility for the Measurement of High Altitudes, 330; Formula for Velocity applicable to Propulsion in Air, 359 Bergstrand (Oesten), Use of Coloured Screens and Ortho- chromatic Plates for the Photographic Observation of the Fixed Stars, 299 Bermbach (Prof. 246 Bernacchi (Mr.), the Aurora, 321 Bernard (A.), Spectroscopic Researches on the Morehouse Comet, 1908c, 59; Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 50; the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 169 Berwerth (Prof. Fredk.), Meteoric Iron and Artificial Steel, 20 Beyerinck (Prof.), Spectra of Planets, 139 Biddlecombe (A.), Thoughts on Natural Philosophy, with a New Reading of Newton’s First Law, 66 Biles (Prof.:J. H.), the Design and Construction of Ships, 454 Binaries, Spectroscopic, Mr. Plaskett, 169, 295 Biology: Versuch einer Begriindung der Deszendenztheorie, Prof. Karl Camillo Schneider, 34; the Functional Inertia of Living Matter, Dr. D. F. Harris, 96; an Alga grow- ing on Fish, Kumagusu Minakata, 99; Geo. Massee, 99; Some Scientific Centres: XIV., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, Prof. de Vries, 101; History and Control of Sex, D. M. Mottier, 105; Relation of Race Crossing to Sex Ratio, Maud De Witt Pearl and Raymond Pearl, 106; Death of Albert Gaudry, 138; Obituary Notice of, 163; Biologie unserer einheimischen Phanerogamen, M. Wagner, 158; Post-foetal Development of Ova in the Cat, Messrs, Winiwarter and Sainmont, 167; Linnzus, Dr. J. VWalckenier Suringar, 213; Evolution of the Cetacean Tail-fin, F. W. Ash, 228; Early Ontogenetic Phenomena in Mammals, Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht, 228 ; der Frosch, Dr. F. Hempelmann, 242; Regeneration at the Two Extremities of the Body in the Annelid Spiro- graphis spallanzanii, P. Ivanov, 257; Mode of Action of Electricity in Electric Parthenogenesis, Yves Delage, 269 ; the Nature of Enzyme Action, Dr. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S., 275; the Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer, 275; Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der speziellen Eiweisschemie, Emil Abderhalden, 275; Intracellular Enzymes, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 275; a Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology, Ulric Dahlgren and Wm. A. Kepner, 273; Colony-Formation among Rotifers, F. M. Surface, 292; Effect of Alkaloids on Early Development of Toxopneustes variegatus, S. Morgulis, Phosphorescence on a Scottish Loch, Thos. Jamieson, 309; Report on the Work of the Biological Department of the University of Maine, 318; Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, F. Wyville Thomson, 400; the Gonadial Grooves of a Medusa, Aurelia aurita, T. Goodey, 418; Biological Survey of San Bernadino Mountains of Southern California, Joseph Grinnel, 466; Methods and Causes of Evolution, O. F. Cook, 435; Dr. A. G. Bell, 435; British Fresh-water Phytoplankton, W. West and G. S. West, 507; Marine Biology : the Keeping of Young Herring Alive in Cap- tivity, Richard Elmhurst, 38; Ostracoda of the Bay of Biscay captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. Research, Dr. G. H. Fowler, 116; Biscayan Plankton : Ostracoda captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. W.), Einfihrung in die Elektrochemie, 292; a — Research, Dr. G. Herbert Fowler, 209; the Spawning of Eledone, F. H. Gravely, 149; Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea-Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-Fish Hatchery at Piel, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Andrew Scott, and James Johnstone, 151; Habits of Crinoids, A. H. Clark, 199; the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean, J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S.. and J. C. F. Fryer, 204; Svenska Hydrografisk Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter IIl., 225; Conditions of Life in the Sea; a Short Account of Quantitative Marine Biological Research, J. Johnstone, E. W. Nelson, 332; Influence of Light on Coloration of Marine Animals, Dr. F. W. Gamble, 359; Egg-case of Chiloscyllium punctatum, J. D. Ogilvy and A. R. McCulloch, 420; South African Blenniida, &c., Messrs. Gilchrist and Wardlaw Thompson, 472; Larva and Spat of the Canadian Oyster, Dr. J. Stafford, 473 ; New Forms of Hemichordata from South Africa, Dr. Gilchrist, 473; New Species of Ptychodera, Dr. Gil- christ, 473; Breeding Habits and Development of Littorina littorea, W. M. Tattersall, 478; British Oithonz, G. B. Farran, 478 Bird Life, 501 Birds, the Food of some British, Robert Newstead, 254 Nature, x [ndex March 25, 1909 Birth-rate, Influence of Infantile Mortality on, G. H. Knibbs, 240 Bispham (J. W.), Potential Gradient in Glow Discharges irom a Point to a Plane, 447 Black-water Fever, S. R. Christophers and C. A. Bentley, 313 Blackman (A. M.), Light thrown by Anthropology on System of Egyptian Hieroglyphics, 436 Blackman (Dr. F. F.), Death-rate of Cells of Higher Plants in Fatal Conditions, 84 lackman (Philip), Mercury Bubbles, 160 lanchard (Dr. A. A.), Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry, 217 Blaringhem (L.), Mutation et Traumatismes, 483 Blathwayt (Rev. F. L.), Heronries of Lincolnshire and Somersetshire, 317 Bloch (Eugéne), lonisation of Phosphorus and Phosphores- cence, 8 Bohlin (Dr. Karl), a Recent Observation of Nova Cygni, 109 Bohmig (L.), Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Zoologie, 460 Bonacina (L. C. W.), Fog and Rime on January 27-28, 399 Bone Marrow, the, a Cytological Study, W. E. Carnegie Dickson, 362 Borchers (Wilhelm), Electric Furnaces, the Production of Heat from Electrical Energy and the Construction of Electric Furnaces, 215 Rordas (F.), Radio-activity of the Soil, 119 Borrelly (M.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 48 Bort (Teisserenc de), Difference of Temperature of the Upper Atmosphere in Polar and in Equatorial Regions, 26 Bose (Prof.), the Mechanical and Electrical Responses of Plants, 84 Bosler (J.), Spectrum of the Morehouse Comet, 149; the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1g08c, 169 Botany: the Origin of a Land Flora, Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., 1; Richthofenia, a new Genus of Rafflesiacez, Dr. C. C. Hosseus, 18; Albrecht von Haller, 38; the Longevity of Seeds, Dr. A. J. Ewart, 45; Types of Flora Mechanism, Dr. A. H. Church, 62; Phytogeographical Study of the Bonin Islands, Dr. A. Hattori, 78; Tem- perature of Air and Soil surrounding Stem and Root of Desert Plants, Dr. D. T. Macdougal, 78; Pollination of Belmontia cordata, Dr. Marloth, 90; Embryo-sac of the Penzeacew, Miss E. L. Stevens, 90; la Canfora Italiana, Prof. Italo Giglioli, W. G. Freeman, 94; Manu- facture of Ngai Camphor from Blumea_ balsamifera, P. Singh, 408; Some Scientific Centres: XIV., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, Prof. de Vries, 101; Adaptation of Plants to their Environment, Modifications displayed by West Australian Xerophytes, Dr. A. Morri- son, 106; Linnean Society, 117, 148, 209, 268, 419, 478; New South Wales Linnean Society, 120, 179, 390; die Algenflora der Danziger Bucht, ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Ostseeflora, Prof. Lakowitz, 126; Physiological Mechanism of the Coloration of Red Grapes and the Autumnal Coloration of Leaves, J. Laborde, 149; Ele- mentary Botany, Dr. E. Drabble, 158; Biologie unserer einheimischen Phanerogamen, M. Wagner, 158; Vitality of Leaves, Dr. Walter Kidd, 160; Perception of Light by Plants, Dr. K. Gaulhofer, 168; Vitality and the Transmission of Water through the Wood of Plants, Prof. H. H. Dixon, 178; Metamorphosis of Hydrocvanic Glucosides during Germination, L. Guignard, 179; Verti- cal Distribution of Plants in the Balkan States, Prof. L. Adamovié, 199; Report on. Economic Mycology for the Year 1907-8, E. S. Salmon, 199; Experiments upon Forcing the Resting Shoots of Woody Plants, Dr. H. Molisch, 199; the Origin of the Potato, Charles T. Druery, 205; Systematic Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Dr. H. Solereder, 211; Linnzeus, Dr. J. Valckenier Suringar, 213; Agave Species, Prof. W. Trelease, 229; “Dipsacan” and ‘‘ Dipsacotin,’’ Miss T. Tammes, 229; Fungi and Plant Diseases, Pole Evans, 235; Nature Rambles in Tondon, Miss K. M. Hall, 245; Life-histories of Common Plants, Dr. F. Cavers, 245 ; the Young Botanist, W. Percival Westell and C. S. Cooner, 245; Welwitschia, Dr. H. H. W. Pearson, 268; Forms of Flowers in B B Valeriana dioica, R. P. Gregory, 268; Action of Radium Rays on Developing Plants, Prof. C. S. Gagee, 292; New Artificial Peroxydase, Tannate of Iron, E. de Stoeck- lin, 300; Types of Vegetation in Cross-section across Mississippi River near St. Louis, H. Hus, 318; les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Mediterranée, C. Houard, 339; Plant Fasciations, Miss A. A. Knox, 349; Nuclear Changes in Pollen Mother- cell of Q¬hera, R. R. Gates, 376; .Pollination of Dendrobium, Dr. A. F. G. Kerr, 389; Absorption of Water by Seeds, W. R. G. Atkins, 389; Réle of Nitrogen and its Compounds in Plant-metabolism, Dr. J. M. Petrie, 390; Polycotyledony in Persoonia, J. J. Fletcher, 390; Germination of the Broad Bean Seed, E. Heber Smith, goo; Prof. Frank Cavers, 488; the Haustoria of Cansjera rheedii, C. A. Barber, 408; the Genus Noto. triche, A. W. Hill, 419; Longitudinal Symmetry of Centrospermz, Dr. Percy Groom, 419; a Monograph of the British Desmidiaceez, W. West and Dr. G. S. West, 426; the Drug Cascara sagrada, 435; Effect of Pollina- tion on Orchid Flowers, Dr. H. Fitting, 435; Phyto- geographical Account of the Littoral and Alluvial Dis- tricts of Belgium, Prof. J. Massart, 435; Poisonous Properties of the Cape Tulip, 436; Method for Checking Parasitic Diseases in Plants, Prof. Potter, 436; Gray’s New Manual of Botany, 457; Death of Sir George King, K.C.1.E., F.R.S., 464; Obituary Notice of, 493; Method for obtaining Spores of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, A. A. Gorodkowa, 467; Sense-Organs in Plants, Prof. Haber- landt, 467; Colours and Pigments of Flowers, Miss M. Wheldale, 506; Selective Permeability of the Coverings of the Seeds of Hordeum vulgare, Prof. Adrian J. Brown, 507; see also British Association Bottcher (Anton), Cranes: their Construction, Mechanicat Equipment, and Working, 301 Béttger (Dr. Wilhelm), Qualitative Analyse vom Stand- punkte der Ionenlehre, 186 Boudouard (O.), Action of Air on Coals, 449; Coking Power of Coals, 480 Bougault (J.), Catalytic Oxidation of Hypophosphorous Acid by Copper, 509 Boule (Marcellin), Discovery of Coal in Madagascar by Captain Coleanap, 59; l’Homme fossile de la Chapelle- aux-Saints (Corréze), 312 Boulud (M.), Total Sugar of the Blood, 179 Bourion (F.), Action of Sulphur Chloride, S,Cl,, on the Metallic Oxides, 389 Bourne (A. A.), Elementary Mensuration, 156 Bourne (Dr. G. C.), Morphology of Neritacea, 147 Bourquelot (Em.), New Researches on Bakanosine, 29 Bouyssonie (A. and J.), Discovery of Human Skeleton at Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), 270; Découverte d’un Squelette Humain mousterien & la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), 312 Bower (Prof. F. O., F.R.S.), the Origin of a Land Flora, 1 Bowman (Dr. H. L.), Identity of Poonahlite with Mesolite, 448 Boycott (A. E.), the Prevention of Compressed-air Illness, 40 Boynton (W. P.), the Specific Heats of Gases, 409 Boys (Prof. C. V., F.R.S.), Laboratory Arts, Dr. George H. Woollatt, 152 Braak (C.), Barometric Oscillation, 459 Braak (Dr.), Breaking Stresses of Tubes and Filaments, 168 Bradford (Dr. J. Rose), Does the Kidney form an Internal Secretion? 466 Bradley (Prof. O. C.), Morphology and Development of the Mammalian Liver, 77 Brester (A.). Essai d’une Explication du Mechanisme de la Périodicité dans le Soleil et les Etoiles rouges variables 431 Bridge Construction, the Theory and:Practice of, in Timber, Tron, and Steel, Morgan W. Davies, 365 British Archeology, Folk Memory or the Continuity of, Walter Johnson, 423 British Association: Meeting at Dublin Section A (Mathematics and Physics—continued)—Report of Committee on improving the Construction of Prac- tical Standards for Electrical Measurements, 22; Sir W. Hamilton’s Fluctuating Functions, Dr. E. W. Hobson, Nature, March 25, 1909 Lndex x1 22; Prof. Lamb, 22; the Law of Equipartition of Energy, Dr. S. H. Burbury, 22; New Proof of the Complementary Theorem, Prof. J. C. Fields, 22; New Method of introducing the Elliptic Functions, Robert Russell, 22; New Proof of Legendre’s Identity, Robert Russell, 22; Prof. A. E. H. Love, 22; Do the Radio- active Gases (Emanations) belong to the Argon Series? Sir W. Ramsay, 23; Prof. Rutherford, 23; S. Russ, 23; on the Number and Absorption of the B-Particles emitted by Radium, W. Makower, 23; Prof. Rutherford, 23; Prof. McClelland, 23; Prof. J. J. Thomson, 23; Prof. H. A. Wilson, 23; Sir O. Lodge, 23; on the Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, Sir J. Dewar, 23; Prof. R. J. Strutt, 23; Sit ©. Lodge, 23; Seismological Investigations, Prof. J. Milne, 23; New Form of Divided Object-glass Tele- scope, Sir Howard Grubb, 23; the Reflecting Telescope and its Suitability for Physical Research, Sir Howard Grubb, 23; Sir D. Gill, 23; Father Cortie, 23; New Spectroheliograph for the Madrid Observatory, Sir Howard Grubb, 23; Relation between Intensity of Light-time of Exposure and Photographic Action, Prof, H. H. Turner, 23; Sir W. Abney, 23; R. T. A. Innes, 23; Sir D. Gill, 23; Systematic Motion of the Stars, Prof. F. W. Dyson, 23; A. S. Eddington, 23; the Theory of Wave Motion, Prof. Horace Lamb, 23; Wave Motion in the Atmosphere recorded by the Microbarograph, Dr. Shaw, 24; Observations of Tem- perature on Loch Ness, Mr. Wedderburn, 24; Physical Applications of the Theory of Screws, Sir Robert Ball, 24; the Inductance of Two Parallel Wires, Dr. T. W. Nicholson, 24; the A&ther Stress of Gravitation, Prof. F. Purser, 24; New Three-colour Camera, Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., 24; Dr. Harker, 24; Prof. W. F. Barrett, 24; New Method for measuring Large Induc- tances containing Iron, Sir Oliver Lodge, 24; Benjamin Davies, 24; Instantaneous Photographs exhibiting a New Feature in the Splash of a Rough Sphere, Prof. A. M. Worthington, 25; the Analogy between Absorp- tion from Solutions and Aqueous Condensation on Surfaces, Prof. F. T. Trouton, 25; Effect of Pressure on the Boiling Point of Sulphur, Dr. J. A. Harker and F. P. Sexton, 25; Photometric Standard of the National Physical Laboratory, Dr. Glazebrook, 25; Is our Climate changing? Sir John Moore, 25; Dr. Shaw, 25; Changes in the Temperature of the North Atlantic and the Strength of the Trade Winds, Commander Campbell Hepworth, C.B., 25; the Constants of the Lunar Libration, F. J. M. Stratton, 25; Results of Observations on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, W. Makower, 25; Margaret White, 25; E. Marsden, 25; Application of Quaternions to Problems of Physical Optics, Prof. A. W. Conway, 25; Distribution of Electricity in a Moving Sphere, Prof. A. W. Conway, 25; Mr. Varley, 25; ‘‘ Scrutin de Ballotage,’? Major P. A. MacMahon, 25; Analysis of Projection, Prof. R. W. Genese, 25; Method of obtain- ing Solutions of Problems in ‘Geometrical Optics by Conformal Transformations in Space of Four Dimen- sions, H. Bateman, 25; Extension of Optical Ideas to the General Electromagnetic Field, Prof. E. T. Whit- taker, 26; Meaning of Valency, H. Bateman, 26; Conclusions from Recent Experiments on the Scintilla- tions of 'Zinc Sulphide (as in the Spinthariscope), Prof. E. Rutherford, 26; Determination of the Rate of Evolution of Heat by Pitchblende, H. H. Poole, 26; Measurements of the Grating Spectrum of Radium Emanation, T. Royds, 26; Prof. Dewar, 26; Secondary Effects in the Echelon Spectroscope, H. Stansfield, 26; New Methods of obtaining the Spectra in Flames, Dr. G. A. Hemsalech, 26; Dr. W. G. Duffield, 26; Prof. Larmor, 26; Dr. James Barnes, 26; Dr. G. E. Hale’s Recent Photographs of the Spectra of Sun- spots taken through Polarising Apparatus, Prof. J. Larmor, 26; Sun-spots and Solar Temperature, Prof. Whittaker. 26; Causes of Seiches, E. M. Wedderburn, 26; Difference of Temperature of the Upper Atmosphere in Polar and in Equatorial Regions, Teis- serene de Bort, 26; Ballons-sondes Ascents made at Manchester, W. A. Harwood, 26; Asymmetry in Cyclones, Paul Durandin, 26; Changes of Atmospheric Density in Storms, J. I. Craig, 26-7; Meteorology of the Winter Quarters of the Discovery, Dr. Shaw, 27; Earthquakes and Waves in Distant Localities, Rev. H. V. Gill, S.J., 27; Mathematics and Physics, Corr., Prof Lamb, 47 Section H (Anthrop d)—Who Built British Stone Gretecuil Gray, 236 Section K (Botany—continued)—Death-rate of Bacteria under the Action of Disinfectants, Harriette Chick, 84; Death-rate of Cells of Higher Plants in Fatal Con- the ditions, Nora Darwin and Die. F. F. Blackman, 84; the Influence of Living eer on the Transpiration Current, Prof. H. H. Dixon, ; the Mechanical and Electrical Responses of Plants, Poe Bose, 84; Increase in Dry Weight as a Measure of Assimilation, Mr. Thoday, 85; “the Factors influencing Photosynthesis in Water Plants, A. M. Smith, 8s; the Carbohydrates of the Snowdrop Leaf and their Bearing on the First Sugar of Photosynthesis, Mr. Parlin, ” 8s ; the Time Factor in Assimilation, J. M. F. Drummond, 85; the Woodlands of England, Mr. Tansley, 85; Dr. Moss, $5; the Evaporating Power of the Air in Different Strata of the Marsh Formation of Wicken Fen, Prof. R. H. Yapp, 85; the Origin of Dicotyledons, W. C. Worsdell, 85; on the Morphology of Endosperm, Prof. H. H. W. Pearson, 86; the Primary Wood of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria, Prof. Weiss, 86 ; the Structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn., Newell Arber, 86; H. H. Thomas, 86; some Curious Spindle-shaped Bodies in Burntisland Material, Mrs. D. H. Scott, 86; Colour Changes in Flowers produced by Controlling Insolation, Col. H. E. Rawson, 86; on the Contractile Roots of the Aroid Sauromatum guttatum, Mrs. D. H. Scott, 86; Life-history of HTlaematoccus lacustris, M. Wilson, 86; Optical Behaviour of the Epidermal Cells of Leaves, Harold Wager, 86 British Association, the Winnipeg Meeting of the, 413 British Birds, the Food of some, Robert Newstead, 254 British Isles, Bathy-orographical Map of the, 486; Hand- book to accompany the Map of the British Isles, 486 British Isles, the Moths of the, Richard South, 427 British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1909, the, 188 British Life from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Danes, the Romance of Early, G. F. Scott Elliot, 131 British Oak Galls, E. T. Connold, 394 British Ornithologists’ Union, the, 238 British School at Athens, the Annual of the, H. R. Hall, 393 British Science Guild, the, 379 British Stone Circles? Who Built the, J. Gray, 236 Brittany, Captain Devoir’s Archzological Researches in, 51 Broad Bean Seed, Germination of the, E. Heber Smith, 400; Prof. Frank Cavers, 488 Broeq-Rousseu (M.), Presence of Amylase 480 Broili (F.), Amphibian Sclerocephalus from the of Niirschan, 171 Broniewski (W.), Electrical Gallium and Tellurium, 300 Brooke (M. W. H. Lombe), the Great Pyramid of Gizeh, its Riddle read, its Secret Metrology fully revealed as the Origin of British Measures, 32 Brooks (Dr. William Keith), Death and Obituary Notice of, in Old Seeds, “ Gaskohle ” Resistance of Allali Metals 39 Brown (Prof. Adrian J.), Selective Permeability of the Coverings of the Seeds of Hordeum vulgare, 507 Brown (William), Geschichte der Philosophie, Karl Vor- lander, ne Grundlinien der Psychologie, Dr. Stephan Witasek, 157; die Entstehung der wirtschaftlichen Arbeit, Dr. Ed. Eatin 157, Brovek (Dr. A.), Variation of Decapod Crustacean Palae- monetes varians, P77, Bruce (Eric S.), Some Forms of Scientific Kites, 240 Bruce (Dr. William S.), Aims and Objects of Modern Polar Exploration, 227 Brunhes (Prof. Jean), le Probléme de Surcreusement glaciaire, 234 Bruni (Dr. Giuseppe), Feste Lésungen und Isomorphismus, 306 Brunton (Sir Lauder, VErosion et du Bart., F.R.S.), Therapeutics of the xii Lndex Circulation, Eight Lectures delivered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physiological Laboratory of the University of London, 451 Bryan (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), the Progress of Aviation, 67 Bryce (Dr. T. H.), Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum, 35 Bryk (Dr. E.), Kurzes Repetitorium der Chemie, 217 Budde (Dr.), New Process for Sterilising Mill, 435 Bull of the Kraal, the, and the Heavenly Maidens, a Tale of Black Children, Dudley Kidd, 396 Bullets, Identification of Revolver, V. Balthazard, 389 Bumstead (Prof. H. A.), Asther and Matter, 260 Burbury (Dr. S. H.), the Law of Equipartition of Energy, 22 Burgess (G. K.), Method of Thermal Analysis in Metal- lurgical Research, 319 Burrard (Colonel S. G., F.R.S.), a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, 132 Butt (F. R., and Co.), Arrangement for Securing Unidirec- tional Current through Tube, 168 Butterworth (A. R.), Statistics of Motor Traffic, 16 Caisson Disease, 40 Calcul graphique et nomographie, M. d’Ocagne, 279 Calculator, the Knowledge, Major B. Baden-Powell, 19 Calendar, the A.D. Infinitum, 187 California, Survivals of Pagan Beliefs among the Indians of South, Miss C. B. DuBois, 205 Callendar (Prof. H. L., F.R.S.), the Sulphur, 58 Calmette (H.), Properties of the Tubercle Bacillus culti- vated on Bile, 299 Calorimetry : Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Labora- toire thermique de 1l’Université de Moscou, Profs. W. Longuinine and A. Schukarew, Dr. J. A. Harker, 185 Cambridge: Cambridge Philosophical Society, 148, 177, 509; the Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge (June 22— 24, 1909), Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 221 Camelopardalis, Camelopardalus, or Camelopardus? Prof. E. C. Pickering, 351 Camelopardalis, Parallax of 23 H, Gustaf Strémberg, 439 Campbell (Prof.), the Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse Expedition, January, 1908, 70; the Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse, 439 Campbell (Norman R.), an Electromagnetic Problem, 341; Radio-activity of Rubidium, 148 Camphor, Natural and Synthetic, W. G. Freeman, 94 Camus (Jean), the.Contagion of Tuberculosis by Air, 450 Canada, Atlas of, 272 ; i Canada’s Fertile Northland, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 95 Cancer: Advance in Knowledge of, 261; Variation of Amount of Free Hydrochloric Acid of Gastric Contents in Cancer, Prof. Moore, 317; the Natural History of Cancer, with Special Reference to its Causation and Prevention, W. Roger Williams, 391; Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer, Dr. Charles Powell White, 391 Cancer, L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., J. Pearson, 214 Cape Town, Royal Society of South Africa, 90, 149 Carpenter (Prof. G. H.), Economic ‘Zoology, an Intro- ductory Text-book in Zoology, with Special Reference to its Applications in Agriculture, Commerce, and Medicine, Prof. Herbert Osborn, 244; a Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India, E. P. Stebbing, 244 : as (P.), Alkaline Reduction of o-Nitrodiphenylmethane, 360 Carrington (Hereward), Vitality, Fasting, and Nutrition, 66 Carvallo (J.), Thermal Phenomena accompanying the Action of Water on Aluminium Powder, 509 = Case (Dr. E. C.), Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Great Permian Delta of Texas, 228 Cassegrain Reflector, Making inches), M. Schaer, 378 Cassie (Prof. W.), an Accurate Method of Measuring Moments of Inertia, 208-9 Castle (Frank), Practical Arithmetic and Mensuration, 156 Cave (C. J. P.), the Registering Balloon Ascents in the British Isles, July 27 to August 1, 1908, 240; Balloon Observations at Ditcham Park, 240; the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, 308 Cavers (Dr. F.), Life-histories of Common Plants, 24 Boiling Point of a Forty-centimetre (15°7 5 [ Nature, March 25, 1909 Cavers (Prof. Germination of the Broad Bean Seed, 488 Cement Laboratory Manual, Prof. L. A. Waterbury, 339 Ceramics : Late Celtic and Roman Pottery, A. G. Wright, 318; Arretine Ware from a Late Celtic Rubbish-heap at Oare, M. E. Cunnington, 319 Cesaresco (Count E. M.), the Psychology and Training of the Horse, 158 Cestoden der Vogel, die, Dr. O. Fuhrmann, 66 Challenger Society, 116, 478 Chambers’s Wonder Books: (1) The Wonder Book of Voleanoes and Earthquakes, Prof. E. J. Houston; (2) The Wonder Book of the Atmosphere, Prof. E. J. Houston ; (3) Electricity for Young People, Tudor Jenks ; (4) Photography for Young People, Tudor Jenks, 424 Chanoz (M.), Modifications of the Difference of Contact Potential of Two Aqueous Soiutions of Electrolytes under the Action of a Continuous Current, 329 Chantemesse (M.), Yellow Fever at Saint-Nazaire, 119 Chapman (F.), the Silurian Bivalved Molluses of Victoria, Frank), 407 Chapman (H.), Recent Brilliant Fireballs, 378 Chartography, Primitive Methods of, Employed by the Inhabitants of the Marshall Islands, T. A. Joyce, 78 Chatley (Herbert), the Progress of Aviation, 67 ; Mechanical Flight, Lecture at Society of Engineers, 413 Chattaway (Dr. F. D., F.R.S.), Dichloro-urea, 239 Chatwin (C. P.), Zones of the Chalk in the Thames Valley between Goring and Shiplake, 470 Chauvenet (Ed.), Chlorides and Oxychlorides of Thorium, 179 Chemistry : Mercury Bubbles, J. G. Ernest Wright, 8; Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., 37; A. T. Hare, 99; Prof. Henry H. Dixon, 99; Philip Blackman, 160; C. E. Stromeyer, 160; Mercury Bubbles and the Formation of Oxide Films by Water containing Oxygen in Solution, G. T. Beilby, F.R.S., 190; Constitution of Perchromates, E. H. Riesenfield, 19; Diffusion of Salts in Aqueous Solutions, R. Haskell, 19; Mercurous Nitrate as a Micro- chemical Reagent for Arsenic, G. Denigés, 29; Action of Bromine on Ether, Monobromaldehyde, Ch. Mauguin, 29 ; New Researches on Bakanosine, Em. Bourquelot and H. Herissey, 29; Women and the Chemical Society, Ida Smedley and M. A. Whiteley, 37; Women and the Chemical Society, 221; Women and the Fellowship of the Chemical Society, Dr. M. A. Whiteley and others, 399; Women and the Fellowship of the Chemical Society, 429; Death of Prof. Alfred Ditte, 43; Obituary Notice of, 76; Ratios of Gaseous Refractive Indices, C. Cuth- bertson, 47: Eutectics Research, No. 1, the Alloys of Lead and Tin, Walter Rosenhain, with P. A. Tucker, 57; Separation of Tungstic Acid and Silica, Paul Nicolardot, 59; Atomic Weight of Pantogen, G. D. Hinrichs, 59; Phosphides of Zinc, Pierre Jolibois, 59 ; Hydrolysis of Perchloride of Iron, the Influence of Neutral Salts, G. Malfitano and L. Michel, 59; Aloesol, E. Léger, 59; Glycocholic Acid, Maurice Piettre, 59; the Manufacture of Artificial Graphite, 81; Society of Chemical Industry, 89; the True Atomic Weight of Silver, Louis Dubreuil, 89; G. D. Hinrichs, 269; Chemical Composition of Colloidal Silver, G. Rebiére, 480; Ionisation of Phosphorus and Phosphorescence, Léon and Eugéne Bloch, 89; Chemical Industry in Relation to Agriculture, Prof. A. Frank, 89;° Products of the Reaction of Sodium Amide on Ketones, A. Haller and Ed. Bauer, 89; Identity of Ilicic Alcohol with a-Amyrine, E. Jungfleisch and H. Leroux, 90; la Canfora Italiana, Prof. Italo Giglioli, W. G. Freeman, 94; Manufacture of Ngai Camphor from Blumea balsamifera, P. Singh, 408 ; Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, Sir James Dewar, F.R.S., 28; Production of Heliuin from Uranium, Frederick Soddy, 129; the Separation of Cobalt and Nickel, R. L. Taylor, 118; the Constitution of the Atom, H. Bateman, 118; the Nature of the a-Particle, Prof. E. Rutherford and T. Royds, 119; Volumetric Composition of Ammonia Gas and Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, Ph. A. Guye and A. Pintza, 119; Production of Ammonia from Atmospheric Nitrogen by Means of Peat, Dr. H. C. Woltereck, 389; the Density of Gases in Relation to the Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 491; the Soil, A. D. Hall, 127; Nobel Prize Awards, Aw PA Nature, March 25, 1909 138; Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reaction, H. Landolt, 142; Free Pressure in Osmosis, L. Vegard, 148; Physiological Mechanism of the Colora- tion of Red Grapes and the Autumnal Coloration of Leaves, J. Laborde, 149; Molecular Weight of the Borotungstic Acids, H. Copaux, 149; Action of Antimony Trichloride on Nickel, Em. Vigouroux, 149; Theory of the Preparation of Methylamine by Solutions of Acetamide and Bromine, Maurice Francois, 149; Migra- tion Constants of Dilute Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid, C. Chittock, 178; Chlorides and Oxychlorides of ‘Thorium, Ed. Chauvenet, 179; Action of Antimony Tri- chloride upon Cobalt and on its Alloys with Antimony, F. Ducelliez, 179; Uranium Bisilicide, Ed. Dufacqz, 179; Method of producing Ethylene Hydrocarbons, Albert Colson, 179; Tricyclohexylmethane, Marcel Godchot, 179; ‘Qualitative Analyse vom Standpunkte der lonenlehre, Dr. Wilhelm Béttger, 186; Refraction and Dispersion of Krypton and Xenon and their Relation to those of Helium and Argon, C. Cuthbertson and M. Cuthbertson, 208; Diffusion of Actinium and Thorium Emanations, S. Russ, 209; Cyanide Processes, E. B. Wilson, 215; Technical Chemists’ Handbook, Dr. G. Lunge, 217; Exercises in Elementary Quantitative Chemical Analysis for Students of Agriculture, Dr. A. T. Lincoln and Dr. J. H. Walton, jun., 217; Laboratory Manual of Qualitative Analysis, W. Segerblom, 217; Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. A. A. Blanchard, 217; the Fundamental Conceptions of Chemistry, Dr. S. M. Jorgensen, 217; Kurzes Repeti- ‘torium der Chemie, Dr. E. Bryk, 217; Chemical Research at the University of Manchester, 233; Dichloro-urea, Dr. F. D. Chattaway, F-.R.S., 239; the Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes, Ernest J. Parry, 241; Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry, Dr. A. W. Stewart, 243; Text-book of Physiological Chemistry in Thirty Lectures, Emil Abderhalden, 246; Death of Dr. George Gore, F.R.S., 255; Obituary Notice of, 290; the Direct Dehydration of Certain Alcohols, Louis Henry, 268; Preparation of Crotonic Aldehyde, Marcel Delépine, 269; Influence of Stannous Chloride upon Fermentation, G. Gimel, 269; the Preparation of Thorium Chloride, Camille Matignon, 269; Action of Sulphur Chloride on Metals and Metalloids, Paul Nicolardot, 269; Action of Heat on Iodic Anhydride, Marcel Guichard, 269; the Thomson Formula reiating to Discharge of Condenser, André Léauté, 270; Inconveniences of Potassium Bi- chromate as Preservative of Milk Samples, A. Monvoisin, 270; the Nature of Enzyme Action, Dr. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S., 275; the Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer, 275; Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der speziellen Eiweisschemie, Emil Abder- halden, 275; Intracellular Enzymes, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 275; Preparation of Ether Salts of the Cyclic Series, A. Behal, 300; B-Gluco-heptite, L. H. Philippe, 300; Urea in Fungi, A. Goris and M. Mascre, 300; New Artificial Peroxydase, Tannate of Iron, E. de Stoecklin, 300; Feste Lésungen und Isomorphismus, Dr. Giuseppe Bruni, 306; Magnesium in Water and Rocks, Prof. Ernest H. L. Schwarz, 309; the Freezing of Mixtures of Water and Soluble Fatty Acids, A. Faucon, 330; Density of Methane and the Atomic Weight of Carbon, George Baume and F. Louis Perrott, 330; Silicides of Hydrogen, P. Lebeau, 330; a Case of Isodimorphism, H. Marais, 330; General Method of Preparation of the Monoalkyl, Dialkyl, and Trialkyl-acetophenones, A. Haller and Ed. Bauer, 359; Aqueous Solutions of Pyridine, E. Baud, 359; the Pro- duction of White Ferrous Ferrocyanide, R. L. Taylor, 359; Volatility of Radium A and Radium C, W. Makower, 359; the Boiling Point of the Radium Emana- tion, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., 457; Lavo-campholic Acid, Marcel Guerbet, 360; Alkaline Reduction of o-Nitrodiphenylmethane, P. Carré, 360; Influence of Aération on the Formation of Volatile Products in Alcoholic Fermentation, E. Kayser and A. Demolon, 360; Cours de Chimie inorganique, F. Swarts, 363; a Text- book of Inorganic Chemistry, A. F. Holleman, 363; General Chemistry for Schools and Colleges, Dr. Alexander Smith, 363 ; the New Matriculation Chemistry, specially adapted to the London University Matricula- tion Syllabus, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 363; Rapid Preparation of Calcium Phosphide for making Hydrogen Phosphide, 222° Lndex X11 C. Matignon and R. Trannoy, 389; Action of Sulphur Chloride, S,Cl,, on the Metallic Oxides, F. Bourion, 389 ; the Bromacetamide of Hofmann, Maurice Francois, 389 ; the Preparation of Aldehydes and Anhydrides of Acids, A. Behal, 389; General Method of Preparation of the Trialkylacetic Acids, A. Haller and Ed. Bauer, 389; Collection of Papers contributed on the Occasion of the Celebration of Prof. J. Sakuri’s Jubilee, Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., 404; New Double Condenser, W. H. Rawles, 409; New Method of Preparation of the Alkyl Ethers, J. B. Senderens, 419; Preparation of Definite Natural Peptides, L. Hugoneng and A. Morel, 419; the International Congress of Chemistry, 432; New Simpli- fied Form of Burette Stand, Rev. A. Wentworth Jones, 437; New Reactions of Dioxyacetone, G. Denigés, 449; Action of Air on Coals, O. Boudouard, 449; the Coking Power of Coals, O. Boudouard, 480; Formation of Hydrocyanic Acid in the Action of Nitric Acid on Phenols and Quinones, A. Seyewetz and L. Poizat, 449; Exten- sion of the Notion of Solubility to Colloids, M. Duclaux, 449; the Maltase of Maize, R. Huerre, 449; Justus von Liebig, Jacob Volhard, Dr. T. E. Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S., 452; Electrons and Atomic Weights, Alfred Sang, 459; Some Electrochemical Centres, J. N. Pring, 463; Death of Prof. Julius Thomsen, 464; New Radio-active Product of the Uranium Series, Jacques Danne, 479; Mass of the Negative Ion of a Flame, Georges Moreau, 479; the Réle of the Dissociation of the Carbonophosphates in Nature, A. Barillé, 479; Combinations of Gold with Bromine, Fernand Meyer, 480; Presence of Amylase in Old Seeds, M. Brocq-Rousseu and Edmond Gain, 480; the Brilliancy and Intensity of the Cupric Chloride Flame Spectrum, Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., 487; Revision of Atomic Weights, Report of International Committee, 498; Origin of Osmotic Effects, ii., Dif- ferential Septa, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, 507; Gases Liberated by Conversion of Diamond into Coke in High Vacuum by Kathode Rays, A. A. Campbell Swinton, 508; Action of Urethane on Esters of Organic Acids and Mustard Oils, S. Ruhemann and J. G. Priestley, 509; a Coloured Thio-oxalate, H. O. Jones and H. S. Tasker, 509; Double Flourides of Sodium, W. A. R. Wilks, 509 ; Melting Point of Platinum, C. Féry and C. Chéneveau, 509; Thermal Phenomena accompanying the Action of Water on Aluminium Powder, E. Kohn-Abrest and J. Carvallo, 509; Catalytic Oxidation of Hypophosphorous Acid by Copper, J. Bougault, 509; Exception to the General Method of Preparation of Aldehydes by Means of the Glycidic Acids, René Pointet, 510; Theory of the Colour Reactions of Dioxyacetone in Sulphuric Acid Solution, G. Denigés, 510; Oxidation of Alcohols by the Simultaneous Action of Tannate of Iron and Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide, E. de Stoecklin, 510 Chéneveau (C.), Melting Point of Platinum, 509 Chetwynd (Commander L.), Results of the Magnetic Ob- servations, 322; Results of Magnetic Observations at Stations on the Coasts of the British Isles, 1907, 358 Chevalier (J.), the Spontaneous Crystallisation of Solutions as Spherulites, 448 Chevalier (M.), Refraction due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, I Chik (Harriette), Death Rate of Bacteria under the Action of Disinfectants, 84 Child (J. M.), a New Algebra, 64 Childhood of Man, the, a Popular Account of the Lives, Customs, and Thoughts of the Primitive Races, Dr. Léo Frobenius, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 162 China, Research in, Bailey Willis, 61 Chittenden (F. J.), Experiments with Nitro-bactrine, 317 Chittock (C.), Migration Constants of Dilute Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid, 178 Chree (Dr. C., F.R.S.), Experimental Elasticity, 218; Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake, 280; Pendulum Observations, 321; Results of the Magnetic Observations, 322; die Luftelektrizitat, Prof. Albert Gockel, 45 Christian Denominations, the Relations of, to Colleges, Henry Pritchett, 249 Christie (Sir William), Satellites, 469 Christophers (S. R.), Black-water Fever, 313 Chronology: the A.D. Infinitum Calendar, 187 Seventh and Eighth Jupiter’s XIV Lndex . [ Nature, March 25, 1909 Chronometry : a Simple Instrument for finding the Correct | Commercial Products of India, the, being an Abridgment Time, Prof. S. de Glasenapp, 108 Chrystal (Prof.), Investigation of the Seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey, 209, 210 Chubb (E. C.), Rhinoceros Bones in Cave in North-western Rhodesia, 497 Church (Dr. A. H.), Types of Floral Mechanism, 62 Church Property, Sequestrated, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 08 Goaeleon (O. D.), Traité de Physique, 425 Circulation, Therapeutics of the, Eight Lectures delivered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physiological Laboratory of the University of London, Sir Lauder Brunton, Bart., F.R.S., 451 Ciscato (Dr. Giuseppe), Death of, 195 Clark (A. H.), Habits of Crinoids, 199 Classen (Dr. J.), Value of the Quotient Electric Charge by Mass for the Kathode Rays, 200 Classical Research, Flaws in Modern, Dr. J. P. Postgate, 16 Clayton (Henry Helm), Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Atmo- spheric Variations, 397 Clement (Mr.), the Gas Thermometer, 230 Clements (Prof. F. E.), Plant Physiology and Ecology, 331 Climatology : Climate, considered especially in Relation to Man, Prof. Robert de Courcy Ward, 155; Handbuch der Klimatologie, Dr. Julius Hann, 363 Clock, an ‘* Empire,’’ 374 Clubb (Joseph A.), the Fauna of the’ Magellan Region, 130 Coal: the Coals of South Wales, with Special Reference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite, Aubrey Strahan and W. Pollard, 33; Discovery of Coal in Madagascar by Captain Colcanap, Marcellin Boule, 59 Coastal Navigation, Practical, including Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longitude, and Deviation of Com- pass, Comte de Miremont, Commander H. C. Lockyer, 340 Cockerell (Prof. T. D. A.), the Tertiary Fossils of Floris- sant, Colorado, 44; Corr., 376 Cocoa-nut, Preservation of the, M. Dybowski, 29 Cohen (E.), the E.M.F. of the Weston Cell, 377 Cold, the Mechanical Production of, J. A. Ewing, 484 Cole (F. C.), the Tinggians of the Philippine Islands, 293 Cole‘’(Prof. Grenville A. J.), Canada’s Fertile Northland, 95 Coles-Finch (William), Water: its Origin and Use, 271 Collins (J. H.), Geological Features of Carpalla China-clay Pit, St. Stephen’s, Cornwall, 508 Colour Photography: Animated Photographs in Natural Colours, Albert Smith, 314; the ‘‘ Omnicolore’’ Plate, Messrs. Jougla, 409 Colour-sense Training and Colour Using, E. J. Taylor, 272 Colours of Stars in Galactic and Non-Galactic Regions, Mr. Franks, 410 Colson (Albert), Method of producing Ethylene carbons, 179 Comets: Comet Morehouse, 1908c, M. Borrelly, 48; L. Rabourdin, 48; M. Gautier, 48; Prof. Barnard, 48; Prof. Kobold, 48; M. Quénisset, 80; MM. Deslandres and Bernard, 80; Dr. Smart, 108, 143; Prof. Frost, 142; Prof. E. C. Pickering, 142; Herr Winkler, 142; M. Geelmuyden, 143; Herr Ebell, 143; M. Flammarion, 231; MM. le Comte de la Baume Pluvinel and Baldet, 231; R. C. Johnson, 295; the Spectrum of Comet More- house, 1908c, A. de la Baume Pluvinel and F. Baldet, 20; MM. Deslandres and Bosler, 169; M. Bernard, 169; Observations of the Comet 1908c, Luc Picart, 29; Photo- graphs of the Morehouse Comet, L. Rabourdin, 29; the Changes in the Tail of Comet Morehouse, 169; Prof. Max Wolf, 351; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, MM. Baldet and Quénisset, 200; Prof. Barnard, 200; Further Observa- tions of Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, J. Guillaume, 260; Further Photographs of Morehouse’s Comet, Prof. Barnard, 320; the Spectrum and Form of Comet More- house, Prof. Frost and Mr. Parkhurst, 439; Prof. Bar- nard, 439; Prof. Campbell and Dr. S. Albrecht, 439; Donati’s Comet and the Comet of 69 B.c., Herr Kritz- inger, 48; a Research on the Movement of Comet Wolf, M. Kamensky, 80; Halley’s Comet, Mr. Wendell, 108; Search Ephemeris for Halley’s Comet, 320; Periodical Comets due to return this Year, Mr. Lynn, 351 Hydro- of ** The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,”’ Sir George Watt, Captain A. T. Gage, 184; Sir George Watt, C.1.E., 281 Companion to the Observatory, the, 232 Compressed-air Illness, the Prevention of, A. E. Boycott, G. C. Damant and J. S. Haldane, go Comstock (D. F.), an Electromagnetic Problem, 67, 310 Conference, the North of England Education, 322 Connold (E. T.), British Oak Galls, 394 Constable (F. C.), Moral Superiority? 282 Consumption, the Economic Open-air Chalet for the Hygienic Treatment of, and other Diseases, R. Foster Owen, 307 Contremoulins (M.), Application of Geometrical Principles to Practical Radiography, 30 Conway (Prof. A. W.), Application of Quaternions to Problems of Physical Optics, 25; Distribution of Elec- tricity in a Moving Sphere, 25; an Electromagnetic Problem, 160 Cook (O. F.), Methods and Causes of Evolution, 435 Cooper (C. S.), the Young Botanist, 245 Copaux (H.), Molecular Weight of the Borotungstic Acids, 149 Core (A.), an Electromagnetic Problem, 310 Cormorants, Australian, and Local Fisheries, 167 Correlation of Teaching, the, Charlie Woods, 310; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 310 Cortie (Father), the Reflecting Telescope and its Suit- ability for Physical Research, 23; Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum, 438 Cotton (A.), Ratio of Charge to Electrons, 149 Cotton Weaver’s Handbook, the, H. B. Heylin, 63 Country Home, the, 249 Cousins (H. H.), Value of Small Dressings of Lime on the Sugar Plantations, 168 Cowan (J. L.), Aboriginal American Industries, 349 Crabs: L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., Cancer, J. Pearson, 214 Cracks in an Isotropic Material, Extensions of, A. Mallock, F.R.S., 478 Craig (J. 1.), Changes of Atmospheric Density in Storms, 26-7; the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, 281 Cranes: their Construction, Mechanical Equipment, and Working, Anton Béttcher, 301 Craniology : Remains of Primitive Man discovered in 1843 near Lagoa Santa, Brazil, Dr. Rivet, 46 Crémieu (V.), New Determination of the Equivalent of Heat, 59 Crocodiles and Tsetse-flies, Prof. E. A. Minchin, 458 Cromlechs in North Wales, Some, Sir Norman Lockyer, KRa@sBi Rak os 9 Crookes (Sir William, F.R.S.), Mercury Bubbles, 37 Crops, their Characteristics and their Cultivation, Primrose McConnell, 427 Crossland (Cyril), Reform of Zoological Nomenclature, 190 Crowther (J. A.), Effect of Pressure on the Ionisation pro- duced by Réntgen Rays in Different Gases and Vapours, 178; Variation of the Relative Ionisation produced by Rontgen Rays in Different Gases with the Hardness of the Rays, 178; Secondary Réntgen Radiation from Air and Ethyl Bromide, 509 Crustacea: L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., Cancer, J. Pearson, 21 Gaeallogcaphy: Hints for Crystal Drawing, Margaret Reeks, 97; the Réle of Liquid Crystals in Nature, 286; the Spontaneous Crystallisation of Solutions as Spheru- lites, J. Chevalier, 448; Cross-planes in Twin-crystals, Dr. J. W. Evans, 448; Comparison of the Refractive Indices of Adjoining Crystals in a Rock Slice which have their Directions of Vibration Oblique to One Another, Dr. J. W. Evans, 448 Cunnington (M. E.), Arretine Ware from a Late Celtic Rubbish-heap at Oare, 319 Cupric Chloride Flame Spectrum, the Brilliancy and In- tensity of the, Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., 487 Cuthbertson (C.), Ratios of Gaseous Refractive Indices, 47; Refraction and Dispersion of Krypton and Xenon and their Relation to those of Helium and Argon, 208 Cuthbertson (M.). Refraction and Dispersion of Krypton and Xenon and their Relation to those of Helium and Argon, 208 Nature, March 25, 1999 Index XV Cyanide Processes, E. B. Wilson, 215 Cygni, Nova, a Recent Observation of, Dr. Karl Bohlin, 169 Cygni, the Parallax of 61, Prof. G. Abetti, 261 Cygni, the Stars surrounding 59, Prof. Jacoby, 439 Cytology: the Bone Marrow, a Cytological Study, W. E. Carnegie Dickson, 362 Dahlgren (Ulric), a Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology, 273 Damant (G. G. Illness, 40 Daniell (G. F.), Science Masters in Conference, 353 Danish North-east Greenland Expedition, the, Lieut. A. Trolle, 197-8, 355 Danne (Jacques), New Radio-active Product of the Uranium Series, 479 Dantony (M.), Use of Ferrous Arseniate against the Para- sitic Insects of Plants, 449 Danziger Bucht, die Algenflora der, ein Bertrag zur Kenntniss der Ostseeflora, Prof. Lakowitz, 126 Darling (Chas. R.), Heat for Engineers, 335 Darwin (Sir G. H.), Tidal Observations, 321 Darwin (Nora), Death-rate of Cells of Higher Plants in Fatal Conditions, 84. Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge, the (June 22-24, 1909), Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 221 Darwinism, an Oxford Champion of, 302 Darwinism, the World of Life as Visualised and Inter- preted by, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 384 David (Prof. T. W. E.), Physical Evidence of Recent Sub- mergence of Coast at Narrabeen, New South Wales, 119; Geological Notes on Mount Kosciusko, 120 Davidson (Mackenzie), Method of Protection from Injurious Effects of X-Rays, 465 Davies (Benjamin), New Method for measuring Large In- ductances containing Iron, 24 Davies (Morgan W.), the Theory and Practice of Bridge Construction in Timber, Iron, and Steel, 365 Davis (Prof. W. M.), Practical Exercises Geography, 393 Davison (Dr. Charles), Algebra for Secondary Schools, 64 Davison (Dr. C.), the Messina Earthquake, 496 Day (Mr.), the Gas Thermometer, 230 Day (Dr. W. S.), New Groups of Residual Rays in the Long Wave Spectrum, 200 Decay of Radium, Apparent, Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 129 Decorative Glass Processes, A. L. Duthie, 334 Defacqz (Ed.), Uranium Bisilicide, 179 Deinhardt-Schlomann Series of Technical Dictionaries in Six Languages, German, English, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Alfred Schlomann, 158 Delage (Yves), Mode of Action of Electricity in Electric Parthenogenesis, 269 Delépine (Marcel), Preparation of Crotonic Aldehyde, 269 Demolon (A.), Influence of Aération on the Formation of Volatile Products in Alcoholic Fermentation, 360 Dendy (Prof. Arthur, F.R.S.), the Preservation of the Native Fauna and Flora in Australasia, 73 Denigés (G.), Mercurous Nitrate as a Microchemical Reagent for Arsenic, 29 ; New Reactions of Dioxyacetone, 449; Theory of the Colour Reactions of Dioxyacetone in Sulphuric Acid Solution, 510 Denison (Dr. C.), Death of, 374 Denning (W. F.), November Meteors, 37; Leonid Meteors, 99; Meteoric Shower in January, 266; Recent Brilliant Fireballs, 378; a February Meteoric Shower, 399 der Bilt (J. van), the Variable Star U Geminorum, 295 Deslandres (H.), Spectroscopic Researches on the More- house Comet, 1908c, 59; Comet Morehouse, r1908c, 80; Spectrum of the Morehouse Comet, 149, 169; Character- istics of the Superior (K,) Layer of the Sun’s Atmo- sphere, 200 Desmidiacee, a Monograph of the British, W. West and Dr. G. S. West, 426 Deszendenztheorie, Versuch ciner Begriindung der, Prof. Karl Camillo Schneider, 34 C.), the Prevention of Compressed-air in Physical Deutsche Scewarte, Monatskarten fiir den indischen Ozean, 443 Devoir’s (Captain) Archzological Researches in Brittany, 51 Dewar (Sir James, F.R.S.), Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, 23, 28; Measurements of the Grating Spectrum of Radium Emanation, 26 Dewar (J. M.), Feeding-habits of the Dunlin, sox Dickson (W. E. Carnegie), the Bone Marrow, a Cytological Study, 362 Dicotyledons, Systematic Anatomy of, Dr. H. Solereder, 211 Dictionaries, the Deinhardt-Schlomann Series of Technical, in Six Languages, German, English, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Alfred Schlomann, 158 Dieserud (Juul), the Scope and Content of the Science of Anthropology, 484 Diet : Standards of the Constituents of the Urine and the Blood and the Bearing of the Metabolism of Bengalis on the Problems of Nutrition, Capt. D. McCay, 42; Fads and Feeding, Dr. C. Stanford Read, 248; the Diet of the Hindu, Bernard Houghton, 349 Dines (W. H., F.R.S.), the Semi-diurnal Barometric Oscil- lation, 130; the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, 282, 341, 459 Diptera Danica, William Lundbeck, 127 Ditte (Prof. Alfred), Death of, 43 ; Obituary Notice of, 76 Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Atmospheric Variations, Henry Helm Clayton, 397 Divers (Dr. Edward, F.R.S.), Collection of Papers contri- buted on the Occasion of the Celebration of Prof. J. Sakuri’s Jubilee, 404 Dixon (Prof. H. H.), the Influence of Living Cells on the Transpiration Current, 84; Mercury Bubbles, 99; Vitality and the Transmission of Water through the Wood of Plants, 178; Tensile Strength of Water, 479 Dixon (W. E.), Action of Specific Substances in Toxzmia, 178; Mode of Action of Specific Substances, 178 Dobbs (W. J.), Examples in Elementary Mechanics, Prac- tical, Graphical, and Theoretical, 277 Doberck (Prof.), Double-star Orbits, 320; the Poles of Double-star Orbits, 378 Dodd (Dr.), Carriage and Storage of Ferro-silicon, 436 Dogs, Prehistoric, Dr. T. Studer, 45 Dolmage (Dr. Cecil G.), Death of, 43 Don (John), the Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply, Paper at Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 444 Donati’s Comet and the Comet of 69 bB.c., Herr Kritzinger, 48 Dordogne Valley, a Human Fossil from the, 312 Double-star Astronomy, T. Lewis, 247 Double-star Measures, Errors of, Dr. H. E. Lau, 439 Double-star Orbits, Prof. Doberck, 320 Double-star Orbits, the Poles of, Prof. Doberck, 378 Doumer (E.), Duration of Hypotensive Effects from High- frequency Currents, 450 Downing (Dr.), the Total Solar Eclipse of 1911 April 28, 295 Drabble (Dr. E.), Elementary Botany, 158 Dragon-fly, a Gall-producing, W. F. Kirby, 68 Drawing, Hints for Crystal, Margaret Reeks, 97 Dreyfus (Georges L.), Uber Nervése Dyspepsie, 248 Druery (Charles T.), the Origin of the Potato, 205 Drummond (J. M. F.), the Time Factor in Assimilation, 85 Drygalski (E. von), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Geographie von Heard-Eiland, 460 Drysdale (Dr. C. V.), Use of Potentiometer on Alternate- current Circuits, 447; the Luminous Efficiency of a Black Body, 447 Dubern’s Method of Illumination in Microscopy, C. V. Raman, 17 Dublin : Royal Irish Academy, 179, 240, 178, 389, 479 : DuBois (Miss C. B.), Survivals of Pagan Beliefs among the Indians of South California, 295 Dubreuil (Louis), the True Atomic Weight of Silver, 89 Ducelliez (F.), Action of Antimony Trichloride upon Cobalt and on its Alloys with Antimony, 179 Ducks, the Indian, and their Allies, E. C. Stuart Baker, “440; Royal Society, 2 Deck worth (Dr. W. L. H.), Comparative Osteology of Man and the Higher Apes, 198 XVi Index Nature, March 25, 1909 Duclaux (M.), Colloids, 449 Dudgeon (Gerald C.), Silk-producing Insects of West Africa, 160 Duffield (Dr. W. G.), New Methods of obtaining the Spectra in Flames, 26; Effect of Pressure upon Arc Spectra, No. 3, Silver, A 4000-A 4600, 507 Dufour (A.), Magnetic Rotatory Power of Vapour of Calcium Fluoride and of Nitrogen Peroxide in Neighbour- hood of Absorption Bands, 300 Duggar (J. F.), Agriculture for Southern Schools, 65 Dukes (Laura D. H.), Moral Superiority among Birds, 429 Duncan (Dr. David), the Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer, 122 Dunstan (Prof. W. R., F.R.S.), Report on the Work of the Imperial Institute, 1906 and 1907, 343 Durandin (Paul), Asymmetry in Cyclones, 26 Durell (C. V.), a Course of Plane Geometry for Advanced Students, 486 Duthie (A. L.), Decorative Glass Processes, 334 Dutton (A. Stayt), the National Physique, 6 Dwerryhouse (Dr. A. R.), Intrusive Rocks in the Neigh- bourhood of Eskdale (Cumberland), 148 Dybowski (Jean), Preservation of the Cocoa-nut, 29; Re- generation of Coffee Plantations by the Introduction of a New Species, 419 Dynamics of Solids and Fluids, the Elementary, Prof. W. Peddie, 486 Dyson (Prof. F. W.), Systematic Motion of the Stars, 23 Dyspepsie, Uber Nervése, Georges L. Dreyfus, 248 Extension of the Notion of Solubility to Eagle (Albert), the Origin of Spectra, 68; Method whereby from any Prismatic Spectrum a Rectified Copy may be Obtained, 377 Earle (F. S.), Southern Agriculture, 156 Earth, Radio-active Changes in the, Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 206 Earth, Radium in the, Percy Edgerton, 341 Earthquakes: Earthquakes and John Wesley, Sir Edward Fry, K.C.B., F.R.S., 98; the Physics of Earthquake Phenomena, Dr. C. G. Knott, 184; Earthquake in Cala- bria on December 28, 255; the Italian Earthquake, 287 ; Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 428; Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 280; Earthquake of December 28, 316; Earthquakes in Italy, Mexico, and Canada, 316; Earthquakes in Italy, Austria, and South Africa, 347; Earthquake at Messina, January 27, 406; on February 7 and 8, 434; the Messina Earthquake, Dr. C. Davison, 496; the Sea Wave of December 28 a Result of the Recent Earthquake, Prof. Ricco, 347; Recent Earthquakes, 368; Earthquake at Montreal, 406; Earthquake on January 23 in Luristan, 496 ; Seismograms of the Earthquake of January 23, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 428; Earthquake Shocks in Italy, 464; in Russia, 464; in Bulgaria and Hungary, 465 Ebell (Herr), Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, 143 Eclipses : the Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse Expedition, January, 1908, Prof. Campbell and Dr. Albrecht, William E. Rolston, 70; the Total Solar Eclipse of 1911 April 28, Dr. Downing, 295; Remarkably Dark Penumbral Eclipse of the Moon, 378 Ecology, Plant Physiology and, Prof. F. E. Clements, 331 Economic Zoology, an Introductory Text-book in ‘Zoology, with Special Reference to its Applications in Agriculture, Commerce, and Medicine, Prof. Herbert Osborn, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244 Eddington (A. S.), Systematic Motion of the Stars, 23 Edgerton (Percy), Radium in the Earth, 341 Edinburgh Royal Society, 58, 209, 329, 479 Edinburgh School Atlas, the, 366 Edinger (Dr. Ludwig), Relations of Comparative Anatomy to Comparative Psychology, 317 i Edkins (J. S.), the Natural Mechanism for Evoking the Chemical Secretion of the Stomach, 329 Education : the Science Faculty of the University of London, Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S., 21; Lloyd George on the Endowment of Universities, 86; Scientific Education of Naval Architects, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B,, F.R.S., at Society of Arts, 111; the Correlation of the Teaching of Mathematics and Science, Prof. Perry, 143; the Correlation of Teaching, Charlie Woods, 310; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 310; Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, Prof. J. A. Green, 154; Papers on Moral Educa- tion communicated to the First International Moral Education Congress, Prof. J. A. Green, 154; the Organisation of Rural Education, 161; the Financia} Status of the Professor in America and in Germany, 249 ; the Relations of Christian Denominations to Colleges, Henry Pritchett, 249; the Headmasters’ Conference, 253 ; Higher Education in London, Annual Report of the Proceedings of the London County Council for the Year ended March 31, 1908, 297; the North of England Educa- tion Conference, 322; Science Masters in Conference, G. F. Daniell, 353; System and Science in Education, 382; School-work and After-life, 411; Education and the Heredity Spectre, Dr. F. H. Hayward, 455; Principles and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene, W. P. Welpton, 485; Education and Employment, 491 Edwardes (Tickner), the Lore of the Honey-bee, 6 Eggar (W. D.), Elementary Algebra, 64 Egger (Prof. Victor), Death of, 495 Egypt: the Great Pyramid of Gizeh; its Riddle read, its Secret Metrology fully revealed as the Origin of British Measures, M. W. H. Lombe Brooke, 32; Meteorological Report of Egypt for 1906, 230; the Nile Flood of 1908, Captain H. G. Lyons, 408; Irrigation in Egypt, 462 Egyptology: New Light on Ancient Egypt, G. Maspero, H. R. Hall, 222; Site of Meroe Discovered, Prof. Sayer, 406; Light thrown by Anthropology on System of Egyptian Hieroglyphics, A. M. Blackman, 436 Ehrlich (Dr. P.), Nobel Prize awarded to, 104 Eiweisschemie, Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der speziellen, Emil Abderhalden, 275 Ekin (T. C.), Water Pipe and Sewer Discharge Diagrams, 394 : Elasticity, Experimental, G. Chree, F.R.S., 218 Electricity : Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. F. A. C. Perrine, 16; Monotelephone of Great Sensitiveness, Henri Abraham, 29; Death of Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., 43; Obituary Notice of, Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 74; Thermoelectric Theory of Resistivity of Alloys Untenable, E. L. Lederer, 47; Terrestrial Electricity and Solar Activity, Dr. A. Nodon, 48; Rays of Positive Electricity, Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 52 ; Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineering, George F. Sever and Fitzhugh Townsend, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 64; an Electromagnetic Problem, D. F. Comstock, 67, 310; Prof. Arthur W. Conway, 160; A. Core, 310; Norman R. Campbell, 341; Manufacture of Electrical Condensers, G. F. Mansbridge, 79; the Manufacture of Artificial Graphite, 81; Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, W. Makower, Miss M. White and E. Marsden, 118; Discharge of Electricity from Glowing Carbon, Prof. J. A. Pollock and A. B. B. Ranclaud, 119; Electric Splashes on Photographic Plates, A. W. Porter, 147; Carriers of Positive Charge of Elec- tricity given off by Hot Metals, Sir J. J. Thomson, 148; Distribution of Electric Force along the Striated Dis- charge, Sir J. J. Thomson, 148; Weight of a Corpuscle on the Electric Theory of Gravitation, Sir J. J. Thomson, 148; Ratio’ of Charge to Electrons, A. Cotton and P. Weiss, 149; Generation of a Luminous Glow in an Exhausted Receiver and the Action of a Magnetic Field on the Glow, Residual Gases being Oxygen, Hydrogen, Neon, and Air, F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S., 177; Value of the Quotient Electric Charge by Mass for the Kathode Rays, Dr. J. Classen, 200; Cyanide Processes, E. B. Wilson, 215; Electric Furnaces, the Production of Heat from Electrical Energy and the Construction of Electric Furnaces, Wilhelm Borchers, 215; Hydro-electric Prac- tice, a Practical Manual of the Development of Water Power, its Conversion to Electric Energy, and its Distant Transmission, H. A. E. C. von Schon, 215; Magnetism and Electricity and the Principles of Electrical Measure- ment, S. S. Richardson, 246; Einfiihrung in die Elektro- chemie, Prof. W. Bermbach, 246; Mode of Action of Electricity in Electric Parthenogenesis, Yves Delage, 269 ; Action of Lines of Electric Energy on Hailstorms, J. Violle, 269; Occlusion of Residual Gas and_ the Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes Tubes, Alan BG. Searle shakes. Din G <<< Ur, Nature, March 25, 1909 Lndex XVI A. Campbell Swinton, 299; Electrical Resistance of Alkali Metals, Gallium and Tellurium, A. Guntz and W. Broniewski, 300; Modifications of the Difference of Contact Potential of Two Aqueous Solutions of Electro- lytes under the Action of a Continuous Current, M. Chanoz, 329; the E.M.F. of the Weston Cell, E. Cohen and H. R. Kruyt, 377; Isenthal and Co.’s New List of Rheostats, 377; Long-distance Telegraphy, 386; Applica- tion of d’Arsonvalisation Localised, A. Moutier, 419; Hypotensive Action of d’Arsonvalisation in Permanent Hypertension, M. Letulle and A. Moutier, 480; Discon- tinuity of Potential at the Surface of Glowing Carbon, J. A. Pollock, A. B. B. Ranclaud and E. P. Norman, 420; Electricity for Young People, Tudor Jenks, 424; Research on the Silver Voltameter, Messrs. Jaeger and von Steinwehr, 437; Existence of Freely Moving Electrons between Molecules of Metal, Prof. P. Gruner, 438; Elec- trification of Railways, 439; the Telegraphic Transmis- sion of Writing, 441; the Charges on Ions, Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S., and Mr. Haselfoot, 442; Potential Gradient in Glow Discharges from a Point to a Plane, J. W. Bispham, 447; Simple Formula for Effective Re- sistance of Inner Conductor of a Concentric Main for High-frequency Currents, Dr. A. Russell, 447; Use of Potentiometer on Alternate Current Circuits, Dr. C. V. Drysdale, 447; Duration of Hypotensive Effects from High-frequency Currents, E. Doumer, 450; die Luftelelk- trizitat, Prof. Albert Gockel, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 455; Electrons and Atomic Weights, Alfred Sang, 459; Some Electrochemical Centres, J. N. Pring, 463; the Striz of Oscillating Sparks, André Léauté, 479 ; Electricity Present and Future, Lucien Poincaré, Maurice Solomon, 482 ; Electricity of Rain and its Origin in Thunderstorms, Dr. G. C. Simpson, 507; Tension of Metallic Films deposited by Electrolysis, G. G. Stoney, 508; a String Electrometer, T. H. Laby, 509 Elgar (Dr. Francis, F.R.S.), Death of, 346; Obituary Notice of, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 372 Elles (Dr. Gertrude L.), the Conway Succession, 448 Elliot (G. F. Scott), the Romance of Early British Life from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Danes, 131 Ellis (Dr. Havelock), Evolution of the Feeling of Love of Wild Nature, 466 Elmhirst (Richard), the Keeping of Young Herring Alive in Captivity, 38 Embryology: Contributions to the Study of the Early De- velopment and Imbedding of the Human Ovum, Dr. i. EH Bryce, Dr J; Hi. Leacherand J. M. M. Kerr, 35; Intra-uterine Development of the Hedghog, H. Jacob- feuerborn, 77 Employment, Education and, 491 Encyclopedia of Agriculture, by the Most Eminent Authorities, Dr. E. J. Russell, 421 Engineering : Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. F. A. C. Perrine, 16; Engineering in Relation to Transport, J. C. Inglis, 16; Death of Prof. William Edward Ayrton, F.R.S., 43 ; Obituary Notice of, Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 74; Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineer- ing, George F. Sever and Fitzhugh Townsend, Prof. Gishert Kapp, 64; Moving Loads on Railway Under- bridges, including Diagrams of Bending Moments and Shearing Forces, and Tables of Equivalent Uniform Live Loads, H. Bamford, 128; Tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe, E. H. Tabor, 196; a Manual of Practical Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, E. S. Ferry and A. T. Jones, 213; Vorlesungen tiber technische Mechanik, Dr. August Foppl, 247; Cranes, their Con- struction, Mechanical Equipment, and Working, Anton Bottcher, 301; Locomotive Performance, William F. M. Goss, 305; the Railway Locomotive, Vaughan Pendred, 305; Death of Prof. Thomas Gray, 315; Heat for Engineers, Chas. R. Darling, Prof. C. A. Smith, 335; Highway Engineering, Chas. E. Morrison, 336; a Text- book on Roads and Pavements, F. P. Spalding, 336; Cement Laboratory Manual, Prof. L. A. Waterbury, 339; the Theory and Practice of Bridge Construction in Timber, Iron, and Steel, Morgan W. Davies, 365; Valve- gears for Steam Engines, Prof. Cecil H. Peabody, 396; the Ageing of Steel, C. E. Stromeyer, 405; Mechanical Flight, Herbert Chatley at Society of Engineers, 413; Efficiency of Marine Engines and Propellers, J. Hamilton Gibson, 437; Electrification of Railways, 439; the Filtra- tion and Purification of Water for Public Supply, John Don at Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 444; Heat- flow and Temperature-distribution in the Gas Engine, Prof. B. Hopkinson, 468 ; Elastic Breakdown of Materials submitted to Compound Stresses, L. B. Turner, 498; the Increased Expansion of Steam Attainable in Steam Turbines, James Watt Lecture at Greenock, Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S., 502 England, the North of, Education Conference, 322 Englishwoman’s Year-book and Directory, 1909, the, 220 Enteric Fever in India, Lieut.-Colonel Semple and Captain Grieg, 21 Entomology : the Lore of the Honey-bee, Tickner Edwardes, F. W. L. Sladen, 6; the House-fly, C. G. Hewitt, 18; Death of Dr. James Fletcher, 43; Obituary Notice of, 76; Weitere Beitrage zum socialen Paratismus und der Sklaverei bei den Ameisen, E. Wasmann, W. F. Kirby, 51; Construction of the Nests of Javanese Ant Poly- rhachis bicolor, E. Jacobson, 257; a Gall-producing Dragon-fly, W. F. Kirby, 68; Entomological Society, 117, 177, 388; Australian Libelluline, R. J. Tillyard, 120; Diptera Danica, William Lundbeck, 127; Distribution of the Reindeer-gadfly, Dr. P. Speoiser, 141; Silk-producing Insects of West Africa, Gerald C. Dudgeon, 160; Ticks, 219; the Claws of Insects, C. O. Waterhouse, 388; British Oak Galls, E. T. Connold, 394; die Fauna Stidwest-Australiens, Ergebnisse der Hamburger stidwest- australischen Forschungsreise, 1905, 396; the Moths of the British Isles, Richard South, 427; Structure of Aphid Antenne, G. Okajima, 442; Scolytide from Indian Forests, E. P. Stebbing, 442; Angolese Tiger-beetles, F. Creighton Wellman and W. Horn, 442; Mode in which ““ Cuckoo-spit Insects’? (Cercopidz) secrete Enveloping Foam, B. H. Guilbeau, 442; Life-history of the Leaf- insect Phylliwm crurifolium, H. S. Leigh, 478 Enzyme Action, the Nature of, Dr. W. M. Bayliss, F.R.S., 275 Enzymes, Intracellular, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 275 Erde, Geschichte der, und des Lebens, J. Walther, 31 Eruptive Prominences on the Solar Disc, the Distribution of, Philip Fox, 320 Esclangon (E.), Refraction due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, I Ethics: the Ethical Aspects of Evolution regarded as the Parallel Growth of Opposite Tendencies, W. Benett, 456 ; the Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, E. Westermarck, Prof. A. E. Taylor, 481 Ethnography of Assam, the, roo Ethnology : Nubian Cemeteries, Anatomical Report by Drs. Elliot Smith and F. Wood Jones, 132; the Childhood of Man, a Popular Account of the Lives, Customs, and Thoughts of the Primitive Races, Dr. Léo Frobenius, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 162; Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. Otis Tufts Mason, 197; Survivals of Pagan Beliefs among the Indians of South California, Miss C. B. DuBois, 295: das Kesslerloch bei Thaingen, Dr. J. Heierli, 342; the Bull of the Kraal and the Heavenly Maidens, a Tale of Black Children, Dudley Kidd, 396 Euclid, the Contents of the Fifth and Sixth Books of, M. J. M. Hill, 486 Euclid Simplified in Accordance with the New University Regulations, with Additional Propositions and Numerous Examples, Saradaranjan Ray, 277 Eugenics: Memories of my Life, Dr. F.R.S., Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 181 Eumorfopoulos (N.), Boiling Point of Sulphur on the Con- stant Pressure Air Thermometer, 58 European Population of the United States, the, Prof. Ripley at Royal Anthropological Institute, 145 European Sediments, the Oldest, J. J. Sederholm, 266 Evans (G.), Varieties of Wheat grown in Central India, 141; Potato growing in Central India, 467 Evans (Dr. J. W.), Cross-planes in Twin-crystals, 448 ; Comparison of the Refractive Indices of Adjoining Crystals in a Rock Slice which have their Directions of Vibration Oblique to One Another, 448 Evans (P.), a Brilliant Meteor, 351 Evans (Pole), Fungi and Plant Diseases, 235 Evershed (Mr.), the Wave-length of the Hé Line, 20; Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum, 439 Francis Galton, XVIll Lndex [ Nature, March 25, 1909 Evolution: Some Scientific Centres, XIV., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, Prof. de Vries, 101; the Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge (June 22-24, 1909), Prof. -A. C. Seward, F.R.S., 221; Essays on Evolution, 1889- 1907, Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 302; the World of Life, as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S., at Royal Insti- tution, 384; Methods and Causes of Evolution, O. F. Cook, 435; Dr. A. G. Bell, 435; the Ethical Aspects of Evolution, regarded as the Parallel Growth of Opposite Tendencies, W. Benett, 456; Mutation et Traumatismes, L. Blaringhem, 483 Ewart (Dr. A. J.), the Longevity of Seeds, 45 Ewing (J. A.), the Mechanical Production of Cold, 484 Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star-finding Tables, Lieut.-Commander Armistead Rust, Captain H. C. Lockyer, 365 Exercising in Bed, Sanford Bennett, 339 Exhibition of Fishes in Museums, the, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 160 Exploration : a Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador, Mrs. L. Hubbard, J. G. Millais, gor Eye, the Pathology of the, J. Herbert Parsons, 125 Fabry (Mr.), Study of the Relation between the Metre and the Wave-length of the Red Cadmium Line, 1095 Fads and Feeding, Dr. C. Stanford Read, 248 Farran (G. B.), British Oithonze, 478 Fasting, Vitality, and Nutrition, Hereward Carrington, 66 Fath (I. A.), Observations of the Zodiacal Light, 1 Faucon (A.), the Freezing of Mixtures of Water and Soluble Fatty Acids, 330 Fauna of the Magellan Region, the, Joseph A. Clubb, 130 February Meteoric Shower, a, W. F. Denning, 399 Feeding, Fads and, Dr. C. Stanford Read, 248 Ferguson (H. G.), Geology of Batanes Islands, 471 Ferro-silicon, Carriage and Storage of, Dr. Dodd, Dr. Harris, and Prof. W. R. Smith, 436 Ferry (E. S.), a Manual of Practical Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, 213 Féry (C.), Melting Point of Platinum, 509 Field (Dr. George W.), Use of Apparatus in Hatching and Rearing Lobsters, 110 Field (Dr. Irving A.), Utilisation of Sea-mussels and Dog- fish as Food, 111 Field Natural History, J. C. Adam, 296; R. Service, 296 Fields (Prof. J. C.), New Proof of the Complementary Theorem, 22 Figure of the Sun, the, Prof. Charles Lane Poor, 260 Filon (Dr. L. N. G.), Arithmétique graphique, Gabriel Arnoux, 34 Financial Status of the Professor in America and in Ger- many, 249 Finger Prints: Identification of the Imprint of a Blood- stained Hand on a Sheet, V. Balthazard, 179 Fireballs, Recent Brilliant, W. F. Denning, Chapman, 378 Fisheries : the International Fishery Congress at Washing- ton, 109; Apparatus for Hatching, Rearing, and Trans- porting Fishes, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Use of Apparatus in Hatching and Rearing Lobsters, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Dr. George W. Field, 110; Utilisation of Sea- mussels and Dogfish as Food, Dr. Irving A. Field, 111; Effects of Gun-fire on Schools of Fishes, Dr. Sumner, z11; Dr. Parker, 111; Food and Movements of Mackerel, 141; Annual Report of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries under the Acts relating to Sea-fisheries for the Year 1906 (1908), 144; Report of Research Work of the Same Board on the Plaice Fisheries of the North Sea, 1905-6 (1908), 144; Report of the Committee Appointed by ‘Treasury-minute to Inquire into the Scientific and Statistical Investigations now being carried on in Rela- tion to the Fishing Industry of the United Kingdom, 144; Report on Plaice, Captain W. Masterman, 145; Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Labora- tory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Andrew Scott and James Johnstone, 151; Australian Cormorants and Local Fisheries, 167; Rapports et Procés verbaux des Réunions, Conseil permanent international pour Exploration de la Mer, 172; Bulletins trimestriel des 378; H. Résultats acquis pendant les Croisiéres périodiques, 1906-7, 172; Report on Plaice Fisheries, Messrs. Petersen, Garstang, and Kyle, 172; Influence of Seals on Fisheries, Dr. Wollebaek, 173; Distribution of Pelagic Eggs and Larvee of the Food-fishes, Dr. Schneider, 225; Experi- - ments with Marked Flat-fish and Lobsters, Mr. Trybom, 225; Piscine Enemies of Salmon and Trout Ova, Mr. Trybom, 225; Arctic Whale Fishery for Past Season, T. Southwell, 473 Fishes: an Alga growing on Fish, Kumagusu Minakata, 99; Geo. Massee, 99; the Exhibition of Fishes in Museums, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 160 Fishing: Trout Waters, Management and Angling, Wilson H. Armistead, 5 Fitting (Dr. H.), Effect of Pollination on Orchid Flowers, 435 Flammarion (M.), Morehouse’s Comet, 231 Flashes from the Orient, or a Thousand and One Mornings with Poesy, John Hazelhurst, 249 Fleming (Dr.), Photo-electric Properties sodium Alloy, 146 Fletcher (Dr. James), Death of, 43; Obituary Notice of, 76 Fletcher (J. J.), Polycotyledony in Persoonia, 390 Fliche (P.), Fossil Alga from the Sinemurian, 419 Flight, Mechanical, Herbert Chatley at Society of Engineers, of Potassium- 413 Floor Malting, Practical, Hugh Lancaster, 128 Flora, the Origin of a Land, Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., 1 Floral Mechanism, Types of, Dr. A. H. Church, 62 Flowers, Beautiful, and How to Grow Them, 218 Flying Machines and their Stability, A. Mallock, F.R.S., 220 Fog and Rime on January 27-28, L. C. W. Bonacina, 399 Folk Memory, or the Continuity of British Archeology, Walter Johnson, 423 Folklore : the Bull of the Kraal and the Heavenly Maidens, a Tale of Black Children, Dudley Kidd, 396 Food of some British Birds, the, Robert Newstead, 254 Foppl (Dr. August), Vorlesungen tiber technische Mechanik, 247 Forbes (Prof. George), the Coinet of 1556, 239 Forestry: Reasons in Favour of Mixed Plantations, P- Lushington, 18; the Oidium of the Oak, Paul Hariot, 59; the Forest Region of Mount Kenia, 108; Experiments upon Forcing the Resting Shoots of Woody Plants, Dr. H. Molisch, 199; Insect Pests in Indian Forests, E. P Stebbing, 292; the Ocala and Dakota National Forests, 347; the Florida Forest, 347; Report on Afforestation in the United Kingdom, 351; a National Scheme of Afforestation, 370; Need for Scientific Management and Extension of the Forests of the United Kingdom, Sir Herbert Maxwell, 376; the Ziirich Woods, F. Story, 376; Scolytide from Indian Forests, E. P. Stebbing, 442 Fossil Turtles of North America, the, O. Perry Hay, 91 Fossils, Methods of preparing, Dr. F. A. Bather, 44 Fournier (M.), Underground Waters, 233 Fowler (Prof. A.), the Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Solar Spectra, 58; Method whereby from any Prismatic Spectrum a Rectified Copy may be Obtained, 377 Fowler (Dr. G. H.), Ostracoda of the Bay of Biscay captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. Research, 116; Biscayan Plankton, Ostracoda captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. Research, 209 Fowls, Hyperdactylism in Houdan Domesticated, Marie Kaufmann-Wolff, 257 Fox (Philip), the Distribution of Eruptive Prominences on the Solar Disc, 320; Interaction of Sun-spots, 469 Fox-Strangways (C.), Origin of the Harrogate Springs, 470 Fraas (Prof. Eberhard), the Dinosaurian Bones in the Upper Cretaceous Formation of Tendaguru, German East Africa, 166 Francois (Maurice), Theory of the Preparation of Methyl- amine by Solutions of Acetamide and Bromine, 149; the Bromacetamide of Hofmann, 389 Frank (Prof. A.), Chemical Industry in Relation to Agri- culture, 89 Franks (Mr.), Colours of Stars in Galactic and Non-Galactic Regions, 410 Frech (Prof. Fritz), Tectonics of the Alps, 470 7a Nature, March 25, 1909 Lndex XIX Freeman (W. G.), la Canfora Italiana, Prof. Italo Giglioli, 94; Southern Agriculture, I. S. Earle, 186 French Academy of Sciences, Prize Subjects proposed by the, for the Year 1910, 232 Fresh-water Biology: British Fresh-water Phytoplankton, W. West and G. S. West, 507 Frié (J. J.), the Anomalies of Refraction, 469 Frobenius (Dr. Léo), the Childhood of Man, a Popular Account of the Lives, Customs, and Thoughts of the Primitive Races, 162 Frosch, der, Dr. F. Hempelmann, 242 Fréschel (Dr. P.), Heliotropic Sensibility, the Presentation Period, 408 Frost (Prot.), Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, 142 ; and Form of Comet Morehouse, 439 Fruit Trees and their Enemies, with a Spraying Calendar, Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S., and Fred. V. Theobald, 396 Fruit Trees, the Planting of, Ninth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S., Dr. E. J Russell, 500 : Fry (Sir Edward, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Earthquakes and John Wesley, 98 Fryer (J. C. F.), the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean, 20. Fuhrmann (Dr. O.), die Cestoden der Vogel, 66 Functional Inertia of Living Matter, the, Dr. D. F. Harris, the Spectrum 96 Functional Nerve Diseases, A. T. Schofield, 5 Gadow (Hans, F.R.S.), Through Southern Mexico, 252 Gage (Capt. A. T.), the Commercial Products of India, being an Abridgment of the Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Sir George Watt, 184 Gagee (Prof. C. S.), Action of Radium Rays on Developing Plants, 292 ‘ Gaillard (C.), les Oiseaux des Phosphorites du Quercy, 91 Gain (Edmond), Presence of Amylase in Old Seeds, 480 Gall-producing Dragon-fly, a, W. F. Kirby, 68 Galls, British Oak, E. T. Connold, 394 Galton (Dr. Francis, F.R.S.), Memories of my Life, 181; Sequestrated Church Property, 308 Gamble (Dr. F. W., F.R.S.), Animal Life, 182; Influence of Light on Coloration of Marine Animals, 359 Garden Rockery: How to Make, Plant, and Manage it, F. G. Heath, 95 c Gardiner (C. I.), the Igneous and Associated Sedimentary ee of the Tourmakeady District (County Mayo), 2 Gardiner (J. Stanley, F.R.S.), the Percy Expedition to the Indian Ocean, 204 Garstang (Mr.), Report on Plaice Fisheries, 172 Gas Engine, Heat-flow and Temperature-distribution in the, Prof. B. Hopkinson, 468 Gases, the Density of, in Relation to the Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 491 Gates (R. R.), Nuclear Changes in Pollen Mother-cell of CEnothera, 376 Gaucher (Louis), Gastric Digestion of Casein, 330; the Gastric Digestion of Human Milk and Asses’ Milk, 480 Gaudechon (H.), the Diffusion of Saline Manures in the Soil, 449 Gaudry (Albert), Death of, 138; Obituary Notice of, 163 Gaulhofer (Dr. K.), Perception of Light by Plants, 168 Gautier (M.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 48 Gebiss des Menschen, das, und der Anthropomorphen, Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuchungen, Zugleich ein Beitrag zur menschlichen Stammgeschichte, Dr. P. Adloff, 278 Geelmuyden (M.), Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, 143 U Geminorum, the Variable Star, J. van der Bilt, 295 Gems: Artificial Sapphires, Louis Paris, 119 ‘ Genese (Prof. R. W.), Analysis of Projection, 25 Genéve, Memoires de la Société de Physique et d’Histoire naturelle de, 491 Geodesy: Geodetic Survey of South Africa, Colonel Sir W. G. Morris, K.C.M.G., C.B., Captain H. W. Gordon, and Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., 103; Death of Dr. Giuseppe Ciscato, 195; Geodetic Surveys, 285 Sladen Trust Geography : Explorations of Dr. M. A. Stein in Turkestan, 17; Death of Archibald J. Little, 43; Applied Geography, Dr. J. Scott Keltie, 92; Canada’s Fertile Northland, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 95; Atlas of Canada, 272; Mountain Panoramas from the Pamirs and Kuen Lun, Dr. M. Aurel Stein, 97; Lands Beyond the Channel, H. J. Mackinder, 98; the Forest Region of Mount Kenia, 108; Evidence of Recent Submergence of Coast at Narrabeen, N.S. Wales, Prof. T. W. E. David and G. H. Halligan, 119; a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132; Expedi- tion into Central Asia, Dr. M. A. Stein, 140; From Peking to Mandalay, a Journey from North China to Burma through Tibetan Ssuch’uan and Yunnan, R. F. Johnston, 193; Danish North-east Greenland Expedition, Lieut. A. Trolle, 197-8, 355; Aims and Objects of Modern Polar Exploration, Dr. William S. Bruce, 227; the Class-room Atlas of Physical, Political, Biblical, and Classical Geography, 249; Cause of Earthquakes and the Origin of Mountain Ranges, Prof. T. J. J. See, 293; Russland, A. von Krassnow and A. Woeikow, 304; the Edinburgh School Atlas, 366; Practical Exercises in Physical Geography, Prof. W. M. Davis, 393; a Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador, Mrs. L. Hubbard, J. G. Millais, gor; a Proposed North Polar Expedition, Captain Roald Amundsen, 412; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Geographie von Heard- Eiland, E. von Drygalski, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Aufbau und Gestaltung von Kerguelen, E. Werth, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Bathy-orographical Map of the British Isles, 486; Bathy-orographical Map of South America, 486; Handbook to accompany the Map of the British Isles, 486; Theory of Existence of a Land-bridge between Scotland and Scandinavia, based on Distribu- tion of Charr, Dr. L. Stejneger, 496 Geology: the Falls of Niagara, their Evolution and Vary- ing Relations to the Great Lakes, Characteristics of the Power and the Effects of its Diversion, Dr. J. W. W. Spencer, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 11; Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens, J. Walther, 31; the Coals of South Wales, with Special Reference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite, Aubrey Strahan and W. Pollard, 33; Research in China, Bailey Willis, 61; the Geology and Scenery of the Grampians and the Valley of Strathmore, Peter Macnair, 69; Relations of the Nubian Sandstone and the Crystalline Rocks of Egypt, Hugh J. L. Beadnell, 117; Geological Society, 117, 148, 209, 268, 418, 448, 508; Geological Notes on Mt. Kosciusko, Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David, 120; the Romance of Modern Geology, E. S. Grew, 131; the Romance of Early British Life from the Earliest Times to the coming of the Danes, G. F. Scott Elliot, 131; a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Hima- layan Mountains and Tibet, Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132; Death of Albert Gaudry, 138; Obituary Notice of, 163; Intrusive Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Eskdale (Cumberland), Dr. A. R. Dwerryhouse, 148; Dr. Sandberg on the Anti- clinal Structure of Tygerberg, Dr. A. W. Rogers, 149; Some Recent Publications of Geological Surveys, 170; Geology of Small Isles of Inverness-shire, Messrs. Harker and Barrow, 170; Southern Part of the Derby- shire and Nottinghamshire Coalfield, Messrs. Gibson and Wedd, 170; Geology of the Quantock Hills and of Taun- ton and Bridgwater, W. A. E. Ussher, 170; Geology of the Country around Oxford, Messrs. Pocock, H. B. Woodward, and Lamplugh, 170; Structure of the Narrow Carboniferous Basin of Rossitz, Dr. F. E. Suess, 170; Hills traversed by Danube between WHainburg and Pozsény, P. S. Richarz, 171; Geology of the Country on the Isonzo around Karfreit, Dr. Franz Kossmat, 171; Geology of the District between Cairo and Suez, T. Barron, 171; Geology of Tsang and U in Central Tibet, Mr. Hayden, 171; Geology of Mount Yamaska in Quebec, Dr. G. A. Young, 172; Petrography of the Newark Igneous Rocks, J. V. Lewis, 172; Geology of the North-west Coast of Tasmania, T. Stephens, 180; Geological Interpretation of thé) Earth-movements associated with the Californian Earthquake of April 18, XX 1906, R. D. Oldham, 209; Death and Obituary Notice of Joseph Lomas, 226; Underground Waters of Cape Colony, Dr. Juritz, 229; Waters and Glaciers, 233; Underground Waters, M. Fournier, 233; Movement of Water in Chalk, Albert and Alexandre Mary, 234; Rivers that Penetrate Masses of Limestone in the Province of Cammon, Indo-China, Paul Macey, 234; Production of Valleys and Deltas Studied Artificially by T. A. Jaggar, jun., 234; Artesian Water-supply of Australia, E. F. Pittman, 234; State of Switzerland during the Ice Age, Prof. Muhlberg, 234; le Probléme de 1’Erosion et du Surcreusement glaciaire, Prof. Jean Brunhes, 234; Glaciers in North-west Kashmir, H. H. Hayden, 234; the Hubbard Glacier of Alaska, Messrs. Tarr and Martin, 234; Age of Leicestershire and South Derby- shire Coal-measures, A. B. Harwood, 257; the Oldest European Sediments, J. J. Sederholm, 266; the Igneous and Associated Sedimentary Rocks of the Tourmakeady District (County Mayo), C. I. Gardiner and Prof. Sidney H. Reynolds, 268; die Entstehung der Kontinente, der Vulkane und Gebirge, P. O. Kohler, die geo- logischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre, G. Stein- 27 5 mann, 277; Curious Effect of Surface Ablation of a Glacier, Bernard Smith, 282; the Tertiary Fossils of Florissant, Colorado, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 44; Corr., Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 376; Death of W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., 406; Obituary Notice of, 433; the Geological Society of Glasgow, 412; a ‘Theory of Volcanic Action and Ore Deposits, their Nature and Cause, Hiram W. Hixon, 419; Geology of Country behind Jervis Bay, Dr. H. I. Jensen, 420; the Conway Succession, Dr. Gertrude L. Elles, 448; Depth and Succession of the Bovey Deposits, A. J. Jukes-Browne, 448; the Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley, and Prehistoric Implements found Therein, J. W. Jackson, 449; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Gestein der Heard-Insel, R. Reinische, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedi- tion, 1901-3, Geologie der Heard-Insel, E. Philippi, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Deutsche Sudpolar Ex- pedition, 1901-3, Geologische Beobachtungen auf Kerguelen, E. Philippi, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-0, Geologie, H. Arctowski, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Origin of the Harrogate Springs, C. Fox-Strang- ways, 470; Geology of the Country around Henley-on- Thames and Wallingford, A. J. Jukes-Browne and H. J. Osborne White, 470; Country around Andover, A. J. Jukes-Browne, 470; Country between Newark and Nottingham, Messrs. Lamplugh, Gibson, Sherlock, and Wright, 470; Zones of the Chalk in the Thames Valley between Goring and Shiplake, C. P. Chatwin and T. H. Withers, 470; Geology of Tertiary Basin of Budweis, Dr. H. Reininger, 470; Tectonics of the Alps, Prof. Fritz Frech, 470; the Sonnwendgebirge, Dr. Ampferer, 470; the Flysch-zone in Allgau and the Vorarlberg, Prof. Tornquist, 471; the Unknown South-western Desert of Egypt, Dr. W. F. Hume, 471; Geology of the Persian Gulf, G. E. Pilgrim, 471; Geology of Batanes Islands, H. G. Ferguson, 471; Geology of Bechuanaland Protectorate, A. J. C. Molyneux, 471, Geology of Western Sierra Madre (Chihuahua), E. Otis Hovey, 471; Geology of Western Australia, A. Gibb Maitland, 472; the Grenville Hastings Unconformity in Ontario and Quebec, W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight, 472; Age of Gangamopteris Beds of Kashmir, H. H. Hayden, 472; Southern Border of the Svilaja Planina in Dalmatia, Dr. F. vy. Kerner, 472; the ‘‘ Rhein- diluvium *’ from Bingerbruck to Netherlands, B. Stiirtz, 472; Geological Features of Carpalla China-clay pit, St. Stephen’s, Cornwall, J. H. Collins, 508; Brighton Cliff- formation, E. A. Martin, 508 Geometry: Application of Geometrical Principles to Prac- tical Radiography, M. Contremoulins, 30; Geometrical Optics, V. H. Mackinney and H. L. Taylor, 243; a Preliminary Geometry, Noel S. Lydon, 277; Elementary Solid Geometry, including the Mensuration of the Simpler Solids, W. H. Jackson, 277; Modern Geometry, C. Godfrey and A. W. Siddons, 337; the Analytical Geometry of the Conic Sections, Rev. E. H. Askwith, aa. Index [ Nature, March 25, 1909 337, a Course of Plane Geometry for Advanced Students, C. V. Durell, 486 George (Lloyd), on the Endowment of Universities, 86 Germ Plasm, Memory in the, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 7; G. Archdall Reid, 8 Germany, the Financial Status of the Professor in America and in, 249 Germination of the Broad Bean Seed, E. Heber Smith, 400; Prof. Frank Cavers, 488 Gibbs (Dr. Wolcott), Death and Obituary Notice of, 227 Gibson (A. H.), Draught-inducing Properties of the Poker, 149; Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines, 395 Gibson (Mr.), Southern Part of the Derbyshire and Nottinghamshire Coalfield, 170; Country between Newark and Nottingham, 470 Gibson (J. Hamilton), Efficiency of Marine Engines and Propellers, 437 Giglioli (Prof. Italo), la Canfora Italiana, 94 Gilchrist (Dr.), New Forms of Hemichordata from South Africa, 473; New Species of Ptychodera, 473 Gilchrist (Mr.), South African Blenniidz, &c., 472 Gill (Sir David, K.C.B., F.R.S.), the Reflecting Telescope and its Suitability for Physical Research, 23; Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure, and Photographic Action, 23; Geodetic Survey of South Africa, 103 Gill (Rev. H. V., S.J.), Earthquakes and Waves in Distant Localities, 27 Gimel (G.), Influence of Stannous Chloride upon Fermenta- tion, 269 Gizeh, the Great Pyramid of, its Riddle read, its Secret Metrology fully revealed as the Origin of British Measures, M. W. H. Lombe Brooke, 32 Glaciers: Waters and Glaciers, 233; State of Switzerland during the Ice Age, Prof. Mihlberg, 234; le Probléme de ’Erosion et du Surcreusement glaciaire, Prof. Jean Brunhes, 234; Glaciers in North-west Kashmir, H. H. Hayden, 234; the Hubbard Glacier of Alaska, Messrs. Tarr and Martin, 234; Curious Effect of Surface Abla- tion of a Glacier, Bernard Smith, 282 Glasenapp (Prof. S. de), a Simple Instrument for finding the Correct Time, 108 Glasgow, the Geological Society of, 412 Glass Processes, Decorative, A. L. Duthie, 334 Glazebrook (Dr.), Photometric Standard of the National Physical Laboratory, 25 f Glazebrook (Dr. R. T., F.R.S.), Seismograms of the Earth- quake of January 23, 428 Gockel (Prof. Albert), die Luftelektrizitat, 455 Godchot (Marcel), Tricyclohexylmethane, 179 Goddard (E. H.), Objects of the Bronze Age found in Wiltshire, 78 Goddard (E. J.), New Genus of Fresh-water Oligocheta, Australia, 179 Godfrey (C.), Modern Geometry, 337 Goodey (T.), the Gonadial Grooves of a Medusa, Aurelia aurita, 418 Gordon (Captain H. W.), Geodetic Survey of South Africa, 103 Gore (Dr. George, Notice of, 290 Goris (A.), Urea in Fungi, 300 Gorodkowa {\. A.), Method Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 467 Goss (William F. M.), Locomotive Performance, 305 Gottingen Royal Society of Sciences, 30 Goyen (P.), Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra and Mensuration, 156 Graham (Andrew), Death and Obituary Notice of, 44 Graham (Mr.), Insect Pests affecting Cocoa in West Africa, 409 Grampians, the Geology and Scenery of the, and the Valley of Strathmore, Peter Macnair, 69 Graphic Arts, Penrose’s Pictorial Annual, a Review of the, 366 Graphite, the Manufacture of Artificial, 81 Gravely (F. H.), the Spawning of Eledone, 149 Gravimetric Method of Constant Sensibility for the Measurement of High Altitudes, Alphonse Berget, 330 Gravitational Theories, 369 F.R.S.), Death of, 255; Obituary for obtaining Spores of Nature, March 25, 1909 Lndex Xx1 Gray (H. St. John), Excavations in the Maumbury Ring Circle, 256 Gray (J.), Who Built the British Stone Circles? 236 Gray (J. G.), Improved Form of Magnetometer for the testing of Magnetic Materials, 479 Gray (Prof. Thomas), Death of, 315 Gray’s New Manual of Botany, 457 Green (Prof. J. A.), Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, 154; Papers on Moral Education communicated to the First International Moral Education Congress, 154 Greenland Eskimo, the Anthropology of the, 311 Greenland Expedition, the Danish North-east, Lieut. A. Trolle, 355 Gregory (Prof. J. W., F-.R.S.), the Falls of Niagara, their Evolution and varying Relations to the Great Lakes, Characteristics of the Power and the Effects of its Diversion, Dr. J. W. W. Spencer, 11; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Physique de Globe, G. Lecointe; Zoologie, P. P. C. Hoek, H. F. E. Jungersen, L. Bohmig, L. Plate; Oceanographie, H. Arctowski and H. R. Mill; Geologie, H. Arctowski, 460; Deutsches Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Auf- bau und Gestaltung von» Kerguelen, E. Werth; Geologische Beobachtung auf Kerguelen, E. Philippi; Petrographische Beschreibung der Kerguelen-Gesteine, R. Reinische, 460; Geographie von Heard-Eiland, E. von Drygalski; Geologie der Heard-Insel, E. Philippi; Gesteine der Heard-Insel, R. Reinische; Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, E. Vanhoffen; Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, W. Meinardus, 460 Gregory (R. P.), Forms of Flowers in Valeriana dioica, 268 Greig-Smith (Dr. R.), Point of View, 120 Grew (E. S.), the Romance of Modern Geology, 131 Grieg (Captain), Enteric Fever in India, 21 Grieg (J. A.), Pleistocene Red Deer of Norway, 105 Griffith (Rev. John), the Origin of Advent and other Three Weeks’ Celebrations, 36 Grinnel (Joseph), Biological Survey of San Bernadino Mountains of Southern California, 466 Opsonisation from a_ Bacterial Groom (Dr. Percy), Longitudinal Symmetry of Centro- spermz, 419 Grubb (Sir Howard), New Spectroheliograph for the Madrid Observatory, 23; New Form of Divided Object- glass Telescope, 23; the Reflecting Telescope and its Suitability for Physical Research, 23 Gruner (Prof. P.), Existence of Freely Moving Electrons between Molecules of Metal, 438 Guépin (A.), Enormous Urinary Calculus in Man, 360 Guerbet (Marcel), Lavo-campholic Acid, 360 Guérin (C.), Properties of the Tubercle Bacillus cultivated on Bile, 299 Guichard (Marcel), Action of Heat on Iodic Anhydride, 26 Canes (L.), Metamorphosis of Hydrocyanic Glucosides during Germination, 179 Guilbeau (Prof. B. H.), Death and Obituary Notice of, Giiibeau (B. H.), Mode in which ‘‘ Cuckoo-spit Insects ”’ (Cercopidez) secrete Enveloping Foam, 442 Guillaume (J.), Further Observations of Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, 260; Observations of the Sun at Lyons Observatory during the Fourth Quarter of 1908, 479 Guilleminot (H.), X-rays of High Penetration obtained by Filtration, 389 Gulliver (G. H.), Discharge of Water from Circular Weirs and Orifices, 59; Friction at the Extremities of a Short Bar subjected to a Crushing Load, and its Influence upon the Apparent Compressive Strength of the Material, 329; Metallic Alloys, their Structure and Con- stitution, 365 Guntz (A.), Electrical Resistance Gallium and Tellurium, 300 Guye (Ph. A.), Volumetric Composition of Ammonia Gas and Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 119 of Alkali Metals, Guyenot (M.), Special Method of Electro-diagnosis of Feigned Paralysis, 510 Gwynne-Vaughan (D. T.), Osmundacean Fossils from Permian of Russia, 329 Haberlandt (Dr.), Sense-organs in Plants, 467 Haddon (Dr. A. C., F.R.S.), the Childhood of Man, a Popular Account of the Lives, Customs, and Thoughts of the Primitive Races, Dr. Léo Frobenius, 162; Memories of My Life, Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., 181; an Investigation of the Sociology and Religion of the Andamanese, 345 Hadell (Charles W.), the Old Yellow Book, 279 Haeckel (Ernst), Unsere Ahrenreihe (Progonotaxis Hominis)—kritische Studien uber phyletische Anthropo- logie (Festschrift zur 350-jahrigen Jubelfeier der Thtringer Universitat Jena und der damit verbundenen Ubergabe des phyletischen Museums am 30 Juli, 1908), 392 Hahn (Dr. Ed.), die Entstehung der Wirtschaftlichen Arbeit, 157 Haidarabad, the Nizamiah Observatory at, 232 Haldane (J. S.), the Prevention of Compressed-air Illness, 40 Hale (Prof. George Ellery), the Study of Stellar Evolu- tion, an Account of some Recent Methods of Astro- physical Research, 191; the Magnetic Field in Sun- spots, 351 Hale’s (Dr. G. E.) Recent Photographs of the Spectra of Sun-spots taken through Polarising Apparatus, Prof. J. Larmor, 26 Hall (Asaph), Biographical Memoir of, G. W. Hill, 80 Hall (A. D.), the Soil, 127 Hall (Miss E. H.), Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age, 349 Hall (H. R.), New Light on Ancient Egypt, G. Maspero, 222; the Annual of the British School at Athens, 303; the Judgment of Paris, and some other Legends Astro- nomically considered, Hon. Emmeline M. Plunket, 335 Hall (H. S.), a School Arithmetic, 156 Hall (Miss K. M.), Nature Rambles in London, 245 Hall (J. W.), Efficiency of Various Kinds of Furnaces, 468 Haller (A.), Products of the Reaction of Sodium Amide on Ketones, 89; General Method of preparation of the Monoalkyl, Diallyl, and Triallyl-acetophenones, 359; General Method of preparation of the Trialkylacetic Acids, 389 Haller (Albrecht von), 38 Halley’s Comet, Mr. Wendell, 108; Search-ephemeris for, 320 Halley’s Grave, 139 Halligen (G. H.), Physical Evidence of Recent Sub- mergence of Coast at Narrabeen, N.S. Wales, 119 Hamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise, Ergebnisse der, 1892-3, Dr. W. Michaelson, 82 Hamburger stidwest-australischen Forschungsreise, Ergeb- nisse der, die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens, 1905, 396 Hamill (P.), Mode of Action of Specific Substances, 178 Hamilton (Dr. D. J.), Death of, 495 Hamilton’s (Sir W.) Fluctuating Functions, Dr. E. W. Hobson, 22 Hamy (Dr. E. T.), Death of, 138; Obituary Notice of, 166 Hann (Dr. Julius), Handbuch der Klimatologie, 363 Hare (A. T.), Mercury Bubbles, 99 Hariot (Paul), the Oidium of the Oak, 59 Harker (Dr.), New Three-colour Camera, 24 Harker (Dr. J. A.), Effect of Pressure on the Boiling Point of Sulphur, 25; Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de l'Université de Moscou, Prof. W. Longuinine and A. Schukarew, 185 Harker (Mr.), Geology of Small Isles of Inverness-shire, 170 Harris (Dr. D. F.), the Functional Inertia of Living Matter, 96 Harris (Dr.), Carriage and Storage of Ferro-silicon, 436 Hart (W. E.), Stone Circles in Ireland, 488 Hartley (Prof. W. N., F.R.S.), the Brilliancy and Intensity of the Cupric Chloride Flame Spectrum, 487 Harvey (W. H.), Action of Specific Substances in Toxzemia, 178 Harwood (A. B.), Age of Leicestershire and South Derby- shire Coal-measures, 257 . Harwood (W. A.), Ballons-sondes Ascents made at Man- chester, 26 Haselfoot (Mr.), the Charges on Ions, 442 XX11 Haskell (R.), Diffusion of Salts in Aqueous Solutions, 19 Hatt (P.), Compensation of a Closed Chain of Triangula- tion, 119 Hattori (Dr. A.), Phytogeographical Study of the Bonin Islands, 78 Hay (O. Perry), the Fossil Turtles of North America, 91 Hay (Dr. O. P.), the Habits of Sauropod Dinosaurs, 104 Hayden (H. H.), a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, 132; Geology of Tsang and U in Central Tibet, 171; Glaciers in North-west Kashmir, 234; Age of Gangamopteris Beds of Kashmir, 472 Hayes (Rev. J. W.), Dene-holes, 478 Hayward (Dr. F. H.), Education and the Heredity Spectre, 455 Hazelhurst (John), Flashes from the Orient, or a Thousand and One Mornings with Poesy, 249 Headmasters’ Conference, the, 253 Heat: the Boiling Point of Sulphur, Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S., 58; the Boiling Point of Sulphur on the Constant Pressure Air Thermometer, N. Eumorfopoulos, 58; New Determination of the Equivalent of Heat, V. Crémieu and L. Rispail, 59; the Gas Thermo- meter, Messrs. Day and Clement, 230; Temperature of Flame of Bunsen Burner, E, Bauer, 270; Method of Thermal Analysis in Metallurgical Research, G. K. Burgess, 319; Heat for Engineers, Chas. R. Darling, Prof. C. A. Smith, 335; Melting Point of Platinum, C. Féry and C. Chéneveau, 509; Thermal Phenomena accompanying the Action of Water on Aluminium Powder, E. Kohn-Abrest and J. Carvallo, 509 Heath (F. G.), Garden Rockery: How to Make, Plant, and Manage it, 95 Heatherley (F.), the Ternery at Wells-by-the-Sea, 44 Heavens, the, at a Glance, Mr. Mee, 295 Heierli (Dr. J.), das Kesslerloch bei Thaingen, 342 Heinrich (V.), the Minor Planet Patroclus (617), 410 Heiium, Production of, from Uranium, Frederick Soddy, 129 Hellmann (Prof. G.), the Dawn of Meteorology, Lecture at Royal Meteorological Society, 173 Hempelmann (Dr. F.), der Frosch, 242 Hemsalech (Dr. G. A.), New Methods of obtaining the Spectra in Flames, 26 Henry (John R.), November Meteors, 38 Henry (Louis), the Direct Dehydration of Certain Alcohols, 268 Hepworth (Commander Campbell, C.B.), Changes in the Temperature of the North Atlantic and the Strength of the Trade Winds, 25 Herdman (Prof. W. A., F.R.S.), Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, 151 Heredity : Memory in the Germ Plasm, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S., 7; G. Archdall Reid, 8; Versuch einer Begriindung der Deszendenztheorie, Prof. Karl Camillo Schneider, 34; Memories of My Life, Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 181; Inherit- ance in Silkworms, Vernon L. Kellogg, 265; Education and the Heredity Spectre, Dr. F. H. Hayward, 455 Hergesell (Dr.), Participation of Various Countries in the Work of investigating the Upper Air from January to the beginning of July, 1908, 468 Hérissey (H.), New Researches on Bakanosine, 29 Herpetology: the Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions and how to Recognise Them, Major F. Wall, 456 Herrick (C. J.), Phylogenetic Differentiation of the Organs of Smell and Taste, 292; Morphological Sub- division of the Brain, 292 Herring, the Keeping of Young, Richard Elmhirst, 38 Hertzsprung (E.), the Stars of the ¢ and ac Subdivisions in the Maury Spectral Classification, 439 Heuse (Dr. W.), Manometer to measure Small Differences of Gas Pressure, 469 Hewitt (C. G.), the House-fly, 18; Japan, 118 Hewlett (Prof. R. T.), Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis, Alive in Captivity, Fossil Insects from Lndex Nature, March 25, 19¢9 Prof. S. C. Prescott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, 6; a Manual of Bacteriology, Clinical and Applied, 219 Heylin (H. B.), the Cotton Weaver’s Handbook, 63 Highway Engineering, Chas. E. Morrison, 336 Highways and Byways in Surrey, Eric Parker, 158 Hill (A. W.), the Genus Nototriche, 419 Hill (G. W.), Biographical Memoir of Asaph Hall, 80 Hill (M. J. M.), the Contents of the Fifth and Sixth Books of Euclid, 486 Hilton (A. E.), Streaming Movements of Plasmodia of the Mycetozoa, 349 Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, a Sketch of the Geo- graphy and Geology of the, Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132 Hindu, the Diet of the, 42 Hinrichs (G. D.), Atomic Weight of Pantogen, 59; True Atomic Weight of Silver, 269 Hirayama (K.), New Catalogues of Proper Motions, 48; the Variation of Latitude, 108 Histology, a Text-book of the Principles of Animal, Ulric Dahlgren and Wm. A. Kepner, 273 Hixon (Hiram W.), a Theory of Volcanic Action and Ore Deposits, their Nature and Cause, 419 Hobson (Dr. E. W.), Sir W. Hamilton’s Fluctuating Func- tions, 22; Representation of a Function by Series of Bessel’s Functions, 209 Hodges (Dr. A. D. P.), Atoxyl and Sleeping Sickness, 198 Hoek (Prof. P. P. C.), Propagation and Protection of the Rhine Salmon, 110; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Zoologie, 460 Holleman (A. F.), a Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, 393 Homer (Annie), Absorption Spectra of Solid Tetramethyl Picene and of its Solutions, 509 Hope Reports, the, 27 Hopkinson (Prof. B.), Heat-flow and Temperature-distri- bution in the Gas Engine, 468 Horn (W.), Angalese Tiger-beetles, 442 Horse, the Psychology and Training of the, Count E. M. Cesaresco, 158 Horse, the Surgical Anatomy of the, J. T. Share-Jones, 333 Horticulture: Beautiful Flowers and How to Grow Them, 218; Fruit Trees and their Enemies, with a Spraying Calendar, Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S., and Fred. V. Theobald, 396; the Planting of Fruit Trees, Ninth Re- port of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S., Dr. E. J. Russell, 500 Horwood (A. R.), Fossil Flora of the Leicestershire and South Derbyshire Coalfield, 436 Hosseus (Dr. C. C.), Richthofenia, Rafflesiacez, 18 Houard (C.), les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Mediterranée, 339 Hough (Prof. G. W.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 347 Houghton (Bernard), the Diet of the Hindu, 349 House-painting, Glazing, Paper-hanging, and Whitewash- ing, A. H. Sabin, 97 Houston (Dr.), Metropolitan Water Typhoid Bacillus, 259 Houston (Prof. E. J.), the Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, 424; the Wonder Book of the Atmosphere, a New Genus of Examinations for 424 Houstoun (Dr. R. A.), a Question in Absorption Spectro- scopy, 59 Hovey (E. Otis), (Chihuahua), 471 Hubbard (Mrs. L.), a Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador, 401 Hubrecht (Prof. A. A. W.), Early Ontogenetic Phenomena in Mammals, 228 Hudleston (W. H., F.R.S.), Notice of, 433 Huerre (R.), the Maltase of Maize, 449 Hughes (R. F.), the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, 340, 429 Hugoneng (L.), Preparation of Definite Natural Peptides, Geology of Western Sierra Madre Death of, 406; Obituary 419 Hume (Dr. W. F.), the Unknown South-western Desert of Egypt, 471 Nature, March 25, 1909. Index XXIll Hunter (Mr.), Tidal Observations, 321 Hus (H.), Types of Vegetation in Cross-section across Mississippi River near St. Louis, 318 Hutchinson (A.), Mica from North Wales and Chlorite from Connemara, 147 Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund, the, 432 Hydraulics: Natural Sources of Power, R. S. Ball, 4; Discharge of Water from Circular Weirs and Orifices, G. H. Gulliver, 59; Hydro-electric Practice, a Practical Manual of the Development of Water Power, its Con- version to Electric Energy, and its Distant Transmission, H. A. E. C. von Schon, 215; Water Pipe and Sewer Discharge Diagrams, T. C. Ekin, 394; Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines, A. H. Gibson, 395 Hydrogen, Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous, Ladenburg and Stanislaw Loria, 7 Hydrography: Investigation of the Seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey, Prof. Chrystal, 209, 210; Svenska Hydrografisk Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter III., 225; Observations upon the Water-circula- tion between the Ocean and the Baltic, Mr. Pettersson, 225; Tidal Bores, Lord Rayleigh, O.M., 267 Hydrology: on the Salinity of the North Sea, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, C.B., 189; Water: its Origin and Use, William Coles-Finch, 271; the Movement of Water in Soils, Dr. J. Walter Leather, 309; Dr. E. J. Russell, 310; the Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply, John Don at Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 444 Hygiene: Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. Azel Ames, 165; Metropolitan Water Examinations for Typhoid Bacillus, Dr. Houston, 259; Second International Con- gress on School Hygiene, 264; Exercising in Bed, Sanford Bennett, 339; New Process for sterilising Milk, Dr. Budde, 435; Principles and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene, W. P. Welpton, 485 Rudolf Hyperdactylism in Houdan Domesticated Fowls, Marie Kaufmann-Wolff, 257 Ichthyology: South African Blenniide, &c., Messrs. Gilchrist and Wardlaw Thompson, 472; Theory of Exist- ence of a Land-bridge between Scotland and Scandinavia based on Distribution of Charr, Dr. L. Stejneger, 496 Identification of the Imprint of a Blood-stained Hand on a Sheet, V. Balthazard, 179 Identification of Revolver Bullets, V. Balthazard, 389 Imperial Institute, Report on the Work of the, 1906 and 1907, Prof. W. R. Dunstan, F.R.S., 343 India: Enteric Fever in India, Lieut.-Colonel Semple and Captain Grieg, 21; a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132; the Commercial Products of India, being an Abridgment of “The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,” Sir George Watt, Captain A. T. Gage, 184; Sir George Watt, C.I.E., 281; the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean, J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., and J. C. F. Fryer, 204; Report of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Years 1905-6 and 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; the Agricultural Journal of India, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235; a Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India, E. P. Stebbing, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244; Geodetic Surveys, 285; Deutsche Seewarte, Monatskarten fiir den indischen Ozean, 443 Inglis (J. C.), Engineering in Relation to Transport, 16 Innervation, die periphere, Kurze iibersichtliche Dar- stellung des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Ausbreitung der Hirr- und Riickenmarksnerven, Dr. Emil Villiger, 188 Innes (R. T. A.), Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure, and Photographic Action, 23 Insects, Silk-producing, of West Africa, Gerald C. Dudgeon, 160 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, the Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply, John Don at, 444 Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 118, 419 International Congress of Chemistry, the, 432 International Fishery Congress at Washington, the, 109 Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, J. E. Wright, 486 Ions, the Charges on, Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S., and Mr. Haselfoot, 442 Ireland, Stone Circles in, W. E. Hart, 488 Iron, Meteoric, and Artificial Steel, Prof. Fredk. Berwerth, 20 Irrigation in Australia, a Suggestion, 199 Irrigation in Egypt, 462 Irving (Rev. Dr. A.), the Italian Earthquake, 428 Isenthal and Co.’s New List of Rheostats, 377 Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, the, J. I. Craig, 281; W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 282, 341, 459; Charles J. P. Gave, 308; R. F. Hughes, 340, 429 Italian Earthquake, the, 287; Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 428 Italian Earthquake, Kew Records of the, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 280; see also Earthquakes Ivanov (P.), Regeneration at the Two Extremities of the Body in the Annelid Spivographis spallanzanii, 257 Iyengar (N. V.), Rainfall in Mysore for 1907, 46 Jack (Dr. Robert), Dissymmetrical Separations in the Zee- man Effect in Tungsten and Molybdenum, 59 Jackson (Charles E.), First Year Physics, 246 Jackson (J. W.), the Diatomaceous Deposit of the Lower Bann Valley and Prehistoric Implements found Therein, 449 Jackson (W. H.), Elementary Solid Geometry, including the Mensuration of the Simpler Solids, 277 Jacobfeuerborn (H.), Intra-uterine Development of Hedgehog, 77 Jacobson (E.), Construction of the Nests of Javanese Ants, Polyrhachis bicolor, 257 Jacoby (Prof.), the Stars surrounding 59 Cygni, 439 Jaeger (Mr.), Research on the Silver Voltameter, 437 Jaggar (T. A., jun.), Production of Valleys and Deltas studied Artificially by, 234 Jamieson (Thos.), Phosphorescence on a Scottish Loch, 309 Jantsch (G.), Magnetism of the Rare Earths, 269 Japan, Chemistry in, Collection of Papers contributed on the Occasion of the Celebration of Prof. J. Sakuri’s Jubilee, Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., 404 Jenks (Tudor), Electricity for Young People, 424; Photo- graphy for Young People, 424 Jensen (Chr.), Atmospheric Polarisation, 37! Jensen (Dr. H. I.), Geology of Country behind Jervis Bay, 420 Jervis-Smith (F. J.), Generation of a Luminous Glow in an Exhausted Receiver, and the Action of a Magnetic Field on the Glow, the Residual Gases being Oxygen, Hydrogen, Neon, and Air, 177 Jervis-Smith (Rev. F. J., F.R.S.), a Brilliant Meteor and its Train, 499 Johnson (R. C.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 205 Johnson (Prof. T.), Potato Black Slab, 67 Johnson (Walter), Follk Memory, or the Continuity of British Archeology, 423 Johnston (R. F.), From Pekin to Mandalay, a Journey from North China to Burma through Tibetan Ssuch’uan and Yunnan, 193 Johnstone (James), Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea- Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, 151; Conditions of Life in the Sea, a Short Account of Quantitative Marine Biological Research, 332 Jolibois (Pierre), Phosphides of Zinc, 59 Jones (A. T.), a Manual of Practical Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, 213 Jones (Rev. A. Wentworth), New Simplified Form of Burette Stand, 437 Jones (Dr. F. Wood), Nubian Cemeteries, Anatomical Re- port by, 132 Jones (H. O.), a Coloured Thio-oxalate, 509 Jones (H. Sydney), a Modern Arithmetic, with Graphic and Practical Exercises, 156 Tones (Joseph), the A.B.C. of Lime Cultivation, 22 Jorgensen (Dr. S. M.), the Fundamental Conceptions of Chemistry, 217 Jougla (Messrs.), the ‘‘ Omnicolore ” Plate, 409 the XXIV Lndex Nature, -~ March 25,"1909 Joyce (T. A.), Primitive Methods of Chartography employed by the Inhabitants of the Marshall Islands, 78 Jukes-Browne (A. J.), Depth and Succession of the Bovey Deposits, 448; Geology of the Country around Henley- on-[hames and Wallingford, 470; Country around Andover, 470 Jungersen (H. F. E.), Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Zoologie, 460 Jungfleisch (E.), Identity of Ilicie Alcohol with a-Amyrine, Gy) mapiter: Ephemeris for Jupiter’s Eighth Satellite, 108; Refraction due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, M. Chevalier, 143; E. Esclangon, 143; Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s Principal Satellites and of Titan, J. Comas Sold, 232; Jupiter’s Eighth Moon, 410; Jupiter’s Seventh and Eighth Satellites, Sir William Christie, 469 Juritz (Dr.), Underground Waters of Cape Colony, 229 Kaiserling (Prof.), Universal Projection Apparatus designed by, Messrs. Leitz and Co., 231 Kamensky (M.), a Research on the Movement of Comet Wolf, So Kapp (Prof. Gisbert), Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineering, George F. Sever and Fitzhugh Townsend, 64 Kapteyn (Prof.), Absorption of Light in Space, 499 Kassowitz (Max), Welt-Leben-Seele, ein System der Naturphilosophie in gemeinfasslichen Darstellung, 307 Kaufmann-Wolff (Marie), Hyperdactylism in Houdan Domesticated Fowls, 257 Kaye (G. W. C.), Emission and Transmission of Réntgen Rays, 28 Kayser (E.), Influence of Aération on the Formation of Volatile Products in Alcoholic Fermentation, 360 Kellogg (Vernon L.), Inheritance in Silkworms, 265 Keltie (Dr. J. Scott), Applied Geography, 92 Kenelly (Prof. A. E.), Relation between Record Times and Distances for, Different Races, 107 Kepner (Wm. A.), a Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology, 273 Kerner (Dr. F. v.), Southern Border of the Svilaja Planina in Dalmatia, 472 Kerr (Dr. A. F. G.), Pollination of Dendrobium, 389 Kerr (J. M. M.), Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum, 35 Kesslerloch bei Thaingen, das, Dr. J. Heierli, 342 Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 280 Kidd (Dudley), the Bull of the Kraal and the Heavenly Maidens, a Tale of Black Children, 396 Kidd (Dr. Walter), Vitality of Leaves, 160 Kidston (Dr. R.), Osmundacean Fossils from Permian of Russia, 329 King (Sir George, K.C.I.E., Obituary Notice of, 493 Kirby (W. F.), Weitere Beitrage zum socialen Paratismus und der Sklaverei bei den Ameisen, E. Wasmann, 51; a Gall-producing Dragon-fly, 68 Knibbs (G. H.), Influence of Infantile Mortality on Birth- rate, 240 Knight (C. W.), Ontario and Quebec, 472 4 Knott (Dr. C. G.), the Physics of Earthquake Phenomena, 184 Knox (Miss A. A.), Plant Fasciations, 349 Kobold (Prof.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 48 Koch (Prof.), Bacteriology and Tuberculosis of Animals, the Tubercle Bacillus and Tuberculin, 49 Kohler (P. O.), die Entstehung der Kontinente, der Vulkane und Gebirge, 277 Kohn-Abrest (E.), Thermal Phenomena accompanying the Action of Water on Aluminium Powder, 509 Kopff (Prof.), a Remarkable Meteor, 261 Kossmat (Dr. Franz), Geology of the Country on the Isonzo around Karfreit, 171 Kowalski (Prof. de), Fluorescence and Phosphorescence, 230; the Diminution of Phosphorescence at Low Temperature, 449 Krassnow (A. von), Russland, 304 F.R.S.), Death of, 464; the Grenville-Hastings Unconformity in Kritzinger (Herr), Donati’s Comet and the Comet of 69 B.C., 48 Kruyt (H, R.), the E.M.F. of the Weston Cell, 377 Kuss (G.), Mobility and Dissemination of Infected Dust due to the Disturbance of Dried Tuberculous Sputum, 29 Kyle (Mr.), Report on Plaice Fisheries, 172 la Dardye (E. de Bourgade), Treatment of Deep-seated Tumours by the Action of Radiant Matter, 269 la Grye (M. Bouquet de), Determination of Longitude by Wireless Telegraphy, 169 Laboratories, Students’ Physical, Sir Oliver F.R.S., 128; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 159 Laboratory Arts, Dr. George H. Woollatt, Prof. C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 152 Laborde (J.), Physiological Mechanism of the Coloration of Red Grapes and the Autumnal Coloration of Leaves, Lodge, 149 Labrador, a Woman’s Way through Unknown, Mrs. L. Hubbard, J. G. Millais, 4o1 Laby (IT. H.), a String Electrometer, 509 Lacroix (A.), Lava of the Last Eruptions of Vulcano, Eolian Isles, 299 Ladenburg (Rudolf), Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous Hydrogen, 7 Lake Dwellings: les Stations lacustres d’Europe aux Ages de la Pierre et du Bronze, Dr. Robert Munro, 427 Lakowitz (Prof.), die Algenflora der Danziger Bucht, ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Ostseeflora, 126 Lamb (Prof. H.), Sir W. Hamilton’s Fluctuating Fune- tions, 22; the Theory of Wave Motion, 23; Theory of Waves propagated Vertically in the Atmosphere, 209 Lamplugh (Mr.), Geology of the, Country around Oxford, 170; Country between Newark and Nottingham, 470 Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, Report for 1907 on the, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Andrew Scott, and James Johnstone, 151 Lancaster (Hugh), Practical Floor Malting, 128 Landolt (H.), Conservation of Mass in Chemical Reaction, 142 Lands Beyond the Channel, H. J. Mackinder, 98 Lang (A.), ‘‘ Linked Totems,’’ 258 Lankester (Sir E. Ray, K.C.B., F.R.S.), From an Easy Chair, 31 Larmor (Prof.), New Methods of obtaining the Spectra in Flames, 26; Dr. G. E. Hale’s Recent Photographs of the Spectra of Sun-spots taken through Polarising Apparatus, 26 Latitude, the Variation of, Mr. Hirayama, 108 Lau (Dr. H. E.), Errors of Double-star Measures, 439 Laue (Prof. M.), Apparent Paradox in the Application of the Concept Entropy to Radiation Phenomena, 319 Lava of the Last Eruptions of Vulcano, Eolian Isles, A. Lacroix, 299 Leathem (J. G.), the Elementary Theory of the Sym- metrical Optical Instrument, 96 Leather (Dr. J. Walter), the Movement of Water in Soils, 309 Léauté (André), the Strize of Oscillating Sparks, 479; the Thomson Formula relating to Discharge of Condenser, 270 Wenweet Vitality of, Dr. Walter Kidd, 160 le Blond (Mrs. Aubrey), Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun, 369 Le Bon (Dr. Gustave), the Evolution of Forces, 121 Le Mée (Jacques), Anatomy of Human Thymus, 360 Le Noir (M.), the Contagion of Tuberculosis by Air, 450 Lebeau (P.), Silicides of Hydrogen, 330 Lecointe (G.), Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Physique du Globe, 460 Lederer (E. L.), Thermoelectric Theory of Resistivity of Alloys Untenable, 47 Léger (E.), Aloesol, 59 Leigh (H. S.), Life-history of the Leaf-insect, Phyllium crurifolium, 478 Leitz (Messrs., and Co.), Universal Projection Apparatus designed by Prof. Kaiserling, 231 Leonid Meteors, W. F. Denning, 99 Nature, March 25, 1909. /ndex XXV Lépine (R.), Total Sugar of the Blood, 179 Leroux (H.), Identity of llicic Alcohol with a-Amyrine, go Letulle (M.), Hypotensive Action of d’Arsonvalisation in Permanent Hypertension, 480 Lewis (J. V.), Petrography of the Newark Igneous Rocks, 172 Lewis (T.), Double-star Astronomy, 247 Ley (Captain C. H.), Balloon Observations made at Bird- hill, 118 Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse L[Expedition, 1908, the, Prof. Campbell and Dr. Albrecht, E. Rolston, 70 Liebig (Justus von), Jacob Volhard, Dr. T. E. C.B:, F.R.S., 452 Light, Absorption of, in Space, Prof. Kapteyn, 499 Light, the Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of, by Optically Active Liquids, T. S. Patterson, 249 Lighting: Lime Light, Charles E. S. Phillips, 38 Lime Cultivation, the A.B.C. of, Joseph Jones and J. C. Macintyre, 22 Lime Light, Charles E. S. Phillips, 38 Linacre (Thomas), Dr. William Osler, F.R.S., 97 Lincoln (Dr. A. T.), Exercises in Elementary Quantitative Chemical Analysis for Students of Agriculture, 217 Linnzus, Dr. J. Valckenier Suringar, 213 Linnean Society, 117, 148, 209, 268, 419, 478 Linnean Society, New South Wales, 120, 179, 390 Lipps (G. F.), Mythenbildung und Erkenntniss, 279 Liquid Crystals, the Réle of, in Nature, 286 Little (Archibald J.), Death of, 42 Liverpool Astronomical Society, 201 Lockyer (Captain H. C.), Practical Coastal Navigation, including Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longi- tude, and Deviation of Compass, Comte de Miremont, 340; Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star-finding Tables, Lieut.-Commander Armistead Rust, 365; Nautical Charts, G. R. Putnam, 365; a Text-book of Theodolite Surveying and Levelling, Prof. James Park, 365 Lockyer (Sir Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Some Cromlechs in North Wales, 9; Surveying for Archzologists, 283 Locomotive Performance, William F. M. Goss, 305 Locomotive, the Railway, Vaughan Pendred, 305 Lodge (Sir Oliver, F.R.S.), on the Number and Absorp- tion of the 8 Particles emitted by Radium, 23; on the Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, 23; New Method for measuring Large Inductances containing Iron, 24; Students’ Physical Laboratories, 128; the “Ether of Space, Lecture at Royal Institution, 322 Lomas (Joseph), Death and Obituary Notice of, 226 London : the Science Faculty of the University of London, Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S., 21; Higher Educa- tion in London, Annual Report of the Proceedings of the London County Council for the Year ended March 21, 1908, 297; London Milk Supply from a Farmer’s Point of View, Primrose McConnell, 491 Long-distance Telegraphy, 386 Longitude, Determination of, by Wireless Telegraphy, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 169 Longitudes, !’Annuaire du Bureau des, 143 Longuinine (Prof. W.), Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de 1’Université de Moscou, 185 Lorentz (Prof. H. A.), Abhandlungen iiber theoretische Physik, 307 Loria (Stanislaw), Hydrogen, 7 Lésungen und Isomorphismus, Feste, Dr. Giuseppe Bruni, January, William ‘Thorpe, Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous 306 Love (Prof. A. E. H.), New Proof of Legendre’s Identity, 22 Lovett (Prof. E. O.), the Problem of Several Bodies, 410 Lowell (Prof. Percival), the Spectra of the Major Planets, 42; Water Vapour in the Atmosphere of Mars, 200; the South Polar Cap of Mars, 232; Martian Features, 378 Jf Lowry (Dr. T. Martin), Measurement of Rotatory Dis- persive Power in the Visible and Ultra-violet Regions of the Spectrum, 387 Lucas (Dr. F. A.), the Exhibition of Fishes in Muscums, 160; the Size of the Leather Turtle, 429 Luftelektrizitat, die, Prof. Albert Gockel, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 455 Lundbeck (William), Diptera Danica, 127 Lunge (Dr. G.), Technical Chemists’ Handbook, 217 Lunn (Dr. Arthur C.), Foundations of Trigonometry, 79 Lushington (P.), Reasons in Favour of Mixed Plantations, 18 Lydon (Noel S.), a Preliminary Geometry, 277 Lynn (Mr.), Periodical Comets due to Return this Year, 351 Lyons (Captain H. G.), the Nile Flood of 1908, 408 McCay (Captain D.), Standards of the Constituents of the Urine and the Blood, and the bearing of the Metabolism of Bengalis on the Problems of Nutrition, 42 McClelland (Prof.), on the Number and Absorption of the B Particles emitted by Radium, 23 McConnell (Primrose), Crops, their Characteristics and their Cultivation, London Milk Supply from a Farmer’s Point of View, 491 McCoy (Prof. H. N.), Suggested Standard of activity, 350 McCulloch (A. R.), Egg-case of Chiloscyllium punctatum, 420 Macdonell (Dr. W. R.), Physical Characteristics of Medical Students at Aberdeen University, 264 Macdougal (Dr. D. T.), Temperature of Air and Soil surrounding Stem and Root of Desert Plants, 78 MacDowall (Alex. B.), Autumn, and After, 221; Warm Months in Relation to Sun-spot Numbers, 367 Macey (Paul), Rivers that penetrate Masses of Limestone in the Province of Cammon, Indo-China, 234 Macintyre (J. C.), the A.B.C. of Lime Cultivation, 22 Mackinder (H. J.), Lands Beyond the Channel, 98 Mackinney (V. H.), Geometrical Optics, 243 McLennan (Prof. J. C.), on the Radio-active Deposits from Actinium, 487 MacMahon (Major P. A.), ‘‘ Scrutin de Ballotage,’’ 25; Determination of the Apparent Diameter of a Fixed Star, 239 Macnair (Peter), the Geology and Scenery of Grampians and the Valley of Strathmore, 69 Macnamara (N. C.), Human Speech, a Study in the Pur- posive Action of Living Matter, 338 Madagascar, Discovery of Coal in, by Captain Colcanap Marcellin Boule, 59 Madsen (J. P. V.), the Nature of y Rays, 67 Magalhaensischen Sammelreise, Ergebnisse burger, 1892-3, Dr. W. Michaelsen, 82 Magellan Region, the Fauna of the, Joseph A. Clubb, 130 Magic Figures, \Sympathetic, Peculiar to the Laccadive Islands, E. Thurston, 46 Magnesium in Water and Rocks, Prof. Schwarz, 309 Magnetism: Solar Vortices and their Magnetic Effects, Prof. Zeeman, 20; Generation of a Luminous Glow in an Exhausted Receiver, and Action of a Magnetic Field on the Glow, Residual Gases being Oxygen, Hydrogen, Neon, and Air, F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S., 177; Radia- tion of various Spectral Lines of Neon, Helium, and Sodium in a Magnetic Field, J. E. Purvis, 178; Zeeman Effect in Weak Magnetic Fields, Prof. H. Nagaoka, 221; Magnetism and Electricity and the Principles of Electrical Measurement, S. S. Richardson, 246; Mag- netic Properties of Simple Bodies, P. Pascal, 269; Mag- netism of the Rare Earths, B. Urbain and G. Jantsch, 269; on the Magnetic Action of Sun-spots, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 279; the Magnetic Field in Sun-spots, Prof. Hale, 351; Magnetic Rotatory Power of Vapour of Calcium Fluoride and of Nitrogen Peroxide in Neigh- bourhood of Absorption Bands, A. Dufour, 300; Results of the Magnetic Observations, Commander Chetwynd and Dr. Chree, 322; Results of Magnetic Observations at Stations on the Coasts of the British Isles, 1907, Com- mander L. Chetwynd, 388; Improved Form of Magneto- meter for the testing of Magnetic Materials, J. G. Grav a. 273 Radio- the der Ham- Ernest Hi. EL: : Nature, XXV1 Index Lararen 25, 1999 and A. D. Ross, 479; Magnetic Properties of some Easily | Marvin (Prof. C. F.), New Form of Compensated Siphon Liquefiable Gases, P. Pascal, 509 Barograph, 377 P : Maithind (A. Gibb), Geology of Western Australia, 472 Mary (Albert and Alexandre), Movement of Water in Chalk, Makower (W.), on the number and Absorption of the B 234 : , i Particles emitted by Radium, 23; Results of Observations | Mascre (M.), Urea in Fungi, 300 - ae. on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, 25; | Mason (Dr. Otis Tufts), Death of, 138; Obituary Notice Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmo- of, 197 , : ‘ sphere, 118; the Radio-active Substances, 157; the Radia- | Maspero (G.), New Light on Ancient Egypt, 222 ! tion of the Active Deposit from Radium through a | Massart (Prof. J.), Phytogeographical Account of the Lit- Vacuum, 340; Volatility of Radium A and Radium C, toral and Alluvial Districts of Belgium, 435 359 Massee (Geo.), an Alga growing on Fish, 99 Malfitano (G.), Hydrolysis of Perchloride of Iron: the In- | Massol (G.), Radio-activity of the Gases from the Thermal fluence of Neutral Salts, 59 Water of Uriage (Isére), 89 : Mallock (A., F.R.S.), Flying Machines and their Stability, | Masterman (Captain W.), Report on Plaice, 145 220; Instability of Tubes subjected to End Pressure and | Mathematics: the Knowledge Calculator, Major B. Baden- Folds in Flexible Material, 267; Extension of Cracks in Powell, 19; Arithmétique graphique, Gabriel Arnoux, an Isotropic Material, 478 Dr. L. N. G. Filon, 34; Graphic Algebra, Dr. Arthur Malting, Practical Floor, Hugh Lancaster, 128 Schultze, 35; Elementary Algebra, W. D. Eggar, 64; Man, the Childhood of, a Popular Account of the Lives, a New Algebra, S. Barnard and J. M. Child, 64; Algebra Customs and Thoughts of the Primitive Races, Dr. Léo for Secondary Schools, Dr. Charles Davison, 64; the Frobenius, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 162 Eton Algebra, P. Scoones and L. Todd, 64; Foundations Man, the Production of Prolonged Apnoea in, Dr. H. M. of Trigonometry, Dr. Arthur C. Lunn, 79; the Elemen- Vernon, 458 tary Theory of the Symmetrical Optical Instrument, J. G. Manchester, Chemical Research at the University of, 233 Leatham, 96; Mathematical Society, 117, 209, 359) 479; Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 118, 148, an Annotated Copy of Newton’s Principia,” Bruce 210, 359, 448 Smith, 130; the Correlation of the Teaching of Mathe- Mandalay, From Pekin to, a Journey from North China to matics and Science, Prof. Perry, 143; a School Arithmetic, Burma, through Tibetan Ssuch’uan and Yunnan, R. F. H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 156; a Modern Arithmetic, Johnston, 193 with Graphic and Practical Exercises, H. Sydney Jones, Mansbridge (G. F.), Manufacture of Electrical Condensers, 150; Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra and 79 Mensuration, P. Goyen, 156; Elementary Mensuration, Marais (I.), a Case of Isodimorphism, 330 W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, 156; Practical Arith- Marchant (IF. P.), the Slavonic Languages, 407 metic and Mensuration, Frank Castle, 156; Theory of 4 Marine Biology: the Keeping of Young Herring Alive in Waves Propagated Vertically in the Atmosphere, Prof. Captivity, Richard Elmhirst, 38; Ostracoda of the Bay of Biscay captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. Re- search, Dr. G. H. Fowler, 116; Biscayan Plankton, Ostracoda captured during the 1900 Cruise of H.M.S. Research, Dr. G. Herbert Fowler, 209; the Spawning of Eledone, F. H. Gravely, 149; Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Andrew Scott, and James Johnstone, 151; Habits of Crinoids, A. H. Clark, 199; the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean, J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., and J. C. F. Fryer, 204; Svenska Hydrografisk Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter III, 225 ; Conditions of Life in the Sea, a Short Account of Quan- titative Marine Biological Research, J. Johnstone, E. W. Nelson, 332; Influence of Light on Coloration of Marine Animals, Dr. F. W. Gamble, 359; Egg-case of Chilo- scyllium punctatum, J. D. Ogilvy and A. R. McCulloch, 420; South African Blenniida, &c., Messrs. Gilchrist and Wardlaw Thompson, 472; New Forms of Hemichor- data from South Africa, Dr. Gilchrist, 473; New Species of Ptychodera, Dr. Gilchrist, 473; Larva and Spat of the Canadian Oyster, Dr. J. Stafford, 473; Breeding Habits and Development of Littorina littorea, W. M. Tattersall, 478; British Oithone, G. P. Farran, 478 Marine Engineering : Efficiency of Marine Engines and Pro- pellers, J. Hamilton Gibson, 437 Marloth (Dr.), Pollination of Belmontia cordata, 90 Marques (Dr. A.), Scientific Corroborations of Theosophy, a Vindication of the Secret Doctrine by the Latest Dis- coveries, 457 Mars: Water Vapour in the Atmosphere of Mars, Prof. Lowell, 200; the South Polar Cap of, Prof. Lowell, 232; the Spectrum of Mars, Mr. Slipher, 351; Martian Features, Prof. Lowell, 378; M. Antoniadi, 378; Quan- titative Measures of the Water Vapour in the Martian Atmosphere, Prof. Very, 499 Marsden (E.), Observations on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, 25; Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, 118 H. Lamb, 209; Representation of a Function by Series of Bessel’s Functions, Dr. E. W. Hobson, 20a; Differentials, Dr. W. H. Young, 209; Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Difference Equation of the Second Order, G. N. Watson, 209; Experimental Elasticity, G. F. C. Searle, F.R.S., Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 218; Extensions of Fourier’s and the Bessel-Fourier Integral Theorems, Prof. W. McF. Orr, 240; Elementary Solid Geometry, including the Mensuration of the Simpler Solids, W. H. Jackson, 277; Euclid Simplified in Accordance with the New Uni- versity Regulations, with Additional Propositions and Numerous Examples, Saradaranjan Ray, 277; a Pre- liminary Geometry, Noel S. Lydon, 277; Examples in Elementary Mechanics, Practical, Graphical, and Theoreti- eal, W. J. Dobbs, 277; Calcul graphique et nomographie, M. d’Ocagne, 279; the Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylvester, 303 ; Modern Geometry, C. God- frey and A. W. Siddons, 337; the Analytical Geometry of the Conic Sections, Rev. E. H. Askwith, 337; a Method of Solving Algebraic Equations, Georg Sattler, 398; Prof. Ronald Ross, C.B., F.R.S., 398; Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, J. E. Wright, 486; a Course of Plane Geometry for Advanced Students, C. V. Durell, 486; the Contents of the Fifth and Sixth Books of Euclid, M. J. M. Hill, 486; see also British Association Mathews (H. R.), Methods of Navigation among the Aborigines of Australia, 467 Matignon (Camille), the Preparation of Thorium Chloride, 269; Rapid Preparation of Calcium Phosphide for Making Hydrogen Phosphide, 389 Mauguin (Ch.), Action of Bromine on Ether Monobromalde- hyde, 29 Maury Spectral Classification, the Stars of the c and ac Subdivisions in the, E. Hertzsprung, 439 Mawley (E.), Report on the Phenological Observations for 1908, 508 Maxwell (Sir Herbert), Need for Scientific Management and Extension of the Forests of the United Kingdom, 376 Mazelle (E.), Climatology of Austria, 498 Mead (Prof. A. D.), Apparatus for Hatching, Rearing and Marshall (Dr. P.), the so-called Gabbro of Dun Mountain, Transporting Fishes, 110; Use of Apparatus in Hatching 350 and Rearing Lobsters, 110 & Martin (Mr.), the Hubbard Glacier of Alaska, 234 Mechanical Flight, Herbert Chatley at Society of Engineers, Martin (E. A.), Brighton Cliff Formation, 508 413 Martindale (Dr. W. Harrison), the Extra Pharmacopceia of | Mechanics: an Accurate Method of Measuring Moments * Martindale and Westcott, 187 of Inertia, Prof. W. Cassie, 208-9; Vorlesungen iiber Nature, March 25, 1909 Lndex. XXVII technische Mechanik, Dr. August Foppl, 247; Instability of Tubes subjected to End Pressure and Folds in Flexible Material, A. Mallock, F.R.S., 267: Examples in Elemen- tary Mechanics, Practical, Graphical, and Theoretical, W. J. Dobbs, 277; Friction at the Extremities of a Short Bar subjected to a Crushing Load, and its Influence upon the Apparent Compressive Strength of the Material, G. H. Gulliver, 329; Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Gelenk- mechanik, Prof. H. Strasser, 397 Medicine: the Prevention of Compressed-air Illness, A. E. Boycott, G. G. C. Damant, and J. S. Haldane, 40; Thomas Linacre, Dr. William Osler, F.R.S., 97; Nobel Prize awarded to Prof. Metchnikoff and Dr. P. Ehrlich, 104; Opsonisation from a Bacterial Point of View, Dr. R. Greig-Smith, 120; Action of Specific Substances in Toxzemia, W. E. Dixon and W. H. Harvey, 178; the Extra Pharmacopceia of Martindale and Westcott, Dr. W. Harrison Martindale and W. Wynn Westcott, 187; die periphere Innervation, Kurze iibersichtliche Darstell- ung des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Ausbreitung der Hirr- und Riickenmarksnerven, Dr. Emil Villiger, 188; Prize Awards of Paris Academy of Medicine for 1908, 256; Treatment of Deep-seated Tumours by the Action of Radiant Matter, E. de Bourgade la Dardye, 269: Death of Dr. C. Denison, 374; the Drug Cascara Sagrada, 435 ; Special Method of Electro-diagnosis of Feigned Paralysis, M. Guyenot, 510 C. J. P. Cave, 240; Balloon Observations at Ditcham Park, C. J. P. Cave, 240; Royal Meteorological Society, 118, 240, 388, 508; the Semi-diurnal Barometric Oscilla- tion, W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 130; Weather Summaries for Autumn Season, 140; Climate, Considered especially in Relation to Man, Prof. Robert de Courey Ward, 1<<; Measurements of Solar Radiation at Vienna from March, 1904, to September, 1906, Dr. R. Schneider, 168; the Dawn of Meteorology, Prof. G. Hellmann at Royal Meteorological Society, 173; National Antarctic Expedi- tion 1901-4, 202; Investigation of the Seiches of Loch Earn by the Scottish Lake Survey, Prof. Chrystal, 209, 210; Autumn and After, Alex. B. MacDowall, 221; Meteorological Report of Egypt for 1906, 230; the Nile Flood of 1908, Captain H. G. Lyons, 408; Climate of Davos, Dr Hugo Bach, 230; Death of Dr. J. M. Pernter, 255; Obituary Notice of, 290; Meteorological Office Ob- servations for the Past Year, 255; Severe Weather, 255; Climate of Orkney, M. Spence, 259; Results of Recent Balloon Ascents, 260; Action of Lines of Electric Energy on Hailstorms, J. Violle, 269; the Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere, J. I. Craig, 281; W. H. Dines, F.R.S., 282, 341, 459; Charles J. P. Cave, 308; R. F. Hughes, 340, 429; Meteorological Reports by Wireless Telegraphy, 287; Wireless Weather Reports during 1907 from Vessels at Sea, 317; Weather Statistics during 1908, 291: Tidal Observations, Sir G. H. Darwin, 321; Messrs. Selby and Medusa, the Gonadial Grooves of a, Aurelia aurita, T. Goodey, 418 Mee (Mr.), the Heavens at a Glance, 295; the Story of the Telescope, 469 Hunter, 321; Pendulum Observations, Dr. Chree, 321; the Aurora, Mr. Bernacchi, 321; Rainfall of the British Isles in 1908, Dr. H. R. Mill, 246; Meteorological Ele- ments of Rochdale, Dr. J. R. Ashworth, 350; Handbuch Meinardus (W.), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, der Klimatologie, Dr. Julius Hann, 363; Warm Months Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, 460 in relation to Sun-spot Numbers, Alex. B. MacDowall, Memory in the Germ Plasm, Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, 367 ; New Form of Compensated Siphon Barograph, Prof. F.R.S., 7; G. Archdall Reid, 8 C. F. Marvin, 377; l’Annuaire astronomique et météor- Mensuration, Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra ologique, 379; Aims and Efforts of the Society in Rela- and, P. Goyen, 156 tion to the Public and to Meteorological Science, Dr. Mensuration, Elementary, W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, Mill, 388; Diurnal and Semi-diurnal Atmospheric Varia- 156 tions, Henry Helm Clayton, 397; Fog and Rime on Mensuration, Practical Arithmetic and, Frank Castle, 156 January 27-28, L. C. W. Bonacina, 399; the Wonder Mercury, Corrections of the Position and Diameter of, Prof. Book of the Atmosphere, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424; Stroobant, 232 : Deutsche Seewarte, Monatskarten fiir den indischen Mercury Bubbles, J. G. Ernest Wright, 8; Sir William Ozean, 443; Barometric Oscillation, C. Braak, 459; @rookes, F-R:S., 37; A. T. Hare, 99; Prof. Henry H. Dixon, 99; Philip Blackman, 160; C. E. Stromeyer, 160 Mercury Bubbles and the Formation of Oxide Films by F.R.S., 460; Participation of Various Countries in the Water containing Oxygen in Solution, G. T. Beilby, Work of Investigating the Upper Air from January to F.R.S., 190 the Beginning of July, 1908, Dr. Hergesell, 468; Merriam (Dr. J. C.), the Ichthyosaurs of the Trias, 228 Climatology of Austria, E. Mazelle, 498; Electricity of Metallic Alloys, their Structure and Constitution, G. H. Rain and its Origin in Thunderstorms, Dr. G. C. Simp- Gulliver, 365 son, 507; Report on the Phenological Observations ‘or Metallurgy : Use of Aluminium in Place of Tin, 47; Method 1908, E. Mawley, 508 of Thermal Analysis in Metallurgical Research, G. K. | Meteors: November Meteors, W. F. Denning, 37; John R. Burgess, 319; Metallic Alloys, their Structure and Con- Henry, 38; Leonid Meteors, W. F. Denning, 99; a Re- stitution, G. H. Gulliver, 365; the Ageing of Steel, C. E. markable Meteor, Prof. Kopff, 261; Meteoric Shower of Stromeyer, 405; Efficiency of Various Kinds of Furnaces, January, W. F. Denning, 266; a Brilliant Meteor, P. J. W. Hall, 468 Evans, 351; Recent Brilliant Fireballs, W. F. Denning, Metaphysics of Nature, the, Prof. Carveth Read, 248 378; H. Chapman, 378; a February Meteoric Shower, Metchnikoff (Prof.), Nobel Prize awarded to, 104 W. F. Denning, 309: a Brilliant Meteor and its Train, Meteoric Iron and Artificial Steel, Prof. Fredk. Berwerth, Rey. F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S., 499; Annie L. Waud, ZOO eA Ss. ‘ ; 499; Dr. T. K. Rose, 499 Meteoritic Stones in Spain, Fall of, 255 Metrology: Position of the Metric System, 501 Meteorology : Weather of October, 17; the Weather in | Mexico, Through Southern, Hans Gadow, F.R.S., 252 November, 79; Weather for the Week ending January 2, | Meyer (Fernand), Combinations of Gold with Bromine, Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, W. Meinardus, Prof. J. W. Gregory, 291; Weather for the Week ending January 430, 480 406 ; Week’s Weather, 498; the Climate of Fusan | Meyer (Prof. Max), Psychology of Pleasure and Pain, 111 (South-east of Corea), T. Ogawa, 18; Rainfall | Michaelson (Dr. W.), Ergebnisse der Hamburger Magal- in Mysore for 1907, N. V. Iyengar, 46; Bulletins of the Philippine Weather Bureau for September and October, 1907; Meteorology of the North Pacific, Rev. Father Algué, 46; Temperature Observations on Loch Garry, E. M. Wedderburn, 58; Temperature of Air and Soil Surrounding Stem and Root of Desert Plants, Dr. D. T. Macdougal, 78; Connection between Forests and Rainfall, 105 ; Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, W. Makower, Miss M. White, and E. Marsden, 118; Balloon Observations made at Bird- hill, Captain C. H. Ley, 118; Some Forms of Scientific Kites, Eric S. Bruce, 240; the Registering Balloon Ascents in the British Isles, July 27 to August 1, 1905, haensischen Sammelreise, 1892-93, 82 Michel (L.), Hydrolysis of Perchloride of Iron, the Influence of Neutral Salts, 59 Microscopy: Dubern’s Method of Illumination in Micro- scopy, C. V. Raman, 17; Royal Microscopical Society, 89, 177, 329, 447; Streaming Movements of Plasmodia of the Mycetozoa, A. E. Hilton, 349; Ultra-microscopic Vision, J. E. Barnard, 489 Milk: New Process for Sterilising Milk, Dr. Budde, 435; London Milk Supply from a Farmer’s Point of View, Primrose McConnell, 491 Mill (Dr. H. R.), Rainfall of the British Isles in 1908, 346; Aims and Efforts of the Society in Relation to the Public XXVill Index Nature, March 25, 1909 and to Meteorological Science, 388; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Oceanographie, 460 Millais (J. G.), a Woman’s Way through Unknown Labra- dor, Mrs. L. Hubbard, 4o1 Millard (Columbus N.), the Wonderful House that Jack Has, na Miller (W. G.), the Grenville Hastings Unconformity in Ontario and Quebec, 472 Millet (J. B.), Submarine Signalling by Sound, 434 Milne (Sir J.), Seismological Investigations, 23 ; Earthquake Records, Milne (Dr. R.), Photographic Apparatus for Automatic- ally Recording the Readings of the Scale and Vernier of any Instrument, 329 Minakata (Kumagusu), Polypus Vinegar—Sea-blubber Arrack, 8; an Alga growing on Fish, 99 Minchin (Prof. E. A.), Crocodiles and Tsetse Flies, 458 Mineralogy : a Manganese Deposit in Southern India, R. O. Ahlers, 118; Mica from North Wales and Chlorite from Connemara, A. Hutchinson and W. Campbell Smith, 147: Carminite in Cornwall, A. Russell, 147; Mineralogical Society, 147, 448; Petrography of the Newark Igneous Rocks, J. V. Lewis, 172; Radio-active Changes in the Earth, Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 206; Magnesium in Water and Rocks, Prof. Ernest H. L. Schwarz, 309; the So-called Gabbro of Dun Mountain, Dr. P. Marshall, 350; Labradorite-norite with Porphyritic Labradorite, Prof. J. H. L. Vogt, 418; Identity of Poonahlite with Mesolite, Dr. H. L. Bowman, 448; Detrital Andalusite in Tertiary and Post-tertiary Sands, H. H. Thomas, 448 Minerals : Sandstone a Mineral, 139 321 J. Mining: Discovery of Coal in Madagascar by Captain Col- canap, Marcellin Boule, 59; a Manganese Deposit in Southern India, R. O. Ahlers, 118; a Theory of Volcanic Action and Ore Deposits, their Nature and Cause, Hiram W. Hixon, 419; Additional Localities for Idocrase in Cornwall, G. Barrow and H. H. Thomas, 448 Miremont (Comte de), Practical Coastal Navigation, includ- ing Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longitude, and Deviation of Compass, 340 Molesworth (Major Percy B.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 315 Molisch (Dr. H.), Experiments upon Forcing the Resting Shoots of Woody Plants, 199 Molyneux (A. J. C.), Geology of Bechuanaland Protectorate, 471 Monti (Prof. Rina), Active and Passive Migrations of the Fauna of the Italian Alpine Lakes, 466 Monvoisin (A.), Inconveniences of Potassium Bichromate as Preservative of Milk Samples, 270 Moodie (R. L.), the Lateral-line System in Extinct Amphi- bians, 198 Moon, Remarkably Dark Penumbral Eclipse of the, 378 Moore (C. B.), Prehistoric Pottery in America, 265 Moore (Sir John), Is our Climate Changing? 25 Moore (Prof.), Variation of Amount of Free Hydrochloric Acid of Gastric Contents in Cancer, 317 Moorhead (W. K.), Fort Ancient, the Great Prehistoric Earthwork of Warren County, Ohio, 258 Moral Education Congress, Papers on Moral Education com- municated to the First International, Prof. J. A. Green, 154 Moral Ideas, the Origin and Development of the, E. Wester- marck, Prof. A. E. Taylor, 481 Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, Prof. J. A. Green, 154 Moral Superiority? F. C. Constable, 282; Laura D. H. Dukes, 429 Morbology : Enteric Fever in India, Lieut.-Colonel Semple and Captain Grieg, 21; Mobility and Dissemination of Infected Dust due to the Disturbance of Dried Tuber- culous Sputum, G. Kiiss, 29; the International Congress on Tuberculosis at Washington, 49; Relationship between Human and Bovine Tuberculosis, Prof. Woodhead, 177; Properties of the Tubercle Bacillus cultivated on Bile, H. Calmette and C. Guérin, 299; the Prevention of Tuberculosis, Dr. Arthur Newsholme, 422; the Conta- gion of Tuberculosis by Air, M. Le Noir and Jean Camus, 450; Cows’ Milk and Tubercle Bacilli, 466; Microchemical Changes occurring in Appendicitis, Dr. Owen Williams, 78; Yellow Fever at Saint-Nazaire, M. Chantemesse, 119; Transmission of Trypanosoma lewist by Fleas and Lice, Prof. Nuttall, 178; Therapeutic Inocu- lation for Generalised Bacterial Infections, L. Noon, 178; Atoxyl and Sleeping Sickness, Dr. A. D. P. Hodges, 198; Piroplasma mutans, Dr. A. Theiler, 235; Uber Nervése Dyspepsie, Georges L. Dreyfus, 248; Advance in Know- ledge of Cancer, 261; Variation of Amount of Free Hydro- chloric Acid of Gastric Contents in Cancer, Prof. Moore, 317; Black-water Fever, $. R. Christophers and C. A. Bentley, 313; Treatment of Baleri in the Horse by Orpi- ment, A. Thiroux and L. Teppaz, 360; Malaria at Mara- thon, 374; Rats and Plague, Dr. Ashburton Thompson, 436; Crocodiles and Tsetse Flies, Prof. E. A. Minchin, 458; ‘* Fowl Cholera’’ due to a Spirochate, Colonel Pease, 497 Moreau (Georges), Mass of the Negative Ion of a Flame, 479 Morehouse, Comet, 1908c, M. Borrelly, 48; L. Rabourdin, 48; M. Gautier, 48; Prof. Barnard, 48; Prof. Kobold, 48; M. Quénisset, 80; MM. Deslandres and Bernard, 80; Dr: (Smart, x08, 143; Prof. Prost, 142) Prof= E. (1c Pickering, 142; Herr Winkler, 142; M. Geelmuyden, 143; Herr Ebell, 143; M. Flammarion, 231; MM. le Comte de la Baume Pluvinel and Baldet, 231; R. C. Johnson, 295; Further Observations of Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, J. Guillaume, 260; the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c, A. de la Baume Pluvinel and F. Baldet, 20; MM. Deslandres and Bosler, 169; M. Bernard, 169 ; the Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse, Prof. Frost and Mr. Parkhurst, 439; Prof. Barnard, 439; Prof. Camp- bell and Dr. S. Albrecht, 439; Changes in the Tail of, 169; Prof. Max Wolf, 351; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, MM. Baldet and Quénisset, 200; Prof. Barnard, 200; Further Photographs of More- house’s Comet, Prof. Barnard, 320 Morel (A.), Preparation of Definite Natural Peptides, 419 Morgulis (S.), Effect of Alkaloids on Early Development of Toxopneustes variegatus, 292 Morphology: the Origin of a Land Flora, Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., 1; the Lateral-line System in Extinct Amphibians, R. L. Moodie, 198; Evolution of the Ceta- cean Tail-fin, F. W. Ash, 228; Hyperdactylism in Houdan Domesticated Fowls, Marie Kaufmann-Wolff, 257 Morrill (Dr.), Hydrocyanic Acid as an Agent for Destruc- tion of Insect Pests, 259 Morris (Colonel Sir W. G., Survey of South Africa, 103 Morrison (Dr. A.), Adaptation of Plants to their Environ- ment, Modifications displayed by West Australian Xerophytes, 106 Morrison (Chas. E.), Highway Engineering, 336 Moss (Dr.), the Woodlands of England, 85 Moths of the British Isles, the, Richard South, 427 Motor Traffic, Statistics of, A. R. Butterworth, 16 Mottier (D. M.), History and Control of Sex, 105 Mount Kenia, the Forest Region of, 108 Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun, Mrs. Aubrey le Blond, 369 Moutier (A.), Application of d’Arsonvalisation localised, 419 ; Hypotensive Action of d’Arsonvalisation in Permanent Hypertension, 480 Mihlberg (Prof.), State of Switzerland during the Ice Age, K.C.M.G., C.B.), Geodetic an Meee (Dr. Robert), les Stations lacustres d’Europe aux Ages de la Pierre et du Bronze, 427 Muntz (A.), Use of Calcium Cyanamide in Agriculture, 119; the Diffusion of Saline Manures in the Soil, 449 Museums, the Exhibition of Fishes in, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 160 Music, the Threshold of, Dr. William Wallace, 247 Muskel- und Gelenkmechanik, Lehrbuch der, Prof. H. Strasser, 307 Mutation et Traumatismes, L. Blaringhem, 483 Mycology : Potato Black Scab, Prof. T. Johnson, 67; Prof. F. E. Weiss, 98; Report on Economic Mycology for the Year 1907-8, E. S. Salmon, 199; les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Mediterranée, C. Houard, 339 Nature, March 25, 190) Index XXI1X Myers (Dr. C. S.), the Races of Egypt, 106 _ Mythology: Mythenbildung und Erkenntnis, G. I. Lipps, 279; the Judgment of Paris, and some Other Legends Astronomically Considered, Hon. Emmeline M. Plunket, H. R. Hall, 335 Nadson (G. A.), Physiology of Luminous Bacteria, 467 Nagaoka (Prof. H.), Zeeman Effect in Weak Magnetic Fields, 221 National Physique, the, A. Stayt Dutton, 6 Natural History: Polypus Vinegar—Sea-blubber Arrack, Kumagusu Minakata, 8; the Ruskin Nature Reader, 66; the Preservation of the Native Fauna and Flora in Aus- tralasia, Prof. Arthur Dendy, F.R.S., 73 ; Linnean Society, 117, 148, 209, 268, 419, 478; New South Wales Linnean Society, 120, 179, 390; Animal Life, Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., 182; Linnaeus, Dr. J. Valckenier Suringar, 213 ; a Historical Account of the Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire, 1880-1905, Frank Arthur Bellamy, 215; Nature Rambles in London, Miss K. M. Hall, 245; Through Southern Mexico, Hans Gadow, F.R.S., 252; Construction of the Nests of Javanese Ant, Polyrhachis bicolor, E. Jacobson, 257; Natural History of the Athabasca-Mackenzie Region, E. H. Preble, 257; the Indian Ducks and their Allies, E. C. Stuart Baker, 274; Moral Superiority? F. C. Constable, 282; Laura D. H. Dukes, 429; Field Natural History, J. C. Adam, 296; R. Service, 296; Driver of Céte d’Azur Express attacked by an Eagle, 315; ‘‘ Saint’’ Gilbert: the Story of Gilbert White and Selborne, J. C. Wright, 339; Lehr- buch der Muskel- und Gelenkmechanik, Prof. H. Strasser, 397; Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, F. Wyville Thomson, 400; the Confessions of a Beach-comber, E. J. Banfield, 403; the Size of the Leather Turtle, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 429; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, E. Vanhoffen, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Naturdenkmalpflege, Beitrage zur, 188 Nature, the Metaphysics of, Prof. Carveth Read, 248 Nautical Charts, G. R. Putnam, Captain H. C. Lockyer, 365 Naval Architecture: Scientific Education of Naval Archi- tects, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., at Society of Arts, 111; Death of Dr. Francis Elgar, F.R.S., 346; Obituary Notice of, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 372; the Design and Construction of Ships, Prof. J. H. Biles, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 454 Navigation : Practical Coastal Navigation, including Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longitude, and Deviation of Compass, Comte de Miremont, Commander H. C. Lockyer, 340; ex-Meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star- finding Tables, Lieut.-Commander Armistead Rust, Cap- tain H. C. Lockyer, 365 ; Nautical Charts, G. R. Putnam, Captain H. C. Lockyer, 365; Collision of the Florida and the Republic, 374; Buoy for Lighting Humber Channel, 409; Submarine Signalling by Sound, J. B. Millet, 434 Nelson (E. W.), Conditions of Life in the Sea, a Short Account of Quantitative Marine Biological Research, J. Johnstone, 332 Nemertine, Occurrence of a Fresh-water, in Ireland, Row- land Southern, 8 Neurology : Functional Nerve Diseases, A. T. Schofield, 5; Death of Dr. C. E. Beevor, 165; Obituary Notice of, 197; Die periphere Innervation: Kurze_ iibersichtliche Darstellung des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Ausbreitung der Hirr- und Riickenmarksnerven, Dr. Emil Villiger, 188 ; Phylogenetic Differentiation of the Organs of Smell and Taste, C. J. Herrick, 292; Morphological Subdivi- sion of the Brain, C. J. Herrick, 292 New South Wales Linnean Society, 120, 179, 390 New South Wales Royal Society, 119, 240, 270, 419 New Word, the, Allen Upward, 457 Newsholme (Dr. Arthur), the Prevention of Tuberculosis, 422 é Newstead (Robert), the Food of some British Birds, 254 Newton’s “ Principia,’? an Annotated Copy of, Bruce Smith, 130 Niagara, the Falls of. their Evolution and Varying Rela- tions to the Great Lakes; Characteristics of the Power and the Effects of its Diversion, Dr. J. W. W. Spencer, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 11 Niagara, Spoliation of the Falls of, Dr. J. W. Spencer, 18 Nichols (Prof. E. F.), New Groups of Residual Rays in the Long Wave Spectrum, 200 Nichols, (Prof. E. L.), Science and the Practical Problems of the Future, Address at American Association for Ad- vancement of Science, 325 Nicholson (F.), Geographical Distribution of Macronyx, 148 Nicholson (Dr. T. W.), Inductance of two Parallel Wires, 24 Nicolardot (Paul), Separation of Tungstic Acid and Silica, 59; Action of Sulphur Chloride on Metals and Metalloids, 269 Nizamiah Observatory at Haidarabad, the, 232 Nobel Prize awarded to Prof. Metchnikoff and Dr. P. Ehrlich, 104 Nobel Prize Awards, 138; Corr., 164 Nobel Prizes for 1908, 196 Nodon (Dr. A.), Terrestrial Electricity and Solar Activity, 48 Nomenclature, Reform of Zoological, Cyril Crossland, 190 Noon (L.), Therapeutic Inoculation for Generalised Bac- terial Infections, 178 Norman (E. P.), Discontinuity of Potential at the Surface of Glowing Carbon, 420 North Sea, on the Salinity of the, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thomp- son, C.B., 189 Norway : Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun, Mrs. Aubrey le Blond, 369 Nottin (P.), Use of Calcium Cyanamide in Agriculture, 119 Nova Cygni, a Recent Observation of, Dr. Karl Bohlin, 169 Nova Persei, the Changes in the Physical Condition of, Prof. Barnard, 143 November Meteors, W. F. Denning, 37; John R. Henry, 38 Nubia, the Archzological Survey of, 132 Nuk! (Fr.), the Anomalies of Refraction, 469 Nutrition, Vitality, Fasting and, Hereward Carrington, 66 Nuttall (Prof.), Transmission of Trypanosoma lewisit by Fleas and Lice, 178; Presence of Anticoagulin in the Salivary Glands of Argas persicus, 178 Oak Galls, British, E. T. Connold, 394 Observatory, the Nizamiah, at Haidarabad, 232 Ocagne (M. d’), Calcul graphique et nomographie, 27¢ Oceanography: Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Oceanographie, H. Arctowski and H. R. Mill, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Oddone (Dr. E.), Secondary Oscillations of Oceanic Tides, 46 Ogawa (T.), the Climate of Fusan (South-east of Corea), 18 Ogilvy (J. D.), Egg-case of Chiloscyllium punctatum, 420 Oils, the Chemistry of Essential, and Artificial Perfumes, Ernest J. Parry, 241 Oiseaux des Phosphorites du Quercy, les, C. Gaillard, 91 Okajima (G.), Structure of Aphid Antenne, 442 Oldham (R. D.), Geological Interpretation of the Earth- movements associated with the Californian Earthquake of April 18, 1906, 209 Oligocheta, New Genus of Fresh-water, Australia, E. J. Goddard, 179 Onnes (Prof. Kamerlingh), Breaking Stresses of Tubes and Filaments, 168 Oort (Dr. E. D. in Holland, 348 Ophthalmology : Parsons, 125; Robertson, 316 Opsonic Method of Treatment, Vaccine Therapy and the, Dr. R. W. Allen, 423 Optics: Ratios of Gaseous Refractive Indices, C. Cuthbert- son, 47; Transparent Silver and other Metallic Films, Prof. Thomas Turner, 88; the Elementary Theory of the Symmetrical Optical Instrument, J. G. Leathem, 96; Photoelectric Properties of Potassium-aodium Alloy, Dr. Fleming, 146; Absorption of Light in its Passage through Interstellar Space. H. H. Turner, 147; Perception of Light by Plants, Dr. K. Gaulhofer, 168; Generation of a van), Remarkable Male Barn-owls Ixilled the Pathology of the Eye, J. Herbert Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. D. A. XXX Luminous Glow in an Exhausted Receiver and Action of a Magnetic Field on the Glow, Residual Gases being Oxygen, Hydrogen, Neon, and Air, F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S., 177; Refraction and Dispersion of Krypton and Xenon and their Relation to those of Helium and Argon, (©. Cuthbertson and M. Cuthbertson, 208; Universal Pro- jection Apparatus designed by’ Prof. Kaiserling, Messrs. Leitz and Co., 231; Geometrical Optics, H. L. Taylor, 243; the Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Optically Active Liquids, T. S. Patterson, 249; Law of Maximum of KXathode Phosphorescence in Binary Systems, G. Urbain, 300; Apparent Paradox in the Application of the Concept Entropy to Radiation Phenomena, Prof. M. Laue, 319; Heliotropic Sensibility, the Presentation Period, Dr. P. Iréschel, 408; the Luminous Efficiency of a Black Body, Dr. C. V. Drysdale, 447; the Selective Absorption and Diffusion of Light in Interstellar Space, G. A. Tikhoff, 449; the Diminution of Phosphorescence at Low Tempera- tures, J. de Kowalski, 449; Ultra-microscopic Vision, J. E. Barnard, 489 Orient, Flashes from the, or a Thousand and One Morn- ings with Poesy, John Hazelhurst, 249 Ornithology : the Ternery at Wells-by-the-Sea, F. Heather- ley, 44; die Cestoden der Vogel, Dr. O. Fuhrmann, 66; Geographical Distribution of Macronyx, F. Nicholson, 148; the British Ornithologists’ Union, 238; the Food of some British Birds, Robert Newstead, 254; Scaup-duck in Scotland, P. H. Bahr, 257; Heronries of Lincolnshire and Somersetshire, Rev. F. L. Blathwayt, 317; Remark- able Male Barn-owls killed in Holland, Dr. E. D. van Oort, 348; Bird-migration in South Africa, 348; Bird-life, 501; Feeding-habits of the Dunlin, J. M. Dewar, 501 Orr (Prof. W. McF.), Extensions tof Fourier’s and the Bessel-Fourier Integral Theorems, 240 Ortsbestimmungen, Formeln und Hilfstafeln fiir geograph- ische, Prof. Th. Albrecht, 338 Osborn (Prof. Herbert), Economic Zoology, an Introduc- tory Text-book in Zoology, with Special Reference to its Applications in Agriculture, Commerce, and Medicine, 244 Osborn (T. G. B.), Dowels of Egyptian Coffins of the Twelfth Dynasty, 448 Osler (Dr. William, F.R.S.), Thomas Linacre, 97 Osteology, Comparative, of Man and the Higher Apes, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, 198 Outes (F.), Alfarerias del Noroeste Argentinto, 502; Sobre el Hallazgo de Alfarerias Mexicanas en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, 502; Arquelogia de San Blas, 502 Ovum, Contributions to the Study of the Early Develop- ment and Imbedding of the Human, Dr. T. H. Bryce, Dr. J. H. Teacher, and J. M. M. Kerr, 35 Owen (R. Foster), the Economic Open-air Chalet for the Hygienic Treatment of Consumption and other Diseases, 3097 Oxfordshire, a Historical Account of the Ashmolean Natural History Society of, 1880-1905, Frank Arthur Bellamy, 215 Oyster, Larva and Spat of the Canadian, Dr. J. Stafford, 473 Pagan Beliefs among the Indians of South California, Sur- vivals of, Miss C. B. DuBois, 295 Palzeobotany: Fossil Plants of the Waldershare and Fred- ville Series of the Kent Coalfield, E. A. Newell Arber, 117; Osmundacean Fossils from Permian of Russia, Dr. R. Kidston and D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, 329; Fossil Alga from the Sinemurian, P. Fliche, 419; Fossil Flora of the Leicestershire and South Derbyshire Coalfield, A. R. Horwood, 436 Paleontology : the Tertiary Fossils of Florissant, Colorado, Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 44; Corr., Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, 376; Methods of preparing Fossils, Dr. F. A. Bather, 44; les Oiseaux des Phosphorites du Quercy, C. Gaillard, 91; the Fossil Turtles of North America, O. Perry Hay, 91; the Habits of Sauropod Dinosaurs, Dr. O. P. Hay, 104; Pleistocene Red Deer of Norway, J. A. Grieg, 105; Fossil Insects from Japan, Dr. Marie Stopes, 118; C. Gordon Hewitt, 118; Death of Albert Gaudry, 138; Obituary Notice of, 163; the Dinosaurian Bones in the Upper Cretaceous Formation of Tendaguru, [ndex Nature, March 25, 1909 German East Africa, Prof. Eberhard Fraas, 166; Fossil Fishes and Arthropods in Middle Coal-measures of Sparth, Rochdale, W. A. Parker, 167; Amphibian Sclero- cephalus from the ‘* Gaskohle’’ of Niirschan, F. Broili, 171; Pliopithecus antiquus in Europe, Herr Wegner, 171; the Lateral-line System’ in Extinct Amphibians, R. L. Moodie, 198; Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Great Permian Delta of Texas, Dr. E. C. Case, 228; the Ichthyosaurs of the Trias, Dr. J. C. Merriam, 228; Dis- covery of a Human Skeleton at Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, 270; l’Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), Marcellin Boule, 312 ; Découverte d’un Squelette Humain mousterien A la Chapelie-aux-Saints (Corréze), A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, 312; die geologischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre, G. Steinmann, 277; Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., 314; das Kesslerloch bei Thaingen, Dr. J. Heierli, 342; the Silurian Bivalved Molluscs of Victoria, F. Chapman, 407; Structure of the Cretaceous Marine Turtles of the Protostegide, G. R. Wieland, 496; Rhino- ceros Bones in Cave in North-western Rhodesia, F. White and E. C. Chubb, 497 Palazzo (Prof. L.), Composition of the Interior of the Globe, 259 Pamirs and Kuen Lun, Mountain Panoramas from the, Dr. M. Aurel Stein, 97 Paper-making, Chapters on, Clayton Beadle, 212 Parasitology : die Cestoden der Vogel, Dr. O. Fuhrmann, 66 Paris (Louis), Artificial Sapphires, 119 Paris Academy of Medicine, Prize Awards of, for 1908, 256 Paris Academy of Sciences, 29, 59, 89, 119, 149, 179, 268, 299, 329, 359, 389, 419, 449, 479, 509; Prize Awards of the, for 1908, 201 Park (Prof. James), a Text-book of Theodolite Surveying and Levelling, 365 Parker (Dr.), Effects of Gun-fire on Schools of Fishes, 111 Parker (Eric), Highways and Byways in Surrey, 158 Parker (W. A.), Fossil Fishes and Arthropods in Middle Coal-measures of Sparth, Rochdale, 167 Parkhurst (Mr.), the Spectrum and Form of Comet More- house, 439 Parkin (Mr.), the Carbohydrates of the Snowdrop Leaf and their Bearing on the First Sugar of Photosynthesis, 85 Parry (Ernest J.), the Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes, 241 Parsons (Hon. C. A., F.R.S), the Increased Expansion of Steam attainable in Steam Turbines, James Watt Lec- ture at Greenock, 502 Parsons (J. Herbert), the Pathology of the Eye, 125 Parthenogenesis, Mode of Action of Electricity in Electric, Yves Delage, 269 Pasadena, a New Spectroscopic Laboratory at, So Pascal (P.), Magnetic Properties of Simple Bodies, 269; Magnetic Properties of some Easily Liquefiable Gases, Co} peinlogy: the Pathology of the Eye, J. Herbert Parsons, 125; Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. E. G. von Rindfleisch, 165; the Bone Marrow, a Cytological Study, W. E. Carnegie Dickson, 362; the Natural History of Cancer, with Special Reference to its Causation and Pre- vention, W. Roger Williams, 391; Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer, Dr. Charles Powell White, 391; Variations in Pressure and Composition of the Blood in Cholera, and their Bearing on the Success of Hyper- tonic Saline Transfusion and its Treatment, Prof. L. Rogers, 506-7; Death of Dr. D. J. Hamilton, 495 Patroclus, the Minor Planet, (617), V. Heinrich, 410; Prof. Wolf, 410 Patterson (T. S.), the Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Optic- ally Active Liquids, 249 Peabody (Prof. Cecil H.), Valve-gears for Steam Engines, 396 Pearce (Dr.), Does the Kidney form an Internal Secre- tion? 466 Pearl (Maud DeWitt and Raymond), Relation of Race- crossing to Sex-ratio, 106 Nature, F 5 March bes 1909 L[ndex XXX1 Pearson (Prof. H. H. W.), the Morphology of Endosperm, 36; Welwitschia, 268 Pearson (J.), L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., Cancer, 214 Pease (Colonel), ‘‘ Fowl Cholera’ due to a Spirochete, 497 Peddie (Prof. W.), the Elementary Dynamics of Solids and Fluids, 486 Peking to Mandalay, From, a Journey from North China to Burma through Tibetan Ssuch’uan and Yunnan, R. F. Johnston, 193 Pendred (Vaughan), the Railway Locomotive, 305 Penrose’s Pictorial Annual, a Review of the Graphic Arts, 366 People of the Polar North, the, Knud Rasmussen, 311 Perfumes, the Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial, Ernest J. Parry, 241 Pernter (Dr. J. M.), Death of, 255; Obituary Notice of, 290 Perot (Mr.), Study of the Relation between the Metre and the Wave-length of the Red Cadmium Line, 195 Perrine (Dr. F. A. C.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 16 Perrine (Prof.), Errors in Measures of Star Images and Spectra, 320 Perrot (F. Louis), Density of Methane and the Atomic Weight of Carbon, 330 Perry (Prof. John, F.R.S.), Obituary Notice of Prof. William Edward Ayrton, F.R.S., 74; the Correlation of the Teaching of Mathematics and Science, 143; Students’ Physical Laboratories, 159; the Correlation of Teaching, 310 Peterssen (Mr.), Report on Plaice Fisheries, 172 Petrie (Dr. }. M.), the Réle of Nitrogen and its Com- pounds in Plant-metabolism, 390 Petrography: Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Petrographische der Kerguelen-Gesteine, R. Reinisch, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Pettersen (Mr.), Observations upon the Water-circulation between the Ocean and the Baltic, 225 Phanerogamen, Biologie unserer einheimischen, M. Wagner, 158 Pharmacy: the Extra Pharmacopceia of Martindale and Westcott,- Dr. W.- Harrison Martindale and W. Wynn Westcott, 187 Philippe (L. H.), B-Gluco-heptite, 300 Philippi (E.), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Geo- logie der Heard-Insel, 460; Deutsche Sudpolar Expedi- tion, 1901-3, Geologische Beobachtung auf Kerguelen, 460 Phillips (Charles E. S.), Lime Light, 38 Philology: Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. Richard Pischel, 291; the Slavonic Languages, F. P. Marchant, 407 Philosophy : Thoughts on Natural Philosophy, with a New Reading of Newton’s First Law, A. Biddlecombe, 66; the Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer, Dr. David Duncan, 122; Geschichte der Philosophie, Karl Vorlander, William Brown, 157; Grundlinien der Psychologie, Dr. Stephan Witasek, William Brown, 157; die Entstehung der wirtschaftlichen Arbeit, Dr. Ed. Hahn, William Brown, 157; Memories of My Life, Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 181; the Philo- sophical Basis of Religion, Dr. J. Watson, 219; Welt- Leben-Seele, ein System der Natiirphilosophie in gemeinfasslicher Darstellung, Max JKassowitz, 307; Meaning and Method of Scientific Research, Dr. L. A. Bauer at Philosophical Society of Washington, 473 Phosphorescence on a Scottish Loch, Thos. Jamieson, 309 Photoelectric Properties of Potassium-sodium Alloy, Dr. Fleming, 146 Photography: Electric Splashes on Photographic Plates, A. W. Porter, 147; the British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1909, 188; the American Annual of Photo- graphy, 1909, 188; Use of Coloured Screens and Ortho- chromatic Plates for the Photographic Observation of the Fixed Stars, QC&sten Bergstrand, 299; Animated Photographs in Natural Colours, Albert Smith, 314; Photographic Apparatus for Automatically Recording the Readings of the Scale and Vernier of any Instrument, Dr. J. R. Milne, 329; the ‘‘ Omnicolore ’’ Plate, Messrs. Jougla, 409; Photography for Young People, Tudor Jenks, 424; New Process of Contact Photography, E. E. Fournier d’Albe, 479 Phylogeny: Unsere Ahrenreihe (Progonotaxis Hominis)— kritische Studien tber phyletische Anthropologie (Fest- schrift zur 350-jahrigen Jubelfeier der Thiringer Uni- versitat Jena und der damit -verbundenen Ubergabe des phyletischen Museums am 30 Juli, 1908), Ernst Haeckel, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 392 Physical Geography: Evidence of Recent Submergence of Coast at Narrabeen, N.S. Wales, Prof. T. W. E. David and G, H. Halligan, 119 Physics: Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous Hydrogen, Rudolf Ladenburg and Stanislaw Loria, 7; Mercury Bubbles, J. G. Ernest Wright, 8; Sir William Crookes, F.R.S., 37; A. T. Hare, 99; Prof. Henry H. Dixon, 99; Philip Blackman, 160; C. E. Stromeyer, 160; Mercury Bubbles and Formation of Oxide Films by Water con- taining Oxygen in Solution, G. T. Beilby, F.R.S., 190; Boiling Point of Sulphur on the Constant Pressure Air Thermometer, N. Eumorfopoulos, 58; the Boiling Point of Sulphur, Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S., 58; Influence of Pressure on the Ionisation produced in Gases by the X-rays, the Saturation Current, E. Rothé, 59; New Determination of the Equivalent of Heat, V. Crémieu and L. Rispail, 59; Thoughts on Natural Philosophy, with a New Reading of Newton’s First Law, A. Biddle- combe, 66; an Electromagnetic Problem, D. F. Com- stock, 67, 310; Prof. Arthur W. Conway, 160; A. Core, 310; Norman R. Campbell, 341; Transparent Silver and other Metallic Films, Prof. Thomas Turner, 88; Forma- tion of Centres of Gyration behind an Obstacle in Motion, Henri Benard, 89; Physical Society, 89, 146, 208, 447, 508; the New Physics and its Evolution, Lucien Poincaré, 121; the Evglution of Forces, Dr. Gustave Le Bon, 121; Students’ Physical Laboratories, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 128; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 159; an Annotated Copy of Newton’s ‘‘ Principia,’ Bruce Smith, 130; Nobel Prize Awards, 138; Corr., 164; Weight of a Corpuscle on the Electrical Theory of Gravitation, Sir J. J. Thomson, 148; Laws of Mobility and Diffusion of the Ions formed in Gaseous Media, E. M. Wellisch, 148; Draught-inducing Properties of the Poker, A. H. Gibson, 149; a2 Model Atom, Harry Bateman, 159} Breaking Stresses of Tubes and Filaments, Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes and Dr. Braak, 168; the Physics of Earthquake Phenomena, Dr. C. G. Knott, 184; Méthodes de Calori- métrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de 1’Université de Moscou, Profs. W. Longuinine and A. Schukarew, Dr. J. A. Harker, 185; Migration Constants of Dilute Solutions of Hydrochloric Acid, C. Chittock, 178; Effect of Pressure on the Ionisation produced by Réntgen Rays in Different Gases and Vapours, J. A. Crowther, 178; Variation of the Relative Ionisation produced by Réntgen Rays in different Gases with the Hardness of the Rays, J. A. Crowther, 178; Gravitation Stress of A%ther, Prof. F. Purser, 179; ‘Ether and Matter, Prof. H. A. Bum- stead, 260; the Asther of Space, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 322; Procés-verbaux des Séances du Comité international des Poids et Mésures, 194; Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau international des Poids et Mésures, 194; Study of the Relation between the Metre and the Wave-length of the Red Cadmium Line, Messrs. Benoit, Perot, and Fabry, 195; Behaviour of Nickel Steel Standards of Length, 195; an Accurate Method of measuring Moments of Inertia, Prof. W. Cassie, 208-9 ; a Manual of Practical Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, E. S. Ferry and A. T. Jones, 213; Experimental Elasticity, G. F. C. Searle, BARES, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 218; Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. Wolcott Gibbs, 227; Fluorescence and Phosphor- escence, Prof. de Kowalski, 230; First Year Physics, Charles E. Jackson, 246; Einfithrung in die Elektro- chemie, Prof. W. Bermbach, 246; Magnetism and Electricity and the Principles of Electrical Measurement, S. S. Richardson, 246; the Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Optically Active Liquids, T. S. Patterson, 249 ; Occlusion of Residual Gas and the Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes Tubes, Alan A. Campbell Swinton, 299; XXX Abhandlungen itiber theoretische Physik, Prof. H. A. Lorentz, 307; Apparent Paradox in the Application of the Concept Entropy to Radiation Phenomena, Prof. M. Laue, 319; Modifications of the Difference of Contact Potential of Two Aqueous Solutions of Electrolytes under the Action of a Continuous Current, M. Chanoz, 329; Gravimetric Method of Constant Sensibility for the Measurement of High Altitudes, Alphonse Berget, 330; Heat for Engineers, Chas. R. Darling, Prof. Be NS Smith, 335; Gravitational Theories, 369; the Specific Heats of Gases, W. P. Boynton, 409; a Text-book of Sound, Prof. E. H. Barton, 425; Traité de Physique, O. D. Chwolson, 425; Existence of Freely Moving Electrons between Molecules of Metal, Prof. P. Gruner, 438; the Charges on Ions, Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S., and Mr. Haselfoot, 442; Recent Tendencies of Theoretical Physics, Prof. M. Planck, 437; Extension of Cracks in an Isotropic Material, A. Mallock, F.R.S., 478; the Density of Gases in Relation to the Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 491; Manometer to measure Small Differences of Gas Pressure, Drs. K. Scheel and W. Heuse, 469; Tensile Strength of Water, Prof. H. H. Dixon, 4790; Mass of the Negative Ion of a Flame, Georges Moreau, 479; the Elementary Dynamics of Solids and Fluids, Prof. W. Peddie, 486; Memoires de la Société de Physique et d'Histoire naturelle de Genéve, 491; see also British Association Physiography : a Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, Colonel S. G. Bur- rard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132 Physiology : the National Physique, A. Stayt Dutton, 6; Albrecht von Haller, 38; Standards of the Constituents of the Urine and the Blood, and the Bearing of the Meta- bolism of Bengalis on the Problems of Nutrition, Captain D. McCay, 42; Morphology and Development of the Mammalian Liver, Prof. O. C. Bradley, 77; Micro- chemical Changes occurring in Appendicitis, Dr. Owen Williams, 78; the Functional Inertia of Living Matter, Dr. D. F. Harris, 96; Presence of Anticoagulin in the Salivary Glands of Argas persicus, Prof. Nuttall, 178: Mode of Action of Specific Substances, W. E. Dixon and P. Hamill, 178; Examination of Living Leucocytes in vitro, C. Ponder, 178; Total Sugar of the Blood, R. Lépine and M. Boulud, 179; der Frosch, Dr. F. Hempel- mann, 242; Text-book of Physiological Chemistry, in Thirty Lectures, Emil Abderhalden, 246; Phylogenetic Differentiation of the Organs of Smell and Taste, C. J. Herrick, 292; Morphological Subdivision of the Brain, C. J. Herrick, 292; the Wonderful House that Jack Has, Columbus N. Millard, 307; the Natural Mechanism for Evoking the Chemical Secretion of the Stomach, J. S. Edkins and M. Tweedy, 329; Gastric Digestion of Casein, Louis Gaucher, 330; Human Speech, a Study in the Pur- posive Action of Living Matter, N. C. Macnamara, 778: Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles, XII., Pro- prioceptive Reflexes, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S., 358; Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles, XIII., the Antagonism between Reflex Inhibition and Reflex Excita- tion, Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S., 387; Phenomena Attendant upon Activity of Living Matter, Dr. A.) D3 Waller, F.R.S., 376; Therapeutics of the Circulation : Eight Lectures Vaglivered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physiological Laboratory of the University of London, Sir Lauder Brunton, Bart., F.R.S., 451; the Production of Prolonged Apnoea in Man, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 458; Does the Kidney form an Internal Secretion? Dr. J. Rose Bradford, 466; Messrs. Bainbridge and Beddard, 466: Drs. Sampson and Pearce, 466; the Gastric Digestion of Human Milk and Asses’ Milk, Louis Gaucher, 480; Prin- ciples and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene, W. P. Welpton, 485; Variations in Pressure and Com- position of the Blood in Cholera, and their Bearing on the Success of Hypertonic Saline Transfusion and its Treatment, Prof. L. Rogers, 506-7; Plant Physiology and Ecology, Prof. F. E. Clements, 331 Picart (Luc), Observations of the Comet 1908c, 29 Pickering (Prof. E. C.), Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, i : 142; Search for an Ll Itra-Neptunian Planet, 260; Camelopar- dalis, Camelopardalus, or Camelopardus, 351; Distribu- tion of the Stars, 469 Index Nature, March 25, 1909 Pickering (Prof.), a Sixth Type of Stellar Spectra, 205 Pickering (Spencer U., F.R.S.), Fruit Trees and_ their Enemies, with a Spraying Calendar, 396; the Planting of Fruit Trees, Ninth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, 500 Piettre (Maurice), Glycocholic Acid, 59 Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scotland, J. F. Tocher, 223 Pigments : Colour-sense Training and Colour Using, E. J. Taylor, 272 Pilgrim (G. E.), Geology of the Persian Gulf, 471 Pintza (A.), Volumetric Composition of Ammonia Gas and Atomic Weight of Nitrogen, 119 Pischel (Prof. Richard), Death and Obituary Notice of, 291 Pisciculture : Apparatus for Hatching, Rearing, and Trans- porting Fishes, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Use of Apparatus in Hatching and Rearing Lobsters, Prof. A. D. Mead, 110; Dr. George W. Field, 110; Propagation and Pro- tection of the Rhine Salmon,, Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, 110; Introduction of American Fishes into New ‘Zealand Waters, L. G. Ayson, 110 Pittman (E. F.), Artesian Water-supply of Australia, 234 Plague, Rats and, Dr. Ashburton Thompson, 436 Plaice, Report on, Captain W. Masterman, 145 Plaice Fisheries, Report on, Messrs. Petersen, Garstang and Kyle, 172 Planck (Prof. M.), Recent Tendencies of ‘Theoretical Physics, 437 Planets: the Spectra of the Major Planets, Prof. Percival Lowell, 42; Prof. Beyerinck, 139; the Enumera- tion of Minor Planets, Prof. Bauschinger, 108; Ephemeris for Jupiter’s Eighth Satellite, 108; Refraction due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, M. Cheva- lier, 143; E. Esclangon, 143; Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s Principal Satellites and of Titan, J. Comas Sold, 232; Jupiter’s Eighth Moon, 410; Jupiter’s Seventh and Eighth Satellites, Sir William Christie, 469; Water Vapour in the Atmosphere of Mars, Prof. Lowell, 200; the South Polar Cap of Mars, Prof. Lowell, 232; the Spectrum of Mars, Mr. Slipher, 351; Martian Features, Prof. Lowell, 378; M. Antoniadi, 378; Quantitative Measures of the Water-vapour in the Mar- tian Atmosphere, Prof. Very, 499; Corrections of the Position and Diameter of Mercury, Prof. Stroobant, 232 ; Search for an Ultra-Neptunian Planet, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 260; the Minor Planet Patroclus (617), V. Hein- rich, 410; Prof. Wolf, 410 Plant Physiology and Ecology, Prof. F. E. Clements, 331 Plants, Life-histories of Common, Dr. F. Cavers, 245 Plaskett (Mr.), Spectroscopic Binaries, 169, 295 Plate (L.), Resultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-0, Zoologie, 460 Pleasure and Pain, Psychology of, Prof. Max Meyer, r11 Plimmer (Dr. R. H. Aders), the Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, 275 Plunket (Hon. Emmeline M.), the Judgment of Paris, and some Other Legends Astronomically Considered, 335 Pluvinel (M. le Comte A. de la Baume), the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 20; Morehouse’s Comet, 231}; Zenithal Photographic Telescope, 389 Pocock (Mr.), Geology of the Country around Oxford, 170 Poincaré (Lucien), the New Physics and its Evolution, 121; Electricity Present and Future, 482 Pointet (René), Exception to the General Method of Pre- paration of Aldehydes by Means of the Glycidic Acids, 510 Poizat (L.), Formation of Hydrocyanie Acid in the Action of Nitric Acid on Phenols and Quinones, 449 Polar North, the People of the, Knud Rasmussen, 311 Pollard (W.), the Coals of South Wales, with Special Re- ference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite, Pollock (Prof. J. A.), Discharge of Electricity from Glowing Carbon, 119; Discontinuity of Potential at the Surface of Glowing Carbon, 420 Polypus Vinegar, Kumagusu Minakata, 8 Ponder (C.), Examination of Living Leucocytes in vitro, 178 Poole (H. H.), Determination of the Rate of Evolution of Heat by Pitchblende, 26 Be os In dex XXXI il Poor (Prof. Charles Lane), the Figure of the Sun, 260 Porter (A. W.), Electric Splashes on Photographic Plates, 147 Porter Catalogue, Determination of the Apex and Vertex from the Stars in the, S. Beljawsky, 410 Postgate (Dr. J. P.), Flaws in Modern Classical Research, 16 Potato, the Origin of the, Charles T. Druery, 205 Potato Black Scab, Prof. T. Johnson, 67; Prof. F. E. Weiss, 98 Potter (Prof.), Method for Checking Parasitic Diseases in Plants, 436 Pottery, Prehistoric, in America, C. B. Moore, 265 Poulton (Prof. E. B., F.R.S.), Essays on Evolution, 1889- 1907, 302 ; Power, Natural Sources of, R. S. Ball, 4 Preble (E. H.), Natural History of the Athabasca, Mac- kenzie Region, 257 Prehistoric Pottery in America, C. B. Moore, 265 Prescott (Prof. S. C.), Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis. 6 Priest (Walter B.), a Scheme for the Promotion of Scientific Research, 345 Priestley (J. G.), Action of Urethane on Esters of Organic Acids and Mustard Oils, 509 Pring (J. N.), Some Electrochemical Centres, 463 Pritchett (Henry), the Relations of Christian Denominations j; to Colleges, 249 Prize Awards of the Paris Academy of Sciences for 1908, 201 Prize Subjects proposed by the French Academy of Sciences for the Year 1910, 232 Proteins, the Chemical Constitution of the, Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer, 275 Psychology : Psychology of Pleasure and Pain, Prof. Max Meyer, 111; Grundlinien der Psychologie, Dr. Stephan Witasek, William Brown, 157; the Psychology and Train- ing of the Horse, Count E. M. Cesaresco, 158; Arcana of Nature, Hudson Tuttle, 220; Relations of Comparative Anatomy to Comparative Psychology, Dr. Ludwig Edinger, 317; Human Speech, a Study in the Purposive Action of Living Matter, N. C. Macnamara, 338; Vélker- psychologie, eine Untersuchung der Entwickelungsgesetze von Sprache, Mythus und Sitte, Wilhelm Wundt, 361; das Geschlechtsleben in der Volkerpsychologie, Otto Stoll, 361; the Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, E. Westermarclk, Prof. A. E. Taylor, 481; Death of Prof. Victor Egger, 495; Galvanometric Deflections ascribed to Psychological Processes in Man, 497 Purser (Prof. F.), the A&ther Stress of Gravitation, 24; Gravitation Stress of Aither, 179 Purvis (J. E.), Radiation of Various Spectral Lines of Neon, Helium, and Sodium in a Magnetic Field, 178; Absorp- tion Spectra of Solid Tetramethyl Picene and of its Solu- tions, 509 ; Absorption Spectra of Mesitylene and Trichloro- mesitylene, 509; Absorption Spectra of Concentrated and Diluted Solutions of Chlorophyll, 509 Putnam (G. R.), Nautical Charts, 365 Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, 93 Qualitative Analyse vom Standpunkte der Tonenlehre, Dr. Wilhelm Bottger, 186 Quénisset (M.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 80; Acceleration of Matter in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, 200 Rabourdin (L.), Comet Morehouse, 1908c, 48 ; Photographs of the Morehouse Comet, 29 Races, Relation between Record Times and Distances for Different, Prof. A. E. Kenelly, 107 Radiation of Various Spectral Lines of Neon, Helium, and Sodium in a Magnetic Field, J. E. Purvis, 178 Radiography: the Nature and Charge of the a-Particles from Radio-active Substances, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., 12; Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, Sir James Dewar, F.R.S., 28; Some Properties of the Radium Emanation, Prof. E. Rutherford, 119 ; Apparent Decay of Radium, Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 129; Action of Radium Rays on Developing Plants, Prof. C. S. Gagee, 292; the Radiation of the Active Deposit from Radium through a Vacuum, S. Russ and W. Makower, 340; Volatility of Radium A and Radium C, W. Makower, 359; the Radium Institute, 400; Emission and Transmission of Réntgen Rays, G. W. C. Kaye, 28; X-Rays of High Penetration obtained by Filtration, H. Guilleminot, 389 ; Method of Protection from Injurious Effects of X-Rays, Mackenzie Davidson, 465; a Remark- able Development in X-Ray Apparatus, 472; Secondary Rontgen Radiation from Air and Ethyl Bromide, J. A. Crowther, 509; Application of Geometrical Principles to Practical Radiography, M. Contremoulins, 30; Influence of Pressure on the Jonisation produced in Gases by the X- Rays, the Saturation Current, E. Rothé, 59; the Nature of y Rays, J. P. V. Madsen, 67; Radio-activity of the Gases from the Thermal Water of Uriage (Isére), G. Massol, 89 ; a Disclaimer, Frederick Soddy, 99; Chas. H. Walter, 130; Radio-activity of the Soil, F. Bordas, 119; Photo- electric Properties of Potassium-Sodium Alloy, Dr. Fleming, 146; Radio-activity of Rubidium, N. R. Camp- bell, 148; Ratio of Charge to Electrons, A. Cotton and P. Weiss, 149; the MRadio-active Substances, W. Makower, 157; Arrangement for securing Unidirectional Current through Tube, F. R. Butt and Co., 168; Effect of Pressure on the Ionisation produced by Rontgen Rays in Different Gases and Vapours, J. A. Crowther, 178; Variation of the Relative Ionisation produced by Rontgen Rays in Different Gases with the Hardness of the Rays, J. A. Crowther, 178; Value of the Quotient Electric Charge by Mass for the Kathode Rays, Dr. J. Classen, 200; Radio-active Changes in the Earth, Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 206; Diffusion of Actinium and Thorium Emanations, S. Russ, 209; Pro- posed Standard for Measurement of Radio-activity, 226; Treatment of Deep-seated Tumours by the Action of Radiant Matter, E. de Bourgade la Dardye, 269; Sug- gested Standard of Radio-activity, Prof. H. N. McCoy, 350; the Product and Rays of Uranium X, Frederick Soddy, 366; on the Radio-active Deposits from Actinium, Prof. J. C. McLennan, 487 Radium : Apparent Decay of Radium, Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., 129; the Radiation of the Active Deposit from Radium through a Vacuum, S. Russ and W. Makower, 340; Radium in the Earth, Perey Edgerton, 341; the Radium Institute, 400; the Boiling Point of the Radium Emanation, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., 457; see also Radiography Railway Locomotive, the, Vaughan Pendred, 305 Railways, Electrification of, 439 Raman (C. V.), Dubern’s Method of Illumination in Micro- scopy, 17 Ramsay (Sir William, K.C.B., F.R.S.), Do the Radio-active Gases (Emanations) belong to the Argon Series? 23; Apparent Decay of Radium, 129 Ranclaud (A. B. B.), Discharge of Electricity from Glowing Carbon, 119; Discontinuity of Potential at the Surface of Glowing Carbon, 420 Rasmussen (Knud), the People of the Polar North, 311 Rats and Plague, Dr. Ashburton Thompson, 436 Rawles (W. H.), New Double Condenser, 409 Rawson (Col. H. E.), Colour Changes in Flowers produced by Controlling Insolation, 86 Ray (Saradaranjan), Euclid Simplified in Accordance with the New University Regulations, with Additional Proposi- tions and Numerous Examples, 277 Rayleigh (Lord, O.M.), Tidal Bores, 267 Read (Prof. Carveth), the Metaphysics of Nature, 248 Read (Dr. C. Stanford), Fads and Feeding, 248 Rebiére (G.), Chemical Composition of Colloidal Silver, 480 Reeks (Margaret), Hints for Crystal Drawing, 97 Reform of Zoological Nomenclature, Cyril Crossland, 190 Refraction, the Anomalies of, Fr. Nu&sl and J. J. Frié, 469 Refraction due to Jupiter’s Atmosphere, M. Chevalier, 143; E. Esclangon, 143 Refrigeration: the Mechanical Production of Cold, J. A. Ewing, 484 XXXIV Index Nature, March 25, 1909 Reid (G. Archdall), Memory in the Germ Plasm, 8 Reininger (Dr. H.), Geology of Tertiary Basin of Budweis, he = ae Reinisch (R.), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Petrographische der Kerguelen-Gesteine, 460 Religion; the Philosophical Basis of Religion, Dr. J. Watson, 219; an Investigation of the Sociology and Re- ligion of the Andamanese, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 345 Reliquary and Illustrated Archeologist, the, 249 Research: Flaws in Modern Classical Research, Dr. J. P. Postgate, 16; Death of Dr. George Gore, F.R.S., 255; Obituary Notice of, 290; a Scheme for the Promotion of Scientific Research, Walter B. Priest, 345; the Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund, 432; Meaning and Method of Scientific Research, Dr. L. A. Bauer at Philosophical Society of Washington, 473 REVIEWS AND Our BOOKSHELF. The Origin of a Land Flora, Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S., 1 Natural Sources of Power, R. S. Ball, 4 Functional Nerve Diseases, A. T. Schofield, 5 Trout Waters: Management and Angling, Wilson H. Armistead, 5 The Lore of the Honey-bee, Tickner Edwardes, F. W. L. Sladen, 6 Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis, Prof. S. C. Prescott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 6 The National Physique, A. Stayt Dutton, 6 The Falls of Niagara, Dr. J. W. W. Spencer, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 11 The A.B.C. of Lime Cultivation, Joseph Jones and J. C. Macintyre, 22 Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens, J. Walther, 31 From an Easy Chair, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., akeeses) 3 The Great Pyramid of Gizeh; its Riddle Read, its Secret Metrology Fully Revealed as the Origin of British Measures, M. W. H. Lombe Brooke, 32 The Coals of South Wales, with Special Reference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite, Aubrey Strahan and W. Pollard, 33 Versuch einer Begriindung der Prof. Karl Camillo Schneider, 34 Arithmétique graphique, Gabriel Arnoux, Dr. L. N. G. . Filon, 34 Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum, Dr. T. H. Bryce, Dr. J. H. Teacher, and J. M. M. Kerr, 35 Graphic Algebra, Dr. Arthur Schultze, 35 The Prevention of Compressed-air Illness, A. E. Boycott, G. C. C. Damant, and J. S. Haldane, 4o Standards of the Constituents of the Urine and Blood, and the Bearing of the Metabolism of Bengalis on the Problems of Nutrition, Capt. D. McCay, 42 Weitere Beitrage zum socialen Paratismus und der Sklaverei bei den Ameisen, E. Wasmann, W. F. Kirby, 51 Research in China, Bailey Willis, 61 _ Types of Floral Mechanism, Dr. A. H. Church, 62 The Cotton Weaver’s Handbook, H. B. Heylin, 63 Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineering, George F. Sever and Fitzhugh Townsend, Prof. Gisbert Kapp, 64 Elementary Algebra, W. D. Eggar, 64 A New Algebra, S. Barnard and J. M. Child, 64 Algebra for Secondary Schools, Dr. Charles Davison, 64 The Eton Algebra, P. Scoones and L. Todd, 64 Agriculture for Southern Schools, J. F. Duggar, 65 Vitality, Fasting, and Nutrition, Hereward Carrington, 66 Die Cestoden der Vogel, Dr. O. Fuhrmann, 66 Thoughts on Natural Philosophy, with a New Reading of Newton’s First Law, A. Biddlecombe, 66 ; The Ruskin Nature Reader, 66 The Geology and Scenery of the Grampians and the Valley of Strathmore, Peter Macnair, 69 ; Eee bine der Hamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise, 1892-3, 82 Les Oiseaux des Phosphorites du Quercy, C. Gaillard, o1 The Fossil Turtles of North America, O. Perry Hay, 91 Deszendenztheorie, Applied Geography, Dr. J. Scott Keltie, g2 Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, 93 La Canfora Italiana, Prof. Italo Giglioli, W. G. Freeman, 94 Garden Rockery: How to Make, Plant, and Manage It, F. G. Heath, 95 Canada’s Fertile Northland, Prof. G. A. J. Cole, 95 The Functional Inertia of Living Matter, Dr. D. F. Harris, 96 The Elementary Theory of the Symmetrical Optical Instru- ment, J. G. Leathem, 96 Hints for Crystal Drawing, Margaret Reeks, 97 House-painting, Glazing, Paper-hanging, and Whitewash- ing, A. H. Sabin, 97 Mountain Panoramas from the Pamirs and Kuen Lun, Dr. M. Aurel Stein, 97 Thomas Linacre, Dr. William Osler, F.R.S., 97 Lands Beyond the Channel, H. J. Mackinder, 98 Geodetic Survey of South Africa, Colonel Sir W. G. Morris, K.C.M.G., C.B., and Capt. H. W. Gordon, 103 The New Physics and its Evolution, Lucien Poincaré, 121 The Evolution of Forces, Dr. Gustave Le Bon, 121 The Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer, Dr. David Duncan, 122 The Pathology of the Eye, J. Herbert Parsons, 125 Die Algenflora der Danziger Bucht, ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Ostseeflora, Prof. Lakowitz, 126 The Soil, A. D: Hall, 127 The Stars of the Year, W. E. Rolston, 127 Star Calendar for 1909, W. E. Rolston, 127 The Star Almanack, 1909, W. E. Rolston, 127 Diptera Danica, William Lundbeck, 127 Moving Loads on Railway Underbridges, including Dia- grams of Bending Moments and Shearing Forces and Tables of Equivalent Uniform Live Loads, H. Bamford, 128 Practical Floor Malting, Hugh Lancaster, 128 The Romance of Modern Geology, E. S. Grew, 131 The Romance of Early British Life from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Danes, G. F. Scott Elliot, 131 A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet, Colonel S. G. Burrard, F.R.S., and H. H. Hayden, 132 Annual Report of the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries under the Acts relating to Sea-fisheries for the Year 1906 (1908), 144 Report of Research-work of the Same Board on the Plaice Fisheries of the North Sea, 1905-6 (1908), 144 Report of the Committee appointed by ‘Treasury-Minute to Inquire into the Scientific and Statistical Investigations now being carried on in Relation to the Fishing Industry of the United Kingdom, 144 Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea-fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., Andrew Scott, and James Johnstone, 151 Laboratory Arts, Dr. George H. Woollatt, Prof. C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 152 Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, Prof. J. A. Green, 154 Papers on Moral Education Communicated to the First International Moral Education Congress, Prof. J. A. Green, 154 Climate, considered especially in Relation to Man, Prof. Robert de Courcy Ward, 155 A School Arithmetic, H. S. Hall and F. H. Stevens, 156 A Modern Arithmetic, with Graphic and Practical Exer- cises, H. Sydney Jones, 156 Advanced Arithmetic and Elementary Algebra and Men- suration, P. Goyen, 156 Elementary Mensuration, W. M. Baker and A. A. Bourne, 156 Practical Arithmetic and Mensuration, Frank Castle, 156 Geschichte der Philosophie, Karl Vorlander, William Brown, of Grundlinien der Psychologie, Dr. Stephan Witasek, William Brown, 157 Die Entstehung der wirtschaftlichen Arbeit, Dr. Ed. Hahn, William Brown, 157 Nature. March 25, 1909 Index XXXV The Radio-active Substances, W. Makower, 157 The Psychology and Training of the Horse, Count E. M. Cesaresco, 158 Elementary Botany, Dr. E. Drabble, 158 Biologie unserer einheimischen Phanerogamen, M. Wagner, 158 The Deinhardt-Schlomann Series of Technical Dictionaries in Six Languages: German, English, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish, Alfred Schlomann, 158 Highways and Byways in Surrey, Eric Parker, 158 The Childhood of Man, Leo Frobenius, Dr. A. C. Haddon, BRS Se emoe Rapports et Procés verbaux des Reunions, Conseil per- manent international pour |’Exploration de la Mer, 172 Bulletins trimestriel des Résultats acquis pendant les Croisiéres périodigues, 172 Memories of My Life, Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 181 Animal Life, Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S., 182 The Commercial Products of India, being an Abridgment of ‘‘ The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,”’ Sir George Watt, Capt. A. T. Gage, 184 he Physics of Earthquake Phenomena, Dr. C. G. Knott, 184 : Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de l'Université de Moscou, Profs. W. Longuinine and A. Schukarew, Dr. J. A. Harker, 185 Southern Agriculture, F. S. Earle, W. G. Freeman, +186 Qualitative Analyse vom Standpunkte der Ionenlehre, Dr. Wilhelm Béttger, 186 The A.D. Infinitum Calendar, 187 The Extra Pharmacopceia of Martindale and Westcott, Dr. W. Harrison Martindale and W. Wynn Westcott, 187 ‘The British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1909, 188 The American Annual of Photography, 1909, 188 Beitrage zur Naturdenkmalpflege, 188 Die periphere Innervation; Kurze iibersichtliche Darstellung des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Ausbreitung der Hirr- und Rickenmarksnerven, Dr. Emil Villiger, 188 {he Study of Stellar Evolution, Prof. George Ellery Hale, W. E. Rolston, 191 Populare Astrophysik, Dr. J. Scheiner, W. E. Rolston, 191 From Peking to Mandalay, R. F. Johnston, 193 Procés verbaux des Sciences du Comité international des Poids et Mesures, 194 Travaux et Mémoires du Bureau international des Poids et Mesures, 194 National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Meteorology, 202 Systematic Anatomy of Dicotyledons, Dr. H. Solereder, 211 Chapters on Paper-making, Clayton Beadle, 212 Linnzeus, Dr. J. Valckenier Suringar, 213 A Manual of Practical Physics for Students of Science and Engineering, E. S. Ferry and A. T. Jones, 213 L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., Cancer, J. Pearson, 214 Historical Account of the Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxfordshire, 1880-1905, Frank Arthur Bellamy, 215 Cyanide Processes, E. B. Wilson, 215 Electric Furnaces, Wilhelm Borchers, 215 Hydro-electric Practice, H. A. E. C. von Schon, 2 Technical Chemists’ Handbook, Dr. G. Lunge, 2 Exercises in Elementary Quantitative Chemical Analysis for Students of Agriculture, Dr. A. T. Lincoln and Dr. J. H. Walton, jun., 217 Laboratory Manual of Qualitative Analysis, W. Segerblom, 217 Synthetic Inorganic Chemistry, Dr. A. A. Blanchard, 217 The Fundamental Conceptions of Chemistry, Dr. S. M. Jor- gensen, 217 Kurzes Repetitorium der Chemie, Dr. E. Bryk, 217 Experimental Elasticity, G. F. C. Searle, F.R.S., Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 213 Beautiful Flowers and How to Grow Them, 218 The Philosophical Basis of Religion, Dr. J. Watson, 219 A Manual of Bacteriology, Clinical and Applied, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 219 Ticks, 219 Who's Who, 1909, 220 Who's Who Year-book for 1909, 220 The Englishwoman’s Year-book and Directory, 220 The Writers’ and Artists’ Year-book, 1909, 220 Arcana of Nature, Hudson Tuttle, 220 New Light on Ancient Egypt, G. Maspero, H. R. Hall, 222 Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scotland, J. F. Tocher, 223 Svenska Hydrografisk Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter INES, eS Annual Report of the Transvaal Department of Agriculture, 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235 Report of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Years 1905-6 and 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235 The Agricultural Journal of India, Vol. III., 1908, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235 Memioirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235 The Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Perfumes, Ernest J. Parry, 241 Der Frosch. Monographien einheimischer Tiere, Dr. P. Hempelmann, 242 Recent Advances in Organic Chemistry, Dr. A. W. Stewart, 243 Geometrical Optics, V. H. Mackinney and H. L. Taylor, 243 Economic Zoology, Prof. «Herbert Osborn, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244 A Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India, E. P. Stebbing, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244 Nature Rambles in Londor, Miss K. M. Hall, 245 Life-histories of Common Plants, Dr. F. Cavers, 245 The Young Botanist, W. Percival Westell and C. S. Cooper, 245 First Year Physics, Charles E. Jackson, 246 Einfihrung in die Elektrochemie, Prof. W. Bermbach, 246 Magnetism and Electricity and the Principles of Electrical Measurement, S. S. Richardson, 246 Text-book of Physiological Chemistry, Emil Abderhalden, 246 Double Star Astronomy, T. Lewis, 247 The Threshold of Music, Dr. William Wallace, 247 Vorlesungen iiber technische Mechanik, Dr. August Foppl, 247 Fads and Feeding, Dr. C. Stanford Read, 248 Uber Nervése Dyspepsie, Georges L. Dreyfus, 248 The Metaphysics of Nature, Prof. Carveth Read, 248 The Reliquary and Illustrated Archzeologist, 249 The Class-room Atlas of Physical, Political, Biblical, and Classical Geography, 249 Flashes from the Orient, John Hazelhurst, 249 The Country Home, 249 The Financial Status of the Professor in America and in Germany, 249 The Relations of Christian Denominations Henry Pritchett, 249 Through Southern Mexico, Hans Gadow, F.R.S., 252 The Food of Some British Birds, Robert Newstead, 254 Second International Congress on School Hygiene, 264 Inheritance in Silkworms, Vernon L. Kellogg, 265 Water: Its Origin and Use, William Coles-Finch, 271 Colour-sense Training and Colour Using, E. J. Taylor, 272 Atlas of Canada, J. White, 272 A Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology, Ulric Dahlgren and Wm. A. Kepner, 273 The Indian Ducks and their Allies, E. C. Stuart Baker, to Colleges, 2 The Nature of Enzyme Action, Dr. W. M. Bayliss, BaRuSes The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins, Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer, 275 Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der Speziellen Eiweiss- chemie, Emil Abderhalden, 275 Intracellular Enzymes, Dr. H. M. Vernon, 275 Elementary Solid Geometry, including the Mensuration of the Simpler Solids, W. H. Jackson, 277 Euclid Simplified in Accordance with the New University Regulations, Saradaranian Ray, 277 A Preliminary Geometry, Noel S. Lydon, 277 Examples in Elementary Mechanics, Practical, and Theoretical, W. J. Dobbs, 277 Die Entstehung der Kontinente, der Vulkane und Gebirge, P.O: ‘Graphical, oh Kohler, 277 XXXVI Die Geologischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre, G. Steinmann, 277 Das Gebiss des Menschen und der Anthropomorphen Ver- gleichend-anatomische Untersuchungen, Dr. P. Adloff, 278 The Hope Reports, 278 Calcul Graphique et Nomographie, M. d’Ocagne, 279 Mythenbildung und Erkenntnis, G. I. Lipps, 279 The Old Yellow Book, Charles W. Hadell, 270 Higher Education in London, 297 Cranes: their Construction, Mechanical Working, Anton Bottcher, 301 Essays on Evolution, 1889-1907, F.R.S., 302 The Annual of the British School at Athens, H. R. Hall, 393 The Collected Mathematical Papers of James Joseph Sylves- ter, 303 Russland, A. von Krassnow and A. Woeikow, 304 Locomotive Performance, William F. M. Goss, 305 The Railway Locomotive, Vaughan Pendred, 305 Feste Lésungen und Isomorphismus, Dr. Giuseppe Bruni, 300 The Economic Open-air Chalet for the Hygienic Treat- ment of Consumption and Other Diseases, R. Foster Owen, 307 Welt-Leben-Seele, Max Kassowitz, 307 Abhandlungen iiber theoretische Physik, Lorentz, 307 The Wonderful House that Jack Has, Columbus N. Millard, Equipment, and Prof. E. B. Poulton, Profs idee 397 The People of the Polar North, Knud Rasmussen, 311 L’Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), Mar- cellin Boule, 312 Découverte d’un Squelette Humain Mousterien A La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze), A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon, 312 Black-water Fever, S. R. Christophers and C. A. Bentley, 373 Physical Observations of the National Antarctic Expedition, 320 Plant Physiology and Ecology, Prof. F. E. Clements, 331 Conditions of Life in the Sea, J. Johnstone, E. W. Nelson, 332 The Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, J. T. Share-Jones, 333 Decorative Glass Processes, A. L. Duthie, 334 The Judgment of Paris, and some Other Legends Astrono- mically Considered, Hon. Emmeline M. Plunket, H. R. Hall, 335 Heat for Engineers, Chas. R. Darling, Prof. C. A. Smith, IID Highway Engineering, Chas E. Morrison, 336 A Text-book on Roads and Pavements, E. P. Spalding, 336 Modern Geometry, C. Godfrey and A. W. Siddons, 337 The Analytical Geometry of the Conic Sections, Rev. E. H. Askwith, 337 Formeln und Hilfstafeln fiir Geographische Ortsbestimm- ungen, Prof. Th. Albrecht, 338 Human Speech, a Study in the Purposive Action of Living Matter, N. C. Macnamara, 338 Exercising in Bed, Sanford Bennett, 339 Cement Laboratory Manual, Prof. L. A. Waterbury, 339 “Saint ” Gilbert: the Story of Gilbert White and Selborne, J. C. Wright, 339 Les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Mediterranée, C. Houard, 339 Practical Coastal Navigation, including Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longitude, and Deviation of Compass, Commander H. C. Lockyer, 340 Das Kesslerloch bei Thaingen, Dr. J. Heierli, 342 Report on the Work of the Imperial Institute, 1906-7, Prof. W.R. Dunstan, F.R.S., 343 up A Scheme for the Promotion of Scientific Research, Walter B. Priest, 345 National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, 355 Volkerpsychologie, eine Untersuchung der Entwickelungs- gesetze von Sprache, Mythus und Sitte, Wilhelm Wundt, 361 Das Geschlechtsleben in der Vélkerpsychologie, Otto Stoll, 361 Lnudex Nat ire, March 25, 1909 ' The Bone Marrow: a Cytological Study, W. E. Carnegie Dickson, 362 Handbuch der Klimatologie, Dr. Julius Hann, 363 Cours de Chimie inorganique, F. Swarts, 363 A Text-book of Inorganic Chemistry, A. F. Holleman, 363 General Chemistry for Schools and Colleges, Dr. Alexander Smith, 363 The New Matriculation Chemistry, specially adapted to the London University Matriculation Syllabus, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 363 The Theory and Practice of Bridge Construction in Timber, Iron and Steel, Morgan W. Davies, 365 Metallic Alloys, G. H. Gulliver, 365 Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star-finding Tables, Lieut.-Commander Armistead Rust, Capt. H. C. Lockyer, 365 Nautical Charts, G. R. Putnam, Capt. H. C. Lockyer, 365 A Text-book of Theodolite Surveying and Levelling, Prof. James Park, Capt. H. C. Lockyer, 365 Penrose’s Pictorial Annual, 366 The Edinburgh School Atlas, 366 Mountaineering in the Land of the Midnight Sun, Mrs. Aubrey le Blond, 369 System and Science in Education, 382 The Natural History of Cancer, with Special Reference to its Causation and Prevention, W. Roger Williams, 391 Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer, Dr. Charles Powell White, 391 Unsere Ahrenreihe (Progonotaxis Hominis), Ernst Haeckel, Prof. G. Elliot Smith, F.R.S., 392 Practical Exercises in Physical Geography, Prof. W. M. Davis, 393 Water-pipe and Sewer Discharge Diagrams, T. C. Ekin, 394 British Oak Galls, E. T. Connold, 394 Cours d’Astronomie, H. Andoyer, 395 Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines, A. H. Gibson, 395 Valve-gears for Steam Engines, Prof. Cecil H. Peabody, 396 The Bull of the Kraal and the Heavenly Maidens: a Tale of Black Children, Dudley Kidd, 396 Fruit Trees and their Enemies, Spencer U. Pickering and Fred. V. Theobald, 396 Die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens, 396 Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Gelenkmechanilk, Prof. Strasser, 397 A Woman’s Way through Unknown Labrador, Mrs. L. Hubbard, J. G. Millais, gor The Confessions of a Beachcomber, E. J. Banfield, 403 Collection of Papers contributed on the Occasion of the Celebration of Prof. J. Sakurai’s Jubilee, Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., 404 Encyclopedia of Agriculture by the Most Eminent Authori- ties, Dr. E. J. Russell, 421 The Prevention of Tuberculosis, Dr. Arthur Newsholme, 422 Folk Memory, or the Continuity of British Archzology, Walter Johnson, 423 Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment, Dr. R. W. Allen, 423 Chambers’s Wonder Books: (1) the Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424; (2) the Wonder Book of the Atmosphere, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424; (3) Electricity for Young People, Tudor Jenks, 424; (4) Photography for Young People, Tudor Jenks, 424 A Text-book of Sound, Prof. E. H. Barton, 425 Traité de Physique, O. D. Chwolson, 425 The 'Zonal-belt Hypothesis, Joseph T. Wheeler, 426 A Monograph of the British Desmidiacer, W. West and Dr. G. S. West, 426 Crops, their Characteristics and their Cultivation, Primrose McConnell, 427 The Moths of the British Isles, Richard South, 427 Les Stations lacustres d’Europe aux Ages de la Pierre et du Bronze, Dr. Robert Munro, 427 Les Progrés récents de l’Astronomie, Prof. P. Stroobant, W. E. Rolston, 427 Essai d’une Explication du Mécanisme de la Périodicité dans le Soleil et les ttoiles rouges Variables, A. Brester, Jz., 433 Therapeutics of the Circulation, Sir Lauder Brunton, 451 Nature, March 25, 1909. Index XXXVII Justus von Liebig, Jacob Volhard, Dr. T. E. Thorpe, C.B., | Ristenpart (Dr.), New Catalogues of Proper Motions, 48 F.R.S., 452 The Design and Construction of Ships, Prof. J. H. Biles, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 454 Education and the Heredity Spectre, Dr. F. H. Hayward, ie entices Prof Albers: Gotkel,- Dr. C. Chirea, F.R-S.; 455 The Ethical Aspects of Evolution, W. Benett, 456 The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions, and how to Recognise Them, Major F. Wall, 56 Gays New Manual of Botany, 457 The New Word, Allen Upward, 457 Scientific Corroborations of Theosophy, Dr. A. Marques, Reoitats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9. Physique du Globe, G. Lecointe; Zoologie, P. P. C. Hoek, H. F. E. Jungersen, L. Bohmig, L. Plate ; Oceano- graphie, H. Arctowski and H. R. Mill; Geologie, H. Arctowski, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1g01-3. Aufbau und Gestalt- ung von Kerguelen, E. Werth; Geologische Beobacht- ungen auf Kerguelen, E. VThilippi; Petrographische Beschreibung der Kerguelen-Gesteine, R. Reinisch, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Geographie von Heard-Eiland, E. von Drygalski; Geologie der Heard-Insel, E. Philippi; Gesteine der Heard-Insel, R. Reinisch; Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, E. Vanhoffen ; Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, W. Mein- ardus, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460 Some Electrochemical Centres, J. N. Pring, 463 The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, E. Wester- marck, Prof. A. E. Taylor, 481 Electricity, Present and Future, Lucien Poincaré, Maurice Solomon, 482 Mutation et Traumatismes, L. Blaringhem, 483 The Scope and Content of the Science of Anthropology, Juul Dieserud, 484 The Mechanical Production of Cold, J. A. Ewing, 454 Principles and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene, W. P. Welpton, 485 Bathy-orographical Map of the British Isles, Bathy-oro- graphical Map of South America, 486 Handbook to Accompany the Map of the British Isles, 486 Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, J. E. Wright, 486 A Course of Plane Geometry for Advanced Students, C. V. Durell, 486 The Contents of the M. J. M. Hill, 486 The Elementary Dynamics of Solids and Fluids, Prof. W. Peddie, 486 London Milk Supply from a Farmer’s Point of View, 491 Ninth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Picker- ing, F.R.S., Dr. E. J. Russell, 500 Alfarerias del Noroeste Argentinto, F. Outes, 502 Sobre el Hallazgo de Alfarerias Mexicanus en la Provincia de Buenos Aires, F. Outes, 502 Arqueologia de San Blas, F. Outes, 502 Fifth and Sixth Books of Euclid, Reynolds (Prof. Sidney H.), the Igneous and Associated Sedimentary Rocks of the Tourmakeady District (County Mayo), 268 Ricco (Prof.), the Sea Wave of December 28 a Result of the Recent Earthquake, 347 Richardson (S. S.), Magnetism and Electricity and Principles of Electrical Measurement, 246 Richarz (P. S.), Hills Traversed by Danube between Hain- burg and Pozsény, 171 Ridgeway (Prof.), Anthropology and Classical Studies, 447 Rieffel (Henri), Anatomy of Human Thymus, 360 Riesenfield (E. H.), Constitution of Perchromates, 19 pernctleieh (Prof. E. G. von), Death and Obituary Notice of, 165 Ripley (Prof.), the European Population of the United States, Lecture at Royal Anthropological Institute, 145 Rispail (L.), New Determination of the Equivalent of Heat, 59 the Ritter (Mr.), the Weights of Developing Eggs, 105 Rivet (Dr.), Remains of Primitive Man Discovered in 1843 near Lagoa Santa, Brazil, 46 Roads and Pavements, a Text-book on, F. P. Spalding, 6 Rekeron (Dr. D. A.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 316 Rocks, Magnesium in Water and, Prof. Ernest H. L. Schwarz, 309 Rogers (Dr. A. W.), Dr. Sandberg on the Anticlinal Struc- ture of Tygerberg, 149 Rogers (Prof. L.), Variations in Pressure and Composition of the Blood in Cholera and their Bearing on the Success of Hypertonic Saline Transfusion and its Treatment, 506-7 Rolston (William E.), the Lick Observatory Crocker Eclipse Expedition, January, 1908; Prof. Campbell and Dr. Albrecht, 70; the Stars of the Year, 127; Star Calendar for 1909, 127; the Star Almanack, 127; the Study of Stellar Evolution: an Account of Some Recent Method of Astrophysical Research, Prof. George Ellery Hale, 191; Populare Astrophysik, Dr. J. Scheiner, 191; les Progrés récents de |’Astronomie, Prof. P. Stroobant, 427 Rontgen Rays: Emission and Transmission of Réntgen Rays, G. W. C. Kaye, 28; Influence of Pressure on the Ionisation produced in Gases by the X-Rays, the Satura- tion Current, E. Rothé, 59; a Remarkable Development in X-Ray Apparatus, 472; see also Radiography Rose (Dr. T. K.), a Brilliant Meteor and its Train, 499 Rosenhain (Walter), Eutectics Research, No. 1, the Alloys of Lead and Tin, 57 Ross (A. D.), Improved Form of Magnetometer for the testing of Magnetic Materials, 479 Ross (Prof. Ronald, C.B., F.R.S.), a Method of Solving Algebraic Equations, 398 Roth (H. Ling), the Origin of the Aborigines of Tas- mania, 367 Rothé (E.), Influence of Pressure on the Ionisation pro- duced in Gases by the X-Rays, the Saturation Current, 3 Rotifers, Colony-formation among, F. M. Surface, 292 Routledge (W. S.), Primitive Pottery and Iron-working in British East Africa, 148 Royal Anthropological Institute, 148, 447, 478; the Euro- pean Population of the United States, Prof. Ripley at, 145 Royal Astronomical Society, 147, 239 Royal Dublin Society, 178, 389, 479 Royal Institution: Rays of Positive Electricity, Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S., at, 52; Radio-active Changes in the Earth, Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S., at, 206; the A=ther of Space, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., at, 322; the World of Life, as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S., at, 384 Royal Irish Academy, 179, 240, 449 Royal Meteorological Society, 118, 240, 388, 508; the Dawn of Meteorology, Prof. G. Hellmann at, 173 Royal Microscopical Society, 89, 177, 329, 447 Royal Society, 28, 57, 88, 177, 208, 239, 267, 299, 329, 358, 387, 447, 478, 500; Royal Society’s Medal Awards, 15, 136; Anniversary Meeting of the Royal Society, 134 Royal Society, Edinburgh, 58, 209, 329, 479 ; Royal Society, New South Wales, 119, 240, 270, 419 Royal Society of South Africa, Cape Town, go, 149 Royds (T.), Measurements of the Grating Spectrum of Radium Emanation, 26; the Nature of the a Particle, 119 Ruhemann (S.), Action of Urethane on Esters of Organic Acids and Mustard Oils, 509 Rural Education, the Organisation of, 161 Ruskin Nature Reader, the, 66 Russ (S.), Do the Radio-active Gases (Emanations) be- long to the Argon Series? 23; Diffusion of Actinium and Thorium Emanations, 209; the Radiation of the Active Deposit from Radium through a Vacuum, 340 Russell (A.), Carminite in Cornwall, 147 Russell (Dr. A.), Simple Formula for Effective Resistance of Inner Conductor of a Concentric Main for High-frequency Currents, 447 Russell (A. S.), a Question in Absorption Spectroscopy, 59 Russell (Dr. E. J.), Annual Report of the Transvaal De- partment of Agriculture, 1906-7, 235; Report of the XXXVill Imperial Department of Agriculture for the Years 1905-6 and 1906-7, 235; the Agricultural Journal of India, 235; Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India, 235 ; the Movement of Water in Soils, 310; Encyclopedia of Agriculture by the Most Eminent Authorities, 421; the Planting of Fruit Trees, Ninth Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Pickering, 500 ; Russell (Robert), New Method of Introducing the Elliptic Functions, 22 ; New Proof of Legendre’s Identity, 22 Russland, A. von Krassnow and A. Woeikow, 304 Rust (Lieut.-Commander Armistead), Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star-finding Tables, 365 Rutherford (Prof. E., F.R.S.), the Nature and Charge of the a-Particles from Radio-active Substances, 12; Do the Radio-active Gases (Emanations) belong to the Argon Series? 23; on the Number and Absorption of the B Par- ticles emitted by Radium, 23; Conclusions from Recent Experiments on the Scintillations of Zinc Sulphide (as in the Spinthariscope), 26; the Nature of the a Particle, 119; some Properties of the Radium Emanation, 119; the Boiling Point of the Radium Emanation, 457 Sabin (A. H.), House-painting, Glazing, Paper-hanging, and White-washing, 97 Sainmont (Mr.), Post-foetal Development of Ova in the Cat, 167 Sakuri’s (Prof. J.) Jubilee, Collection of Papers contri- buted on the Occasion of the Celebration of, Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., 404 Salinity of the North Sea, on the, Prof. D’Arcy W. Thomp- son, C.B., 189 Salmon (E. S.), Report on Economic Mycology for the Year 1907-8, 199 Salmon (Paul), Antimony in Syphilis, 480 Sampson (Dr.), Does the Kidney form an Internal Secre- tion? 466 Sandstone a Mineral, 139 Sang (Alfred), Electrons and Atomic Weights, 459 Sanitation: Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis, Prof. S. C. Pres- cott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 6 Sapphires, Artificial, Louis Paris, 119 Sattler (Georg), a Method of Solving Algebraic Equations, 398 Sayce (Prof.), Site of Meroe discovered, 406 Scaup-duck in Scotland, P. H. Bahr, 257 Scenery : Evolution of the Feeling of Love of Wild Nature, Dr. Havelock: Ellis, 466 Schaer (M.), Making a Forty-centimetre (15°7 inch) Casse- grain Reflector, 378 Scharff (Dr. R. F.), the Irish Horse and its Early History, 449 Scheel (Dr. K.), Manometer to Measure Small Differences of Gas Pressure, 469 Scheiner (Dr. J.), Populaire Astrophysik, 191 Schlomann (Alfred), the Deinhardt-Schlomann Series of Technical Dictionaries in Six Languages, German, English, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish, 158 Schmidt (Father W.), Totemism in Fiji, 106 Schneider (Prof. Karl Camillo), Versuch einer Begriindung der Deszendenztheorie, 34 Schneider (Dr. R.), Measurements of Solar Radiation at Vienna from March, 1904, to September, 1906, 168 Schneider (Dr.), Distribution of Pelagic Eggs and Larve of the Food-fishes, 225 Schofield (A. T.), Functional Nerve Diseases, 5 Schon (H. A. E. C. von), Hydro-electric Practice : a Prac- tical Manual of the Development of Water Power, its Con- version to Electric Energy, and its Distant Transmission, 215 School Hygiene, Second International Congress on, 264 School-work: and After-life, 411 Schukarew (A.), Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de 1’Université de Moscou, 185 Schultze (Dr. Arthur), Graphic Algebra, 35 Schuster (Prof. Arthur, F.R.S.), the 4°79 Period of Sun- spot Activity, 7; on the Magnetic Action of Sun-spots, 279 Index [ Nature, March 25, 1909 1 Schwartz (Prof. A.), the Dawn of Human Intention, Eoliths, 210 Schwarz (Prof. Ernest H. L.), Magnesium in Water and Rocks, 309 Science: the Science Faculty of the University of London, Dr. Augustus D. Waller, F.R.S., 21; From an Easy Chair, Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S., 31; the Correlation of the Teaching of Mathematics and Science, Prof. Perry, 143; Mythenbildung und Erkenntnis, G. F. Lipps, 279; Science and the Practical Problems of the Future, Prof. E. L. Nichols at American Association for Advancement of Science, 325; Report on the Work of the Imperial Institute, 1906 and 1907, Prof. W. R. Dunstan, F.R.S., 343; a Scheme for the Promotion of Scientific Research, Walter B. Priest, 345 ; Science Masters in Con- ference, G. F. Daniell, 353; the British Science Guild, 379; System and Science in Education, 382; the New Word, Allen Upward, 457; Meaning and Method of Scientific Research, Dr. L. A. Bauer at Philosophical Society of Washington, 473; Scientific Societies and the Admission of Women Fellows, W. J. Atkinson, 488 Scientific Centres, Some, XIV., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, Prof. de Vries, 101 Scoones (P.), the Eton Algebra, 64 Scotland: Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scot- land, J. F. Tocher, 223; Phosphorescence on a Scottish Loch, Thos. Jamieson, 309 Scott (Andrew), Report for 1907 on the Lancashire Sea- Fisheries Laboratory at the University of Liverpool and the Sea-fish Hatchery at Piel, 151 Scott (Mrs. D. H.), Some Curious Spindle-shaped Bodies in Burntisland Material, 86; on the Contractile Roots of the Aroid Sauromatum guttatum, 86 Sea, Conditions of Life in the, a Short Account of Quanti- tative Marine Biological Research, J. Johnstone, E. W. Nelson, 332 Sea-blubber Arrack, Kumagusu Minakata, 8 Seager (R. H.), University of Philadelphia’s Excavations in Crete, 168 Seals, Influence of, on Fisheries, Dr. Wollebaek, 173 Searle (G. F. C., F.R.S.), Experimental Elasticity, 218 Seaweeds, a Study in, 126 Sederholm (J. J.), the Oldest European Sediments, 266 See (Prof. T. J. J.), Cause of Earthquakes and the Origin of Mountain Ranges, 293 Seeley (Prof. H. G., F.R.S.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 314 Segerblom (W.), Laboratory Manual of Qualitative Analysis, 217 Seismology: Secondary Oscillations of Oceanic Tides, Dr. E. Oddone, 46; Earthquakes and John Wesley, Sir Edward Fry, G.C.B., F.R.S., 98; the Physics of Earth- quake Phenomena, Dr. C. G. Knott, 184; Geological In- terpretation of the Earth-movements Associated with the Californian Earthquake of April 18, 1906, R. D. Oldham, 209; Earthquake in Calabria on December 28, 255; Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake, Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., 280; the Italian Earthquake, 287; Earth- quake of December 28, 316; Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 428; the Italian Earthquake, the Bologna Medical Ex- pedition in Aspromonte, 434; the Messina Earthquake, Dr. C. Davison, 496; Composition of the Interior of the Globe, Prof. L. Palazzo, 259; Earthquake Records, Prof Milne, 321; Recent Earthquakes, 368; Cause of Earth quakes and the Origin of Mountain Ranges, Prof. T. J. J See, 293: the Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earth-~ quakes, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424; Seismograms of the Earthquake of January 23, Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 428; Earthquake on January 23 in Luristan, 496; Rela- tion of Barometric Pressure to the Pulsation of the Earth, N. Shimono, 468 Selborne, ‘‘ Saint ’’ Gilbert, the Story of Gilbert White and, J. C. Wright, 339 Selby (Mr.), Tidal Observations, 321 Semple (Lieut.-Colonel), Enteric Fever in India, 21 Senderens (J. B.), New Method of Preparation of the Alkyl Ethers, 419 Sequestrated Church Property, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 308 Sericiculture : Death and Obituary Notice of Sir Thomas Wardle, 316 Nature, March 25, 1609 Lndex XXXIX Serotherapy : Atoxyl and Sleeping Sickness, Dr. A. D. P. Hodges, 198; Vaccination of Sheep against Blue Tongue, Dr. Theiler, 318 Service (R.), Field Natural History, 296 Sever (George F.), Laboratory and Factory Tests in Elec- trical Engineering, 64 Seward (Prof. A. C., F.R.S.), the Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge (June 22-24, 1909), 221 Sewertzoff (Prof. A. N.), Development of the Muscles, Nerves, and Limbs of the Lower Four-limbed Vertebrates, 4 aay History and Control of, D. M. Mottier, 105 Sexton (F. P.), Effect of Pressure on the Boiling Point of Sulphur, 25 Seyewetz (A.), Formation of Hydrocyanic Acid Action of Nitric Acid on Phenols and Quinones, 449 Share-Jones (J. T.), the Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, in the 33 Shee (Dr.), Wave Motion in the Atmosphere recorded by the Microbarograph, 24 ; Is our Climate changing? 25 ; Meteor- ology of the Winter Quarters of the Discovery, 27 Sherlock (Mr.), Country between Newark and Nottingham, 470 Sherrington (Prof. C. S., F.R.S.), Reciprocal Innervation. of Antagonistic Muscles, XII., Proprioceptive Reflexes, 358; Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles, XIII., the Antagonism between Reflex Inhibition and Reflex Excitation, 387 Shimono (N.), Relation of Barometric Pressure to the Pul- sation of the Earth, 468 Ships, the Design and Construction of, Prof. J. H. Biles, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., 454 Siddons (A. W.), Modern Geometry, 337 Siedlecki (M.), the Flying-frog (Rhacophorus reinwardtt) of Java, 105 Silk-producing Insects of West Africa, Gerald C. Dudgeon, 160 Silkworms, Inheritance in, Vernon L. Kellogg, 265 Simpson (Dr. G. C.), Electricity of Rain and its Origin in Thunderstorms, 507 Singh (P.), Manufacture of Ngai Camphor from Blumea balsamifera, 408 Sladen (F. W. L.), the Lore of the Honey-bee, Tickner Edwardes, 6 Sladen, the Percy, Trust Expedition to the Indian Ocean, J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., and J. C. F. Fryer, 204 Sleeping Sickness, Atoxyl and, Dr. A. D. P. Hodges, 198 Slipher (Mr.), the Spectrum of Mars, 351 ; Smart (Dr.), Morehouse’s Comet, 1g908c, 108, 143 Smedley (Ida), Women and the Chemical Society, 37 Smith (Albert), Animated Photographs in Natural Colours, 314 Smith (Dr. Alexander), General Chemistry for Schools and Colleges, 363 Smith (A. M.), the Factors influencing Photosynthesis in Water Plants, 85 Smith (Bernard), Curious Effect of Surface Ablation of a Glacier, 282 Smith (Bruce), cipia,’’ 130 Smith (Prof. C. A.), Heat for Engineers, Chas. R. Darling, 335 Smith (E. Heber), Germination of the Broad Bean Seed, 400 Smith (Prof. G. Elliot, F.R.S.), Nubian Cemeteries, Anatomical Report by, 132; Unsere Ahrenreihe (Pro- gonotaxis Hominis)—kritische Studien tiber phyletische Anthropologie (Festschrift zur 350-jahrigen Jubelfeier der Thiiringen Universitat Jena und der damit verbundenen Ubergabe des Phyletischen Museums am 30 Juli, 1908), Ernst Haeckel, 392 Smith (Prof. Theobald), Bacteriology and Tuberculosis of Animals, the Tubercle Bacillus and Tuberculin, 50 Smith (W. Campbell), Mica from North Wales and Chlorite from Connemara, 147 Smith (Prof. W. R.), Carriage and Storage of Ferro-silicon, 436 Snakes, the Poisonous Terrestrial, of our British Indian Epinions: and How to Recognise Them, Major F. Wall, 45 an Annotated Copy of Newton’s ‘‘ Prin- Society of Arts: Scientific Education of Naval Architects, Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., at, 111 Society of Chemical Industry, 8 Society of Engineers, Mechanical Flight, Herbert Chatley at, 413 Sociology, an Investigation of the, and Religion of the Anda- manese, Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S., 345 Soddy (Frederick), a Disclaimer, 99; Production of Helium from Uranium, 129; the Product and Rays of Uranium X, 366 Soil, the, A. D. Hall, 127 Soils, the Movement of Water in, Dr. J. Walter Leather, 309; Dr. E. J. Russell, 310 Sola (J. Comas), Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s Principal Satellites and of Titan, 232 Solar Activity, Terrestrial Electricity and, Dr. A. Nodon, 48 Solar Eclipse of 1911 April 28, the Total, Dr. Downing, 295 Solar Vortices and their Magnetic Effects, Prof. Zeeman, 20 Solereder (Dr. H.), Systematic Anatomy of Dicotyledons, 211 Solomon (Maurice), Electricity, Present and Future, Lucien Poincaré, 482 \Sound, a Text-book of, Prof. E. H. Barton, 425 South (Richard), the Moths of the British Isles, 427 Southern (Rowland), Occurrence of a Fresh-water Nemertine in Ireland, 8 Southwell (T.), Arctic Whale Fishery for Past Season, 473 Space, the Ether of, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 322 Spalding (F. P.), a Text-book on Roads and Pavements, 336 Spectroscopy : a New Spectroscopic Laboratory at Pasadena, 80; Spectroscopic Binaries, Mr. Plaskett, 169, 295 Spectrum Analysis: Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous Hydrogen, Rudolf Ladenburg and Stanislaw Loria, 7; the Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c, A. de la Baume Pluvinel and F. Baldet, 20; Spectroscopic Researches on the Morehouse Comet, 1908c, H. Deslandres and A. Ber- nard, 59; Spectrum of the Morehouse Comet, H. Des- landres and J. Bosler, 149, 169; M. Bernard, 169; the Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse, Prof. Frost and Mr. Parkhurst, 439; Prof. Barnard, 4239; Prof. Campbell and Dr. S. Albrecht, 439; the Wave-length of the Hé Line, Mr. Evershed, 20; Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Solar Spectra, Prof. A. Fowler, 58; Dissymmetrical Separations in the Zeeman Effect in Tungsten and Molyb- denum, Dr. Robert Jack, 59; a Question in Absorption Spectroscopy, Dr. R. A. Houstoun and A. S. Russell, 59; the Origin of Spectra, Albert Eagle, 68; the Spectra of the Major Planets, Prof. Percival Lowell, 42; Prof. Beyerinck, 139; Radiation of Various Spectral Lines of Neon, Helium and Sodium in a Magnetic Field, J. E. Purvis, 178; New Groups of Residual Rays in the Long Wave Spectrum, Prof. E. F. Nichols and Dr. W. S. Day, 200: Characteristics of the Superior (K,) Layer of the Sun’s Atmosphere, M. Deslandres, 200; Zeeman Effect in Weak Magnetic Fields, Prof. H. Nagaoka, 221; a Sixth Type of Stellar Spectra, Prof. Pickering, 295; Errors in Measures of Star Images and Spectra, Prof. Perrine, 320; the Spectrum of Mars, Mr. Slipher, 351; Method Whereby from any Prismatic Spectrum a Rectified Copy may be Obtained, Prof. Fowler and A. Eagle, 377 ; Measurement of Rotatory Dispersive Power in the Visible and Ultra- Violet Regions of the Spectrum, Dr. T. Martin Lowry, 387; Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum, Father Cortie, 438; Mr. Evershed, 439; the Stars of the c and ac Subdivisions in the Maury Spectral Classifica- tion, E. Hertzsprung, 439; the Brilliancy and Intensity of the Cupric Chloride Flame Spectrum, Prof. W. N. Hartley, F.R.S., 487; Effect of Pressure upon Arc Spectra, No. 3, Silver, A 4ooo-A 4600, Dr. W. G. Duffield, 507 ; Absorption Spectra of Solid Tetramethyl Picene and of its Solutions, Annie Homer and J. E. Purvis, 509; Absorp- tion Spectra of Mesitylene and Trichloromesitylene, J. E. Purvis, 509; Absorption Spectra of Concentrated and Diluted Solutions of Chlorophyll, J. E. Purvis, 509 Speech, Human, a Study in the Purposive Action of Living Matter, N. C. Macnamara, 338 Spence (M.), Climate of Orkney, 259 : Spencer (Herbert), the Life and Letters of, Dr. David Duncan, 122 xl Index Nature, March 25, 19°9 Spencer (Dr. J. W. W.), the Falls of Niagara, their Evolution and varying Relations to the Great Lakes, Characteristics of the Power and the Effects of its Diversion, 11; Spoliation of the Falls of Niagara, 18 Speoiser (Dr. P.), Distribution of the Reindeer Gad-fly, 141 Stafford (Dr. J.), Larva and Spat of the Canadian Oyster, 473 Stansfield (H.), Secondary Effects in the Echelon Spectro- scope, 26 Stars: New Catalogues of Proper Motions, Dr. Risten- part, 48; K. Hirayama, 48; Designations of Recently Discovered Variable Stars, 108; the Stars of the Year, W. E. Rolston, 127; Star Calendar for 1909, W. E. Rolston, 127; the Star Almanack, W. E. Rolston, 127; the Change in the Physical Condition of Nova Persei, Prof. Barnard, 143 ; Spectroscopic Binaries, Mr. Plaskett, 169, 295; a Recent Observation of Nova Cygni, Dr. Karl Bohlin, 169; the Parallax of 61 Cygni, Prof. G Abetti, 261; the Stars surrounding 59 Cygni, Prof. Jacoby, 439; the Study of Stellar Evolution, an Account of some Recent Methods of Astrophysical Research, Prof. George Ellery Hale, William E. Rolston, 191; Double-star Astronomy, T. Lewis, 247; One Hundred New Double Stars, Dr. R. G. Aitken, 201; Double-star Orbits, Prof. Doberck, 320; the Poles of Double-star Orbits, Prof. Doberck, 378; Errors of Double-star Measures, Dr. H. E. Lau, 439; the Variable Star U Geminorum, J. van der Bilt, 295; a Sixth Type of Stellar Spectra, Prof. Pickering, 295; Errors in Measures of Star Images and Spectra, Prof. Perrine, 320; Deter- mination of the Apex and Vertex from the Stars in the Porter Catalogue, S. Beljawsky, 410; Colours of Stars in Galactic and Non-galactic Regions, Mr. Franks, 410; an Eccentric Variable Star, Mary W. Whitney, 410; the Orbit of @ Aquila, Mr. Baker, 499; Essai d’une Explica- tion du Mechanisme de la Périodicité dans le Soleil et les Etoiles rouges variables, A. Brester, 431; the Stars of the ¢ and ac Subdivisions in the Maury Spectral Classification, E. Hertzsprung, 439; Distribution of the Stars, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 469 Statistics : Statistics of Motor Traffic, A. R. Butterworth, 16; Influence of Infantile Mortality on Birth-rate, G. H. Knibbs, 240; Sequestrated Church Property, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 308; Death of Prof. Carroll D. Wright, 495 Steam: Valve-gears for Steam Engines, Prof. Cecil H Peabody, 396; the Increased Expansion of Steam attain- able in Steam Turbines, James » Watt Greenock, Hon. C. A. Parsons, F-RS., 502 Stebbing (E. P.), a Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India, 244; Insect Pests in Indian Forests, 292; Scolytidze from Indian Forests, 442 Steel, the Ageing of, C. E. Stromeyer, 405 Stein (Dr. M. A.), Explorations of, in Turkestan, 17; Mountain Panoramas from the Pamirs and Kuen Lun, 97; Expedition into Central Asia, 140 Steinmann (G.), die geologischen Grundlagen der Abstamm- ungslehre, 277 Steinwehr (Mr. von), Research on the Silver Voltameter, 437 Stejneger (Dr. L.), Theory of Existence of a Land-bridge between Scotland and Scandinavia based on Distribution of Charr, 496 Stephens (T.), Geology of the North-west Coast of Tas- mania, 180 Stevens (Miss E. L.), Embryo-sac of the Penzeacez, 90 Stevens (F. H.), a School Arithmetic, 156 Stewart (Dr. A. W.), Recent Advances in Organic Chem- istry, 243 Stoecklin (E. de), New Artificial Peroxydase, Tannate of Iron, 300; Oxidation of Alcohols by the Simultaneous Action of Tannate of Iron and Solution of Hydrogen Peroxide, 510 Sol (Otto), das Geschlechtsleben in der Volkerpsychologie, 361 Stone Circles? Who Built the British, J. Gray, 236 Stone Circles in Ireland, W. E. Hart, 488 Stoney (G. G.), Tension of Metallic Films deposited by Electrolysis, 508 Stopes (Dr. Marie), Fossil Insects from Japan, 118 Lecture at Story (F.), the Ziirich Woods, 376 Strahan (Aubrey), the Coals of South Wales, with Special Reference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite, 33 Strasser (Prof. H.), Lehrbuch der Muskel- und Gelenk- mechanik, 397 Stratton (F. J. M.), the Constants of the Lunar Libra- tion, 25 Stromberg (Gustaf), Parallax of 23 H Camelopardalis, 43 Sitomever (C. E.), Mercury Bubbles, 160; “the Ageing of Steel, 405 Stroobant (Prof.), Corrections of the Position and Diameter of Mercury, 232; les Progrés récents de 1’Astronomie, 427 Strutt (Hon. R. J., F.R.S.), on the Rate of Production of Helium from Radium, 23; Radio-active Changes in the Earth, Lecture at Royal Institution, 206 Students’ Physical Laboratories, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 128; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 159 Studer (Dr. T.), Prehistoric Dogs, 45 Sturge (W. A.), Age of Prehistoric Excavations in Search of Flints at Brandon (Grime’s Graves), 141 Stiirtz (B.), the ‘‘ Rheindiluvium ’’ from Bingerbruck to Netherlands, 472 Stuyvaert (E.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 256 Suess (Dr. F. E.), Structure of the Narrow Carboniferous Basin of Rossitz, 170 Sugar-cane Experiments in the Leeward Islands, 1906-7, 106 Sugar Plantations, Value of Small Dressings of Lime on the, H. H. Cousins, 168 Sumner (Dr.), Effects of Gun-fire on Schools of Fishes, 111 Sun: Characteristics of the Superior (K,) Layer of the Sun’s Atmosphere, M. Deslandres, 200; the Figure of the Sun, Prof. Charles Lane Poor, 260; the Distribution of Eruptive Prominences on the Solar Disc, Philip Fox, 320; Essai d’une Explication du Mechanisme de la Périodicité dans le Soleil et les Etoiles rouges variables, A. Brester, 431 Sun-spots: the 4-79 Period of Sun-spot Activity, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 7; a Large Group of Sun- spots, 80; Sun-spots in 1907, Dr. Rudolf Wolf, 261; on the Magnetic Action of Sun-spots, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 279; the Magnetic Field in Sun-spots, Prof. Hale, 351; Warm Months in Relation to Sun-spot Numbers, Alex. B. MacDowall, 367; Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum, Father Cortie, 438; Mr. Ever- shed, 439; Interaction of Sun-spots, P. Fox and G. Abetti, 469 Surface (F. M.), Colony-formation among Rotifers, 292 Surgery: the Surgical Anatomy of the Horse, J. T. Share- Jones, 333; an Enormous Urinary Calculus in Man, A. Guépin, 360 Suringar (Dr. J. Valckenier), Linnaeus, 213 Surrey, Highways and Byways in, Eric Parker, 158 Surveying: Surveying for Archeologists, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 283; a Text-book of Theo- dolite Surveying and Levelling, Prof. James Park, Captain H. C. Lockyer, 365 : Svenska Hydrografisk Biologiska Kommissionens Skrifter III., 225 Swarts (F.), Cours de Chimie inorganique, 363 Sweet (Miss G.), Degenerate Eyes of African Golden Moles, 6 Santon (Alan A. Campbell), Occlusion of Residual Gas and the Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes Tubes, 299; Gases Liberated by Conversion of Diamond into Coke in High Vacuum by Kathode Rays, 508 Sylvester (James Joseph), the Collected Mathematical Papers of, 303 System and Science in Education, 382 Tabor (E. H.), Tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe, 196 Tantnes (Miss T.), ‘‘ Dipsacan ”’ and ‘‘ Dipsacotin,’’ 229 Tansley (Mr.), the Woodlands of England, 85 Tarr (Mr.), the Hubbard Glacier of Alaska, 234 ’ xy Nature, March 25, 1999. Index Xl Tasker (H. S.), a Coloured Thio-oxalate, 509 Tasmania, the Origin of the Aborigines of, H. Ling Roth, B67);))- Wenayngoy Tattersall (W. M.), Breeding Habits and Development of Littorina littorea, 478 Taylor (Prof. A. E.), the Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, E. Westermarck, 481 Taylor (E. J.), Colour-sense Training and Colour Using, 272 Taylor (H. L.), Geometrical Optics, 243 Taylor (R. L.), the Separation of Cobalt and Nickel, 118; the Production of White Ferrous Ferrocyanide, 359 Teacher (Dr. J. H.), Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum, 35 Teaching, the Correlation of, Charlie Woods, 310; Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., 310 Technology: Chapters on Paper-making, Clayton Beadle, 212 Telegraphy : Determination of Longitude by Wireless Tele- graphy, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 169; New Radio-tele- graph Station at Bolt Head, South Devon, 166, 196; the New Wireless Telegraph Station, 224; Meteorological Reports by Wireless Telegraphy, 287; Wireless Tele- graphy by Balloons, 291; Collision of the Florida and the Republic, 374; Long-distance Telegraphy, 386; the Telegraphic Transmission of Writing, 441 Telephony: Monotelephone of Great Sensitiveness, Henri Abraham, 29; Submarine Signalling by Sound, J. B. Millet, 434 Telescope, the Story of the, Mr. Mee, 469 Teppaz (L.), Treatment of Baleri in the Horse by Orpi- ment, 360 Textiles: the Cotton Weaver’s Handbook, H. B. Heylin, 63 Theiler (Dr. A.), Piroplasma mutans, 235; Vaccination of Sheep against Blue Tongue, 318 Theobald (Fred. V.), Fruit Trees and their Enemies, a Spraying Calendar, 396 Theosophy, Scientific Corroborations of, a Vindication of the Secret Doctrine by the Latest Discoveries, Dr. A. Marques, 457 Therapeutics: the Economic Open-air Chalet for the Hygienic Treatment of Consumption and other Diseases, R. Foster Owen, 307; Application of d’Arsonvalisation Localised, A. Moutier, 419; MHypotensive Action of d’Arsonvalisation in Permanent Hypertension, M. Letulle and A. Moutier, 480; Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment, Dr. R. W. Allen, 423; Duration of Hypotensive Effects from High-frequency Currents, E. Doumer, 450; Therapeutics of the Circulation, Eight Lectures delivered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physio- logical Laboratory of the University of London, Sir Lauder Brunton, Bart., F.R.S., 451; Antimony in Syphilis, Paul Salmon, 480; Variations in Pressure and Composition of the Blood in Cholera, and their Bear- ing on the Success of Hypertonic Saline Transfusion and its Treatment, Prof. L. Rogers, 506-7 Thermodynamics: the Mechanical Production of Cold, J. A. Ewing, 484 Thiroux (A.), Treatment of Baleri in the Horse by Orpi- ment, 360 Thoday (Mr.), Increase in Dry Weight as a Measure of Assimilation, 85 Thomas (H. H.), the Structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn., 86; Detrital Andalusite in Tertiary and Post- Tertiary Sands, 448; Additional Localities for Idocrase in Cornwall, 448 Thome (Dr. John M.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 43 Thompson (Dr. Ashburton), Rats and Plague, 436 Thompson (Prof. D’Arcy W., C.B.), on the Salinity of the North Sea, 189 Thompson (Wardlaw), South African Blenniide, &c., 472 Thomsen (Prof. Julius), Death of, 464 Thomson (F. Wyville), Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 400 Thomson (Sir J. J., F.R.S.), on the Number and Absorp- tion of the B Particles Emitted by Radium, 23; Rays of ! Positive Electricity, Discourse at Royal Institution, 52; Carriers of Positive Charge of Electricity given off by with Hot Metals, 148; Distribution of Electric Force along the Striated Discharge, 148; Weight of a Corpuscle on the Electrical Theory of Gravitation, 148 Thornton (T.), Cotton Cultivation in Tobago, 229 Thorpe (Dr. T. E., C.B., F.R.S.), Justus von Liebig, Jacob Volhard, 452 Thurston (E.), Sympathetic Magic Figures Peculiar to the Laccadive Islands, 46 Ticks, 219 Tikhoff (G. A.), the Selective Absorption and Diffusion of Light in Interstellar Space, 449 Tillyard (R. J.), Australian Libelluline, 120 Titan, Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s Principal Satellites and of, J. Comas Sola, 232 Tocher (J. F.), Pigmentation Survey of School Children in Scotland, 223 Todd (L.), the Eton Algebra, 64 Tornquist (Prof.), the Flysch-zone in Allgau and the Vorarl- berg, 471 Townsend (Fitzhugh), Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineering, 64 Townsend (Prof. J. S., F.R.S.), aa Trades, Dangerous, Carriage and Storage of Ferro-silicon, Dr. Dodd, Dr. Harris, and Prof. W. R. Smith, 436 Trannoy (R.), Rapid Preparation of Calcium Phosphide for making Hydrogen Phosphide, 389 Transport, Engineering in Relation to, J. C. Inglis, 16 Transvaal Department of Agriculture, Annual Report of the, 1906-7, Dr. E. J. Russell, 235 Trelease (Prof. W.), Agave Species, 229 Trigonometry: Foundations of Trigonometry, Dr. Arthur C. Lunn, 79; Compensation of a Closed Chain of Trian- gulation, P. Hatt, 119 Trollé (Lieut. A.), Danish North-east Greenland Expedition, 197-8; the Danish North-east Greenland Expedition, the Charges on Ions, Tost Waters: Management and Angling, Wilson H. Armi- stead, 5 Trouton (Prof. F. T.), the Analogy between Absorption from Solutions and Aqueous Condensation on Surfaces, 25 Trybom (Mr.), Experiments with Marked Flat-fish and Lobsters, - Piscine Enemies of Salmon and Trout Ova, 225 Trypanoseetasion: Treatment of Baleri in the Horse by Orpiment, A. Thiroux and L. Teppaz, 360 Tsetse Flies, Crocodiles and, Prof. E. A. Minchin, 458 Tuberculosis: Mobility and Dissemination of Infected Dust due to the Disturbance of Dried Tuberculous Sputum, G. Kiiss, 29; the International Congress on Tubercu- losis at Washington, 49; Bacteriology and Tuberculosis of Animals, the Tubercle Bacillus and Tuberculin, Prof. Koch, 49; Prof. Theobald, 50; Prof. Sims Woodhead, 50; Properties of the Tubercle Bacillus cultivated on Bile, H. Calmette and C. Guérin, 299; Death of Dr. C. Denison, 374; the Prevention of Tuberculosis, Dr. Arthur Newsholme, the Contagion of Tuberculosis by Air, M. Le Noir and Jean Camus, 450; Cows’ Milk and Tubercle Bacilli, 466 Tucker (P. A.), Eutectics Research, No. 1: Lead and Tin, 57 Tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe, E. H. Tabor, 196 Turbines, the Increased Expansion of Steam Attainable in Steam, James Watt Lecture at Greenock, Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S., 502 Turkestan, Explorations of Dr. M. A. Stein in, 17 Turner (Dr. G. A.), the Natives of Portuguese East Africa, 264 Turner (Prof. H. H.), Relation between Intensity of Light, Time of Exposure and Photographic Action, 23; Absorp- tion of Light in its Passage through Interstellar Space, 225 22 the Alloys of I eee (L. B.), Elastic Breakdown of Materials submitted to Compound Stresses, 498 Turner (Prof. Thomas), Transparent Metallic Films, 88 Turtle, the Size of the Leather, Dr. F. A. Lucas, 429 Tuttle (Hudson), Arcana of Nature, 220 Tweedy (M.), the Natural Mechanism for Evoking the Chemical Secretion of the Stomach, 329 Silver and other xlil Index Nature, March 25, 1909 Ultra-microscopic Vision, J. E. Barnard, 489 United Kingdom, Report on Afforestation in the, 351 United States, European Population of the, Prof. Ripley at Royal Anthropological Institute, 145 Universities: University and Educational Intelligence, 27, 57, 87, 114, 146, 176, 208, 238, 266, 298, 327, 357, 386, 417, 445, 477, 506; Lloyd George on the Endowment of, 86; Chemical Research at the University of Man- chester, 233; Therapeutics of the Circulation, Eight Lectures delivered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physio- logical Laboratory of. the University of London, Sir Lauder Brunton, Bart,, F.R.S., 451 Upward (Allen), the New Word, 457 Uranium, Production-of Helium from, Frederick Soddy, 129 Uranium X, the Product and Rays of, Frederick Soddy, 366 Urbain (B.), Magnetism of the Rare Earths, 269 Urbain (G.), Law of Maximum of Kathode Phosphorescence in Binary Systems, 300 Ussher (W. A. E.), Geology of the Quantock Hills and of Taunton and Bridgwater, 170 Vaccine Therapy and the Opsonic Method of Treatment, Dr. R. W. Allen, 423 Valve-gears for Steam Engines, Prof. Cecil H. Peabody, 396 Vanhoffen (E.), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, 1901-3, Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, 460 Variable Star, an Eccentric, Mary W. Whitney, 410 Variable Star U Geminorum, the, J. van der Bilt, 295 Variation of Decapod Crustacean Palaemonetes varians, Dr. A. Brozek, 77 Varley (Mr.), Distribution of Electricity in a Sphere, 25 Vegard (L.), Free Pressure in Osmosis, 148 Vegetarianism: the Diet of the Hindu, Bernard Houghton, Moving 349 Wernarel (M.), Use of Ferrous Arseniate against the Parasitic Insects of Plants, 449 Vernon (Dr. H. M.), the Production of Prolonged Apnoea in Man, 458; Intracellular Enzymes, 275 Very (Prof.), Quantitative Measures of the Water-vapour in the Martian Atmosphere, 499 Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, F. Wyville Thomson, 400 Vienna, the ‘‘ Astronomischen Gesellschaft ’’ at, 48 Vigouroux (Em.), Action of Antimony Trichloride on Nickel, 149 Villiger (Dr. Emil), die periphere Innervation; Kurze ubersichtliche Darstellung des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Ausbreitung der Hirr- und Ruckenmarksnerven, 188 Violle (J.), Action of Lines of Electric Energy on Hail- storms, 269 Vitalism, 34 Vitality, Fasting, and Nutrition, Hereward Carrington, 66 Vitality of Leaves, Dr. Walter Kidd, 160 Vogt (Prof. J. H. L.), Labradorite-norite with Porphyritic Labradorite, 418 Volcanoes: Lava of the last Eruptions of Vulcano, Eolian Isles, A. Lacroix, 299; Eruption of Monte Cagua, 374; a Theory of Volcanic Action and Ore Deposits, their Nature and Cause, Hiram W. Hixon, 419; the Wonder Book of Volcanoes and Earthquakes, Prof. E. J. Houston, 424; Eruption of Colima, 464 Volhard (Jacob), Justus von Liebig, 452 Vollkespaychelentc: das Geschlechtsleben in der, Otto Stoll, 361 Volkerpsychologie, eine Untersuchung der Entwickelungs- gesetze von Sprache, Mythus und Sitte, Wilhelm Wundt, 361 Vorlander (Karl), Geschichte der Philosophie, 157 Vries (Prof. de), Some Scientific Centres, XIV., the Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam, 101 Wager (Harold), Optical Behaviour of the Epidermal Cells of Leaves, 86 Wagner (M.), Biologie unserer einheimischen Phanero- gamen, 158 Waite (Edgar R.), Large Blue Whales, 98 Wales, some Cromlechs in North, Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S., 9 Wall (Major F.), the Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions and How to Recognise Them, 456 Wallace (Dr. Alfred Russel, O.M., F.R.S.), the World of Life, as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism, Lec- ture at Royal Institution, 384 Wallace (Dr. William), the Threshold of Music, 247 Waller (Dr. Augustus D., F.R.S.), the Science Faculty of the University of London, 21; Phenomena Attendant upon Activity of Living Matter, 376 Walter (Chas. H.), a Disclaimer, 130 Walther (J.), Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens, 31 Walton (Dr. J. H., jun.), Exercises in Elementary Quantita- tive Chemical Analysis for Students of Agriculture, 217 Ward (Prof. Robert de Courcy), Climate, considered especi- ally in Relation to Man, 155 Wardle (Sir Thomas), Death and Obituary Notice of, 316 Warm Months in Relation to Sun-spot Numbers, Alex. B. MacDowall, 367 Washington, the International Fishery Congress at, 109 Washington, Philosophical Society of, Meaning and Method of Scientific Research, Dr. L. A. Bauer at, 473 Wasmann (E.), Weitere Beitrage zum socialen Paratismus und der Sklaverei bei den Ameisen, 51 Water: Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Re- ference to Sanitary Water Analysis, Prof. S: C. Prescott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow, Prof. R. T. Hewlett, 6; Water, Its Origin and Use, William Coles-Finch, 271; Magnesium in, and Rocks, Prof. Ernest H. L. Schwarz, 309; the Movement of Water in Soils, Dr. J. Walter Leather, 309; Dr. E. J. Russell, 310; the International Waterways Treaty, 375; Water Pipe and Sewer Dis- charge Diagrams, T. C. Ekin, 394; Water Hammer in Hydraulic Pipe Lines, A. H. Gibson, 395; the Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply, John Don at Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 444; Quantitative Measures of the Water-vapour in the Martian Atmo- sphere, Prof. Very, 499 Waterbury (Prof. L. A.), Cement Laboratory Manual, 339 Waterhouse (C. O.), the Claws of Insects, 388 Watson (G. N.), Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Difference Equation of the Second Order, 209 Watson (Dr. J.), the Philosophical Basis of Religion, 219 Watt (Sir George, C.I.E.), the Commercial Products of India, being an Abridgment of “The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,’’ 184, 281 Watt, James, Lecture at Greenock, the Increased Expansion of Steam attainable in Steam Turbines, Hon. C. A. Parsons, F.R.S., 502 Watts (Dr.), Citric Acid, 22 Waud (Annie L.), a Brilliant Meteor and its Train, 499 Wave-length of the Hé Line, the, Mr. Evershed, 20 Wedd (Mr.), Southern Part of the Derbyshire and Notting- hamshire Coalfield, 170 Wedderburn (E. M.), Observations of Temperature on Loch Ness, 24; Causes of Seiches, 26; Temperature Observa- tions on Loch Garry, 58 Wegner (Herr), Pliopithecus antiquus in Europe, 171 Weights and Measures: Procés-verbaux des Séances du Comité international des Poids et Mesures, 194; Travaux et Memoires du Bureau international des Poids et Mesures, 194; Study of the Relation between the Metre and the Wave-length of the Red Cadmium Line, Messrs. Benoit, Perot and Fabry, 195: Behaviour of Nickel Steel Stan- dards of Length, 195; Position of the Metric System, sor Weiss (Prof.), the Primary Wood of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria, 86 Weiss (Prof. F. E.), Potato Black Scab, 98 Weiss (P.), Ratio of Charge to Electrons, 149 Wellisch (E. M.), Laws of Mobility and Diffusion of the Ions formed in Gaseous Media, 148 Wellman (F. Creighton), Angolese Tiger-beetles, 442 Welpton (W. P.), Principles and Methods of Physical Educa- tion and Hygiene, 485 Welt-Leben-Seele, ein System der Natiirphilosophie in gemeinfasslichen Darstellung, Max Kassowitz, 307 Nature, March 25, 1909. Wendell (Mr.), Halley’s Comet, 108 Werth (E.), Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition 1901-3, Aufbau und Gestaltung von Kerguelen, 460 Wesley (John), Earthquakes and, Sir Edward Fry, K.C.B., FYR:S., 98 West (W. and Dr. G. S.), a Monograph of the British Desmidiaceze, 426; British Fresh-water Phytoplankton, oO Westcott (W. Wynn), the Extra Pharmacopceia of Martin- dale and Westcott, 187 Westell (W. Percival), the Young Botanist, 245 Westermarck (E.), the Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, 481 Whales, Large Blue, Edgar R. Waite, 98 Wheeler (Joseph T.), the Zonal-belt Hypothesis, a New Explanation of the Ice Ages, 426 Wheldale (Miss M.), Colours and Pigments of Flowers, 506 White (Dr. Charles Powell), Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer, 391 White (F.), Rhinoceros Bones in Cave in North-western Rhodesia, 497 White (Gilbert), ‘‘ Saint ’’ Gilbert, the Story of, and Sel- borne, J. C. Wright, 339 White (H. J. Osborne), Geology of the Country around Henley-on-Thames and Wallingford, 470 White (Margaret), Results of Observations on the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, 25; Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere, 118 White (Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Scientific Education of Naval Architects, Address at Society of Arts, 111; Obituary Notice of Dr. Francis Elgar, LL.D., F.R.S., : the Design and Construction of Ships, Prof. J. H. Biles, 454 Whiteley (Dr. M. A.), Women and the Chemical Society, 37 ; Women and the Fellowship of the Chemical Society, 399 Whitney (Mary W.), an Eccentric Variable Star, 410 Whittaker (Prof. E. T.), Extension of Optical Ideas to the General Electromagnetic Field, 26; Sun-spots and Solar Temperature, 26 Who’s Who, 1909, 220 Who’s Who Year-book for 1909, 220 Wieland (G. R.), Structure of the Cretaceous Marine Turtles of the Protostegidz, 496 Wild Nature, Evolution of the Feeling of Love of, Dr. Havelock Ellis, 466 Wilks (W. A. R.), Double Fluorides of Sodium, 509 Williams (Dr. Owen), Microchemical Changes occurring in Appendicitis, 78 Williams (W. Roger), the Natural History of Cancer, with Special Reference to its Causation and Prevention, 391 Willis (Bailey), Research in China, 61 Wilson (E. B.), Cyanide Processes, 215 Wilson (Prof. H. A.), on the Number and Absorption of the B Particles Emitted by Radium, 23 Wilson (Prof. J.), Origin of the Dexter-Kerry Breed of Cattle, 178; Colours of Highland Cattle, 479 Wilson (M.), Life-history of Haematococcus lacustris, 86 Windmills and Water-wheels, 4 Winiwarter (Mr.), Post-fcetal Development of Ova in the Cat, 167 Winkler (Herr), Morehouse’s Comet, 1908c, 142 Winnipeg Meeting of the British Association, the, 413 Winslow (Prof. C. E. A.), Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis, 6 Wireless Telegraphy: Determination of Longitude by, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 169; New Radio-telegraph Station at Bolt Head, South Devon, 166, 196; the New Wireless Telegraph Station, 224; Meteorological Reports by Wire- less Telegraphy, 287; Wireless Telegraphy by Balloons, 291; Collision of the Florida and the Republic, 374 Witasek (Dr. Stephan), Grundlinien der Psychologie, 157 Withers (T. H.), Zones of the Chalk in the Thames Valley between Goring and Shiplake, 470 Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, Ninth Report of the, Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Picker- ing, F.R.S., Dr. E. J. Russell, 500 Wocikow (A.), Russland, 304 Wolf (Prof. Max), the Changes in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet, 351; the Minor Planet Patroclus (617), 410 Index xlili Wolf (Dr. Rudolf), Sun-spots in 1907, 261 Wolf, Comet, a Research on the Movement of, Kamensky, 80 Wollebaek (Dr.), Influence of Seals on Fisheries, 173 Woltereck (Dr. H. C.), Production of Ammonia from Atmo- spheric Nitrogen by Means of Peat, 389 Women and the Chemical Society, 221; Ida Smedley and M. A. Whiteley, 37 . Women and the Fellowship of the Chemical Society, 399, 429; Dr. M. A. Whiteley and Others, 309 Women Fellows, Scientific Societies and the Admission of, W. J. Atkinson, 488 Wonderful House that Jack Has, the, Columbus N. Millard, M. 307 Woodhead (Prof. Sims), Bacteriology and Tuberculosis of Animals, the Tubercle Bacillus and Tuberculin, 50; Relationship between Human and Bovine Tuberculosis, 177 Woods (Charlie), the Correlation of Teaching, 310 Woodward (H. B.), Geology of the Country around Oxford, 170 Woollatt (Dr. George H.), Laboratory Arts, 152 World of Life, the, as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwin- ism, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S., at Royal Institution, 384 Worsdell (W. C.), the Origin of Dicotyledons, 85 Worthington (Prof. A. M.), Instantaneous Photographs ex- hibiting a New Feature in the Splash of a Rough Sphere, 25 Wright (A. G.), Late Celtic and Roman Pottery, 318 Wright (Prof. Carroll D.), Death of, 495 Wright (J. C.), ‘‘ Saint’ Gilbert, the Story of Gilbert White and Selborne, 339 Wright (J. E.), Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms, 486 Wright (J. G. Ernest), Mercury Bubbles, 8 Wright (Mr.), Country between Newark and Nottingham, 470 Wright (Wilbur), Remarkable Aéroplane Flight, 227; Long Flight, 291 Writers’ and Artists’ Year-book, 1909, the, 220 Writing, the Telegraphic Transmission of, 441 Wundt’ (Wilhelm), V6lkerpsychologie, eine Untersuchung der Entwickelungsgesetze von Sprache, Mythus und Sitte, 361 Yapp (Prof. R. H.), the Evaporating Power of the Air in Different Strata of the Marsh Formation of Wicken Fen, Yellow Book, the Old, Charles W. Hadell, 279 Young (Dr. G. A.), Geology of Mount Yamaska in Quebec, 172 Young (Dr. W. H.), Differentials, 209 . Zeeman (Prof.), Solar Vortices and their Magnetic Effects, 20 Zeeman Effect in Weak Magnetic Fields, Prof. H. Nagaoka, Zodiacal Light, Observations of the, E. A. Fath, 143 Zonal-belt Hypothesis, the, a New Explanation of the Cause of the Ice Ages, Joseph T. Wheeler, 426 Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Medi- terranée, les, C. Houard, 339 Zoology: Occurrence of a Fresh-water Nemertine in Ireland, Rowland Southern, 8; Prehistoric Dogs, Dr. T. Studer, 45; Development of the Muscles, Nerves, and Limbs of the Lower Four-limbed Vertebrates, Prof. A. N. Sewertzoff, 45; Variation of Decapod Crustacean Palae- monetes varians, Dr. A. Brozek, 77; Ergebnisse der Hamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise, 1892-3, Dr. W. Michaelsen, 82; Zoological Society, 89, 147, 268, 418, 478; Large Blue Whales, Edgar R. Waite, 98; the Flying-frog (Rhacophorus reinwardti) of Java, M. Siedlecki, 105; the Weights of Developing Eggs, Messrs. Ritter and Bailey, 105; the Fauna of the Magellan Region, Joseph A. Clubb, 130; Death and Obituary Notice of Dr. William Keith Brooks, 139; New Slow-lemur from xliv the Lushai Hills, Dr. N. Annandale, 147; Morphology of Neritacea, Prof. G. C. Bourne, 147; the Origin of the Dexter-Kerry Breed of Cattle, Prof. J. Wilson, 178; Colours of Highland Cattle, Prof. James Wilson, 479; New Genus of Fresh-water Oligochzta, Australia, E. J. Goddard, 179; Reform of Zoological Nomenclature, Cyril | L.M.B.C. Memoirs, XVI., Cancer, J. | Crossland, 190; Pearson, 214; Early Ontogenetic Phenomena in Mam- mals, Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht, 228; der Frosch, Dr. F. Hempelmann, 242; Economic Zoology, an Introductory Text-book in Zoology, with Special Reference to its Applications in Agriculture, Commerce, and Medicine, Prof. Herbert Osborn, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244; a Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India, E. P. Index Nature, March 25, 1909 Stebbing, Prof. G. H. Carpenter, 244; the Hope Re- ports, 278; National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4, Vol. IV., Zoology, 355; Zoological Reports on the Discovery Collections, 355; die Fauna Siidwest-Australiens, Ergeb- nisse der Hamburger siidwest-australischen Forschungs- reise, 1905, 396; Death and Obituary Notice of Prof. B. H. Guilbeau, 434; the Irish Horse and its Early History, Dr. R. F. Scharff, 449; Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9, Zoologie, P. P. C. Hoek, H. F. E. Jungersen, L. Béhmig, L. Plate, Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R.S., 460; Active and Passive Migrations of the Fauna of the Italian Alpine Lakes, Prof. Rina Monti, 466; Degenerate Eyes of African Golden Moles, Miss G. Sweet, 496 — A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. “To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’’—Worpswortu. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 5, __ 1908. ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS IN PLANTS. The Origin of a Land Flora. A Theory based upon the Facts of Alternation. By Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. Pp. xii+727; with numerous illustrations. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 17s. net. HIS important book, embodying the results of the author’s well-known morphological re- searches during the last twenty years, may be regarded from two points of view. On the one hand, it forms a most excellent manual of comparative morphology for the groups dealt with—essentially the higher cryptogams; on the other, it gives the final statement of those theoretical views on the alterna- tion of generations in plants with which Prof. Bower’s name is associated and of which he is the leading champion. The two aspects cannot, however, be kept separate; the theory forms the thread on which the facts are strung, and without the theory we should not have had those researches which have so greatly enlarged our knowledge of the facts. In this way the ‘“‘ working hypothesis ’’ has fully justified its existence, and all botanists owe a debt of grati- tude to the author for the theory which he has so systematically worked out, as well as for the detailed investigations to which it has been the guide. No . more important contribution to scientific botany has appeared in England since the revival of botanical re- search in this country in the ’seventies of the past century. It is needless to say that the author’s presentation of the facts is everywhere scrupulously fair; his book may be used with profit and pleasure alike by those who accept and those who dissent from his main posi- tion. The reviewer cordially agrees with the con- cluding sentence of the preface :— ““ Whatever view be ultimately taken of the prime | origin of the alternating generations, many of the conclusions arrived at here as to the morphological progress and phyletic grouping of the Archegoniatz | NO. 2036, VOL. 79| 7 will stand: they have a validity of their own quite apart from any question of the ultimate origin of the sporophyte, which has finally become the dominant factor in the flora of the land.”’ The book is divided into three parts:—Part i., statement of the working hypothesis, 20 chapters, 254 pp-; part ii., detailed statement of facts, 20 chapters, 402 pp.; part iii., conclusion, 7 chapters, 60 pp. This arrangement involves a certain amount of repetition, but, on the whole, is well adapted to the purpose of the book, which is to state the main theory with its subsidiary hypotheses, and to test them fully in their application to the morphological data. In considering the book critically, attention will be chiefly directed to its theoretical side. The reviewer is | one of those who are unable to accept the chief con- clusions of the author, and hence it is impossible altogether to avoid controversy. From what has already been said, it will be clear that theoretical differences in no way affect the high estimate of the value of Prof. Bower’s book which every. unbiased reader must form. After an introductory chapter on the scope and limitations of comparative morphology, the life-history |of a fern is appropriately given the foremost place as the type of the regular alternation of sexual and asexual generations which characterises the higher plants. In the ferns and the vascular plants gener- ally the asexual generation is the plant itself, with all its elaboration of vegetative organs, while the sexual phase is represented by the comparatively small and simple prothallus. In the Bryophyta (mosses and liverworts), on the other hand, the balance of the two generations is reversed, the main vegetative development falling in the sexual stage, while the asexual generation is merely a fruit (sporogonium) dependent throughout life on the sexual plant which bears it. In both classes ‘‘ there is thus a marked difference between these two phases, and _ their sequence may be said to constitute an antithetic alternation’’ (p. 32). Here, and in some other passages (e.g. p. 658), the phrase “‘ antithetic alter- nation ’’ is used simply to express the Iknown facts B 2 NATURE of the life-history; elsewhere, however (as on p. 159), the words are employed in a different sense, namely to indicate the author’s theory that the asexual generation has been intercalated in the life-cycle, and is therefore newer than the sexual phase or gameto- phyte. To avoid confusion it will be best to speak of this view as the ‘“‘intercalation theory,’’ though the term ‘‘ antithetic ’’ has come to be identified with it. The significance of the title, ‘‘ The Origin of a Land Flora,’’ lies in the fact that the sexual genera- tion retains, at least throughout the archegoniate cryptogams, the primitive method of fertilisation by spermatozoids, requiring the presence of water, while on the other hand the asexual phase, with its wind- scattered spores, is essentially adapted to a terrestrial life. Hence the author speaks of the alternation as ** amphibious,’? an appropriate phrase which may be readily adopted, whatever view be taken of the origin of the two generations. The asexual sporophyte, however it may have arisen, conquered the dry land; the gametophyte, with its conservative adherence to traditional methods, remained dependent on a more or less watery environment, until the seed-plants came to be evolved. Then the prothallus became a mere parasite on the sporophyte, enclosed within the mega- sporangium, so that fertilisation could take place on the plant itself. Spermatozoids were retained in the more primitive types (cycads, Ginkgo, and no doubt many fossil seed-plants), but their swimming was now confined to a water-drop secreted within the ovule; in the rest of the Spermophyta they have dropped their now useless motility, and fertilisation, like the other vital processes, has become thoroughly adapted to terrestrial conditions. All this is admirably told in Prof. Bower’s book, and it is to him that the credit belongs of realising the essential biological significance of alternation of generations as it exists in the higher cryptogams. The question at issue relates to the origin of the alternating generations. On the intercalation hypo- thesis, maintained by Prof. Bower in agreement with Celakovsky and some other morphologists, the sexual generation represents the original plant, which alone existed in the presumed ancestor, while the asexual sporophyte is a new development, an inter- calation, arising from the elaboration of the fertilised ovum or zygote, first into a mass of spores, and ultimately into a complex sporogonium on the one hand or a spore-bearing plant on the other. The strength of the intercalation theory lies in the evidence afforded by certain liverworts (Ricciacez), in which the sporogonium actually consists of nothing but a spherical mass of spore-mother-cells, enclosed in an ephemeral epidermis. So simple a body might well have arisen as a new formation, as a fruit-body replacing an oospore, a development for which various apparent analogies have been traced among thallo phytes. From the Ricciaceee there are found suffi- ciently continuous series of forms, leading up to the fully differentiated capsules of the higher liverworts and the mosses. Hence the intercalation theory appears quite credible for the Bryophyta, and some botanists have accepted it for that class while rejecting it for the Pteridophyta. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] [NovEMBER 5, 1908 Even as regards the Bryophyta, however, every- thing depends on the primitive nature of the Riccia- ceous sporogonium, and this is open to doubt. As the author himself says (p. 237) :—‘‘ It may be a ques- tion whether the absence of a nutritive system is due here to reduction, or is itself the primitive state.”’ Though “the latter is the view usually accepted,” there is good evidence for reduction in related liver- worts (Cyathodium, pp. 237 and 263), and in Riccia itself the transitory nature of the sporogonial wall (p. 257) may well indicate a secondary loss or change of function, as we see in the case of the nucellus of sO many angiospermous ovules. There are good grounds for holding that far-reaching reduction has gone on even among the higher Bryophyta, and, on the whole of the evidence, the idea of ascending series within this class, starting from the simplest form of sporogonium, cannot be considered as by any means established. In fact, the Bryophyta, which have long been regarded as affording the clue to the interpretation of the life-cycle of the higher plants, themselves stand in need of interpretation, even more than other groups. Among the Vasculares, the sporophyte is always (even in Lycopodium Selago!) a highly organised plant, and no one would dream of attributing its origin to an intercalation, if it were not for the analogy of the bryophytes. During the last fifteen years the cytological distine- tion between the two generations has played an important part in the controversy as to their nature. In all normal cases the asexual generation is “diploid,’’ its nuclei having twice as many chromosomes as those of the ‘‘haploid’’ sexual phase. Reduction takes place in the spore-mother- cell, at the initiation of the gametophyte. This side of the subject is very ably treated by Prof. Bower, who continues to attach considerable importance to the cytological distinction, in spite of the exceptional cases recently brought to light, where it has been shown with certainty that the gametophyte genera- tion may be diploid, and, with great probability, that the sporophyte may be haploid. Such cases are associated with the occurrence of apospory (suppres- sion of spore-formation) and apogamy (suppres- sion of sexual reproduction) in the same life-cycle, as happens in various anomalous ferns. These observations prove that there is no necessary connec- tion between the number of chromosomes and the morphological characters of the alternating genera- tions, but ‘‘ cannot be held to invalidate the view that the cycle as above stated existed in all probability throughout the earlier phases of descent of the Arche- goniate ’’ (p. 62). The cytological distinction was at one time regarded as supporting the opinion that the two generations were distinct in origin, and thus as favouring the intercalation theory. This can no longer be main- tained, since it has been shown by Lloyd Williams and Mottier that in the alga Dictyota there is a regular alternation between the haploid sexual and the diploid asexual generation, generations which in all morphological respects are perfectly similar to one another. There can be no question of intercalation NovemBeER 5, 1908] NATURE * Se] here, and the case of Dictyota (as well as the more complex case of certain Florideaw) shows that the cytological distinction may exist between generations which are clearly homologous with one another. The author explains the similarity of the two generations in such cases by the similarity of the conditions to which they are exposed (p. 81). We can well under- stand (though this is not the author’s view) how, when the conditions became different, as in the Archegoniate, generations likewise homologous may have come to be sharply differentiated. The author, in chapter v., gives an admirable account of the facts, but perhaps hardly realises how unfavourable they are to the theory of intercalation. There appears to be no satisfactory case among the Thallophyta of the origin of a diploid asexual phase by intercalation, unless it be among certain fungi, too remote from the archegoniate series to afford any serviceable analogies. The fruit-body of the green alga Coleochete, formerly regarded as comparable to a simple bryo- phytic sporogonium, has been shown by Allen to have haploid structure, reduction taking place on the first nuclear division in the germinating zygote (p. 73). Hence this time-honoured comparison will no longer hold good, though some biological analogy may still be traced. So far as the evidence from the Thallophyta is con- cerned, it seems that recent work favours the origin of the alternating generations by the modification of homologous individuals rather than by the inter- calation of an entirely new phase in the life-cycle. Those morphologists who maintain the intercala- tion hypothesis differ among themselves as to the relation between the leafy sporophyte of the higher plants and the sporogonium from which they believe it to have been evolved. To some, the leaf is the primary structure, derived directly from the sporo- gonial head, and the axis is entirely subsidiary (Cela- kovsky and Worsdell), while on Prof. Bower’s view the axis is primary, the leaves (sporophylls) arise from it de novo, by ‘‘enation,’’ and the roots are likewise accessory. The author lays great stress on the predominance of the axis, as the foundation of his ‘‘ strobiloid ’’ theory, according to which the whole plant represents an elaborated strobilus, which in its turn was derived from a simple sporogonium-like fructification. He supports his view by a wealth of argument, based on anatomy, embryology, and com- parative morphology (see especially chapter xi., the theory of the strobilus). All this, however, is sub- sidiary to the main question. The predominance of the axis is no necessary part of the ‘“‘ antithetic theory,’’ nor is it in any way opposed to the homo- logy of the sporophyte with the vegetative body of the lower plants. We see quite clearly among the Bryophyta how, starting from a thalloid structure, the axis may become predominant, and analogies are not wanting among the Thallophyta also. We will not, however, pursue these controversial | | sporangia was first published in 1899, and has been matters further. Prof. Bower deals in the fullest manner with a great problem, and nothing could be | better than the way in which he states his case. He is not, perhaps, quite so happy in his treatment of NO. 2036, VOL. 79] | | alternative hypotheses, which he sometimes dismisses rather curtly, though to many botanists they will appear worthy of more serious consideration. The question, as the author points out, scarcely admits of any final solution. The gaps in the evidence are such that no theory (least of all the author’s) can dispense with the postulation of ‘‘ hypothetical organisms,’’ nor have we much reason to hope that the fossil record will ever supply a more substantial ancestry. The second and longest division of the bool, the detailed statement of the facts, will probably prove of most value to the student, for it gives a full account of the morphology, anatomy, and embryology of the sporophyte of the Archegoniate (including extinct groups), with incidental references to the other generation. Here also the strobiloid theory permeates the whole, and great importance is attributed to the Lycopodium Selago type, as the best living repre- sentative of the hypothetical ‘‘ strobiloid condition ”’ in which all the leaves were sporophylls. A figure of this species forms the frontispiece to the book. — The Sphenophyllales (including Psilotaceze) and Equisetales are appropriately grouped together under the head of ‘‘ Sporangiophoric Pteridophyta,’’ charac- terised by the sporangia being borne on definite out- growths from the axis or leaf, the peltate scales of an Equisetum affording the most familiar example. The author maintains at length the view that the spor- angiophore is an organ sui generis, not homologous with a leaf or leaf-lobe, a position which is tenable and simple, but not wholly convincing to those whose point of view is different from that of the strobiloid theory. The Ophioglossaceze are treated in much detail; the author upholds his well-known opinion that this family forms, as a whole, an ascending series, prob- ably derived from some sporangiophoric type com- parable to that of the Psilotaceze or other Spheno- phyllales. He thus makes the series a_ parallel development to the ferns, without actual affinity with them. The alternative, and, in the reviewer’s opinion, more probable view, that the Ophioglossacez are derived from a somewhat primitive group of ferns, not very remote from the Botryopteridez, is not dis- cussed. The author argues vigorously against sapro- phytic reduction as a factor of any importance in the evolution of this family, though in his description of Ophioglossum simplex he has himself supplied the most convincing proof that such reduction has occurred in an extreme degree. The extraordinary embryology of the genus Ophioglossum (the embryo in some species consisting of a root and nothing else) appears to indicate that we are here dealing with very highly modified plants, and by no means with types of primitive simplicity. The account of the ferns is extremely full and in- | teresting, and less influenced by theoretical consider- ations than the rest of the book. The author’s classi- | fication of the homosporous ferns according to the arrangement and succession of development of their recognised as a convenient and natural grouping. The three series are characterised as follows (p. 497) :— The Simplices, in which the sporangia of a sorus 4 NATURE are produced simultaneously; the Gradatee, in which there is a definite succession in time and space; and the Mixtz, in which there is a succession in time, but no regular succession in space. “These three types appeared successively in geo- logical time: the Simplices were the characteristic ferns of the primary rocks, though many of that tvpe still survive; the Mixtze are the dominant ferns of the present day, while the Gradate take a middle place.’’ The scheme on p. 653, showing the approximate relations of the several families of ferns, will be of great service to students of this class (now more important than ever to the morphologist). Altogether, the author’s account of the filicales is no doubt the best yet published. The concluding part of the book gives a full and final statement of the author’s theoretical position, and is the part which will most appeal to the reader whose interest lies mainly in the theory rather than the details. Enough, however, has been said on the points in dispute; any attempt at a full discussion would far exceed the limits of a review. The book is excellently got up, with abundant and admirable illustrations throughout. It is almost free from misprints. One, however, occurs in an important passage on p. 237, where “ Riccia cell” appears to be a printer’s error for ‘‘ Ricciacez.’’ Nothing can be better for English botany than the appearance of such a book as this, a full and most original treatise on an important branch of the science by one who is an acknowledged master of his sub- ject. Prof. Bower is to be warmly congratulated on this, the latest product of his energy and devotion to research. DES: WINDMILLS AND WATER-WHEELS. Natural Sources of Power. By R. S. Ball. Pp. xvi+ 348. (London: A. Constable and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 6s. net. HE classification of a source of power as a “natural”? one is purely arbitrary. The dis- tinction would imply that a source of power could be “‘ artificial,’’ which would, of course, contradict the first law of thermodynamics. The author of the present volume simply uses the word to describe those sources of power which provide us directly with mechanical energy without any intermediate trans- formation, such as combustion or the like; and the two particular supplies of energy to which attention is directed are wind-power and water-power. As is natural, the author commences his book with a referenee to the, said to be, not distant day when all the coal, and all the oil, in the world will have been used up, and mankind, in order to sustain itself, will have to rely wholly upon the water-wheel and the windmill for that tremendous amount of energy which will be necessary to keep the immense population of the earth in the state of comfort to which it has, with the progress of civilisation, attained. It is an in- teresting speculation to picture to oneself what the state of the world will be when this prophesied day arrives, and the coal-measures of the world have NO. 2036, VOL. 79] [ NovEMBER 5, 1908 disappeared. Will the great manufactures migrate from Lancashire and Northumberland to Norway, Italy, and the West of Ireland, or will, ere that day arrives, our cotton mills and blast furnaces be run by radium engines, utilising sources of energy which are at present wholly unexploited? Certainly, nobody who has studied the development within the last few years of the science of radio-activity will be prepared, out of hand, to deny the possibility. It is rather surprising to be told that the demand for windmills was never so great as it is to-day, or the trade of the manufacturer of such motors never so brisk. On the other hand, evidences of the utilisa- tion of the water-powers of the world are everywhere abundant, the chief agent in this being the develop- ment of electrical technology. A book, therefore, such as the one under review, dealing with these subjects in an easily understandable manner, is to be accorded a welcome. The style of the book, while being simple, is yet not entirely popular. It is not a complete treatise, a certain amount of elementary mathematics is necessary, but the calculus is not used, the author giving a general review of his subject, with the object of showing the desirability of not allowing the many small sources of wind- and water-power which exist to run to waste. The book can be specially recom- mended to those readers who, while not being special- ists in the particular branch dealt with, desire to obtain a general survey of the subject. The first chapter deals with general principles, such as the distinction between ‘* power”? and “ energy,”’ efficiency of machines, units, &c. The discussion of the electrical units of energy on p. 7 is hardly happy. This, we think, is due to the author placing in juxtaposition the ‘“ foot-pound’’ and the ‘‘ watt,’’ which latter, he says, is “allied to a power unit.’’ The confusion in electrical units of power, which the author mentions, is, we think, entirely of his own creation. The watt is not ‘‘allied’’ to a power unit, but is actually the electrical unit of power, there being really no confusion in the matter at all. Chapter ii. is concerned with ‘‘ water power and methods of measuring.’’ As is only fit, the funda- mental theorem of Bernouilli, which says that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the height above datum level is the same at all points in a pipe running full of water, is stated and discussed, as are also weirs and the general principles of survey- ing as called for in the lay-out of a water development scheme. Subsequent chapters deal with the different kinds of water-wheels and hydraulic turbines, their general design, theory and regulation. The construction of water-power plants and the fundamental principles of dams are also referred to, while descriptions of several typical installations working under such widely different conditions as heads of 2 feet and 2000 feet are given. The last 120 pages of the volume discuss windmills and wind-motors. It is stated that there is a rapid extension and enormous trade done in small windmills. These are used chiefly in the great agricultural coun- tries for pumping purposes, and the attempt made to utilise such motors for driving electrical generators oat NovEMBER 5, 1908] has not met with any serious measure of success. It would appear that wind-motors have not yet been subjected to much scientific study. As regards the old type of windmill with four sails, as is usually seen in the eastern counties of England, the rules given by Smeaton in the year 1759, as the result of experi- _ments, embody the chief data available. The modern or ‘‘ American ’’ windmill forms the subject of the last two chapters. Many interesting constructional details are given, as well as particulars of tests on the power developed and the cost thereof when applied to different industrial purposes. These chapters can be recommended to those who desire to acquaint themselves with this somewhat out-of-the- ordinary branch of modern mechanics. Cc. C. G. NEUROLOGY. Functional Nerve Diseases. By A. T. Schofield. Pp. iv + 324. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net. DS recent years Dr. Schofield has written many books on different forms of nervous dis- order, but the present volume is one of the most interesting. Here he deals with the _ so-called ** functional’? nerve diseases. This term ‘‘ func- tional,’’ although open to many objections, is a useful one, for by it we can convey that the ailment in question belongs to that class of disease which is independent of gross morbid anatomy changes. The author states it thus :—‘‘ that organic changes exist when life has passed but functional changes have then all disappeared.’’ Later, he goes on to say that ‘‘ disease, au fond, has always a material basis, whether recognisable or not, and ‘ functional’ and “organic ’’ are but expressions of our ignorance that will one day be superfluous.’’ The ‘‘ Psychology of the Brain ”’ is the subject-matter of one of the open- ing chapters. Dr. Schofield does not attempt to go deeply into any psychological problems; in truth, he deals with this subject almost too widely to be entirely helpful to the reader. He divides the brain into three main divisions :—(1) The cortex, as the seat of the spirit or directing intelligence; (2) the mid-brain, the seat of the soul or the mere active animal life; (3) the lower-brain, which is the seat of the body or the mere physical existence. The author definitely states that he writes this book from the dualist standpoint ; ‘* that is, in the belief that mind is not the product of matter, but distinct from it, and that life is mind in action.’’ He urges upon the student to get rid of the idea that consciousness is mind or that it is the only proof of mind. ‘‘ Mind,’’? he writes, ‘‘ may be con- scious, subconscious, or unconscious.’’ But he only uses these terms provisionally until it is possible for the student to understand that mind means all mind, and not only that part of it which we choose to call consciousness. When discussing the general zetiology of functional nerve diseases Dr. Schofield writes :— “In functional disease the underlying change is often in the association of cells rather than their structure, for we must remember that the association of neurons is not organic but functional.’’ NO. 2036, VOL. 79] NATURE 5 He deals with the varied recognised factors in the causation of this class of disorder, and among these he mentions the influence of ‘‘ suggestion.’’ This, he says, may be from oneself (auto-suggestion) or from others, but the former is the more frequent. When treating with the causes of hysteria, the author recites the various views held by recognised writers. He regards ‘‘ heredity’? as the principal and general predisposing cause of neurasthenia, a prominent factor being alcoholism in the ancestry of the patient. The author gives a useful chapter on the symptoms of neurasthenia, but he adds nothing new to the sub- ject. When dealing with ‘‘ psychotherapy’’ the various objections to it in this country are referred to, and Dr. Schofield evidently deplores that the influence of the mind over the body is not more fully taught to students at the hospital. He denies that ‘* suggestibility’”’ is a symptom of hysteria, as taught by Charcot, and points out that it is often easiest in the sound and the sane, more difficult in the neuras- thenic or hysteric, and almost impossible in the insane. We do not agree with the views that he expresses on the importance of massage in all cases, for we are convinced that this treatment is very harmful to some patients as merely increasing the nervo-muscular irritability. Taken as a whole, the book is well written and full of useful information, and it will be found to contain many suggestions which will prove of value to the thoughtful student. OUR BOOK SHELF. Trout Waters: Management and Angling. By Wilson H. Armistead. Pp. x+203. (London: Adam and Charles Black, 1908.) Price 3s. 6d. net. Tuts is a pleasantly discursive little book, which is obviously based upon considerable personal observa- tion and experience on the part of the author. We doubt, however, whether Mr. Armistead was alto- gether wise in avoiding all books of reference, as he states himself to have done; a book of reference would have prevented the same mollusc from figuring as “ Limnaeus peregra”’ and ‘‘ Limnea ’’ in consecu- tive paragraphs. The advice given as to improving and protecting trout in various waters is on the whole sound and sensible; the suggestions that minnows introduced to feed large trout may seriously compete with smaller trout for the available food supply, and that eels are dangerous enemies of the ova and fry of trout and may do more harm than pike or perch, are fair examples of the many practical matters touched upon. It is a pity that no directions are given as to simple and inexpensive forms of hatching apparatus, such as Herr Jaffé’s ‘‘ floating redd,’’ which would seem well suited for use in many such waters as are con- sidered in the work now under consideration. It is when Mr. Armistead touches upon the natural history of the Salmonide that the lack of books of reference is most apparent. The statement that “ fry hatched from eggs taken from wild parents are, though strong and healthy, difficult to rear on account of their inherited wildness ’’ is somewhat startling. A chapter is devoted to the consideration of the ques- tion whether the presence of trout in a salmon river is or is not a disadvantage, and the question is treated in a thoughtful manner; it is, however, a little surprising to learn, not only that migratory 6 NATURE [NovEMBER 5, 1908 Salmonidz will and do continually cross with the river trout, thus making the identification of the off- spring difficult, but that ‘‘ the difficulty of identification is increased when one has to deal with quarter-breeds or with the progeny of a half-bred trout and salmon and a full-bred salmon.’’ The last quoted statement is unsupported by any evidence save that the author has seen brown trout ‘‘doing duty on the salmon redds,’? and occurs in a chapter in which it has already been stated that ‘the spawning seasons of the two fish (trout and salmon) seldom coincide.” We cannot help thinking that the existence of these ‘* quarter-breeds ’’ is the merest matter of speculation, and believe that no serious angler or ichthyologist will credit their existence until specimens have been submitted to expert examination. The general get-up and printing of the book is worthy of the publishers whose name it bears, but the use of the back of a map, showing existing hatcheries, as an advertising space for one of these hatcheries is to be deprecated. LEP Net 18k The Lore of the Honey-Bee. Pp. xxiv+28r. Price 6s. By Tickner Edwardes. (I.ondon: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Tuts book begins with an entertaining account of the curious beliefs about bees held by the ancients and in the Middle Ages, such as their spontaneous generation from the carcass of an ox, as recorded by Virgil and others, and the government of the colony by the queen and her subordinates. ‘““The single large bee, which all knew to exist in each hive, was generally looked upon as the absolute ruler of the community. It is variously described as a king or queen by writers in the sixteenth and seventeenth century, but only in the sense of a governor; and the word chosen largely depended on the sex of the august person who happened to occupy the English throne at the time.” The greater part of the work consists of a pictur- esque description of different aspects of bees and bee- keeping at the present day. Mr. Edwardes is a charm- ing writer, and the now well-ascertained facts of bee-life are prettily treated by his romantic pen. The author thinks that the ‘‘ atmosphere of poetry and romance ought to be held inseparable, now as ever, from a craft which is probably the most ancient in the world.’”?’ Mr. Edwardes’s argument that bees are guided by reason rather than by instinct is not con- firmed by close observation. As regards the commercial possibilities of bee- keeping, the author truly says that ‘‘ tons of honey are annually running to waste. All this could be garnered and sold to the people at little trouble and great profit.”’ And ‘‘just as there is nothing like leather, beeswax holds its own as a marketable com- modity in spite of paraffin substitutes.”’ The last chapter of the book is devoted to showing how admirably bee-culture is adapted to the practice of the simple life. There are twenty-four fine full-page photographs. F. W. L. SLADEN. Elements of Water Bacteriology, with Special Refer- ence to Sanitary Water Analysis. By Prof. S. C. Prescott and Prof. C. E. A. Winslow. Pp. xii+258. Second edition, re-written. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London: Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 1908.) Price 6s. 6d. net. THE sanitary examination of water supplies by bacteriological methods is becoming of increasing im- portance. In this country extensive researches have been, and are being, carried out for the Local NO. 2036, VOL. 79] Government Board, fcr the Sewage Commission, and for the Metropolitan Water Board. In America also much attention and research are being devoted to the bacteriological examination of waters, and the book under review gives a good summary of American views, procedure, and technique relating to this subject. On the whole, British and American procedures are very similar, and the characters which are recognised by both as belonging to the typical Bacillus coli, so important a factor in all examina- tions, agree fairly closely. This is important, as it renders results obtained in both countries more com- parable than otherwise might be the case. In the first chapter the natural bacterial flora of waters, its variation under different conditions, and influences modifying it, are discussed. The quanti- tative bacteriological examination of water is con- sidered in the next and succeeding chapters, namely (1) the estimation of the number of organisms that develop aérobically on gelatin at room temperature (20° C.); (2) the estimation of the number of organ- isms that develop aérobically on agar at blood heat (37° C.); and (3) the search for the Bacillus coli, and its isolation and quantitative estimation if present. As regards Bacillus coli, the American standard seems to be more lenient than ours; for it is sug- gested that only if this organism is present in 1 c.c. or under should the water be considered to be unsafe. The chapter on the significance of Bacillus coli is well thought out and instructive. Finally, the methods of isolation of the Bacillus welchii (enteritidis sporogenes), streptococci and pathogenic organisms such as Bacillus typhosus and Vibrio cholerae are fully discussed. The book can be recommended as a very useful one and a great improvement on the first edition; the numerous tables, formula for media, and bibliography enhance its value. R. T. Hew err. The National Physique. By A. Stayt Dutton. Pp. xii+188. (London: Bailliére, Tindall and Cox, 1908.) Price 5s. net. A CONSIDERABLE practice in different parts of England and Wales has enabled Mr. Dutton to form an idea of the causes and remedies of the physical deteriora- tion of which we hear so much nowadays. | The book he has produced is a sensible little brochure, remarkably free from technicalities, and easily understood by the man in the street. It deals with the elementary questions of physiology which underlie the teachings of hygiene, and gives a good deal of practical advice on the measures to be adopted (diet, fresh air, exercise, pure water, disinfection, and the like) which would ensure the health of the people and the improvement of the race. The main underlying idea of the book is the im- portance of anzemia as a factor in the causation of a deterioration of the national physique, and the conse- quent importance of improvement in the state of the blood in any efforts to counteract malnutrition and its consequences. The old idea that ‘‘ the blood is the life’’ is now relegated to advertisements of quack remedies; but there is no doubt that impoverishment of the nutrient stream is a readily available guide in any state of poor development or enfeebled health, whatever the ultimate cause of such a condition may be. The author in some cases, perhaps, pushes his idea too far, as, for instance, when he regards anemia as the prime moving cause in producing myopia. Still, the book is, as before stated, on the whole, judicious and well-balanced. We can only hope that its precepts may be taken to heart by the people at large, and by the legislature. W. D. H. aon NOVEMBER 5, 1908] NATURE 7 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions | expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous Hydrogen. On pp. 413 and 607 of vol. Ixxvii., and p. vol. Ixxviii., of Nature, Prof. Schott and Mr. Campbell discuss the question of ‘‘ The Theory of Disper- sion and Spectrum Series.’’ Though not desirous of re- opening this discussion, we think the readers of NATURE may take some interest in the results of experiments we have just finished upon the anomalous dispersion of luminous hydrogen. We used the continuous spectrum given by a narrow capillary tube when filled with hydrogen at nearly atmo- spheric pressure, and traversed by a convenient current given by a large induction coil. In that spectrum we generated horizontal interference fringes by using a Jamin interferential refractor (cf. L. Puccianti, Nuovo Cim., ii., P- 257, 1901), and we sent one of the two rays between the Jamin mirrors through a Geissler tube filled with hydrogen of about 4 mm. pressure. When this tube is put in series with the capillary tube above mentioned, the interference fringes at both sides close to the red hydrogen line (Ha) suddenly change their direc- tion, as in the accompanying figure, showing directly the 55 of 6708 (Li) 6563 (Ha) cc anomalous course of the refractive index near the “‘ absorp- tion line.’’ By measuring the maximum variation of the refractive index (8x 10-") and the breadth of the Ha line (2-3 A) we find, according to the Drude-Voigt theory of dispersion (cf. W. Voigt, ““Magneto u. Electro- -optik,”’ p- 114, 1908), that the ratio of the number of “ electrons of dispersion’? to that of molecules of hydrogen is only about 1 to 50,000, and that the damping-constant (cf. Voigt), measured in wave-lengths, is of the order 2-3 Angstrom units. We have not succeeded in detecting anomalous dis- persion at the other hydrogen lines, which is expected to be much smaller than that at the Ha line, on account of the smaller absorption (cf. R. Ladenburg, Verh. d. deutschen phys. Ges., X., p. 550, 1908). We conclude that our experiments show that it is not possible to explain the dispersion of luminous hydrogen by the existence of one class of electrons only as in the case of non-luminous hydrogen; we have to introduce new “electrons of dispersion,’’ and the frequencies of these seem to be those of the lines of the so-called first series of hydrogen. Rupoir LapENBURG. STANISLAW Loria. Physical Laboratory, University of Breslau, October 17. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] | Warts persistent—even more 3 | —since sun-spots were first Norman | The 4°79 Period of Sun-spot Activity. In Nature of August 13 (p. 351) the photograph is | published of two groups of sun-spots taken on August 6, and attention is directed to the remarkable fact that such an outbreak should occur two years after the sun-spot maximum. This renewed sun-spot activity is connected with the 4-79 period, which I have shown to have been so than the eleven-year period ematically observed. In a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1906 I gave the times of maxima of this period as being 1903-72+4-79 nm. This would bring the maximum _ to 1908-51, or to about July x1 of the present year. BR ao wean ek if Mme carl aChicagg nl 7 ¢ oy LA iS sz PREGLAC L RIVERS 3 2 ovlb-b submerged escarpments OF THE <= 2 ¢,_ bend of the modern ORio R... o) eee ue “@p bur? <— glaciation i Soundings in feet Statute Milos o 1010 4 60 Map of the Pre-Glacial Valleys of the Great Lake Region The Geological Survey of Canada is to be con- gratulated on this interesting, well illustrated, and important memoir. Its value renders all the more regrettable the inclusion of a series of personal charges against one of the most respected of American geologists, which are quite out of place in an official publication. J. W. GREGORY. THE NATURE AND CHARGE OF THE a PAR- TICLES FROM RADIO-ACTIVE SUBSTANCES. = development of our knowledge of radio-activity has emphasised the primary importance of the a particles, which are projected in great numbers from most of the active substances. As Rutherford showed in 1903, the @ particles are veritable atoms of NO. 2036, VOL. 79] Space does not allow us here to discuss the very interesting facts that have been brought to light by the work of Bragg and Kleeman and others in regard to the character of the absorption of the a particle by matter. It suffices to say that it has been found that the « particles from one kind of active matter are all projected initially at an identical speed, but that this initial velocity varies within comparatively narrow limits for different kinds of matter. The a par- ticle, in consequence of its great energy of motion, plunges through the molecules of matter in its path, leaving in its train a large number of dissociated or ionised molecules. Some important questions at once arose when it was found that the a particle was an atom of matter of mass comparable with the hydrogen atom, viz., Are the a particles expelled from different kinds of matter identical in constitu- NovEMBER 5, 1908] tion, and are the « particles atoms of a known element or some new kind of matter? These problems were attacked by determining the velocity and the value of E/M—the ratio of the charge carried by an @ particle to its mass—of «@ particles expelled from different kinds of matter. These quan- tities can be determined by measuring the deflection of a pencil of « rays when passing through strong magnetic and electric fields. Experiments of this kind, which are difficult on account of the small deflection of the « rays under normal experimental conditions, have been made by Rutherford, Des Coudres, Mackenzie, and Huff. The former deter- mined the velocity and value of E/M for each of a number of products of radium and actinium, while Rutherford and Hahn made similar measurements for some of the products of thorium. The results were of great interest, for while it was found that the initial velocity of projection of the « particles from different kinds of matter varied from about 14,000 to 10,000 miles per second, the value of E/M was the same for all. This shows that the a particle, whether expelled from radium, thorium, or actinium, is identical in mass and constitution, and that all the radio-active substances which emit a particles have a common product of disintegration. As the result of a number of experiments, Rutherford found that the value E/M for the «@ particle was 5070 in electro- magnetic units. Now, from experiments on _ the electrolysis of water, it is known that the correspond- ing value of e/m for the hydrogen atom is 9600, or nearly twice as large. The charge e carried by the H atom is believed to be the fundamental unit charge of electricity, so that the charge carried by any body must be an integral multiple of e. If we suppose the charge carried by an « particle is equal to the charge carried by an hydrogen atom, the mass of the a particle is, in round numbers, twice that of the hydrogen atom, i.e. is equal to the molecule of hydrogen. If, however, we suppose that E=2e, i.e. the « particle carries two unit charges, the mass of the a particle is equal to about four. Now, it is known that the atomic mass of helium is 3°96 in terms of hydrogen, so that on this supposition the 2 particle would appear to be an atom of helium earrying two unit charges. We must now consider some indirect evidence bearing on the question. As the result of the experiments of Ramsay and Soddy and others, it is now well substantiated that helium is produced from radium. Debierne has shown that helium is produced also from actinium. Unless the helium is the result of the accumulated a particles, it is difficult to account for the production of the helium observed. In addition, as we have shown, the «@ particle is the only known common _ product of the disintegration of radium and actinium, which both give rise to helium. For these and other reasons, Rutherford suggested in 1905 that it was very probable that the « particle was an atom of helium carrying two unit charges. It has been found ex- ceedingly difficult experimentally either to prove or disprove the correctness of this hypothesis, although the settlement of this question has been for the last few years the most important problem in_ radio- activity, for, as will be seen, the proof that the « par- ticle is an atom of helium carries numerous con- sequences of the first importance in its train. We shall now describe some novel experiments by Rutherford and H. Geiger, which have not only thrown further light on this question, but have led to important conclusions in several directions. An account of this work is contained in two papers published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, entitled ‘‘ An Electrical Method of Counting the « NO. 2036, VOL. 79] NATURE rs Particles from Radio-active Matter,’? and ‘‘ The Charge and Nature of the a Particle’? (A. vol. Ixxxi., I4I-174, 1908). In the first paper an account is given of a method for the detection of a single « particle and for counting the number of @ particles emitted from one gram of radium. The current due to the ionisation of the gas pro- duced by a single a particle is too small to detect except by exceedingly refined methods. To overcome this difficulty, recourse was had to a method of auto- matic magnification of this current, based on the principle of generation of ions by collision—a subject which has been investigated in detail by Townsend and others., Space does not allow us to enter into a description fof the methods employed for this purpose or of the various experimental difficulties that arose during the investigation. The general method em- ployed was to allow the a particles to be fired through a small opening into a detecting vessel containing gas at low pressure exposed to an electric field not far from the sparking value. The entrance of an @ par- ticle into the detecting vessel was marked by a sudden ballistic throw of the electrometer needle. By adjust- ment of the electric field, it was found possible to obtain so large a magnification that the entrance of a single a particle was marked by a large excursion of the electrometer needle. ‘in this way the expulsion of a particles was detected from uranium, thorium, radium, and actinium. In order to count accurately the number of a particles expelled from one gram of radium, not radium itself, but its product radium C was used as a source of radiation. A surface was coated with a thin film of radium C by its exposure for some hours in the presence of the radium emanation. The use of radium C as a source of rays had several advantages, especially as regards the ease and certainty of measure- ment of the amount of active matter present by means of the y rays. The number of @ particles passing through an opening of known area at a known dis- tance from the active source was counted for a definite interval by noting the excursions of the electrometer needle. From this the total number of @ particles expelled per second from the source was deduced. In this way it was found that 3°4x10!° a particles were expelled per second from the radium C present in one gram of radium in equilibrium. It is known from other data that radium itself and each of its products, viz. the emanation, radium A and radium C, expel the same number of @ particles per second when in equilibrium. Consequently in one gram of radium in equilibrium 34x 101° a particles are expelled from each of the products per second, and the total number expelled is 136x101! per second. On the most probable assumption, that one atom of radium in breaking up emits one @ particle, 34x 101° atoms of radium brealx up per second per gram. It was a matter of interest to compare the number of scintillations observed on a properly prepared screen of zinc sulphide with the number of a particles striking it. Within the limit of experimental error, it was found that the number of scintillations was equal to the number of impinging « particles counted by the electric method. Consequently each a particle on striking the screen produces a scintillation. It is thus obvious that, using proper screens, the scintillation method as well as the electric method may be em- ployed to count the number of « particles emitted by a radio-active substance. Apart from the importance of these results for radio-active data, the experiments are of themselves noteworthy, for it is the first time that it has been found possible to detect a single atom of matter. 14 NADIE: [ NovEMBER 5, 1908 This, as we have seen, can be done in two ways, one | radium in equilibrium contains four a-ra roducts, ; J electrical and the other optical. The possibility of detection of a single atom of matter is in this case, of course, due to the great energy of motion of the @ particle. In the second paper, an account is given of experi- ments to measure the charge carried by the @ par- ticles. Since the number of a particles is known from the counting experiments, the charge on each @ par- ticle can be determined by measuring the charge carried by the @ particles expelled from a known quantity of radium. As in the counting experiments, radium C was used as a source of rays. It was found that each @ particle carried a positive charge of 9'3x10-" electrostatic units. Now the charge carried by an ion in gases has been determined by several observers, using the well-known method of making each ion the nucleus of a visible drop of water by a sudden expansion. J. J. Thomson obtained a value 34x10-1°, H. A. Wilson 31x10—", and Millikan and Begeman 406 x 107-"°. The mean of these three determinations of e is 3.5x10-*°. The charge E on an a particle on this data thus lies between 2e and 3e. Some calculations of the value of E and e are then made from radio-active data based on simple and very probable assumptions. Taking the half- period of transformation of radium as 2000 years—the value found by direct measurement by Boltwood—it is shown, on the assumption that each atom of radium in breaking up emits one a particle, that the charge e carried by a hydrogen atom comes out to be 471 x 10~7°. Similarly, supposing that the heating effect of radium is a measure of the kinetic energy of the @ particles, the charge carried by an a particle comes out at 91x 10-°—a value close to that found experimentally. A discussion is then given of the methods employed in the previous determination of e, and it is shown that in consequence: of certain sources of error which are very difficult to eliminate, the values previously obtained tend to be too small. It is concluded that the unit charge e is not very different from E/2 or 465 x 10-*°, and that an @ particle carries twice the unit charge. From the previous discussion of the interpretation of the value of E/M for the « particle, it follows that an a particle must be an atom of helium carrying a double charge, or, in other words, that an @ particle when its charge is neutralised is a helium atom. It seems at first sight contradictory that an atom of a monatomic gas like helium can carry two unit charges. It must be borne in mind that in this case the @ par- ticle plunges at a great speed through the molecules of matter, and must itself be ionised by collision. If two electrons can be removed by this process, the double positive charge is at once explained. We thus see that by a direct method we have been enabled to count the number of a particles and to determine the charge caused by each, and from other evidence to deduce that the unit charge e is half the charge carried by the a particle. With the aid of this data we can at once deduce the magnitudes of some important atomic quantities. The value of e/m for the hydrogen atom is 2°88 x 10 electrostatic units. Substituting the value of e=465 x 10-1, it follows that the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1°61 x 10-74 gram. From this it follows that there are 62x 107% atoms in one gram of hydrogen, and that there are 2°72x 10! molecules in a cubic centimetre of any gas at standard pressure and tem- perature. From the data already given we can _ pre- determine the magnitude of some important radio- active quantities. Let us first consider the rate of production of helium by radium. One gram ot NO. 2036, VOL. 79] each of which expels 34x 10!" @ particles, i.e. atoms of helium, per second. Consequently, since there are 2°72 x 10!° atoms of helium in a cubic centimetre, the 4X 3/4 x 107° 272% 10.) or 5:0x1I0~-® c.mm. per second. This corresponds to a production of helium of 043 c.mm. per day, or 158 ¢.mm. per year. In a similar way, the maximum volume of the emanation in one gram of radium can be calculated. Since one atom of radium in breaking up emits one a particle and gives rise to one atom of emanation, the volume of emanation produced per second is one- quarter the volume of helium, or 125 x10-° c.mm. per second. Since the average life of the emanation is 468,000 seconds, the maximum volume of the emanation comes out to be 0585 c.mm. In a recent paper Rutherford (Phil. Mag., August) has mea- sured the volume of the emanation and obtained a value not very different from the calculated volume. In a similar way, it is not difficult to calculate the period of transformation of radium and the heating effect of radium. The former comes out at 1750 years, which is somewhat shorter than the value 2000 years found experimentally by Boltwood. As Boltwood points out, however, the probable experimental errors are such as to tend to give too high a value for the period. The latter is deduced on the hypothesis that the heating effect is a measure of the kinetic energy of the expelled « particles. The heating effect is caleu- lated to be about 113 gram calories per gram per hour, while the observed heating effect of the sample of radium from which the standard preparation was taken was found to be 110 gram calories per hour. For convenience, the data obtained in this paper are collected below :— volume of helium produced per second is Charge carried by a bree = 4°65 x 10-" electrostatic units. AY Wong Inaoe SBD Charge carried by a particle =9°3 x 107" electrostatic units. Massof Hatom ... ... ...=1°61x10~*4 gram, Beebe of atoms per eran oh Sie Number of molecules per c.c. of any gas at standard pres- ;=2°72 x 10” sure and temperature ... Number of a particles expelled | per sec. per gram of radium ;=3"4 x 101° itself | Number of atoms breaking up| _ ,. per sec. per gram of radiumf 7 Calculated volume of emana-)\ _ _,.¢. tion per gram of radium f° peo c.mm. Production of helium per) _ 158 ¢.mm. gram of radium per year f Calculated heating effect of) radium per gram... ... Jf Calculated period of radium... =1750 years. 4x tol” = 113 gr. cal. per hour. We have already seen that there is a substantial agreement between the calculated values of the heat- ing effect, the life of radium and the volume of the emanation, and the experimentally determined values. A still further test would lie in a comparison of the calculated and cbserved rates of production of helium by radium. Data on this subject will probably soon be forthcoming.* Some very important consequences follow from the proof that the @ particle is a helium atom. It must be concluded that the atoms of the known radio-active elements are in part at least constituted of helium atoms which are liberated at definite stages during 1 (Footnote, added September 12, 1908.) In a paper just to hand (Proc. Roy. Soc., A., vol. 1xxxi., p. 280) Sir James Dewar has shown experimentally that 0°37 c.mm. of helium is produced per gram of radium per day. This is in excellent agreement with the calculated rate, 0°43 c.mm. per day. NovEMBER 5, 1908] NATURE 15 — — the disintegration. It will be seen that in many cases medal to Prof. H. A. Lorentz, for his investigations in the atomic weights of the various products can be deduced. In the succession of products produced by the disintegration of the uranium-radium series, there occur several rayless products and §f-ray products. Assuming, as is not improbable, that the atomic products undergo an internal rearrangement with- out the expulsion of a mass comparable with the hydrogen atom, we can calculate the atomic weights of the successive products, taking the atomic weight of helium as 4. From the known range of the a particles from uranium and the ionisation it produces compared with the radium associated with it, there is no doubt that uranium expels two «@ par- ticles to one from radium itself. Whether this is a peculiarity of uranium itself or due to an unseparated product in uranium is not settled. Taking the atomic weight of uranium as 238'5, the atomic weights of the different products are as follows :—Uranium X 2305, ionium 230°5, radium 2265, emanation 22275, radium A 218'5, radium B 2185, radium C 214°5, radium D, E, and F (radio-lead) 210°5, radium A (polonium) 210'5. It will be seen that the calculated value of the atomic weight of radium is in good agreement with the most recent experimental values. The end product of radium after the transformation of polonium has an atomic weight of 206°5—a value close to that of lead (206'9). Boltwood long ago suggested, from examination of the amount of lead in old radio-active minerals, that lead was the probable final product of the disintegra- tion of the uranium-radium series. We cannot at the moment apply the same method of calculation to thorium products, for Bronson (Phil. Mag., August, 1908) has recently brought strong evi- dence that the disintegration of the atoms of some of the products is accompanied by the expulsion of more than one « particle. In conclusion, it may be of interest to note that the experimental results recorded in this article lead to an experimental proof—if proof be needed—of the correctness of the atomic hypothesis with reference to the discrete structure of matter. The number of a particles expelled from radium can be directly counted, and the corresponding volume of helium determined. In this way it is possible to determine directly the number of atoms in a cubic centimetre of helium quite independently of any measurements of the charge carried by the «@ particles. E. RUTHERFORD. NOTES. Tue following is a list of the fellows recommended by the president and council of the Royal Society for election into the council for the year 1908-9 :—President, Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B.; Dr. Alfred Bray Kempe; secretaries, Prof. Joseph Larmor, Prof. John Rose Bradford; foreign secretary, Sir William Crookes; other members of council, Sir George Howard Darwin, K.C.B., Prof. [eeGarewart, Sir David) Gill KCB) Dr. J. Ss: lialdane, Mr. C. T. Heycock, Prof. Horace Lamb, Prof. H. M. Maedonald, Dr. F. W. Mott, Hon. C. A. Parsons, C.B., Prof. W. H. Perkin, Prof. E. B. Poulton, Lieut.- Colonel D. Prain, Sir Arthur W. Riicker, Right Hon. Sir James Stirling, Prof. F. T. Trouton, Mr. W. Whitaker. treasurer, Tne_ Royal Society’s medals have this year been adjudicated by the president and council as follows :—The Copley medal to Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, in recognition of the great value of his numerous contributions to natural history, and of the part he took in working out the theory of the origin of species by natural selection; the Rumford NO. 2036, VOL. 79] optical and electrical science ; a Royal medal to Prof. John Milne, for his preeminent services in the modern develop- ment of seismological science ; a Royal medal to Dr. Henry Head, for his researches on the relations between the visceral and somatic nerves and on the functions of the afferent nerves; the Davy medal to Prof. W. A. Tilden, for his discoveries in chemistry, especially on the terpenes and on atomic heats; the Darwin medal to Prof. August Weismann, for his eminent services in support of the doctrine of evolution by means of natural selection; the Hughes medal to Prof. Eugen Goldstein, for his discoveries on the nature of electric discharge in rarefied gases. M. PuHILipPE vAN TIEGHEM has been elected the per- manent secretary of the Paris Academy of Sciences in succession to the late M. Becquerel. Tue International Congress of Geology will be held at Stockholm in 1910, when it is expected that Baron Gérard de Geer will, on his return from the Arctic regions, read a paper on polar geology. A peEpPUTATION from the Incorporated Society for the Destruction of Vermin waited upon Lord Carrington at the offices of the Board of Agriculture on October 29 to request the Government to appoint a commission to inquire into the damage to crops done by rats. AN agreement has been signed by which England and Germany undertake to cooperate in combating the sleep- ing sickness in their East African possessions. The co- operation will take the form chiefly of exchanging reports of cases, and in arranging for the destruction of wild animals which act as “‘ reservoirs,’? or provide nourish- ment, for the trypanosomes of sleeping sickness. A course of twelve lectures—the Swiney lectures on geology—on the geological history of the American fauna will be delivered by Dr. R. F. Scharff in the lecture theatre of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensing- ton, on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays at 5 p.m. The first lecture was given on Monday last, November 2. Admission to the course is free. We learn through the British Medical Journal that Prof. Ehlers, of Copenhagen, well known as an authority on leprosy, is now in Paris with the view of organising a scientific expedition to the Danish West Indies, which comprise the islands of St. Thomas, St. John, and Santa Cruz. The object of the expedition is said to be to endeavour to determine the part played by blood-sucking insects, especially fleas and bugs, in the dissemination of leprosy. Tue Bisset Hawkins gold medal of the Royal College of Physicians has been awarded to Sir Shirley Murphy, medical officer of health of the County of London, for his distinguished services in the cause of public health. The FitzPatrick lectures of the college will be delivered on November 5 and 1o by Dr. Leonard Guthrie, on “ The History of Neurology,’’ and the Horace Dobell lecture by Mr. Leonard Dudgeon, on November 12, on “‘ The Latent Persistence and the Reactivation of Pathogenic Bacteria in the Body.” On October 3o Mr. Farman flew, with a machine heavier than air, seventeen miles across country in twenty minutes, from Chalons to a point just outside Rheims. The height of the course of flight was about 150 feet. On October 31 M. Blériot made flights across country from his station near Chartres, the longest being one of 16 NATURE mine miles in fourteen minutes. At Anvours on the same day Mr. Wilbur Wright made a flight of 10m. 37s. with a passenger. The new dirigible balloon, the Clément- Bayard, navigated by M. Henry Kapferer, on November 1 travelled a distance of about 200 kilometres, from Paris to Compiégne and back. Tue death is announced, at the age of forty-six, of Dr. F. A. C. Perrine, one of the leading American authorities ‘on electrical engineering, and from 1893 to 1900 professor of that subject in the Leland Standford, Jr., University. He was afterwards consulting expert of the Standard Electric Company of California, which took the principal part in generating electrical energy at the mountain streams and transmitting it to the great cities of the Pacific coast. Of late years he was engaged in private practice as a consulting engineer. He was formerly editor of the San Francisco Journal of Electricity and of the Chicago Electric Engineering. Tue terms of reference have now been published of the ‘Royal Commission appointed ‘‘to make an inventory of the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Constructions connected with or illustrative of the contemporary culture, civilisation, and conditions of life of the people in England, exciuding Monmouthshire, from the earliest times to the year 1700, and to specify those which seem most worthy of preservation.’” The commissioners are authorised to call in the aid and cooperation of owners of ancient monu- ments, and are given full power to call before them such persons as are likely to afford any information upon the subject of the commission, and also to call for, have access to, and examine all such books, documents, registers, and records as may afford the fullest information on the sub- ject. They are also empowered to visit and inspect per- sonally such places as may be deemed expedient to inspect for the more effectual carrying out of the purposes of the inquiry. A GENERAL meeting of the British Academy was held on October 28, when Dr. J. P. Postgate read a paper on flaws in modern classical research. In spite of the advances made and the results obtained in the field of classical research during the last sixty years, the outer world, he said, is still prone to doubt whether these are as great in proportion as those of other studies which claim to be scientific, or really commensurate to the time and energy expended upon them. The qualifications for- any scientific research are competence and impartiality. Impartiality must be understood in a sense wide enough to include freedom from every prepossession which is likely to interfere with the proper weighing of the evidence. The first and generally neglected duty of the classical inquirer is the elimination of the personal equation. One of many disturbing elements found in every inquirer is the influence of modern forms of thought. The modern’s comprehension of the facts is frequently impaired by the ethical judgments which he passes upon their character. A fertile source of error is the strength of modern vanity. ‘We are the “heirs of all the ” and the testimony of ancient witnesses is liable to be rejected summarily if either (a) we cannot reconcile it with what we deem we know otherwise, or (b) if it conflicts with evidence which we have had a. hand in dis- covering. The procedure, especially in the less settled studies, such as archeology and mythology, is often too lax. Impressions gathered in one field are carried over to another where they do not apply. Owing partly to the wastness of the regions to be investigated, the conclusions NO. 2036, VOL. 79] ves ages; [NovEMLER 5, 1908 of one band of inquirers are apt to be rejected by those in another sphere without proper consideration. In con- trast to the true scientific spirit, which regards nothing as of no importance, inaccuracy in ‘‘ minor ’’ matters is condoned or even paraded, to the injury of fine scholar- ship and vivid appreciation of antiquity. In his presidential address to the Institution of Civil Engineers on November 3, Mr. J. C. Inglis dealt chiefly with engineering in relation to transport. In the course of his remarks he said it is only now dimly dawning in controlling quarters that there is a science of transport, and the fact that while British railways cost more than 50,0001. per mile, lines in Germany cost only about 20,000l., in France 27,000l., in America 11,000l., and so on, is symptomatic only of the extent to which British legislation, when it is allowed to proceed on unsound lines, may prejudice vital interests. Mr. Inglis referred also to the work done by the institution in improving the status and efficiency of engineers. He holds that it ought to be laid down as a principle that all public money derived from rates and taxes should be, so far as it is applied in engineering constructions, expended under the direction or control of definitely qualified engineers, as is already the case in many countries. The establishment of such a prin- ciple would promote efficiency and economy in much public expenditure, and would immensely strengthen the pro- fession, as well as benefit the State. The difference between British and German ideals was expressed recently by a German professor lecturing on economic subjects in words quoted by Mr. Inglis as follows :—‘‘ The aim of the German was everywhere to leave as little as possible to chance in the great struggle of the twentieth century, not to allow people to muddle through somehow, but to eliminate as far as possible the element of the unforeseen, while carefully training the mind to cope if necessary in an intelligent way with any emergency. While the British had, as a rule, a violent suspicion of the expert, and a strong belief in the untrained, unpaid amateur as the right source of wisdom, allowing the expert to advise and the amateur to decide, the German had no fear of the expert. He well saw the possible danger of red-tapeism at the hands of highly trained officials, but he found them less than the dangers arising from the decisions of well- meaning but untrained and inexperienced amateurs.” Mr. A. R. Burrerwortu, chairman of the executive committee of the Highways Protection League, has issued a circular letter in which he gives statistics to show (1) the number of local authorities which desire to have the present speed-limit of motor traffic reduced, and to have power themselves to fix still lower limits of speed in towns and villages in their own districts without having to make application to the Local Government Board; (2) the great increase in the number of persons annually injured and killed by motor vehicles. It appears that in 1905 197 urban and rural district councils of England and Wales approved of a proposal to reduce the maximum speed-limit to fifteen miles an hour, and 212 desired to have power to fix lower limits of speed in towns and villages and at any places where they thought it desirable to do so in the public interest. Up to October 19, 102 applications have been made by local authorities to the Local Government Board to reduce the speed-limit on certain roads; of these, only twenty-two have been granted, while eighty have failed. With regard to accidents attributable to motor traffic, at the present moment there are no complete reports obtainable of such accidents occurring throughout the country generally, but — | ——— NoveMBER 5, 1908] the subjoined.table, compiled from figures annexed to the recent report of the Commissioner of Police, shows the increase in the Metropolitan Police District, which embraces an area of 700 square miles :— Accidents causing Death or Injury in the Streets within the Metropolitan Police District, 1897 to 1907 inclusive. Deaths Injuries = ==. Killed | Injured by Killed by by other (Injured by other motors vehicles or, motors vehicles or _ eh by horses | by horses nnual average for the ; z five years 1897-1901 } ae 175 78 9,338 1902 169 319 9,186 1903 6 148 592 9,610 1904 22 TGQ MT MUG UL 2 eto 93272 1905 35 137, | 1,557 «+. 10,131 1906 74 1383" | 3,358 ... 10,702 1907 123 160 5 5g02) ... ID410 These figures make it very clear that not long after the Act of 1903 came into operation—on January 1, 1904— raising the maximum speed-limit from twelve miles an hour to twenty, the casualties caused by motor traffic in- creased rapidly. Injuries caused by non-motor traffic have also increased greatly in the last five years. NovemMBER has opened with the same fine and brilliant weather which characterised October, except that, in keep- ing with the season, there has been a decided fall of temperature, although the thermometer both by day and night remains several degrees above the average. The mean maximum temperature in London for October was about 6° above the average, and at Greenwich there were six days with the sheltered thermometer above 70°, and twenty-two days with the reading above 60°, whilst on October 3 and 29 the temperature exceeded all previous records, on the corresponding days, by 3°. The duration of bright sunshine was generally in excess of the average over the country, and in London the sun shone for ninety- eight hours, which is thirty hours more than the average. The aggregate rainfall for the month varied considerably in different parts of the kingdom, but there was generally a deficiency ; the early part of the month was mostly very dry, but fairly heavy rains were general towards the close of October. In London there was a deficiency of rain amounting to 0-8 inch, the measurement being 1-9 inches. Tue Allahabad Pioneer published recently a further account of the explorations of Dr. M. A. Stein, written from Khotan in July last. In September, 1907, he com- menced his long journey to the Tarim Basin for his second winter archeological campaign. He reached Karashahr, on the border of this region, in December, and at Korla made a fresh investigation of a group of Buddhist shrines, which had already been examined by Prof. Griinwedel. Many fine painted panels and relieves were unearthed here. The country, once irrigated from the Karakash River, must in former times have supported a large and thriving population, and even now, if the channels were restored, these settlements might be re-established. About Christmas the cold of the valley drove the party to the sunnier hill country. After returning to Korla he marched from the Inchike or Shahyar River along a previously unexplored route to the Kuchar oasis, where the ruins had lately been carefully explored by successive parties of Japanese, German, and Russian archeologists. So, after a hazardous desert march, he was glad to re-visit his old hunting-ground at Kara-dong. March and April were spent in examining the desert belt adjoining the oasis from Damoko to Khotan, and from a collection of unsavoury NO. 2036, VOL. 79] NATURE 7 middens he recovered a great mass of documents, mainly Indian, Chinese, and Tibetan, none of which, apparently, is later than the eighth or ninth century a.p. At the beginning of May Dr. Stein reached Aksu, after suffering severely from heat and dust-storms. Here he arranged for the continuation of the survey of the outer Tien-shan range as far westward as the passes above Kashgar. After some further exploration the traveller was forced to return to Khotan, where, when this letter was dispatched, he was engaged in packing up his large collections, many of them consisting of fragile documents, which need much care, preparatory to sending them by the long and difficult route across the Himalaya to India. WE have received a letter from Mr. C. V. Raman, of the Science Association Laboratory, Calcutta, directing attention to a method of illumination employed in micro- scopy by Mr. G. Dubern in 1888, and described in Indian Engineering for April of that year. Mr. Raman claims. that the apparatus renders visible ultra-microscopic particles, and that Siedentopf’s and Szigmondy’s method was thus anticipated. The apparatus consisted of a polished glass plate, one end of which was cut off, form- ing an angle of 54° 35’ with the base; through this slant end a powerful beam of light was projected. We have examined the description of the apparatus in Indian Engineering, and consider that the method (not altogether novel even at that date) was one of dark-ground illumina- tion, any form of which tends to render ultra-microscopic particles visible, but that it cannot be ‘considered in any way as anticipating the modern ultra-microscopic apparatus. In addition to a memoir, with portrait, of Prof. W. Lilljeborg, the October number of Naturen contains an interesting account of the results of Mr. Luther Burbank’s experiments in developing and hybridising various fruits, especially plums. Illustrations are given of the wild and cultivated forms of the French plum, of the ‘* plumcot ’” (plum crossed with apricot), and of the hybrid blackberry and raspberry. Accorpinc to Musewm News for October, there has. been installed in the Brooklyn Museum a case showing the home of the guacharo, or oil-bird, of Trinidad. The scene represents a cave tenanted by hundreds of these birds, with their nests, eggs, and young. The rainy season is the time of nesting, and the cave is consequently represented as dripping with water and the nests saturated. The cave is lighted by electricity, which can be switched on or off at pleasure. A group of five sea-lions forms another addition to the exhibited series. In the matter of realistic groups of this nature the Brooklyn and other American museums are leaving our own Natural History Museum far behind. WE have to acknowledge the receipt of copies of articles 12-14 of the twenty-third volume of the Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University of Tokyo, the con- ‘ tents of all three of which are mainly of interest to specialists. Japanese sertularian zoophytes of the group Primnoidea form the subject of article 12, by Mr. K. Kinoshita, and are illustrated by several excellent plates in black and white. In No. 13 Mr. S. Tanaka treats of some rare Japanese fishes, with descriptions of one new genus, one subgenus, and six species, while in article 14 Prof. Einar Lénnberg, of Stockholm, contributes a list of the bird-fauna of the island’ of Saghalin, based on collections at Tokyo, in which three new subspecies are named. The new genus (Gymnosimenchelys) in Mr. 18 NATURE [ NovEMBER 5, 1908 Tanaka’s paper is represented by a small eel-shaped fish allied to Simenchelys, but scaleless. In view of the attention that is now being concentrated on the house-fly as a disseminator of disease, the appear- ance in the October issue of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science of the second part of Mr. C. G. Hewitt’s paper on the structure, development, and habits of the species is extremely opportune. In this portion the author deals with the breeding-habits and the anatomy and development of the grubs. After full reference to the work of previous naturalists, it is concluded that horse-manure is the favourite breeding-place, although decaying organic matter of almost any kind may form the nidus for the eggs. The rate of development depends entirely on temperature, and it is important to notice in this connec- tion that the substance in which the eggs are laid is generally in a state of fermentation. The shortest time for development—from laying to the appearance of the perfect fly—is eight days, but the period may be extended over several weeks. There are three grub-stages. From June to October is the chief breeding-season, although under favourable conditions flies may be fertile all the year. The flies become sexually mature in from ten to fourteen days after their first appearance in the world, and they may begin to lay within a fortnight. Each fly may lay six batches of ova, each containing from 120 to 130 eggs. The ‘‘ bionomics ’’ of the species will be discussed in the third and final part of the paper. Tue spoliation of the Falls of Niagara, on account of the abstraction of the water for electrical and other works, forms the subject of an exceedingly interesting article in the October number of the Popular Science Monthly, by Dr. J. W. Spencer, who has devoted much attention to the study of rivers generally. After referring in more or less detail to the various power-stations connected with Niagara, the author notes the very great lowering of the water-level above the falls as the result of this tapping. As an example of the enormous amount of water taken by these works, it is stated that when in June last a single company temporarily stopped its take of 8000 cubic feet per second, the water in the basin rose no less than 6 inches, and at the edge of the American falls 1-2 inches. “The preservation of the falls,’’ continues Dr. Spencer, ““is now a question of inches. Under the conditions as set forth [i.e. as regards further tapping], the whole of the Horseshoe Falls will have shrunken from a crest-line of 2950 feet to 1600 feet, and their diameter will have been reduced from 1200 to 800 feet. They will then be entirely within Canadian territory, as the boundary line will become uncovered, leaving a narrow strip of rock between Goat Island and the great cataract. If the full franchise be used, the American Falls, which are 1ooo feet across, will have their southern half drained, and will be further broken up into narrow sheets or strings of water.”’ The preservation of the falls, it is added, now depends entirely upon the Governments of Washington and Ottawa; it is sincerely to be hoped that they will so regulate matters as to retain the world-renowned falls for all time. In a second article, by Mr. R. H. Arnot, the industries con- nected with the falls are described at length. A THIRD part of the current botanical volume of the Philippine Journal of Science (July) contains a list of plants ‘collected near Lake Lanao Mindaneo by Mrs. Clemens, and identified by Mr. Merrill; also a series of identifications of Philippine plants, in which Mr. R. A. Rolfe is associated with Mr. Merrill. A Ranunculus closely allied to the NO. 2036, VOL. 79] 1 Australian Ranunculus lappaceus, the genera Hoppea and Hemiphragma furnishing an Indian element, and the genus Spirzeopsis known only from the Celebes, are geo- graphically interesting. Mr. F. W. Foxworthy records the identification of ‘‘lumbayao’”’ timber as the product of Tarrietia javanica. The allied Tarrietia sylvatica furnishes the timber ‘‘ dungon,’’ that is better known, but here reported inferior. Tue discovery in Siam of a new genus of the unique order Rafflesiacea is recorded by Dr. C. C. Hosseus in Engler’s Botanische Jahrbiicher (vol. xli., part ii.). The plants of this order are parasitic herbs, consisting of a vegetative structure reduced to a network of cellular threads ramifying in a host plant, and of flowers sub- tended by a few scale leaves. The new genus, Richt- hofenia, falls into the tribe Rafflesiee, together with the genera Rafflesia, Sapria, and Brugmansia. It is similar to Rafflesia in the possession of a plurilocular ovary, but agrees with Sapria as regards its bilocular anthers. It thus forms a connecting link between the two genera. Its habitat, too, lies between the Malayan home of Rafflesia and the Himalayan locality of Sapria. Ir is fully recognised that considerable risks attach to the formation of pure forests owing to the liability of destruction by the rapid spread of insect or fungus pests. American investigators have provided another reason in favour of mixed plantations in so far as they attribute weight to soil deterioration by the excretion of toxic material from the roots. The editorial note in the Indian Forester (September) touches upon these points, and further arguments applying to conditions in India in favour of intermixing trees of less value are adduced by Mr. P. Lushington. Firstly, there is the fuel value to be con- sidered, but, in addition, it is pleaded that ‘‘ worthless ’’ species provide cover for the ground, or may serve to draw up the high-class trees, or in the case of evergreens help materially to check forest fires. Tne Oxford list of British plants is one of three such publications recently issued, the other two being a list compiled by the botanical authorities at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, and the tenth edition of the London catalogue. The South Kensington list is the most restricted, as the critical forms of Hieracium, Rubus, Euphrasia, and Salix are omitted, all varieties, also extinct and various introduced plants. A special feature is the reference to the original determination of each species. The Oxford list is, on the other hand, the most com- prehensive, registering varieties and aliens of all kinds, or foreigners as some might be called. The London cata- logue approximates to the Oxford list, differing chiefly in a greater discrimination of aliens. There is, however, one notable point of distinction in the latter, as Mr. Druce refuses to accept the list of special generic names passed by the Vienna Congress as worthy of retention. While respecting his opinion, it seems a mistake not to abide by the decision of the congress. To coordinate the species in the three publications may well be left to the ardent systematist. Doubtless all three will find supporters, besides being used for comparison. Certainly the Clarendon Press could have found no botanist better versed in the intricacies of the British flora than the author they have selected. Tue Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan for July contains a discussion, by T. Ogawa, of the climate of Fusan (south-east of Corea) from observations since 1904. The seasonal means of air temperature are :— NoveMBER 5, 1908] NATURE spring, 53°2; summer, 73°-0; autumn, 60°-8; winter, 38°-7. The extremes observed were 13°-5 and 92°-5; the periods of greatest cold and heat coincide approximately with our own. The annual rainfall is about 563 inches, the average number of rain-days being 109. There is a fairly large rainfall in every month from January to Sep- tember, especially in July, but only a slight fall during the rest of the year. M. Ishida contributes an article on the causes of the very heavy winter rainfall in the western part of Honshu (facing the Sea of Japan). Abstracts of these articles are given in English. THE programme of the Institute of Archeology and Anthropology in connection with the University of Liver- pool is sufficiently ambitious; but with working members like Profs. Frazer, Newberry, and Myres it seems likely to achieve success. The Institute, so far as British archeology is concerned, proposes to conduct an arche- ological and historical survey of North Wales; and in the course of excavations here it is hoped to train a body of students who will be available for similar work abroad. Besides this, schemes are on hand for excavations in Egypt and British Honduras. As a record of its work, the Institute has commenced the publication of a series of “Annals of Archeology and Anthropology,’? under the editorship of Prof. Myres, of which the opening double number for September has lately appeared. It is chiefly devoted to Egyptian and Hittite archeology. In the latter field the most interesting contribution is the account by Prof. Garstang of Dr. Winckler’s excavations at Boghazkeui, in Cappadocia, where the discovery of a copy of the treaty between the Hittite monarch and Rameses the Great fixes for the first time a definite date on which the chronology of the Hittite empire can be safely based. Dr. G. A. AupeNn, medical superintendent under the Educational Committee of Birmingham, has, with the assistance of Miss Byron, done a useful service to archeology by issuing, side by side with the Danish and German editions, an English version of the new guide to the prehistoric collections in the Danish National Museum at Copenhagen, which has been compiled by Dr. Sophus Miller. This is more than a catalogue of the important series of specimens discovered in Danish soil, because it will serve as a useful introduction to the study of a branch of archeology which has hitherto received too little attention in this country. The manual is divided into periods: the earlier and later Stone and Bronze ages; the pre-Roman and Roman Iron ages; the post-Roman Iron age; and, finally, the Viking period. It is illustrated throughout with excellent engravings. As a _ concise account of north European prehistoric antiquities it may be usefully consulted side by side with the admirable guides to the collections in the British Museum for which we are indebted to Mr. C. H. Read. THE bright lines or streaks seen when moonlight is re- flected from water that is covered with regular ripples, or the light of a lamp is reflected from a corrugated or regularly polished surface, have often formed subjects for questions in the few examinations in which geometrical optics figures in this country. In a paper in the Trans- actions of the American Mathematical Society, ix., 3, Prof. W. H. Roever discusses the general mathematical theory of “brilliant points’? on curves and surfaces, and his paper is illustrated by photographs of the brilliant lines on the surface of a circular saw which had been polished in rotation. Tue Physical Review for September contains an article on the diffusion of salts in aqueous solutions, by Mr. R. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] 1g Haskell, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, “n which the theory of diffusion is brought into line with the dissociation theory of solutions. The dissolved salt is taken as partially dissociated, and the theory is worked out on the supposition that the diffusion of each molecule is proportional to the rate of change per cm. of the concen- tration of that molecule, whether dissociated or not, multiplied by a constant called the diffusion constant, which may have different values for a dissociated and for a non- dissociated molecule. The measurements were made by determining the electrical resistance between pairs of platinum electrodes placed at different heights in a vertical cylinder filled initially with pure water, with a layer of concentrated solution at the bottom the strength of which was maintained from an external reservoir. The author finds the theory confirmed by his observations on thallium sulphate and barium nitrate, and in both these cases the diffusion constant for dissociated is double that for non- dissociated molecules. WE have received from Knowledge a specimen of the Knowledge calculator, which has been designed by Major B. Baden-Powell, and is put on the market at the low price of 3s. 6d., or 3s. 8d. by post from the Knowledge Office, 27 Chancery Lane. The calculator is in reality a circular slide-rule made in card. As the diameter of the circle is almost exactly 6-5 inches, it is equivalent in open- ness of scale to a straight rule, divided from 1 to ro only, 201 inches long, or to a straight rule divided from 1 to 100 of twice that length. A considerable number of gauge points or conversion factors are marked round on the inner card, and directions are given at the back for using the instrument. The advantage of openness of scale of the circular form has to be set against certain other advantages of rules of the Gravet type which, in the writer’s opinion, are the more valuable; still, whether one or other form is to be preferred must, of course, be determined by each user for himself. It does not seem probable that any other form of circular rule made of card could be designed so as to be more effective and inexpensive than this. Tue existence of a perchromic acid has been known for the last sixty years, and the blue coloration resulting from the action of sulphuric acid and hydrogen peroxide upon chromates has taken its place as a useful test for chromates. In spite of many researches, however, the exact constitution of these perchromates has remained doubtful. In the August number of the Berichte der naturforschenden Gesellschaft zu Freiburg i. Br. there is a paper by E. H. Riesenfield in which the whole of the work on this subject is reviewed, and further experiments described settling the composition of these compounds. Four definite series of perchromates are described :— H,CrO,, giving red salts with sodium, potassium, and ammonium; H,CrO,, giving blue perchromates; KH,CrO, and (NH,)H,CrO,; the pyridine salt of the perchromic acid, HCrO,; and the ammonia addition product of per- chromic anhydride, CrO,. All these compounds are analogous, and are convertible the one into the other under suitable conditions. Messrs. WILLIAMS AND NorcGateE has published vol. viii. of the new series of the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society. The volume contains Mr. Haldane’s presidential address on the methods of modern logic and the concep- tion of infinity, the papers read before the society during the session 1907-8, an abstract of the minutes of the pro- ceedings of the society for the session, the rules, and a list of officers and members of the society. The price of the volume is tos. 6d. net. 20 NATURE We have received from the Pulsometer Engineering Co., Ltd., a copy of their latest catalogue of ‘‘ Geryk” air-pumps. The list also contains a full description of the Fleuss patent pump for desiccating or for steam con- densers, which has been awarded a diploma for a gold medal in connection with the Franco-British Exhibition. These pumps are specially designed for desiccating, chemical work, distillation, and so on, their special feature being that they will pump condensable vapours of alcohol, ether, &c., to a high vacuum as readily as ordinary dry air. Dr. Rosert A. Lyster’s ‘“ School Hygiene,’’ published by Mr. W. B. Clive, has reached a second edition. (ut) @—a)(y-8) ® Cel Loo)P This function ¢, then, turns out to be no other than the ordinary o-function, which, in this method, is therefore fundamental. * Mr. Russell also gave a new proof of Legendre’s identity EK’ +E’K-KK’=7 Commenting upon the paper, the chairman (Prof. A. E. H. Love) mentioned that he had recently devised a physical proof of Legendre’s identity by considering the magnetic potential of a circular current. NoveEMBER 5, 1908] NATURE 23 The proceedings of the general physics department began with a paper from Sir W. Ramsay with the title “Do the Radio-active Gases (Emanations) belong to the Argon Series?’”’ The experimental part consisted in the examination of the residues of the fractionation of 120 tons of liquid air with the object of discovering new elements. The final residue of 03 c.c. had a spectrum differing in no respect from xenon, and it is concluded that if there is a heavier constituent in air than xenon its amount does not exceed 1/25 billionth of the whole. A consideration of the periodic table reveals gaps at 178, 216, and 260, and it is rendered probable that they are respectively unstable emanations, viz. those of thorium, radium, and actinium. Discussing this paper, Prof. Rutherford outlined his well-known argument from the mode of disintegration of uranium and its successors that radium emanation has an atomic weight of 222, but did not attribute importance to the difference between this and 216. It is not possible to apply the same argument to the other radio-active elements, because more than one alpha particle may be thrown off at a time. Actinium, he thought, might belong to a side branch. It seemed improbable that there should be an emanation higher than uranium, and therefore he discountenanced the view that the value 260 belonged to actinium emanation. Mr. S. Russ observed that he recently made a direct comparison between the coefficients of diffusion of the emanations from thorium and actinium, with the result that the molecular weight of that of actinium is less than that of thorium. Sir W. Ramsay, in replying, urged that Prof. Rutherford had left out of account the production of neon, which must be explained by the occurrence of a group of alpha particles. Prof. Rutherford rejoined that he was not con- vinced of the production of neon in radio-active changes. Mr. W. Makower followed with a paper on the number and absorption of the f particles emitted by radium. The law of absorption by glass found for the B rays from radium B and C is the same as that for aluminium found by H. W. Schmidt, the radiation being measured in both eases by the ionisation produced by the rays after traversing different thicknesses of glass. It was found to be the same when measured by the charge received by an insulated brass cylinder (which surrounded the glass tube containing the emanation), different thicknesses of glass being interposed. It is concluded that when rays pass through matter the absorption is not due to scattering, but to an actual stoppage of the particles. The number of B particles emitted per second by the radium C in equilibrium with 1 gram of radium is found experiment- ally to be 4-9x10°°. Prof. Rutherford explained that the value he expected from theoretical considerations for the number from both B and C was 6-8x10'° instead of 98x10'° as deduced from Mr. Makower’s experiments. To remove the discrepancy we might assume not merely one a for one B particle. Prof. McClelland welcomed the view that scattering is not an important factor, though his recent experiments show that some scattering is pre- sent, together with a sending out of secondary particles. Prof. J. J. Thomson had not the slightest doubt, from his own experiments, that there is a large amount of scatter- ing, and that absorption is due to this divergence. The ultimate fate of a particle may be that it sticks in, but it is repeatedly deflected first. Prof. H. A. Wilson expressed an interest in the subiect, partly on account of its bear- ing upon his suggestion of the smallness of the «a particle. Sir O. Lodge tried to reconcile the opposing statements by asking whether it is not necessary to dis- tinguish between absorption by conductors (as in Prof. J. J. Thomson’s experiments) and by non-conductors (as_ in Mr. Makower’s). An account was next given by Sir J. Dewar of his recent work on the rate of production of helium from radium (v. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. Ixxxi., No. 547, p. 280). After extreme precautions, the rate of production is found to be about 0-37 cubic mm. per gram per day, a number which is of the same order of magnitude as Rutherford’s theory requires. Turning to the question of the helium in the atmosphere, he considered that two or three million vears would be required to produce it from rocks. Prof. R. J. Strutt remarked that 100 billion tons of rock would be required if the supply of helium were kept up in this way. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] Probably the supply is supplemented by a store in the interior of the earth. A difficulty in making a trustworthy estimate of geological time arises from the fact that helium escapes. Sir O. Lodge pointed out that the rock required would only occupy 20 kilometres cube—a very moderate amount. In the department of cosmical physics, Prof. J. Milne, in introducing the report on seismological investigations, remarked on the necessity for accurate time signals in seismological work and the difficulty of arranging terms with the Post Office for the transmission of such signals to the central observatory at Shide. After a short ex- planation of the instrumental records obtained and a state- ment of the shocks noted in 1907, he proceeded to point out that earthquakes travelled more freely towards the west, or against the motion of the earth, than towards the east, while very few earthquakes travelled across the equator. A very important section of this year’s report is a catalogue of nearly goo earthquakes recorded in China between 1800 B.c. and 1834 A.D. The remaining papers were astronomical in character. Sir Robert Ball described a generalised instrument pre- senting the features common to the altazimuth, meridian circle, prime vertical instrument, equatorial, and almu- cantar, and a single set of equations represented the coordinates of the star relatively to three rectangular axes which could be defined in the generalised instrument. Sir Howard Grubb described a new form of divided object-glass telescope in which the two half object-glasses are reversed and placed back to back; this arrangement permits the use of the necessary diaphragms, and a circular wedge is conveniently employed over one half for producing a relative shift of the rays through the two halves. Sir Howard Grubb also read a paper on the re- flecting telescope and its suitability for physical research— an historical account of the subject. In the discussion Prof. H. H. Turner emphasised the importance of Common’s work in connection with the reflecting telescope, and Sir D. Gill advocated the use of the Cassegrain form modified by Hale. Father Cortie described a reflector he had used at Stonyhurst for solar work, and mentioned the advantage of speculum metal over silvered glass for violet and ultra-violet light. Sir Howard Grubb gave a description of the new spectro- heliograph for the Madrid Observatory, which, instead of sliding in a straight line as usual, describes the arc of a circle of which the object-glass for focussing the sun’s image is the centre. A paper was next read by Prof. H. H. Turner on the relation between intensity of light, time of exposure, and photographic action. Representing these by the letters I, t, and E respectively, a new law, Ecclt®*, is given as closely representing the facts concerning stellar photo- graphic effect instead of the law E--It. This means that with an increase of exposure equivalent on the old scale to five magnitudes only four were obtained. Sir W. Abney stated that since the sensitiveness of a plate is different for different wave-lengths, the full equation must contain a term involving A. Mr. R. T. A. Innes sug- gested the possibility of an influence arising from the diameter of the stellar image. Sir D. Gill felt that the law should be accepted with reservation, since different observers obtained different results, but Prof. Turner, in replying, contended that all observers got the same results if they only knew it. Prof. F. W. Dyson contributed a paper on _ the systematic motion of the stars, which gives the results obtained so far from an unfinished investigation. It appears that the stars of large proper motion (>20" per century) have apparent drifts to two points in the sky, but a dirficulty is presented in the explanation of this as due to two streams. Mr. A. S. Eddington thought that the inequality in the numbers of stars in the two streams could be explained by the omission of stars of small proper motion, but admitted that his own results might ultimately require modification. The proceedings on Monday, September 7, began in general session with a discussion on the theory of wave motion. This was opened by Prof. Horace Lamb, who explained that his obiect was to establish a better under- standing between students of mechanics and meteor- 24. NA TORE [ NOVEMBER 5, 1908 ologists and other men of science who were confronted by phenomena in which the characteristics of wave motion appeared prominent. First there were the large-scale oscillations of the atmosphere, shown in the oscillation of barometric pressure. These waves were not mainly gravitational. The principal periods of their free oscilla- tion are 22, 16, .. hours. If we take into account the rotation of the earth, the character of the oscillation and the periods are modified. Laplace’s theory of the tides, which has been very much improved by Hough, applies to an ocean covering the globe, and the only difficulty that arises when we wish to apply this to the atmosphere comes from differences of temperature. If we neglect these differences and apply Hough’s theory to the atmo- sphere, the second type of oscillation has a period of about twelve hours. If we examine the facts as recorded by the barometer, we find the well-known diurnal oscillation irregular in amplitude and phase, and depending in a marked way on the height above sea-level, and, secondly, the semi-diurnal oscillation, extremely regular in amplitude for places in the same latitude and in phase for places in the same longitude. The first thing that suggests itself is that this is a tide caused by the sun’s attraction; but the corresponding lunar tide ought to be more marked, whereas, actually, the lunar tide is almost absent. Moreover, the phase is wrong in sign, and it is too big. Lord Kelvin was the first to suggest that the semi-diurnal tide was a temperature effect. The daily variation of temperature is not harmonic, and when it is analysed there is a definite component with a_half-day period. The objection to attributing the semi- diurnal pressure variation to this is that the latter is extremely regular, while the temperature variation changes considerably with the locality. Margules has shown that on a rotating earth the period of free oscillation of the atmosphere lies very near to twelve hours, and con- sequently a forced oscillation of this period would be magnified. Passing on to local oscillations, Prof. Lamb said these were probably mainly gravitational. The atmosphere might be treated as an incompressible fluid because of the relatively large value of the velocity of sound. If we have two fluids of densities p and p’, with a hori- zontal surface of separation, the velocity of waves at this SX p—p" 2m p+p’ the atmosphere would not appreciably affect the barometer at a place some distance below the surface of separation owing to the fact that the intensity of the disturbance diminishes exponentially. Only in the case of very long waves should we expect the oscillation to be shown on the barometric curve. If the upper fluid is the denser, the amplitude of the disturbance increases rapidly, and we may get a series of filaments as the result of disturbance. So long ago as 1857. Stanley Jevons conceived the possibility of cirrus clouds arising in this way, and made experiments with liquids in verification. If the change of density is not abrupt, but takes place across a transition layer, the character of the motion may change. It is probable that the structure of the disturb- ance will be larger. If we have difference of velocity as well as of density, the wave-velocity at the surface of separation is given by surface is Waves of this type occurring in 7 vate’, /grXxp=p'_ pp p+p ~ N! 2am p+p’ (p+p')?? If A is small, the expression under the root becomes negative, indicating that the condition of affairs is un- stable. This instability is more effective than viscosity in reducing an abrupt change of velocity to a gradual change taking place across a transition layer. The question then arises as to whether we get rid of the instability when the change becomes a gradual one. Helmholtz investi- gated the problem of waves at a surface of separation in the atmosphere. He concluded that, instead of instability, we might have waves of permanent type of finite ampli- tude. The question of the stability of these waves is still an open one. In the application to the atmosphere it is deduced that NO. 2036, VOL. 79| (v-v'), at the crests of the waves there may be sufficient con- densation through the expansion and cooling of the air to make the crests visible. Before this can be settled we need a picture of what really does happen when we cross a layer where these wave-like clouds are formed. Mathe- maticians have gone nearly as far as they are able without precise information on such points. : 2 ¢ Dr. Shaw then showed some lantern-slides illustrating wave motion in the atmosphere recorded by the micro- barograph. In some cases a large sudden increase or decrease in the pressure was followed by a series of waves falling off rapidly in intensity. In other cases similar sudden changes were unaccompanied by waves, while in others still waves were formed without any sudden change occurring. He suggested the possibility of a current of air in rapid motion acquiring a dynamical stability as the result of the motion in such a way that a disturbance of the current might produce an oscillation of the current as a whole in a horizontal direction. F Mr. Wedderburn gave the results of observations of temperature in Loch Ness, showing how temperature oscillations arose from the circulation of the water. He showed the results of experiments on the circulation of water in a vessel of parabolic cross-section over which a strong current of air was passing. ‘The liquid circulated in two distinct systems with a definite surface of separa- tion. Sir William White spoke on ocean waves and on the importance of the new experimental tank to be set up at the National Physical Laboratory. ; ; Prof. Lamb’s paper has been ordered to be printed in full in the report. f ; At the conclusion of this discussion the section again trifurcated. : In the department of mathematics, Sir Robert Ball opened the meeting with an account of the physical appli- cations of the theory of screws, and referred specially to the excellent work done by the late Prof. C. J. Joly on quaternions, in which the present paper had its origin. Sir Robert showed that the theory of linear vector func- tions was really identical with that of the composition of screws, and that the whole subject became thereby much simplified, and the formule far more concisely expressed. Dr. T. W. Nicholson read a paper on the inductance of two parallel wires. The author stated that the ordinary formula is inaccurate when the currents are of high fre- quency; in the present paper new formule are given which give a correct result for frequencies as high as 10°. Prof. F. Purser contributed a paper on the zther stress of gravitation. Maxwell had selected as a particular solu- tion of the fundamental equations a pressure R?*/87 along the lines of gravitating force, and an equal tension per- pendicular to these lines, R being the resultant force of gravitation on unit mass, but there are difficulties in accounting for these by corresponding strains. Prof. Purser shows that the difficulties are removed if we con- sider that we are not bound to Maxwell’s special solution, but may take such a solution as may be deduced from a state of strain according to the laws for (say) a homo- geneous isotropic zether. Several papers were taken as read in the absence of the authors. : The proceedings in the department of general physics commenced with a paper by Sir W. de W. Abney, K.C.B., on a new three-colour camera, in which the stereoscopic effect arising when three images are taken simultaneously by three lenses lying side by side is reduced to a minimum. Incidentally, it was pointed out that in this camera the mirrors are made of steel varnished with celluloid dis- solved in acetone. Dr. Harker directed attention to Cowper-Coles’s use of metallic cobalt, and Prof. W. F. Barrett, who was in the chair, strongly recommended galena for the purpose. , Sir Oliver Lodge described a new method for measuring large inductances containing iron which has been devised by him in collaboration with Mr. Benjamin Davies. A special galvanometer, consisting of a well-damped coil moving dead heat in a strong magnetic field, is connected in series with the inductance and a specially designed alternator giving a simple harmonic current. A switch enables the inductance to be suddenly replaced by a non- Novemeer 5, 1908] inductive resistance R’, which is adjusted until the ampli- tude of oscillation is the same in both cases. Then the self-inductance is R’ divided by the frequency-constant of the alternator. The strength of the current involved in this measurement is known by imitating the deflection with a known’ steady current. Prof. A. M. Worthington then showed a remarkable series of instantaneous photographs exhibiting a new feature in the splash of a rough sphere. This new feature appears when the height of fall is increased beyond a certain critical value. Below the critical height the splash is characterised by an upward jet thrown high into the air. It is now found that when the critical height is passed the long cylindrical column of air which follows the sphere in its descent through the liquid is pierced by a central downward jet directed from above along the axis of the air column. This is due to the permanent closing, at an early stage, of the mouth of the air column by a film of the liquid, and to the subsequent reduction of the pressure of the confined air through the piston-like action of the sphere when its momentum is large enough. The morning’s proceedings concluded with a paper by Prof. F. T. Trouton on the analogy between adsorption from solutions and aqueous condensation on surfaces. When cellulose is inserted into the solution of a dye adsorption takes place, the amount of which depends upon the concentration and the temperature, but the amount can be kept at any particular value by simultaneously varying both. When such corresponding values of con- centration and temperature are plotted against one another the curves are similar to one another, and, further, they are similar to the ordinary saturation curve for the solute in question. This result is analogous to the law of the temperature isoneres for water vapour when we _ sub- stitute osmotic pressure for concentration and the satura- tion curve of the solution for the boiling-point curve, viz. that at different temperatures the pressure ordinate of a given isonere is a constant fraction of the corresponding ordinate of the boiling-point curve. Thermodynamical considerations were given in favour of both results. On resuming the sitting in the afternoon a paper by Dr. J. A. Harker and Mr. F. P. Sexton was read (by the former), on the effect of pressure on the boiling point of sulphur. The results are closely represented by the formula T=T,+0'0904 (# — 760) — 0'0000519 (7 — 760)”, where T is the temperature of the vapour on the air-scale at the pressure p in mm., and T, is the normal boiling point. This gives a result much greater than the value 0-082 mm. per degree which is usually employed, and which is based on Regnault’s observations. Dr. Glazebrook then communicated a paper on the photometric standard of the National Physical Laboratory. Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers are found to give results 20 per cent. higher for the humidity of the air than hygro- meters of the Assman pattern, which are used at the Reichsanstalt. The former were used at the National Physical Laboratory in connection with the effect of humidity on the pentane lamp. It is proposed to change the standard humidity from 10 to 8 litres per cubic metre, and thereby maintain the light value unchanged. A paper by Mr. John Brown, on a dry Daniell pile, was taken as read in the absence of the author. Meanwhile, the department of cosmical physics had been meeting, the first paper being by Sir John Moore, on the question, Is our climate changing? The object of the paper was to test the accuracy of the popular opinion that there is a progressive postponement of season, an opinion strengthened by occasional abnormal weather con- ditions, such as the snow and frost at the end of April, 1908, and the summer heat at the beginning of September, | 1906. From an examination of old records and of the long series of observations made at Greenwich, the con- clusion’ was drawn that no appreciable change has taken place in our climate during the past six centuries. Dr. Shaw pointed out as instances of progressive changes | bearing on this question the gradual receding of glaciers and of the Antarctic ice barrier, which had lost thirty miles in ten years. Commander Campbell Hepworth, C.B., of the Meteor- | NO. 2036, VOL. 79] NATURE 25 ological Office, read a paper on the changes in the temperature of the North Atlantic and the strength of the trade winds. The N.E. trade wind is strongest in April (13-5 miles per hour) and weakest in September (7-4 miles per hour). The S.E. trade wind is strongest in February (15:5 miles per hour) and weakest in May (13-7 miles per hour). The surface temperature highest in August. There appears to be a relation between the departures from mean velocity in the trade winds in one year and the departures from mean temperature in the surface waters in the succeeding year. A paper by Mr. F. J. M. Stratton, on the constants of the lunar libration, described how a re-investigation of the heliometer observations of Mésting A made by Schliiter at K6nigsberg in the years 1841-3 has been undertaken in the hope of reconciling the conflicting sets of constants given by Drs. Franz and Hayn. Mr. W. Makower, Miss Margaret White, and Mr. ES Marsden contributed the results of observations on the electrical state of the upper atmosphere. The current down a kite wire when the kite is at an altitude of 1500 metres is of the order of 2x10-* amperes. It increases with the height more quickly than according to the linear law, and varies in a more or less regular way with the wind velocity. On Tuesday, September 8, the section was also divided into three parts. In the mathematical department two papers were contributed by Prof. A. W. Conway. In the first—application of quaternions to problems of physical optics—Prof. Conway showed how the analytical treat- ment of such problems becomes both simpler and more elegant when they are expressed in quaternion notation. As examples he worked out the problem of reflection and refraction at a plane surface, showing how to obtain the ratio of the intensities; and also that of the propagation of light through a rotationally active medium such as a sugar solution. Prof. Conway’s second paper dealt with the distribution of electricity in a moving sphere. The sphere was assumed of invariable form, and its velocity less than the velocity of light. In the discussion which followed, Prof. Conway mentioned that Mr. Varley had recently found that a point of inflection in the curve of mass to velocity was indicated by experiment, and no theory could be entirely satisfactory which did not show such an effect. Major P. A. MacMahon read a paper on a problem known as that of the ‘‘Scrutin de Ballotage.”” This problem relates to the probability that when two candi- dates are up for election, the candidate finally successful shall be throughout at the top of the poll. Major MacMahon has generalised this by considering an election where there are any number of candidates, and has found the probability that at any time during the election the candidates shall be in the same order as they are finally. Prof. R. W. Genese followed with a paper on the analysis of projection. He showed that if the vanishing lines of two figures in space perspective be taken as axes of y, Y respectively, and the lines where the planes of the two figures are met by a plane through the vertex of projection perpendicular to both as axes of x, X respec- tively, then the coordinates are connected by the relations oe ee ZAR z,Z being constants, which may be taken as unity, and the curve y=f(x) in one plane transforms into the curve y=xf(1/x) in the other. Mr. H. Bateman then explained a method of obtaining solutions of problems in geometrical optics by conformal transformations in space of four dimensions. He showed that for such transformations (of which inversion is an important particular case) the equations (= y+ ( a) fe ye i ) =2 Ox |/ oy \. OZ Ow 02” are invariant, and consequently from any one solution of such equations a new solution can be at once deduced. was lowest in March and an 20 NATL [NOVEMBER 5, 1908 Mr. Bateman also pointed out that the twenty-four known transformations of the hypergeometric equation into itself arise naturally from the consideration of rotations in four- dimensional space. Prof. Purser read a paper on motion of solids in an incompressible fluid, and discussed the validity of the application of Lagrange’s equations of motion to such a case. Prof. E. T. Whittaker, in a communication entitled ““The Extension of Optical Ideas to the General Electro- magnetic Field,’’ showed that the disturbances of the zther could be expressed in terms of two functions, F, G, as follows :— 2 a2 ) ) Electric vector = ( — 0 8 pe SS i Hi g = Gayot oxdz dxdt dydz a2 a2 a2 A) Magnetic vector= &G 4 GE AR eG ar ae Oyot Oxdz Oxot cdydz c being the velocity of light, and F,G solutions of Laplace’s equation of degree zero. Prof. Whittaker sug- gested that these functions, F,G, might be taken as two scalars defining the state of the ether in the same way that temperature and pressure define the state of a gas. The general physics department on this day began with a suggestion with regard to the meaning of valency, by Mr. H. Bateman. In this paper the valency of an atom is identified with the number of degrees of freedom of certain displacements. A molecule has lost all these degrees. A single atom or a cluster which still possesses ‘* valency ”’ degrees of freedom may be regarded as an ion. A scheme representing geometrically a sequence of processes which possess some of the features exhibited by those taking place within the atom was based on the theory of inversion. A transformation of a specified type by inversion with respect to two spheres was shown to depend on eight patameters, a fact which may be of significance in regard to eight being the maximum valency of an atom. Prof. Rutherford congratulated the author, but pointed out that it had not yet been shown that such a transformation by inversion could take place physically. In response to a question by the chairman (Prof. C. H. Lees), Mr. Bateman stated that, for an atom such as he pictured, if the state of motion is not steady the spectral lines would not be sharp; otherwise they would be sharp. After any dis- turbance the spectrum at first produced would be a con- tinuous spectrum. Prof. J. A. McClelland followed with an important summary of our present knowledge of secondary radiation. It is unfortunate that it is not possible to further summarise it in the few words available in these columns. In the discussion, Prof. J. C. McClennan insisted that it is necessary to determine the velocities and to employ the magnetic field more before the various effects will be disentangled. Then Prof. E. Rutherford gave the conclusions from his recent experiments on the scintillations of zinc sulphide (as in the spinthariscope). The effect he* believes to be due, in the first place, to a chemical dissociation of the sulphide, and the light is due either to this or to the subsequent re-combination. Thus he dissociates himself from the view that it is the result of merely mechanical bombardment. He has measured the luminosity of the sulphide screen when exposed to emanation from 200 milli- grams of radium, and finds that 80 per cent. of the energy of the a particles is transformed into light; about 1/soth to 1/100th of a candle-power is obtainable. Mr. H. H. Poole described a determination of the rate of evolution of heat by pitchblende. The experiment, which seems to have been made with great care, gave about twice the quantity estimated from the known amount of radium present. Prof. Rutherford was of opinion that possibly a small amount of chemical heating may be present. Mr. T. Royds, working in Prof. Rutherford’s labora- tory, described his measurements of the grating spectrum of radium emanation. The error in the wave-lengths of the grating photographs is not more than about o-1 ngstr6m unit. Prof. Dewar mentioned that the lines published in Nature agree closely with lines given by himself and Liveing obtained from less volatile con- NO. 2036, VOL. 79] stituents of air. The agreement was possibly accidental, but it was well worthy of being tested. Photographs were next shown, by Dr. W. G. Duffield, of the arc spectra of metals under pressure; these include those of iron and copper under pressures up to 101 atmo- spheres, and that of silver up to 121 atmospheres. Mr. H. Stansfield followed with a paper on secondary effects in the echelon spectroscope. These effects arise from repeated reflection from the plates, as in the Fabry and Perot interferometer, and would, if alone, consist of rings; but. they are. superposed upon the ordinary echelon spectra. By raising one end of the echelon and using screens, the secondary effects can be separated and used alone. The resolving power is much greater than if the secondary effects were absent. In the cosmical physics department a paper was read by Dr. G. A. Hemsalech on new methods of obtaining the spectra in flames. A special burner is fed with air, which becomes laden with metallic vapour by passing through a bulb containing a spark discharge. Investi- gation of the iron spectrum showed that the lowest temperature flame spectrum consisted of ‘‘ enhanced ’’ and “polar ’’ lines. Dr. W. G. Duffield welcomed Hemsalech and de Wattville’s researches as overthrowing the ““temperature ’’ hypothesis of the origin of ‘‘ polar ’’ lines. Prof. Larmor indicated that the criterion for the produc- tion of spectra was not temperature, but the acceleration of the vibrating systems. Sir O. Lodge concurred. Dr. James Barnes stated that he found that the 4481 Mg line appeared as a polar line in the arc spectrum of that metal. Prof. J. Larmor then showed Dr. G. E. Hale’s recent photographs of the spectra of sun-spots taken through polarising apparatus, in which the centres of some lines are shifted relatively to their normal position, the direc- tion of shift being changed by rotating the polariser through g0° (see Nature and Astrophysical Journal, Sep- tember). The effect is attributed to the magnetic field arising from vortices of charged particles. The bearing upon the phenomenon of the depth from which the light was emitted was discussed. It is a pity that the pressure of papers prevented a discussion on these important photo- graphs from taking place. ; A paper by the Rev. A. L. Cortie, S.J., brought for- ward evidence of the possible existence of steam in’ the region of sun-spots. In a paper by Prof. Whittaker on sun-spots and solar temperature, the possibility of the existence of compounds in the sun was discussed, and it was shown that pressure may be a more powerful agent in preventing dissociation than temperature is in pro- ducing it, and the characteristics of spot spectra may be due to the high pressure. Mr. E. M. Wedderburn, in a paper on the causes of seiches, brought forward evidence that their most effective cause was a series of atmospheric oscillations nearly coincident in period with them. M. Teisserenc de Bort read a paper on the difference of temperature of the upper atmosphere in polar and in equatorial regions. At a height of 10 or 11 kilometres there is no difference of temperature in the two regions. Above this height, the arctic temperature keeps constant, while the equatorial continues to decrease. Mr. W. A. Harwood contributed a note on the ballons-sondes ascents made at Manchester during 1907-8, which confirm the existence of the isothermal layer. : Mr. J. S. Dines exhibited diagrams showing the results of the ballons-sondes ascents made in the international week, July 27 to August 1, 1908. Captain H. G. Lyons gave the results of observations of upper-air currents in Egypt and the Sudan. Mr. R. G. K. Lempfert, of the Meteorological Office, exhibited a zoetropic apparatus for showing the manner in which cyclonic disturbances move across the British Isles, and the way in which the air circulates. Mr. Paul Durandin read a paper on an asymmetry in cyclones, in which he pointed out that thunderstorms and tornadoes occur generally on the right-hand side of the path of the centre of the large depression with which they are associated. On Wednesday, September 9, the section sat in single session. Mr. T. L. Bennett read, on behalf of Mr. J. I. Craig, a paper on the changes of atmospheric density in storms. P mm it Ras: @ ee co al NovEMBER 5, 1908] NATURE 27 The chief results arrived at were that the time-change of density is negative in the front of cyclones and positive in the rear, that the changes are greater in the front quadrant to the right of the path than in the front quadrant to the left, in which, however, the largest rain- fall occurs: From an application of the equation of con- tinuity, the vertical velocity of the air in a moving cyclone was deduced. Dr. Shaw read a paper on the meteorology of the winter quarters of the Discovery. He showed a slide of a relief- map of ‘the district in which the Discovery spent the years 1902 and 1903, directing attention to the proximity of Mt. Erebus, the cloud from which enabled the observers to determine the upper-air currents. Some surprise was caused by the statement that the annual amount of bright sunshine at this place was as large as that for Scilly. The wind observations corroborated the theory that had been formed regarding the general circulation of the atmo- sphere in polar regions, i.e. an easterly surface wind with a westerly current in the upper air. /Mr. Bernacchi read a paper which was chiefly concerned with the results of the magnetic observations taken during the Discovery’s sojourn in the Antarctic regions. The Rev. H. V. Gill, S.J., read a paper on earthquakes and waves in distant localities. An earthquake at one place may cause the premature occurrence of an earth- quake at another place. This precipitation is possibly due to the slight change in the distribution of the earth’s mass relative to its axis of rotation, caused by the water dis- turbance accompanying the earthquake. Dr. Shaw exhibited diagrams illustrating the storm of August 31 to September 1, the B.A. storm of 1908. The diagrams were collected from stations in connection with the Meteorological Office, and showed how the fury of the storm concentrated itself on the line from Holyhead to Kingstown. Miss C. O. Stevens read a paper on the great snow- storm of April 25. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGE.—The following is the speech delivered by the Public Orator, Dr. Sandys, on Thursday, October 209, in presenting for the complete degree of Master of Arts honoris causa Prof. W. J. Pope, Dr. Liveing’s successor in the chair of chemistry :— Viri in Academiam nostram liberalissimi, viri Scienti- arum Doctoris nuper honoris causa merito creati, cathedram vacuam relictam occupat hodie vir inter Londinienses natus atque educatus, vir non modo inter Londinienses sed etiam inter Mancunienses_ scientiam chemicam praeclare professus. Peritis nota sunt opera eius plurima de scientiae illius provincia organica (ut aiunt), deque metallis et crystallis praesertim conscripta. Quae autem ratio intercedat inter corporum naturam pellucidam et primordiorum e quibus corpora illa constent disposi- tionem, primus omnium (nisi fallor) detexit, et sulphuris, selenii, stanni praesertim in particulis inaequaliter distri- butis luculenter illustravit. Hodie vero nobis vix necesse est haec omnia subtilius persequi. Satis in hune diem erit, si professori nostro novo munus suum feliciter auspicato omnia prospera ex animo exoptamus. Mr. A. R. Hinks has been appointed Royal Geographical Society university lecturer in surveying and cartography, for three years as from Michaelmas, 1908. ,Dr. Marett, Tims will give a course of ten lectures on the morphology of teeth in the Vertebrata during the pre- sent term. The first lecture will be in the laboratory for advanced zoology on Saturday, November 7. Tue Royal University of Ireland has conferred the degree of D.Sc. honoris causa on Prof. Alfred Senier, of Queen’s College, Galway, in recognition of his services as a teacher of chemistry in Galway and of his discoveries in organic chemistry, notably his work on acridines. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] Tue Right Hon. Earl Carrington, President of the Board of Agriculture, will open the Edric Hall and new work- shops of the Borough Polytechnic Institute on Friday, November 13. This extension of the institute is primarily due to the gift of soool. by the first chairman of the governing body, Mr. Edric Bayley, which has been sup- plemented by grants from the London County Council amounting to about 10,0001. Aw address on the correlation of the teaching of mathe- matics and science will be given by Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S., at a conference of the Mathematical Association and the Federated Associations of London Non-Primary Teachers to be held at the Polytechnic, Regent Street, on Saturday, November 28, at 3 p.m. The chair will be taken by Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., president of the Mathematical Association. Tickets of admission to the conference can ee obtained from Mr. P. Abbott, 5 West View, Highgate ill, N. THE annual report of the treasurer of Yale University | for the financial year ending June 30 shows additions to the funds of the University during the year of 253,o00l. The principal items are 12,6001. from the Yale alumni fund; from the Archibald Henry Blount bequest, 67,400l. ; from the Lura Currier bequest, 20,0o00l.; by bequest of D. Willis James, 19,000l.; from contributions to the University endowment and extension fund, 67,100l.; and from balance of the Ross library fund, 22,400]. Gifts to income amounted to 15,3001., of which 6oool. came from the Alumni Fund Association. THE winter session of the Crown School of Forestry opened on November 2. This little-known institution has its headquarters at Parkend, a small village in the Royal Forest of Dean. In a small shed, rough, unpainted, scarcely weather-proof, sixteen students receive instruction in the theoretical aspect of forestry, and in the surrounding forest they study the practical part of the subject. A nursery plot—two acres in extent—has been cleared, and an enclosure of nearly 200 acres will shortly be set apart for experimental work. The director of the school, Mr. C. O. Hanson, late of the Indian Forest Service, makes up in personal enthusiasm what is lacking in the equip- ment of the school, and so successful has been the work that the Department of Woods and Forests is spending a considerable sum on the equipment of a new building to accommodate the school. Dr. H. T. Bovey, F.R.S., Rector of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, in his recent address (Nature, October 15, p. 616) recommended the formation of associations of alumni by the constituent colleges, and directed attention to the American method of appointing a secretary each year whose office it is to keep in touch with the students who passed out in his year. Dr. E. F. Armstrong writes to point out that the Central Technical College—which is now a constituent institution of the Imperial College—has had an ‘‘ Old Students’ Association ”’ since 1897, which is kept in touch with its members much in the way that Dr. Bovey advocates. It issues an illus- trated journal, The Central, in which the doings of past students are regularly recorded; it also administers a successful employment agency bureau. The contributions | to this periodical have frequently been mentioned in Nature. Dr. Armstrong also states that a vear ago the Old Centralians collected the funds to found a scholarship as a permanent memorial to the lon» connection of Prof. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S., with their college. In a lecture before the Fabian Society on October 28, Prof. M. E. Sadler said that the chief points at which, under present conditions in England, the State should aim, were :—(r1) a great reduction in the size of the-large classes in many public elementary schools, in order that the teachers might be able to give more. individual care to the different pupils; (2) careful medical inspection, at sufficiently frequent intervals, of all school children with the view of securing the due physical development of the rising’ generation, parental duty in the care of children ' to be stringently enforced, with liberal aid in cases of 28 INA LOTTE: [ NovEMBER 5, 1908 need; (3) generous provision of playgrounds, under skilful supervision, with the view of encouraging a healthy cor- porate life in all schools; (4) the raising, at dates to be fixed by Parliament, of the present age of exemption from school attendance throughout the country (with a possible reservation of the agricultural districts), first to thirteen and then to fourteen years of age; (5) the abolition by statute of the half-time system in the textile districts; (6) the provision of various forms of educational care for young people during the critical years of adolescence; (7) the laying upon all employers of a statutory obligation to enable their younger workpeople, up to seventeen years of age, to attend courses of suitable instruction, provided or approved by the local authority of the district, and held at a time of day which would prevent those attending the classes from suffering from overstrain of body or of mind. A meETING of the Child Study Society was held on October 29, when a paper was read by Miss Alice Raven- hill on the results of an investigation into hours of sleep among elementary-school children. For nearly three years Miss Ravenhill has been collecting information on the question of the quantity of sleep secured by children in English elementary schools. Of 10,000 forms issued, 6,180 were properly filled up, and gave particulars as to 3500 boys and 2680 girls. A comparison between the standard hours of sleep as defined by the best authorities and an j average struck from the whole of the material at com- mand shows a deficiency of from 3} to 2} hours at each age period, a loss equivalent to one night in four among the youngest and eldest children, and to one night in five among those of intermediate ages. For example, at ages three to five years the average is 10-75 hours, against a standard of fourteen hours, and, at thirteen years, eight hours, against 10-75 hours. The evil of insufficient sleep is widespread. Parents must be roused to a sense of the importance of the subject, and the enforcement of the laws on the employment of children should be rendered obligatory upon local authorities. Sir James Crichton- Browne, who presided, emphasised the need of sufficient sleep, and pointed out that sleep repairs waste in every organ of the body, and stores oxygen in the tissues as a reserve fund against the needs of the following day. Tue Board of Education has decided to introduce a new system of organisation for the Victoria and Albert Museum. Re-organisation of the administrative arrangements for the museum has been rendered necessary by the transfer of the technological branch of the Board of Education from South Kensington to Whitehall. Hitherto the administration of the museum has been supervised and controlled by the principal assistant secretary in charge of that branch of the Board’s office, and the removal of that branch to Whitehall renders the continuance of that arrangement impossible at so great a distance from South Kensington. In consequence of this transfer the Board decided to take the opportunity of placing the museum on an independent basis, equipped with the necessary administrative as well as technical machinery and staff. A new post has therefore been established under the title of ‘‘ Director and Secretary of the Art Museum,’’ the holder of which will, in future, be directly responsible to the Board, with assistance from the advisory council, for the whole administration of the museum and for the working of its staff. To this post the President of the Board has appointed Mr. Cecil H. Smith, of the British Museum. Mr. A. B. Skinner will take charge of a new department of architecture and sculpture to be created in the museum. It has been decided to classify the collec- tions as far as possible by materials, and to constitute the following eight departments :—(1) architecture (original architectural objects and sculpture); (2) metalwork; (3) woodwork and leatherwork; (4) textiles; (5) ceramics, enamels, and glass; (6) engraving, illustration, and design; (7) the library; (8) pictures. Arrangements have further been made in the new and old buildings of the museum by which the staff attached to each of the eight depart- ments will be provided with suitable offices in close proximity to the collections respectively under their charge. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, June 25.—‘‘The Emission and Trans- mission of Réntgen Rays.’’ By G. W. C. Kaye. The R6ntgen rays produced by some twenty elements used as anti-kathodes were investigated. (1) The relative intensities of the radiations, when un- obstructed by any screen, do not follow the order of the atomic weights of the anti-kathodes. (2) If the different radiations are cut down by screens of increasing thickness, the intensities reach ultimate relative values which are not altered by a further increase in the thickness of the screen: thus at this stage all the radiations have the same hardness. These intensities are very approximately proportional to the atomic weights of the radiators. The relative values of the heavy-atom metals increase somewhat with a rise in potential on the tube. (3) When screen and radiator are of the same metal, selective transmission of the radiation is manifested, that is, the radiation from the metal is augmented relative to the radiations from other anti-kathodes. The effect is also present to a less extent when radiator and screen have closely adjoining atomic weights. (4) This augmentation, when radiator and screen are alike, is most pronounced in the case of the metals of the chromium-zinc group. It is least marked for a sub- stance of low atomic weight. (5) When screen and radiator are alike, the absorption per unit mass of unit area of the screen is relatively low. Benoist’s ‘‘ transparency ’’ curve is much straighter for a radiator of aluminium than for one of platinum working under the same conditions. With an anti-kathode belong- ing to the chromium-zinc group the curve has to be modified by the addition of a sharp maximum in the neighbourhood of the radiator. (6) The question of the anomalous results obtained with the secondary radiation from nickel is gone into. (7) The curve of transmission in which the thickness of screen is plotted as abscissa against the logarithm of the intensity consists of three parts when radiator and screen are of the same metal. First, with thin screens, there is a relatively steep portion, which for thicker screens is followed by a straight-line region indicative of an ex- ponential absorption; this again is ultimately succeeded by a region in which the slope gradually diminishes with the thickness of the screen. The preliminary steepness is attributed to secondary radiation; the ultimate flatten- ing of the curve is probably due to scattering of hard primary rays. If the potential on the tube is not very high the absorption curve indicates homogeneity through- out its length. (8) When screen and radiator have very different atomic weights, the region of exponential absorption does not appear. Received August 6.—‘‘ The Rate of Production of Helium from Radium.’’ By Sir James Dewar, F.R.S. Some time ago the author communicated a paper to the society entitled ‘‘ Note on the Use of the Radiometer in observing Small Gas Pressures: Application to the Detec- tion of the Gaseous Products produced by Radio-active Bodies ’’ (Roy. Soc. Proc., A, vol. Ixxix., p. 529, 1907). In the course of the experiments recorded in that paper it was shown that a pressure of the fifty-millionth of an atmosphere could easily be detected by radiometer motion, and that the helium produced by radio-active processes from some 10 milligrams of bromide of radium could be definitely detected after a few hours. This led the author to desire some direct measurements of the amount of helium produced by radium, and through the kindness of the Royal Society in allowing him the use of some radium chloride belonging to them, he is able to give a condensed abstract of the experimental results so far obtained. The salt employed was the 7o milligrams of radium chloride prepared by Dr. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., for his determination of the atomic weight of radium, the pre- paration of which is fully described in Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. Ixxx., p. 298. The apparatus used for the measurements was a McLeod NovEMBER 5, 1908 | NA DORIE 29 gauge, in the construction of which no india-rubber joints were used, the mercury reservoir being connected to an exhaust pump, while the elevation and lowering of the mercury was carried out by admitting and exhausting air in the reservoir. The air coming in contact with the mercury was purified by passage over stick-potash and phosphoric anhydride. Sealed on to the gauge was a long U-tube containing a } gram of cocoa-nut charcoal placed in a small enlargement at the bend, the whole being arranged for liquid air or other cooling for any desired length of time. The object of the use of this cooled charcoal is to take up and condense all adventitious gases, other than hydrogen or helium, which might arise from minute leakage or otherwise be generated in the apparatus. Starting with an exhaustion of 0-000054 mm. in 1100 hours, apart from intermediate irregularities, the total quantity of permanent gas produced per gram of radium per day did not exceed 0-42 cubic mm. As in this experi- ment the emanation had free play over the whole surface of the McLeod gauge during a fortnight when the labora- tory was closed, a second one was carried out, keeping the charcoal U-tube in liquid air during the whole course of the observations, which lasted six weeks. It was now found that, with the exception of the occlusion of the helium in the radium salt and its immediate surroundings, all the anomalies of the first experiment had disappeared, and the steady increment of helium (as shown by the graphical diagram given in the paper) amounted to 0-37 cubic mm. The spectroscopic examination of the gas showed that the helium was pure, and this result was con- firmed by observing the reduction in pressure caused by cooling the radium salt and also the charcoal in liquid hydrogen. The author is not aware of any previous direct measure- ments of the rate of production of helium from radium, but in a paper on ‘‘ Some Properties of Radium Emana- tion,’? by A. J. Cameron and Sir William Ramsay (Chem. Soc. Jour., 1907, p. 1274), the ratio of the amount of helium produced to that of the emanation was found to be 3:18, and as the amount of the emanation found by them was about 1 cubic mm. per gram of radium per day, the resulting helium, according to this experiment, ought to reach about 3 cubic mm., or at least eight times the rate of production found in the above experiments. The author is at a loss to explain the origin of such grave discrepancies in the measured amount of the helium pro- duced by radium.* On the other hand, Prof. Rutherford, in his work entitled ‘‘ Radio-active Transformations,’’ 1906, p. 186, on the theoretical assumption that the a particle is an atom of helium carrying twice the ‘ionic charge, deduced from electrical measurements that the number of particles expelled per year per gram of radium would reach 4X101'*, and as 1 c.c. of a gas at standard temperature and pressure contains 3-6X10'° molecules, the volume of helium produced per year would amount to o-11 c.c., which is equivalent to about 0-3 of a cubic mm. per day. Considering that the author has found a rate of helium production of the order of 0-37 cubic mm., the agreement between experiment and the theoretical prophecy of Rutherford is almost too wonderful, sub- stantiating as it does the accuracy of the theory of radig- active changes he has done so much to initiate and develop. Paris. Academy of Sciences. October 26.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—Observations of the comet 1908c made at the Observatory of Bordeaux with the 38 cm. equatorial: Luc Picart. The observations were made on the nights of October 7, 10, 12, 13, and 17, the apparent positions of the comet and the positions of the comparison stars being given in tabular form. From October 7 to 18 the comet appeared as a feeble nebulosity, without a nucleus, render- ing the determination of its exact position difficult. On October 12 the tail was clearly visible, with a length of about two degrees; on the following night the comet pre- 1 Prof. Rutherford, in a paper, ‘‘ Experiments with Radium Emanation.” Phil. Mag., July, 1908, shows this result is at least ten times too great, his value being of the order o*rr cub. mm. of emanation per day, whereas from the author's experiments the rate of helium production is just three times this amount. NO. 2036, VOL. 79] sented its usual form.—Observations of thé comet 1908c¢ made at the Observatory of Marseilles with the Eichens 26 cm. equatorial: M. Borrelly. Details are given of observations made on September 12, 15, 16, 17, and October 2 and 3. The changes in form were studied by means of seven photographs.—A first series of photographs of the Morehouse comet obtained with the large telescope at Meudon: L. Rabourdin. These photographs were taken on the nights of October 14, 16, 17, 20, 22, and 23 with the telescope of 1 metre aperture. The photographs. do not indicate the complete development of the comet, but show the nucleus and portions of the tail. The central nucleus appears to be surrounded by several envelopes, each having its prolongation on the side opposed to the sun.—A theoretical explanation of the experiments of M. Birkeland: Carl Stérmer. Four photographs are given showing a wire model representing a kathode bundle under the action of a small magnetic globe.—Contribution to: the study of lenses: G. Maltézos. A theoretical investi- gation of the equations between the distances of the lens, supposed spherical, from the first luminous point and its secondary tmages produced by successive reflections and refractions at the surfaces of the lens.—A monotelephone of great sensitiveness and with its note capable of regula- tion: Henri Abraham. A modification of the Mercadier telephone, in which the soft iron plate is replaced by a strong disc of tempered steel. The Mercadier disc is re- placed by a small sheet of iron, just sufficiently large to cover the electromagnet, and this is carried by two parallel steel wires. With a rhythmic current in unison with the proper note of the instrument the sensibility is much greater than with ordinary telephones. The note can be varied at will by altering the tension of the steel wires.— Induction and the probable cause of polar aurora: P. Villard.—The magnetic properties of metallic oxygen radicals: P. Pascal. A study of the magnetic properties of salts of metals which form both acid and basic. oxides. —Mercurous nitrate as a microchemical reagent for arsenic: G. Denigeés. The arsenic compound is converted into arsenic acid, and drops of this solution submitted to the action of a solution containing 10 grams of crystal- lised mercurous nitrate, 10 c.c. of nitric acid of specific gravity 1-39, and roo c.c. of distilled water. Characteristic crystals are produced. The smallest amount of arsenic observable by this method is not stated——Some oxydase phenomena produced by colloidal iron ferrocyanide: J. Wolff.—The action of bromine on ether: monobrom- aldehyde: Ch. Mauguin. Bromine reacts on moist ether in presence of light, considerable quantities of monobrom- aldehyde being produced. The aldehyde is best isolated by means of the condensation compound formed with urethane, the yield being sufficiently good for the reaction to serve as a good method of preparation of this aldehyde. —New researches on bakanosine: Em. Bourquelot and H. Heérissey. This glucoside is extracted from a Strychnos. called Bakanko by the natives of Majunga, Madagascar. The physical and chemical properties of the pure allkaloid are given, the formula being C,,H.,0,N+H,0. 16 transformations of the chromogenic material of grapes during ripening: J. Laborde.—Cedrelopsis: M. Costantin and H. Poisson.—The preservation of the cocoa-nut: M. Dybowski. The present method of treat- ing copra causes serious deterioration owing to the action of micro-organisms on the albumin and fat. It has been found that this can be entirely prevented by treating the copra with gaseous sulphur dioxide—The Plumulariide of the Challenger collection: Armand Billard.—The mobility and dissemination of infected dust due to the disturbance of dried tuberculous sputum: G. Kiiss. A study of the mode of dissemination of infected dust, pro- duced by slowly drying the sputum of tuberculous patients in the dark under conditions approximating to those which occur in practice. The quantity of infected dust produced is very small compared with the quantity of sputum. When the dust is caused by slight shaking or beating of an infected carpet, these powders are only projected for a short distance above the carpet. They are, however, sufficiently light to remain in suspension in the air for front —The 28) NED TEL ten to fifteen minutes, and during that time can be carried by currents of air about the room.—An infection of the gondi (Ctenodactylus gondi) with the Leishman or a similar organism: C. Nicolle and. L. Manceaux.—The preponderating réle of geometry in topographical examina- tions: M. Contremoulins. A discussion of the applica- tion of geometrical principles to practical radiography. The author arrives at the following conclusions :—the distance of the radiating focus from the photographic plate should be constant for all radiographic examinations, the normal incidence ought to be inscribed automatically in the course of the examination on the plate, the attitude in which the subject has been radiographed ought to be men- tioned on the proof, and, whenever possible, two radio- graphs should be taken forming two planes of projection at an angle of 90°. GOTTINGEN. Royal Society of Sciences.—The Nachrichten (physico- mathematical section), part iii. for 1908, contains the following memoirs communicated to the society :— May 16.—The formal relations of quadrilaterals com- posed of circular arcs: W. thlenburg.—New develop- ments in linear differential equations: E. Hilb.—A new method of solution of certain boundary-value problems : W. Ritz.—The application of integral equations to the problem of Riemann: E. E. Levi (Pisa). June 27.—The influence of a naturally active body on light reflected from it: K. Férsterling.—The decomposi- tion of an empirically given periodic function into series of sines: C. Runge.—The reduced differential equations of a heavy unsymmetrical top: P. St&ackel (Karlsruhe). July 11.—Researches from the University chemical laboratory of Géttingen, xx. (1) Transformation of nopinone (C,N,,O) into B-pinene (C,,H,,), camphene, and camphor (C,,H,,O); (2) the alcohols of the terpinene series ; (3) the modifications of terpinene: O. Wallach. July 25.—Formulz for the reflection of light at a thin metallic film: W. Voigt. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Novemeer 5. Royat Society, at 4.30.—(1) Note on Tidal Bores; (2) Vortices in Oscillating Liquid: The Lord Rayleigh, O.M., Pres. R.S.—Note on ‘Iwo recently-compiled Calendars of Papers of the’ Period 1606-1806 in the Archives of the Roval Society: Prof. A. H. Church, F.R.S —On the Generation of a Luminous Glow in an Exhausted Receiver moving near an Electrostatic Field, and the Action of a Magnetic Field on the Glow so produced, the Residual Gases being Oxygen, Hydrogen, Neon and | Air : Rev. F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S.—The Rate of Production of Helium from Radium: Sir James Dewar, F.R.S.—The Spectrum of Radium Emanation: A. T. Cameron and Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S.— On the Osmotic Pressures of Aqueous Solutions of Calcium Ferrocyanide. Part I., Concentrated Solutions: The Earl of Berkeley, F.R.S., E. G. J. Hartley. and C. V. Burton.—The Effect of Pressure upon Arc Spectra. No. 2, Copper: W. G. Duffield —On a Method of Comparing Mutual Inductance and Resistance by the Help of Two-phase Alternating Currents : A Campbell. ‘CHEMICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30.—The Direct Union of Carbon and Hydrogen: W. A. Bone and H. F. Coward.—The Relation between Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution. Part XI., Some Aromatic Hydro- carbons: E. C. C. Baly and W. B. Tuck.—Organic Derivatives of Silicon. Part VII., Synthesis of d@/-Sulphobenzylethylisobutylsilicyl Oxide: B. D. W. Luff and F. S. Kipping.—(1) Chlorine Derivatives of Pyridine. Part IX., Preparation and Orientation of the Dichloropyridine, m. p. 66-70° ; (2) Chlorine Derivatives of Pyridine. Part X., Orientation of the Trichloropyridine, m. p. 49-50"; (3) Chlorination of Methyl Deri- vatives of Pyridine. 2-Methyl pyridine. Part II. : W. J. Sell_—(1) The Triazo-group. Part V., Resolution of a-Triazopropionic acid ; (2) The Triazo-group. Part VI., Triazoethyl Alcohol and Triazoacetaldehyde : M..O. Forster and H. E. Fierz. LINNEAN ‘SociETy, at 8.—Notes on some Parasitic Copepoda, with a Description of a New Species of Chondracanthus : May E. Bainbridge.— On some Nemerteans from the Eastern Indian Ocean: R. C. Punnett and C. Forster Cooper.—Report on the Echinoderms other than Holothurians collected by Mr. Stanley Gardiner in the Western Parts of the Indian Ocean: Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell. RénrGen Society, at 8.15.—Presidential Congress. Address, The Amsterdam FRIDAY, November 6. GroLoaists’ Association, at 8.—On some Norwegian Lakes and Rock- Basins: H. W. Monckton TUESDAY, NovEMBER to. InstiTuTION oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Glasgow Central Station Extension ; D. A. Matheson. THURSDAY, NoveMBER 12. Royar Sociery, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: The Charges on Ions in Gases, and the Effect of Water Vapour on the Motion of Negative Ions: Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S.—The Charges on Ions: produced- by Radium: C. E. Haselfoot.—The Occlusion of the Residual Gas and the NO. 2036, VOL. 79] [ NOVEMBER 5, 1908 Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes’s Tubes: A. A. Campbell Swinton.—An Investigation of the Anatomical Structure and Relationships of the Labyrinth in the Reptile, the Bird and the Mammal: Dr. A. A. Gray.—The Natural Mechanism for Evoking the Chemical Secretion of the Stomach (Preliminary Communication) : Dr. J.S. Edkins and Miss M. Tweedy.—Furthur Observations on Welwitschia: Prof. H. H. W. Pearson.—On the Presence of Haemo agglutinins, Hamo-opsonins and Hamo-lysins in the Blood obtained from Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases in Man (Preliminary Communication): L. S. Dudgeon.—Pre- liminary Note on the Occurrence of a New Variety of T'rypanosomiasis in the Island of Zanzibar: A. Edington. InstiTUTION OF ELEcTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Inaugural address by the President, Mr. W. M. Mordey. MarHematicac Society, at 5.30 (Annual General Meeting).—On the Theory of Groups of Finite Order (Presidential Address): Prof.W. Burn- side.—On the Dirichlet Series and Asymptotic Expansion of Integral Functions of Zero Order: J. E. Littlewood.—The Norm Curves ona Given Base: Prof. F. Morley.—Satellite Curves on a Plane Cubic: J. O’Sullivan.—On the Arithmetical Nature of the Coefficients in a Group of Linear Substitutions (Third Paper): Prof. W. Burnside. —On the Second Mean Value Theorem of Integral Calculus : Dr. E. W. Hobson.—On the Representation of a Function by Means of a Series of Legendre’s Func- tions: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—The Conformal Transformations of a Space of Four Dimensions and their Applications to Geometrical Optics: H. Bateman.—Periodic Properties of Partitions: D, M. Y. Sommerville.— The Solution of Integral Equations: Prof. A. C. Dixon.—The Eliminant of Three Quantics in Two Independent Variables: A. L. Dixon —A Note on the Continuity cr Discontinuity of a Function defined by an Tnfinite Product: G. H. Hardy.—The Energy and Momentum of an Ellipsoidal Electron : F. B. Pidduck.—On q-Integration: Rev. F. H. Jackson.—On q-Transformations of Power Series; Rey. F. H. Jackson.—The Complete solution in Integers of the Eulerian Equation X4 + Y4=U4+ V4: Dr. T. tuart. FRIDAY, NovEMBER 13. Puysicat Society, at 8. “ MaLacoocicat Society, at 8.—Note on Diflommatina strubelli, Smith: E. A. Smith.—The Radulz of british Helicids,:Part ii: Rev. E. W. Bowell.—New Marine Mollusca from New Caledonia, &c. : G. B. Sowerby. —New Species of Macrochlamys and Monocondylza from Siam: H. B. Preston.—A New Species of Oliva: F. G. Bridgman. CONTENTS. PAGE Alternation of Generations in Plants. By D. H. S. I Windmills and Water-wheels. ByC,C.G..... 4 (GN) Cla A DS o.oo ahaa mee igo 5 Our Book Shelf :— Armistead: ‘‘Trout Waters: Management and Angling.’ —— 1. VV\. 130.) ieee tage oy os Edwardes: ‘‘The Lore of the Honey-Bee.”’— F, W.L. Sladen . . 6 Prescott and Winslow: ‘‘ Elements of Water Bacteri- ology, with Special Reference to Sanitary Water Analysis.”—Prof. R. T. Hewlett . 9 = .: =. 976 Dutton: ‘‘ The National Physique."—W. D. HH... 6 Letters to the Editor :— Anomalous Dispersion of Luminous Hydrogen. (Zllustvated.)— Rudolf Ladenburg and Stanislaw WGOTIANs coer. s,s aoe ~\ Se RReMCREN bon rc 7 The 4°79 Period of Sun-spot Activity.—Prof. Arthur Schuster, E'RiS. . cee Sel Ay eS 7 Memory in the Germ Plasm.—Dr. H. Charlton Bastian, F.R.S.; G. Archdall Reid (ame 7 Polypus Vinegar—Sea-blubber Arrack.—Kumagusu Minakata ; as io et TREO <0 8 Occurrence of a Fresh-water Nemertine in Ireland. —Rowland Southern .... wees +0 8 Mercury Bubbles.—J. G. Ernest Wright... . 8 Some Cromlechs in North Wales. II. (///ustvated.) By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. .... 9 Niagara as a Geological Chronometer. (/I’zth Aap.) By Profay. Wi. Grezory, Fuse: | -0-0 Seem The Nature and Charge of the a Particles from Radio-active Substances. By Prof. E. Ruther- ford, F.R.S. Spier. ROIS. ov ck NICKS 6 Se eee S| 6 OMe GU Our Astronomical Column :— The Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908¢. . . . . 20 Solar Vortices and their Magnetic Effects .... . 20 The Wave-length of the Hi Line. ....... +. 20 Meteoric Iron and Artificial Steel . Aerie The Science Faculty of the University of London. 21 EntericiMeverin India |...) eens = = eee The Lime Tree and its Products . Mh de se, Bee Mathematics andPhysics at the British Association 22 University and Educational Intelligence. . Seon, yl Societies\and:Academies! . | sei) ena =o shees ee DianyiossSocieties) ©... ..)eemeeecne) o en hie NWATORE 31 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 1, 1908. A HISTORY OF THE EARTH. Geschichte der Erde und des Lebens. By J. Walther Pp. iv+570; with 353 illustrations. (Leipzig: Von Veit and Co., 1908.) Price 14 marks. ROF. WALTHER’S history of the earth and of life has been written with that combined know- ledge of physical geography, stratigraphy, astronomy, and biology which we have learnt to expect from the author’s previous writings. He tells the story of the earth in a series of chapters which have the interest of essays instead of the compressed information of a text-book, and are rich in fresh observations made by the author or culled from recent technical litera- ture. The volume remarkably well illustrated. One feature of the illustrations is the abundance of drawings showing extinct animals reproduced as in life. There are also numerous pictures of ideal land- scapes and seascapes, drawn in accordance with most recent knowledge. Such, for example, is the terri- fying picture of Coccosteus decipiens, by Rudloff, after a reproduction by Jaeckel, the beauty competition between Rhamphorhynchus and Archzopteryx on the shores of the Solenhofen lagoon, and the race between two flying Pteranodons, which, as they had a body weighing oniy 15 kilograms to a wing span of 18 feet, resemble a modern aéroplane with its small motor and vast sails. The views include pictures of life on the sea floor in two epochs of the Cambrian period, and one of a Calamite forest in the Carbon- iferous, by Rudloff, from designs by Walther. The illustration of Dinornis is, however, somewhat out of date, as the bird’s title to its specific name of maximus is due more to the artist than to nature. The book begins with a series of chapters on the physics of the earth, which the author describes as composed of five zones. For the central mass he adopts the name of pyrosphere, and to the zones usually accepted he adds the biosphere, which he separates from the underlying lithosphere, owing to the wide area occupied by coral limestones and forests. The author then discusses the relations of the earth to other heavenly bodies, and he enters a welcome and emphatic protest against the continuance of describ- ing the ring-shaped mountains of the moon as volcanoes. He, however, accepts Dr. G. K. Gilbert’s theory that they are due to meteoric masses which were fused by collision with the moon and spread out as a ring around the point of impact. We also welcome his view, which he repeats from his paper of 1903, that the development of the deep oceanic basins began at times, so that the modern abyssal oozes are not to be expected in the Paleozoic rocks. The book in- is the close of Paleozoic | cludes a map showing the supposed wanderings of | the North Pole, and discusses the shifting of the pole as the possible cause of climatic changes; the fact is admitted, however, that this movement of the pole has not been proved for any geological period. The author also refers to various attempts NO. 2037, VOL. 79| to express geological time in years, and in this matter does not seem very hopeful of satisfactory results. He quotes estimates of the age of the earth, from the 20 million years of Lord Kelvin to the 100 to 180 million estimate of Sir Archibald Geikie. He caricatures one line of argument by remarking that because one man can build a wall in 100 hours, it does not follow that 360,000 builders could build the same wall in one second. He gives a photograph of a lump of coral 8 centimetres high, which had grown in four years on a telegraph cable, and he argues therefrom that a layer of coral limestone 600 metres thick could have been deposited in 30,000 years, an unconvincing argument, owing to the difference in texture between a branching coral and a massive coral rock. The section of the work devoted to stratigraphical geology the author calls ‘‘ Bathrologie,’’? which de- scribes each geological system in reference to its most striking geographical character, such as the great northland of the Old Red Sandstone, the Pro- ductus Sea of the Carboniferous, the continent of Gondwanaland, the Triassic Sea and its struggle with the northern deserts, the Jurassic Sea, &c. In his geological classification the author adopts one view which will probably not meet with general acceptance, for he groups together the Algonkian and the Cambrian as one group, the Urzeit; the systems from the Silurian to the Permian inclusive he calls the Alt-zeit. Considering the great uncon- formity and complete paleontological difference be- tween the Algonkian and the Cambrian, and the uncertainty as to the dividing-line between the Cam- brian and the Ordovician, the separation of the Cam- brian from the rest of the Palzeozoic is unnecessary. In his interesting chapter on prehistoric man the author figures some eoliths from the Miocene; he regards these stones as showing artificial workman- ship, and remarks that they have not been found associated with broken bones or any other signs of the contemporary existence of man. The author probably only logical in his conclusion that, if the eoliths are of human origin, then the age of man must be extended back at least to the Miocene, and probably to even much earlier geological periods. One mistake may be noted, as it has occurred in other text-books. On p. 132 it is stated that the Pink and White Terraces of New Zealand were de- stroyed by an earthquake, whereas they were blown to fragments by a volcanic explosion that left a vast crater deep below their site. jc We G is SCIENCE AND THE DAILY PRESS. From an Easy Chair. By Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S. Pp. viiit144. (London: A. Con- stable and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 1s. net. CIENCE renders the people a three-fold service. The increase in material comfort and in facility of communication which have resulted from ability to direct the forces of nature have been sufficiently proclaimed by public speakers and acclaimed by their hearers. It is less clear that the public recognise the Cc Go to NATURE [NovEMBER 12, 1908 more important service rendered by the army of trained men of science, which wages ceaseless war against pestilence, flood, and famine. The scouts of this army penetrate the unknown, under conditions making no small demands on their courage, and render possible the advance of humanity. But even if sufficient regard be paid by the ordinary intelligent citizen to the material service done him by science, it can hardly be denied that he has no conception of his indebtedness on the intellectual and moral side. Yet scientific method, whenever and wherever made wel- come, has imparted greater freedom and clearness of thought, has widened imagination and sympathy, and has led to a truer perception of life and character based upon concepts of law and order. Nor need we regard as a small matter the sum of intellectual en- joyment and stimulus derived from the progress of discovery. This progress would be quickened if the people met the demand of science for intelligent sympathy with its aims and methods; for active and liberal support of investigation; for national and per- sonal action in respectful accord with the results established by investigators accredited by their fellow- workers. But even the material benefits can be reaped to the full only by a nation prepared to recognise the truth expressed on p. 29 of Sir Ray Lankester’s book :— “Science is no handmaiden, but in reality the master—the master who must be obeyed. The sooner and the more thoroughly the people of this country recognise this fact, and insist upon its acceptance in practice by their representatives and governors, the better for them and their posterity.’ To the present writer it appears that our fitness to remain at the head of a great empire depends upon our power to “‘ recognise this fact.’ Have we this power to-day? We have not; we must seek it through the intelligent sympathy of the people. The publication of this little book sug- gests one means—a powerful sone—to our end, viz. the publication in the daily newspapers of informa- tion and articles of a truly scientific character. These articles or notes must. be written by men of wide scientific knowledge and high attainments, in order that they may be accurate and reflect truly the aims, methods and results of scientific work. In his preface Sir Ray Lankester explains that his book is a reproduction of articles which appeared in the Daily Telegraph from October, 1907, to April, 1908. The author’s style is clear and animated, well adapted to arrest and hold the attention of the news- paper reader. The articles relating to tropical dis- eases, the public estimate of the value of science, heredity, ignorance, and vivisection display a power and earnestness suited to their themes. The lighter articles convey a considerable amount of information in a chatty, reminiscent style, interspersed with bio- graphical detail. The bit of autobiography on P- 59 is a charmingly told illustration of the experimental method. When discussing votes for women our author is less illuminating, and is perhaps as likely to make opponents as converts. We are glad that he did not confine himself to biological subjects. He NO. 2037, VOL. 79] concludes an effective short statement of the problems connected with the orientation of ancient temples by a remark on Stonehenge which will be echoed by readers of NATURE :— “The delay in examining everything on the spot and in making all that remains absolutely secure is a national disgrace.’’ We hope that the present volume will have many successors. : With the exception of Sir Ray Lankester’s work and certain technical articles, the ‘ scientific’ para- graphs which we have read in the daily Press are far from reaching the standard which we have already indicated (or the standard reached, e.g., in the case of musical criticism). Too frequently they fall to the level of burlesque absurdity—stuff which no editor would dream of publishing as serious in- formation in regard to any other department of news. In addition to hearing the professor talk ‘‘ from an easy chair,’’ we want accurate statements of recent advances, as clear and simple as possible, relying for interest on intrinsic importance and not on ‘popular ’’ dressing and sensationalism. Nor would such ‘‘ news from the front’’ of the progress of our scientific army lack appreciative readers. The spread of scientific teaching in our schools and universities, the existence of fifty thousand members of our poly- technics, and, above all, the attention to scientific inventions which is a necessity to organisers of com- mercial and industrial undertakings—these guarantee the existence of a reading public able to appreciate such scientific information. Surely the time is ripe for the editors of our ‘‘ dailies ’’ to take science seri- ously. To find and harness a Huxley and a Helm- holtz may be beyond editorial power, but it is within that power to employ men of high scientific training and to require from them contributions of first-rate By so doing they would give an impulse quality. (Gp 18 1D). to national progress in science. THE GREAT PYRAMID. The Great Pyramid of Gizeh; its Riddle Read, its Secret Metrology Fully Revealed as the Origin of British Measures. By M. W. H. Lombe Brooke. Pp. 217. (London: Banks and Son, 1908.) Price 7s. 6d. net. HE mind of the gnostic is ever with us; it delights in founding the most far-reaching statements upon a basis of facts and dogmas which may or may not be true, but the relevance of which to the conclusion escapes the ordinary intellect. In this volume of 217 pages we have some fresh theories based on older ones about the Great Pyramid, but with a wide departure in results from those of the: earlier theorists. Whatever we may conclude about the theoretical results of the late Prof. Piazzi Smyth, we all know that he was able to handle his material in a scientific fashion. This is far from the case in the present volume. As examples of method we have (p. 29) a sto of most extreme irregularity—a natural boulder sui face—stated to nine places of figures in its cubic NOVEMBER 12, 1908] NATURE 33 contents; a thickness of stone doubled (for no reason) and multiplied by the power or logarithm of another quantity to get a lineal quantity; a series of different breadths in inches added together (p. 178) X10, com- pared with the number of theoretic pounds in a theoretic ton; or the number of lineal inches in a dimension (p. 187) shown to be the same as the number of grains in a theoretic cubic inch of an arbitrary specific gravity. No rational sense can be attached to such processes; they are numerical co- incidences, and can have no meaning. When a very large number of quantities, of multipliers, and of processes of connection can thus be handled, and a wide latitude is allowed for the exactitude of the results, there is no reason for the product ceasing at 217 pages; it might as easily be continued to infinity. The starting point is the boss of granite—one of the well-known lugs for stone lifting, the remains of many of which may be seen on other stones in the pyramid. The dimensions of this vary from 4-7 to 5-2 inches wide, and 0.94 to 1-1 inches thick, the faces being roughly hammer-dressed. This is then assumed to be exactly five inches wide and an inch thick. It is then assumed that at its junction with the stone face it is 7x5 inches; though rounded at the top, it is assumed to be rectangular, and an assumed unit of thirty-five cubic inches is deduced, and then used as a basis for pages of subsequent theory. Any one of the certainly wrong assumptions that are made would leave the conclusion entirely in air. But it serves as an efficient basis for an elaborate gnosis, interesting as a revelation of mental method. Matters unknown to the author are also elaborated. We read of ‘‘ those most exact and artistically pre- pared corner sockets,’’ which are really vague and irregular in every part except the truly flat floor. The cubic content of a socket, which is sunk in a wavy, irregular surface of natural rock, is calculated, and, +2, the cubic inches equal the lineal inches in a theoretic mile. The faces of the pyramid are assumed to be concave in order to fill up the corners of the rock-cut sockets, and many pages of theory result from this assumption; yet at the north-east corner the drawn line of the base can be seen running some inches within the side of the socket, showing that the face was straight. Not only does such wishing serve instead of facts to the gnostic mind, but it may entirely obliterate facts. We read, p. 17, of “the introduction of the French metric system with complete subversion and abandonment of all our hereditary measures.’’ Yet, strange to say, the old English mile is two kilo- metres, the furlong 200 metres, the chain 20 metres, and the fathom two metres, or building yard one metre, within the small uncertainty of our know- ledge; and this system is based on a foot, which was not only known widely in the north back to Roman times, but was known to foreigners in Egyvnt for thousands of years earlier. It is curious that the metric system was thus closely anticipated, and it is exactly contrary to our author’s statements. Points at issue might be raised innumerably, but NO. 2037, VOL. 79] it would be useless to do so. The type of mind that is nourished by such material transcends the usual limits of facts and proofs, and remains for us as one of the interesting specimens in the museum of psychology. Vio: Wis 25 125 THE ANTHRACITE OF SOUTH WALES. The Coals of South Wales, with Special Reference to the Origin and Distribution of Anthracite. By Aubrey Strahan and W. Pollard. Pp. vit78. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of England and Wales. (London: H.M. Stationery Office, 1908.) Price 1s. 6d. HIS memoir gives the results of an investigation into the character of the coals of South Wales. The collection of the material was begun in 1gor, and the work has now so far progressed as to lead to an opinion as to the relative distribution of anthra- citic and bituminous coals, and as to the origin of the difference between them. The results published include not only the analyses made for the purposes of the investigation by Mr. Pollard, ike, 18 (Gr Radley and Mr. C. A. Seyler, but also ail previous trustworthy analyses of coal from recognisable seams. The total number of analyses is 203. In each the particulars given include the local name of the seam, the colliery, the authority, the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen, the percentages of volatile matter, and ash, the specific gravity, and the fuel ratio or the relation of fixed carbonaceous residue to volatile matter. In view of the importance of the analyses of each seam separately, it was necessary to correlate, so far as possible, the seams of one part of the coalfield with those of another. The sequence of the seams has consequently received careful attention, and a plate of sections is given showing the position and correlation of the seams. The different bands of the same seam are compared, and the results are given of a comparison of different samples from the same seam in the same locality, as well as of different seams in the same locality. Other chapters deal with the analytical methods employed, with the accuracy of coal analyses and with the classi- fication of coals. Of the ten plates accompanying the memoir, five are iso-anthracitic charts designed to show areas of equal anthracitism in each seam or group of seams. The degree of anthracitism of each sample is expressed by the factor representing the relation of carbon to hydrogen. Among previous investigators there is a general agreement that the anthracitic character of the coals in part of the coalfield has resulted from a change effected upon coals which had been originally bituminous. Three explanations of the change have been put forward :—(1) that the anthracitic seams have been more deeply buried and consequently exposed to a higher temperature; (2) that they have been altered by adjacent plutonic rocks; and (3) that they are more affected by slip- cleavage. To these three theories there are serious cas® considering 34 NATURE [ NovEMBER 12, 1908 objections, and the investigations now recorded tend to show (1) that the seams are not all similarly anthracitic, and though each seam is generally more anthracitic than the one above it, there are many exceptions to the rule; (2) that the anthracitic character was not due to faults, but existed before the faults were formed; (3) that the anthracite existed as such before the coalfield was reduced by denudation to its present dimensions; and (4) that the percentage of ash diminishes pari passu with the decrease of bituminous matter. These conclusions point to the variations in the composition of the coals having been either original or at least of very early date. Indeed, of all the suggested causes of altera- tion subsequent to deposition, none appear to have been adequate to produce more than a slight modifi- cation of the differences due to original composition. Written in faultless literary style and edited with scrupulous accuracy, this valuable addition to geo- logical literature will appeal to a wide circle of readers, and the authors deserve great credit for the success they have achieved in the first attempt to define the distribution of anthracite and to explain its origin on purely experimental grounds. VITALISM. Versuch einer Begriindung der Deszendenztheorie. By Prof. Karl Camillo Schneider. Pp. viii+132. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1908.) Price 3 marks. A COUPLE of years ago Prof. K. C. Schneider pub- 4 lished six admirably clear and objective lectures as an introduction to the study of the evolution-theory. It was a useful exposition of the facts of variation and heredity, and of the Darwinian and Lamarckian interpretations. The present volume is critical and personal, and is not easy reading. We cannot do more than indicate the author’s point of view. The first half of the book deals with stimulus, psyche and consciousness, subject and individuation, sensation and heredity, need and purpose, and Dar- winism. The second half deals with mutation, potency, and structure; orthogenesis and extinction; trophic stimulus; vitality; entelechy and heritability; phylogeny, and the becoming of man. The author’s general position is closely akin to the positivism of Mach and Avenarius, which is, he thinks, the stable foundation for that part of the biological edifice that now requires building. — Bio- logically he is perhaps nearest Weismann, but he be- lieves that the psychical is the most important biological factor; he will not hear of the transmission of somatic modifications, but he believes that the transmigration of souls is almost self-evident. In dis- cussing Lamarckism he points out that it has two sides; on the one hand, it is an erroneous theory of passive transformation conditioned by external stimulus; on the other hand, it is a true theory of the subjective response of a creative agent. He develops this second idea—which he calls by the extraordinary name of ‘ Eulamarckism.’’ ; Prof. Schneider is a neo-vitalist who has the courage to out and out that he believes in a specific vital energy, in a living substance. There NO. 2087; VOL. 79] say are some who deny this, and maintain that life may be described as a succession of fermentations and the like, but this view ignores the phenomena of regu- lation and correlation, not to speak of memory and the power of profiting by experience. There are others who deny a living substance, and refer regu- lation and mental processes to an immaterial prin- ciple or agent, which deals directively with meta- bolism, though it is not of it. Schneider does not sympathise with either of these positions; he supposes a special vital substance, the vehicle of the specific vital energy, just as the ether is the medium for radiant energy. But this vital substance is not a particular kind of matter; it consists of psychical substances residing in the structural units of the organism. The relation between Psyche and Physis is illustrated by the mutual relations in thermo- chemical processes. The physical processes in the plasma, which are set going by stimuli, correspond to the chemical processes; the associated psychical energy corresponds to heat. On the one hand there is molecular movement, on the other there is cell-sensation. Life depends on the sensations of cells, as heat on the movements of molecules. As temperature is the intensity-factor of heat, structure is the intensity-factor of vitality, the measure of vital potency. In a short notice it would not be for edification to try to expound the author’s views on the four- dimensional character of consciousness or the law of the conservation of the psyche, or his theory that the mysterious process of assimilation represents a particular kind of gravitation, and that the psychical analogue of the force of cohesion is the entelechy or soul—the formative principle of the organism. Prof. Schneider believes strongly in mutation, but the essential factor in species-formation is ‘‘ Descen- sion’’—which means a thorough-going change in organisation, such as getting a notochord or gill- clefts. To study descensions is at present the most urgent task of etiologists. What brings about a ‘“Descension’’? It is a step in the ‘‘ entelechialen (synthetischen) Umprégung ’’ which seems to be the most characteristic secret of the organism. Wee, 1s OUR BOOK SHELF. Avithmétique graphique. Les Espaces arithméliques ; leurs lransformations. By Gabriel Arnoux. Pp. xii+84. (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1908.) Price 3 frances. Tue title of this little work does not indicate, as the English reader might expect, another addition to the ever-growing list of treatises upon geometrical methods of calculation or the graphical solution of ordinary problems. It might rather be described as an essay upon the geometrical interpretation of the theory of numbers. The author has attempted a systematic exposition of what may be called the geometry of abacs and magic squares. By an arithmetical space he under- stands the set of all points (in a geometrical space of any number of dimensions) the coordinates of which are integral, and he has worked out the properties of such point-systems. Many theorems true for con- NovEMBER 12, 1908] NATURE 5) tinuous space hold unchanged for such a discontinuous space. Some operations, however, such as rotation and transformation of coordinates to new axes in- clined to the original ones, are possible only in certain cases. The study of the conditions under which such operations are possible, and of the effect of these operations when the conditions are satisfied, forms the main drift of the book. The most interesting chapters are those which deal with what the author calls modular spaces. A modular plane space of modulus m is a square of m* points, a point (a, b) of this square representing all points (a+pm, b+qm) of the unlimited arithmetical space, p, q being arbitrary integers. Geometrical properties of the complete unlimited space yield corresponding properties of the fundamental modular square, the coordinates of the original points being replaced by their congruent numbers of modulus m. Transformations of coordinates in such modular spaces lead to the construction of magic squares and abacs. Graphical methods are given for the solution of diophantine equations, and the last chapter deals with ; a number of problems, among them the following, originally proposed by Euler; from each of six dif- ferent regiments six officers of different rank are taken. The problem is to arrange them in a solid square so that in each row and in each column there shall not be two officers of the same rank or of the same regiment. This problem, which was shown to be insoluble by MM. G. and H. Tarry in the case of thirty-six officers, is soluble when there are sixteen, and the reasons for this are | here discussed. Strangely enough, this branch of mathematics, although it might well be classed amongst the purest of the pure, is not without its industrial applications, notably in the weaving of tissues and fabrics. Altogether, we commend M. Arnoux’s book to those interested in the mathematical curiosities of the theory of numbers. ING. iIEON. Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the Human Ovum. By Dr. T. H. Bryce, Dr. J. H. Teacher, and J. M: M. Kerr. Pp. viiito3; 10 plates. (Glasgow: J. MacLehose and Sons, 1908.) Price 12s. 6d. net. Ir will be a glad day for the science of embryology when all the details of the sequence of the develop- ment of man are described from successive stages of the human ovum and embryo. The chick has, to a great measure, passed from the position that once it occupied, and even the lower mammals cannot be taken as substitutes for human material, when human development is to be rightly studied. Much that is confusing in embryology to-day is the outcome of reading whole pages of the embryonic life-histories of other creatures into the early chapters of human development. In certain special directions the primates form a group distinguished developmentally from other mammals, and man and the anthropoids differ in some details from the other primates. Our know- ledge of the development of man will, therefore, not be ideal until all our stages are accurately described from purely human material. Towards the attain- ing of this ideal, the description of the Teacher- Bryce ovum materially helps; at the same time, it probably holds out a guarantee for the further ex- tension of our knowledge of the earliest stages of human development, for the material so carefully treated in this case is material that is often neglected. The Teacher-Bryce ovum is the earliest human NOwzOaT VOL. 70] ovum yet described—its age is computed at thirteen to fourteen days—and, owing to the care taken in ascertaining the details of its history, this computa- tion may be taken as final. It is younger, by probably a day, than the well- known ovum of Hubert Peters, described in 1899, | although that ovum was originally considered to be no more than three to four days old. Great care and a wealth of detail have been used in making the account of this ovum as complete as possible, and in order to render the material of more value, a table of all the recorded early human ova has been incorporated for comparative purposes. The volume in which this ovum is described also: contains the description of an early ovarian preg- nancy, and this—like the uterine ovum—is the earliest stage that has yet been described. It is but natural that, in dealing with such material, many new details should come to light, and all the many points of novelty receive very ample discussion and illustration. The whole technic of the work, and especially the many fine illustrations, mark a distinct advance on the ordinary run of English scientific publications, and towards this perfection the authors have to thank the Carnegie Trust for assistance. Dr. Bryce has already demonstrated his specimens at the meetings of scientific societies, and the general features of his early ovum are now well known to embryologists, but the book in which he describes it contains, apart from the mere description, a vast amount of well-assorted detail, got together and presented in most workmanlilke fashion. Graphic Algebra. By Dr. Arthur Schultze. Pp. viii+ 93. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 4s. 6d. In this text-book the author first gives examples of plotting from physical and statistical data, and the graphing of simple functions of one and two variables. He then proceeds to the main purpose of the book, whichis that of solving algebraical equations by the use of squared paper and a few standard curves. Equations up to the fourth degree are fully dealt with, and, in order to facilitate the work, a method is cleverly developed in which the direct graph is replaced by two loci of a simpler nature, the inter- sections of which give the required roots. Thus a quadratic equation is solved by reading off the inter- section of a standard parabola and a straight line; the same parabola is used for all quadratics, and it is only the scale and the position of the line which vary. Instead of the parabola, a rectangular hyper- bola may be used. Cubics are dealt with by means of the curve y=x* and a suitable straight line. Bi- quadratic equations are solved by the intersection of a circle and the standard parabola or standard hyper- bola. In all cases it is shown how to find the imaginary or complex roots, if such exist. The whole subject is treated in a very concise and interesting manner, and the reader should become fully conversant with the principles of graphing and the nature of algebraical equations. But the special methods, however ingenious, must be regarded rather in the nature of mathematical exercises than as having any very useful practical applications, for such equations occur so seldom outside text-books that when an actual case does arise, simple direct methods of solution are usually to be preferred. This admir- able manual concludes with an appendix containing some ‘‘ statistical data suitable for graphic representa- tion,’’ a short table of squares, cubes, square roots, and reciprocals of numbers, and a collection of answers to the many exercises which are provided throughout the text. 36 NATURE LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. The Origin of Advent, and other Three Weeks’ Celebrations. FROM a series of measurements of solstitial monuments in Cornwall and Wales, Sir Norman Lockyer has advanced the theory that such monuments were erected, not so | much to mark the exact solstice, as to give ample warn- ing of that phenomenon. I have suggested from evidence in connection with fairs that the period of warning was three weeks, and Mr. W. E. Rolston finds measurements of three solstitial alignments, two at Tregaseal and one at Longstone, marking sunrise three weeks before the solstice. When we come to think of it, marking the exact solstice sunrise must have been a difficult task. For three weeks or so, the sun's declination at the solstice is within one degree. Though the apparent stand-stillness of the sun at that point must have greatly impressed people from the earliest period, yet the Irish bard Amairgen could still boast :-— “Who teaches the spot where the sun rests (but I)?” The astronomical three weeks’ warning referred to seems to me to be the origin of our Christian Advent and Lent. What was intended as an astronomical warning of the solstice became, or most likely was from the first, a period of preparation for a great festival. As to Advent, Daniel observes:—‘‘ The name Advent does not appear to have come into general use until long after the setting apart of the season which it designates, and the Greek Church to this day has no corresponding name for it ’’ (‘‘ The Prayer-Book,’’ p. 197). The season seems to be at first strictly limited to three Sundays, as the Bobbio Missal gives only three masses in Adventu Domini (Duchesne, ‘* Christian Worship,”’ p. 158). The commencement of the Advent season is associated with St. Andrew’s Day, November 30, three weeks before the solstice. The origin, use, and length of Lent have been similarly affected by Christian usage. Duchesne says that ‘ at Rome it was the custom to observe the (Lenten) fast for only the last three weeks before Easter ’’ (p. 243). ‘‘ There were, however, Churches in which, up to the fifth century, Lent consisted of only three weeks of fasting ’’ (p. 244). The inference is irresistible, that before Lent was made dependent on a movable Easter, it was a period of warn- ing and preparation for a great solar festival. But the question arises, Was the three weeks’ interval measured from the exact date of the festival it led up to, or was it simply obtained by dividing the time between a May-year festival and a solstitial or an equinoctial one? St. Andrew’s Day, November 30, is mid-way between the astronomical Hallowe’en (November 8) and the winter solstice. At Llangefui, Anglesey, that whole period of six weeks, roughly, has been observed by six weekly fairs. The forty days of Lent is, of course, a similar arrange- ment for celebrating the whole period between a May-year festival and a solstitial one. i But it is to be noted, by the early observance of both Advent and Lent, that the last three weeks were of chief importance. At Magor, Mon., three weekly fairs used to be held immediately before Easter, a circumstance some- what incompatible with the purpose of the Christian Lent, which, however, may be regarded as a curve in the evolu- tion of Lent. The calendar seems to be responsible for some displace- ment of the original three weeks’ interval. Thus there are fairs held at Llanerchymedd, Anglesey, on the three first Wednesdays after November 13, or Old All Hallows. ; : To answer the question I have put, we must first con- NO. 2037, VOL. 79] [NovEMBER 12, 1908 sider the yearly course of the sun as divided into sixteen equal parts, or rough three-weeks’ units, as follows :— January 14. May 6 M. September 23 S. February 4 M. May 29. October 16. February 27. June 22 S. November 8 M. March 21 S. July 16. November 30. April 12. August 8 M. September 1. _M=May-year, S=Solstitial-year. December 23 S. Treating Lent as originally a warning. of the vernal equinox, if not of the February festival, 1 begin with the May-day warning. I note four fairs held on April 15, exactly twenty-one days before the astronomical May-day, May 6, while the dividing point of the sun’s course between the vernal equinox and May 6 is April 12, so the three weeks were counted as from May-day. The places are Ystradgynlais, Carmarthen, Penmark, and Penderyn. At three other places the fairs are held on April 16, namely, Aberdaw, Llangathen, and Devynnock. That April 15 has reference to May 6 is fairly certain, because of the persistence, in spite of the calendar, of the astronomical May-day as a fair-day. At ten places in Wales fairs are held on May 6, namely, Abercennen, Laugharne, Castell Bychan, Mon., Castleton, Mon., | Llanfynydd, Newcastle, Pemb., Llanfair Caereinion, Llangynog, Llanerchymedd, and Nantglyn. I have given the names of the places because of many facts connected with them which deserve further study in this connection. For instance, Ystradgynlais, Penderyn, and Devynnock occupy different slopes of the same mountain range, the Brecknock Beacons, where the May-year survives in its glory. Again, in all Wales it is probable that the tradi- tions of May-day have not been better preserved than in the neighbourhood of Laugharne, where prehistoric monu- ments are numerous. It may be said, then, that there was a three weeks interval depending on May-day, and reckoned from that date. Coming to the summer solstice, I note three fairs held on May 31, three weeks as reckoned from the solstice, > instead of May 29. ‘The places are Llangollen, Llan- brynmair, and Talgarth. The two-days’ fair at Car- The summer Llantwit marthen, June 3, 4, leads up to June 24. solstice is observed by fairs at Llandilo Fawr, Major, Emlyn, Llanerchymedd, and Ely Bridge. Depending on the August festival (August 8) are intervals of three weeks both before and after that date. At Llanerchymedd, fairs are held on the three Wednes- days before August 7. That takes us back to July 17. The true commencement of the preparatory interval would be July 18, and not 16, as per table given. There are fairs at Haverfordwest and Llanidloes on July 18, and one on July 19 at Caerphilly. It is interesting to note that a ten-days’ fair at Warrington, Lancs, commenced on July 18. At two contiguous places, occupying different slopes of the same mountain range, the three weeks” interval is reckoned after the August festival. There are fairs held at Rhayader, Radnorshire, on August 6 and 27, and at Rhos, Cardiganshire, on August 5 and 26. I find only one warning interval of the autumnal equinox, but it is as decisive as any. At a noted moun- tain fair-place, called Waen, where the boundaries of Breconshire, Monmouthshire, and Glamorganshire meet, fairs are held on September 2 and 24. That there was a three weeks’ interval depending on All Hallows is shown in the case of Llanerchymedd, where fairs are held on the three first Wednesdays after November 13, Old All Hallows. The commencement of a preparatory three weeks’ interval, leading up to November 8, would be October 18, and fairs are held on that date at Haverfordwest and Mvyddfai. The latter place is famous for its wealth of tradition. At Llanfechell, Anglesey, fairs are held on November 5 and 25, which should be compared with the Llanerchymedd fairs in the same county. Fairs are held on November 30, St. Andrew’s Day, in Cardiff and at Llansannan, and that was the date of the commencement of a ten-days’ fair at Warrington. NOVEMBER 12, 1908 | NATURE a7 It is in Anglesey, where Sir Norman Lockyer observed a tendency in the monuments to ante-date the solstice, so to speak, that we find definite arrangements of fairs con- firming his findings. Information on the point, from the monuments and the fairs or festivals, is as yet incomplete. I am only trying to coordinate some of it. A court used to be held every three weeks in the parish of Llangeinor, Glam. The Roman notice of the Comitia extended over three market- days. Banns must be published on three Sundays. Concerning the winter solstice celebrations, one is re- minded of the Boy Bishop of Salisbury, a choir-boy elected as bishop on St. Nicholas’ Day, December 6, who was allowed to bear the title until Holy Innocents’ Day, December 28, just three weeks. The Christmas festivities used to be continued in Pembrokeshire for three weeks. The Government in the time. of Charles I. prohibited the playing of cards, &c., at Gray’s Inn during the year, “except on the twenty days of Christmas holidays only.”’ I cannot help thinking that a three weeks’ interval is provided for in the orientation of some churches. As a rule, the older churches are oriented to May or November ; then come churches oriented to the equinox. I find N. 76° or 77° E. and N. 80° or 81° E. to be rather common orientations. Since writing the foregoing, I have looked up some Welsh calendar lore. Provision seems to have been made for the various three-weeks’ intervals suggested by the fairs. There appear to have been four Lents, as they may be called. The source of my information is Dr. Gwenogyryn Evans’s report on a Peniarth MS., which he dates ‘‘ after 1484’ (‘‘ Report on Welsh MSS.,”’’ vol. i., pp- 406-7). Dr. Evans gives only the beginning of each item in the MS. There was a “‘ pask bychan,”’ little Easter, connected with the Feast of St. Hilary, January 13, which is just three weeks before the February festival of the May-year, February 4. January 13 is also St. Elian’s Day, and at Llanelian, Anglesey, the Gwyl Mabsant, or patronal wake, used to be prolonged for three weeks. Then there was the ‘‘ pask’’ (Easter) proper. Mention is also made of the “‘ pask kynharaf,’’ the earliest Easter, though the report on the point is tantalisingly brief. As Easter proper ends the ecclesiastical year, the “earliest Easter *’ may very well be connected with the August festival of the May-year, August 8, as suggested by the fairs. Then comes the ‘‘ grawys ayaf,’? winter quadragesima. It is connected somehow with the Feast of St. Linus, and that is all I can gather from the report. St. Linus’ Day is November 26. Though the word “grawys” is a shortening of “‘ quadragesima,’’ perhaps it is here applied to the shorter interval of Advent. It certainly corresponds with the latter. It is worth noting, however, that January 13 is some forty days from the beginning of the winter “‘ grawys.”’ Thus we have three “‘ pasks ’’ or Easters mentioned, and the word “‘ grawys ’’ used twice. I suspect that there were four of each, corresponding with the four seasons of the year, and the four Gorsedds of the Bards. Joun GRrirFirn. ’ Women and the Chemical Society. We venture to ask for the hospitality of your columns in order to make a statement of some importance in view of the announcement made by the president of the Chemical Society of the large majority of the fellows who are in favour of the admission of women to the society (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1908). : Four years ago a memorial was presented to the council of the Chemical Society praying for the admission of women to the fellowship of the society. This memorial bore the signatures of nineteen women, all of whom were lecturers or demonstrators in chemistry in university colleges or actively engaged in original chemical investiga- NO. 2037, VOL. 79] 4 tions. The council at that time was unable to take any steps in the matter, but promised that the memorial should not be lost sight of in any further action that might be taken (Proc. Chem. Soc., 1905, xxi., 103). The question having been raised again by the presenta- tion of a petition signed by 312 fellows in June last, we communicated in July with our co-signatories of the 1904 memorial, and with other women of equal repute as chemists, in order to ascertain how many women at the present time desire the privileges afforded by fellowship of the Chemical Society. We have received replies from twenty-eight women, all of whom are of similar standing and possess similar qualifications to those of the original signatories, express- ing their interest in the present movement and their inten- tion of at once becoming candidates for admission to the fellowship of the Chemical Society if the council should reach a favourable decision in this matter. From rumours that have reached us, there appears to be some uncertainty in the minds of some fellows of the society as to the number of women who are prepared to avail themselves of the first opportunity of seeking the fellowship, and we hope that the publication of the above statement will remove all misunderstanding on this point. Iba SMEDLEY. M. A. WuitELey. November 9. Mercury Bubbles. I REMEMBER seeing mercury bubbles, like those described by Mr. J. G. Ernest Wright in Nature of November 5 (p. 8), sixty years ago, when I was a junior student at the Royal College of Chemistry under Hofmann. In the basement laboratory was a tap delivering water under considerable pressure from a cistern on the roof, and it was a favourite experiment to take a basin half full of mercury and water and to turn the tap suddenly on it. The rush of water carried down air into the mercury, and great bubbles of the metal rose, floating on the surface of the water. I do not remember seeing bubbles as large as 22 mm. in diameter, but frequently they were as large as ordinary marbles. I cannot recall any publication of the phenomenon, but there must be many chemists living who can corroborate what I have described. WittrAM CROOKEs. November Meteors, Tuat memorable and suggestive epoch, the middle of November, has again arrived. At midnight the well-known stars in the ** Sickle of Leo’’ exhibit themselves in the east and suggest meteors galore to the expectant observer. The conditions are not favourable this year, for the parent comet returned in 1899, and must now, with the denser region of its meteoric swarm, be at an immense distance from the earth. The probability is, therefore, that we shall only encounter a tenuous part of the stream, and that a few straggling Leonids will illumine our skies on the nights following November 14 and 15, but the meteors may be much more numerous than expected, as they have been in certain previous years. The moon will be near her east quarter, and situated in the same region of sky as the radiant at the important lime, so that her light will offer some impediment in regard to the fainter meteors. It will be desirable to maintain a watch of the sky on the mornings of November 15 and 16, and to record, not only the number of meteors visible, but the apparent paths of the brighter ones. An important end is served by securing duplicate observations of individual objects, and thus enabling their real paths in the atmosphere to be computed. Apart from this the annual observation of a meteoric shower, whether rich or feeble, is necessary in learning its history, for even negative results concerning its return may be really valuable, though the spectacular effects are disappointing in the extreme. With particular regard to the Leonids they are never wholly absent, being 38 NATURE [NoveMBER 12, 1908 distributed along the complete ellipse forming the cometary orbit. They are therefore always worth careful notice, and will seldom be found to fall below reasonable expectation. Bristol, November 4. W. F. DENNING. Tue result of calculations made by the writer indicates that the Leonid epoch will fall a little later this year than might have been expected. There will be little, if any, meteoric activity during the period November 10-16, reckoning from noon to noon, but during the remainder of the month it is likely that shooting stars will be much in evidence. The following are the principal meteor showers that fall during the period November 16-30, the dates of the occurrences being expressed in Greenwich astronomical time :— Epoch November 16; this shower is of the ninth order of magnitude, and has the following maxima :—November 16, 1th. 20m.; November 17, 4h. 25m., 8h. 20m., and 16h, 15m. Epoch November 17, 20h., of eleventh order of magni- tude. The following maxima occur after the epoch :— November 18, oh. 50m., 10h. 14m.; November 109, oh. gom., 5h. 5m., and 16h. 50m. Epoch November 20, sh., of fifth order of magnitude, and preceded by the following maxima :—November 18, 7h. 50m., 21h. 5m. ; November 19, 5h. 55m.; November 20, gh. 15m. Epoch November 24, of seventh order of magnitude, which has the following maxima :—November 24, 8h. 55m., 12h. rom. ; November 25, 6h. 20m., 18h. 24m. Epoch November 30, sh., of fifteenth order of magni- tude, and preceded by the maxima:—November 28, 14h. 30m., 20h. gom.; November 29, oh. and gh., 20h. 45m. It seems from the foregoing that the first maximum takes place on November 16 during the hour preceding midnight. This maximum, which is the only one occur- ring on this night, will probably furnish some Leonids, which may also be observed on the following night. 131 Rathgar Road, Dublin. Jonn R. Henry. The Keeping of Young Herring Alive in Captivity. On p. 305 of the new number of the Journal of the Marine Biological Association reference is made to the difficulty of keeping young herring alive. On Sep- tember 14 last I captured a number of young herring; some, which I put under circulation in salt water, were dead next morning. To kill the others I turned on a fresh-water tap into the bucket containing them. Half an hour or so later I found that, instead of being dead, they were very lively, and some which had been lying on their backs had recovered. I then placed seven under a circulation of half salt water and half fresh water. They lived for a week, then some of them died off. There is still (November 6) one lively specimen living, and apparently healthy. The only source of food is a little plankton added (twice), and such plankton as comes through the salt-water pipes. During the first few days of this experiment sometimes the salt-water tap and at other times the fresh-water tap was shut off for an hour or so. RicHarp ELMHIRST. Marine Biological Station, Millport, N.B. Lime Light. I veNTURE to direct your attention to a simple device which I have found very useful for increasing the light from a demonstrating lantern. It is usual, on account of their long life, to use so-called artificial lime cylinders, even though they give somewhat less light than pure lime ones. An ordinary Welsbach gas-mantle happens to fit all these cylinders, and should be slipped on before the jet is lighted. The increase in brightness of the light due to this addition is astonishing. The mantle is only slightly damaged by the jet, and by turning occasionally so that the flame impinges upon a fresh place, the intense illumina- tion may be maintained for two hours or so. Shooters Hill, Kent. Cuartes E. S. PuiLwips. NO. 2037, VOL. 79] ALBRECHT VON HALLER. LBRECHT VON HALLER, anatomist, physio- logist, botanist, and poet, was born in Berne on October 16, 1708. He has been termed ‘‘ Berne’s greatest son,’’ and his intellectual eminence was con- spicuous even in an age which was singularly pro- ductive of great men. It was, indeed, early mani- fest, for the child Haller was what the Germans term a ** Wunderkind ’’—one of the few such children whose subsequent career has borne out the promise of their youth. As early as his ninth year he began the preparation of lexicons of all the Hebrew and Greek words in the Old and New Testaments, with notes regarding their derivations and different ap- plications. He also prepared a Chaldaic grammar. Whilst still a boy he wrote biographies of no fewer than two thousand celebrities and turned out in- numerable verses (which he afterwards burned) on all conceivable subjects, including a satire in Latin verse on his somewhat harsh and pedantic preceptor. Before he was fifteen he was deeply immersed in philosophy and mathematics, and already showed that inclination towards the natural sciences which eventu- ally evidenced itself in the remarkable works which appeared from his pen. At fifteen he entered the University of Tiibingen and pursued the study of anatomy and philosophy during two years. At this time Boenhaave, a man of similar almost universal genius, then at the zenith of his fame, was attracting to Leyden earnest students from all parts of the civilised world. The youthful Haller was also drawn into the vortex, and came under the influence both of that great physician and of the anatomists Ruysch and Albinus. After gradu- ating there at the age of nineteen, Haller visited England, and in London made the acquaintance, amongst others, of Sir Hans Sloane, Douglas, Cheselden, and John Hunter. He then proceeded to Paris, where he spent six months studying anatomy and botany under Winslow and Jussieu. After leav- ing Paris, he passed a year in Bale, pursuing mathe- matical studies under Bernouilli, and preparing him- self for the active practice of medicine in his native city, where he intended to settle down. At the age of twenty-two we accordingly find him in practice in Berne. His patients do not appear to have been numerous; indeed, it was currently reported that he was “too good a writer and poet to understand much of medicine,’’ and he found abundance of time for working at anatomy and for expeditions to the neigh- bouring Alps, the flora of which especially excited his interest. The poem entitled ‘“‘ Die Alpen,” which was composed by Haller about this time, is probably the one by which he is best known; the following two verses from it, set to music as a cantata by Dr. Munzinger, were sung at the unveiling of the Haller statue on October 16 :— Wohl dir, vergniigtes Volk ! o danke dem Geschicke, Das dir der Laster Quell, den Ueberfluss, versagt ; Dem, den sein Stand vergniigt, dient Armut selbst zum Gliicke, Da Pracht und Ueppigkeit der Lander Stiitze nagt. Zwar die Natur bedeckt dein hartes Land mit Steinen, Allein dein Pflug geht durch, und deine Saat errint ; Sie warf die Alpen auf, dich von der Welt zu zaunen, Weil sich die Menschen selbst die gréssten Plagen sind. In 1735 Haller had begun to lecture in public on anatomy, and was physician to the city hospital in Berne. We also find him fulfilling the function of keeper of the public library and collection of coins. In the short year occupied with these multifarious duties he found time to prepare a “catalogue raisonné”? of all the books in the library, and to differentiate and arrange in their chronological order 5000 ancient coins. In the following year George II. NovEMBER 12, 1908] NA TORE 39 of England, who was establishing a university at GOttingen, induced Haller to accept the chair of medicine, surgery, anatomy, and botany. He there gave himself up entirely to professorial duties and to work in natural science. He was instrumental in founding, in 1737, the Royal Society of Sciences in Gottingen, of which he became secretary and presi- dent, and the first meetings of which were held in his house. After seventeen years in G6ttingen he accepted the invitation of his fellow-citizens to return to Berne, where already, in his absence, he had been elected a member of the Supreme Council, and he now (1753) devoted himself to administrative duties with the same energy that he had put into literary and scientific studies. These studies were not, how- ever, arrested, for every moment of his time un- occupied by public affairs continued to be filled in by them, and his activity in this respect ended only with his death in 1777. He even sent a detailed account of his last illness to the Royal Society of Gottingen, and is said to have remarked to his physician at the approach of death that his pulse was no longer perceptible:—‘t Es schlagt nicht mehr! ” Haller is justly celebrated as a botanist, and had he not been a contemporary of Linnzeus, whose great reputation eclipsed that of all his fellow-workers, he might have attained as high a position in that science as he reached in anatomy and physiology. He pre- pared a complete flora of Switzerland, and propounded a system of classification—artificial, it is true (as was that of Linnzeus), but one which might have served a useful purpose in the absence of the Linnzean system. He published several important botanical works, the chief being the ‘“‘ Historia stirpium indi- genarum Helvetiz,’’ which appeared in 1768 in three folio volumes with one volume of plates; the ‘* Biblio- theca botanica,’’ 1771-2, in two quarto volumes; the “* Histoire des Plantes vénéneuses de la Suisse,’’ 1776, and several descriptive monographs. As an anatomist Haller was still more eminent. Already in 1733 he published at Berne a ‘‘ Dissertatio anatomica de musculis diaphragmatis,’’ followed in 1738, at Gottingen, by another, ‘‘De Valvula Eustachii.”’ In 1743 he began the publication of his great work, the ‘“Icones anatomica,’’ which ap- peared in eight successive folio parts, the last in 1756. This was the first anatomical work in which the organs of the body are shown as much as possible in relation to one another, a principle which has been followed by all subsequent authors. As accessory to his anatomical writings may be mentioned his con- tributions to development and pathology. But it is as a physiologist that Haller unquestion- ably ranks highest—indeed, modern physiology may be said to date from the appearance of his great work, ‘‘Elementa physiologiz corporis humani,”’ which came out from 1757-1766 in eight quarto volumes.! Into this book he collected all the physio- logical knowledge of his time, and the clearness with which he narrates the facts of physiology and the logical manner in which he draws deductions from them may serve as a model for modern text-books. His manner of pursuing a theme and clinching his conclusions is shown even by the mere titles of his chapters. Thus, in the section of the book in which he deals with the history of the discovery of the | circulation and the attempts which had been made to detract from the claims of Harvey to the merit of 1‘ The year 1757 may be regarded. . . as indicating the dividing line between modern physiology and all that went before. It was the year in which the ‘Elementa Physiologie’ of Haller was published.’’ Michael Foster, ‘‘ History of Physiology,” p. 204. NO. 2037, VOL. 79] the discovery, these titles read in succession as follows :— XXIV. ‘‘ Harveio laus circuitus inventi vindicatur.’ XXV. ‘‘Non exstat apud MHippocratem.”” XXVI. ‘“Neque apud Salomonem, Platonem, veteres alios.”’ XXVII. ‘‘ Neque apud Servetum, Jacobum _ Reeff (longe minus).’? XXVIII. ‘‘ Quid Caesalpinus viderit (non penitus tamen verum vidit, Harveio reservatum).”’ XXIX. ““Non est inventum Pauli Sarpi.” XXX. ‘“Neque aliorum nuperorum.”’ XXXI. ‘‘ Neque Sinensium aut Persarum.’? XXXII. ‘‘Sed Harvei.’’ For every statement the authority is given. Wherever possible, an observation is confirmed by himself. The descriptions of physiological phenomena are concise and clear. The deductions are not always those which we are now in the habit of drawing, but the excep- tions are singularly rare. It was only the dawning of chemistry, and many branches of physics were unknown; physiology, ’ Albrecht von Haller, therefore, in those days had to be based mainly upon the study of anatomy. ‘‘ Physiologiz est animata anatome,’’? says Haller in his ‘‘ Primze linez physio- logiz in usum prelectionum academicorum,”’ a little handbook for medical students, published at Gottingen in 1748, which went through eleven editions. In the same work (p. 41) he recognises the value of animal experiments in advancing the knowledge of human physiology :—‘‘ Accuratiora sunt qua in vivis ani- malibus facta sunt experimenta,’’ and he is even more emphatic on this point in the introduction to his *« Elementa.”’ When it is stated that Haller published nearly 200 works, it must be admitted that few or none have possessed a more fertile literary ability, especially when the scope of many of these works is taken into | consideration. For, besides the great tomes on botany, physiology, and anatomy already mentioned, 40 NATURE [NovEMBER 12, 1908— he prepared and published no fewer than four large biographical works, one on botany, one on anatomy, one on surgery, one on practical medicine—the first of these in two quarto volumes, and the last occupy- ing as many as four. These ‘‘ Bibliothece ’’ contain not only lists of scientific works, but also short analyses and criticisms of their contents, along with biographical notices of the authors—a titanic labour of vast utility to subsequent workers. Nor were his writings confined to the natural sciences. As we have already seen, he early attained considerable fame as a poet; later we find him publishing historical novels —‘ Usong, an Oriental Story,’’ 1771; ‘‘ Alfred, King of the Anglo-Saxons,’’ 1773; ‘‘ Fabricius and Cato, a Fragment of Roman History,” 1774. His “ Journal,’? which was published ten years after his death, contains his opinions on other literary men and on things in general, and especially philosophy and religion. Both this and his correspondence mani- fest strong conservative and anti-democratic views, with a tendency to intolerance towards those who held different opinions. Haller was loaded with honours during his life- time. He was an honorary member of almost all the learned societies of Europe. Frederick the Great in vain attempted to induce him to settle in Berlin, and the endeavours cf Oxford and Utrecht to obtain his services were equally futile. The King of England appointed him his physician, and the Emperor of Germany granted him a title of nebility. But he was himself content to live and die a simple citizen of Berne, a prophet not without honour in his own country. Haller’s bicentenary was celebrated at Berne with great ceremony in October by the inauguration of a statue erected in front of the university on a height overlooking the town. On the day preceding the in- auguration a joint session of the Historical, Medico- chirurgical, and Scientific Societies of Berne was held in the hall of the university, which was occupied by a large audience, including many ladies. Interesting accounts of Haller’s life and work were given by Prof. Steck (history), Prof. Fischer (botany), and Prof. Kronecker (physiology). Addresses were also received from various societies with which Haller had been connected, as well as from universities and other learned bodies. The societies were represented by Prof. Leo, who appeared for the Royal Society of Sciences in Gottingen; Prof. Waldever, for that of Berlin; Prof. Heger, Brussels; Prof. Bohr, Copen- hagen; Prof. Riickert, Munich: Prof. Wangerin, Halle; Prof. Gamgee, London (presenting a Latin address from the Royal Society); Prof. Schafer, Edin- hurgh: whilst the universities were represented by Prof. von Griitzner, of Tiibingen: Prof. Merkel, of Gottingen; Prof. Kollmann, of Bale; Prof. Ewald, of Strassburg, and others. In the evening a reception was held in honour of the foreign delegates bv the president of the memorial committee, Prof. Tschirch. The actual day of the inauguration (October 16) was kept as a public holiday. A procession of all those who were to take part in the ceremonial, in- cluding the Swiss and foreign delegates, the university authorities, and the students—the latter with the banners and in the uniforms of their respective corps -was marshalled in front of the Parliament buildings, and marched through the principal streets of the old city to the site of the memorial. There, orations were pronounced by the rector of the university, Prof. Tschirch, and by State Councillor Dr. Gobat, re- presenting the Education Department of the Canton. A fine choir of men’s voices rendered a selection of appropriate music, and in glorious sunshine, to the sound of the Swiss national anthem, the covering which had concealed the monument was removed, and the representation of Haller, by Siegwart, of Lucerne, was displayed to the view of the assembled multi- tude. The statue represents Haller as he might have ap- peared to his contemporaries in about his fiftieth year. No contemporary picture or bust of this period of his life is extant, although his appearance in earlier and in later life is not unfamiliar. The sculptor had, therefore, to imagine him at the period chosen—which was that of his greatest scientific activity—a circum- stance which has certainly not detracted from the artistic merit of the statue. The unveiling ceremony was followed by a banquet to the delegates and others who had been invited to the celebration. Not the least interesting of the guests were some of the direct descendants of Haller. In- deed, the reply of M. Albert de Haller, of Lausanne, to the toast of the Haller family showed that some at least of the literary ability of his ancestor has de- scended to his generation. The festivities were wound up by a torchlight pro- cession of students, followed by a ‘‘ Kommers”’ in the Kornhaus-keller. A bronze plaque, exhibiting the bust of Haller in profile, designed by the sculptor of the memorial, was struck to commemorate the bicentenary, and a copy was presented to each of the foreign delegates— an artistic memento of a memorable ceremony. Ee) Agios CAISSON DISEASE. EN who have been working in compressed air, either under water in diving dresses or diving bells, in caissons used in preparing foundations for bridges, &c., or in making shafts or tunnels through watery ground, are liable to a variety of symptoms known generally as ‘‘ caisson disease.’’ These symptoms, which come on only at or shortly after the return to atmospheric pressure, vary in severity from pains in the muscles and joints, known as ‘‘bends’’ or ‘‘screws,’’? to paralysis and even death. Paul experimentally — thirty Bert showed years ago that these attacks are due to the fact that air (chiefly nitrogen) which has been dissolved in the fluids and tissues of the body while under pres- sure may, on decompression, be tiberated in the form of bubbles, which produce local or general blocking of the circulation or other injuries. He also showed that if decompression were effected suffi- ciently slowly, the excess of air which had _ been taken up could escape by diffusion through the lungs, and thus bubbling and symptoms could be avoided. The phenomenon is, in fact, that of de- compressing soda-water by pushing in the stopper; the problem of the prevention of caisson disease is how to push it in so slowly that the gas can escape without forming bubbles, and without the loss of so much time that the primary object of the manceuvre is frustrated. Practical experience has shown clearly that the incidence of caisson disease varies with the height of the pressure and the duration of exposure to that pressure. Cases of illness are much more frequent in caissons where the pressure required to keep out the water approximates to 45 lb., or 3 atmospheres in excess of atmospheric pressure, than in those which are worked at about 20 lb. or 25 lb. Yet far higher pressures may be experienced with impunity 1 The Prevention of Compressei-air Illness." By A. E. Boycott, G.C. C. Damant, and J. S. Haldane ( Journal of Hygiene, vol. viii., 1908, accompaniment of the booming of cannon and the | P- 342)- NO. 2037, VOL. 79] (3) 1 = 7 54 NATURE [NOVEMBER 12, 1908 a relation from which the magnetic force is eliminated. To ensure that the tangent to the wire is horizontal when , the following method is used. P is a chisel-edge carried by a screw and placed about 1 mm. in front of the fixed end of the wire; this is adjusted so that when the magnetic field is not on, the wire just touches the edge; this can be ascertained by making the contact with the wire complete an electric circuit in which a bell is placed. When the magnetic field is put on the wire is pulled off from the edge, and the tangent at z=o is no longer horizontal; it can, however, be brought horizontal by raising or lowering the pulley D until the wire is again in contact with P, which can be ascertained again by the ringing of the bell. Then y, is the vertical distance between the point where the wire now crosses the edge of the scale and the point where it crossed it before the mag- netic field was put on. Since y, y,, 1, and T can easily be measured, equation (3) gives us the value of e/mv, while the deflection under the electric force gives the value of e/mz,. If y is the vertical displacement of the patch of phos- phorescent light on the screen produced by the magnetic field, x the horizontal displacement due to the electrostatic field, we see that c= — where A and B are constants depending on the position of the screen and the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic forces. These quantities can be calculated by means of the equations just given. Since BR ieAret We see that if the pencil is made up of rays having a constant velocity, but having all values of e/m up to a maximum value, the spot of light will be spread out by the magnetic and electric fields into a straight line extend- ing a finite distance from the origin. While if it is made up of two sets of rays, one having the velocity v, the other the velocity v., the spot will be drawn out into two straight lines as in Fig. 4. If e/m is constant and the velocities have all values up to a maximum, the spot of light will be spread out into a portion of a parabola as indicated in Fig. s. © Fic. 4. Fic. 5. We shall later on give examples of each of these cases. The discharge was produced by means of a large induc- tion coil, giving a spark of about 50 cm. in air, with a vibrating make and break apparatus. Many tubes were used in the course of the investigation; the dimensions of these varied slightly. The distance of the screen from the hole from which the rays emerged was about 9 cm., the length of the parallel plates about 3 cm., and the distance between them 0-3 cm. Properties of the Positive Rays when the Pressure is not exceedingly low. The appearance of the phosphorescent patch after deflec- tion in the electric and magnetic fields depends greatly upon the pressure of the gas. I will begin by considering the case when the pressure is comparatively high, say of the order of 1/50 mm. At these pressures, though the walls of the tube in front of the kathode were covered with bright phosphorescence and the dark space extended NO. 2037, VOL. 79] right up to the walls of the tube, and was several centi- metres thick, traces of the positive column could be de- tected in the neighbourhood of the anode. I will first take the case where the tube was filled with air. Special pre- cautions were taken to free the air from hydrogen; it was carefully dried, and a subsidiary discharge-tube, having a kathode made of the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium, was fused on to the main tube. When the discharge passes from such a kathode it absorbs hydrogen. The discharge was sent through this tube at the lowest pressure at which enough light was produced in the gas to give a visible spectrum, until the hydrogen lines disappeared and the only lines visible were those of nitrogen and mercury vapour. This pressure was a little higher than that used for the investigation of the positive rays, but a pump or two was sufficient to bring the pressure down to this value. The appearance of the phosphorescence on the screen when the rays were deflected by magnetic and electric forces separately and conjointly is shown in Fig. 6. The deflection under magnetic force alone is indicated by vertical shading, under electric force alone by horizontal shading, and under the two combined by cross shading. The spot of phosphorescence is drawn out into a band on either side of its original position. ‘The upper portion, which is very much the brighter, is deflected in the direc- tion which indicates that the phosphorescence is produced by rays having a positive charge; the lower portion (in- dicated by dots in the figure), which though faint is quite perceptible on the willemite screen, is deflected as if the rays carried a negative charge. The length of the lower portion is somewhat shorter than that of the upper one, but is quite comparable with it. The intensity of the luminosity in the upper portion is at these pressures quite continuous; no abrupt variations such as would show themselves as bright patches could be detected, although, as will be seen later on, these make their appearance at lower pressures. Considering for the present the upper portion, the straightness of the edges shows that the velocity of the rays is approximately constant, while the values of e/m range from zero at the undeflected portion to the value approxi- mately equal to 10° at the top of the deflected band. This value of e/m is equal to that for a charged hydrogen atom, and, moreover, there was no specially great luminosity in the positions corresponding to e/m=r1o*/14 and 10/16, the values for rays carried by nitrogen or oxygen atoms, though these places were carefully scrutinised. As hydrogen when pre- sent as an impurity in the tube has a ten- dency to accumulate near the kathode, the following experiment was tried to see whether the Kanalstrahlen were produced from traces of hydrogen in the tube. The discharge was sent through the tube in the opposite direc- tion, i.e. so that the perforated electrode was the anode, the electric and magnetic fields 4 being kept on. When the discharge passed in this way there was, of course, no luminosity on the screen; on reversing the coil again, so that the perforated electrode was the kathode, the luminosity flashed out instantly, pre- senting exactly the same appearance as it had done when the tube had been running for some time with the per- forated electrode as kathode. The fact that a spot of light produced by the undeflected positive rays is under the action of electric and magnetic forces drawn out into a continuous band was observed by W. Wien, who was the first to measure the deflection of the positive rays under electric and magnetic forces. The values of e/m obtained from the deflections of various parts of this band range continuously from zero, the value corre- sponding to the undeflected portion, to 10°, the value corresponding to those most deflected. Wien explained this by the hypothesis that the charged particles which make up the positive rays act as nuclei, round which molecules of the gas through which the rays pass condense, so that very complex systems made up of a very large number of molecules get mixed up with the particles form- ing the positive rays, and that it is these heavy and cumbrous systems which give rise to that part of the ' luminosity which is only slightly deflected. I think that NovEMBER 12, 1908] NAT OF. 55 the constancy of the velocity of the rays, indicated by the straight edges of the deflected band, is a strong argument against this explanation, and that the existence of the negative rays is conclusive against it. These negatively electrified rays, which form the faintly luminous portion of the phosphorescence indicated in Fig. 6, are not kathode rays. The magnitude of their deflection shows that the ratio of e/m for these rays, instead of being as great as 1-7X10', the value for kathode rays, is less than 10'. The particles forming these rays are thus comparable in size with those which form the positive rays. The exist- ence of these negatively electrified rays suggests at once an explanation, which | think is the true one, of the con- tinuous band into which the spot of phosphorescence is drawn out by the electric and magnetic fields. The values of e/m which are determined by this method are really the mean values of e/m, while the particle is in the electric and magnetic fields. If the particles are for a part of their course through these fields without charge, they will not during this part of their course be deflected, and in consequence the deflections observed on the screen, And consequently the values of e/m, will be smaller than if the particle had retained its charge during the whole of its career. Thus, suppose that some of the particles con- stituting the positive rays, after starting with a positive charge, get this charge neutralised by attracting to them a negatively electrified corpuscle, the mass of the cor- puscle is so small in comparison with that of the particle constituting the positive ray that the addition of the particle will not appreciably diminish the velocity of the positive particle. Some of these neutralised particles may get positively ionised again by collision, while others may get a negative charge by the adhesion to them of another corpuscle, and this process might be repeated during the course of the particle. Thus there would be among the rays some which were for part of their course unelectrified, at other parts positively electrified, and at other parts negatively electrified. Thus the mean value of e/m might have all values ranging from a, its initial value, to —a’, where a’ might be only a little less than a. This is just what we observe, and when we remember that the gas through which the rays are passing is ionised, and con- tains a large number of corpuscles, it is, I think, what we should expect. At very low pressures, when there are very few ions in the gas, this continuous band stretching from the origin is replaced by discontinuous patches. Positive Rays in Hydrogen. In hydrogen, when the pressure is not too low, the brightness of the phosphorescent patch is greater than in air at the same pressure; the shape of the deflected phos- phorescence is markedly different from that in air. In air, the deflected phosphorescence is usually a_ straight band, whereas in hydrogen the boundary of the most ‘deflected side is distinctly curved and is concave to the undeflected position. The appearance of the deflected phosphorescence is indicated in Fig. 7. The result indicated in Fig. 8, which was also obtained with hydrogen, shows that we have here a mixture of two bands, as indicated in Fig. 4, the two bands being produced by carriers having different maximum values of e/m. The greatest value of e/m obtained with hydrogen was the same as in air, 1-2x10', the velocity was 18x10° cm. per sec. The presence of the second band indicates that mixed with these we have another set of NO. 2037, VOL. 79] carriers, for which the maximum value e/m is half that in the other band, i.e. 5xX10°%. The curvature of the boundary generally observed is due to the admixture of these two rays. Positive Rays in Helium. In helium the phosphorescence is bright, and the de- flected patch has in general the curved outline observed in hydrogen. I was fortunate enough, however, to find a stage in which the deflected patch was split up into two distinct bands, as shown in Fig. 9. The maximum value of e/m in the band a was I-2X10*, the same as in air and hydrogen, and the velocity was 1-8x10%, while the maximum value of e/m in band b was almost exactly one quarter of that in a (t.e. 2.9x10°). As the atomic weight of helium is four times that of hydrogen, this result indicates that the carriers which produce the band b are atoms of helium. This result is interest- ing, because it is the only case (apart from hydrogen) in which I have found values of e/m corresponding to the atomic weight of the gas; and even in the case of helium, when the pressure in the discharge-tube is very low and the electric field very intense, the characteristic rays with e/m=2-9X10° sometimes disappear, and, as in all the gases I have tried, we get two sets of rays, for one set of which e/m=1o0* and for the other 5 X 10°. Although the helium had been carefully purified from hydrogen, the band a (for which e/m=10*) was generally the brighter of the two. The case of helium is an interest- ing one; for the class of positive rays, known as the a rays, which are given off by radio-active substances, would a priort seem to consist most probably of helium, since helium is one of the products of disintegration of these substances. The value of e/m for these substances is 510°, where we have seen that in helium it is possible to obtain rays for which e/m=2-9x10°. It is true that, at very low pressures and with strong electric fields, we get rays for which e/m=5x10°; but this is not a peculiarity of helium; all the gases which I have tried show exactly the same effect. Fic. 9. Argon. When the discharge passed through argon, the effects observed were very similar to those occurring in air. The sides were perhaps a little more curved, and there was a tendency for bright spots to develop. The measurements of the electric and magnetic deflection of these spots gave e/m=10", the value obtained for other cases. There was no appreciable increase of luminosity in the positions corre- sponding to e/m=r1o*/40, as there would have been if an appreciable number of the carriers had been argon atoms. Positive Rays in Gases at very low Pressures. As the pressure of the gas in the discharge-tube is gradually reduced, the appearance of the deflected phos- phorescence changes; instead of forming a continuous band, the phosphorescence breaks up into two isolated patches; that part of the phosphorescence in which the deflection was very small disappears, as also does the phos- phorescence produced by the negatively electrified portion of the rays. In the earlier experiments considerable difficulty was experienced in working at these very low pressures; for when the pressure was reduced sufficiently to get the effects just described, the discharge passed through the tube with such difficulty that in a very few seconds after this stage was reached sparks passed from the inside to the outside of the tube, perforating the glass and destroying the vacuum. In spite of all precautions, such as earthing the kathode and all conductors in its neighbourhood, perfora- tion took place too quickly to permit measurements of the deflection of the phosphorescence. This difficulty was overcome by taking advantage of the fact that, when the kathode is made of a very electro- positive metal, the discharge passes with much greater ease than when the kathode is made of aluminium or platinum. 56 The electropositive metals used for the kathode were.:— (1) the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium, which was smeared over the kathode, and (2) calcium, a thin plate of which was affixed to the front of the kathode. With these kathodes, the pressure in the tube could be reduced to very low values without making the discharge so difficult as to lead to perforation of the tube by sparking, and accurate measurements of the position of the patches of phosphorescence could be obtained at leisure. ' The results: obtained at these low-~ pressures are very interesting. Whatever kind of gas may be used to fill the -tube, or whatever the nature of the electrode, the de- flected phosphorescence splits up into two patches. For one of these patches the maximum value ‘of e/m is about 1o*, the value for the hydrogen atom; while the value for the other patch is about 5x10*, the value for a particles or the- hydrogen molecule. Examples of the appearance of this phosphorescence are given in Figs. 10, 11, and 12. In Fig. 12 the magnetic force was reversed. Hydrogen Helium Air | fone) Fic. 10 Fic. 11. Fic. 12. The differences in the appearance are due to differences in the pressure rather than to differences in the gas; for at slightly higher pressures than that corresponding to Fig. 12, the appearance shown in Figs. 10 and 11 can be obtained in air. In all these cases the more deflected patch corresponds ‘to a value of about 10* for e/m, while e/m for the less deflected patch is about 5 x 10°. It will be noticed that in Fig. 11 there is no trace in the helium tube of rays for which e/m=2-5x10*, which were found in helium tubes at higher pressures; at inter- mediate pressures there are three distinct patches of helium, for the first of which e/m=r1o", for the second e/m=5x10°, and for the third e/m=2-5X10° approxi- mately. Helium is a case where there are characteristic rays—t.e. rays for which e/m=10'/M, where M is the atomic weight of the gas, when the discharge potential is comparatively small, and not when, as at very low pressures, the discharge potential is very large. I think it very probable that, if we could produce the positive rays with much smaller potential differences than those used in these experiments, we might get the characteristic rays for other gases. I am at present investigating with this object the positive rays produced when the perforated kathode is, as in Wehnelt’s method, coated with lime, when a potential difference of 100 volts or less is able to produce positive rays. The interest of the experiments at very low pressures lies in the fact that in this case the rays’ are the same whatever gas may be used. to fill the tube; the characteristic rays of the gas disappear, and we get the same kind of carriers for all substances. I would especially direct attention to the simplicity of the effects produced at these low pressures; only two patches of phosphorescence are visible. This is, I think, an important matter in connection with the interpretation of these results; for at these low pressures we have to deal, not only with the gas with which the tube. was originally filled, but also with the gas which is given off by the electrodes and the walls of the tube during the discharge; and it might be urged that at these low pressures the tube contained nothing but hydrogen given out by the electrodes. I do not think this ‘explanation is feasible, for the following reasons :— (1) The gas developed during the discharge is not wholly hydrogen; if the. discharge is kept passing long enough to develop so much gas that. the discharge through the gas is sufficiently luminous to be observed by a spectro- scope, the spectrum always showed, in addition to the hydrogen lines, the nitrogen bands; indeed, the latter NO. 2037, VOL. 79] NATURE [NOVEMBER 12, 1908” were generally -the most conspicuous. part of the spectrum. lf the phosphorescent. screen -on - which. the. positive. rays impinge -is observed. during. the time this-is being given off, the changes which take place in the. appearance of the screen are as follows :—If, to begin-with, the pressure is so slow-that the phosphorescent-patches-are reduced -to two -bright-.spots, then,-as-the pressure -begins to go up owing - to« the | evolution of -the gas, the deflection of. the spots «increases. . This -is owing. to. the. reduction. inthe velocity.of the rays consequent upon the ‘reduction of the potential -difference -between the terminals of the tube, as at this. stage an increase in the _ pressure facilitates the passage of the discharge.- In addition to the increase in the displacement there -is an increase in the- area of. Pe spots: giving. a greater range of values’ of e/m;.- this. owing to the increase in the number of. collisions made by the particles in. the rays on. their -way to- the. screen. As more:and more ‘gas is. evolved the patches get larger, and finally overlap ; the existence of the second patch being indicated by a diminution-in the brightness of the phos- phorescence at places outside its boundary. As the pressure increases the luminosity gets more. and more continuous, and.we finally get to ‘the continuous band, as shown in Fig. 6. At this stage it is probable that there may be enough luminosity to give a spectrum showing the nitrogen lines, indicating that a-considerable part of the gas in ‘the tube is air. It is especially to be noted that during this process, when gas was coming into the tube, there has been no development of patches in the phosphorescence indicating the presence of new rays; on the contrary, one type ‘of carrier—that corresponding to e/m=5 x 10°—has disappeared. The presence of the nitrogen bands in the spectrum shows that nitrogen is carrying part of the dis- charge, and yet there are no rays characteristic of nitrogen to be observed on the screen, a proof, it seems to me, that different gases may be made by strong electric fields to give off the same kind of carriers of positive electricity. Another result, which shows that the positive rays are the same although the gases are different, is the following. The tube was pumped until the pressure was‘ much too low for the discharge to pass, then small quantities of the following gases were put into the tube :—air, carbonic oxide, hydrogen, helium, neon (for which’ I am indebted to the kindness of Sir James Dewar); the quantity admitted was adjusted so that it was sufficient to cause the discharge to pass, and yet did not raise the pressure beyond the point where the phosphorescence is discontinuous. In every case there were patches corresponding to e/m=10*, e/m=5%X 10°, and except with helium these were the only patches; in helium, in addition to the two already mentioned, there was a third patch, for which e/m=2-5 x 10°. I also tried another method of ensuring that at these low pressures there were other gases besides hydrogen in the tube. I filled the tube with helium, and after exhaust- ing to a fairly low pressure by means of the mercury pump, I performed the last ‘stages of the exhaustion by means of charcoal cooled with liquid air. This charcoal absorbs very little helium in comparison with other gases, so that it is certain that there was helium inthe tube. The appearance’ of the phosphorescent screen of tubes exhausted in this way did not differ from those exhausted solely by the pump. The most obvious explanation of these effects seems to me to be that under very intense electric fields different substances give out particles charged with positive elec- tricity, and that these particles are independent of the nature of the gas from which they originate. These particles are, so far as we know at present, of two kinds; for one kind e/m-has the value of 10‘, that of an atom of hydrogen; for the other kind e/m has half this value, i.e. it has the same value as for the a@ particles from radio- active substances. This agreement in the maximum value of e/m at different pressures is a proof that this is a true maximum, and that there are not other more deflected rays not strong enough to produce visible phosphorescence ; for if this were the case—i.e. if the value of e/m for a particle that had never lost its charge temporarily by collision were greater than 104—we should expect to get larger values for e/m at low pressures than at high. NoveEMBER 12, 1908] NATURE oe ee SEE eee UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Tue New York correspondent of the Times announces that Dr. Charles W. Eliot’s resignation of the presidency of Harvard University will take effect in May next. Miss Hottanp WreN has been appointed by the council of the Pharmaceutical Society demonstrator in the society’s School of Pharmacy. This is the first time a woman has been appointed to such a position since the school was established more than sixty years ago. THE current number of Child Study, the journal of the Child Study Society, which is published quarterly, contains an article by Dr. Alex. Morgan, principal of the Provincial Training College, Edinburgh, on child study in relation to the training of teachers. a tendency to over-estimate the practical utility at the pre- sent time of psychology in education, and though he hopes | the time will come when we shall have a scientific pedagogy founded entirely on a scientific psychology, he is of opinion that this day is not imminent. Ir is stated in the Pioneer Mail that Mr. Chinubhai Madhowlal has given four lakhs of rupees in 33 per cent. Government securities to be applied by the Government towards the development of science teaching in Ahmedabad, in connection, if possible, with the proposed Curline Insti- tute in Bombay. The Governor, in acknowledging the gift, is reported to have said that the response to his appeal for means to develop science teaching in the Presi- dency is far more generous than he had dared to hope, and the splendid benefactions, amounting to eighteen lakhs, prove alike the large-hearted patriotism of the givers and aes recognition of one of India’s greatest educational needs. THE Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc- tion for Ireland has re-published in pamphlet form an article by Mr. A. E. Easthope, principal of the technical schools and organising secretary for technical instruction in the county of Louth, on technical instruction in Dun- dalk. The article originally appeared in the department’s Journal (vol. viii., No. 4). This is the sixth of a short series of articles on recently established Irish technical schools. The Municipal Technical School, Dundalk, is housed in a new building specially erected for the purpose, and Mr. Easthope’s description and the illustrations of various departments of the school serve admirably to illus- trate the progress being made in this department of Irish education. Tue report for the year ending on June 30 last of Mr. Charles Madeley, director and librarian for the Warrington Museum Committee, shows that the educational work in | connection with the museum continues to be developed. There was during the year a notable increase in the number of accessions to the museum. Continued interest is taken in the wild-flower table, which is a distinctive feature of the work done at Warrington. The average number of species on view during July to October was 175, the maxi- mum, 200 species, being reached on September 4. In the autumn the flowers were succeeded by fruits and seeds. Personal observation has proved that the number of persons making regular visits for the purpose of studying these plant specimens is on the increase, and the number of inquiries for botanical information continues to grow. Additions have also been made to the specially arranged educational exhibits, particularly in the botanical gallery and the department of invertebrate animals. It is to be hoped that the authorities of more provincial museums may follow the example of Warrington and make their exhibits serve an educational purpose of a definite kind. Tue calendar of University College (University of London) for the session 1908-9 has just been issued. It contains many new features. The outline of the history of the college, by Dr. Carey Foster, has been revised and brought up to date. The calendar also contains a set of plans that show more completely than before the uses to which the extension of buildings is being put. The new buildings have resulted in extended accommodation for the libraries, for the faculty of arts, for the departments of geology, hygiene, experimental psychology, and for each NO. 2037, VOL. 79] Dr. Morgan thinks there is | | which has been made. of the departments of the faculty of engineering. The calendar also contains a section setting forth in’ full the arrangements for post-graduate courses of lectures and the facilities for research work. The regulation with regard to admission is as follows :—‘‘ On the recommendation of the professor of any department, any student qualified to undertake research work may be admitted to the college for the purpose of undertaking such work. Each student so admitted shall pay in the office a registration fee of il. 1s. per session, and such other fee (if any) as the regulations of the department may require, and shall bear the cost (if any) of his work.’? It appears from the summary of students that there were no fewer than 229 post-graduate and research students in the college last session. Tue annual general meeting of the Association of Teachers in Technical Institutions was held on November 7 at St. Bride’s Institute, Bride Lane, London. In moving the adoption of the report, Mr. Charles Harrap, the presi- dent, congratulated the members on the steady progress He went on to say it is time there was a technical college for training teachers. No one knows better than the members of the association how difficult it is to get competent technical handicraft teachers —men who have worked at the trade and know how to teach it. Such men, when found, deserve the best treat- ment from authorities in order that they may be retained for the benefit of technical instruction generally. Among the difficulties which have to be overcome if English technical education is to be successful is the necessity of obtaining the concurrence of both employers and employees in any scheme intended to substitute trade-school training for part or whole apprenticeship. The London County Council has been able to form two consultative committees, one for the bookbinding and another for the printing trades, each committee consisting of three employers, three representatives of the employees, and three London County Council nominees. One of these committees has completed its preliminary work, and in due course an experimental school is to be tried where lads can undergo a proper preparatory training for the trade. The youths will generally be selected by scholarship tests, and may enter the preparatory trade training school from 123 years of age. The newly elected president of the association is Mr. J. Wilson, head of the chemical department, Battersea Polytechnic, S.W., who has acted as honorary secretary of the association since its formation in 1904. His successor in that office is Mr. P. Abbott, head of the mathematical department, Regent Street Polytechnic, London, W. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, June 25.—‘‘Eutectics Research, No I. The Alloys of Lead and Tin.’’ By Walter Rosenhain, with P. A. Tucker. Communicated by Dr. R. T. Glaze- brook, F.R.S. Attempts to prepare pure eutectic alloys led to the dis- covery of discrepancies between the authors’ experiments and the data on lead-tin alloys published by Roberts- Austen. The present paper contains an account of the complete re-determination of the equilibrium diagram of the lead-tin series. The eutectic point is now placed at 63 per cent. of tin, and the eutectic line ends, towards the lead end of the series, at 16 per cent. of tin, while a series of transformations in the solid alloys, with a maximum temperature lying at 150° C., has been dis- covered. By the aid of levigated oxide of chromium the alloys have been polished for microscopic examination, and this has enabled the authors to decide many points with greater accuracy. For the purposes of microscopic examination, and also for cooling-curve purposes, SpeCi- mens of the alloys were kept at temperatures of 175° C. for periods up to six weeks, and some were quenched in liquid air. Cooling and heating curves ranging down to —180° C. were also taken. By these means it was shown that the transformation above mentioned consists in a change in the solid solution of tin in lead, which passes from a B into an a condition, at the same time rejecting tin from solution. 58 — NATURE The structures observed in lead-tin eutectic alloys are described in detail, and evidence is given for the view that this alloy consists of an aggregate of spherulitic crystals. The authors have also examined the structure of ‘‘alloys’’ prepared by the compression of powders (Spring’s method), and have found them to consist of aggregates of the original particles in an unchanged con- dition. “The Boiling Point of Sulphur on the Constant Pressure Air Thermometer.’?’ By N. Eumorfopoulos. Communicated by Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S. The experiments described in this paper were carried out with a view to the re-determination of the boiling point of sulphur, the value (444°-53) previously obtained by Callendar and Griffiths being open to some doubt. The air thermometer, made of Jena glass 16III., is substantially that described by Callendar (Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. 1., p. 247), except that the final adjustment of pressure is made with the help of an oil gauge. The formula to be used with this thermometer is shown to take a simple form, the necessary corrections being small. In particular, the uncertainty of the temperature of the ‘‘dead space’’ is eliminated by means of com- pensated tubes. The sensitiveness of the oil gauge is given for different temperatures, and its diminution with rise of temperature shown to have little practical importance. All the volume determinations are made with mercury. The expansion of the bulb was obtained by treating it as a weight thermometer, observations being made at 0°, 1oo°", and 184°. If the Regnault-Broch formula for the expansion of mercury is taken, the experiments lead to the following expression for the coefficient of expansion of the glass, {2 3868 + 4°20(¢— 100)}1079, but with Chappuis’s value to {24254 + 23°47(¢— 100)}107*. Reasons are given for preferring the former value, thus suggesting that the true value for the coefficient of expansion of mercury is still unknown. The boiling point of sulphur was determined directly on the air thermometer; the mean of the eleven values obtained is, at normal pressure, 443°-62. The changes of volume of the bulb when heated in sulphur vapour were a source of trouble and some un- certainty, although the bulb had been previously annealed for many hours. “Note on the Boiling Point of Sulphur.”? By H. L. Callendar, F.R.S. One of the chief difficulties in the accurate determina- tion of high temperatures by means of the gas thermo- meter is the uncertainty of the correction for the expansion of the bulb. The whole correction may amount to as much as 5° C. at 445° C. (the boiling point of sulphur) or 30° C. at 1000° C. The uncertainty of the correction is due to the fact that it cannot be directly determined, but must be inferred from observations of the linear expansion of the material of the bulb, or from observations with a mer- cury weight thermometer, in which the expansion of mercury is assumed. There are obvious objections to assuming that the cubical coefficient of expansion of an asymmetrical bulb is three times the linear. The method of the mercury weight thermometer would be theoretically perfect but for the fact that the temperature range available is somewhat restricted, and that the absolute expansion of mercury is more or less uncertain. The extrapolation of the observa- tions beyond 300° C. is attended with some uncertainty, and the differences of the formule proposed to represent the expansion of mercury, though inconsiderable at low temperatures, become important when extrapolated. The value of the boiling point of sulphur hitherto assumed as the basis of the platinum scale of temperature, namely, Prof. 444°-53 C., depends on the determination of the correction by _the linear expansion method alone. It appeared desirable to corroborate this result by the weight thermo- meter method. i ; With this obiect. Mr. Eumorfopoulos undertook a series of observations with NO. 2037, VOL. 79] a very delicate gas thermometer of | { NOVEMBER 12, 1908" Jena glass, the bulb of which was fitted to serve also as a mercury weight thermometer. The results of the several independent series of observations agreed among them- selves to less than a tenth of a degree at the boiling point of sulphur, but differed by about 2° C. in the absolute value of the boiling point according as the formula of Regnault or that of Chappuis was adopted for the ex- pansion of mercury. The value, according to Regnault’s formula, was 443°-6 C., but it was 445°-8 C. according to the formula of Chappuis. Arrangements have in the meantime been made for the re-determination of the absolute expansion of mercury at the Royal College of Science, and it is hoped that the results of this work, which will be applicable to the reduction of previous observations, such as those of Mr. Eumorfopoulos, will reduce materially the present uncertainty. ““The Spectrum of Scandium and its Relation to Solar Spectra.’’ By Prof. A. Fowler. Communicated by Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. The greater part of this investigation of the spectrum of scandium under different experimental conditions has been based on purified scandia, generously placed at the author’s disposal by Sir William Crookes. The principal results are as follows :— (1) The arc spectrum of scandium consists of two dis- tinct sets of lines, which behave very differently in solar spectra. Each set includes both strong and faint lines. (2) Lines belonging to one set correspond with the enhanced lines of other elements, notwithstanding that they appear strongly in the ordinary arc spectrum :—(a) these lines are very feeble or missing from the arc-flame spectrum, and are strengthened in passing to the arc, the are in hydrogen, or the spark; (b) they occur as relatively strong lines in the Fraunhofer spectrum; (c) they are weakened in the sun-spot spectrum; (d) they occur as high-level lines in the chromosphere. (3) The remaining lines show a great contrast when compared with the first group:—(a) they are relatively strong lines in the arc flame; (b) they 2 e very feebly re- presented in the Fraunhofer spectrum; (c) the stronger lines are prominent in the sun-spot spectrum ; (d) they have not been recorded in the spectrum of the chromosphere. (4) The special development of the enh/nced lines in the Fraunhofer spectrum, together with their presence in the upper chromosphere, indicates that the greater part of the scandium absorption in the solar spectrum originates at a higher level than that at which the greater part of the iron absorption is produced. (5) The discussion of scandium lines indicates that while in the case of some elements solar identifications are to be based chiefly on arc lines, in others it is the enhanced lines which may be expected to show the most important coincidences. (6) The flutings which occur in the arc and are flame do not appear when the are is passed in an atmosphere of hydrogen. As suggested by Thalén, they are probably due to oxide of scandium. Tables are given which show the lines of the are spec- trum from 3930 to 6580, the positions of the oxide flutings, and comparisons of the principal lines of the two classes with the sun, sun-spots, and chromosphere. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, November 2.—Prof. A. Gray, vice-presi- dent, in the chair.—Temperature observations on Loch Garry: E. M. Wedderburn. The observations were made during the first seven months of 1908 by means of reversing mercury thermometers, and led to the following general results :—(1) the observations give a complete series for the time of year during which the lake is gaining heat, so that comparisons may be made between Loch Garry, of com- paratively small size, and Loch Ness, of much larger size; (2) they show the apparently fortuitous manner in which freezing may take place in the larger temperate lakes; (3) they show how strong winds have the effect of pro- ducing currents at considerable depths; (4) they prove that the formation of the discontinuity temperature layer in a lake occurs whenever the surface layer begins to cool; (5) they establish the existence of a temperature seiche in small temperate lakes like I.och Garry, and show that NOVEMBER 12, tgo% | NMALOREL 39 this temperature oscillation may exist even when the dis- continuity is not pronounced. The attempts to measure the ordinary seiche in Loch Garry were not very successful, the seiches being irregular and difficult to measure. The periods indicated were 10-5-11-1 minutes for the uninodal and about 5-5 minutes for the binodal——The discharge of water from circular weirs and orifices: G. H. Gulliver. The elliptic integral which gives the discharge was com- puted graphically, and the results compared with experi- ment. Curves were drawn showing the relation between the discharge and the head. The observational and theoretical curves were of the same form, and were prac- tically straight for heads between the centre and top of the circular aperture. This suggests that a circular weir, if kept more than half full yet not completely drowned, might be usefully employed in gauging streams. With the orifice of 2} inches diameter used in the experiments, the discharge in gallons per minute was given by the formula 11H—o-8, where H is the head in inches above the lowest point of the orifice.—Dissymmetrical separations in the Zeeman effect in tungsten and molybdenum: Dr. Robert Jack. The relative intensities of the components of a Zeeman triplet depend upon polarisation effects of the grating in relation to the polarised state of the light. The experiments showed that concurrently with the change in the intensities of triplets for different parts of the spec- trum there is a change in the type of dissymmetry. As the middle component passes through its minimum value there is a change from the normal dissymmetry (middle component nearer the red side component) to the abnormal dissymmetry (middle component nearer the violet side com- ponent). The dissymmetry could not be entirely accounted for by the angular position between the lines of the grating and the planes of vibration of the components. Voigt’s theory based on the presence of couplings between elec- trons of different vibration period seemed to explain the phenomena sufficiently—A question in absorption spectro- scopy: Dr. R. A. Houstoun and A. S. Russell. The question is as to th> effect of mixing two coloured solu- tions upon the absorption spectrum of each. Observations by Melde, Bostwick, Kriiss, and Formdnek seemed to indicate a shift cf the absorption bands; but Schuster pointed out that a shift of this nature would be observed if, instead of mixing, the one solution was placed behind the other. Any other change indicated by theory would be too small to be appreciable. The experiments described in this paper were made by a differential method, so that the effect with the solutions in line, but not mixed, could be immediately compared with the effect when they were mixed. The conclusion come to was that there is no evidence for the existence of an effect of the kind described by the experimenters named above. Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 2,—M. Emile Picard in the chair.—Spectroscopic researches on the Morehouse comet, 1908c: H. Deslandres and A. Bernard. The observations were commenced on October 14, ten days after those of La Baume-Pluvinel. Owing to the abnormal proportion of the blue to the ultra-violet rays, this comet, which was by eye observations of the sixth magnitude, appeared photographically of a higher magnitude. No trace of the hydrocarbon bands usual with comets could be detected; a continuous spectrum appeared on all the plates from October 14 onwards, but its intensity is relatively less than in the Daniel comet of last year. A table is given showing the wave-lengths and intensities of the principal condensations of the nucleus. Two ultra- violet bands of the cyanogen group are present, together with some lines of unknown origin, previously observed in Daniel’s comet.—The pumice of the volcanic massif of Mont-Dore: A. Lacroix.—The value of the invariant p for a class of ,algebraic surfaces: L. Remy.—The influence of pressure on the ionisation produced in gases by the X-rays. The saturation current: E. Rothe. A study of the influence of pressure on ionisation pheno- mena in general. From pressures of 0-1 to 0-5 atmosphere the intensity of the saturation current is proportional to the pressure. The precautions found necessary for the regular working of the Crookes’s tube are detailed.—Com- NO. 2037, VOL. 79] pensation electrometers and electroscopes: M. Hurmu~- zescu. The apparatus described, and of which a diagram is given, is capable of measuring potentials down to o-o1 volt.—An apparatus for receiving radio-telegraphic time signals on board ship: C. Tissot and Félix Pellin. A thermoelectric detector is employed, capable of respond- ing to waves of one determined wave-length only.—A new determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat: V. Crémieu and L. Rispail. The heat produced was measured at constant temperature in a Bunsen ice calori- meter, the recent determinations of M. Leduc on the densities of the ice and water being used. The mean value obtained for J was 4-1851x10’ ergs, with an experimental error of less than 1/1500.—The separation of tungstie acid and silica; Paul Nicolardot. The method is based on the volatilisation of the tungsten by heating the mixture of tungstic acid and silica to 440° C. im a current of partially dried air and chloroform vapour.—The determina- tion of the atomic weight of the simple ponderable sub- stance, pantogen: G. D. Hinrichs. A fundamental material, pantogen, of atomic weight 1/128, or 0-007813, is assumed, and a theory developed of the weight and geometrical form of the atoms of hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, and fluorine.—The phosphides of zinc: Pierre Jolibois. Zinc and red phosphorus were heated to a red heat in a crucible until phosphorus vapours ceased to be evolved. The resulting phosphide was separated from the excess of zinc by three methods :—the volatilisa- tion of the zinc in a vacuum at 600° C., the solution o% the zinc in mercury, and the action of fuming nitric acid. The same phosphide is left by all three methods of separa- tion, and its composition corresponds to the formula Zn,P,. This phosphide with dilute hydrochloric acid gives a very pure phosphoretted hydrogen. The preparation and properties of ZnP, are also described.--The hydrolysis of perchloride of iron; the influence of neutral salts: G. Malfitano and L. Michel. Solutions of ferric chloride to which potassium chloride has been added present the phenomena of the colloidal state more rapidly and to a greater degree than solutions of pure ferric chloride. Other chlorides (sodium, barium, ammonium, magnesium): behave in a similar manner.—Aloesol, a complex phenol prepared with the aid of certain aloes: E. Léger. The tetrachloro-derivative of a new phenol is obtained by the action of hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate on Cape aloes.—The fixation of different derivatives of the same colouring matter, and an explanation of dyeing : L. Pelet- Jolivet and N. Andersen. The experiments cited confirm the theory of dyeing of Freundlich and Loser.—Glycocholic acid: Maurice Piettre. The method described is capable of giving a yield of 60 per cent. to 75 per cent. of the bile as glycocholic acid, and the product is not con- taminated with taurocholic acid, an advantage over the usual methods of separation. The chemical and physical properties of the purified acid are given, together with the results of some experiments on the toxic power of sodium glycocholate.—The colloidal properties of starch and the unity of its constitution: Eugéne Fouard.—The oidium of the oak: Paul Hariot. This disease of the oak has become widely distributed in France during the last year, and the dry north-east winds appear to have contributed to the spreading. All the native trees may be attacked, but the American oak appears to be immune.—The discovery of coal in Madagascar by Captain Coleanap: Marcellin Boule. Layers of coal, of a thickness of 0-3 to 0-5 metre, have been discovered in the neighbourhood of Bénénitra.—Report of the wireless telegraphy committee of the Acddemy of Sciences: Bouquet de ta Grye. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, NoveMBER 12. Royat Society, at 4.30.—The Charges on Ions in Gases, and the Effect of Water Vapour on the Motion of Negative Ions: Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S.—The Charges on Tons preduced by Radium: C. E. Haselfoot. —The Occlusion of the Residual Gas and the Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes’s Tubes : A. A. Campbell Swinton.—An Investigatiorm on the Anatomical Structure and Relationships of the Labyrinth in the Reptile, the Bird and the Mammal: Dr. A. A. Gray-—The Natural Mechanism for Evoking the Chemical Secretion of the Stomach (Prelim- inary Communication) : Dr. J. S. Edkins and Miss M. Tweedy.—Further 60 Observations on Welwitschia: Prof. H. H. W. *Pearson.—On the Presence of Hzemo agglutinins, Hemo-opsonins and Hamo-ly-ins in the Blood obtained from Infectious and Non-Infectious Diseases in Man (Preliminary Report): L. S. Dudgeon.—Preliminary Note on ‘the Occurrence of a New Variety of ‘I'rypanosomiasis on the. Island of Zanzibar: A. Edington. » MatHematicaL Society, at 5.30 (Annual General Meeting).—On the Theory of Groups of Finite Order (Presidential Address): Prof.W. Burn- side. —On the Dirichlet Series and Asymptotic Expansion of Integral Functions of Zero Order: J. E. Littlewood.—The Norm Curves ona Given Base: Prof. F. Morley.—Satellite Curves on a Plane Cubic: J. O'Sullivan.—On the Arithmetical Nature of the Coefficients in a Group of Linear Substitutions (Third Paper): Prof. W. Burnside. —On the Second Mean Value Theorem of Integral Calculus: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—On the Representation of a Function by Means of a Series of Legendre’s Func- tions: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—The Conformal Transformations of a Space of Four Dimensions and their Applications to Geometrical Optics: H Bateman.—Periodic Properties of Partitions: D. M. Y. Sommerville.— The Solution of Integral Equations: Prof. A. C. Dixon.—The Eliminant of Three Quantics in Two Independent Variables: A. L Dixon —A Note on the Continuity cr Discontinuity of a Function defined by an Infinite Product: G. H. Hardy.—The Energy and Momentum of an Ellipsoidal Electron : F. B. Pidduck.-On q-Integration: Rev. F. H. Jackson.—On 4-Transformations of Power Series; Rey. F. H. Jackson.—The Complete Solution in Integers of the Eulerian Equation X4+ Y4=U4+ V4: Dr. T. Stuart.—An Asymptotic Formula for the Generalised Hypergeometric Series: T. J. l’A. Bromwich. FRIDAY, NovEMBER 13. PuysicaL Society, at 8. Matvacorocicar Society, at 8.—Note on Diflommatinastrubelli, Smith: E. A. Smith.—The Radulz of British Helicids, Part ii: Rev. E. W. Bowell.—New Marine Mollusca from New Caledonia, &c. : G. B. Sowerby. —New Species of Macrochlamys and Monocondylwa from Siam: H. B. Preston.—A New Species of Oliva: F. G. Bridgman. Royat ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.30.—Huxley Lecture: The European Population ».f the United States : Ripley. Royat AsTRONOMICAL SociETY, at 5.—The Short-Period Variable W Urse Majoris : J. M. Baldwin.—On the Inclination of the Planes of some Spiral Nebulz to the Galaxy : H. Knox Shaw.—Observations of Jupiter during the Apparition of 1907-8: Rev. T. E. R. Phillips.—Calendar Dates in the Aramaic Papyri from Assuan: J. K. Fotheringham.—On the Photographs of Comet 1908 ¢ Morehouse: E. Barnard.—Observations of Minor Planets from Photographs taken with the 30-inch Reflector, 1907: Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—The Tutal Solar Eclipse of 1911, April 28: A M. W. Downing.—The Comet of 1556 ; its Possible Breaking-up by an Unknown Planet into Three Parts, seen in 1843, 1880, and 1882: Prof. George Forbes.—On the Oid Observations of Jupiter's Satellites : Prof. R. A. Sampson.—An Improved Telescope Triple Object Glass: J. W. Gifford.—Real Paths of Brilliant Meteors Observed in 1908: W. F. Denning.—(1) Photographs of Comet c 1g08 ; (2) Note on the Telegraphic Determination of the Longitude Greenwich-Ascension-Cape, in the Year 1908 ; (3) Note onthe Appearance of Saturn’s Rings, 1908 (ctober : Royal Observatory, Greenwich.—Note on the Regnal Years in the Aramaic Papyri from Assuan: E. B. Knobel.—(1) Historical Data for the Secular Acceleration of the Moon: (2) Oppoizer’s and Ginzel’s Corrections to Hansen: J. K. Fotheringham.—Prvdable Papers: On the Absorption of Light in its Passage through Interstellar Spac 2) Note on the Number of Faint Stars with Large Proper Motions : Prof. H. H. Turner.—The Klagstaff Photographs of Mars in 1907 : E. M. Antoniadi.— IIlustrations of Recent Work on Solar Vortices: Prof. G. E. Hale. Memorial Prof. W. Z. MONDAY, November 16. Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SociETy, at 8.30.—Some Aspects of the River Parana, and its Watershed : an Economic Survey : W. S. Barclay. TUESDAY, NoveMBER 17. ZooLoGicat Society, at 8.30. Roya STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 5. MINERALOGICAL Society, at 8.—On a New Method for Studying the Optical Properties of Crystals : the late Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.—Note on the Spontaneous Crystallisation of Drops of Solutions in Spherulites: M. Jacques Chevalier.—On the Composition of the Chandakapur Meteoric Stone: H. E. Clarke and H. L. Bowman.—On Micas from North Wales and Connemara: Dr. A. Hutchinson and W. Campbell Smith.—On the Occurrence of a Rare Mineral, Carminite in Cornwall: Arthur Russell.— On Russian Universal Instruments and Methods: T. V. Barker. INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion; Glasgow Central Station Extension: D. A. Matheson. WEDNESDAY, NovemMsBeER 18. Royar Society or Arts, at 8.—Inaugural Address by Sir William White, K.C.B., F.R.S. Geo.ocical. Society, at 8.—The Geological Interpretation of the Earth- Movements Associated with the Californian Earthquake of April 18, rg06: R. D. Oldham.—On some Intrusive Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Eskdale, Cumberland: A. R. Dwerryhouse. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8. Rovat Microscopicat Society, at 8.—The Present Status of Micrometry: Dr. Marshall D. Ewell —Note ona New Growing Cell for Critical Obser- vation under the Highest Powers: A. A. C. E. Merlin.—Studeria, a Remarkable New Genus of Alcyonarians: Prof. J. A. Thomson. RovaL METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 7.30.—Twenty-fifth Anniversary of the German Meteorological Society held at Hamburg, September 28-30, 1908 : Henry Harries.—Investigation of the Electrical State of the Upper Atmosphere made at the Howard Estate Observatory, Glossop: W. Makower, Mz ret White and E. Marsden.—Balloon Observations made ze Birdhill, Co. Limerick, during July and August, 1508: Capt. C. H. ey. NALTORE [ NovEMBER 12, 1908 THURSDAY, November 19. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers.—Memoir on the Theory of the Partitions of Numbers. Part IV. : On the Probability that the Successful Candidate at an Election by Ballot may Never at any Time have Fewer Votes than the One who is Unsucressful; on a Generalisation of this Question ; and on its Connection with other Questions of Partition, Per- mutation, and Combination: Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.—Th Propagation of Groups of Waves in Dispersive Media, with App’ i to Waves on Water produced by a ‘Iravelling Disturbance: Havelock.—On the Refraction and Dispersion of Krypton and Xenon and their Relation to those of Helium and Argon: C. Cuthbertson and M. Cuthbertson.— Note on Horizontal Receivers and Transmitters in Wireless Telegraphy: Prof. H. M. Macdonald, F.R.S.—On Optical Dispersion Formula: R. C. Maclaurin.—(1) On the Accumulation of Helium in Geological Time: (2) On Helium in Saline Minerals and its Probable Connection with Potassium: Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R.S.—Note on the Effect of Hvdrogen on the Discharge of Negative Electricity from Hot Platinum: Prof. H. A. Wilson, F.R.S.—On Measurement of Rotatory Dispersive Power in the Visible and Ultra-violet Regions of the Spectrum : Dr. T. Martin Lowry. CHEMICAL SocIETY, at 8.30. Linnean Society, at 8.—Ona New Species, Symphyla. from the Hima- layas: Prof. A. D. Imms.—The Freshwater Crustacea of Tasmania, with Remarks on their Geographical Distribution : Geoffrey Smith. INSTITUTION OF ELEciRICAL. ENGINEERS, at 8.—Inaugural Address by the President: Mr. W. M. Mordey. FRIDAY, NovEMBER 20. OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The E. Stanton and L. Bairstow.—Different F. W. Harbord. INSTITUTION Materials to Impact: Dr. I. Methods of Impact Testing on Notched Bars : CONTENTS. A) History of the Earthy By VV. G. >. oe meen Science and the Daily Press. ByG.F.D. .... 31 Mhe Great Pyramidos ByavVeeMiagh).b. am.) aee ener mhe Anthracite of, SouthwVWWialesiee-.. .) .itcigeunenl Vitalism.’ (By J. Assi ee memes tec o,f Our Book Shelf :— Arnoux: ‘‘ Arithmétique graphique. Les Espaces arithmétiques; leurs Transformations.” — Dr. 1. /N.'G. Bilont guia cteaiee ities) >) <1 et -areen Bryce, Teacher, and Kerr: ‘‘ Contributions to the Study of the Early Development and Imbedding of the uman Ovum 7 sae ote) |e Schultze): “GraphiceAlwebraies sas.) car). aces Letters to the Editor :— The Origin of Advent, and other Three Weeks’ Celebrations.—Rev. John Griffith. ...... 36 Women and the Chemical Society.—Ida Smedley and M. A. Whiteley . te . 37 Mercury Bubbles. —Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. 37 November Meteors. —W. F. Denning; John R. enry nei el ee Te! ct) Sy The Keeping of Young Herring Alive in Captivity. — Richard Elmhirst ... i erent 38 Lime Light.—Charles E. S. Phillips ...... 38 Albrecht von Haller. (J///ustrated.) By E. A. S. 38 Caisson Disease: \(Z//estrateda\ye 2 os =) uO The Diet of The Hindus sBysWa DH. (> sree The Spectra of the Major Planets. (///ustrated.) By erof, Percival Lowellieesges sim.) « 9-. 1 emcee cl Notes PS ke Oe Our Astronomical Column :— Comet Morehouse, 1908¢ 4. oA eae Donati’s Comet and the Comet of 69 B.C. ... . 48 Terrestrial Electricity and Solar Activity. ..... 48 The ‘‘ Astronomischen Gesellschaft ” at Vienna... 48 New Catalogues of Proper Motions . ...... 48 The International Congress on Tuberculosis at Washington ..._. BE os, <3) Roa Captain Devoir’s Archeological Researches in Brittany. (W7th Map.) ew so. oy aera nate neonate Ants and Their Guests. By W. F. Kirby ..... 51 Rays of Positive Electricity. (JZ//ustvated.) By Sir ere bomson, bo See ees 52 University and Educational Intelligence. . ... 57 Societies,and Academies(s)giuei we - =) ee nee 7, DianryaoksSocieties, )\—) pce een nea Resistance of MAT ORE THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 19, _ 1908. GEOLOGY OF CHINA. Research in China. Vol. ii. Systematic Geology. By Bailey Willis. Pp. v+133+v. (Washington : Carnegie Institution, 1907.) iia is difficult to be quite sure for what class of reader this work is intended. The main facts of interest have already appeared in the previous volume, but in this they are discussed from ‘‘ the point of view of systematic continental history.’’ In the present state of knowledge this might seem rather a hopeless un- dertaking, and the result does not dispel our mis- givings; much of the explanatory matter is elemen- tary, and much is merely speculative. The reader’s confidence in the author is somewhat rudely shaken at an early stage, as, for instance, at the close of chapter ii., where, on p. 34, it is first stated that ‘‘ there is room to question what features existed in Central Asia during the Sinian period ’’; six lines further on, owing to the fact that the Sinian strata consist of limestone, this becomes ‘‘ it is a fair inference that practically all Asia draining to the Cambro-Ordovician Sea was low and featureless.’ The next paragraph, however, begins, “The fact that Asia at the opening of the Paleozoic era was a featureless continent has important bear- ings.’’ After this bold identification of fact with inference, it becomes necessary to inquire into the credentials of other so-called facts. One of the most interesting results recorded is the discovery of a giacial till in ancient rocks, said to be Cambrian. Convincing proof is given of the glacial character of this deposit; its age does not seem to be so clearly established. In the present volume we read, “The tillite (sic) passes into a greenish shale . . . including characteristic pebbles. . . . This shale conglomerate . .. grades into the overlying lime- stone, the basal layer of a great thickness of Sinian.”’ But if we turn to vol. i., Blackwelder informs us that ““The Nan-t’ou formation [of which the till is the uppermost member] is limited above by an uneven surface, upon which lies a sheet of conglomerate. The matrix of the conglomerate is a greenish argillaceous limestone and the pebbles are lilke those in the under- lying tillite. The two formations are therefore related by a basal conglomerate, which the till was well calculated to furnish, PS This statement is sufficiently clear, and is accen- tuated by the two diagrams representing the succes- sion of strata given on pp. 264 and 268, in each of which an undulating fine is drawn between the conglomerate and the till. What, then, is in fact the relation of the till to the conglomerate? Do they pass into each other (Willis), or are they separated by an uneven line (Blackwelder)? But, again, is even the asserted age of the conglomerate a fact, or is it an inference? Turning once more to vol. i., we find on p. 269 that the till “lies at the base of the Cambro-Ordovician lime- stone, from which we obtained Lower and Middle Cambrian fossils within less than too miles . NO» 2038; VOL. 7°| 61 of Nan-t’ou. Hence it is highly probable that these glacial beds on the Yang-tzi are of early Cambrian age.” Though the fossils were found only a hundred miles away, we should still have been glad of addi- tional evidence to show that the beds at Nan-t’ou were on one or other of the horizons they indicate. It is of interest to note in passing that since the Sinian formation is equivalent to the Cambrian and Ordovician, it almost precisely corresponds to the Cambrian as defined by Sedgwick. The summit of this formation is said to be on the horizon of the Vrenton or Middle Ordovician; above this ‘it passes by transition into shales which are probably of Silurian or Devonian age.’’ The sug- gested passage by transition of Middle Ordovician into either Silurian or Devonian shales leads to the suspicion that the author uses this term in some esoteric sense. The treatment of the Angara and Gondwana beds is one of the most unsatisfactory chapters in the volume; both series are included under the head of Permo-Triassic strata, while so far as existing observa- tions go, the Gondwana beds begin with the Lower or Middle Carboniferous,’ while the most trustworthy evidence we possess points to a Jurassic age for the Angara. There is an inexactitude also in defining the limits of the Angara beds; they are not confined to the northern region indicated by the author, but extend to Afghanistan and through Turkestan, as Musketow has already pointed out. Students of the geology of India will be surprised to learn that ‘‘ no distinctly sedimentary pre-Cambrian rocks are known there,’’ 7.e. in the peninsula (p. 23), and those who have given attention to ripple marks will scarcely admit that they are to be taken offhand as evidence of *‘ waves ’’ in the common sense of this term (p. 38). The structural trend-lines of Asia seem to be drawn for the most part after the maps of von Richthofen, Suess, Neumayr, and Futterer; it is pleasing to find that the generalisations of these great masters have been almost entirely confirmed by recent investigators. But we see no evidence for the postulated ‘* Isle of Tibet.”’ A region of which the geology is almost unknown naturally offers great temptations to the theorist. There is some internal evidence of hasty writing, such as inaccuracies in translation conveying a rather different sense from that of the original; as an example we may cite the last sentence of the first paragraph (p. 69) from Suess :— “The great height of the ranges is accompanied, however, by a relatively even more striking altitude of the valleys, a circumstance which diminishes the differences of level in the interior of the mountainous regions, but the observer is even thus below the limit of eternal snow.” This is rendered from the French, which runs :— ‘“Lialtitude plus forte des chaines a pour contre- partie une hauteur plus grande des fonds de vallées, ce qui atténue les différences de niveau a |intérieur 1 Neumayr and Waagen concluded in favour of an Upper Carboniferous age Icng ago, and Hayden has since shown that they must lie even lower. D 62 NATURE [ NovEMBER 19, 1908 de Ja région montagneuse, mais l’observeur ne s’en trouve que plus rapproché de la limite des neiges éternelles.”’ The French is a correct translation of the German. The pith of this volume might have been summed up in a single chapter without losing any important contribution to science, and the space so saved might have been devoted to a much-needed bibliography of the subject. The author would not then have com- pletely overlooked the work of the French explorers in Yun-nan. The artistic excellence of the numerous maps by which the volume is illustrated deserves unqualified praise. FLOWERS AND WHAT THEY TEACH. Types of Floral Mechanism. A Selection of Diagrams and Descriptions of Common Flowers. Arranged as an Introduction to the Study of Angiosperms. By Dr. A. H. Church, Part i., Types i.-xii. (January to April). Pp. viit211; with 52 full-page plates (39 coloured) of floral structure, and 79 text-figures. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1908.) Price 21s. net. HE title conveys a very imperfect idea of the nature of this work, which stands apart from all others that have been issued as introductions to the study of botany. The method of teaching botany by a careful investigation of selected types is, in- deed, well known and much employed; but it has never been carried out, in English works at least, with any approach to the thoroughness of study of the types in themselves and in their relations to their environment and to their allies that we find here. The author in a preface informs us that the ad- mirable illustrations were originally prepared for class purposes, limited to a hundred types, of which twelve “Early Spring Types’’ are included in the present volume, and the arrangement and general scheme are designed to represent the working method applicable to the subject. ““No methods are indicated, nor have any been em- ployed in making preparations which are beyond the reach of the ‘elementary student’; and at the same time a general ‘elementary’ acquaintance with the subject on the part of the reader has been assumed. Since it is necessary to draw the line somewhere . and the present work is admittedly of only a general and elementary character, histological details are omitted.”’ The twelve types treated of are, successively, Helle- borus niger, Galanthus nivalis, Jasminum nudiflorum, Crocus Richardia africana, Daphne Meze- odorata, Narcissus Pseudo-narcissus, Erica carnea, Ribes sanguineum, Cydonia japonica, and Vinca major. In the study of such a series, it is evident that there can be no close connection traced by an ‘“ ele- mentary student ’’ between so different types. Thus each becomes the subject of a separate monograph. That on Viola odorata may be taken as an example. A brief general notice of its appearance, habitats, tendency to vary, and production ot cleistogamic flowers is accompanied by footnotes with references NO. 2038, VOL. 79] vernus, reum, Viola to descriptions and figures by Dioscorides, Buiunfels, Gerarde, and other early botanists, and to its names and cultivation in England. Then follow a detailed description of the inflorescence and flower, and a brief notice of the effects of cultivation on the flower. The floral diagram and phyllotaxis are fully discussed and illustrated, as are also the development of the floral members and the ‘* special mechanism ”’ of the flower for securing the reproduction of the species, including the relations with various bees. The cleisto- gamic flowers and the possible origin of this type of flower are then treated of. The various floral ‘‘ monstrosities ’’ are enumer- ated, and are ‘‘ referred to failures in the adjustment of certain features of the floral construction or mechanism.’’ The development and structure of the capsules, their mode of opening, and the structure of the seeds conclude the discussion under I’. odorata. Then follows a ‘*‘ Comparison of Allied Forms,’’ under which six and a half pages are devoted to Viola tri- color, chiefly var. arvensis, and five pages to V. altaica, or ‘*‘ the garden pansy.’’ For each of these a detailed comparison of the structure and mechanism of the several parts brings into view their resem- blances and differences, and their relations with their environment. Although reference is made to the “very variable ’’ V’. tricolor, there is little stress laid on the extent of the tendency to vary, and the opinion is expressed, even with regard to the relations between V. tricolor, V. lutea, and allied alpine forms, that ““no sharp line of demarcation either exists or need be drawn between ‘ specific forms’ which only exist as useful conventions.’? While there is a risk of attaching too high a value to the many forms that have been distinguished and named by critical botan- ists in the genus Viola, as in a good many other genera, it may be questioned whether the author might not have usefully directed the attention of students to the nature and degrees of constancy of the forms so freely met with in the Linnean V. tricolor. The study of the types selected is employed by Dr. Church as a basis for certain ‘* Theoretical Con- clusions ’’ with regard to the origin and development of the genus Viola. The hypothesis is expressed that V. odorata is a ‘‘ highly specialised representative of a shrubby, or even arboreal, plant-phylum,’’ with “panicles of regular flowers, which had already passed from an asymmetrical vegetative type of con- struction to a symmetrical pentamerous condition.” From this a later evolution led to structural eccen- tricity of two phases, and to adaptations of the floral mechanism for visits of certain insects. These con- clusions find support from a study of the genera asso- ciated in the family Violacez, Viola standing out ‘* as the crowning genus of the entire group; the type, that is to say, in which the various modifications of the original construction are present in the greatest number, and combined to make a most efficient form of floral mechanism.’’ The relations of the forms included under the family to types in other families are discussed, and the steps are summarised that led to the definition of the Violaceze as a family. “ce ? “ NoveEMBER 19, 1908] NAT OTE 63 The other eleven types are treated with almost similar fulness, and numerous interesting problems are brought into notice. The arrangements of the floral members (phyllotaxis) in each type receive especial attention, as might be expected from an adept in this subject. Dr. Church has produced a valuable contribution to botanical literature, excellent alike in the text and in the illustrations, and the execution is worthy of the Clarendon Press. If the remaining eighty- eight types are worked out in the same manner as their forerunners, the whole will form one of the most valuable introductions to the study of angiosperms in any language, but there is reason to doubt whether its necessary size and cost, and the thoroughness of the treatment, may not put it out of reach of most “elementary ’’ students of botany. Its value will be more appreciated by teachers and by advanced students; few botanists can fail to benefit from its pages, and no botanical school can afford to neglect so valuable and suggestive a storehouse of informa- tion. There is the more reason to regret that it-is on the heavy, highly glazed paper so trying to many eyes and of very doubtful durability. COTTON WEAVING. By H. B. Heylin. and Co., The Cotton Weaver's Handbook. Pp. x+326. (London: Charles. Griffin Ltd., 1908.) Price 6s. net. URING the last twenty-five years many excellent books dealing with textile subjects have been published in Germany, America, and England, but in none of them has cotton weaving been treated as Mr. Heytin treats it. His book contains 462 pages, ef which 112 are blank paper, 12 sheets are blank design paper, and 326 pages are of printed matter, the latter being divided as follows:—8 pages are allotted to the index, 30 to a reprint of cotton-weaving examination questions set by the City and Guilds of London Institute, and 36 pages to pictures of textile machinery. On the remaining 252 pages there are upwards of 350 figures, but with the exception of those relating to designs, drafts, and lifting plans, the illustrations are poor. Most of them consist of pictures of machinery and appliances which are of small value to the student, and when, as in this case, they are mainly without reference letters, and inade- quately described, they do little more than add to the size of the book. The following may be taken as examples of the majority of these illustrations. Fig. 350 is a picture of a smallware loom, and the de- scriptive matter consists of ‘‘ There is a separate shuttle for each tape woven.’’ Fig. 357 has letters added to special mechanism, but these are not teferred to. Figs. 273, 274, and 275 are perspective, edge, and plan views of ladder tape, and the only description given is that ‘‘ ladder tape used for Vene- tian blinds is a good example of what may be done by the four-ply system of weaving.’ In the text there is ample evidence of haste. State- ments are repeated again and again, as on pp. 30, 32, and 34, where we are told that the scope for NO. 2038, VOL. 79] | producing a variety of weave effects is in proportion to the number of threads in the repeat of a design. Again, on pp. 16, 18, and. 33, similar repetitions are found concerning broken drafts. That mistakes are very numerous will be seen from the following, which are selected, almost at random, from a long list. On p. 84 it is stated that the ordinary picking motion is ‘‘ put out of action whilst the wire is in- serted to form the warp pile.’’ In these looms the shuttle and the wire are passed through the warp together. The twist tester figured on p. 190 is said to ‘tale out the twist at both ends of the thread simultaneously,’’ whereas it can only untwist from one end. On p. 124, Fig. 294 should read Fig. 296. On the last line of p. 170, /120 should read 4/120, and on p. 225 ‘‘ the slacker will be the top speed ”’ should read ‘‘ the slacker will be the top shed.’’ On p. 214 the calculation for determining the point of connection between the baclx heald cords and the | tappet treadle is wrong, and resolves itself into a calculation to determine the required lift of a for operating the back heald shaft. On p. swing pinion is said to be compounded with a wheel D, and also to gear with the wheel D. Three calcu- lations are given on p. 245; one is without answer, and both the others lack some of the cancelled figures. The chapter on weaves is the best in the book, but since this branch of the subject has been more exhaustively treated by German, American, and British writers than any other, it would perhaps be unreasonable to expect Mr. Heylin to say much that is new concerning them. With regard to the heading of this chapter, it is stated on p. 6 that the term ““weave is sometimes miscalled design ’’; neverthe- less, the latter term is used throughout the books. The chapters on the power loom and its accessories, and on preparing yarn for the loom, are quite inade- quate. Frequent reference is made for details to the frontispiece, which is an unlettered picture of a power loom, and, therefore, affords no means of identifying the parts. To a reader who is familiar with the loom such descriptions as are given are useless, and to others they will be unintelligible. The ‘‘ Costing of Cloth’? precedes the ‘Systems of Naming Yarns,’’ and prices are given in shillings, pence and farthings, instead of in pence and decimals of pence ; also, where yarns are weighed, pennyweights and grains are used instead of grains only. Several pages are occupied with rules and examples for determining the counts of folded yarns, but in no case is the basis of a rule given; further, the problems do not amount to more than the addition, or the subtraction. of fractions, as, sy5+sy+ab=2do and y4s—-sb=a5- An undated market report with official quotations for cotton and yarn occupies five pages. By a thorough revision, and by filling in the blank pages and deleting the examination questions, the subjects named in the contents might be adequately dealt with, but in its present form this book contains so little that is new, and so much that is inexact or that it is difficult to say for whom it is tappet 221 a untrue, suited. 64 ELECTRICAL TESTING. Laboratory and Factory Tests in Electrical Engineer- ing. By George F. Sever and Fitzhugh Townsend. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Pp. xii+269. (London: A. Constable and Co., Ltd. ; New York: D. van Nostrand Co., 1908.) Price ros. 6d. net. T is almost unavoidable that a book on laboratory practice, written by men whose duty it is to plan and superintend the work done by students, must savour somewhat of the instruction sheets which at universities are supplied to the laboratory classes. It is equally unavoidable that such instruction cannot be given in perfectly general terms, but must be adapted more or less to the syllabus in use at each particular university, and to the plant provided for the laboratory. Thus a work on laboratory tests may be exceedingly useful to students working at the particular laboratory to which it refers, but whether students at other institutions will be able to derive much benefit from it is doubtful. The ad- vanced student and the scientific engineer, who is already in practice, will probably also be able to derive some advantage from the book under review, but he would reap the same advantage with less mental labour from any elementary text-book on elec- trical engineering. The words “ factory tests ’’ in the title must be taken to mean that the tests used in a particular laboratory may more or less also be used in a factory. This is, of course, true of all work carried out in a modern well-equipped laboratory, and, therefore, not a distinctive feature of the methods described in the present work. It is certainly difficult to compress into 260 pages the whole subject of electrical testing, and want of space may be the reason why the authors have treated certain subjects in a very brief—one almost tempted to say sketchy—manner, but I think they have not been judicious in the matter of curtailment, inasmuch as they have shortened or omitted alto- gether the exposition of general principles. On the other hand, they have unduly expanded the mere routine of testing. As an example of sketchy treat- ment of fundamental matters, the Heyland diagram on p. the induction motor, which is given on the assumption that the motor has neither ohmic nor iron losses, and the various vectors 1S take 172 of are indiscriminately referred to as representing mag- netomotive forces, currents, flux, or electromotive forces, without a word of explanation. That such treatment of a difficult subject must have seemed to the authors themselves somewhat unsatisfactory may be gathered from the following sentence, which occurs On ps 73a “This diagram has been so _ fully discussed in the literature of the induction motor that it is not thought necessary to reproduce the proof of it here.’’ The principles Just mental so. funda- them- authors assume that the are known, and _ content selves with giving mere rules for testing. The book is divided into three parts. The first deals with preliminary measurements and with tests of continuous-current machines. In the second part NO. 2038, VOL. 79] NATURE fee eS ee ee [NovEMBER 19, 1908 we come to alternating-current machines and trans- formers, and then follows the third part, which bears the title ‘ Electrical Measurements.’’ This title is rather misleading, for here we find such subjects as the determination of the leakage coefficient of a dynamo, the Hopkinson method of testing for per- meability, Ewing’s hysteresis tester, Ewing’s mag- netic bridge, the plotting of the hysteretic loop—all subjects which one would rather call magnetic, not electrical, tests. However, a title which only fits part of the contents is not a serious matter, but that some electrical tests are treated in a very super- ficial manner is a decided drawback. Thus the Wheat- stone bridge, which logically ought to have found a place in the first part, is dismissed in two pages of letterpress and a very imperfect diagram, whilst no mention is made of Varley’s bridge or Thomson's double bridge. The potentiometer fares even worse. The diagram on p. 250 is crude and incomplete, and it is no help to the reader to be told on p. 251 that “for commercial use the potentiometer is usually ar- ranged in some compact and convenient form.’ It is precisely the instrument as practically used with all its refinements that the reader expects to find in a book on laboratory and factory testing. The third part also deals with tests on batteries and photometric work. Since both these subjects to- gether occupy barely nine pages, it is clear that the treatment can only be very superficial. One feature of the book which strikes the reader as peculiar is that the authors omit in most cases to mention the origin of the methods they describe. Thus, Scott’s name is not mentioned in connection with the change from three- to two-phase circuits, nor is Heyland’s name mentioned when describing his diagram. Quite apart from the consideration that it is only fair to give credit where it is due, the suppression of such references is inconvenient to the reader. Certain dis- coveries, inventions, methods, or tests are known under the names of the men who first published them, and are usually identified in this manner. By omit- ting such means of identification, the young student loses touch with the subject he is supposed to acquire. GIsBerT Kapp. SCHOOL ALGEBRAS. (1) Elementary Algebra—A School Course. By W. D. Eggar. Pp. viiit324+28. (London: E. Arnold, n.d.) Price 3s. 6d. (2) A New Algebra. By S. Barnard and J. M. Child. Vol. i., containing Parts i., i., and ili., with Answers. Pp. x+37 (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 2s. 6d. (3) Algebra for Secondary Schools. By Dr. Charles Davison. Pp. viiit+623. (Cambridge: University Press, 1908.) Price 6s. (4) The Eton Algebra. Part i. By P. Scoones and L. Todd. Pp. xxv+184. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 2s. 6d. (1) res book covers most of the ground required for boys who are not specialising in mathe- logarithms and a_ short There are tables of matics, with exercises in chapter on trigonometric ratios. NovEMBER 19, 1908] these functions and of square roots at the end of the book. There is an excellent collection of ex- amples, many of which are of a practical type, and, therefore, in themselves more interesting than the old- fashioned academic questions. The proofs of formule and methods are in some cases somewhat concise, and would need amplification by the teacher. In par- ticular, the proof of the binomial theorem and the explanation of the method of finding square roots are of this character. In some cases the author adopts the heuristic method, and requires the student to derive formule for himself, as, for instance, in finding the factors of x*+y* and x*+y%+23—5xyz, and in finding the meaning of fractional indices and the values of logarithms. We should like to see less formal methods of finding the H.C.F. of two algebraic expressions, based on the fact that R=aA\—bB contains the common factors of A and B, as in many cases R can be factorised and the common factors detected with much less trouble and with a more direct appeal to common sense than by the formal method. The chapter on factors is very fully and carefully done, and this method would be a natural sequel. The use of graphs is well exemplified and illustrated by a good number of examples. The chapters on ratio, proportion, and variation are good, especially in the selection of interesting practical examples. (2) Messrs. Barnard and Child have made a brave attempt to give a logical development of algebra in a form suitable for school work. They explain the meaning of the laws of association, commutation, and distribution as applied to addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and lead up to the solu- tion of what are to a beginner quite difficult prob- lems. Negative numbers are not considered until part ii. (p. 149), and are there explained by extending the scale of natural numbers backwards. In this part some of the difficulties would seem to be too delicate for the comprehension of a beginner, as, for example, the distinction between 2+(—3) and (—3)+2. Every teacher must, of course, use his judgment as to how far to press such niceties. The explanations are carefully given throughout, and the collection of ex- amples is excellent. The method of factors is applied to finding the H.C.F. and L.C.M. of a set of ex- pressions; in fact, one special and excellent feature of the book is its early introduction to factorisation. As soon as a boy can factorise with facility, the ex- pressions have a form and interest to him which they did not possess before. Fractions are introduced in part iii., and theorems on equal fractions (the authors avoid the use of the term ‘‘ratio’’) are given in chapter xx. Graphs are introduced in chapter xxiii., and illustrated by useful examples. The book ends with quadratic equations and problems leading to them, followed by a useful series of test papers. We look forward with interest to the appearance of the second volume. (3) This is a book on the model of Todhunter, with the re-adjustments and improvements in methods o7 proof which modern requirements demand. NO; 2038, VOL. 79] NATURE Proofs of } &c. 65 index laws and of the binomial and exponential theorems are given for all commensurable numbers, and are assumed, perhaps, however, somewhat too silently, to hold for incommensurables also, the author evidently considering it wise to postpone a rigorous treatment of incommensurables. Indeterminate equa- tions of the first degree are introduced early, and clearly illustrated by well-drawn graphs. There are good chapters on permutations and combinations, and on the simpler tests of convergency and divergency of series, and the chapter on miscellaneous graphs forms a useful introduction to curve-tracing. Continued fractions and probability are not treated. The book is excellently printed, and there are a good number of examples attached to the various chapters, but rather a scanty supply of miscellaneous examples (100) at the end of the book. This could be remedied in a subsequent edition. (4) This consists of a collection of examples up to quadratic equations, prefaced by a set of specimen examples worked out, to secure uniformity of method, and concluding with miscellaneous examples arranged in short sets, and graduated in difficulty, so as to test a boy’s knowledge at various stages of progress. There is an extensive collection of graphs, each of which is accompanied by useful instructions as to scale. No bookwork is given, as it is considered that, in the early stages of algebra, all explanation must be left to the teacher. OUR BOOK SHELF. Agriculture for Southern Schools. By J. F. Duggar. Pp. xi+362. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 4s. 6d. Tuis little book has been written, the author tells us, as an elementary text-book on agriculture that shall differ from. others in having a definite and limited field—the southern States of the United States. While the principles underlying the subject are uni- versal, their applications vary much in different locali- ties, and by confining attention to a particular area it becomes possible to present the subject in the concrete way essential for beginners. The crops, soil condi- tions, and general facts of cultivation are all within the experience of the scholar or his farmer friends, and he is not likely to be troubled with that béte noir of the agricultural teacher—the principle that is per- fectly sound in itself, but not economical, and there- fore not applicable, in the particular district. A perusal of the book shows that the author has succeeded in his somewhat difficult task. The essential principles are well brought out, and the illustrations are to the point. The opening chapters deal with the structure of the flower and_ seed- formation : peach, cotton, tobacco, and others being chosen as examples. The conditions necessary for germination and plant growth are then discussed, and the author next passes on to the highly important problem of adapting the crop to the soil. So much money has been lost in the past through planting crops unsuited to the soil that the author does well to direct attention to this matter; he points out, for instance, that sandy soils are best cropped with early vegetables, peaches, cotton, pea-nuts, water-melons, &c., while clay soils are better for hay crops, apples, A few chapters are then devoted to manures, and 66 NA LORE: [NoveMBER 19, 1908 afterwards the special crops of the south are de- scribed. Succeeding chapters deal with plant diseases and insects; these, however, are written by specialists, as one man could not hope to write a useful book which would cover the whole range of the subject. Altogether the book appears to be admirably suited to the purpose for which it is intended, and it can be cordially recommended as a clear statement of the principles of the subject. IDB Wo Vitality, Fasting, and Nutrition. By Hereward Car- rington. With an introduction by Dr. A. Rabagliati. Pp. xl+648. (London: Rebman, Ltd., n.d.) Price 2rs-e mete THE use of food of different kinds in disease, and the need of prohibition of food either in part or in toto, is a necessary part of the knowledge of every medical practitioner. The author of the above work seeks to magnify the importance of fasting over prolonged periods as the sole means of curing all the ills of human flesh. Some years ago another American writer wrote a book entitled the ‘‘ No Breakfast Cure,”’ in which the omission of this very pleasant meal was lauded as the universal panacea for all illness. Mr. Carrington has, however, ‘“ gone one better,’’ and advises the discontinuance of all meals. His book is a strange medley, and hardly merits serious consideration in a scientific journal. Among its many assertions which are unsupported throughout by any experimental evidence are the following :— All medical science is wrong ab initio; diseases are nature’s mode of cure; the taking of the impurities called foods is the source of all evil; the germ theory of disease is a myth; the law of conservation of energy is a fiction; food is not a source of energy or strength, but of weakness; the energy of the body is derived from an internal source, a kind of vital spirit in .one’s interior which can only be cleansed and rendered pure by the agency of starvation. Happily for the sake of the too easily gulled public, he relafes some cases illustrative of his method of cure. The perusal of these will be quite sufficient to prevent his therapeutic methods from obtaining a wide vogue. Some of these describe the ordinary symptoms of starvation somewhat graphically, but death when it occurred as the inevitable result is attributed to something else. Photographs are given of one patient reduced to the condition of a skeleton, but purified from the dross of food with the vital flame burning without hindrance. As a proof of this patient’s vigour after a fast of forty-one days, the author naively remarks :—‘‘ I helped him to undress and dress, though he could easily have done this himself.”’ ; The book is only remarkable as an instance of the lengths to which a fad can be carried. W. D. H: Die Cestoden der Végel. By Dr. O. Fuhrmann. Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 10, part i. Pp. 1-232. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1908.) Ix no group of vertebrates are cestode worms so numerous and of such varied types as among birds, and as these have hitherto been but little studied, Dr. Fuhrmann has for the last eleven years devoted a large portion of his time to their investigation, directing special attention to the teniid, or tape- worm, group. The result is the present memoir, which bears full witness to the arduous nature of the author’s labours. No fewer than sixty-four distinct generic types (many of them with numerous species) of these parasites are recognised as infesting birds, and the author has taken svecial pains to ascertain so far as possible the particular groups of birds to NO. 2038, VOL. 79| which these various genera respectively devote their attentions. This renders the work of value and in. terest to the ornithologist as well as to the students of parasitology, since the results have a distinct bearing on the mutual relations of different bird-groups. He shows, for instance, that the plover group (Limicolz) has no parasites common to the gulls (Gaviz), which may tend to show that these groups are less inti- mately related than is generally considered to be the case, although, before coming to a definite conclusion, the difference in their habitats must be borne in mind. Similarly, it is found that the parasitic worms of the diurnal birds of prey (Accipitres) are totally distinct from those of the owls (Striges), despite the fact that the food of many members of the two groups is identical. In this case we have confirmation of the modern view as to the wide sundering of the Accipitres and the Striges. To follow the author further is, within the limitations of our space, impossible, and we may therefore conclude by commending his worl: to the best attention of both ornithologists and _ hel- minthologists. Re the Thoughts on Natural Philosophy, with a New Read- ing of Newton’s First Law. By A. Biddlecombe. Pp. 24. (London: Whittaker and Co., n.d.) Many and various are the subjects that may be in- cluded under the term ‘natural philosophy.’’ The author, in a brochure of the modest length of twenty- four pages, refers to all the recent physical discoveries, over which he is enthusiastic. Radium and the theory of atomic disintegration, he says, ‘‘ enabled him to jump to the apprehension of the speed theory of material combination which has formed the germ from which this sketch of a true natural philosophy has developed.’’ His main point seems to be that energy (or natural motion)—and the ether is considered to be material —is the original thing, and that rest is a secondary effect. He thus arrives—by ‘natural philosophy,’” shall we say?—at a point not very distant from the modern doctrine of energy, although he himself ap- pears to consider that this point of view is unorthodox. The “‘ speed theory ’’ is best described in the author’s own words :— “This is the great truth, and appears to be the key to the Riddle of the Universe—viz., that the speed? and weight of granules, corpuscles, atoms, and mole- cules, and the peculiarities of movement resulting from that speed and weight, give to substances their distinguishing characteristics, and account for all natural phenomena.’’ With this as a possible point of view, none, probably, will be disposed to quarrel. Though it may be new to the philosopher, it will sound not altogether un- familiar to the man of science. The Ruskin Nature Reader. Being a Collection of Literary Extracts to Accompany a Course of Nature Study. Selected and edited by G. R. Bennett. Pp. ix+236. (London: J. M. Dent and Co., n.d.) Price 1s. od. Tue judicious selection of literary extracts which Mr. Bennett has made shows convincingly what a strong appeal to our great writers natural objects and phenomena have always made. Though called after him, the reading-book is by no means confined to excerpts from Ruskin’s work; indeed, there are only five such extracts among forty-four. Gilbert White, Tyndall, Izaak Walton, Darwin, and Richard Jefferies are among the writers drawn upon. If the book sends boys and girls out to observe for them- selves, as Mr. Bennett hopes it will, it will have served a really useful purpose. 1 Speed and movement may take many forins. NoveEMBER 19, 1908] NATL OLE 67 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NatuRE. An Electromagnetic Problem. In the application of general principles to special cases it is sometimes found that the result is a seeming paradox, which is not always easy to remove. Such problems, although involving no new principle, are nevertheless of considerable interest, and after attaining their satisfactory solution we often realise that we did not before appreciate the fuli import of the general law. The following question has been discussed with con- siderable interest among some of the writer’s friends, and therefore it seemed not improbable that other physicists might be interested. If two spheres of positive electricity are near together and are suddenly released, it is clear that their potential energy decreases as they separate and goes over into kinetic energy of motion. This kinetic energy is, of course, the energy of the magnetic field which results from the motion of the charges. It seems possible, however, to arrange a system so that this magnetic field shall vanish because of symmetry, and the question then presents itself, Where is the energy? Suppose we have a sphere of positive electrification placed as the water is in a soap bubble, and capable of expand- ing under the mutual repulsion of its parts. The potential energy of the electricity certainly decreases as the sphere expands, and if the electricity be considered continuous there is certainly no chance for a magnetic field, as is easily seen from consideration of symmetry. If the sphere be allowed to expand, where does the energy go? The obvious answer is that the electricity is not continuous, but exists as discrete particles, i.e. as electrons; but if we try to escape the difficulty in this way, it is equivalent to admitting that the electrical laws, together with the conservation of energy, require in themselves the discrete structure of electricity. If, on the other hand, we say that the electricity is associated with matter, i.e. with ponderable mass, and the energy appears as ordinary mechanical energy of motion, then we are admitting that the electrical and energy laws require the association of electricity with matter. There seem to be no other solutions to the problem than those above given, and if we admit either of them we reach a conclusion which certainly is striking when we consider that we have only used the general laws of elec- tricity and energy. The writer does not state the above as a fundamental paradox, but only as an interesting problem. D. I. Comstock. Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., November 3. The Progress of Aviation, I HAVE read, with great interest the article on the above subject by Prof.’ Bryan in Nature of October 29. May I be permitted to direct especial attention to the necessity for finding the displacement of the centre of pressure on all kinds of surfaces and at all angles therein referred to? The paper by Prof. Bryan and Mr. Williams on the subject of longitudinal stability, and Captain Ferber’s article in the Revue d'Artillerie (November, 1905), both assume the truth of Joéssel’s law. There is, how- ever, every reason to suppose that there is a certain critical angle below which Joéssel’s law ceases to be true, the displacement decreasing with the angle instead of in- creasing.* Consequently, the numerical conclusions arrived at fron\ the stability formule of Captain Ferber and Prof. Bryan may be very wide of the mark. ; 1 Spratt-Moedebeck's “Pocket-book of Aéronautics” (1904); Wilbur Wright, Smithsonian Report, 1992, np. 133-148 (Journal of Western Society of Engineers, December, 1901); Turnbull, Physical Review, vol. xxiv., 0. 3, 1907. NO. 2038, VOL. 79] I hope to experiment in this direction myself, but my time is very limited. There can be no doubt whatever that a thorough investigation as to the centre of pressure would be of the greatest practical use. HERBERT CHATLEY. 32 Britannia Road, Southsea, October 31. I aGREE strongly with all that Mr. Chatley has said. It cannot be too emphatically pointed out that the object of our stability investigations was to show that the subject is capable of being treated mathematically, and that, given the requisite experimental data, the conditions of stability of any system of planes or surfaces can be calculated out in the form of numerical results. The cases in which this was done were intended merely as examples illustrative of the general method, and for this purpose Joéssel’s law furnished the simplest assumption available at the time. It will be noticed, too, that arbitrary values were assumed for the moments of inertia of the systems. To draw infer- ences from the results of examples worked out with this object would be an unfortunate mistake. It is to be regretted that want of time has prevented my attempting to work out any examples based on the Turnbull results, though the idea suggested itself when I saw the paper in the Physical Review. The theory of stability has thus been somewhat at a standstill. Those who, like Mr. Chatley and myself, would like to see that theory advanced are prevented from doing this by pressure of other duties, while those who have the necessary time and money have been mainly occupied of late in breaking records. Mr. Lanchester’s theory of stability starts from so different a standpoint that it must be discussed at a future time. G. H. Bryan. Potato Black Scab. Tue discovery this autumn of black scab in the potato crop in two localities in co. Down was the means, through the Irish Department of Agriculture, of supplying me with excellent material of diseased tubers for examination. I have kept the resting ‘‘ spores’ of the chytridian fungus Chrysophlyctis endobiotica, Schilb., causing the disease, under varied conditions of temperature, nourishment, moisture, and light, and have succeeded in causing the “spores ’’ to germinate, especially by cultivation in potato juice. Each “* spore”’ proves to be a zoosporangium, full of zoospores or zoogonidia, seen in active swarming motion before rupture of the sporangium. The zoospores, 1-5-2 « in diameter, escape through a slit-like opening in the wall of the sporangium 30-60 yw in diameter, and have the usual characters of a chytridian zoospore. Since the publication of Schilbersky’s short preliminary account in 1896 in the Berichte der deutscher botanischen Gesellschaft, and Potter’s account of his discovery of the pest: in Cheshire in 1902, we have learnt nothing of the life-history of this injurious fungus. T. JOHNSON. Royal College of Science, Dublin, November 17. The Nature of y Rays. EXPERIMENTS by Prof. Bragg and myself upon the secondary kathode radiation which proceeds from matter through which y rays are allowed to pass, taken in con- junction with the similar result announced by Mr. Cooksey in-Nature of April 2 (vol. Ixxvii., p. 509) for X-rays, support the theory of the material nature of X and of y rays originally advanced by Prof. Bragg. The modification of the ether-pulse theory recently advanced by Prof. Thomson may possibly furnish a partial explanation of these effects, but in the light of some experiments which I have lately carried out upon the secondary y rays, even this modification seems quite in- sufficient. A brief summary of these results is appended. (1) The y rays of Ra, and probably of Th, appear to consist of two distinct homogeneous bundles, the value of A/A (where A is the absorption coefficient and A the 68 NATO LAE [NovEMBER 19, 1908 density of the material) for the soft set being approximately four times that for the hard. (2) For each set of rays the value of A/A is constant, and practically independent of the nature of the absorbing material with which A is measured, provided that in the case of the soft rays secondary effects be excluded. (3) Secondary y radiation appears on both sides of a plate which is penetrated by a stream of y rays. There exists a marked lack of symmetry between the amount of secondary radiation which proceeds from the two sides. (4) A lack of symmetry exists in the case of some sub- stances between the quality of the radiation on the two sides. (5) The last results seem very difficult to reconcile with a pulse theory. On the ‘‘ material ’’ theory propounded by Prof. Bragg no such difficulty arises. (6) The secondary y radiation appears to be derived from the primary by a process of scattering, this process generally involving a reduction in the subsequent pene- trating power of the ray affected. (7) There appears to be reason to believe that the dis- tribution of the scattered radiation depends to some extent upon the hardness of the radiation which is scattered, also upon the nature of the material in which the scattering is produced. The softer radiation appears to be turned back to a somewhat greater extent than the hard. Materials of high atomic weight seem to be able to produce more complete scattering than those of lower atomic weight. (8) The absorption of y radiation which has already passed through a thickness of one substance by screens of a different substance may not in all cases give a true measure of the absorption of the original radiation which has been effected by the first screens. J. P. V. MapseEn. University of Adelaide, October 1. [As there are few opportunities in Australia for an in- vestigator to place his views quickly before a scientific public, we print the above letter, but with it the corre- spondence must cease. The subject is more suitable for discussion in special journals devoted to phvsics than in our columns.—Ep, Nature.] The Origin of Spectra. THE very interesting observation of the anomalous dis- persion of luminous hydrogen in the neighbourhood of the Ha line recorded by Messrs. R. Ladenburg and Stanislaw Loria in Nature of November 5 (p. 7), and the known absence of the phenomena in ordinary hydrogen, show conclusively that the spectrum lines of a substance are not free periods of the atoms in their normal state, but only of those systems produced somehow by the agency which gives rise to the spectra. The figure 1/50,000 as the number of electrons per atom of course means that in the gas under experiment only one atom in 50,000 was emitting the Ha line at any one time. The very important remark is made that the anomalous dispersion in the neighbourhood of the other lines of the hydrogen series ‘‘ is expected to be much smaller than that at the Ha line.’’ If this be so, it will show that at any given time different numbers of atoms are producing the different lines, that is to say, that the spectrum is not produced in toto by each atom. Each atom (or rather the system emitting the lines) may, for instance, only be emitting one line at a time. These results are the same as those I have deduced from Prof. R. W. Wood’s work on the anomalous dispersion of sodium vapour. Sodium vapour shows anomalous dis- persion in the neighbourhood of all the lines of the prin- cipal series, which “‘is very strong at D, feeble at the first pair of ultra-violet lines A 3303, and almost imper- ceptible at A 2852.’ It is also, Wood states, stronger at D, than at D,. This shows that the number of atoms emitting D, at any time is greater than the number emitting D,, and both these are much greater than the numbers emitting the higher members of the series. We note that there is no anomalous dispersion in the neigh- bourhood of the lines of the subordinate series of the sodium spectrum showing that heat alone does not pro- duce those systems which vibrate with the periods of the subordinate series, which agrees with the facts that these NO. 2038, VOL. 79] series do not appear in the absorption spectrum of sodium vapour or in the Bunsen flame spectrum of sodium. It thus seems probable that different series of lines in~ a spectrum are produced by entirely different vibrating systems, while any system possibly only emits one line at a time of its own particular series, depending upon the manner in which it has been struck. It is evident that the different vibrating systems obtained, and their relative proportions, may be expected to vary with the nature of the electrical discharge producing the spectra, and hence the variation of the spectra. under different conditions. This may, perhaps, on the modern views, be regarded as the same idea put forth many years ago by Sir Norman Lockyer in his dissociation hypothesis. I make these observations in order that those working on the subject from the theoretical side may the better see the phenomena to be explained, which are quite different from ordinary dynamical vibrating systems. In conclusion, I should like to direct attention to the importance of extending Messrs. Ladenburg and Loria’s work. By examining every line in the spectrum of an element we could, for instance, say whether a line was faint because very few systems were emitting it, or whether its faintness must be attributed to the fact that the vibrations producing this line have only a very small amplitude. ALBERT EaGLe. Imperial College of Science and Technology, I.ondon, November 9. A Gall-producing Dragon-fly. Wuen looking through Dr. C. Houard’s new work on galls (‘‘ Les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Méditerranée,’’ tome i.), I was surprised to find on p. 249 an entry :—‘ Minime borselette Q. ped. Lestes viridis, Van der Lind.” A gall-producing dragon-fly was quite new to me, but on looking up the subject I found a series of very important observations on the oviposition and larva of the species in question by the Abbé Pierre and M. de Roequigny-Adanson, in the Revue scientifique du Bowr- bonnais et du Centre de la France, xv. and xvi. (1902-3), and the Annales et Bulletin de la Société entomologique de France for 1904. As these seem to have been entirely overlooked in England, I think it may be useful to epitomise them as briefly as possible. The eggs of Lestes viridis are laid on the branches of a great variety of deciduous trees and shrubs, but always close to, or overhanging, water, and therefore probably most often on alders or willows. These result in the pre- duction of small galls, which are sometimes extremely abundant, and which are thus described by Pierre :-— ** Un bourrelet mesure de 1 mm. 3 & 2 mm. de longueur, sur 4 ou r mm. de largeur. Deux bourrelets sont associés en chevron et forment un angle d’A peu prés 90°, ouvert vers le bas du rameau. Le sommet de l’angle présente une pellicule corticale plus ou moins arrondie, formant clapet au dessus de l’ouverture par laquelle de 1 A 4 ceufs ont été insérés sur chaque bourrelet. Enfin les chevrons distants de 2 mm., sont associés en série longi- tudinale, de telle facon qu’une méme_ génératrice du rameau soit sensiblement bissectrice de tous les angles.” The emergence from the eggs and the structure of the larva are equally curious. The new-born larva, or “ pro- larve,’’ as Pierre calls it (Ann. Soc. Ent. de France, 1904, pp- 477-84, pl. iv.), resembles a coleopterous pupa, being enclosed in an outer membrane which leaves it only the power of leaping. If these young larvae do not fall into the water on emerging from the egg, they leap about, sometimes for several hours, until they succeed in reach- ing it. After reaching the water the pro-larva rests on its back for two hours, and then casts the skin, a process occupying from three to thirteen minutes. The larval development of Lestes viridis has been compared by M. Giard to that of the crickets. A similar structure of the newly emerged larva has: also been noticed in Epithera bimarulata, another dragon-fly. I may remark that Lestes wiridis, though common on the Continent, is an insect of great rarity with us, and not firmly established in the list of British species. Wa fF. Kiepy. NOVEMBER 19, 1908] NATURE 69 THE GEOLOGY OF THE GRAMTPIANS. HERE are few parts of the British Isles which can rival the southern Highlands of Scotland beauty and variety of scenery. Over much of district the genius of Scott has thrown the of romance, and year after year crowds of tourists visit the scenes which he has rendered famous. The flat vales which lie to the south the mountains (the plain of Strathmore) afford an excel- lent contrast to the bolder hill country behind them. Even the most stolid traveller who enters this region may be expected to feel some curiosity regarding the gin of the scenery and the history of the which meet his eyes. Not a little has been written on this subject, but much of it is contained in scientific memoirs and periodicals which are beyond the grasp of the untrained The country, especially the Highland portion of it, is of great complexity, and its structure has given rise to discussions, many of which are far from settled at the present time. The task which the author of this work has essayed is one of considerable difficulty. He aims at giving an account of the geology and physiographical develop- ment of this intricate region which shall be intelligible to the unscientific and at the same time thoroughly abreast of the most recent researches. He has achieved a large measure of success even in the most difficult part, while some of his chapters, such as those on glaciation and scenery, are cellent. The result is a book which at once interesting to the layman and useful to the professed geologist. The great boundary fault which runs across Scotland from Stonehaven to the Firth of Clyde separates the Highlands from the valley of Strath- for this glamour of or rocks eC plogist. 1S more, two districts which are as dif- ferent in their geology as in their scenery and economic development. To the north lie metamorphic schists and gneisses of unknown age; to the south are fossiliferous Old Red Sand- stone and Carboniferous rocks. One volume assigned to each of these subdivisions. Much of the southern is shlands has been mapped by the ,,, Geological Survey, which has _ pub- a lished maps (and in some cases memoirs also. Mr. Macnair, is well known for his investigations on the metamorphic rocks of Perthshire, and is familiar with a large part of the area he undertakes to describe. His researches have led him to conclusions not essentially different from those of the Survey officers, whose opinions and ob- servations he frequently quotes. He accepts the current theories that as we proceed northwards from the Highland border we pass over a succession of slates, grits, gneisses, mica schists, and limestones, ascend- and an of which are not only apparently but actually in ing order. They vary in lithological character in degree of met morphism, but are essentially unbroken and continuous succession, the quartzite Schiehallion and Ben-y-gloe being the highest, while the grits and slates of Leny and Aberfoyle are the lowest rocks of the district. Two series of igneous rocks are found among the sedimentary schists, one 1 “ The Geology and Sc-nery of the Grampians and the Valley of Strath- more.’ By Peter Ma:nair. 2 Vols. Vol. 1., pp. xiv+ros; vol. ii., pp xii+199. (Glasgow: James MacLehose and Sons, 1908.) Price, 2 vols 21s. ne NO. 2038, VoL. 79] 1.—The Killin Hills, from the Dochart. | marine | older and another later than the period of folding and metamorphism. The former comprises the horn- blendic schists, which are especially common around Loch Tay, and the acid gneisses of Ben Vuroch; among the latter may be placed the granitic bosses of Garabal Hill, Glen Lednock, &c. Mr. Macnair | describes what, in his opinion, is the structure of the country, and gives sections showing a series of complex fans and synclinoria the axes of which have a north-east trend. Although these hypotheses are accepted by probably the majority of the geolo- gists who are working in this district at the present time, they cannot by any means be regarded as estab- lished on any firm basis of proof. The apparent up- ward succession is quite possibly misleading. Many strong reasons may be advanced against it, and the structure is not more clear than the sequence. Apart from this, Mr. Macnair’s account of the geology of the Grampians is clear and judicious, and may be recommended to those who wish to get general idea of the subject without too much detail. The second volume begins with a description of the a L. Howie. Photo. by W. From “Geology and Scenery of the Grampians. Old Red Sandstone (Upper and Lower) of Strath- more. This vast sedimentary formation has always had a strong attraction for Scottish geologists. The author has given much time to its study; he dis- cusses it with enthusiasm, and attempts to prove that, contrary to the usual opinion, the deposits are of origin, and at one time completely buried the Highland mountains. The arguments he brings for- ward are not new to geologists, and, we must con- fess, are, in our opinion, far from convincing; the old theories of Godwin Austen, Ramsay, and Sir A. Geikie are not vet disposed of and out of date. These chapters contain, however, many observations which little known and well worth placing on record. The Carboniferous rocks occupy only a very small area, and are not otherwise important. ; As might be expected in a region of such topography, the glacial and alluvial deposits are of considerable importance. The chapters devoted to them and to their effect on the scenery of this part of Scotland are the most readable in the book, and should prove interesting anyone who cares for are varied to geology 70 NM ATHURE: [ NOVEMBER 19, 1908 or physiography. They are also free from the con- troversial matter which is rather obtrusive in the chapters on Highland schists and Old Red Sand- stone. We must congratulate the author also on the excellence of the illustrations, most of which are from photographs.. Many of them are very beautiful and appropriate, and should be of great help to those who are not specially versed in geological literature. An exception may be made in the case of some of the photomicrographs of rock sections, which are not up to the general high standard of the book. A really good geological map of the area described is also a coronal radiations. Readers of Nature will remember that this island was also selected by Mr. F. Kk. McClean as the locale of the expedition which he fitted up and carried through at his own expense, and Prof. Campbell remarks that they (the McClean party) were found to be ‘helpful and congenial com- panions.”’ The programme of. the Lick observers comprised the determination of the contact times, the photo- graphy of the corona, on large and small scales, and of the coronal and chromospheric spectra, and a photographic search for any _ possible intra- Fic. 2.—View from the summit of Ben Lawers looking north-east along th which should be supplied if the bools as we hope it will. Io Ss desideratum reaches a second edition, KK. “ATORY-CROCKER JANUARY, 1908. LICK OBSER|I EXPEDITION, THE ECLIPSE BY the courtesy of Prof. Campbell in furnishing advance proofs of Lick Observatory Bulletins Nos. 131 and 132, and from preliminary reports published by himself’ and Dr. Albrecht,? we are able tc form an idea of the perfect organisation of, and the results obtained by, the expedition from Lick Observatory which went to Flint Island to observe the total eclipse of the sun of January 3. The whole of the expenses of the Lick expedition was defrayed by Mr. W. H. Crocker, this making the ninth occasion on which his generosity has rendered such an expedition feasible. The party was conveyed from Tahiti to Flint Island by the U.S. gunboat Annapolis, and arrived at the latter place, yin is in latitude 11° S., and is 450 miles N.W. of Tahiti, on December 9, thus le eaving twenty-four clear days for the erection and adjustment of the instruments. In addition to the Lick party, consisting of Prof. Camp- bell, Messrs. Perrine, Aitken and Albrecht, and Mrs. Campbell, the expedition included Prof. Lewis, of Berkeley, and Prof. Boss, and was accompanied by in expedition dispatched by the Smithsonian Insti- tution; the latter consisted of Prof. Abbot and his assistant, Mr. A. F. Moore, who were charged with the task of making bolometric observations of the 1 Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, No. 119, April, 1906. * The Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, vol. ii., No. 3, p. 115 NO. 2035, VOL. 79 great axial line of folding. Photo. by W. L. Howie From ‘‘ The Geology and Scenery of the Grampians.’ Mr. McClean has already reported, the weather on the morning of the eclipse was extremely sensational, rain falling in torrents between five minutes before and two or three seconds after the commencement of totality, but happily the clouds dispersed, and the remainder of the eclipse was observed in a comparatively clear sky. mercurial planet. As That results were obtained which are likely to pro- vide valuable additions to our knowledge of solar phy sics may be inferred from the followi ing brief résumé of the preliming iry reports of the observers: The observations of the contacts showed that mid- eclipse took place some 27 seconds earlier, whilst totality lasted some 9 seconds less, than the predicted times. In the intra-mercurial planet research two quadruple each set so arranged ° Jong in ‘the umeras were employed, as to include an broad and 2 direction of the sun’s equator. Three hundred star images, going down to the ninth magnitude, were recorded, and all have been identified with known stars by Prof. Perrine. It now seems certain that no planet brighter than the seventh magnitude exists the sun than Mercury, and, as it would need sets of cz area 0° nearer } a large number of seventh-magnitude planets to account for the outstanding anomalies in the motion of Mercury, Dr. Albrecht considers that the observa- tional side of this research should now be considered as closed. The raison d’étre of the Mercury anomalies must be sought elsewhere; possibly, as suggested by Prof. Seeliger, the material responsible for the Zodiacal Light may be sufficient to account for them. With the Floyd camera, having a Clarlx lens of 5 inches aperture and 67 inches focal length, fed by a 12-Inch ccelostat, eight exposures, varying from ““instantaneous ’? to 16 seconds, produced excellent NovEMEER 19, 1908] NATURE Fa negatives showing streamers two solar ‘iameters in length. These long streamers are rather evenly dis- tributed around the sun, but the strong inner corona is much more intense on the east and west than at the poles. Prof. Campbell and Dr. Albrecht speak very highly of the simplicity | and the performance of the 4o-feet ‘“tower camera’’ of 5 inches aperture, designed by Prof. Schaeberle e the 1893 eclipse. Fig. 1 ts repro- duced from an illustration accompanying the former’s report in the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, and shows the instrument, in position, at Flint Island. Many advantages are claimed for this form of ‘‘ direct ’’ instrument; among them the * removal of the lens and a greater part of the tube from the ground region of intense atmospheric tremor, and the elimination of the possible distortion. of a ceelostat mirror are not the least.. Six exposures, varying from 2 to 64 seconds, were made, and the negatives show a wealth. of coronal details... The chromospheric stratum is shown on the first and last photographs, and there is a large eruptive prominence in position-angle 214°. About fifteen streamers ex- tending to 14 lunar diameters and a similar number extending to 1 lunar diameter are shown on the longer exposures. An unusually straight and slender streamer starts near the south point and extends, not radially, but in the direction of 190°, for “about 14 diameters; during the last seven-ninths of its length this streamer is accompanied by a fainter branch which makes an angle of 4° with its axis. Compari- sons of the photographic brightness of the corona, effected by impressing standard squares on some of the plates, show that almost all the effective photo- graphic light came from the inner corona situated within 1/ or 2! of the moon’s edge. A plate exposed, in a spectrograph with the plate continuously moving, for fifteen seconds on either side of the end of totality, shows a spectrum in excellent focus from A 3800 to A 5100 the linear scale being such that from A 3700 to A 5300 is 13 inches. Hundreds of bright lines, showing the depths and locations of the corresponding vapours, are recorded, and should fur- nish a wealth of information as to the sun’s higher atmosphere. A spectrograph fitted with quartz lenses, and prisms, of 92 cm. aperture and 1 metre focal length, was employed by Prof. Lewis to obtain photo- graphs of the spectra of the corona and the “ flash.’ A sliding diaphragm in front of the slit permitted comparison solar spectra to be obtained on the same plate, and an exposure of 3} minutes on the corona, with the slit tangential to the east limb, and a shorter exposure on the chromosphere were made immediately before, and at, third contact. The un- expected curtailment of totality caused the latter xo be over-exposed, but some eighty chromospheric lines are seen projecting beyond the solar spectrum; the resulting spectra are some 14 cm. long from A 3000 to D. Both the continuous and the line radiations of the corona are shown, and both apparently emanated from the inner corona within a region of less than a q1 quarter of a radius from the photosphere. Fifteen certain, and ten doubtful, lines are recorded, and of the former those at AA 5304, 3602°3 and 3390'7 are the strongest, the respective intensities being 10, 15 and 30. That neither Huff, in 1900, nor Dyson, in 1900, 1go1 and 1905, recorded the strong line at A 3602°3, and that the latter obtained lines not shown on his own spectra, is taken by Prof. Lewis as _ evidence supporting the idea of a variable corona. In discussing the relative temperature of the corona, Prof. Lewis ‘employs the principle enunciated by Stokes in 1876, and used by Lockyer in his researches NO. 2038, VOL. 79] on stellar temperatures. This principle depends upon a comparison of the relative amounts of the ultra- violet and the red radiations in the light-sources examined, predominance of the former denoting higher, and of the latter lower temperature. In Lockyer’s stellar work it was found that by the assumption of this law the previous results depending upon the chemical classification of the stars were plenarily confirmed, and Prof. Lewis’s conclusions are no less regular. Comparing the coronal with the solar spectrum, he finds that the latter is, relatively, much richer in violet light, and says, ‘‘ hence it may be infer red that the corona is considerably colder than the sun.’’ Subsequent comparative tests with a standard candle, allowing for the atmospheric absorp- tion of the ultra-violet radiations, fix the lower limit of coronal temperature at considerably more than 2000° absolute. Fic. 1.—The 4o-ft. Coronagraph. Some eighty-two chromospheric lines, between AA 31998 and 4863/0, with identifications from Row- land’s tables and Dyson's eclipse paper, are given, | but, with only the tips of the lines projecting from the dense, over-exposed spectrum, the wave-lengths are, naturally, only approximate. For the examination of pol irisation effects in the corona, four exposures, varying from two to six seconds each, were made with each of the four cameras arranged for this purpose. Each photograph shows marked polarisation in all parts of the corona, and a comparative study of the series should, incideni- ally, produce valuable information concerning the effect of clouds on such photographs, for during one exposure a cloud passed over the southern half of the corona, leaving the northern half cloud-free. fe NALORE [ NovEMBER 19, 1908 With two single-prism spectrographs, specially designed by Prof. Campbell, three photographs of the coronal spectrum were obtained, the slits being placed east and west across the centre of the solar image. With the first, a good spectrum of the extreme inner corona, extending from A 3550 to A 5390, was obtained during an exposure of 3m. 4os. Both the line at A 5303 and an apparently new line at A 36013, also obtained by Prof. Lewis, are recorded strongly, each extending to 3/ from the west, and 2’ from the east, limb; the line at A 3987’0 is faintly, and that at A 42315 is easily, visible, whilst another apparently new, and faint, line shows at A 3625/5. The absorption lines are seen most readily in the regions lying between 10! and 20! from the limb, but are quite faint in the outer, and apparently absent from the inner, corona. A comparison of the continu- ous spectrum with solar spectra taken with the same instrument at Mount Hamilton indicates, again, a lower temperature for the former, although, in the absence of further details as to the similar treatment of the photographs considered, _ this evidence is not so conclusive as that educed by Prof. Lewis. With the second single-prism spectrograph, Cramer isochromatic plates were used and good spectra, ex- tending from A 3600 to A 6000, obtained, the general features being the same as in the preceding spectrum. Measures of the green line give its wave-length as 5301-4 +0'5. Owing to the inter-diffusion of the bright-line, the continuous, and the absorption spectra, these coronal spectrograms are rather difficult to interpret, but it appears certain that the radiations of the outer corona, of, say, more than 20/ from the moon, are either not recorded at all or are masked by the diffused spectrum of the brighter inner corona. The propor- tion of the light radiated by the coronal particles at this eclipse appears to have been relatively great as compared with the amount of sunlight diffused by them, but whether this is due to variability in the corona or to the interference of light clouds at the previous eclipses is a question which Prof. Campbell and Dr. Albrecht leave for future consideration. To those observers who had had previous eclipse experi- ence, the outer corona on this occasion appeared dis- appointingly faint. It is unnecessary here to enter into the numerous details given by Prof. Abbot concerning his bolometric apparatus, but several important modifications of that previously employed had been made for this eclipse, chiefly with the object of restricting the operative radiations during each observation to that definite, small area of the corona that was under actual obser- vation. Preliminary observations of the relative brightness of the sun, of the sky at different distances from the sun, and of the moon were made before eclipse day, and the results are shown below. Tests were also made of the quality of the light from each of these sources, the criterion being the proportional transmissibility of the various rays by an ashphaltum screen. For sun, sky and moon the proportions of light transmitted were 029 to 037, 0'25 and o'50 respectively, the difference sky—moon being due, pre- sumably, to the size and nature of the reflecting particles. These results lead to the inference that if the brightness of the corona be due merely to reflected ordinary sun rays, the transmissibility of the rays will be greater if the reflecting particles be of the grossness of those composing the lunar surface, and less Rases. During if they are minute like the molecules of the eclipse, observations were made with NO. 2938, VOL. 79] the sun in six different positions in regard to the cross-wires of the finder, the latter being crossed to form angles of 75° and 105°. In positions i. and ii. the moon’s image was tangent in one of the obtuse angles, and in iii. in one of the acute angles; this meant that in i. and ii. the bolometer was central on points 4! of are beyond the extremities of a lunar diameter inclined 52°-5 to the E. and W. diameter; whilst in iii. the distance of the moon’s limb was about 12’ of are. In positions iv. and v. the wires were 1/5 of arc beyond the extremities of the moon's diameter, east and west respectively, and in vi. they intersected at the centre of the dark moon. ‘The ob- servations showed that the transmissibility of the inner coronal radiations, which passed through a screen transmitting light of less wave-length than 3, Was 0364; on the same day the mean transmissi- bility of the solar radiations was found to be 07332. The whole of the reduced results are collected in the following table, taking the sun’s brightness as 10,000,000 : : Brightness Sun, near zenith (Flint Island) ... ac . 10,0C0,000 Sky, 20° from sun 7 ro — 140 », distant from sun ,, we cp 3 >» average oes ee eo 62 a ;» previously measured at Mount Wilson 15 Corona, positions iv. and v. 603 Pes Ae 13 of oa ey te =a5 cao Sas 4 Moon, about zenith distance 50° (Flint Island)... 12 (?) In positions iii. and vi. the galvanometer showed no deflection. Several significant facts appear from these figures, of which two call for special mention. The first is that at sea-level (Flint Island) the sky is some four times as bright as observed at an altitude of 1800 metres (Mount Wilson), thus showing the profound importance of establishing our observatories in the higher altitudes. Secondly, the brightness of the sky at 20° from the sun is to that of the corona as 140 :13; nearer the sun the ratio would be enormously in- creased, and it therefore appears that to obtain photo- graphs of the corona without waiting for an eclipse is unpromising, to say the least. Summing up the evidence now available, Prof. Abbot believes that the best explanation of the character of the coronal radiation is that it is, in the main, due to reflected sunlight. The apparent absence of polarisation need not weaken this supposi- tion, for, owing to the fact that they receive light from the solid angle of a whole hemisphere of the sun, the particles of the inner corona would be partially polarised in many directions, and therefore exhibit no definite polarisation in any one. The observed modification of the reflected solar spectrum may be due to the fact that the bright emissions from the heated particles close to the sun are sufficient to obliterate the absorption lines; further out the particles would be cooler—perhaps mainly solid and liquid—and the emission spectrum would then diminish, the absorption spectrum, as a consequence, appearing gradually. But as the light is still reflected sunlight only its intensity would diminish and its character and transmissibility would remain the same, as the observations show that they do. Whilst recognising fully the difficulty of accounting rigidly for all the observed phenomena, Prof. Abbot concludes that in all probability the brightness of the corona is mainly due to reflected ordinary sunlight, diluted to some extent by the emissions from incan- descent particles, and possibly, also, by some small amount of ‘‘luminescence’’ such as produces the aurora. WiLttam E. ROLsTon. NOVEMBER 19, 1908] NAT ORE 73 THE PRESERVATION OF THE NATIVE FAUNA AND FLORA IN AUSTRALASIA. WE are glad to see that the New Zealand Govern- ment is actively continuing the work of pre- serving the natural scenery of the dominion to which we directed attention last year. Some interesting par- ticulars are given in the Report on Scenery Preserva- tion for the year 1907-8 lately issued by the Depari- ment of Lands, from which it is evident that the authorities fully appreciate the value of the remark- able natural attractions for which the Dominion is so justly famous. During the year under review an addition of more than S000 acres was made to the area reserved under the Scenery Preservation and Public Works Acts. This area now reaches a total of about 34,000 acres, exclusive of 100,000 acres of Crown land similarly reserved under the Land Act. The public of New Zealand appears to be as much interested in the good work as the Government, con- siderable sums having been raised by subscription for the purchase of special areas in the neighbourhood of some of the large towns. Let us hope that they will not forget to reserve a sufficient belt along the coast-line, so that future generations may be pro- tected from attempts on the part of grasping land- lords to prevent the public from making full use of the seashore, such as have lately given rise to so much dissatisfaction in our own country. The proper care of the areas reserved appears to be a matter of no little trouble and expense. Where they are covered with forest there is the constantly recurring danger of bush-fires and damage by stock. As the inspector of scenic reserves remarks in his report, swaggers and Maoris appear to set fire to the country as if they were inspired by a spirit of destruc- tion, and settlers, in clearing their own. lands, are indifferent to the damage their fires may cause by spreading on to the lands of the Crown. One of the most beneficial results of the reserva- tion of these large areas of native bush is seen in the preservation from destruction of the native birds. We quote again from the subsidiary report of Mr. E. Phillips Turner, the inspector of scenic reserves : ““TIn the Canterbury reserves I found that the native birds (with the exception of the tui, which in Akaroa is still fairly plentiful) are getting very scarce. In Otago the larger size of the reserves has served as a more effectual sanctuary, and tuis, bell-birds, and tomtits were fairly plentiful, whilst fantails, robins, wrens, parrakeets, kalkas, and pigeons were also seen.”’ The author of the main report is, we think, rather unnecessarily severe upon the New Zealand botanists. After very properly directing attention to ‘‘ the in- teresting and valuable report on a botanical survey of the Tongariro National Park, by Dr. Cockayne,”’ he observes :— ““Nowhere in the world are such beautiful plants and trees to be found as in New Zealand, and the time is not far distant when this will be widely recog- nised, and visitors from abroad will undertake what our own students have overlooked.” It is only a few months since we had occasion to notice an extremely interesting and beautifully illus- trated work on the New Zealand flora by two local botanists,* and it seems to us that a surprising amount of good work of this kind has been done by New Zealand students; witness the valuable publications of the New Zealand Institute during the past thirty or forty years. There are not many people in New Zealand who can afford to devote their lives to such and rare work gratuitously, but we have little doubt that if the New Zealand Government extended to local 1 Laing and Blackwell, “‘ Plants of New Zealand.” NO. 2038, VOL. 79] naturalists suflicient encouragement, there would be no lack of competent investigators eager to enter the field. If the “visitors from abroad”? are able to undertake the work, it is largely on account of the generous assistance and encouragement which they receive both from the authorities in their own country and those in New Zealand. The report is again copiously illustrated by photo- graphs of some of ‘the more remarkable scenery, one of which, taken on the Wanganui River, we reproduce. This river is said to have ‘no equal in the world as regards its botanical and scenic attractions,’’ and the photographs certainly go a long way to support the claim. Two reports by Dr. Cockayne, lately published by the New Zealand Department of Lands, have also reached us, the one referred to above as a botanical survey of the Tongariro National Parl, and the other as a botanical survey of the Waiporra Kauri Forest. These are also copiously illustrated by excellent photo- Wanganui River Sc:nery—Mangaro, sixty-six miles from Wanganui. graphs, and should prove of great interest to botanists all over the world. The report on the Tongariro National Park contains an extremely interesting chapter on the geology of this remarkable volcanic district, by Mr. R. Speight. The photograph of the summit of Mount Ruapehu, showing a hot and some- times boiling lake surrounded by ice-cliffs, is par- ticularly striking. We further observe with much satisfaction that the various societies interested in natural history in the Commonwealth of Australia are making a vigorous and combined effort to arouse the Federal Govern- ment to a full sense of its responsibilities with regard to the preservation of the native fauna. The move- ment which has lately taken place in England in relation to the protection of birds, and which cul- minated in Lord Avebury’s Bill, appears to be largely responsible for the renewed interest which is being 74 NATURE | NovEMBER 19,1908 taken in these matters in Australia. The Royal Societies of South Australia and New South Wales, the advisory committee re Fisheries and Game Acts in Victoria, and the Linnean, Zoological, and Animals’ Protection Societies of New South Wales are all taking an active part in furthering the good cause. An influential deputation, headed by Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, F.R.S., has already waited upon the Prime Minister of the Commonwealth, on August 4, in regard to the prohibition of the exportation of the skins and plumes of Australian birds, and was most favourably received. It must not be supposed, of course, that nothing has already been done to secure the preservation of the native fauna of Australia; this is by no means the case. Some of the most interesting animals, such as the platypus and the lyre bird, have, we believe, been more or less pro- tected for a long time, but it is felt, and rightly, that existing legislation is not sufficient, and that if the native fauna is not to disappear in the near future, much more vigorous action must be taken. We wish the new movement in this direction every success, and cannot doubt that it will be followed by excellent results. ArTHUR DENDy. PROF. WILLIAM EDWARD AYRTON, F.R.S N Sunday, November 8, Prof. Ayrton died at the age of sixty-one. During the last four vears he was in danger on account of excessive blood- pressure. The immediate cause of death was in- fluenza, followed by bronchitis and heart failure. He was the son of an able barrister and the nephew of the Rt. Hon. Acton Ayrton, a Minister in Gladstone’s Government from 1869 to 1874. I have before me the history of the Ayrton family for the last three hundred years, a family of able lawyers, musicians, surgeons, clergymen, university dons, and schoolmasters. He went to University College School, London, where he gained numerous prizes; at University College he gained the Andrews exhibition in 1865 and the Andrews scholarship in 1866. He passed the first B.A. examination with honours, and then became a pupil of Lord Kelvin in preparation for the Indian Telegraph Service. His eulogistic account of how Lord Kelvin dealt with his students, published in the Times about the beginning of this year, was greatly praised in Narure a short time ago. In style and force it will compare favourably with anything written in the English language. He was not only a fine writer, he was also a brilliant speaker. He seldom needed notes in speaking. Twenty years ago, at the Paris Exhibition, he gave a long lecture in French, using no notes, and French critics described it as being nearly perfect in style and enunciation. In India he did good work with the late Mr. Schwendler, and became __ electrical superintendent of the Telegraph Department. In 1872-3 he was on special duty in England, and acted also for Lord Kelvin and Prof. Jenkin, the engineers of the Great Western Telegraph Cable. From 1873 to 1878 he was professor of natural philosophy and instructor in telegraphy in the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan. I gave a short account of Ayrton’s Japanese labora- tory in a paper read before the Society of Arts in January, 1880. I venture to think that nobody in- terested in the history of scientific education can afford to neglect that paper. It describes the educa- tional ideas which had gradually been developed in Japan. At Glasgow and Cambridge and _ Berlin there were three great personalities, but, except for these, the laboratories of Kelvin, of Maxwell, and of NO. 2038, VOL. 79] Helmholtz were not to be mentioned in comparison with that of Ayrton. When I went to Japan in 1875, what I found were fine buildings, splendid apparatus, carefully chosen and often designed by himself, and earnest, diligent students; I found also a_ never- resting, energetic, keen-eyed chief of great originality and individuality. Jt is no wonder that Maxwell jestingly said that the electrical centre of gravity had shifted towards Japan. It must be remembered that at that time there were not half-a-dozen people in Great Britain who had experimented in electricity. Before 1875 he had published papers on telegraphy ; after 1875 ite investigations were mainly on elec- trical phenomena, sometimes without, but oftener with, a practical bearing on engineering. From 1879 to 1884 Ayrton was professor of ap- plied physics at the City and Guilds Technical Col- lege, Finsbury. It may already be forgotten that the system of instruction created there was radically different from anything which previously existed. It is now to be found in every technical college of this country. Students learnt by actually doing “things in the laboratories and workshops. The most im- portant thing leading to success was that there were no outside examiners. Hitherto professors had merely shown experiments at the lecture table. In one or two mechanical laboratories a few students looked on whilst the professor broke specimens with a 200-ton testing-machine or made tests on a steam engine. Only a few volunteer students had a chance of making experiments in physics anywhere. Ayrton gave interesting work to all students, and induced them to think things out for themselves. The motors and dynamos and other contrivances which were tested were not so small as to be toys, and they were not so large but that they could be left in charge of the average student without fear of disaster. The preliminary work was particularly Ayrton’s invention, and as to this his book on Practical Electricity ought to be consulted. He said :— in the study of mechanics and other parts of science we deal with weight, inertia, stress, colour, &c., and a boy’s senses have made such things tangible. But in electricity we deal with something almost abstract, and there must be a regular training which will make the things which we call current and voltage and resistance and magnetic induction just as tangible to the student as weight is. Again, Ayrton never tried to create the perfect engineer. He aimed at creating a learner, a person with developed common sense, a man who would learn engineering when he had the chance of prac- tice, a man whose education would go on until he died, a man who could use books, a man fond of reading. It is difficult now to say how much of his system is due to colleagues like Armstrong and myself. We had the same ideas, we never quar- relled, we never seemed to difler in opinion; on any given question we seemed always to come to the same conclusions. No mere chemist taught chemistry, no mere mathematician taught mathematics, no mere physicist taught physics, no mere specialist taught anything at that college. Practical and de- scriptive geometry and graphics were taught, and almost no deductive geometry or geometrical conics. Ninety per cent. of the usual work in algebra and trigonometry was put aside as unnecessary trickery. Analytical conic sections gave place to the calculus study of curves in general. Before 1879 squared paper was expensive; in 1879 Ayrton arranged that it could be bought at sixpence a quire. Every sub- ject was taught through the other subjects. I am afraid that the average student would have failed to pass any outside examination in any of the subjects, but he had a wonderful power of using on any new a ae Sr NOVEMBER 19, 1908] NATURE 75 problem his very thorough acquaintance with a few fundamental principles. No marks were ever given for lecture notes, but rough laboratory notes and finished accounts of laboratory work in good English, with elaborate sketches and squared-paper curves, were thought most important. When a hundred students pass through laboratories of no large dimensions in one week, some system must be adopted, and the educa- tion cannot be ideally perfect, especially when the number of instructors is limited. But great encour- agement was given to any student who adventured and discovered “things of which he had not been told anything. Advanced students had fine opportunities for original research. From 1884 until he died Ayrton was professor of electrical engineering at the City and Guilds Central College, South Kensington. The laboratory here became a sort of developed combination of that at Finsbury and the one in Japan. In my opinion, there is no electrical laboratory in the world that can com- pare with the Kensington laboratory, whether we look at it from the educational or from the research point of view. He always said that much of its suc- cess was due to the helpfulness of Mr. Mather. In dealing with students, that earnestness and enthusiasm and inspiration, that training in scientific method, that sympathy and helpfulness for others which he received from Lord Kelvin, he handed on to many thousands of pupils, and they in turn are handing them on to new generations. “The Electricians’ Directory ’? speaks of about 150 papers published, usually in collaboration with myself, Mather, and others, in the Proceedings and Trans- actions of the Royal Society, Physical Society, Institu- tion of Electrical Engineers, and other societies, giving the titles of the most important, and it gives the names of some of the numerous inventions with which Ayrton alone or with others has benefited the world. The time from 1879 to 1884 was a particularly happy one. There are now hundreds of schools where men may learn electrical science; in most of them his pupils are teaching. There are now thousands of electrical engineers in whose employment a man can obtain experience. But at that time there was only one school, there was almost only one office in which and there was almost only one engineer in whose service, education and experience could be found. Every young man of promise, every engineer with ambition, was attracted from Germany, America, and elsewhere to the place where new discoveries and new inventions were the order of the day. It was a glorious time, that pioneering time when everything planted was fruitful, when everything tried was suc- cessful. Those discoveries are now such common knowledge, those inventions are such usual parts of all electrical machinery, that nobody dreams of men- tioning their author’s name in connection with them. I remember once, in 1886, sitting at a meeting of the Institution of Electrical Engineers beside Prof. Ayrton, and, looking. over the large audience, I was able to say that nearly three-quarters of the people present were Ayrton’s old students. - loved the Institution of Electrical Engineers, and it was no wonder, for it was the mirror of his life. 1 gave a setting and a value to all his life’s work: and all he cared for. It gave a scope for that energy, that earnestness, that untiring industry, that hatred of inaction which was his most intense charac- teristic. He was a member of it almost from the beginning ; his speeches during discussions form some of the best reading in its proceedings; he was a diligent attender at ‘general meetings, at council meet- ings, and at meetings of the numerous committees. His love for it was that of a nurse or mother for NO. 2038, VOL. 79] one of the famous the boy whom she has seen grow up to splendid manhood. Since 1879, when he lectured on electrical trans- mission of power at Sheffield, Prof. Ayrton delivered many popular lectures, and each of them may be said to have been epoch-making. He acted on many juries and congresses. He was president of Section A of the British Association in 1898, president of the Physical Society in 1890, president of the Institution of Electrical Engineers in 1892. He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1881, and in 1901 he was awarded a Royal medal by the koyal Society for his scientific work. His first wife was his cousin, Matilda Chaplin, pioneering Edinburgh medical students; their daughter Edith, now Mrs. Israel Zangwill, was born in Japan. His second wife is well known as the only woman member of the In- stitution of Electrical Engineers ; she was awarded the Hughes medal of the Royal Society for her scientific worls in 1906; their daughter Barbara has already published a physiological investigation. When I first knew him in “Japan the motto printed on his notepaper was-‘‘ Energy.’’ It was his motto through life, or rather'his motto was ‘‘ Earnestness.”’ He had a keen sense of justice and a high regard for truth. His mere presence often caused the tone of conversation to be raised. The ideals towards which he worked incessantly were noble ideals. In his own lifetime great progress had been made towards their realisation, but occasionally he was despondent, parti- cularly towards the end, when his ailing body could not respond to his vehement spirit. He could not see that all the noble things for which he had worked were being worked for now by numerous energetic young men, most of whom had been inspired by himself. It was sad to watch him towards the end, the active mind warring with the weak body. I felt often that I wanted to say with Kent in the old play, ‘‘ O, let him pass! He hates him that would upon the racls of this rough world stretch him out longer.’’ Joun Perry. NOTES. Sir Wititam Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., and Dr. G. W. Hill have been elected corresponding members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences. M. Lours-Fét1x HenneGuy, professor of comparative embryogeny in the Collége de France, has been elected a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. James Swinpurne, F.R.S., has been elected presi- dent of the Junior Institution of Engineers, to the late M. Gustave Canet. in succession WE learn from Science that the Nichols medal of the American Chemical Society has been awarded to Prof. W. A. Noyes, of the University of Illinois, and Dr. H. C. P. Weber, for their researches on the atomic weight of chlorine. Tue Royal Statistical Society offers the ‘‘ Howard medal ’’ (bronze) and a grant of 2ol. for the best essay on a statistical study of infantile mortality in Great Britain and Ireland and of its The competition is open, and not limited to Fellows of the Statistical Society. Essays must be sent in before June 20, 1909. causes. is Tue eighty-third Christmas course of juvenile lectures, founded at the Royal Institution in 1826 by Michael Faraday, will delivered this year by Prof. William Stirling, his subject being ‘‘ The Wheel of Life.’’ The be 76 course, which will be fully illustrated, will commence on Tuesday, December 29, and will be continued on December 31, 1908, January 2, 5, 7, and 9, 1909. Tne fiftieth anniversary of the foundation of the British Ornithologists’ Union will be celebrated by a special meet- ing in the rooms of the Zoological Society on Wednesday, December 9, at 3 p-m. Only four of the original members still survive—Dr. F. Ducane Godman, F.R.S., Mr. Percy S. Godman, Mr. W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., and Dr. P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.—and at the close of the meeting com- memorative gold medals will be presented to them. Ar the annual general meeting of the London Mathe- matical Society, held on November 12, the following were elected to be the council and officers of the society for the session 1908-9 :—President, Sir William Niven; vice- presidents, Mr. A. Berry, Prof. W. Burnside, Prof. H. M. Macdonald; treasurer, Prof. J. Larmor; secretaries, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Mr. J. H. Grace; other members of the council, Dr. H. F. Baker, Mr. G. T. Bennett, Mr. A. L. Dixon, Prof. E. B. Elliott, Dr. L. N. G. Filon, Dr. E. W. Hobson, Major P. A. MacMahon, Mr. H. W. Richmond, Mr. A. E. Western. A Few weeks ago Sir J. H. Carruthers directed atten- tion to the fact’ that there is no monument in London to commemorate the life-work of Captain Cook. Admiral Lord Charles Scott and other representatives of the Royal Navy have expressed cordial approval of the proposal to erect such a monument to the great navigator. ‘* A large number of us have had reason,’’ they add, ‘‘ when follow- ing our vocation, to feel personally grateful to him for the care with which he carried out his explorations and the accuracy of his hydrographical surveys.”” It is hoped that the proposal to establish some public memorial of Captain Cook wil! receive generous support from the British public. Tue death of M. Alfred Ditte, professor of inorganic chemistry at the Sorbonne, adds yet another to the long list of losses sustained by the Academy of Sciences during the past year. This distinguished chemist, although not prominently identified with any epoch-making discovery, made important contributions to inorganic chemistry. The pupil of Deville, Ditte’s earlier papers furnished experimental material confirming the theory of dissociation. In this connection may be mentioned his work on the formation and decomposition of the hydrogen compounds of selenium and tellurium, and the same idea of the equilibrium of chemical reactions led to his re- searches on the action of water on antimony chloride, mercuric sulphate, and bismuth nitrate. The conditions governing the artificial production of crystallised minerals were also thoroughly worked out by him, and gave rise series of memoirs. Ditte published no joint numerous to a long papers, his work being entirely personal, and the same individuality was exercised in his professorial work, especially in his laboratory instruction. He was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1897, in succession to Schutzenberger. Tue Government of Madras has approved, we learn from the Pioneer Mail, the recommendation of the recent in- dustrial conference that there should be a special depart- special officer to deal with industrial ques- This officer will be styled Director of Industries. In carrying out industrial development the Government consider possible as the establishment of an industrial museum, the preparation of NO. 2038, VOL. 79] ment under a tions. immediate action is regards NATURE [NOVEMBER 19, 1908 | a list of manufactures in the Presidency of sufficient importance to justify the establishment of special industrial schools in relation to them, and in other directions. The director is to submit proposals for giving effect to the recommendations of the conference in regard to the estab- lishment of six weaving institutions on the lines of the Manchester or Bradford textile schools at six centres in the — Presidency, each under an Indian expert; the employment of a dyeing expert to report on the state of that industry — in the Presidency; the establishment of a leather-trade school with a small tannery attached; the offer of a reward — for the design of a suitable oil-extracting plant and the introduction of improved oil presses, &c. ; and the extension — of well-boring operations. From the Times of November 14 we gather the follow- ing remarks, contributed by a correspondent, upon the work of Dr. James Fletcher, the Dominion entomologist, whose death was announced last week :—So long ago as 1879 Dr. Fletcher was vice-president of the Entomological Society of Ontario and part editor of their annual reports, to which he had contributed a paper on Canadian beetles” in the previous year; and from this time until his death he worked hard at Canadian entomology and botany, and published numerous papers and reports, chiefly on economic entomology and on the habits and transformations of insects, in various Canadian journals, especially in the Canadian Entomologist, of which he became assistant editor in 1887, about the time that he was appointed Dominion entomologist and botanist to the exeprimental farms at Ottawa. Here he set himself energetically to combat insect pests, which are far more destructive in the American continent than in Europe, and his exertions were — so much appreciated that he was called “‘ the farmers’ — friend’’ throughout Canada. Nor did he neglect botany, for he published a ‘‘ Flora Ottawaensis ’’ in the Trans- actions of the Ottawa Field Club, vols. iv. (1880-4), and again in the Ottawa Naturalist, vols. ii—vii. (from 1888 onwards). Tue first general meeting of the Institute of Metals, formed in June last, was held in Birmingham on November 11 and 12 under the presidency of Sir William White, - K.C.B. The institute already has a membership of about 350, and a considerable number of members from all parts of the country attended, and were cordially welcomed by the Lord Mayor of Birmingham (Mr. G. H. Kenricl). The president’s address, which dealt with the aims of the institute and the part which manufacturers, users, and scientific investigators may be expected to play in its development, aroused the keenest interest. An excellent list of papers for reading and discussion was forthcoming, the most notable being those by Mr. J. T. Milton and Mr. A. Phillip on the practical side, and by Mr. C. Desch and Mr. W. Rosenhain on the scientific study of non- ferrous alloys. In the majority of cases the papers were adjourned for further discussion at the London meeting on January 19 and 20. It is a matter of congratulation that the Birmingham metal works have interested them- selves so keenly in the formation of the institute, and that a strong local committee was formed the invitation of which to hold the first meeting in this important centre of the metal industry was gladly accepted by the council of the institute. Excellent arrangements were made for the reception of members and visitors. Visits to some of the chief metal works were carried through, a reception was held by Sir Oliver Lodge at the new university build- ings, followed by an inspection of various departments, and special mention must be made of an exhibit at the ; | ; NovEMBER 19, 1908 | NATURE 77 conversazione of upwards of 100 “ diseased ’’ metals and alloys which had been collected at the instigation of Mr. Boeddicker, the chairman of the local committee. It is to be hoped that this display of metals and alloys which have failed from obscure causes will lead to much valuable research work being set in hand. Certain it is that in the corrosion of metals the institute has a magnificent field of investigation. The meetings were a pronounced success; the institute has justified its establishment, and now takes its place among the technical institutions of this country. Tue first number of the Bulletin of the Sleeping Sick- ness Bureau has been published by the Royal Society, bear- ing date October, 1908, and is edited by the director, Dr. A. G. Bagshawe. It deals with the chemotherapy of try- panosomiasis, and contains a clearly written summary and review of the results hitherto obtained in the treatment with drugs of diseases caused by trypanosomes, with refer- ences to 197 memoirs. The subject is dealt with under the headings ‘‘ Treatment of Trypanosomiasis in Man,’’ “‘ Bio- logical Accommodation of Trypanosomes to Chemothera- peutic Agents,’’ and ‘‘ Treatment of Experimental Animals,” after which the editor draws some conclusions and lays down some principles which, in his opinion, have been established by this vast accumulation of experimental re- search. The publication is a most valuable one, and will undoubtedly be of great use to those engaged in research or practice in this field by putting clearly before them what has been achieved, and suggesting lines of investigation to be followed. Potyenatous annelids collected off the Pacific coast of North America by the U.S. steamer Albatross in 1903 form the subject of a paper by Mr. J. P. Moore in the Pro- ceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- delphia for June last. Out of 107 species collected, forty- seven are considered to be new. AmoncG the contents of vol. iii., part i., of the Trans- actions of the Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-upon-Tyne is a paper by Mr. A. Randell Jackson on rare arachnids captured in Britain during 1907. Three of these are new to the British fauna, two being new species, of which one appears to be in- digenous, while the second is introduced; the third is a continental species of the attid or jumping group. Of three other species only one sex had hitherto been recorded in our islands. Spipers likewise form the subject of an article in the Bulletin international de l’Académie des Sciences de Cracovie for June, Mr. V1. Kulczynski treating therein of the Javan and Sumatran representatives of the groups Mygalomorphz and Cribellatea. Some of the specimens described were collected at Palembaug, in Sumatra, others in the islands of the Batu, Krakatau, and Babo groups, and yet others in Java itself, more especially in the moun- tains. A considerable number of new species and races is named and described. SrupeEnts of variation should be interested in an elaborate paper by Dr. A. Brozek, of Prague, on the variability and local forms of the decapod crustacean varians from four different localities, Sitsungsberichte der k. Bohm. Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften for 1907. Two of the four localities are so far apart as Plymouth and Montenegro, and the variations— in the number and form of the ‘‘ teeth’’ of the rostrum— are expressed in figures. It is noteworthy that the varia- bility displays a marked tendency to asymmetry, and the author divides this asymmetrical variation into a ‘‘ posi- tive ’’ southern and a ‘‘ negative ’’ northern type. NO. 2038, VOL. 79] Palaemonetes published in the ““ Tue damage caused to cotton in India by the cater- pillars of the cotton leaf-roller moth (Sylepta derogata, or multilinearis) is discussed by Mr. H. Maxwell-Lefroy in Entomological Bulletin, vol. ii., No. 6, of Memoirs of the Department of Agriculture in India. While this common pest does not, as a rule, inflict much harm on native Indian cotton, it is injurious to introduced American and Egyptian destroying in some instances almost the entire crop. Whether these foreign cottons will eventually become immune to attack remains to be seen. extremely strains, more Tue intra-uterine development of the hedgehog appears to have received but little attention at the hands of embryo- logists, despite the fact that the group is one of the most ancient of all mammals, and therefore likely to yield interesting results in this respect. As regards the age of the group, it may be mentioned that both the extinct Necrogymnurus and the existing Erinaceus are represented in the Oligocene phosphorites of central France, the persist- ence of the second genus being attributed to the defensive coat of spines with which its members are furnished. Recently Mr. H. Jacobfeuerborn has investigated the development of the hedgehog, with especial reference to the time of the acquisition of the external form during intra-uterine life, which he finds to be unusually early. The results of the investigation are published in the Zett- schrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. xci., part 1. Tue relations of the fauna of Central Europe to the Glacial period form the subject of a long and interesting paper by Prof. F. Zschokke, of Basle, published in the Verhandlungen der deutschen Zoologischen Gesellschaft for 1908. The paper is illustrated by two of Geinitz’s maps, showing the maximum glaciation of North and Central Europe. Although at first bringing death and destruction in its train, the Ice-age should be regarded, in the author’s opinion, as a great vivifying factor, exciting the fauna to active and passive migrations, and thus extending the dis- tribution of the various species both on land and in water. The author has much to say regarding the spread in Central Europe of Nehring’s ‘‘ steppe-fauna’’ from the direction of the Ostsee, and adds that subsequently to this there must have been a great northern post-Glacial migra- tion of southern animals and plants. The article is of such interest as to be well worthy of translation into English. To the October number (vol. xliii., part i.) of the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology Prof. O. C Bradley con- tributes an important paper on the morphology and development of the mammalian liver. Basing his con- clusions largely on development, the author is of opinion that the liver is primarily an organ of more simple struc- ture than was supposed to be the case by the late Sir W. H. Flower, consisting of three, in place of six, main lobes. The difference between the two views will be rendered most easily apparent by the following table :— Bradley Central lobe Flower. Right central lobe Left central lobe Right lateral lobe Caudate lobe Right lobule “" \ Left lobule Main part Processus caudatus Processus omentalis or papillaris Right lateral lobe Left lateral lobe Left lateral lobe The division of the central lobe into two is dependent on the presence of an ‘‘ umbilical fissure,’’ and is therefore not primary. The three fundamental lobes make their appearance independently, and develop in connection with different embryonic veins, the central lobe being produced 78 NATURE [ NovEMBER 19, 1908 about the umbilical veins, while the right and left lobes grow along the course of the corresponding omphalo- mesenteric veins. The origin of the hepatic fissures can- not yet be satisfactorily explained. A PHYTOGEOGRAPHICAL study of the Bonin Islands is con- tributed by Dr. A. Hattori to the Journal (vol. xxiii., art. 10) of the Royal College of Science, Tokyo. Although the average monthly temperature seldom exceeds 27° C., the vegetation is tropical in character, and shows close affinities with the flora of Formosa. A considerable pro- portion of Indian and Ceylonese plants, consisting largely of coastal plants, suggests the importance of sea trans- portation. A single endemic genus, Boninia (Rutacez), is recorded, and thirty endemic species, or about 14 per cent. of the total. The screw-pine, Pandanus boninensis, an endemic species, thrives generally, and in one locality forms a pure forest; the palms Livistona chinensis and Ptycosperma elegans are prominent, also the fern trees Alsophila Bongardiana and Cyathea spinulosa. AN impressive volume, copiously supplied with illustra- tions, has been compiled by Dr. D. T. Macdougal, of the Desert Botanical Laboratory connected with the Carnegie Institution at Washington; he discusses therein the botanical features of the North American deserts. The volume contains the essence of previously published reports on deserts in Texas, Mexico, and California, and concludes with some general remarks on deserts and desert plants. On the subject of temperatures it is noted that in the soil around the roots of plants temperatures were measured up to 43° C., and the readings obtained by inserting the bulbs of thermometers into Opuntia stems ranged from 27° C. to 43° C. Again, it was observed that on occasions a difference of 20° C. existed between the temperature of the air and soil surrounding the stem and root of the same plant. These facts, it will be seen, do not harmonise with generally accepted ideas. WE have received early numbers of the new periodical Archiv fiir Zellforschung, edited by Dr. R. Goldschmidt, intended, as the title implies, for the publication of original communications on The first part, February, was inaugurated with a paper by Dr. R. Hert- wig on modern cell-science, in which he discusses the function of the and the nature of its influence. He elaborates his theory of a relation exist- ing between the nucleus and the protoplasm, whereby the phenomena of division and other changes in the cell are regarded as a release of the tension set up by a departure from the normal proportion. An important contribution to the same subject is made by Dr. M. Popoff, wherein he details his experiments with Infusoria to obtain data for working out the proportion mentioned. The tabulated curves are of great interest, also the reasoning as to a chemico-physical ultimate cause. Dr. G. Tischler com- municates the results of cytological investigations with sterile plant hybrids, but is unable to offer any explana- tion of the determining influence. Other relate to the chromosomes, the formation of sperms in the Myxinoideex, and Dr. Goldschmidt traces the chromatin changes in the egg of Distomum lanceolatum. cytology. issued in problems of nucleus contributions Messrs. Gustav Fiscuer, of Jena, have published a very useful and interesting booklet, by Dr. P. Schatiloff, explanatory of Ehrlich’s ‘‘ side-chain theory,’”’ and _illus- trated with diagrams (‘‘ Die ehrlichsche Seiten- kettentheorie,’’ pp. 56, price 2 marks). several In the Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology for October (xviii.. No. 4) Mr. Judson Herrick discusses NO. 2038, VOL. 79] the morphological subdivision of the brain, and suggests a scheme of subdivision of the vertebrate nervous system which he thinks might be tentatively adopted as a terminology available for all vertebrates. Tue Journal of Hygiene for September (viii., No. 4) contains several important papers; among others, Mr. Currie discusses abnormal reactions to horse serum in the serum treatment of cerebro-spinal fever, Dr. Green dis- cusses immunity against vaccinia in animals and the in- fluence of temperature on calf vaccine, and Mr. Watson publishes a note on the variation of the rate of disinfection with change in the concentration of the disinfectant. Tue Bio-Chemical Journal for October (iii., No. 9) con- tains a paper by Dr. Owen Williams on the micro- chemical’ changes occurring in appendicitis. It would appear that in the course of the changes in the intestinal wall an abnormal condition with the formation of calcium soaps is induced. The calcium soaps are absorbed with difficulty, and tend to act as foreign bodies in the wall, and at times as a concretion in the lumen, of the appendix. Rats and their parasites have assumed considerable importance in the dissemination of plague, also in trichinosis, and Mr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S., in the Journal of Economic Biology (iii., No. 3, October) gives a long list of the ecto- and endo-parasites which infest these animals. In 1807 Dr. Francis Buchanan, author of the well-known ** Journey through Mysore,’’ was appointed to make a com- prehensive survey of Bengal. After about 20,0001. had been expended on the work it was discontinued, and a portion of the MSS., now in the India Office Library, was pub- lished by Mr. M. Martin in 1838 under the title of “Eastern India.’’ Even admitting its short- comings, the book has been of much value to later writers. Mr. H. MacPherson, Director of Land Records, Bengal, has now issued a pamphlet entitled *‘ The Aboriginal Races of the Sonthal Parganas: a Plea for the Reprint of the Buchanan Manuscripts,’’ in which he shows the value of the collection. If the Government of Bengal finds itself unable to re-print the collection in extenso, it may be hoped that it will at least publish the portions which Mr. Martin either abbreviated or omitted from his book. obvious One of the most primitive methods of chartography is that employed by the inhabitants of the Marshall Islands. Mr. T. A. Joyce, in the October number of Man, describes a chart of this class from the British Museum collection. It consists of a framework of sticks, those which are horizontal and vertical being intended as supports to the map, while the diagonal and curved rods represent the swells raised by the prevailing winds. At the intersections of the rods shells are fixed to denote the islands of the group. Comparison with a modern chart shows that the position of each island with reference to its neighbours is indicated with considerable accuracy. The distances from island to island are not so correctly defined; but this is a matter of minor importance, because the winds in these latitudes being constant at certain seasons the boat can be steered by the swells alone, and its position with refer- ence to the islands can be determined by indications which the practised eye draws from cross-swells and the like. From the fact that the Ralic Archipelago is most accurately charted, it would appear that the maker of this map was a resident in one of the islands of this part of the group. In the October number of the Reliquary Mr. E. H. Goddard discusses the objects of the Bronze age which have been found in Wiltshire. It is remarkable that a oe ye : NoveEMBER 19, 1908] NATO 79 district which at the earlier period of the Bronze age was densely peopled should possess so few examples of the later period, when men no longer buried their weapons with the dead. The writer suggests as an explanation of this that Wiltshire possesses neither large rivers, like the Thames, nor turbaries and bogs, such as those of Somer- set, Devon, and the north of England, situations where such relics are most abundantly found. The chalk downs of Wiltshire offered few opportunities for the loss of such things or for their preservation so late as our time. Even granting this, the absence of founders’ hoards, except one from Donham, now in the Farnham Museum, remains un- explained. Socketed celts and palstaves are fairly numerous, but swords, except one doubtful example in the Devizes Museum, are conspicuously absent. One dagger found at Winterbourne Basset resembles those found in the Swiss lake-dwellings. The socketed sickle from Winter- bourne Monkton is an unusual form of the implement, rare in any form in Great Britain, and almost unknown on the Continent, where ‘sickles without sockets are the rule. In Ireland, however, they are more common. A socketed gouge, again, is an example of a type uncommon in England. It seems obvious that the conditions of the Wiltshire Bronze-age people differed in some respects from that of the race in other parts of this country, and the abnormal types to which Mr. Goddard directs attention may have been the result of some foreign influence or may have been imported. His article supplies good illustrations of these abnormal local implements. Tne present month has experienced very exceptional changes of temperature, although for the most part the weather has remained mild for the time of year. During the first week the thermometer stood high over the whole country, and in many parts of England the days were more like spring than late autumn. A decided change of temperature occurred about November 7, and for the two or three subsequent days the thermometer fell to an abnormally low reading. At Greenwich the first frost of the season was registered by the sheltered thermometer on November 10, and the thermometer fell to 22°, which is lower than any previous reading during the first half of November since 1841, whilst on the grass the exposed thermometer registered 9°. The weather report issued by the Meteorological Office for the weelkk ending November 14 shows that similarly low readings occurred in other parts of the kingdom between November § and 11, the sheltered thermometer registering 16° in the east of Scotland, in the Midland counties, and 18° in the east, south-east, and south-west of England. On the grass the lowest readings were 7° at Llangammarch Wells, 9° at Green- wich, 12° at West Linton, 13° at Birmingham, 14° at Newton Rigg and Kew, and 15° at Canterbury, Oxford, Buxton, and Dumfries. There was a rapid rise of temperature between the mornings of November 1o and 11, amounting to 30° at Oxford, 25° at Nottingham, and 23° at Bath. The subsequent weather has been very mild for the time of year. : Pie] 17 Tue monthly meteorological charts of the North Atlantic and Indian Oceans issued by the Meteorological Office, and the chart for the North Atlantic issued by the Deutsche Seewarte, for November, 1908, have been received. The charts issued by both countries contain practically similar useful information, and show on their face the normal values of the principal meteorological elements, the best routes for sailing vessels and steamships, the average limits of trade winds for the month in question, together with the latest reports of ice in the Atlantic and of the south- west monsoon in the Indian Ocean. On the backs of the NO. 2038, VOL. 79] charts are given average statistics of fog in the Atlantic, of ice in the Southern Ocean, and other information of importance to seamen. The charts are published during the month prior to that to which the data refer; they are compiled from all available sources at the disposal of the various meteorological and hydrographic offices, and deal with some thousands of observations. The labour involved is very onerous, but the value of the work, brought up to current time, cannot be over-stated. Amonc several useful articles contained in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for June last, recently received, we find a note by Prof. Cleveland Abbe suggesting the import- ance of establishing a graduate school of meteorology on the principle of that established by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges, in which lectures and experiments by specialists bring home to interested audiences the present state of agricultural knowledge. The third session of this school held at Ithaca in July last; the ‘‘seminar”’ forms a predominating part of the work, in which the instructor undertakes to show students how important items of knowledge have been obtained, and replies to questions that may be put. Referring to meteorology, Prof. Abbe says :—* At present we rely too much on books and letters; we shall do better to get together, ask questions, try experiments, and com- pare notes.’’? In this country a great step in this direc- tion is made by the director of the Meteorological Office by continuing during the present winter season the series was of meetings commenced in 1905 for the informal dis- cussion of important contributions to meteorological literature, particularly those by colonial and foreign meteorologists. To these meetings contributors of observa- tions to the office, and, so far as space permits, others known to be interested in meteorology, receive invitations to be present, and to take part in the discussions. We also note that in a recently published report of a depart- mental committee appointed by the Board of Agriculture the opinion is expressed that in agricultural institutions provision might well be made for instruction respecting the relations between meteorology and the crops. Tue October issue of the Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers contains a communication, made to the institution in May by Mr. G. F. Mansbridge “of the Post Office, on the manufacture of electrical condensers. Although other forms of condensers are mentioned, the chief interest of the communication centres round the rolled paper condenser, in the development of which Mr. Mansbridge has played so active a part. To it we owe the possibility of purchasing condensers for as many shillings to-day as we paid pounds a few years ago. They are made of paper, one side of which is coated with tin mud, which is then dried and burnished. Two shects of this coated paper are rolled up together, with or without intervening layers of plain paper, and the roll impregnated with hot paraffin wax. A microfarad condenser constructed in this way, and tested by the direct deflection method, the voltage being applied one minute, shows an insulation resistance of 1700 megohms at 100 volts, 1500 at 500 volts, and 200 megohms at 1000 volts. Tue foundations of trigonometry form the subject of a paper by Dr. Arthur C. Lunn in the Annals of Mathe-~ matics (October). The author points out that in the exist- ing literature of real analysis, the purely logical introduc tion of circular functions, apart from any appeal to geo- metrical setting to supply features of the proofs, is mainly accomplished in two ways, one by defining the sine and cosine in terms of their expansions in infinite series, the other by basing the definition on the differentiation formulze 80 NATURE for the sine and cosine with the special conditions that sino=o and coso=1. Dr. Lunn considers that a more elementary treatment can be obtained by starting from the following postulates, viz. the addition formula for the sines of numbers of the straight-angle set, the continuity of the sine and cosine, the assumptions that cos go°=o sin go°=1, cos 180°=1, that cosx is not negative between o and go°, and that if sinx/x has a limit when x vanishes that limit is unity. The last assumption is required to determine the unit of angular measurement. IN a paper communicated to the Rivista marittima for March last, and reprinted by the Officina poligrafica italiana of Rome (1908), Dr. Filippo Eredia discusses the prevailing winds in the Straits of Messina, and gives statistics of the observations made at various semaphore stations along the Italian and Sicilian coasts. It was announced in last week’s Nature that on November 28 Mr. Thayer would give a demonstration at the Zoological Gardens of the obliterative effects of the costumes of animals. By an error, which we regret, the date was wrongly printed; it should have been November 18, and not November 28. Messrs. ISENTHAL AND Co., 85 Mortimer Street, London, W., have issued a list of precision instruments based on the resonance principle, containing information concerning the frequency and speed meters, as well as other instru- ments, constructed by them. WE have received from Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., a volume containing copies of four addresses delivered by him, in his capacity of president of the Linnean Society, at the anniversary meetings of the society in May of the years 1905-8. The subjects of the addresses were, in the successive years, Linnzus and artificial pearl formation, natural pearl formation, some fundamentals of sea-fisheries’ research, and plankton studies in the Irish Sea. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet Morenouse, 1908c.—The remarkable changes which have been shown to have taken place in the extent and form of comet 1g908c¢ are well illustrated by a series of photographs taken by M. Quénisset-at the Juvisy Observatory, and reproduced in the November number of the Bulletin de la Soctété astronomique de France. Two photographs taken on September 30 with equal exposures showed changes in intensity, but were quite eclipsed by one taken the next night, October 1, between toh. 48m. and 12h. 55m. The trail of a bright star interferes, somewhat with the image of the comet’s tail, but, despite this, it is seen that the tail has a large, bright condensation at some distance from the head. From the coma of the comet several narrow, straight streamers emerge, and then suddenly expand into a bright, nebulous mass which continues for some distance with a much greater breadth and diffuseness than the preceding part of the tail. It almost appears as though a tremendous activity of the head had emitted all this matter and had then subsided, leaving only the normal emission of material to form the straight, narrow streamers. This apparently fluctuating activity may easily be explained by assuming that, during its journey through space, the comet encounters meteor swarms of various densities. These changes may be held to account for M. Bigourdan’s widely published statement that, at about the time they were photographed, the comet lost its tail. The visual radiations certainly did decrease in intensity, but the photographic rays were not much fainter; M. Bigourdan’s observations were visual. Some of the photographs show a tail 17° long, that is, actually about twenty-seven million miles (43,000,000 km.), whilst the diameter of the nucleus is 10! of arc, or actually about 290,000 miles (460,000 km.). Numerous photographs, showing changes NO. 2038, VOL. 79] similar to [NOVEMBER 19, 1908 those described above, have also been obtained at the Greenwich and Stonyhurst observatories. Particulars of the more recent spectrum of the comet are published by MM. Deslandres and Bernard in No. 18 of the Comptes rendus (p. 774, November 2). The spectra were obtained with a specially designed spectrograph of 10 cm, aperture and 31 cm. focal length, fitted with an ultra-violet glass objective. A prism of the same glass, having an angle of 22°, was placed in front of the objective, and was, at times, supplemented by another of ordinary flint having an angle of 61°. The spectra obtained differ on many points from those obtained earlier by Comte de la Baume Pluvinel and de- scribed in these columns. The present workers find that the ratio of ultra-violet to visual rays is abnormal, and that the continuous spectrum is very persistent both in the images of the head and of the tail. The hydrocarbon bands, usually a prominent feature of cometary spectra, especially in the green region, are apparently absent, whilst of the numerous cyanogen bands reported by de la Baume Pluvinel only the two first heads of the ultra- violet group, at A 388, were photographed. The three strongest bands appear at about A 456-1, A 426-7, and A 401-3, and are due to some unknown light-source. Many of the bands are double, and MM. Deslandres and Bernard suggest the possibility of this being due to the Zeeman or the Doppler effect, or, maybe, to some new pheno- menon special to comets. A New Specrroscoric Laporatory AT PAsAaDENA.— Owing to the difficulty of obtaining large supplies of elec- tricity at the Mount Wilson Observatory, Prof. Hale has recently installed a mew _ spectroscopic laboratory at Pasadena, where the laboratory researches necessary for the elucidation of present-day solar problems may be carried out. An illustrated description of the new labora- tory appears in No. 3, vol. xxviiil., of the Astrophysical Journal (p. 244, October). The main instrument is a 30-feet spectrograph sunk in a waterproof well, 8 feet in diameter, in the concrete floor of the laboratory. The numerous pieces of apparatus for producing radiations are arranged around the well-head, the light being reflected on to the spectrograph slit by a plane mirror. Among the apparatus briefly described in the present note there is an electric furnace capable of withstanding pressures up to 200 atmospheres, and of giving temperatures up to 3000° C.; this is to be employed for studying the spectra of such refractory metals as vanadium and titanium at widely different temperatures. A transformer capable of producing voltages from 1000 to 64,000 has also been installed, whilst a complete outfit for the study of the Zeeman effect in various spectra is in- tended for the laboratory researches which will naturally follow Prof. Hale’s recent and remarkable discoveries in the sun-spot spectrum. A Larce Group or Sun-spots.—Another large group of sun-spots, made up of a great number of smaller spots, has recently been seen on the solar disc. This group was first observed. at South Kensington on November 6, and was for several days quite easily visible with the naked eye. Another extensive group was first seen, near the limb, on November 12, and was visible to the naked eye on November 17. BrocrarnicaL Memoir or Asapa Harri.—In April of this year Mr. G. W. Hill read before the National Academy of Sciences, Washington. a biographical memoir of the late Prof. Asaph Hall giving an account of his life and work. This memoir now appears in vol. vi. of the Biographical Memoirs of the society (pp. 241-309), and is accompanied by a valuable bibliography of Prof. Hall’s writings, published between 1858 and 1906, to the number of four hundred and eighty-six. A ResEarcH ON THE MoveMENT OF Comet Wotr.—The results obtained from the first part of a research into the movement of comet Wolf, undertaken by M. Kamensky, of the Pulkowa Observatory, appear in No. 13 of the Bulletin de l’Académie impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (October, p. 1041). The present results consist of tables for the calculation of the eccentric anomaly, and they may be used in calculating the perturbations of Faye’s and Tempel's comets also. mae i Baa Se SER ay. lant RE a NOVEMBER 19, 1908 | THE MANUFACTURE OF ARTIFICIAL GRAPHITE. ITH the advance of electrochemistry it was found that electrodes of carbon were not so satisfactory as could be desired, because they disintegrated badly when employed in a great many of the electrochemical processes for which they were found to be practically the only sub- stitute for the expensive platinum. Many attempts were therefore made to convert ordinary carbon into the more suitable modification—graphite—which possesses high con- ductivity and resistivity. No very satisfactory method was devised, however, until Mr. Acheson succeeded in obtaining a very pure form accidentally when engaged in experiments upon the forma- tion of silicon carbide, now known commercially as carborundum. Silicon carbide can be prepared by heating in the electric resistance furnace a mixture of silica and carbon, when the following reaction takes place :— SiC, +3C=SiC+2C0. On one occasion, by the overheating of the furnace, he found that a large quantity of silicon carbide had been decomposed into carbon and silicon as follows :— siC=C-+Si. The silicon had actually been volatilised, and carbon in the form of graphite remained behind. Silicon carbide is a magnificently crystalline product showing a splendid iridescence, and the graphite which was left behind had all the crystalline shape which the carbide originally had, but it no longer possessed irides- cence, and in place of being next only in hardness to the diamond, was soft and friable, and had the familiar black appearance of graphite. Analysis showed it to be almost pure carbon, containing no more than 0-05 per cent. of impurities. It might naturally be supposed that the purity of the final product would be directly affected by the purity of the starting material. This certainly would be so if it were simply a case of the high temperature of the furnace changing ordinary carbon into graphite; but as the re- action depends upon the formation of a carbide, which then at the great heat to which it is subjected loses one constituent by volatilisation, the other constituent remaining behind, and, furthermore, as at the temperature at which this reaction takes place all other metals are volatilised, or first converted into carbides and then volatilised, leaving the carbon, this is not so. In the preparation of graphite it is not necessary that sand in the proportions SiO, +3C =SiC+2CO should be employed, because if the lower layers are con- verted into carbide volatilisation takes place. The vapourised silicon then passes through the next layer, and is converted into carbide; further volatilisation ensues, and the silicon passes through another layer, and so on pro- gressively, until, finally, it passes out of the furnace as vapour. The furnace is a long, oblong brick channel with electrodes at each end, which are connected together by means of a core made of granulated carbon. This core is surrounded by the mixture of sand and carbon, such as coke, from which the graphite is to be prepared. The furnace core is made of such dimensions that when the current is passed the temperature will be raised sufficiently high to convert the mixture surrounding it into car- borundum, and then volatilise the silicon, leaving behind the graphite. The carbon electrodes consist of twenty-five carbon rods, every rod being 86 cm. long and 10 cm. square. The internal part of the furnace is lined with silicon carbide, which protects the fire-bricks from the enormous operating heat. Generally, coal is employed as a raw material, being first broken to the size of peas; but as anthracite does not convey the current well, a conducting core of carbon rods is run through the centre of the furnace. When the furnace has been built up it is covered in with a mixture of sand and coke to prevent access of air. It is usually about 9 metres long, and the anthracite layer is NO. 2038, VOL. 79] NATURE rome 50 cm. by 35 cm. square. Such a furnace requires about soo kilowatts to work it. At the commencement of the operation the resistance is very high, therefore a high electrical pressure is required at the terminal electrodes. As the temperature rises and the core becomes graphitised, the resistance becomes less ; consequently the voltage of the external circuit must be cut down. A pressure of about 200 volts is required at the commencement, but towards the end this is lowered to 75 volts. Shortly after the current is switched on, the volatile portions of the coal are driven off and burn with a characteristic yellow flame, which after a time becomes less, and its place is taken by the blue-coloured flame of carbon monoxide, because at this point the carbide com- mences to form. As the process continues the flame again becomes yellow, the carbide at this stage being decom- posed. When the reduction is completed the flame is chiefly made up of burning volatilised metal, and shows a very fine absorption spectra. If a cold body is intro-_ duced into the flame it becomes covered with a felt-like coating of silicon dioxide. The length of time required depends upon the purity of the graphite required. For most technical purpo it may contain up to to per cent. of ash. Further heating lowers the ash content, but, of course, as more energy is re- quired, it increases the cost of the finished product. Owing to the fact already mentioned, that much less than the theoretical amount of carbide-forming material need be added, Acheson finds that anthracite coal, which in its natural condition contains disseminated throughout its mass certain impurities, such as Fe,O,, SiO,, Al,O,, &c., is particularly well adapted to produce graphite. That which contains 5-78 per cent. of impurities is especially suited for this purpose, and the graphite obtained from it contains only about 0-033 per cent. of ash. Other carbonaceous materials, such as brown coal, may be used, but, as a rule, the results are not so satisfactory. It is not necessary that the carbide should be silicon carbide; other carbides, such as iron, appear to be of equal value in the formation of graphite. A spectro- graphic study of the flames produced in the operation always shows the presence of volatilised metals. A particularly fine quality of graphite can be obtained from the coke left at the bottom of the stills used for cracking petroleum. This coke, known as petroleum coke, is honeycombed with small holes produced by the escaping gases, and the graphite obtained has exactly the same appearance as the original product, except that in place of the dull black of the coke it has the polished appearance characteristic of graphite. For making electrodes, crucibles, motor brushes, and other articles of any particular shape, it is not necessary, as is the case with natural graphite, to grind up and then shape the articles with some suitable binding material; but by the Acheson process the articles are first made from some form of amorphous carbon, and after- wards converted directly into graphite. For example, lamp-black, powdered wood charcoal, or coke is mixed with a metal, its oxide or salt, which is capable of form- ing a carbide; the mixture is then moistened with water containing a little sugar—molasses or other binding material—made into a paste, and formed into any desired shape. It is then placed in the electric furnace, embedded in broken carbon, and covered over with amorphous carborundum to prevent loss of heat. The dimensions of the furnace are so arranged that when the current is passed the temperature is raised sufficiently high to graphitise a portion of the carbon; the furnace then be- comes more conducting, and the pressure at the terminals can be lowered. As an example of the proportions of carbon and oxide used, the following has been found satis- factory for the formation of motor brushes :—ninety-seven parts finely powdered wood charcoal and three parts of iron oxide mixed into a paste and formed into the desired shape. If the electrodes are separated about 5 metres, the space between being filled with the articles to be graphitised and packed with carbon, an initial E.M.F. of 150 volts causes a current of 300 amperes. As the carbon and articles become graphitised the E.M.F. drops, until with a pressure of 100 volts a current of 7ooo amperes is passing. a 82 NADROLIGE [NovEMBER 19, 1908 Acheson finds that it is not always desirable to convert the whole of the articles into graphite, but that if the operation is stopped when a portion is still ungraphitised they are stronger and less liable to fracture than when they consist of pure graphite. It has already been mentioned that graphite of any desired purity can be obtained by this process, it simply being a question of how long the product is heated in the furnace. When it is to be ground and used as a lubricant it is necessary to. make it of a higher degree of purity than when required for many other purposes ; but, however pure the graphite, there are certain difficul- ties in employing it as a lubricant mixed with oil or water, owing to its precipitating out very shortly after being mixed with them. Although many attempts have been made to get over this difficulty, it is only quite recently that Acheson has been successful in doing so. In 1901, when experimenting upon the manufacture of crucibles, he found some difficulty in obtaining clay which had good binding qualities. clays which are used in the manufacture of crucibles. International Acheson Graphite Co., Ni was noticed that American crucible makers imported the clay from Germany, because, although the clay practically the same chemical constitution as the American product, it has a greater tensile strength and is more plastic. Acheson then noticed that clays found at or near to the place at which the felspar rocks are decomposed are not so plastic or strong as when obtained at a distance from their source of origin. It occurred to him that this might be due to their containing vegetable or organic extract matter. Experiments were therefore undertaken upon the action of vegetable extract matter, such as tannin and plant | extracts, upon various clays. Remarkable results were obtained, it being found that a weak and only moderately plastic clay, after treatment with a dilute solution of tannic acid or extract of straw, increased in plasticity and became much stronger. In some cases the increased strength was as much as 300 per cent., and only 60 per cent. as much water was required to produce a given degree of fluidity. It remained suspended in water, and would through a filter paper. Clay thus treated Acheson called yptianised,’’ because the ‘‘ Children of Israel’ used straw in making bricks. Now as clay so treated would remain NO. 2038, VOL. 79] pass suspended in He therefore commenced the study of | It | gara Falls, N.Y. has | water, it occurred to- Acheson that perhaps the fine, unctuous graphite’ which he succeeded in directly manu- facturing in the electric furnace in 1906 would also remain suspended in water if thus treated. When disintegrated, graphite is treated with water con- taining tannin, the weight of which was from 3 per cent. to 6 per cent. of the graphite employed. The graphite remains suspended in the water indefinitely, and passes through a fine filter paper; it is therefore in a semi- colloidal condition. Graphite so treated Acheson calls “ deflocculated.’’ To cause complete deflocculation and the suspension of the whole of the graphite requires pro- longed mastication in the form of a paste with water and tannin, and after this mastication it is improved by | diluting -with considerable water and allowing to remain some weeks, with occasional stirring. The addition of a very small quantity of hydrochloric acid causes floccula- tion and precipitation. The graphite, even after it has been flocculated, is in so fine a state of division that when dried by evapora- tion en masse it forms a hard cake. It is self-bind- ing, like clay, and when dried in the sun is like a black clod of clay. This deflocculated graphite is a splendid lubricator, and may be used in place of oil. It was tested on a shaft measuring 25/16 inches in diameter, and running at 3000 revolutions per minute in a bear- ing 10 inches long. On the same shaft a similar bearing was lubri- cated with oil, and this ran much the warmer of the two. If water alone is used for lubricating, rust- ing ensues; no rusting takes place with deflocculated graphite. Deflocculated graphite can also be suspended in the dehydrated state in oil. The two products come on the market as ‘‘ aquadag’’ and oildag ” (d-a-g = defloceulated Acheson graphite). Aquadag has been found very satisfactory as a cutting com- pound in screw-cutting. It will be readily understood that, while preventing rust, the high specific heat of the water permits high speed of the machinery, and there- fore increased ‘output. One dis- advantage of aquadag is the rapid evaporation of the water; conse- quently, for general lubricating Uses purposes, oildag is of more value. For automobile lubrication, for example, oildag is stated to have proved much more efficient than oil without graphite. F. Maks THE FAUNA OF THE MAGELLAN REGIO I N 1892-3 Dr. W. a zoological collecting expedition to South Michaelsen conducted the south end of | America, and was remarkably successful as regards booty. Descriptions of his collections began to appear in 1896, and they are now gathered together in three substantial volumes, each of several hundred pages. Dr. Michaelsen gives a lively account of his journeyings, and Prof. Dr. G. Pfeffer, of Hamburg, who persuaded some of his enlightened fellow-citizens to subsidise the expedition, refers briefly to the general bearing of the various con- tributions. It seems to us a matter for regret that there is no adequate summation of the results of the expedition, though we do not know what more Dr. Pfeffer could have done within the limits allotted to him. It is certainly 1 ‘‘ Ergebnisse der Hamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise 1802-93. Herausgegeben vom Naturhistorischen Museum zu Hamburg. Bd. a, Allgemeines, Chordonier, Echinodermen, und Ccelenteraten. Bd. ii, Arthropoden. Bd. iii., Bryorzoen und Wiirmer, Not continuously paged ; numerous plates (Hamburg: L. Friederichsen and Co., 1896-1907.) NoOvEMBER 19, 1908] NATURE 83 very difficult to deal with a huge bundle of memoirs, by about forty different authorities, and bearing diverse dates from 1896 to 1907. We cannot do more than give a general indication of the contents of these volumes. Dr. Paul Matschie reports on eight species of mammals, including a new mouse (Acodon michaelseni, n.sp.), and refers to a number of remarkable facts, such as _ the occurrence in the. sub-Antarctic region of a cat (Felis pajeros) which closely resembles the Manul-cat of Central Asia. G. H. Martens discusses the birds, of which forty- two species were collected. He notes that 299 species (in 176 genera) are known to occur in the Antarctic and notial regions (south of a line between 42° and 43° S.), that of these 192 are confined to the western hemisphere and fifty-six to the eastern, while forty-eight are circum- polar. It is pointed out that about a third of the families of birds are represented in the southern polar region. We may direct attention to the statement that the Arctic tern is found as far south as 66°. Dr. Franz Werner describes two new iguanids from Chili—species of the genus Liolamus—and a new batrachian, Leptodactylus kreffti, also Chilian. Prof. Einar Loénnberg deals with forty-six species of fishes, including Etmopterus paessleri, a new dog-fish. Prof. Michaelsen reports on the tunicates, describing some new forms, discussing the classification of Polyzoide, and showing that Paramolgula, Agnesia, Boltenia, and Synoicum are good instances genera. The typical form of the pelagic Fritillaria borealis is found in the two polar regions, while other forms (sargasst and intermedia) are {ound in the tropics. Prof. H. Ludwig makes an interesting comparison of Arctic and Antarctic holothurians. No Antarctic species occurs in the Arctic fauna; ten genera are represented at both poles; nine genera represented in the south are absent from the north; six genera represented in the north are absent from the south; of the ten genera represented at both poles, none is exclusively polar; two genera—Pseudo- psolus and Theelia—are exclusively Antarctic; four genera —Eupyrgus, Trochoderma, Myriotrochus, and Acantho- trochus—are exclusively Arctic. It comes to this, that there is no special resemblance between Antarctic and Arctic holothurians; on the contrary, there is: great dis- similarity. It is pointed out that ten forms showing “parental care’’ are now known, that six of these are peculiar to the Antarctic, and that each of the six has solved the problem in a fashion of its own. There is hermaphroditism in Cucumaria crocea and Pseudopsolus macquariensis, while in two synaptids (Chiridota pisanit and Ch. contorta) the sexes are separate. Dr. M. Meissner describes a new echinus from Gough Island, and takes a survey of the southern forms. He notes some illusory suggestions of bipolarity which he corrects later on; the fact is that there is little in common between north and south. Only one species of Antedon (A. rhomboidea) was obtained from the Magellan region, but Prof. Ludwig takes a survey of the known southern forms. He finds that the species of Antedon are in a general way like the northern species, but there is no bipolar species, and there are no northern counterparts of Thaumatocrinus renovatus, Promachocrinus kerguelensis, and P. abyssorum. In his report on the ophiuroids, Prof. Ludwig notes that although six genera occur in both polar regions, there is no bipolar species. Meissner discusses the asteroids, and notes that although fifteen genera are represented in both polar regions, there is no bipolar species. Dr. Walther May discusses the twenty-two species of alcyonarians from the Magellan region, including the three new species Alcyonium paessleri, Metalcyonium patagonicum, and Virgularia kophameli. Dr. Carlgren reports on the Zoantharia, de- scribing many new species and establishing a number of new genera, Condylanthus among Antheadz, Isotealia, a Bunodid, Parantheoides, one of the Paractidae. There is no clear case of bipolarity of species. An interesting fresh discovery is that of numerous brood-pouches (ectodermic invaginations of the body-wall) in Condylactis georgiana, the first case recorded among Antarctic Actiniaria. The reports on Arthropoda make up a thick volume. In his account of the Hemiptera, G. Breddin establishes a new family to receive a somewhat isolated type, Peloridium; H. Schouteden describes two new aphids; Prof. A. Forel discusses three new ants, which are the NO}, 2938, VOL. 70] of bipolar | | most southerly representatives of their race as yet re- corded; E. H. Rubsaamen reports on a remarkable new Pteromalid (Aditrochus fagicolus, n.g. et sp.), peculiar in structure and unique in making Cynipid-like galls on the leaves of the Antarctic beech, whereas all other gall- making Pteromalids, so far as is known, attack mono- cotyledons (orchids and grasses). Prof. H. Kolbe uses the beetles to support the theory of a connection through the Antarctic continent between the south of South America (Archiplata) and Australia (including New Zealand). Dr. O. Staudinger discusses the Lepidoptera of the Magellan region, and describes more than a score of new species. The small collections of Trichoptera and Ephemeridz are reported on by G. Ulmer; Prof. Fr. Klapdlek describes a few new Plecoptera; Dr. F. Ris has based his report on Odonata on more material than the collection afforded, and he has been able to show the striking contrast between the Atlantic and the Pacific sides as regards their dragon-flies. Dr. C. Schaffer had a large collection of Apterygota to deal with (including twenty-two new species), and he has established five new genera. He directs attention to the presence of a large number of European forms, e.g. species of Achorutes, in South America. | E. Simon deals with the spiders, many of which are new. He points out that the Clubione and Agelenidze form more than half the whole arachnoid fauna in the Magellan region. In connection with Bigots antarctica, n.sp., he refers to the occurrence of the only other species, B. pupa, in the Philippines, ‘‘ one of the strangest facts of geographical relations, of which no adequate explana- tion can be suggested at present.’’ He also reports on a couple of scorpions, a book-scorpion, and two Opiliones. The Gonyleptide, or Opiliones Laniatores, are dealt with by W. Sorensen, and the mites by Prof. P. Kramer, who remarks on the absence-of. any characteristic. Magellan genera. Dr. Carl Graf Attems reports on three myrio- pods—apparently the first to be recorded from the Magellan region. One of them is the widespread European and North American. Scolopendrella immaculata; the second is a new species of Scolioplanes—a genus the representa- tives of which are known from Europe and the East Indies; the third is nearly allied to the European and north African species of Schendyla, but is made the type of a new subgenus, Schendyloides. It is thus evident that, so far as may be judged from these three species, the Magellan myriopods have close affinities with Palearctic forms. ° Mr. T. V. Hodgson describes three new species of pycenogonids belonging to the genera Nymphon, Tany- stylum, Colossendeis; Dr. Carl Zimmer deals with a new species of Neomysis and six new Cumacea. Dr. W. Weltner discusses the Cirripedia, and compares the Arctic and Antarctic forms, showing that the seven genera and the four species which are represented both in the north and the south are cosmopolitan in their distribution. Of the fresh-water ostracods described by Dr. W. Vavra, three are European and cosmopolitan, and five mew species belong to widely distributed genera. The same authority deals with the fresh-water Cladocera, of which four are new. Al. Mrdzek discusses the fresh-water copepods, and lays emphasis on the distinctiveness of the southern Centro- pagidez, among which Parabroteas, Lovenula, and the genera centred around Boeckella are especially character- istic. L. Calvet reports on sixty-one species of marine Bryozoa, of which three are cosmopolitan, seven occur also in Arctic seas, and three others are sub-Arctic. Of the thirty-five genera represented, no fewer than twenty-five have Arctic as well as sub-Antarctic species. Thus, as regards genera, there is considerable resemblance between the north and the south, but a similar resemblance exists between the tropical littoral genera and those of the north or south. There is not much resemblance between north and south as regards species of Bryozoa, and it cannot be said that there are in the deep sea any connecting links between the Arctic and Antarctic contingents. Dr. W. Fischer’s short report on four Gephyrea is very interesting, for he shows that the Antarctic forms of Phascolosoma are simply varieties of the Arctic Phascolo- soma margaritaceum, Sars, that Priapulus caudatus is 84 also bipolar, and that the southern Echturus chilensis and Priapuloides australis have their counterparts in . the northern E. unicinctus and P. typicus. Prof. R. Blanchard describes six new species of leeches belonging to the genera Trachelobdella (1), Helobdella (4), and Semiscolex (1). Mr. Frank E. Beddard deals with a large number of new Oligochzta. Thus he establishes a new genus of Limicole, Hesperodrilus, with four species, and among Terricola he describes thirteen new species of Acanthodrilus and eight of Microscolex. He regards the south of South America as the headquarters of these two genera, while the Geoscolecidz and the genera Kerria and Ocnerodrilus are as distinctively northern. The collection included eight Lumbricida, which are all European species, and probably imported. Dr. Michaeclsen also makes a report on the Terricole, adding some new forms and adjusting the names of others in accordance with his system of classifi- cation. Dr. H. Ude deals with the Enchytreide, and points out that the genera represented in the sub-Antarctic region, e.g, Enchytraeus, Pachydrilus, and Marionina, are familiar European or even boreal genera. This indicates the world-wide distribution of an ancient fresh-water fauna. But, curiously enough, the genus Mesenchytrzeus is not represented at all in the Antarctic region. “Prof. Ernst Ehlers reports on the Magellan Polychata— eighty-five species (thirty-six new) in fifty-five genera—and gives an interesting description of the general features of the polychat fauna, such as the strong representation of Syllida’ and Phyllodocidee. The following species occur in the boreal and notial regions, but not in the intermediate tropical and subtropical seas:—Nephthys longisetosa, Glycera americana, Scolecolepis vulgaris, Arenicola assimilis, and Notomastus~ latericeus. How this ‘“ bi- polarity ’’ is to be accounted for Prof. Ehlers does not say. Dr. von Linstow has some very remarkable facts to relate regarding nematodes. Thus Ascaris osculata of northern Fissipedia occurs also in exclusively Antarctic forms, and Ascaris adunea occurs in northern and southern fishes the habitats of which in no way overlap. From cases like these, and from the character of the free-living NATURE nematodes, von Linstow argues that in past ages the | conditions of life and evolution must have been more uniform over the earth, and the occurrence of types much more widespread. Dr. O. Steinhaus points out that four species of Chztognatha are common to the far north and the far south. As to nemerteans, Prof. O. Biirger directs attention to the complete absence of Protonemertini from | southern waters, and to the occurrence of Carinoma patagonica in the Straits of Magellan—its only known congener being the rare C. armandi of the British coast. He thinks that the resemblance of the boreal and notial nemerteans is undeniable, so long as we fix our attention on genera. Prof. Lénnberg remarks on the close resemblance between three southern cestodes and Scandinavian species. It is the similarity of host that counts. The northern host of Bothridiotaenia erostris is a gull or a fulmar: the southern host of the same is a penguin. Prof. Max Braun establishes a new genus of trematode, Lophocotyle, which ranks among the Monocotylide; Dr. Rudolf von Ritter- Zahony establishes two new genera of polyclads; and Prof. L. Béhmig describes three new rhabdoccelids and five new triclads. It should be of the authors have in- noted that most creased the value of their contributions by including in survey A their all the forms recorded from the Magellan region. s regards the question of ‘‘ bipolar ’’ distribution, to which most of them refer, the impression left on a reader’s mind is that it is very difficult to generalise. It appears that the state of affairs differs in regard to different sets of animals. In some cases, holo- thurians, the dissimilarity of boreal and notial forms is more striking than the resemblance; in other cases, e.g. Bryozoa, there is a marked resemblance as to the genera represented at the two poles, but this does not extend to any identity of species; in a few cases, e.g. Gephyrea, the same species occur north and south, but some of the instances of this kind have to be discounted when the species in question (e.g. of Cirripedia) are cosmopolitan. NO. 2038, VOL. 79] rf e.g. [NOVEMBER 19, 1908 BOTANY AT THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. THE proceedings of Section K at Dublin, under the presidency of Dr. F. F. Blackman, above than below the average standard of quality, and were characterised by more homogeneity than is usually the case, a large proportion of the papers dealing with certain aspects of physiological botany. Several of these dealt with those fields of investigation in which progress at present consists in the application of physico-chemical principles and quantitative methods to the experimental analysis of complex physiological phenomena into their component processes and factors. The presidential address (NATURE, October 1, vol. Lxxviii., Pp. 556), which was entitled ‘‘ The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the Living Plant,” dealt with this aspect of physiology, and urged the view that in some cases the internal metabolic changes of the organism which “follow external changes should be re- garded, not as reactions of protoplasm to stimulation, but as inevitable alterations of metabolic reaction-velocity. Physiological Papers. The death of individual cells as brought about by chemical poisons or high temperatures is a complex phenomenon, the experimental quantitative investigation of which leads to important biological conceptions. Two papers were com- municated on this subiect after the delivery of the presi- dential address. The first, by Miss Harriette Chick, dealt with the death-rate of bacteria under the action of dis- infectants. When a crowd of similar bacteria are treated with any disinfectant they die off at such a rate that the ““number surviving *’ after successive intervals of time fall into a logarithmic curve. The process of killing is thus continuous, and there is no definite time of exposure which can be said to be fatal. The killing goes on in a way that recalls the progress of a monomolecular reaction according to the “law of mass.’’ It is shown that the different times of resistance of the bacteria are not due to permanent differences between the individuals, but that these differ- ences are temporary and possibly phasic. Viewed in this way, the rate of killing is a phenomenon of reaction- velocity, and it is found that increase of temperature accelerates the reaction-velocity of disinfection just as it does that of a chemical reaction. This paper was follawed by one by Miss Nora Darwin and Dr. F. F. Blackman, dealing with the death-rate of cells of higher plants in fatal conditions. When it is realised that bacteria die off logarithmically under uniform unfavourable conditions, it becomes at once interesting to determine whether the cells of a tissue of a higher plant die in the same independent way, or whether their closer protoplasmic connection leads to their behaving all alike. Experiments on this point are being carried out with strips of potato, fuchsia stamens, and other organs, using the shortening of the tissue resulting from loss of cell-turgor on death as an indication of the progress cf the death- rate. An optical lever was used to record the shortening, and submersion in hot water as the fatal condition. * The cells of the tissue appear to behave like a number of bacteria, and to die off progressively and logarithmically, but this interpretation has yet to firmly established. Seeds submerged in water at 42° C. to 50° C. exhibit clearly a logarithmic death-rate. Other physiological papers were communicated en Thurs- day by Prof. H. H. Dixon, on the influence of living cells on the transpiration current, and by Prof. Base, on the mechanical and electrical responses of plants. Prof. Dixan be described experiments to show that there is no evidence of vital activity as a contributory factor in raising the transpiration current in a branch. The rate of trans: mission of water in a branch from above downwards was found to be the same before and after killing by steam cr picric acid. The fading of leaves on a steam-killed hranch is shown to be directly due to a poison liberated info the transpiration current by the dead cells. and is not to he taken as evidence that some preexisting vitel raisino ferce has been extineuished bv the killing. Prof. Bose save a of his views on nlant-re- sponses as expounded in his recent books. His paper was cuemeyare were rather , @ a ee NovVEMBER 19, 1908 | illustrated by experiments with the ingenious apparatus devised by him for investigating the mechanical and electrical responses universally exhibited by plants on stimulation. Friday morning was occupied with a series of five papers on photosynthesis by workers at Cambridge. The president gave an introductory paper on photochemical action in the test-tube and the leaf, which consisted of a short account of the quantitative laws governing such chemical changes in vitro, followed by an inquiry as to how far the con- ditions under which photolysis of CO, takes place in the leaf would allow these laws to come into action. Mr. Thoday then read a paper on increase in dry weight as a measure of assimilation. This is the first critical examination of Sachs’s classical method, with the object of directly determining the nature and magnitude of possible errors that the procedure involves. Many investigators have used it confidingly, but recently it has been suggested that the method gives uniformly too high results, possibly due to fixation of water in the cell during insolation, in addition to the formation of carbohydrates. Mr. Thoday has proved that there is no such fixation of water by finding that organic analysis of the increased carbon content makes it clear that practically the whole increase of dry weight may be reckoned as carbohydrate. Further, it is shown that the excessively high values sometimes obtained are really due to another cause, namely, to shrinkage of the leaf- surface by transpiration. Records were exhibited showing that an attacked leaf of sun-flower fluctuates in area to the extent of 5 per cent. in the course of a few hours, shrink- ing during periods of insolation, recovering when passing clouds check the rate of transpiration. Following this Mr. A. M. Smith gave an account of his work on the factors influencing photosynthesis in water plants. This work was carried out with an apparatus designed by Dr. F. F. Blackman, in which a complete knowledge of the whole amount of assimilation is obtained by combining an analysis of the bubbles given off by the assimilating plant with an estimation of the diminution in CO, content of the water flowing over the plant. The magnitude of assimilation in relation to the amount of dissolved CO, in the surrounding water was first in vestigated, and it was found that the assimilation varied proportionally with the CO, supply until the limit set by the temperature or light intensity (in the particular con- ditions of experiment) was reached. No indication of an optimum CO, content was found, .and assimilation only begins to be depressed when the water is one-third saturated with CO,,. It was further shown that aquatic flowering plants possessing an ‘‘internal atmosphere’? can work up a greater proportion of the CO, supply than an aquatic moss (Fontinalis) which has no ‘‘ internal atmosphere.’’ Mr. Parkin communicated a paper on the carbohydrates of the snowdrop leaf and their bearing on the first sugar of photosynthesis. The work of Brown and Morris in 1893 on the carbohydrates of the leaf of Tropzolum brought forward the new view that sucrose rather than glucose plays the important part in the “‘ up-grade ’’ sugars of the foliage leaf. In that leaf the sugar metabolism is com- plicated by the fact that starch is abundantly present, and from it glucose could arise by hydrolysis. In the snow- drop starch never occurs, so that this leaf is a simpler case for investigation. Sucrose, levulose, and dextrose were found in abundance, and the fluctuations in their relative amounts followed. With increasing assimilation the sucrose steadily inereases, while the amounts of levulose and dex- trose remain fairly constant. This is interpreted as favour- ing the view that sucrose is directly formed in photo- synthesis and that the hexoses are formed from: it by hydrolvs ; This view falls more into line with the conception that the first sugar is split off from a complex protein aggregate than with Baeyer’s view of progressive condensation from formaldehyde. : A paper by Mr. J. M. F. Drummond on the time factor in assimilation was communicated by the president. Ex- periments were made on the amount of assimilation taking place in cut-off leaves in a chamber lighted by artificial light continuously for several days. After a time the power of assimilation diminishes, and the object of the work was NO. 2038, VOL. 79| is. IATROLEE: 85 to find the precise explanation of this result. It was proved that part of this diminution is due to accumulation of the products of assimilation in the leaf, and that the power of assimilation is regained after the leaf has been kept in the dark for a period and has diminished its carbohydrate stores by vigorous respiration. A second cause of diminished assimilation is the shutting of the stomata by the high general turgor of the epidermis brought about by the high sugar content of the sap. This factor can be recognised by the increased assimilation which immediately follows incisions into the leaf or the application of dry air. The effect of stomatal closure can be overcome by increasing the CO, supply in the air current through the chamber. Ecological Papers. Friday afternoon was occupied by two papers on the woodlands of England, by Mr. Tansley and Dr. Moss re- spectively. Mr. Tansley devoted the first portion of his paper to an attempt to show that the great majority of English woodlands are actually derived from natural woods, and retain enough of their primitive character to be treated as natural or semi-natural plant associations. He went on to distinguish four great types of natural English wood- land, determined by soil characters—the oak type, the oak- birch-heath type, the ash type, and the beech type—and to explain the distribution, character, composition, and prin- cipal subtypes of each of these. ; Dr. Moss, agreeing with Mr. Tansley’s main scheme of classification, dealt especially with the woods of the Pennines, on which he distinguished upland oak (Quercus sessiliflora) and birch woods, with transitions between them. These, which occur on siliceous soils, he regarded as differentiations of the oak-birch-heath type, according to the factor of altitude. Opposed to these, and of essentially different character, are the woods belonging to the ash type, which occur on the mountain limestone of that region. The woods of the lowlands of northern England agree ecologically with those of the south, but the beech type is entirely absent. Prof. R. H. Yapp gave an account of his observations on the evaporating power of the air in different strata of the marsh formation of Wicken Fen. The average evapora- tion in the free air above the tallest plants is about 1-7 times that in the layer immediately below the tops of the tallest plants, and 6-8 times that in a stratum 18 inches below the surface of the vegetation and just above the soil- level. Morphological and Palacobotanical Papers. On Tuesday morning Mr. W. C. Worsdell read a paper on the origin of dicotyledons, in which he based his view of the phylogeny of this group on the doctrine of ‘‘ anaphytosis,”’ or the building up of the plant body from a colony of distinct individuals or ‘* phytons,’’ budding one from another as the stem grows in length. He held that the facts of embryogeny in vascular plants are entirely opposed to the ordinary view that the plant primarily con- sists of a single shoot bearing leaves as lateral appendages. The primary individual of the colony of phytons, as re- presented by the embryo of the higher plant, is phylogenetic- ally derived from the bryophytic sporogonium, of which the capsule, seta, and foot correspond with the primary phyllome, caulome, and root of the vascular plant. The facts of embryonic segmentation and the dominance of the cotyledonary organs were cited as being opposed to the monaxial view, in which the stem is regarded as the dominant organ and the leaves as appendages. From this position the author deduced the primitiveness of the mono- cotyledonous type with its terminal cotyledon, which must have preceded the dicotyledonous type, in opposition to Miss Sargant’s theory of the derivation of the monocotyledonous from the dicotyledonous type by fusion of the two coty- ledons. Anatomical evidence was adduced to show that the scattered bundle arrangement of monocotyledons is primitive, and that vestiges of this arrangement are found in many dicotyledons. The absence of anatomical evidence in seedlings pointing to such a conclusion was attributed to space-relationships. Finally, pleiomery of the flower was recognised as primitive, and the prevailing trimery of mono- cotyledons as reduced from such a condition. Mr. Wors- dell’s views were criticised, mainly from a hostile standpoint, 56 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 19, 1908 by Miss E. N. Thomas, Mr. Parkin, Prof. Bower, and others. Prof. H.-H. W. Pearson, of Cape Town, contributed a note on the morphology of endosperm, in which he described the development of the endosperm in Welwitschia and dis- cussed the homologies of this tissue with the endosperm in the angiospermous embryo-sac. At an early stage of development of the endosperm of Welwitschia all the cells are multinucleate, while at a later stage each cell has a single nucleus (Pearson, Phil. Trans. R. Soc., 1906). An examination of material collected in 1907 showed that the latter condition is brought about by the fusion of nuclei in the cells of the young endosperm. ‘The original nucleus of an embryo-sac produces by repeated division rather more than 1000 nuclei; the sac then elongates, and the free nuclei are re-distributed, with the result that two regions ~ are differentiated, a micropylar region with scattered nuclei and a lower region with more crowded nuclei. The sac is next divided into compartments, those at the micro- pylar end having two to six, and the others usually twelve or more nuclei. The compartments containing more than six nuclei are converted by nuclear fusion into uninucleate cells; the nuclei in the micropylar compartments remain free, and the wall of each “cell ’’ grows upwards into an embryo-sac tube (“‘ prothallial tube ’’), into which pass the nuclei and cytoplasm; these nuclei are functional gametes. The conclusion is that the endosperm of Welwitschia re- presents a new organism, which it is proposed to call the trophophyte, intercalated in the life-cycle, belonging neither to the sporophyte nor to the gametophyte. It is the opinion of the author that the trophophyte of Welwitschia is phylogenetically related to the endosperm of angiosperms. On Tuesday Prof. Weiss read a paper on the primary wood of Lepidodendron and Stigmaria. A new Stigmaria was described in which the xylem of the stele consists of a central strand of long, narrow, protoxylem-like elements mixed with parenchyma, surrounded by normal centrifugal secondary wood. This type of stele was compared with that of Selaginella spinosa and of the ‘‘ hypocotyl’? of S. Kraussiana, and also with that of Lepidodendron selaginoides.. The general relations of the steles of the Lepidodendreze were discussed. Mr. H. H. Thomas communicated a paper by Mr. Newell Arber and himself on the structure of Sigillaria scutellata, Brongn. This was the first full account of the structure of a Sigillarian stem of the Rhytidolepis type. The primary xylem of the stele forms a continuous ring of scalariform tracheids surrounding the medulla. Secondary xylem is also present. The characteristic external ribs are really formed of cortical tissue, not of fused leaf-bases, and are largely composed of phello- derm. A ligule in its pit was demonstrated for the first time. The leaf-trace in the leaf-base contains a double xylem strand with widely separated xylem groups of the Sigillariopsis type. Mrs. D. H. Scott described some curious spindle-shaped bodies in Burntisland material, naming them Bensonites fustformis. She inclined to the view that they are glandular structures belonging to Stauropteris burntislandica, with which they are associated. A sporangium of this species was found to contain germinating spores. Miscellaneous Papers. On Thursday Colonel H. E. Rawson contributed a striking account of colour changes in flowers produced by controlling insolation. He has found that by shading various plants (such as nasturtiums) from the direct rays of the sun during certain hours of the day the colours of the flowers produced are changed from scarlet and orange to mauve, and in other cases to deep carmine. The varia- tions thus produced breed true, both from cuttings and seeds. In other instances bronze, old-gold, rose-salmon, and sallow flesh-coloured flowers have been produced by similar means. Dahlias and other flowers appear to be as susceptible as nasturtiums to this treatment. Mr. W. L. Balls contributed two papers on the mechanism of mitosis and on the natural crossing of the cotton plant. Mrs. D. H. Scott read a paper on the contractile roots of the aroid Sauromatum guttatum, in which she showed that if the tuber of this plant is planted on the surface NO. 2038, VOL. 7y] of the soil it throws out leaves and subsequently disappears below the surface, “and in two months’ time is found at a depth of 6 inches. The descent is caused by the thick fleshy roots sent out from the upper surface of the tuber, which firmly attach themselves to various’ objects in the soil, and then contract to about half their original length, pulling the tuber down. Later on these contractile roots are cut off from the tuber by regular alseris layers. If the tuber is replaced on the surface it sends out a fresh set of contractile roots, and is again pulled down to the normal depth. Mr. M. Wilson contributed notes on the life-history of Haematococcus lacustris, in which he described the results of various culture experiments on this species. The red cells were found to be produced in starved liquid cultures, and to be alone capable of withstanding the effects of dry- ing. Dr. Lotsy contributed an interesting paper on the segregation of characters of a perfectly fertile species- hybrid. Mr. Harold Wager made a contribution on the optical — behaviour of the epidermal cells of leaves. He discussed Haberlandt’s theory that the convergence of light rays brought about by the lens structure formed by the papilla of the epidermal cells of many leaves brings about a differ- ential illumination of the protoplasm on the basal wall, and thus creates a stimulus which results in the appropriate orientation of the leaf to the incident light. It was pointed out that the objection to this theory, based on the absence of epidermal lens papillae from heliotropically sensitive grass-seedlings, may be met by the fact that the epidermal cells of the first (sheathing) leaf and of the young leaves enclosed in the sheath do actually cause convergence of light rays in spite of the absence of papillae. In the author’s opinion too little attention has been paid to the view that the lens structures in question may be concerned with the more efficient illumination of the chloroplasts. It is also possible that the structures in question are accidental, and not to be regarded as adaptations, since they also occur on the lower epidermis of various leaves, on the epidermis of some petals, and in the fungus Russula. Mr. Wager exhibited well-defined photographs of various objects made through these epidermal lenses. Monday morning was devoted to a joint discussion with Section D on the determination of sex. ‘This is reported in the article on ‘* Zoology at the Briti1 Association ”’ (NatuRE, October 22, vol. Ixxviii., p. 647). Members of Section K were fortunate in being able to meet in Prof. H. H. Dixon’s beautiful new botanical institute at Trinity College, where everything was arranged for their comfort and convenience. The sectional excursion was held on the Saturday to the Murrough of Wicklow, a long stretch of shingle beach backed by marsh, under the leadership of Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger. MR. LLOYD GEORGE ON THE ENDOWMENT OF UNIVERSITIES. N November 13 the University of Wales conferred the degree of Doctor of Laws, honoris causa, on Mr. Lloyd George. At the complimentary banquet given by the University College of North Wales, Lord Kenyon announced a donation of 1oool. from Sir Herbert Roberts to the college building fund. In replying to the toast in his honour, Dr. Lloyd George alluded to the sacrifices the Welsh people have made in building up their system of higher education, and pointed out that the University of Wales has entirely altered the status of the Welsh people. It would be the worst thing for the Government to take the task entirely out of their hands, but the time has arrived for the Government to render further assistance, and one great need of the colleges is a very common- place one—cash. Further assistance of a _ substantial character would make a vast difference in the immediate prospects. One of the ablest committees has investigated the claims of the Welsh colleges, and the conclusions arrived at are very favourable. The committee indicated several directions in which more could be done if the colleges had more money. Dr. Lloyd George had to consider the report of the com- mittee, and it was his duty as Chancellor of the NovemMBEk 19, 1908] NATURE 87 Exchequer, viewing the circumstances of Wales, Ireland, England, and Scotland, to make a very substantial con- tribution to the funds of the University. The building fund of the college at Bangor has already received a Treasury grant (20,000l.), and it is the duty of the people of North Wales to complete that work; but in regard to what has been said about raising the status and improving the staff and equipment of the college, Dr. Lloyd George fully approved of every word. One of the first things will be to increase the salaries of those who have devoted their ability to establishing and maintaining higher educa- tion in Wales. It cannot be expected that the services of the best men will be secured at the present inadequate salaries. The sacrifices made by those who have remained on in spite of better inducements elsewhere are appreciated, but the time has come to recognise the fact that if a first-rate staff is wanted it must be made worth while for the members of the staff to remain. At present the pro- fessors too often do work which ought to be relegated to tutors. Turning to the question of research, Dr. Lloyd George pointed out that what is wanted is not only teachers, but also explorers. Science has its dark continents, unlimited continents—mapless, unlimited oceans—chartless. He would believe in the triumph of Welsh education when he could see sheets that are now mere outlines crowded with the discoveries of Welsh explorers. The greatest universities are, however, not the product of thirty years. There should be closer contact between the universities and the Welsh industries. Germany has said, ‘‘ You must have a university to teach and to educate and to develop the German mind,’’ and now the effect is seen in the German industries. Dr. Lloyd George went into one of the largest work- shops in Germany three months ago, and was taken round by a professor. He asked what a professor had to do with it, and was told ‘‘ The professors are our experts.”’ The Germans get their ideas from their professors. We in this country heave coal and blast rocks, but the great industries that finish these products are elsewhere. We must start as discoverers. All this is coming. Bangor has two factories, one in the lower town and one new factory the buildings of which are beginning to rise in Upper Bangor, while in Cardiff, also, new buildings have been erected for the University College, which, however, are not nearly so fine and imposing as the municipal build- ings. These are the factories where the future of the country is being forged. There is no investment that will produce such a return, not to the investor, but to genera- tions to come, as the endowment of higher education. The Chancellor of the Exchequer further referred to what has been done in the past by the people of Wales, the need of private as well as public support, and the future pro- spects of the University. G. H. B. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Campripce.—Mr. J. M. Dobbs has been appointed chair- man of the examiners for part i. of the mathematical tripos, 1909 (old regulations), and Mr. Fitzpatrick chair- man of the examiners for the natural sciences tripos, 1909. The general board of studies has approved for the degree of Doctor in Science Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., and Prof. T. J. ’A. Bromwich, F.R.S. The general board of studies will shortly proceed to the appointment of a university lecturer in zoology. Candidates are requested to send their applications, with testimonials if they think fit, to the Vice-Chancellor on or before December 2. Mr. A. Wood has been appointed demonstrator of experi- mental physics. Lonpon.—The Senate of the University has awarded the Rogers prize of 1ool. for original research in medical science to be divided equally between Dr. David Forsyth, assistant physician to Charing Cross Hospital, and Mr. F. W. Twort, assistant bacteriologist to the London Hospital. NO. 2038, VOL. 79] MancuestER.—The completion of the new buildings of the Manchester Royal Infirmary, in close proximity to the University, has already led to a marked increase in the number of students entering for courses in the medical school. The new hospital, which is to be formally opened next year by His Majesty the King, is to be occupied by the end of the present month. The new buildings of the engineering department are making rapid progress, and a portion is already in use. {he extension of the chemical laboratories has also been commenced; the additional accommodation, which will cost from 15,0001. to 20,000l., will be primarily devoted to the increasing requirements of research in organic chemistry. The establishment of a new chair in botany, for which an endowment was received some months ago, is in con- templation. The Court has resolved to recognise the Harris Insti- tute, Preston, as a privileged institution, attendance at courses in mathematics, physics, and chemistry being accepted as satisfying the attendance requirements for the Inter. B.Sc. and Inter. B.Sc. Tech. courses. Up to October 30 the number of students who have entered for courses of study in the University is 1320, against 1219 a year previously. Dr. Grorce Dean, chief bacteriologist at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, has been appointed to succeed Prof. D. J. Hamilton in the chair of pathology in the University of Aberdeen. Mr. G. H. Kenrick, Lord Mayor of Birmingham, has made a gift of 10,0001. towards the funds of Birmingham University. This is his third contribution toward the development of the University, his total gifts amounting to a sum of 25,0001. Mr. H. G. WELts will preside at the first annual dinner of old students of the Royal College of Science, to be held at the Criterion Restaurant, Piccadilly Circus, on Wednes- day, December 9. Dinner tickets, price 7s. 6d., may be obtained from the honorary secretary of the dinner com- mittee, Mr. T. L. Humberstone, 5 Selwood Place, Onslow Gardens, London, S.W. It is hoped that the dinner will lead to the formation of an association of old students of the college. Pror. Perry has again sent us the balance-sheet refer- ring to bursaries distributed by him to students at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, during the two sessions 1906-7 and 1907-8. The fund for these bursaries represents a response to an appeal made by Prof. Perry for the means to assist deserving students at the college with secret gifts when necessary, it being under- stood that every student who receives such assistance shall repay the money to the fund when in a position to do so. Among the contributions to the fund are tool. each from the Drapers’, Goldsmiths’ and Skinners’ Companies, and sol. from the Clothworkers’ Company. As a number of Students at the college have to maintain themselves and purchase their books and instruments out of scholarships having a value of about 17s. 9d. a week each, the institution by Prof. Perry of a system of small bursaries privately bestowed has provided a means of preventing unnecessary privation without injuring the self-respect of the recipients. A COMMON criticism of the methods of teaching science adopted in schools for girls is that they are too academic and have little or no bearing upon the duties the girls will be called upon to perform in after life. This weak- ness is, we are glad to know, becoming less common, and earnest efforts are being made in several centres to arrange courses of work in which elementary science and the home arts are taught together, the latter being treated largely as applications of the former. In a recent address to the Teachers’ Guild, Mr. John Wilson, president of the Association of Technical Institutions, dealt exhaustively with the methods by which science can be connected with domestic training. His address is printed in Education for November 6 last. Mr. Wilson is of opinion that, ideally, the teacher should be a woman, thoroughly well skilled in chemistry and physics, &c., and a. first-class diplomée in cookery, laundry work, and housewifery. At 88 present such women cannot be obtained. Referring to students undergoing training with the view of teaching home arts scientifically, he said the main difficulties the instructors of these students have to contend with are that, even at this late date, a number of the students have not had any previous scientific training at the secondary school. Many of the students will keep their minds in water-tight compartments. To them, the science work is one thing, the domestic subjects another, and between the two they draw no connections; and, greatest of all, to develop the subject logically we have to work in the laboratory from the simple to the complex. Lorp Rosesery, Chancellor of the University of London, in opening University College Hall, Ealing, on Tuesday, made some remarks upon the functions of a university. The hall provides a place of residence for students at the college. In declaring the building open, Lord Rosebery said it marked another milestone on that path of university development which seemed to open broader and with more promise at every step. First, the University of London was a purely examining university, then it developed into a teaching university, and now it is a university with some of the old collegiate aspects as well. The University is no longer, if it ever was, a purely London university ; it is more and more developing into an imperial uni- versity. Each day sees it summoning from every part of Great Britain and of the British Empire students anxious to obtain the advantages of its constituent schools. A university should comprehend everything that is whole- some and valuable for the development of brain and of character. The hall now opened is one of the many symptoms of the growth of corporate life in the University. University associations of various kinds are growing up, and it is obviously a very thin-blooded, one-sided university that only provides for the intellect of its students. Human sympathy, human contact, all the valuable human elernents that go to build up character are required, for a university which produces nothing but brain and neglects the forma- tion of character is no university at all. The function of a university is not merely to pump knowledge into units by teaching and to extract it afterwards by examina- ‘tion, but to produce living men, who are going to take a part in the vast fabric of society within these islands. TurouGH the generosity of Mr. Edric Bayley, who gave a sum of 5o00ol. to the building extensions, and by a large supplementary sum given by the County Council, a con- siderable extension has been made at the Borough Poly- technic Institute. It consists, in the first place, of a large examination hall, which can also be used for entertain- ments and public meetings, and below this hall new laboratories and classrooms have been built. A very complete laboratory for oil and colour work is one of the most striking of the additions. This has accommodation for forty students, besides the lecture theatre, balance room, and laboratory; there is also a portion set apart for colour mixing and for grinding of colours, so that, besides working on the test-tube scale in the laboratory, the students can work on a semi-commercial scale. There is also an extension to the bakery department and a new book-binding workshop. The opening ceremony took place on Friday evening, November 13, when Lord Carrington, in a short speech, declared the buildings open. He re- ferred to the fact that when he was at school, although the fees were high, they learnt very little except Latin and Greek. Science and laboratory equipment were absolutely unknown, and now in London, and also in the provinces, the highest scientific training can be obtained almost for the asking. He thought that the nation owed a very great debt of gratitude to public supporting men like Mr. Bayley, who made it possible for education to be placed within the reach of even the poorest. The chairman, Mr. Spicer, in his opening remarks said that the governing body will be well repaid for any trouble they have taken by the stimulus given to the work of the institute by the erection of these new buildings. Sir Philip Magnus, chairman of the education committee of the institute, said that the governors have always resisted the temptation to use the institute as a place for obtaining degrees, as it was founded to give education to the artisan classes, and they have always kept this object in view in any altera- NO. 2038, VOL. 79] NATURE { NOVEMBER 19, 1008 tions or extensions. The trade classes are particularly fostered in the institute. Mr. Robinson, chairman of the London County Council, expressed his pleasure at being present, and said that the County Council, before it gives money, always wishes to know whether it gets value for money, and there is no doubt that in giving to an institute of this kind value is obtained. TueRE has been in recent years a serious decline in the number of pupils studying German in the secondary schools throughout the country. It is true that many subjects clamour for increased attention and others for recognition in the curriculum of these schools, while the number of hours available for instruction is limited. Headmasters find it difficult nicely to adjudicate between the conflicting claims; but from the point of view of the man of science and of the needs of great commercial houses the claims of German to generous recognition seem very strong. We are glad, therefore, to notice that a letter on the subject, signed by representatives of the Modern Language Association, the London Chamber of Commerce Education Committee, the Society of University Teachers of German, the Teachers’ Guild, and the British Science Guild has been sent to the President of the Board of Education urging the paramount importance of encouraging the study of German in secondary schools. The letter points out that there is much to do if the un- fortunate decay of German teaching is to be checked, and it proceeds :—‘‘ We therefore venture to suggest that your Board should consider the desirability of calling the attention of educational authorities, governing bodies, and the principals of secondary schools to the steady decline in the study of German, and should, by means of a circular, as in the case of Latin, or such other method as may be thought fit, submit to those authorities and to the public generally the many weighty and urgent reasons for regarding an acquaintance with German as being of the first importance to great numbers of young men and women, and a widespread knowledge of the language a national necessity. We would urge, moreover, that the Board should encourage and foster schools of the type of the German Realschule and Oberrealschule, in which two modern languages, but not Latin, are taught. The latter of these in Prussia ranks in standing with the Gymnasium, and its leaving certificate confers the same rights. Of schools devoting special attention to modern, as against classical, languages, there are at present in this country very few. Lastly, we would suggest that it should, as a general rule, be required that schools should make provision for the teaching of German to those pupils who wish to learn it, as it is now required that provision should be made for the teaching of Latin.’’ SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, Mav 28.—‘‘ Transparent Silver and Other Metallic Films.’’ By Prof. Thomas Turner. In a Bakerian lecture, delivered fifty-one years ago, Faraday showed that thin sheets of gold or silver, if mounted on glass and heated, became transparent. Beilby has also studied the annealing of gold-leaf and wire. The present research deals with a study of the conditions under which gold and silver become transparent, and extends the inquiry to copper and to certain other metals. It is shown that gold when about 1/300,oooth of an inch in thickness becomes transparent if heated to 550° C. for a few moments. The effect is the same whether the atmosphere be oxidising or reducing, and if the support- ing medium be changed. Transparency is due to the gold aggregating, and permitting white light to pass through the intermediate spaces. In the case of silver the effect is quite different. No transparency is obtained with sheets about 1/120,o0oth of an inch in thickness so long as the atmosphere is a reducing one, such as hydrogen or coal gas. In air, however, transparency begins at about 240°, and is com- plete in a few moments at 390°. White light is now transmitted, and the transparency is remarkably complete. Transparent silver does not become opaque if heated in a reducing atmosphere, but it can be converted into the NOVEMBER 19, 1908 | NATURE 89 opaque variety by burnishing, as in writing on the surface of the glass with an agate stylo. The change does not take place if silver-leaf be heated in vacuo, but it occurs readily with one-fiftieth of an atmosphere of oxygen. The silver does not increase in weight or the oxygen alter in volume, though oxygen appears to be necessary in order to produce the change. It is suggested that an oxide of silver may be momentarily formed and again decomposed by heat in the presence of more oxygen. The thinnest rolled metal obtainable, about 1/3000th of an inch thick, does not become transparent. Intermediate thicknesses have yet to be examined. Thin sheet copper, about 1/75,oooth of an inch in thick- ness, remains opaque when heated in a reducing atmo- sphere. In air or oxygen, however, it becomes transparent if heated for a suitable time at temperatures between about 200° and 4oo° C. At the lower temperatures the transparency is very marked, and the light transmitted is a brilliant emerald-green. oxidation takes place, and the colour gradually passes through olive and dark red to black. If the light-green transparent metal be treated with a diluted acid, metallic | copper with a brilliant metallic lustre is obtained, while | The effect is due to the green transparency disappears. continuously oxidation, as the copper absorbs oxygen during the heating. Aluminium and Dutch metal do not appear to become transparent, nor have transparent films yet been obtained from sulphides. It is suggested that transparent films such as have now been obtained from copper are formed in all cases where a succession of spectrum colours are obtained on heating a metal in air. Royal Microscopical Society, October 21.—Dr. J. W. H. Eyre, vice-president, in the chair.—The mouth-parts of the Nemocera, and their relation to the other families in Diptera—with corrections and additions to the paper pub- lished in 1904: W. Wesehée.—(1) The resolution of periodic structures; (2) an auxiliary illuminating lens: E. M. Nelson.—Micrococcus melitensis: A. A. C. E. Merlin and E. M. Nelson. Physical Society, October 23.—The meeting was held at the National Physical Laboratory, Bushy House, Tedding- ton, by invitation of the director. All departments of the laboratory were thrown open for inspection, and, in addition, a number of special demonstrations were arranged. Society of Chemical Industry, November 2.—Dr. Lewkowitsch in the chair.—Chemical industry in relation to agriculture: Prof. A. Frank. After referring to the great services of Liebig to agriculture, the author gave an historical survey of the manufacture and agricultural uses of, phosphates, and the production of potash. Ammonium sulphate, Chile saltpetre, and the utilisation of atmospheric nitrogen were also discussed, and an account was given of the author’s own work in effecting the com- bination of atmospheric nitrogen with carbides of the alkalis and the alkaline earths. By decomposing the calcium cyanamide with water under high pressure ammonium salts are formed. Possibilities of calcium cyanamide as a fertiliser are dealt with, and some statistics relating to the output of calcium carbide are included. The work of Mond on the simultaneous production of power gas has made it possible to utilise the large stores of energy accumulated in bog areas in the form of peat. The author and Caro,-with the assistance of Mond, have been able to gasify peat containing 50 per cent. to 55 per cent. of water without difficulty. Zoological Society, November 3.—Mr. Frederick Gillett, vice-president, in the chair.—Mammals from Inkerman, near Townsville, North Queensland, collected by Mr. W. Stalker and presented to the National Museum by Sir William Ingram, Bart., and the Hon. John Forrest: Oldfield Thomas and Guy Dollman. The collection showed clearly that the Townsville region belonged faunistically to North Australia, the species being nearly identical with those of New South Wales and Victoria. Several species and subspecies were described as new. (1) Takins from Sze-chuen and Bhutan; (2) An Indian | dolphin and porpoise: R. Lydekker. NO. 2038, VOL. 79] As the temperature rises further | Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 9.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—The president announced to the academy the death ot M. A. Ditte—The products of the reaction of sodium amide on ketones: A. Haller and Ed. Bauer. Benzo- phenone, treated in benzene or toluene solution with sodium amide, if the materials are perfectly free from moisture, gives the compound C,H,C(ONa)(C,H,)(NH.,), and this on treatment with water regenerates the benzo- phenone, together with ammonia and caustic soda. In presence of a trace of water a different reaction takes place, and the addition of water to the reaction product gives benzene, benzamide, and caustic soda. This reaction appears to be general with the aromatic ketones, anthra- quinone being an exception.—The mode of formation of the Puy de Déme and the rocks which constitute it: A. Lacroix. > 17h. 36m. Occultation by the Moon of n Tauri (5'2), reappearance 18h, 21m. A 8. 10h. 58m. Occultation by the Moon of 1 Gemino- rum (4°3), reappearance 12h. 13m. 9. 19h. 2m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Neptune 2° 38’ S.). 13. 14h. 37m. Occultation by the Moon of 7 Leonis (5°7), 1eappearance 15h. 44m. . 14. 10h. 47m. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon (Jupiter 4° 22’ S.). ’ 17. 17h. 50m. Occultation by the Moon of 80 Vir- ginis (5°8), reappearance 18h. 53m. 19. 13h. 56m. Mars in conjunction with the Moon (Mars 2° 58’ S.). 20. 12h. 37m. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 0° 56’ S.). 22. 23h. 49m. Eclipse of the Sun. Invisible at Green- wich. 24. oh. 39m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 1° 25’ N.). 25. Comet Morehouse (1908c) in perihelion. 29. 8h. I4m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 3° 4’ N.). MoreEnouse’s Comet, 1908c.—Its declination having be- come southerly on November 22, and its R.A. being within 22 hours of that of the sun, comet Morehouse is now becoming a more difficult object to find, and this condition has been considerably aggravated, in town, during the past fortnight, by the haziness of the sky between sunset and midnight. The comet now sets below the horizon of London at about 8.15 p.m. A continuation of Dr. Ebell’s ephemeris, prepared by Dr. Smart, appears in No. 402 of the Observatory (p. 422, November), and shows that, after its perihelion passage, the comet will never rise above our horizon from about the middle of January until the middle of May, 1909. The greatest- southerly declination, 80°, will be attained about March 24, and during its period of visibility the comet will have practically travelled from pole to pole. According to the ephemeris, its apparent brightness is now decreasing slowly, but will not fall below that at the time of discovery until the end of April. A second set of elements and a new ephemeris have been prepared by Messrs. Einarsson and Meyer, of the Berkeley Astronomical Department, and are published in No. 139 of the Lick Observatory Bulletins; the ephemeris extends to December 28-5. Hatrey’s Comet.—A_ search-ephemeris for Halley's comet, published in Popular Astronomy, gives the position for November 27 as 6h. 21m. 18s., + 11° 15’ 17”, and shows that the R.A. is at present decreasing at the rate of about 44s. per day, whilst the declination is decreasing by about 30” per day. On November 27 the calculated distance of the comet from the earth will be about 5-26 astronomical units. According to Mr. Wendell, the radiant point of the meteors from Halley’s comet is R.A.=22h. 43m., dec.=+1° 18’, and it is suggested (the Observatory, No. 402) that meteors should be looked for from this radiant about May 12 during the next three years. In anticipation of the return of Halley’s comet and the increase of our knowledge of comets that is likely to result therefrom, the Astronomical and Astrophysical Society of America has appointed a committee to organise the proposed observations, so that the most useful results may be obtained. A Simp_e INSTRUMENT FOR FINDING THE Correct TIME. —In the November number of the Bulletin de la Société astronomioue de France (p. 48%) Prof. S. de Glasenapp gives an illustrated description of a very simple apparatus NO. 2039, VOL. 79] by which the true time may be determined with wonderful precision. The device is called the cercle solaire, and consists of a metallic cylinder, about 4 inches in diameter and half an inch in height, so suspended that a diameter always hangs vertically, and so that its direction in azimuth may be fixed. A conical hole is drilled through one wall of the cylinder at a point 45° from the top, the smaller end of the hole being directed towards the centre. The method employed is really that of equal altitudes before and after the meridian passage, and the sunlight passing through the conical hole forms a ‘“‘ disc’? image on an arbitrary scale marked on the interior wall of the cylinder. To find the error of a watch, the times at which the solar image transits, or is tangent to, or sym- metrical with, the same scale marks before and after mid- day are noted, and by a suitable reduction of the observations the time, by the watch, of actual solar noon is found. Applying the corrections for the equation of time and the difference of longitude, if any, the actual mean time is obtained. The instrument has been rigidly tested at the St. Peters- burg Observatory, and the results show that the true time may be obtained within forty seconds even when the change of the sun’s declination is neglected; if the latter be taken into account, the reduction necessarily becomes a little more complicated, but results correct within one second may be obtained. EPHEMERIS FOR JUPITER’s EIGHTH SATELLITE.—A new set of elements and an ephemeris for the eighth satellite of Jupiter, calculated at the Berkeley Astronomical Depart- ment, appear in No. 140 of the Lick Observatory Bulletins. The ephemeris gives the distances, in R.A. and declina- tion, between the satellite and Jupiter until December 2. The period of the satellite, according to the new elements, is 2-2948 years. DESIGNATIONS OF RECENTLY DISCOVERED VARIABLE STARS. —No. 4278 of the Astronomische Nachrichten contains the final designations of fifty-three variable stars discovered during 1907, as fixed by the Commission for the A.G. Cata- logue of Variable Stars. The table also contains the provisional number, the position (1900), the precession (1900), and the range of magnitude of each star, and is followed by numerous notes dealing with the peculiarities of many of the variables. Tue ENUMERATION OF Minor Praners.—The permanent numbers for recently discovered minor planets (1907-8) are given by Prof. Bauschinger in No. 4278 of the Astrono- mische Nachrichten. The increase, during the past few years, of the number of these objects known is shown by the fact that the permanent number for 1908 C.S. is 659. Tue Variation or LatitupE.—In reducing the inter- national latitude observations it is assumed that the individual variations, in a definite interval of time, are equal, whatever star pairs be used, and in order to test the validity of this assumption Mr. Hirayama has examined the results of the observations for the period 1900-4. The results of his research appear in No. 4281 of the Astronomische Nachrichten (p. 133, November 7), and show that the variation of latitude deduced from each individual pair deviates more or less in a systematic manner. It is also shown that the amplitude of the = variation depends to some extent upon the zenith distance, the brightness, and the difference in right-ascension of the pair of stars observed. ’ THE FOREST REGION OF MOUNT KENTA. 7 ENIA is the only snowy mountain in the Old World lying exactly on the equator. Its height is 17,150 feet; it has fifteen glaciers, and the snow-line is there somewhat lower than to the north and south, where there is more variation of season. Kenia is the culminating point of the richest part of British East Africa. The Kenia snows can now be reached in little more than a month from England by way of Mombasa and the Uganda Rail- way. Mr. E. Hutchins (chief conservator of forests) and Mr. Ross (director of public works in British East Africa) recently returned from a tour round the Kenia forest and a visit to the glaciers. a» j NoveMBER 26, 1908} NA TORE 109 v Quite recently the Pax -Britannica has been extended completely round Kenia, though a portion of the route traversed by Hutchins and Ross was. through country ranked until then as hostile, that is to say, the Meru country, lying on the eastern side of Kenia. .A special escort was provided, and no hostility of any kind was experienced. ‘The route followed comprised a journey com- pletely round Kenia, and almost the whole time in the Alpine region at an elevation of about 12,000 feet. Two months was spent in the journey round Kenia. The object of the expedition was to ascertain the exact extent and value of the great forest girdle which stretches round Kenia. For this purpose it was found most convenient to travel at an altitude of about 12,000 feet in order to avoid the tussock grass, which extends above the upper forest limit, and is a serious impediment to progress in the open Alpine country. The tussock grass of Kenia grows in bunches 3 feet or 4 feet high and 3 feet or 4 feet through, and when, in the wet season, it is covered with half-frozen rain and hail, progress through it is not easy. Above the tussock is a zone of shorter grass, with a sufficient supply: of firewood in the -trunks of. the. giant heath. This tree, Erica arborea, marks the upper limit of tree growth on the Kenia Mountain. Four glaciers on the western side were visited, and found much as described in Mr.. Mackinder’s account of their condition nine years ago. Scenes of extraordinary Alpine beauty were traversed, and Mr. Ross obtained a series of photographs, which it is hoped may soon be published. He had charge of the triangulation which determined the boundaries of the forest, and he traversed all but a small portion of the Alpine region. A number of weather observations were made, the chief feature of which was a persistent high-level north-east current at an altitude of about 20,000 feet. On Kenia Mountain, between elevations of 7ooo feet and 14,000 feet, the atmosphere was singularly calm and serene. The general air movement was towards the central snowy peak by day and off it by night, exactly the reverse of what one would have expected in the case of a cool, damp, forest-clad mountain surrounded by dry, sun-scorched plains. Below 7ooo feet elevation, and on the plains away from the mountain, the south-east trade wind blew strongly by day from the south and east. On the northern high- lands, at about 10,000 feet elevation, the climate was curiously mild and equable. It was not only pleasant and healthful, but extraordinarily exhilarating. There was little or no frost at night, and the small quantity of rain that fell came mostly at night, while by day the equatorial sun was almost invariably screened by a thick mantle of cloud. This great uninhabited plateau, so singularly beau- tiful, so eminently a white man’s country, suggests itself naturally as the site for the future capital city of the British possessions in mid-Africa—the Bogota of the Old World ! The whole of the Kenia Alpine region is healthful and invigorating, but there is a great contrast, during at least half the year, between the wet and misty southern slopes of Kenia and the dry, bracing plateau country of northern Kenia. The expedition consisted of three white men and about fifty natives, and, with the exception of a few cases of lung trouble among the coast natives, there was no sickness, in spite of hardships which, in a less favourable climate, would have told immediately. Hail was experi- enced on numerous occasions; in fact, on the wetter southern side of the mountain there was a severe hail- storm daily. A real snowstorm was experienced on one occasion only. Then the snow fell in light flakes exactly like a snowstorm in extra-tropical latitudes. This snow- storm lasted for some hours. For some miles, too, around the glaciers a light mantle of snow covered the ground, but this rapidly melted under the influence of a little sun and the warmer air which was experienced at higher alti- tudes during the day. Kenia peak was bare of snow on the north-eastern side, presumably on account of this com- paratively warm upper current. These observations have a peculiar value, since they were made at the wettest time of the year—April, May, and June. The weather on the southern side of Kenia was at this season a striking contrast to what Mackinder and Hausberg experienced. NO. 2039, VOL. 79] During the wet season, April and May, Hutchins and Ross found the southern side at Alpine altitudes dripping with moisture, and the air nearly saturated with moisture the greater portion of the time. There was a small por- ~ tion of the southern side of the mountain which was too wet for the upper traverse, and the forest there had to be inspected and mapped from below only. Everywhere else the forest was examined from above * and below, and linear sample areas of the timber measured. The forest belt that encircles Kenia had been reported to be interrupted on the northern side. This was found not to be the case. It is practically continuous right round Kenia. There is, indeed, a small break on the north-west side, but so small as to be scarcely worth mentioning. This break was barely eight miles long, little more, in fact, than the average width of the forest belt, which was found to vary from six to nine miles in breadth. On the northern and western sides, where the forest belt was thinnest, the quality of the forest was the best, it being there largely composed of cedar, which is found in the drier forest only. In the magnificent reach of forest fill- ing up the great south-eastern bay of Kenia, Ibean camphor was abundant, but here cedar is entirely absent, and the effective thickness of the forest belt on this side is reduced by a broad strip of bamboo, Arundinaria alpina. In the drier parts of the mountain the bamboo belt is much reduced in breadth; it is frequently broken, and sometimes absent. The most valuable timbers in the Kenia forest are Ibcan camphor on the wet south-eastern side, and cedar, Juniperus procera, on the drier western and northern sides. The former is no doubt a timber of exceptional value. Its botanical name has not yet been determined, its flower being now seen for the first time; but cedar is a loftier and far more abundant tree than camphor. It runs up in straight stems to heights of more than 100 feet, and a tree was measured (on northern Kenia) with a diameter of nearly 12 feet. It is extremely durable, and the forest was found richly stored, not only with the live timber of to-day, but with the dry and still sound timber of past ages. Fire does incalculable damage in these cedar forests. The most abundant timber in the Kenia forest is yellow- wood, Podocarpus thunbergii, var. milanjianus, a_ tree differing little from the widespread and well-known yellow- wood of South Africa. Another yellow-wood, Podocarpus gracilior, in stature and shape has been compared to the Kauri of New Zealand, but this yellow-wood is but sparingly represented. The finest timber is in the great south-eastern Bay of Kenia, but this is largely composed of hardwoods, which have not the same value as the camphor, and conifers. Altogether the expedition disclosed a forest of great value, and a particularly important asset to a young country such as British East Africa, without mineral wealth. THE INTERNATIONAL FISHERY CONGRESS AT WASHINGTON. THE fourth International Fishery Congress, which met in Washington on September 22, and adjourned sine die on September 25, is generally conceded to compare well with the high standards set by its predecessors in Paris, St. Petersburg, and Vienna. Although several of the more important fishery nations were not represented, the membership was truly international. About twenty foreign countries of Europe, Asia, North and South America, and Australasia were in attendance through delegates of Governments, scientific bodies, and fishery societies, and practically all the States of the United States were officially represented. Although the place of meeting and the preponderance of American membership tended to accentuate the American point of view, the strength and ability of the foreign delegation gave to the proceedings a catholicity of expression not always observable in inter- national congresses. The international regulations of the fisheries on the high seas was the subject of considerable discussion, three papers having that title being presented, respectively, by Mr. Fryer and Dr. Olsen, of England, and Mr. Stevenson, of Washington. 110 NATURE [| NOovEMBER 26, 1908 The recognition of the freedom of the seas by the stronger maritime Powers has been slow and grudging, and the crystallisation of the now recognised distinctions between international and territorial waters has been the growth of comparatively recent years. The conventions which have been entered into between nations respecting the regulation of the fisheries common to the subjects of the contracting parties have been surprisingly few consider- ing the importance of the interests involved, though this is not surprising to those in a position to appreciate the biological, legal, and practical difficulties presented for solution. These international fishery regulations fall into two classes, the one for the conservation of the resources of the sea, the other for the maintenance of order and the protection of life and property. Concerning the necessity for the latter there was not much difference of opinion, and, in fact, most of the accomplished fishery conventions between nations have been for these purposes. That the resources of the sea are in actual need of conservation through international agreement or the concurrent action of the maritime nations was by no means clear to many who took part in the discussion, though most were agreed that the fisheries for sessile organisms, such as sponges, corals and pearl oysters, or for whales, seals, and other marine mammals, were doomed unless means can be devised for the extension of protective measures beyond the present recognised limits of territorial jurisdiction. It was contended with considerable force that in the case of sessile organisms (as distinguished from ferz nature) susceptible of culture involving actual occupation of the bottom, not only justice, but necessity, demands the extension of a restricted form of property right beyond the marine league from shore. The requirements of man have outrun the bounty of nature, and the barren bottoms covered by the high seas should no longer be permitted to go to waste. In other words, it was held that the present and future needs of mankind demand the extension to certain international waters of the measures which experi- ence has shown to be necessary for the edible oyster within territorial limits. The recent convention between the United Kingdom and the United States, looking to the enactment of concurrent legislation for the control of the fisheries in waters con- tiguous to the United States and Canada, was referred to with approval by speakers from both countries interested, and among the American participants in the discussion there was a surprising unanimity favouring Federal control of the fisheries in inter-State waters now subject to several State regulations. In the field of aquiculture two very important papers were submitted by Prof. A. D. Mead. The first was a description of an apparatus for hatching, rearing, and transporting fishes and other aquatic animals. In this the great departure from former methods is that the hatchery is taken to the water rather than the water to the hatchery. It “consists essentially of creating and maintaining within an enclosure of ‘native’ water a gentle upward, swirling current”? by means of propellers revolved through the medium of suitable gearing by a gasoline engine or other motor. The rotary currents set up by the propellers aérate the water, eliminate the toxic gases of respiration, and prevent the suffocation of the eggs and larve by their massing on the bottom and sides or through the deposit of sediment. For hatching and rearing the com- partments or units, about 10 feet square, are mounted on suitable floats surrounded by the open natural waters, which maintain the cars at an equable optimum tempera- ture. For transporting fishes the same principle is applied to receptacles packed in ice. Prof. Mead’s second paper was an exposition of the use of this apparatus in hatching and rearing lobsters. The artificial hatching of these crustaceans presents few diffi- culties, but, on the other hand, it possesses no very great advantage over the natural method. The heaviest mortality in this species is in the period of three or four weeks between the emergence of the young from the egg and the period when it assumes its bottom habit. During this time the larvae are helpless and exposed to many enemies, and Dr. Mead’s method is the only one yet proposed which NO. 2039, VOL. 79] permits the young to be reared to a stage where they can care effectively for themselves. Equally good results can be attained with various fishes passing through similar critical stages, and fish culturists now have in their possession an entirely new and simple method, not only for hatching fishes, but for economically rearing them in large numbers to an age when they can care for them- selves. The method is a wide departure from _ those previously employed, and marks the greatest advance in fish culture within recent years. It may be added that it has for several years demonstrated its practical utility. The ‘‘ lobster question ’’ in general provoked consider- able debate, in which English, Canadian, and American representatives participated. Dr. Geo. W. Field proposed a radical departure in the regulation of this fishery, advo- cating the use of apparatus which will automatically exclude the large breeding lobsters from capture, while taking those between 9 inches and 11 inches in length, which produce few or no eggs. This proposal was strongly combated, especially by the advocates of artificial hatch- ing, who contended that present methods are now result- ing in an increase in the lobster catch, and that a change would prove disastrous. Three papers by Messrs. Paul Reighard, Frank N. Clark, and S. W. Downing, on the subject of the promotion of white-fish production in the Great Lakes, while dealing with a fishery in which the United States and Canada only are concerned, precipitated a discussion of international interest. The three writers, reasoning along somewhat different lines, all reached the conclusion that artificial propagation offers the only feasible plan for increasing the white fish; that a close season during the spawning period is worse than futile, especially where there are offered facilities for taking and hatching eggs; and that closed seasons and restrictive measures should not be applied to the spawning fish, but to small and immature specimens. These propositions, while representing the pre- ponderance of American opinion on the subject, met with vigorous opposition from Mr. Chas. E. Foyer, of England, and from several American delegates, while Prof. E. E. Prince, of Canada, doubted the practical feasibility of preventing the capture of small fish if fishing were per- mitted at all. Dr. P. P. C. Hoek, of the Netherlands, presented a paper on the propagation and protection of the Rhine salmon. The Rhine is distinguished among the salmon streams of the Atlantic basin by its productiveness, and Dr. Hoek demonstrated that, as under existing conditions comparatively few salmon reach their natural spawning grounds, the present supply of fish is maintained prin- cipally by artificial propagation. To be effective, however, this must adhere in many particulars as closely as possible to nature’s method; especially must the fry be planted in these upper waters in which the proper conditions exist for their year-long stay in fresh water. The loss sustained in the long downward run to sea must be compensated for by more extensive planting in the headwaters. Bearing upon this question of the utility of fish culture, an interesting paper was presented by Mr. L. G. Ayson, of New Zealand, on the introduction of American fishes into New Zealand waters. New Zealand, though bounti- fully provided with rivers and lakes, presents the extra- ordinary characteristic of an almost total lack of fresh- water commercial and sporting fishes. About twenty-five years ago three consignments of eggs of the steelhead trout, Salmo gairdneri, were planted, and the species artificially propagated, with the result that to-day they exist in extraordinary numbers in nearly all streams and lakes in the northern part of the country. The Chinook salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, was planted between 1901 and 1907, about two million eggs being imported. The first returns were in 1905, when a few were caught by anglers, and as there has been a spawning run each year since, it is believed that the species is now firmly established. Several other American fishes have been introduced into the waters of New Zealand, where they have become thoroughly acclimatised. The results of planting certain American Salmonide in Europe are well known, and recent experiments in carrying them to Argentine have been favourably reported on. Experi- ments in the acclimatisation of fishes, however, have not “ sae I, es 54 NovEMBER 26, 1908 | NATURE Dit always met with success. Certain lakes possessing all the obvious biological and physical requirements have been repeatedly planted without result, and it has been but recently determined, through the work of) Prof. Bs) A. Birge, that the failure is due to peculiarities of the gaseous content of the water. In a paper on the gases dissolved in the waters of Wisconsin lakes, Dr. Birge illustrated his studies, which are of the highest value to fish culture. A paper on the utilisation of sea-mussels and dogfish as food, presented by Dr. Irving A. Field, opened a very general discussion on a subject which appealed to both the biologists and the practical fishermen. During recent years the horned dogfish (Squalus acanthias) has been extremely destructive to fish and fishing on the coasts of Canada and New England, while the smooth dogfish (Mustelus canis) is a perennial menace to the lobster. In Canada oil and fertiliser works have been established for the purpose of supplying a market and encouraging the destruction of the dogfish, and Prof. Prince is of the opinion that they have to some measure decreased in numbers. Dr. Field’s experiments have demonstrated that the smooth dogfish, salted and dried, makes a product closely resembling the cod, and in a fresh condition it is not inferior @ texture and flavour to halibut; the horned dog- fish, being more oily, is better adapted for tinning. Mr. Fryer stated that the equally destructive dogfish of the English coasts had been placed on the markets by the fishermen, and while it was unobjectionable as to quality, it met with prejudice on account of its name, a difficulty which also confronts the exploitation of dogfish as food in the United States and Canada. An euphonious name, not deceptive in character, would assist greatly in con- verting a fishery menace into a valuable product and important source of cheap food supply. The practical difficulties confronting the utilisation of these fish are being made the subject of inquiry by various technical bodies in the United States and Canada. A communication from the Rhode Island Commission of Inland Fisheries, in reference to the effects of gun- fire on schools of fishes, developed a difference of opinion between the scientific men and the practical fishermen. The latter declared that the heavy detonations from cannon drive the fish away from the coast, but the results of experiments at Woods Hole, as recounted by Dr. Sumner, indicated that mackerel and other surface-living fishes were but little disturbed by either gun-fire or the noises made by .boats using explosive engines. The investigations of Dr. Parker at the fisheries laboratory prove that certain fishes are influenced by sound stimuli as distinguished from the grosser mechanical vibrations of the water, but that their sudden movements of alarm are dictated by sight rather than by hearing. Eighteen corporations and individuals interested in the fisheries offered prizes for contributions on special subjects, and of these seven were unawarded, either because the papers submitted did not satisfy the strict conditions of the award or because they did not conform to the standard of merit imposed by the international jury of awards. Two awards were made to Prof. A. D. Mead for the papers above-mentioned, two to Dr. H. F. Moore for papers on the sponge fisheries and on growing sponges from cuttings, one to Mr. Dwight Franklin for the best method of preparing fishes for museum purposes, one was divided between Dr. F. A. Lucas and Mr. R. W.’ Minor, for papers on the best plan for an educational exhibit of fishes, one was given to Mr. Chas. H. Stevenson for the paper above alluded to, one to. Mr. Paul Reighard for the best plan to promote the white-fish production of the Great Lakes, one to Prof. Jacob Reighard for the best methods of observing the habits and recording the life- histories of fishes, one to Mr. Chas. G. Atkins for a paper on foods for use in rearing young salmonoids, and one to Mr. John J. Solomon for a process for preserving the pearl fisheries and increasing the yield of pearls. Many papers of much practical and scientific merit were submitted, but not read for lack of time, but they will be published in the proceedings of the congress. The fifth congress will be held in Rome in i911, the year of the semi-centennial of the Italian Federation. NO. 2039, VOL. 79| PSYCHOLOGY OF PLEASURE AND PAIN. HE last two numbers of the Psychological Review (July and September) have contained important articles by Prof. Max Meyer, of the University of Missouri, on the nervous correlate of pleasantness and unpleasantness. In the former the author brings out the contradictory character of the present views of psycho- logists on this subject, and in the latter proposes a theory that he believes accords with all known facts and gives proportionate weight to the various aspects of the ques- tion upon which his predecessors have dwelt too ex- clusively. The clearest opposition has hitherto been between the psychologists, who hold that pleasantness and unpleasantness are merely weak (and therefore badly localised or entirely unlocalised) forms of the sensations, which at a higher degree of intensity become respectively sexual sensation and pain, and those who, denying their substantive status, regard them merely as aspects or “tones ’’ of sensational processes. Prof. Meyer’s theory is of a different type altogether, and is based upon the concept of an hierarchy of reflex ares or a ‘centralisation by degrees.’’ Let A and B be two sensori-motor systems of neurons relatively independent, but having at least one connecting neuron in common. It is always possible for these to merge into a more complex sensori-motor system, C. The marks of this higher organisation will be (1) that stimulation of a sensory point of either A or B may produce simultaneous reactions at motor points both of A and B; and (2) that simultaneous stimulation of sensory points of both A and B may pro- duce a reaction at a motor point of A or B only. In the case of such a system, if the subsystem A is functioning a strong stimulation of subsystem B_ will produce a de- crease in the intensity of the current in A (drawing it off, in fact, towards motor points of B), while a gentle stimulation of B will merely increase the current setting towards motor points of A. The decrease or increase in the flow through system A, due to the action of B, is the nervous event which will be experienced as unpleasantness or pleasantness respectively. For example, the slight degree of pain produced by scratching after an insect’s bite is rather pleasant, for it actually increases the energy of the scratching process. If, however, the pain becomes too intense, its own typical reaction is set up; energy is drawn off from the scratching process, and unpleasantness is felt. It follows on this theory that pleasantness and un- pleasantness are attributes of the relatively more complex psychophysical functions, and, therefore, that their highest intensity may be expected to accompany intellectual activity—a result which the author claims as a powerful piece of evidence of the superiority of his doctrine over that which would regard them as “ feeling tones 2 of sensations. SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION OF NAVAL ARCHITECTS + I? has occurred to me that an appropriate subject for the address, which it is my duty to deliver as chair- man of the council, may be found in a brief account of the methods adopted for the education of naval architects in this country during the past century. I venture to hope that, apart from its particular interest for those engaged in shipbuilding, the narrative may have some value and attraction for those interested in technical educa- tion generally, and that it may throw some light on problems of higher technical education which still await solution in this country. In 1806 the Commission of Naval Revision reported in regard to the principal shipbuilding officers of the Royal Navy. There is evidence that outside the Admiralty service the standard of professional attainment amongst British shipbuilders was then low. As practical ship-carpenters they excelled; their ships were ‘* well and truly built,’” strong and durable. As ship-designers they depended on 1 From an address delivered before the Socicty of Arts on November 1& by Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S., chairman of the Council of the Society. 112 NATORE [ NovEMBER 26, 1908 precedent and experience. British warships were designed in accordance with *‘‘ established dimensions,’’? according to which ships of a certain tonnage carried a certain number of guns of specified sizes. The tonnage was estimated by an unscientific rule; and a competent authority, speaking of the condition of things existing at the beginning of the last century, asserted that ‘‘ scarcely an individual in the country knew correctly even the first element of one of our numerous ships.’? As a matter of fact, the official ‘‘ established dimensions ’’ were varied but little from 1680 to 1810, and there was practical stagna- tion in British shipbuilding. Instead of advance having been made in the practice of naval architecture in this country during the eighteenth century, there is reason to believe that there had been retrogression, so far as scientific knowledge and methods were concerned. The movement in favour of better education for British shipbuilders and the adoption of scientific methods in ship design a century ago was chiefly due to men unconnected with the industry, and was not welcomed by shipbuilders of the older school. Fortunately, opposition from various quarters was overcome, and the first school of Naval architecture began its work at Portsmouth in January, 1811, under the direction of Dr. Inman, a distinguished graduate of the University of Cambridge. The intention was to train men who should unite sound practical experi- ence with high scientific knowledge, to give them employ- ment subsequently at sea and in the work of ship-design- ing, and so to provide efficiently for the higher ranks of officers at the Admiralty and in the Royal dockyards. When the steam-reconstruction of the Navy had to be undertaken about fifty-five years ago, and was rapidly followed by the use of armour as a protection against attack by explosive shells, it became impossible any longer to pretend that naval officers, untrained as naval architects, could undertake the responsible work of designing British warships. Fortunately, trained men were available in the persons of Dr. Inman’s old pupils, who had been compelled to wait twenty years before their opportunity came. Sixteen years elapsed before a second school of naval architecture was established by the Admiralty at Ports- mouth, under the title of the ‘‘ Central School of Mathe- nratics and Naval Construction.’? Five years earlier the Admiralty had framed a scheme for schools in the Royal dockyards, at which all apprentices were required to attend “every afternoon for three hours, commencing an hour and a half previous to that at which the yard closes.” Under this rule the Admiralty paid the boys’ wages for one-half the period of school attendance, and required them to give the other half out of their own time. Beginning with “elementary matters, such as_ reading, writing, common and decimal arithmetic, Scripture, English history, and geography,’’ the apprentice passed on to more advanced instruction. At the end of three years a selection was to be made by means of an examination, and those whose abilities entitled them to a higher course of instruc- tion were allowed to attend school for two years more. For the majority of apprentices this ended their education: but the Admiralty order provided that ‘‘two or three of the best apprentices in each yard should be elected to the first class, should be instructed in ‘laying off’ and the leading principles of ship construction, and, so far as it is necessary for that purpose, should be taught mechanics, hydrostatics, and mathematics.’? Its main features have been continuously maintained for sixty-five years, with results which more than justify any expenditure incurred. As the national standard of elementary education had been raised, so the required standard for the admission of apprentices had been elevated, and out of the dockyard schools there had come multitudes of well-educated, intelli- gent workmen, from amongst whom, by a process of gradual selection, had been found subordinate and principal officers for the Admiralty service, while no small number had passed from that Service into the private trade, and orcupied positions of importance and responsibility in shiv- yards throughout the country and on the staffs of the registration societies for shipping, of which Lloyds’ Resister is the greatest. The scheme is broad and generous; it sives facilities and aid, while requiring apprentices on their side to study in time that would other- NO. 2039, VOL. 79] wise be their own for leisure or recreation. It carries on, side by side, practical and educational training ; it exercises a gradual selection of those whose ability and application show them to be capable of benefiting by higher instruc- tion. It sets up a ‘* ladder of learning’ from the lowest level, and there has been no bar to any capable man in striving to reach the highest position. Its cost is extremeiy moderate in proportion to its beneficial results. For the current financial year the dockyard schools at home and abroad are estimated to cost less than o200l., while the wages vote for these establishments exceeds two and a half millions sterling. The second school of naval architecture constituted the final stage in the Admiralty scheme for the technical education of its naval architects. Its students were in- tended to be the pick of dockyard apprentices of five years’ standing, who during that period had received an excellent general education, a good training in the practice of ship- building, and a special course of mathematics bearing on — naval construction. It differed from the first school, there- fore, because the former institution had been intended exclusively for a higher class of apprentices, to whom appointments were guaranteed when their course of train- ing was satisfactorily completed. In other words, the fundamental idea of the first school was to train students who were intended to become superior officers subsequently. On the contrary, the working apprentice class, by a process of selection applied at intervals during five years, was intended to supply the students to be trained in the second school, and they were not guaranteed appointments similar to those promised to their predecessors. Cambridge University again supplied a principal for the school of naval construction in the person of Dr. Woolley, who proved a worthy successor to Dr. Inman. During the five years of its existence men were trained who sub- sequently achieved high distinction in the theory and prac- tice of shipbuilding, and who proved capable of taking up the primary responsibility for warship design when age and failing powers compelled the retirement of men trained in the first school. The grave responsibilities incidental to the iron-clad reconstruction were borne, and successfully borne, by men from this college for a period of more than twenty years, and it was a fortunate circumstance that the Central School of Mathematics and Naval Construction was in existence even for so brief a period, because its students ably filled the gap that would have otherwise existed in the ranks of trained naval architects at a most critical period in our naval history. The third school of naval architecture was founded in 1864, and placed at South Kensington, the Education Department being associated with the Admiralty in its establishment and maintenance. Its creation was due to the action of the Institution of Naval Architects, which had been formed in 1860 on the joint initiative of naval architects trained for the Admiralty service, of a number of leading private shipbuilders and marine engineers, and of naval officers, yachtsmen, and men of science. In many respects the Royal School of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineers differed from, and was more compre- hensive than, its predecessors. The new school was intended to train students for the private industry as well as for Admiralty service. Its founders hoped to attract the sons and relatives of ship- builders and marine engineers, as well as to provide for young men selected by the Admiralty from the dockyard schools. Marine engineering was recognised as_ the younger sister of shipbuilding, needing equally good and systematic training for those making it their career. Foreign students were admitted as well as British subjects. The institution was designed to be, or to become, a school of which the greatest maritime nation of the world might be proud. It started under the fairest auspices; there was no failure in organisation, courses of study, teachers, or lecturers; the Admiralty played its part and sent up well- prepared students; foreign Governments also sent students, but in regard to private British students there was dis- appointment, both as to numbers and previous preparation. Wheat should have been the chief source of supply for British students, and for income, failed lamentably. Lool- ing back on the result, it does not appear so surprising as it did at the time. The scheme of instruction was admir- NovEMBER 26, 1908] NAT OTE, 113 able, only it required for its good working a standard of previous attainment, which was reached only by Admiralty students who had spent five or six years in practical work at the dockyards, and in attendance at the special schools therein provided. Even the best of the private students were far less advanced on entry, consequently very few of them were able to benefit fully from the higher and specialised instruction provided at South Kensington. Many private students did derive advantage from attend- ance, and have shown this to be true in their subsequent careers. On the whole, however, it must be admitted that the scheme was pitched too high in relation to the means of preliminary instruction then existing in this country, and that to give it full effect a preparatory school should have been created also, through which students could have passed before proceeding to the Royal School of Naval Architecture. Even to this day one of the greatest difficulties in the way of utilisation by students of the higher instruction provided in technical colleges consists in the want of proper preparation. There are certain distinctive features in the arrange- ments at the Royal Naval College which have stood the test of thirty-five years’ experience, and consequently may be worth consideration by those engaged or interested in technical instruction elsewhere. To a few of these I would refer, because they have a bearing on higher technical education in its general aspect. First, great care is taken thoroughly to prepare the Admiralty students before they enter the college, so that they may derive full advantage from the special facilities existing there. For many years past the Admiralty has maintained at Devonport a college in which those who are to become engineer officers of the Navy receive a practical and scientific training extending over four or five years. Entry to this school has been governed by com- petitive examinations, and the parents of students have been required to contribute to the expenses of the educa- tion of their sons, so that the selection of the students has been made from a higher class than that which furnishes ordinary dockyard apprentices. At the end of the training in this preparatory college a final selection is made of a limited number of students of naval architecture and marine engineering, who proceed to the Royal Naval College to undergo a further period of three years’ training in the higher branches of their profession. During the three years’ course at the college the summer vacations of the students are spent in the Royal dockyards on practical work, so that Admiralty practice for about forty-four years has represented what is now termed the ‘‘ sandwich system ’’ of instruction, and it has worked well. Secondly, private students admitted to the Naval College have been required to possess and give evidence of possess- ing a knowledge of practical shipbuilding obtained by a period of service in shipyards, as well as a certain standard of attainment in mathematical and scientific subjects. In Germany a similar condition has been insisted on in recent years, and a period of practical training must be under- gone by every student who aims at any branch of engineer- ing as his life’s work, in the interval between leaving the secondary schools and entering the higher technical schools. Thirdly, the teachers of naval architecture and marine engineering at the Royal Naval College are officially called “* instructors,’’ but really perform the duties of professors. They are appointed only for limited periods, coming from and returning to their professional work. All of them have been distinguished graduates of the college, and, after the completion of their studies, have acquired considerable practical experience at the Admiralty, in the dockyards, and (in many cases) during periods of service at sea. Thus equipped they enter upon their work as teachers. It is ensured that teachers never “‘ lose touch ’’ with the practical side of their professional work, and shall never continue so long in the position of instructors as to be- come stale, and therefore less capable of dealing with the professorial duties entrusted to them. Care seems to be required also in another direction at the present time. No teacher of any branch of engineer- ing can be regarded as properly qualified until he has gained actual experience and borne the burden of responsi- bility in connection with the design and execution of NO. 2039, VOL. 79] important works. It should never happen that those who teach should be lacking themselves in one side of the training—and that the not less important side—which, by common consent, is needed for the modern engineer. The Admiralty system meets this requirement, and has worked well. It has furnished capable professors of naval archi- tecture and marine engineering, not merely for Admiralty establishments, but for universities at home and abroad. Turning to results obtained from the work of the Royal Naval College during the last thirty-five years, it must suffice to say that they have been altogether satisfactory when judged by the positions which have been or are occupied by men who graduated there. The Admiralty staff of naval constructors and marine engineers has been mostly recruited from that source, and the highest offices have been successfully filled by ex-students of the Royal Naval College. It may be interesting to add that about twenty-five years ago the Admiralty constituted a Royal Corps of Naval Constructors. The scheme for that corps provided for the admission of qualified men who had not received their training under the Admiralty, or in Admiralty establishments, subject to the condition that candidates for entry showed proof (by examination and by recorded service) of thorough training in both the science and prac- tice of shipbuilding. Closely hillied with the scientific education of shipbuilders and marine engineers is the provision for instruction of naval officers and shipowners in the fundamental principles governing the construction and propulsion of ships. As regards officers in war-fleets and in mercantile marines, it is advantageous that they should possess some knowledge of the principles of buoyancy, stability, and structural strength, and should have mastered the elements of engineering. On the side of shipowners similar know- ledge would undoubtedly assist commercial success. From the nature of the case shipowners must determine the governing conditions of the trades in which ships are to be employed, and naval architects must discover the best possible solutions of the problems laid before them. In the case of warships, naval officers properly claim the right to select the qualities of armament, protection, speed, coal endurance, &c., which they wish to have embodied in designs. It is equally undesirable for the naval architect to assume the right of laying down the conditions to be fulfilled in new designs, as it is for shipowners or naval officers to assume the position of amateur ship designers. If naval officers or shipowners can _ be endowed with an understanding of the elementary principles affecting ship construction and propulsion they must be better able to appreciate what is or is not possible under: the conditions of practice, and therefore they will be much less likely to lay down conditions which are incompatible with one another or impossible of realisation. These considerations led me to suggest in 1873 that the Department of Naval Architecture in the Royal Naval College at Greenwich should include classes in which officers of the higher ranks in the Royal Navy should receive elementary instruction of this kind. These classes have now been in successful operation for more than thirty years, and there is ample evidence of their utility. Subsequently to the establishment of these classes at Greenwich it was decided also to give systematic instruction to junior naval officers in the prin- ciples of shipbuilding and engineering, and good results were obtained. In the most recent arrangements for the education of naval officers at Osborne and Dartmouth fuller expression has been given to the same idea, and no one questions the advantages which will be gained thereby. In these days it is obviously a necessity that every naval officer charged with the great responsibilities attaching to the use and management of warships, which are full of complicated machinery, should possess a con- siderable knowledge of engineering. The only matter on which difference of opinion exists is in regard to the further training of that class of officers who will eventually be placed in responsible charge of the propelling and other machinery of warships. From the preceding remarks it will be understood that the sole provision made for the higher education of British naval architects for a very long period was in schools established by the Admiralty; but this reproach was re- 114 moved about a quarter of a century ago by the creation of a professorship of naval architecture in the University of Glasgow, thanks to the generosity of Mrs. John Elder. About the same time a professorship of engineering was established in connection with the University of Durham at the College of Science (now the Armstrong College), Newcastle-on-Tyne, and instruction in naval architecture is included in the curriculum of studies in this depart- ment. It was always desired to have an independent pro- fessorship of naval architecture in this great centre of ship- building, and by persistent effort this desire was fulfilled about a year ago. The country now possesses three schools of naval architecture, two of which are independent of the Admiralty, and sustained by the private shipbuilding industry. It has been suggested that the multiplication of schools of naval architecture in Great Britain may be overdone, but when compared with the provision now made for the education of naval architects in Germany, France, and the United States, and taking into account the overwhelm- ing preponderance of British shipowning and shipbuilding, there need be no fear that four schools of naval archi- tecture, each with a considerable number of students, would constitute an excessive provision for this country. In the Technical High School of Charlottenburg, near Berlin, there were not long ago about 400 students of naval archi- tecture and marine engineering, all of whom had received adequate preparatory training before entering the high school and specialising in these studies. Even at the pre- sent time the total number of equally qualified students of naval architecture and marine engineering attending the classes in British schools is only about 170, or less than one-half the number of men studying at Charlottenburg. In the United States excellent schools of naval architec- ture exist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and as departments in several universities. These are well equipped, and attended by considerable numbers of students. When it is borne in mind that the aggregate tonnage of steamships belonging to the British Empire is seven- teen millions of tons, as against 3,705,000 tons owned by Germany and 1,542,000 (exclusive of the shipping on the great lakes) owned by the United States, and that in 1907 the gross tonnage of ships launched in the United Kingdom aggregated 1,608,000 tons, as against 291,000 tons for Germany and 486,300 tons for the United States, it will hardly be maintained that the provision made or contemplated for the higher education of British naval architects is likely to prove excessive. Possibly it may be thought that the German provision for such education is extravagantly large, and that the number of highly trained men who annually pass out from the High School at Charlottenburg is in excess of the real requirements of the shipbuilding industry of that country. This is not the opinion entertained in Germany itself, for another school of naval architecture has been ereafed at Dantzic recently. The last half-century has witnessed unprecedented pro- gress in British shipping and shipbuilding. It is apt to be forgotten that when the Civil War broke out the tonnage of American shipping was rapidly overtaking that of this country, and threatened to surpass it before long. It is true, no doubt, that the lead which we took in the use of iron instead of wood as the chief material of construction, and in the development of steam naviga- tion, helped forward the remarkable progress that has been made. It is equally true that great assistance to progress has been given by the application of scientific methods to ship construction and propulsion. It would be ridiculous to suppose that the contemporaneous develop- ment of technical and scientific training amongst naval architects and marine engineers had only been a coinci- dence, and had not played a great part. Many circum- stances, as well as many persons, have assisted in bring- ing British shipping and shipbuilding into its present un- rivalled condition, but the underlying and predominant cause must be found in the general recognition of the necessity for scientific as well as practical training on the part of those engaged in the design and construction of ships and their machinery. Ship-designing can never be dealt with on purely scien- tific methods. : NO. 2039, VOL. 79] NATURE [NoveMBER 26, 1908. most trying conditions to which ships at sea may be subjected. Accumulated experience, based on careful observation and experiment, must always be the founda- tion of successful work. Direct experiments on models of ships and propellers are of incalculable value; but the arrangement and conduct of these experiments, the carry- ing out of observations on the behaviour of ships, the grouping and analysis of results, and the deduction there- from of facts and principles for future guidance, all demand scientific knowledge and scientific procedure. Of course, this is not peculiar to shipbuilding, and I have no desire to magnify the importance of that branch of engineering to which my life has been devoted. It is equally true of engineering as a whole, and of the applica- tions of science to industrial processes generally. My chief object in describing to-night what has been done in the technical education of naval architects has been to present an object-lesson to those interested in technical education as a whole. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Cambripce.—Prof. Adam Sedgwick, president of the Philosophical Society, has been appointed to represent the society at the Darwin centenary celebrations in June, 1909. In a letter to the Vice-Chancellor, the secretaries of the Royal Society announce that, as Sir William Huggins desires now to relinquish the care of the stellar spectro- scopic equipment placed in his hands by the Royal Society in 1871, the president and council of the society are prepared to present these instruments as a gift towards the equipment of the astrophysical department of the Cam- bridge Observatory, subject to an assurance of their per- manent profitable employment being obtained. This assurance having been given by the observatory syndicate, the installation will be transferred permanently to the University as it now stands in full working order in Sir William Huggins’s observatory. In view of the historical importance of this equipment, and its intimate connection with the foundation and development of the science of astrophysics, it is desired that the name of Sir William Huggins be permanently connected with the instruments. The electors to the Isaac Newton studentships give notice that, in accordance with the regulations, an election to a studentship will be held in the Lent term, 1900. These studentships are for the encouragement of study and research in astronomy and physical optics. The per- sons cligible are members of the University who have been admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and who will be under the age of twenty-five years on the first day of January, 1909. It will be the duty of the student to devote himself during the tenure of his student- ship to study or research in some branch of astronomy or physical optics. The student’s course of study or re- search must be, as a rule, pursued at Cambridge. The studentship will be tenable for the term of three years from April 15, 1909. The emolument of the student will be 200l. per annum, provided that the income of the fund is capable of bearing such charge. Lonpon.—The new deans of faculties are :—for medicine, Prof. S. H. C. Martin, F.R.S.; for science, Prof. J. M. Thomson, F.R.S.; for engineering, Prof. W. E. Dalby. Prof. T. G. Brodie has resigned his post as professor- superintendent of the Brown Animal Sanatory Institution on his appointment as professor of physiology in the Uni- versity of Toronto. The degree of D.Sc. in physiology has been granted to Dr. F. H. Scott, an internal student, of University College, who submitted a thesis entitled ‘‘On the Relative Parts played by Nervous and Chemical Factors in the Regula- tion of Respiration,’’ and other papers; also to Dr. H. W. Bywaters, an internal student; of the physiological labora- tory of the University, who submitted a thesis entitled *“ An Inquiry into the Chemical Mechanism concerning the Absorption of Protein and Carbohydrate Food,’ and other papers. A separate board of studies is to be constituted for Exact estimates cannot be made of the ; ethnology. NovemMBER 26, 1908] luz council of the University College, Bristol, appointed Dr. John Beddoe, F.R.S., honorary professor of anthropology. Dr. V. H. Brackman, professor of botany in the Uni- versity of Leeds, has been appointed by the Senate to represent the University at the commemoration, in June next, at the University of Cambridge, of the centenary of Darwin’s birth and the fiftieth anniversary of the publication of the ‘‘ Origin of Species.” Lorp IveaGu has been elected Chancellor of the Uni- versity of Dublin in succession to the late Lord Rosse. Lord Iveagh has been a generous benefactor of the Uni- versity, and contributed a sum of 16,5001. for the construc- tion and equipment of the laboratory of experimental physics, which was completed in 1906. SpeeakinG at Edinburgh on November 19, in openins the new science and art rooms of George Watson’s College for Boys, Lord Avebury said that, considering how much we owe to science, it is a marvel that so little time is devoted to the study of nature in the public-school and university system. Scientific men do not undervalue or wish to exclude classics from the curriculum, but their point of view is that a man, however much he may know of the dead languages, if he knows nothing of science is but a half-educated man after all. An article by Prof. Rudolf Tombo, jun., in Science for October 30 last, on the geographical distribution of the student body at a number of American universities and colieges, deals incidentally with the number of foreign students in attendance at these institutions. The total number of students from foreign countries in attendance at the twenty-seven institutions in the United States selected for the purposes of the comparison is 1088. Of this number Europe contributes 219, Asia 332, Australasia 58, and Africa 9. Pennsylvania University has the largest foreign clientele, followed by Columbia, Cornell, and Harvard, each of which attracts more than one hundred foreigners. Taking the representation of foreigners at all the selected institutions, we find that the largest number of students are sent by the following countries :—Canada, 210 ; Japan, 142; China, 139; Mexico, go; Cuba, 67; Great Britain and Ireland, 60; Argentine Republic, 56; and India, 54. Of European countries, England sends the largest number, namely, 60, followed by Russia with 40 and Germany with 32. Of the students from Great Britain and Ireland, 8 attend Columbia University, 9 Harvard and 12 Pennsylvania. d THE opening of the new memorial buildings at E College by the King took place on Watsesiae ee 18. The ceremony was most impressive, and the King’s reply to the address of the boys expressed in admirably clear and dignified words the feelings which must have pervaded the whole assembly. ‘“‘ You all have the oppor- tunity of leaving Eton trained in the knowledge and accomplishments of English gentlemen, and disciplined to the self-restraint, the consideration for others, and the loyal acceptance of private and public duties which are the ideals of our race. I exhort you to value and make the most of that training and discipline. You can have no better example than that of the brave men of whom this splendid building is a loyal and lasting memorial.” It would be difficult to give a better expression to the public-school ideal, and the King’s words may well be studied by every school in his kingdom. Eton has for some time possessed laboratories, chemical, physical, and biological, as well as workshops, and, as at other public schools, boys have the opportunity of acquiring some of the widers culture which science is ready to supply, and which Osborne and Dartmouth are adding to the know- ledge and accomplishments of English princes; but hitherto Eton has had no single building capable of accommodating the whole school. The new hall supplies this defect, and it will be used for concerts and lectures, provision having been made for an electric lantern. The acoustic properties of the hall seem to be excellent, and every word, not only of the King’s speeches, but also of the address read by the captain of the school, was dis- tinctly audible. Adjoining the hall is a dome, in which the school library will find adequate accommodation. NO. 2039, VOL. 79] NATURE has | T15 Tue annual report of the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College, adopted by the governors of the college at the end of September last, has reached us. There was during the session 1907-8 an increase of 156 students, bringing the total up to 5918 individuals if, as is done in the report, the pupils of Allan Glen’s School are included. We observe that the completion of the long-contemplated amalgamation of the Incorporated Weaving, Dyeing, and Printing College with the Technical College has been effected, and this department, like all the other depart- ments of the college, will continue under the supervision of leading members of the industry with which the work is associated. A condition of the amalgamation is that the governors shall make their best endeavours to provide new premises for the weaving department in the new buildings. Efforts are to be made to improve the pre- liminary education of students entering the college ; notice has been given that in September, 1g1o, the standard of the preliminary examination will be raised to that of the leaving certificate of the Scotch Education Department. As the report points out, there is no reason why a boy of average capacity and diligence should not obtain this certificate at the age of seventeen or eighteen. The re- port acknowledges the encouragement received by the college from the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland by a grant of 4oool., from the Education Depart- ment by an additional grant of 88051. towards the build- ing and equipment fund, from the Corporation of Glasgow of a sum of 45001. from the residue grant, and also gool. in respect of the weaving college, and from local associa- tions, industrial firms, and others by gifts of prizes for students and of material for use in the laboratories. Yue report on the work of the department of techno- logy of the City and Guilds of London Institute for the session 1907-8 has reached us. We notice that since the institute, some sixteen years ago, first established classes for the training of teachers in the use of wood-working and metal-working tools, instruction in this subject has made great advances, and has been very much improved. Originally introduced by way of experiment in a few elementary schools, manual training is now a recognised subject in the curriculum of most elementary and secondary schools, and is one of the subjects studied by men students in training ‘colleges for teachers in elementary schools. A recent alteration in the Board of Education Code regu- lating the work of public elementary schools, by which boys of eleven years of age are admitted to classes in handicrafts, will result most probably in a further demand for qualified teachers in these subjects. The technology committee of the institute directs attention to the fact that the Board of Education has under consideration the question of developing all forms of manual instruction and of encouraging continuity throughout such teaching from the classes for infants to the upper standards of the elementary school. Since 1892, the date of the first public examination, 4861 teachers’ certificates in manual training have been awarded by the institute. The work of the department as a whole continues to progress. The number of subjects in which examinations were held during the year dealt with in the report was seventy-two, as compared with sixty-nine in the previous year, the number of separate classes increased from 3311 to 3604, and the number of students in attendance from 46,048 to 48,223. The programme of courses of instruction for the current year contains, the report states, seventy-six different syllabuses, including courses of instruction relating to more than a hundred distinct branches of industry. Parr ii. of vol. i. of the Journal of the Municipal School of Technology, Manchester—a record of the work of the school—has just been issued. It consists of 130 pages of reprints of ten papers written by members of the staff of the school, and communicated to the scientific societies or published in the scientific Press during the four years 1903-7. One of the papers deals with a mathematical, another with an electrical, a third with a sanitary, two with engineering, and five with chemical questions. The journal is printed in the school, and reflects great credit on the printing department. Its issue raises several momentous questions. In the first place, Manchester appears to. be the only technical school in this country 116 NATURE [ NovEMBER 26, 1908 which considers it worth its while to reprint the papers written by the members of its staff, and the conclusion is forced on us that no one-of the dozen polytechnics of London or of the score of technical schools in the large towns of the provinces—Birmingham, Glasgow, Belfast, and others—contributes to the advancement of science so much as Manchester does. In the next place, it may reasonably be asked, Is Manchester doing as much as it ought to do in this direction? To answer this question we must remember that the school cost a third of a million, has a staff of nearly 100, and claims to be second to none in the kingdom in point of equipment. Judging by Con- tinental schools, about one-sixth of the staff might reason- ably be expected to be doing something to solve the problems met with in their own departments, and on this basis Manchester does not yet produce its proper quota of research; and if Manchester does not, what must be the state of the other schools of the kingdom? and why are they in this state? They were founded for the training of those who intend to apply science to industry, who can render no greater service to industry than the solution of some of its problems. What better training for this pur- pose can there be than working out one of those problems under the guidance of a teacher, and how can the teachers act as guides unless they themselves have been pioneers? No technical school is fulfilling its highest purpose when its staff is not carrying out research, but is merely retail- ing text-book knowledge which, from the nature of things, must be a dozen years behind the times. Yet how many of the schools of the kingdom are content to do nothing better than point to their. records of how many thousand students have passed through them, and probably learnt nothing more up-to-date than Euclid or the atomic theory, both of which they might have learnt just as well in any primary school ? TuE seventh annual meeting of the North of England Education Conference is to be held on January 7, 8, and 9, 1909. United conferences are to be held in the Man- chester Town Hall on the mornings of January 8 and 9, and sectional meetings at the Manchester Municipal School of Technology in the afternoons of the same days. One of the subjects for discussion in the sectional meetings of the second day of the conference is the training of girls in domestic subiects, concerning which papers are to be read by Miss Alice Ravenhill and Miss E. J. Ross. The united conference on the concluding day is for the discussion of the coordination of the curricula in primary and secondary schools, and papers are to be read by Messrs. J. L. Paton and J. W. Iliffe and Miss Isabel Cleghorn. The following subjects are to be considered in sectional meetings on the last day of the conference :— the place of the higher elementary school in the scheme of education, with papers read by Mr. C. H. Wyatt and Prof. J. J. Findlay; the relation of the universities to evening teaching in industrial centres; papers by Messrs. R. H. Tawney and W. J. Bees; and methods of teaching mathematics; papers by Messrs. T. J. Garstang and H. Brotherton. The committee has deemed it desirable to asi delegates to pay a membership subscription of one shilling, which will contribute in some measure towards the expense involved. Admission to the conference meet- ings will be by ticket, application for which should be made to the honorary secretaries at the Manchester Municipal School of Technology, accompanied by a postal order or stamps for one shilling as membership subscrip- tion in respect of each person attending the conference. The committee has arranged to display the Manchester Education Committee’s exhibit as shown at the recent Franco-British Exhibition. It is designed to show compiete and varied educational work of a large county borough, and will be set up in the examination hall of the Municipal School of Technology. A comprehensive exhibition of educational apparatus and books will also be arranged. For ‘more than a year a committee, composed of re- presentatives of the University of Oxford, on the one hand, and of labour representatives on the other, has been considering the question of the relation between the Uni- versity of Oxford and the education 0: working men. It NO. 2039, VOL. 79| the |! is expected that the report of the deliberations of the committee will be published shortly. _In connection with the same movement a conference, largely attended by. delegates of trades unions and other organisations of work: ing men, was held on November 21 at Toynbee Hall. The scheme to be recommended by the Oxford committee in the forthcoming report was described by tne joint’ secretary. The Bishop of Birmingham delivered — an address, during the course of which he said it appears’ to him to be “beyond the possibility of question that the proportion of young men who are at Oxford because it is ‘‘ the right thing ’’ to go to Oxford and because they want to have a good time is ridiculously great. No serious person can ‘think about Oxford without “seeing that this is a gross misappropriation of the purposes and re- sources of. the University, and that, by one means or another, it requires fundamental alteration. A system is to be desired in which it shall be understood clearly, and effectively brought about, that persons, who do, not at once show that they come to the University because they want to be students will have to go elsewhere. If carried out there would be a great displacement of well-to-do young men who want to have a good time by serious students who would come equally from all classes, but in large measure from among the workers. There is in most classes a body of people who want to be serious students,. and .possess the requisite qualifications. These persons have the right to be at the University, because it exists for ,such students. The endowments of the place should be so re-arranged as really to be again applicable to the ends for which they were first given, namely, to enable those who have no means of their own, but have the capacity and desire to be students, to avail themselves of the resources and the opportunities of the great centres of learning. Then would follow a re-modelling in the University of the whole scale and standard of living. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Challenger Society, October 28.—Mr. A. E. Shipled, F.R.S., in the chair.—Ostracoda of the Bay of Biscay captured during the 1900 cruise of H.M.S. Research: Dr. G. H. Fowler. More than 7000 specimens had_ been identified, and in the case of more than 3000 the sex had been determined and the length of the shell measured. As the result of these measurements the author was enabled to formulate provisionally a new law of growth in Crustacea :—‘‘ during early growth each stage increases at each moult by a fixed percentage of its length which is constant for the species and sex’’; for this the name of Brooks’s law was suggested, Prof. W. K. Brooks having made the first observations which led to it; it had been checked to some extent by observations on _ lobsters (Herrick) and crabs (Waddington). In several cases it was shown that two stages of the same species had been described as different species. Twenty-five species occurred in the collection, and in some cases as many as five stages - had been recognised. As regards the vertical distribution, attention was directed to an increase in the number of specimens captured between 750-400 fathoms as compared with those from 400-100 fathoms, and the suggestion made that this was due to a check in the velocity of fall of dead, and dying specimens, produced by the increased viscosity of” the water, which in its turn was dependent on increased pressure and diminished temperature. All the four plen- tiful species, which were recognised on other grounds as mesoplanktonic, attained their maximum intensity in this zone, which would constitute a rich food-zone. Three species were apparently purely mesoplanktonic; eleven reached their maximum intensity in or near the epiplankton, but extended into the mesoplankton, and of these eleven three were apparently purely mesoplanktonic at their oldest stage; four were purely mesoplanktonic. The question of the vertical oscillation of the species was discussed, and several were shown to be more abundant in the epiplankton by night than by day; in one case an attempt: was made to trace the movement of the species at different times of day. The proportion of males to females seemed to point to the probability that one species was parthenogenetic. NovEMBER 26, 1908] In another species the death-rate at three stages was worked out, and appeared to be 50 per cent. Except in one case the maximum intensity of closely similar species appeared to be at different levels. Geological Society, November 4.—Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The relations of the Nubian Sandstone and the crystalline rocks of Egypt: Hugh J. L. Beadnell. The conclusions of previous observers are mainly in favour of the view that the granites are not intrusive into the Nubian Sandstone, but that the latter was deposited round denuded masses of the granite. The crystalline rocks south of the Oasis of Kharga are first dealt with. Eight exposures of crystal- line rocks were met. The sediments near the contact with the crystalline rocks are generally inclined at a high angle. The bedded rocks contain no fragments derived from the crystalline rocks. The author concludes that the Nubian Sandstone was unconformably deposited, partly on preexisting sedimentary formations, and partly on the planed-down surfaces of still older crystalline and meta- morphic rocks. Subsequently it was invaded by outbursts from the underlying magma, the intrusions being probably connected with the clevation of the mountainous regions on the east side of the Nile.—The fossil plants of the Waldershare and Fredville series of the Kent coalfield : E. A. Newell Arber. At the boring at Shakespeare Cliff, Dover, Coal-measures were reached at a depth of 1100 feet, and subsequently penetrated to a depth of about 2270 feet. Thirteen seams of coal, varying in thickness from 1 foot to 4 feet, were pierced. Coal-measures were struck at 1394 feet at the boring in Waldershare Park, and pierced for 1260 feet more. Five seams of coal, vary- ing from 1 foot 4 inches to 5 feet 2 inches in thickness, were struck. The boring near Fredville Park reached Coal-measures at 1363 feet, pierced three seams of coal, and was continued to a depth of 1813 feet. The speci- mens of plants collected from the Waldershare and Fred- ville borings were compared with plants found at Dover and in other localities in Britain and abroad. The majority of species tabulated are either confined to the Upper Coal-measures and the transition series below, or are Middle and Lower Coal-measure forms which are known to occur in the transition series. Thus the beds are the homotaxial equivalents of the Newcastle, Etruria, and black-band horizons of north Staffordshire, the Ham- stead beds below 1233 feet in south Staffordshire, the Coed- yr-allt beds and Ruabon marls of Denbighshire, the Ard- wick series and beds above the Bradford four-foot coal in south Lancashire, the Lower Pennant Grit of South Wales, and the New Rock and Vobster series of Somer- set. The majority of species are also common to the highest zone, or the ‘‘ Charbons Gras,’’ in the Pas de Calais. Entomological Society, November 4.—Mr. C. O. Water- house, president, in the chair.—Exhibits—W. G. Sheldon: Examples of Melitaea aurinia, var. iberica, from Barcelona, taken last May, and examples from various British and Continental localities for comparison, suggesting that eventually this particular form of aurinia might prove to be a distinct species.—Rare Tachinide : H. W. Andrews. A_ short series of Gymnosoma votundatum, L., and a specimen of Ocyptera brassicaria, F.—two uncommon Tachinids—from Glengarriff, co. Cork. —Erebias from the Vosges: P. J. Barraud. A series of Erebia stygne and E. ligea from the French Vosges, taken in June and July this year.—Nonagria new to Britain: E. P. Sharpe and A. J. Wightman. A series of Nonagria edelsteni, wrongly identified as N. neurica, Hb., from Sussex, taken in August this year, this being the first time that the species, which is quite dis- tinct, had been observed.—Pseudogynes of Formica vufa: H. St. J. Donisthorpe. Pseudogynes captured alive at Nethy Bridge in September last, where they occurred in some numbers in two nests of Formica rufa, thus indicating that Atemeles pubicollis, Bris., a beetle new to Britain, is to be found in Scotland.—Rare British Coleoptera: H. St. J. Donistherpe. Examples of Harpalus cupreus, Dej., from Sandown, Isle of Wight (one specimen with red legs discovered by Mr. J. Taylor at Atherstone); Cafius cicatricosus, Er., from Southsea ; NO. 2039, VOL. 79] NA TORE My) and Cryptocephalus bipunctatus, L., taken at Niton, Isle of Wight, where it was discovered by Mr. R. S. Mitford last year.—A “stick ’’ insect—apparently a new species of the genus Melaxinus—bred parthenogenetically by Mr. H. Main: R. Shelford.—A long series of hybrid S. ocellatus x populi: L. W. Newman.—Life-histories of Coleophorids and hybernating Porthesia: H. J. Turner. (1) Ova, larvee, and photomicrographs to illustrate the life-history of Coleophora virgaureae. (2) ‘‘ Nests’’ of the gregarious hybernating larvee of Porthesia chrysorrhoea from Waker- ing marshes, Essex; on several parts of the coast this species has now become very abundant again. (3) Dead flower-stems of Statice limonium collected on November 1, containing the full-fed hybernating larve of Coleophora limoniella.—Rare earwig and cells of wasp: W. J. Lucas. (1) An example of Labidura riparia, Pall. (shore earwig), a large male taken near Bournemouth, August 10, and kept alive since that date. (2) Two cells. of the solitary wasp Eumenes coarctala found in the New Forest.—Speci- mens of the genera Celastrina (Cyaniris) and Everes to demonstrate the racial identity of C. sikkima and C. argiolus, C. jynteana and C. limbatus, E. diparodes and E. argiades: Dr. T. A. Chapman. All these species occur together, and appear to form a mimetic group, but it would be impossible at present to determine which is the model and what may be the object of the mimicry.— The male and female imago, the preserved larva, and the cocoon of an interesting new Lasiocampid from Durban : Prof. E. B. Poulton.—Butterflies captured on a patch of zinnias on the north of the Victoria Nyanza: Prof. E. B. Poulton. Seventeen specimens were shown of Danats chrysippus, L., of the type, and alcippus forms together with the intermediate examples, but no single specimen of dorippus (klugii), although of three females of Hypolimnas misippus, L., two were of the inaria, Cr., form mimick- ing dorippus.—Specimens of Heliconius amphitrite, Riff., and H. charithonia, Linn., also a coloured drawing of H. hermathena, Hew.: Dr. F. A. Dixey. Each of the first two species showed a distinct and well-marked aposeme or warning character, each of them, and especi- ally the first, belonging to an extensive mimetic assemblage. In the third species these two distinct aposemes were combined.—Aberrant forms of Polyommatus bellargus and of Zygaena trifolii and Z. hippocrepidis : Dr. G. G. Hodgson.—The life-history of Erianthus versicolor, Brunner, an Orthopteron of the family Mastacide: J. C. Kershaw. Linnean Society. November 5.—Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Notes on some parasitic Copepoda, with a description of a new species of Chondracanthus= C. inflatus: Miss M. E. Bainbridge.—Some nemerteans from the eastern Indian Ocean: R. C. Punnett and C. F. Cooper.—Report on the echinoderms, other than holothurians, collected by Mr. Stanley Gardiner in the western parts of the Indian Ocean: Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell. Mathematical Society, Nc vember 12.—Prof. W. Burnside, president, and subsequently Prof. H. M. Macdonald, vice- president, in the chair.—Address of the retiring president : Prof. W. Burnside. The address dealt with the neglect of the theory of groups of a finite order by English mathe- maticians. It was pointed out that numerous opportunities arise in comparatively elementary teaching for emphasising the importance of some of the simpler notions of the theory of groups. If such opportunities were taken a student of the more advanced theory would approach it with a mind already stored with concrete examples.— (1) The second mean value theorem of integral calculus ; (2) the representation of a function by means of a series of Legendre’s functions: Dr. E. W. Hebson. _In the second of these papers it is pointed out that a difficulty, not presented in the analogous theory of Fourier’s series, arises in the theory of the expansion of a function in a series of Legendre’s functions, through the existence of two critical points of the differential equation satisfied by these functions, and an asymptotic formula for the func- tions of high index, valid in the neighbourhood of the critical points, is obtained.—The eliminant of three quantics in two independent variables: A. L. Dixon. A method is given for exhibiting the eliminant as a single determinant, the clements of which are formed by a rule 115 NA Tig? [NovEMBER 26, 1908 analogous to Bezout’s rule for forming the eliminant of two quantics in one independent variable—The Dirichlet series and the asymptotic expansion of integral functions of zero order: J. E. Littlhewood.—The norm curves on a given base: Prof. F. Morley.—The arithmetical nature of the coefficients in a group of linear substitutions (third paper): Prof. W. Burnside.—The conformal transformations of a space of four dimensions and their applications to geometrical optics: H. Bateman. —Periodic properties of partitions: D. M. Y. Sommer- ville.—The solution of integral equations: Prof. A. C. Dixon.—Note on the continuity or discontinuity of a func- tion defined by an infinite product: G. H. Hardy.—The energy and momentum of an ellipsoidal electron: F. B. Pidduck.—(1) q-Integration; (2) q-transformations of power series: Rev. F. H. Jackson.—The complete solu- tion in integers of the Eulerian equation X*+Y*=U*+V*: Dr. T. Stuart.—Waves of finite amplitude: W. J. Harrison.—An asymptotic formula for the generalised hypergeometric series: T. J. I’A. Bromwich.—Satellite curves of a plane cubic: A. C. O'Sullivan. Royal Meteorological Society, November 18.—Dr. H. R. Mill, president, in the chair.—Investigation of the electrical state of the upper atmosphere, made at the Howard Estate Observatory, Glossop: W. Makower, Miss M. White, and E. Marsden. ‘There exists under normal atmospheric conditions a potential gradient in the atmosphere surround- ing the earth. The earth being negatively charged with respect to the air, a continuous electric current flows from the upper atmosphere to the earth. It follows, therefore, that a kite attached to an earth-connected wire will tend to assume the potential of the air surrounding it, and an electric current will flow continuously down the wire to earth through the winding machine to which the wire is attached. The experiments described in the paper were undertaken with the view of determining the magnitude of this current when the kite was at different heights above the ground. The authors found that in general a high wind produced at a given altitude an abnormally high value of the current flowing down the wire. Whether the action of the wind is to be accounted for by the greater volume of air which passes in a given time over the sails of the kite, so giving a greater volume of air from which electricity is collected, or whether the action of the wind is to be attributed to electrification by friction, the authors find it difficult to say, but there is no question that the velocity of the wind docs play an important part in deter- mining the current flowing down the kite wire. In further confirmation it may be added that observations made with a captive balloon in very calm weather gave abnormally low values for the current.—Balloon observations made at Birdhill, co. Limerick, during July and August, 1908: Captain C. H. Ley. These observations were carried out on behalf of the joint kite committee of the Royal Meteorological Society and of the British Association. Captain Ley in this paper gave full details of the observa- tions made on twenty-five pilot balloons, seven of which carried registering instruments. The method employed is similar to that known by surveyors as the subtense method, that is, obtaining the range of a known vertical bar by observation of the angle subtended by it at the theodolite with an eye-piece micrometer. In this case the bar is the line joining a hydrogen balloon and a com- paratively heavy air-filled balloon, and the balloons appear as dises to be bisected simultaneously by the fixed and movable wire in the diaphragm. Several balloons were observed to a horizontal distance of twenty-four miles. lwo of the balloons dropped in the river Shannon; these were sent up in exceptionally calm atmosphere, and Cap- tain Ley considers that the river had a suction effect upon them. The immediate neighbourhood of stratus or cirrus cloud appears to cause a collapse of vertical velocity, and, generally speaking, the highest horizontal velocity of wind appears to occur below the cirrus level. A feature developed during the course of the experiments was the observation of the balloons at night by means of naked acetylene lights. After some trouble these proved quite successful, gave long runs with less risk of being lost in small clouds, and afforded points of light which could be observed on with great accuracy. ; NO. 2039, VOL. 79] Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, November 19,— Mr. Alfred James, president, in the chair.—Notes on tin dressing: H. W. Hutchin. A record of investigations of dressing operations conducted at South Crofty Mine with the view of determining the losses incurred in tin dress- ing and their nature. The ground covered embraced mainly the first stage of concentration, in preparing con- centrates for the calciner, and comprised a systematic in- vestigation of the battery tailings. The range of the present inquiry was, however, restricted to tin alone of all the metallic constituents, and in this connection the author had collected a mass of valuable data resulting from experiments with different grades of crushing and different modes of treatment.—Working costs on mines, as practised on the Rand: J. A. Dennison. In this paper, which was originally submitted to the standardisation sectional committee of the institution dealing with mine accounts and cost sheets, the author reviews the practice of the Rand with the object of seeing to what extent it is capable of standardisation in itself and as a guide to other localities. His brief is in favour of standardising general principles and systems rather than details, and of securing the utmost simplicity consistent with a clear and full statement of accounts.—A manganese deposit in southern India: R. O. Ahlers. A description of the manganese deposits in the native State of Sandur, Bellary district, an elliptical basin composed geologically of a bed of the Dharwar (Archzean) series of schistose rocks, which is surrounded by gneiss, the predominating rock in that part of India. Iron. and manganese are _ intimately associated in the Sandur deposits, which, though of large extent on the surface, go but a short distance in depth. The author inclines to the theory that these ore bodies are the result of metasomatic action, a replacement of the original rock by oxides of manganese and iron, by the agency of meteoric waters.—Extinguishing the fire in the Testasecca Mine, Sicily: F. C. Chrambach. A _ brief description of the method adopted in dealing with an incendiary outbreak in a sulphur mine in Sicily, the opera- tion being greatly assisted by the employment of the West- phalia ‘‘ rescue ’’ apparatus, whereby the working party was enabled to penetrate and carry on its labours in the highly vitiated air of the underground sections. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society, October 20,— Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., president, in the chair.— Further notes on the separation of cobalt and nickel: R. L. Taylor. The author referred to a former paper in which he described a modification of Rose’s method (barium or calcium carbonate in presence of chlorine or bromine). In that paper he pointed out that various con- ditions caused a remarkable retardation in the precipita- tion of the cobalt. He now proposes the use of magnesium carbonate instead of calcium or barium carbonate, and finds that with this there is practically no uncertainty in the action.—Some questions connected with the constitu- tion of the atom: H. Bateman. It is shown that a con- tinuous succession of infinitesimal conformal transforma- tions of space can be derived by stereographic projection from a figure on a hypersphere which moves as a rigid body in a space of four dimensions. This gives ten degrees of freedom, so that the model atom would have at most ten degrees of freedom. It is suggested that the number of degrees of freedom possessed by an atom in given circumstances is equal to three plus the valency exhibited in those circumstances. When two atoms are in a state of chemical combination there is, in general, a loss of three degrees of freedom for a single bond and five degrees of freedom for a double bond. By means of this rule it is possible to calculate the number of degrees of freedom of a molecule. In the case of a molecule con- sisting of several atoms there are additional restrictions due to the atoms arranging themselves at equal distances from one another or in a plane. The ratio of the specific heats calculated from the numbers n obtained in this way and the formula y=1+2/n agree with the results of observation.—A collection of fossil insects from Shiobara, Japan, collected by Dr. Marie Stopes: C. Gordon Hewitt. In the collection there were a large number of the aquatic larvae of ephemerids. There were NoveMBER 26, 1908] NATORE 119 examples of certain larve and a single pupa of insects | belonging to the dipterous family Culicidee. In addition | to these, a number of different families of Diptera were represented, including one or two excellently preserved specimens of Culicide. The insects are preserved in a light grey laminated shale, and the fossiliferous deposit is evidently of fresh-water origin, and appears to belong to | the Tertiary age. | November 3.—Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The nature of the a particle: Prof. E. Ruther- ford and T. Royds. In order to give a definite proof of the identity of the a particle with a helium atom, it is necessary to show that helium can be obtained from accumulated a particles, quite independently of the active matter from which they are expelled. This has been done by the authors. In the experiments every precaution was taken to prevent possible contamination of the apparatus with helium. The experiments afford a conclusive proof that the a particle after losing its charge is an atom of helium. Other evidence indicates that the positive charge on the @ particle is twice that carried by the hydrogen atom.—The action of the radium emanation on water : T. Royds and Prof. E. Rutherford.—Some properties of the radium emanation: Prof. E. Rutherford. In 1906 (Nature, October 25) the author directed attention to the fact that the emanations of radium, thorium, and actinium were completely absorbed by cocoa-nut charcoal at ordinary temperatures. He has recently repeated these experiments with much larger quantities of radium emanation, and has found that the actual volume of emanation capable of absorption by charcoal at room temperature is very small. For example, several grams of cocoa-nut charcoal are re- quired to absorb completely the emanation from 200 milli- grams of radium at ordinary temperature, although the volume of the gas is only one-tenth of a cubic millimetre. As was to be expected, the absorptive power of charcoal for the emanation increases rapidly with lowering of the temperature. It appears from the results that at 10° C. the charcoal absorbs about 0-03 cubic mm. of emanation per gram, and at —40° C. about 0-06 cubic mm. per gram. Paris. Academy of Sciences. November 16.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—Compensation of a closed chain of triangulation : P. Hatt. In a closed chain of triangles resulting from a survey, there is necessarily a slight discrepancy at the junction owing to the experimental error. The problem of the distribution of this error round the whole system, giving a polygon with a minimum deformation, in the general case is extremely complicated, and involves an amount of labour out of all proportion to the value of the result. A shortened approximate method of dealing with this problem is given in the present paper.—The turning of aéroplanes: E. L. Bertin.—The use of calcium cyanamide in agriculture: A. Mintz and P. Nottin. It has been shown in previous papers that the rapidity with which nitrogenous manures are converted into nitrates is a measure of their usefulness as manures, and calcium cyanamide has been studied from this point of view. It eas to be as active as ammonium sulphate, and this resu It was confirmed by culture experiments.—A new species of Sarcocaulon of south, Madagascar and _ the | resinous bark of Sarcocaulon: Edouard Heckel. The resin is present in the bark to the extent of 20 per cent. to 30 per cent., and owing to its perfume may prove to be of commercial value.—Report on a memoir entitled Experimental Researches on the Resistance of the Air carried out by M. G. Eiffel’’: Maurice Levy and M. Sebert. An account of experiments on the resistance of the air to falling bodies, carried out on the Eiffel Tower. —Yellow fever at Saint-Nazaire: M. Chantemesse. The infection was brought from Martinique by the steam- ship La France on September 24, and as no case had developed during the nine days’ voyage from the infected port, the vessel was not placed in quarantine by the port authorities. Eleven cases resulted, seven of which were fatal. The infection was carried by the mosquito Stegomya fasciata, specimens of which were caught on the ship after the epidemic broke out.—Differential equations of the third order the general integral of which is | NO. 2039, VOL. 79] | Ammonia, | Ranclaud. uniform: R. Garnier.—The resistance of fluids: the necessary experiments: Marcel Brillouin. The rational construction of aéroplanes requires the experimental deter- mination of numerous coefficients, the more important of which are indicated.—Different curves of the same sung vowel: M. Marage.—The radio-activity of the soil: F- Bordas. The radiations from radio-active materials are known to possess the property of causing colorations in glass and porcelain, and the fact that in certain regions near the nitrate mines of the province of Aconcagua white glass became coloured has led to the discovery that at certain spots the soil is strongly radio-active.—The | volumetric composition of ammonia gas and the atomic nitrogen: Ph. A. Guye and A. Pintza. set free from a weighed apparatus, was de- composed by passing over an electrically heated platinum spiral, and the mixed gases measured at a definite tempera- ture and pressure. The method, which is not capable of high precision, gave 14-014 as the atomic weight of nitrogen (O=16), the extreme values being 14-002 and 14-022, a new confirmation of the international value 14-01. —Some constituent principles of Sclerostomum equinum. The presence in this parasite of a crystallised alkaloid possessing great hemolytic power: Th. Bondouy.—The colloidal properties of starch and its spontaneous jelly formation : E. Fouard.—The preparation of fused alumina in the amorphous state and the reproduction of the blue colour of the Oriental sapphire: Louis Paris. The addi- tion of small quantities of lime (2 per cent. or less) to the alumina before fusion has the effect of retaining the blue colour due to cobalt or iron oxides. Without this addition the alumina, on solidification, is colourless, with an external, deeply coloured crust.—Comparative effects of amides as food on the development of the adult plant, the seed, and the free embryo: J. Lefévre.—The presence of Planavia alpina in Auvergne: C. Bruyant.—The Plumulariidee of the Challenger — collection : Armand Billard.—A new parasite of Cinophtiva pilleriana of the vine: Henri Sicard.—The extent of the possible colour changes of Hippolyte varians : Romuald Minkiewicz.— The shaping of mountain slopes: P. Berthon.—The stems of Clepsydropsis: Paul Bertrand.—The seismic disturb- ance of November 11, 1908: Alfred Angot. weight of New Soutu WALES. Royal Society, Sentember 2,—Mr. W. M. Hamlet, presi- dent, in the chair.—The discharge of electricity from glow- ing carbon: Prof. J. A. Pollock and A. B. B, Ranclaud. The flow of negative electricity from hot carbon, in a circuit containing an air-gap, up to three millimetres in length, between a hot and a cool carbon rod, has been investigated for temperatures of the hot rod from 1100° C. to 1800° C., and for various voltages up to the point at which an arc forms between the carbons, the experiments: being made in air at natural pressure. A suggestion is: made as to the development of the arc from the non- luminous discharge which seems to account for the observed phenomena. The discontinuity of potential at the surface of the heated carbon, due to the projection of electrons, is found to range from 11 volts at 1300° abso- lute to 16-7 volts at 3690° absolute. From these values the velocities with which electrons are projected from hot carbon are deduced, the results being of the order of 10° centimetres per second.—The re-lighting of the carbon arc: Prof. J. A. Pollock, Dr. E. M. Wellisch,; and A. B. B. In connection with the re-lighting of the carbon arc, without movement of the electrodes, when the circuit is opened and re-closed, the relation between the potential difference, established between the carbons at the moment of the re-making of the connections, and the maximum time of interruption of the circuit, within which the arc will re-form, has been investigated for various conditions._Evidence of recent submergence of coast at Narrabeen: Prof. T. W. E. David and G. H. Halligan. The general physical features of the N.S. Wales coast are described, as showing distinct evidence of recent coastal submergence. ‘ihe evidence supplied by bores, shafts, &c., in vicinity of Svdney and Newcastle, is traversed, and its bearing upon the subject of land move- ment is discussed. The strongest evidence of all is the 120 NATURE [NOVEMBER 26, 1908 finding of an old land surface, with a mangrove fauna and fresh-water flora, at a depth of about 52 feet below thigh water, at Narrabeen, on the Manly-Pittwater Road. Details of this bore, put down by the authors, assisted by university students, in 1904, are given, and the conclusion arrived at that in this bore we have direct and positive evidence of a submergence of the coast-line, in the vicinity of Sydney, within very recent geological time. Linnean Society, September 30.—Mr. T. Srerl, vice-presi- dent, in the chair.—Some remarkable Australian Libellu- linze, part ii., descriptions of new species: R. J. Tillyard. The tendency of the Libellulinze found in tropical Australia appears to be gradual simplification along the following lines :—abolition of superfluous nervures, loss of pruin- escence, decrease in size, simplification of colour-pattern, and contraction and intensification of dark pigmentation of the wings. Eight species are added to the Australian list, of which six are proposed as new.—The life-history of Loranthus exocarpi, Behr.: C. C. Brittlebank.—Geo- logical notes on Kosciusko, with special reference to glacial action: Prof. T. W. Edgeworth David. The gneissic granites of Cooma have been proved to pass in places into coarse mica-schists, and the series is classed provisionally as pre-Cambrian. Fossiliferous Ordovician rocks have been found to occur near Berridale. The origin of Lake Coolamatong is attributed to a downthrow fault. The total area covered by the ice calotte of Kosciusko was probably from 80 to 100 square miles. The ice-cap was fully twelve times as large, and at least double the thick- ness, formerly estimated, while the snow-line was quite 300 feet lower than at present, involving a lowering of the mean temperature by about 1ro° F. In more recent geological time there was another period of glaciation, during which Lakes Cootapatamba and Albina, the Blue Lake, &c., were formed.—Opsonisation from a_ bacterial point of view, and opsonic technique: Dr. R. Greig- Smith. It was found that a two days’ culture of Staphylo- coccus aureus is more completely opsonised than younger or older cultures; the intraphagocytic digestion is the greater the older the culture; there is no auto-opsonic action manifest in moderately old cultures; races of different ages are opsonised to the same extent; bacteria grown upon agar are more easily opsonised than bacteria from _bouillon-cultures.—Revision of the Australian Curcu- lionide belonging to the subfamily Cryptorhynchides, part ix.: A. M. Lea. The ninth instalment of the revision deals with the genus Chzetectetorus and some of its allies, of which eleven genera, including four proposed as new, and twenty species, including eight proposed as new, are described. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, NovemsBer 26. ‘RoyAL Society, at 4.30.—Some Experiments made to test the Action of Fxtract of Adrenal Cortex: S. G. Shattock and C. G. Seligmann.— Further Results of the Experimental Treatment of Trypanosomiasis ; heing a Progress Report to a Committee of the Royal Society: H. G. Plimmer and Captain H. R. Bateman, R.A.M.C.—A Trypanosome from Zanzibar: Colonel Sir David Bruce, C.B., F.R S., and Captains A. E. Hamerton, D.S.O., and H. R. Bateman.—The Proportion of the : W. Heape, gy of Endemic Goitre : Captain INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Domestic Electricity Supply (including Heating and Cooking) as affected by Tariffs: W. R. Cooper. Society or Dyers anp Cotourists, at 8. Reaction between Picric Acid and Fibre Colloid: W. P. Dreaper and W. Stckes.—Colouring Matters in Sole Leather : H. G. Crockett. é FRIDAY, NovemBer 27. PuysicaL Society, at 5.—A Graphic Method of dealing with Refracting Surfaces: H. S. Alle A Method of Determining Moments of Inertia : The late Prof. W. Cassie—An Experimental Examination of Willard Gibbs's Theory of Surface Condensation regarded as the Basis of Adsorp- tion: W. C. M. Lewis.—On the Diffusion of Actinium and Thorium Emanations : S. Russ.—On the Elliptic Polarization produced by the Direct Transmission of a Plane Polarised Stream throt gh a Plate of Quartz cut in a Direction Oblique to the Optic Axis, with a Method of Determining the Error of a Plate supposed to be Perpendicular to the Axis : James Walker. y * SATURDAY, NovemBeR 28. Essex Fiecp Cup, at"6 (at the Essex Museum of Natural History, Strat- ford.)— Club's Delegate at Corresponding Societies Committee, British / yn, Belfast: Prof. E. G. Coker.—The Re-afforestation of Hainhault : Francis Dent and T. S Dymond. ; MONDAY, NoveEMBbeER 30 Rovar GEoGRAPHICAL SociETY, at -—The Panama Canal in 1908: Dr Vaughan Cornish NO. 2039, VOL. 79| Roya Society or Arts, at 8.—Twenty Years’ Progress in Explosives : Oscar Guttmann. INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5.—Inaugural Address by the President, G, F. Hardy. TUESDAY, DECEMBER 1. InsTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion: Glasgow Central Station Extension: D. A. Matheson.—Possible Paper: The Rotherhithe Tunnel : E. H. Tabor. WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 2. Socrery oF Pustic ANAtysTs, at 8.—The Gravimetric Estimation of Antimony and Tin: E. Cahen and Dr. G. T. Morgan.—The Oil from Carapa Guianensis: Dr. J. Lewkowitsch.—The Detection and Estimation of Formaldehyde in Milk: H.S. Shrewsbury and A. W. Knapp.—The Deter- mination of Aldehydes in Oil of Lemon: A, H. Bennett.—Some Analyses of Cream Cheese: C. H. Cribb. Geotocicat Society, at 8.—the Geological Interpretation of the Earth- movements Associated with the Californian Earthquake of April 18, 1906: R. D. Oldham. Royat Society or Arts, at 8.—Mechanical Flight: E. S. Bruce. ENroMOLocIcaL Society, at 8. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 3. Linnean Society, at 8.—Biscayan Plankton, the Ostracoda: Dr. G. Herbert Fowler.—Note on Juniperus taxifolia, Hook. and. Arm, : Bunzo Hayata.—Mimicry in Spiders: R. I. Pocock. : R6NTGEN Society, at 8.15.—Phenomena observed in Electrical Currents of Continuous Oscillation: Dr. H. Manders. Civit anp MECHANICAL ENGINEERS’ SOCIETY, at 8.—The Influence of Track upon Railway and Tramway Carriages: J. S. Warner. CONTENTS. PAGE Extinct French Birds and American Tortoises. By 15) Ce En Sols 6 oy CeOMGUBugrn.c o Of Applied Geography OO osceo. 2 Qiain’syAnatemy. By AK) ieee Natural and Synthetic Camphor. By W. G. TEC MAN |... 3) <), o. seue emeeUeEA IS, (eons) (0 9 om OR Popular Gardening ....... ~ ss Os Floreat Canada! By Prof.G. A.J. Cole ..... 95 Our Book Shelf :— Harris : ‘‘ The Functional Inertia of Living Matter. A Contribution to the Physiological Theory of 93 Lifes? ———. WV. ee ee + a OG Leathem : ‘‘ The Elementary Theory of the Symmet- rical Optical Instrument”... ed.o0 GIO Reeks: ‘‘ Hints for Crystal Drawing ” 97 Sabin: ‘‘ House painting, Glazing, Paper-hanging, and Whitewashing.”—C. S. ... . ponies. -G)/ Stein: ‘‘ Mountain Panoramas from the Pamirs and Kenen) un?” 2 «: sei ee Te 2 cone ON Osler: **Thomas LinacreV—Bo Diy. . . on oF Mackinder: ‘‘ Lands Beyond the Channel” . . . . 98 Letters to the Editor :— p Earthquakes and John Wesley.—Sir Edward Fry, (CCHS OM SESE 5 Eo oo < é + OS) Large Blue Whales. (///ustrated.)—Edgar R. VC OP of MONROE in a | SM Potato Black Scab.—Prof. F. E. Weiss ..... 98 Mercury Bubbles.—A. T, Hare; Prof. Henry H. DIXON.<> |. |, 2 aan cig LoS. An Alga growing on Fish.—Kumagusu Minakata ; Geo, Massee . 3 b_ 9 (ae ai - + 99 A Disclaimer.—Frederick Soddy ........ 99 Leonid Meteors. —W. F. Denning. ....... 99 The Ethnography of Assam. (//lustrated.). . . 100 Some Scientific Centres. No. X1V.—The Hortus Botanicus at Amsterdam. (/Mustrated.) . ... . IOL pubeiSunvey of Africa. “ByieeiaH. » <1. 4 sues eatos ROLES ats psec era Ee oe ae Our Astronomical Column :— Astronomical Occurrences in December . oe) 108 Morehouse’s'\Comet, 1908¢y-058 0+. . - . se 108 Halley's Gomet ......<. eer) 9.30 ce OS A Simple Instrument for finding the Correct Time. . 108 Ephemeris for Jupiter’s Eighth Satellite 0 108 Designations of recently discovered Variable Stars . 108 The Enumeration of Minor Planets . . ... . 108 The Variation of Latitude .. . ay = oes 105 The Forest Region of Mount Kenia. ....... 108 The International Fishery Congress at Washington 109 Psychology of Pleasure and Pain © bod eee IIL Scientific Education of Naval Architects, By Sir W. H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S. eer a oa. 1m University and Educational Intelligence. . Soo Sate Societies and Academies ..... 116 Diary of Societies 5 120 (Index. NATURE 2a THURSDAY, DECEMBER 3, — 1908. PEM SIGS, OLD The New Physics and its Poincaré. Pp. xvit+344. International Scientific Series. (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ltd., 1907.) Price 5s. The Evolution of Forces. By Dr. Gustave Le Bon. Edited by F. Legge. Pp. xv+388. (Same series and publishers, 1908). Price 5s. NM R. LEGGE is to be congratulated in bringing before the English reader these two French publications, which have been translated into vigor- ous and idiomatic English. The value of each book is enhanced by the addition of a table of contents and an index, and of occasional notes by the trans- lator of explanation or of recent additions to know- ledge. The work of Lucien Poincaré is a critical statement o; the position of physics to-day, with especial reference to the influence of recent discovery on the older ideas. In about three hundred pages he passes in review a great variety of subjects, including a dis- cussion of the fundamental units, the principles of physics, the various states of matter, electrolytic dis- sociation, wireless telegraphy, electric conduction of gases, kathode rays and radio-activity, while two chapters are devoted to the ether and the connection between zther and matter. In such a short compass it is obvious that none of these subjects can be treated in detail, but the author succeeds in every case in giving a luminous and interesting survey of the state of knowledge. Great care has evidently been taken in studying the historical development of ideas and in endeavouring to apportion the just credit to various investigators. In this the author shows himself unusually accurate and happy in his state- ments. There is one notable exception to which atten- tion may be directed. In the discussion of the principle of the conservation of energy, two-pages are devoted to the contributions of Mayer, but no mention is made of the classical experiments of Joule. The judicious attitude of the author is well illustrated in his short account of the n-rays and in the history of wireless telegraphy. He obviously feels that it be- hoves him to step warily. A digression is given on the duties of the writer of contemporary science which bears quotation :— AND NEW. Evolution. By Lucien *“An invention is never, in reality, to be attributed to a single author. It is the result of many collabo- rators who sometimes have no acquaintance with one another, and is often the fruit of obscure labours. Public opinion, however, wilfully simple in the face of a sensational discovery, insists that the historian should also act aS a judge; and it is the historian’s task to disentangle the truth in the midst of the contest, and to declare infallibly to whom the acknow- ledgments of mankind should be paid. He must, in his capacity as skilled expert, expose piracies, detect the most carefully hidden plagiarisms, and discuss the delicate question of priority; while he must not be deluded by those who do not fear to announce, in bold accents, that they have solved problems of which they find the solution imminent, and who, the day NO. 2040, VOL. 79] after its final elucidation by third parties, proclaim themselves its true discoverers. He must rise above a partiality which deems itself excusable because it proceeds from national pride; and finally he must seek with patience for what has gone before. While thus retreating step by step he runs the risk of losing himself in the night of time.” Finally, after a happy if somewhat delicate treat- ment of the history of the subject, he concludes with the following quotation from Voltaire in the ‘‘ Philo- sophical Dictionary ’’ :— “What! We wish to know what was the exact theology of Thot, of Zerdust, of Sanchuniathon, of the first Brahmins, and we are ignorant of the in- ventor of the shuttle! The first weaver, the first mason, the first smith, were no doubt great geniuses, but they were disregarded. Why? Because none of them invented a perfect art. The one who hollowed out an oak to cross a river never made a galley; those who piled up rough stones with girders of wood did not plan the Pyramids. Everything is made by degrees and the glory belongs to no one.” In a final chapter the author makes a few remarks on the ‘future of physics.’’ He is appreciative of the great value of the electronic hypothesis, and foresees that it will lead to further developments, but is not so certain of its survival in its present form. He states :—. ““The electron has conquered physics, and many adore the new idol rather blindly .. . but it is right not to lose sight of the fact that an image may be a well founded appearance, but may not be capable of being exactly superposed on the objective reality.” The book is simply and pleasantly written with an absence of all formule and the avoidance of tech- nical terms as far as possible. The non-expert reader will find some of the chapters stiff reading, but he will nevertheless find much to interest and instruct. It is a scholarly production which can be confidently recommended to all who are interested in the develop- ment of physics. The work of M. Gustave Le Bon on the ‘‘ Evolu- tion of Forces’? is of a very different type. If, in reading the work of M. Poincaré, the critical faculty rests in abeyance, in the work of M. Le Bon there is an inclination to dispute the correctness of a state- ment on nearly every page. The work is in some respects a sequel to the “ Evolution de la Matiére,”’ previously published, which gave an account of the author’s views on the transformation of matter and his experiments in support of them. The present worl: is somewhat varied in character. The first. half of the book is devoted to a discussion of the principles of physics, including the fundamental conceptions of time, space, energy, and matter, and the principle of the conservation of energy and of matter from the point of view of Le Bon’s theory. This theory is engaging in its simplicity, but is in many respects very revolutionary in character. The atoms of matter, which are supposed to be enormous reservoirs of energy, are slowly undergoing spontaneous trans- formation into the zther. Matter represents a com- paratively stable form of energy, but electricity, light, heat, &c., are unstable manifestations of the same energy, and are derived from the transformation of the atoms of matter. The terms electricity and matter 1D 122 NATLORE [DECEMBER 3, 1908 are mutually convertible, for the appearance of elec- tricity represents a corresponding disappearance of matter. The theories of the indestructibility of matter and energy are overthrown. All matter and energy are disappearing from the universe to be ultimately converted into ether. The second half of the book contains an account of experiments, with numerous illustrations by the author in support of his views. Some simple elec- trostatic experiments are described from which he draws truly astonishing conclusions. The latter part of the book is devoted to, a description of his experi- ments on phosphorescence and “ black light.’? This portion of the book will be found very instructive to those who are interested in the little-known subject of phosphorescence. A number of striking experi- ments are described, and the author has obviously taken great trouble to make the results as conclusive as possible. The general idea is that phosphorescence is a result of the transformation of atoms of matter. There still remains much to be done in this field of inquiry, but it has not yet been proved that the molecular combinations and dissociations under the influence of light are not sufficient explanation without having recourse to the transformation of atoms. The book is full of trenchant criticisms, and neither principles nor theories are spared which do not fall in with the author’s views. We gather, whether rightly or wrongly, that the author has little respect for the orthodox man of science, whom, apparently, he considers is steeped in formule and filled with conservatism, but yet not so conservative that he is not capable of taking the excellent views of Le Bon without giving credit for them. We are familiar with examples of our non-mathematical scientific brethren who abhor the sight of a simple equation. M. Le Bon is evidently of their opinion, as may be seen from the following quotation, which also serves as an example of his vigorous style :— ‘““ What has finally given very great force to certain principles of physics and mechanics has been the very complicated mathematical apparatus in which they have been wrapped. Everything presented in an alge- braical form at once acquires for certain minds the character of indisputable truth. The most perfect sceptic willingly attributes a mysterious virtue to equa- tions and bows to their supposed power. They tend more and more to replace, in teaching, reason and experience. These delusive veils which now surround the most simple principles only too often serve to mark uncertainties. It is by lifting them that I have succeeded more than once in showing the frailty of scientific beliefs which for many scholars possess the authority of revealed dogmas.”’ Assuming the correctness of the hypotheses and statements of the author, the book forms interesting reading, and is full of original ideas. It is a different matter when one proceeds to examine the evidence in favour of his theory. Men of science are very chary, and rightly so, of hypotheses reared on a very slender foundation of fact which endeavour to ac- count for the universe and all that it contains. Some experimental proof is required before such hvnotheses are seriously entertained. It is true that the study of the radio-active bodies has led to the belief that the NO. 2040, VOL. 79| formation. atoms of active matter undergo spontaneous trans- formation and are the seat of a large store of energy. Many are prepared to believe that the same is true of the atoms of ordinary matter. Experi- ment seemed at first to indicate that all matter was radio-active, and was in a state of slow trans- Recent work, however, has cast grave doubt on this conclusion, for it is fairly certain that the greater part of the apparent activity of ordinary matter, with the exception, possibly, of potassium and its salts, can be explained without the necessity of assuming that the atoms of ordinary matter are dis- integrating. The study of the internal heat of the earth shows that if ordinary matter is evolving energy due to atomic transformation, it must do so at a rate very small compared with even a weakly radio- active substance like uranium. As Strutt has pointed out, the internal heat of the earth would be much greater than it is if ordinary matter disintegrated at even one-thousandth the rate of uranium. It is probable that the transformation of the atoms cf matter may be much accelerated under the influ- ence of exceedingly high temperature and its accom- panying manifestations. It seems to have been over- looked that Sir Norman Lockyer long ago advanced this idea from a study of the constitution of the stars. The astronomical evidence in support of the view that the atoms of matter undergo transformation is collected in his interesting book, ‘‘ Inorganic Evolu- tion.”’ One of the main hypotheses of Le Bon is that elec- tricity is derived from the decomposition of atoms of matter. On this view, the electricity which passes through a copper wire is derived at the expense of the copper, and ultimately the latter will vanish into a quantity of intangible ather. On account of the great store of electricity in an atom of matter, this disappearance will take place very slowly. It is now generally believed that the passage of electricity through a conductor is due to the transference of charged carriers, but it is exceedingly doubtful whether there is any loss of matter in the process. There is so far not the slightest experimental evidence in favour of the assumption. The book is clearly written, and the interest is maintained throughout. We can recommend it to readers who are interested in revolutionary ideas of physics and in the spectacle of the débdcle (according to Le Bon) of a large amount of scientific doctrine. We would suggest, however, that the reader need be under no obligation to consider the statements contained in it as the latest accepted scientific gospel. BIOGRAPHY OF SPENCER. The Life and Letters of Herbert Spencer. By Dr. David Duncan. Pp. xi+621; with seventeen illus- trations. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price 15S. F T is not long since we had Mr. Herbert Spencer’s voluminous ‘* Autobiography,’’ and now we have his “‘ Life and Letters ’’—a labour of love executed with marked success by Dr. David Duncan, who was for a time the philosopher’s secretary and collabo- DeEcEMBER 3, 1928] NA TORE 123 rateur. With his characteristic deliberateness, Mr. Spencer arranged for this ‘‘ Life’? some twenty-eight years ago, and he confirmed the arrangement in his will. He felt that an autobiography is from the nature of the case likely to give a partial picture of the man, and this is borne out by reading the ‘‘ Life.’? Although Herbert Spencer was unusually gifted with the power of regarding himself almost impersonally as a pheno- menon, the result of the ‘‘ Autobiography ’’ was to leave some false impressions, as, for instance, that he was “all brains and no heart.’’ Besides correct- ing the partiality of Spencer’s self-portraiture, the ** Life’? contains many letters of historical interest, an important document entitled ‘‘ The Filiation of Ideas ’’ (1898-9), and valuable summings up, such as the chapter on Spencer’s views on inorganic evolution. Moreover, it is the only authoritative record of the twenty-one years that elapsed after the completion of the ‘‘ Autobiography.”’ The biographer has done his work with great skill, welding his material into a continuous narrative, and preserving throughout a keen sense of perspective. One wishes that he had not hidden himself quite so much, for he had unusual opportunities of knowing Spencer; but perhaps his very objective mode of treat- ment is the higher art, and in any case it is peculiarly congruent with the subject. The fine chapters at the end of the biography which deal with ‘‘ Characteristics and Personal Re- miniscences’’ and with ‘‘Spencer’s Place in the History of Thought’’ are less objective than the rest of the book, and will be read with great interest. Much of the ‘ Life ’’ necessarily covers somewhat familiar ground, and confirms impressions which the ** Autobiography ”’ gives. Again we see how the in- herited strain of nonconformity and independence ex- pressed itself consistently throughout Spencer’s life in things great and small. In 1842 a friend called him ‘‘ radical all over,’’ and it was a descendant of the man who could not lift his hat without violating his principles, that would not go to Lady Derby’s “At Home,”’ either with a levee dress or without one, to have the honour of meeting His Majesty the Emperor of Russia, and who omitted the Duke of Argyll’s name from a reference in one of his pamphlets lest some people should regard him as a snob. But it was the same irreconcilable dissenter who let hardly a year pass without acting as champion of some unpopular cause, who was, where principle was involved, absolutely reckless of popularity, who did not know what it was to fear the face of man. Again, as in the ‘‘ Autobiography,”’ the reader is surprised, sometimes even startled, by some of Spencer’s judgments, both as to the work of others and his own. ‘I have lately been reading,’’ he writes in 1843, ‘“‘ Pope’s ‘ Homer.’ . . . To my taste there is but little real poetry in it...’ In 1852 he writes, “‘ Though a Scotchman (and I have no partiality for the race) I am_ strongly inclined to rank Alexander Smith as the greatest poet since Shakespeare.’? We cannot but like the philosopher better when we find him telling his father, concern- ing the ‘‘ Psychology,’’ ‘‘ Mv private opinion is that it ' NO. 2040, VOL. 79] will ultimately stand beside Newton’s ‘ Principia,’ ”’ and then writing twelve days afterwards that it will be as well not to mention this opinion lest it may be thought ‘‘a piece of vanity.’’ Perhaps there was in this some expression of the sense of humour which was so well concealed by the author of the ‘‘ Syn- thetic Philosophy ’’ that some who had opportunities of knowing him well have doubted whether it was not vestigial. The “* Life ’’ tells us of much kindness on Spencer’s part that the ‘‘ Autobiography ’’ could not, of course, mention, and the whole impression left is that of a much more human character. In referring to the idea that Spencer was all intellect and no feeling, Dr. Duncan points out that the letters to his parents furnish sufficient disproof. ‘*Rare indeed are the instances in which father and son have laid bare their minds so freely to one another. Rarer still are the instances in which father and son have for over thirty years carried on their correspondence on such a high level of thought and sentiment.”’ Of Spencer’s capacity for strong friendship, the “ Life’? affords abundant illustration. In speaking of their old-standing friendship, Huxley wrote :— “Tt has been the greatest pleasure to me to see the world in general gradually turning to the opinion of you which is twenty years old in my mind”; and again :—‘t How odd it is to look back through the vista of years! . . . Considering what wilful tykes we both are (you particularly), I think it is a great credit to both of us that we are firmer friends now than we were then.’’ ‘‘ Wilful tykes ’’ indeed, for this intimate friendship of nearly forty years’ stand- ing was almost wrecked by a hot controversy in 1889. This was a grief to both the veteran com- batants, who, happily, were great enough, after some years, to shake hands and be friends again. We hear not a little in the letters about the way in which readers in general and critics in particular ‘“ persisted in some absurd misapprehension or other,” but we have not found any suggestion on Spencer’s part that he might himself be in any way responsible for the misunderstandings which he aroused. The ‘Life’? does not weaken our impression of Spencer’s almost morbid sensitiveness in regard to priority. Now it is some lecture, and again some text-book, that is at fault; at one time it is Henry Drummond, and at another time Charles Darwin, who uses, without sufficient acknowledgment (it is al- leged), some conclusion that Spencer had arrived at. He was vexed that so many writers supposed that mental evolution was Darwin’s hypothesis. “As no one says a word in rectification, and as Darwin himself has not indicated the fact that the ‘Principles of Psychology’ was published five years before the ‘Origin of Species,’ I am obliged to gently indicate this myself.” In this connection the appendix containing Spencer’s account of the filiation of his ideas is interesting, as is also the note in 1860 to the effect that the programme of the ‘“‘ System of Philosophy ”’ 124 NATURE [DECEMBER 3, 1908 in its finished form was drawn up before he read the ‘‘ Origin of Species.’ It was doubtless Spencer’s keen sense of accuracy and justice rather than any feeling of personal rights that made him so sensitive about priority, and it was perhaps his jealousy for the honour of science that led him to behave in a somewhat strange way con- cerning his election as a foreign correspondent of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei. It should be remem- bered, too, that while Spencer was unwilling that any- one should use his ideas without acknowledgment, he was even more troubled by the suggestion that he ever did anything of this sort himself. To be accused of cribbing from Comte was a serious charge, though absurd on the face of it; but it seems strange that he should have found it ‘‘ very annoying ’’ to be accused of stealing the idea of ‘the gospel of relaxation’’—and the phrase as well—from an American writer. This was in allusion to his well- known thesis that ‘‘ Life is not for learning, nor is life for working; but learning and working are for life’’"—‘‘a strange maxim this,’’ as the biographer well remarks, ‘‘ to come from one who scorned de- lights and lived laborious days in order to complete a task he had deliberately imposed upon himself.” In curious inconsistency with Spencer’s sensitive- ness over questions of priority was his very small appetite—sometimes amounting to total abstinence— as regards the works of previous evolutionists, and in this connection the ‘‘ Life’? has some additional information that is instructive. Spencer went in for “Tittle reading and much thinking, and thinking about facts learned at first hand.” ” “All along,’’ he said, “I have looked at things through my own eyes and not through the eyes of others. I believe that it is in some measure because I have gone direct to Nature, and have escaped the warping influences of traditional beliefs, that I have reached the views I have reached.’’ As one would expect, the ‘‘ Life ’’ informs us that many of the things said about Spencer were untrue. He once said that he could fill a small volume with absurd stories about himself, and the trouble was that his high standard of accuracy led him to take them somewhat too seriously. Instead of recognising that it is one of the penalties of greatness to become a centre of myths, or contenting himself with docket- ing the canards as evidences of ‘‘ the extreme un- trustworthiness of human testimony,’’ he was some- times annoyed by them, and spent time in correct- ing them—for instance, in the case of the quite innocent statement which appeared in the Aberdeen Free Press tha’ spencer had once written articles on sociology for the Birmingham Pilot. As he lived a very quiet ..fe, certainly not one that furnished pic- turesque cony, there was scope for inventiveness, and thus absurd paragraphs appeared to the effect that Spencer always wore white gaiters, invariably carried a bulky umbrella, lived chiefly on bread and coffee, and changed his occupation every ten minutes. Per- haps the only matter for real regret was that the inventiveness was of so low an order. The biographer is nothing if not loyal to Spencer; NO. 2040, VOL. 79] he is inclined to rebut what seems to us just criticism. We cannot always agree, and we may give one ex- ample. At the close of his account of the Weismann controversy—the issue of which is so momentous in relation to Spencer’s ztiology—Dr. Duncan says that it is not for a layman to express an opinion on a question that divides biologists into distinct schools. He goes on, as one usually does after this sort of bow, to express very decided opinions. “Bearing in mind how frequently the charge of a priori reasoning has been brought against Spencer, one cannot help remarking on the hypothetical nature of Prof. Weismann’s premises and the a_ priori character of his arguments. The demands he makes on one’s credulity are, to say the least, not less numerous or less astounding than those made by the opposite school. Prof. Marcus Hartog’s descrip- tion of Prof. Weismann’s work on Amphimixis, may be applied to the theory as a whole. It is ‘a magnified castle built by the a priori method on a foundation of ‘‘ facts ’’ carefully selected, and for the most part ill known, misinterpreted, or incomplete.’ ”’ This opinion seems to us erroneous and misleading. One may compare Weismann’s theory of determin- ants with Spencer’s theory of physiological units; both are imaginative constructions, and unverifiable in any direct way. Experts have to choose the one that seems the simpler, the more consistent with known facts, and the more useful in interpretation, or to refuse them both in favour of a third. But the real issue was not in regard to a subtlety of this sort; it was in great part a question of fact—is there evidence warranting a belief in the transmis- sibility of somatic modifications?—and as one result of the controversy no evolutionist can any longer make the Lamarckian assumption without some energetic attempt at justification. Much of the truth which Spencer expounded has now passed into the framework of the scientific universe of discourse; part, perhaps, has still to be incorporated; and not a little, bound up with “ use- inheritance,’’ will probably have to be rejected alto- gether. But, in addition to the reverence and grati- tude with which we regard Spencer as thinker and teacher, there must rise in the minds of all who read this ‘‘ Life’’ a desire to join with the author in paying homage once more to ‘‘the high and in- domitable purpose that sustained Spencer throughout these years, enabling him, in face of difficulties that seemed almost insurmountable, ever to keep sight of the goal.”’ “Take him for all in all,’ the biographer says, ‘he was intellectually one of the grandest and morally one of the noblest men that have ever lived. His life was devoted to a single purpose—the establishing of truth and righteousness as he understood them.” Finally, we would say that we have, on reading the ‘‘ Life,’ a refreshment of admiration for one who, while he was an intellectual Alpine climber, and accustomed to altitudes where many find it difficult to breathe, yet was a citizen of the world who took much thought for the people. ‘‘Ein Kerl der speculirt *? was how Huxley, quoting from ‘‘ Faust,” —_—ve a In DECEMBER 3, 1908] described him to Tyndall, but, as Mr. Courtney said in his impressive farewell address, ‘‘ it must never be forgotten that his one overmastering and dominant purpose was practical, social, human.’’ The cold agnostic, all intellect and no heart, often felt himself called upon ‘Sto suspend his work in order to try to convert Christians to Christianity,’? as Dr. Duncan well puts it. As old age crept on apace, and he was writing his last book, it was anxiety for the welfare of his country that alone disturbed his serenity as he pondered over ‘‘ ultimate questions,”’ and wondered ‘‘ Shall I ever again be awakened at dawn by the song of the thrush? ” OCULAR PATHOLOGY. The Pathology of the Eye. By J. Herbert Parsons. 4 vols. Vol. i., pp. xili+388; vol. ii., pp. viii+ 389-770; vol. ili., pp. x+771-1128; vol. iv., pp. ix +1129-1427. (London: H. Frowde and Hodder and Stoughton, 1908.) HE recent completion of this work, of which the first volume was published in 1904, marks an epoch in the literature of the pathology of the eye. his preface the author states that ‘‘ the object of this treatise is to give as complete an account of the pathology of the eye as is pos- sible in the present state of our knowledge.’’ How closely the author has kept this object in view, and how nearly he has attained it, will be obvious to readers who are familiar with ocular patho- logy. In comprehensiveness, in fulness of detail, and in wealth of illustration, this treatise exhibits a notable superiority over all previous monographs on the subject. As curator of the museum at Moorfields Eye Hos- pital, the author has enjoyed opportunities for patho- logical study and investigation which may be justly termed exceptional. Much credit is due to him for the excellent use he has made of these opportunities, and also to the hospital authorities for their en- lightened policy in maintaining a laboratory in which such good and permanently valuable worl can be carried on. The need of a book such as Dr. Parsons has given us has often been felt by those engaged in the study of ophthalmology, and especially by those who are | unfamiliar with languages other than English. Much good worl: has been done, and great advances have been made in ocular pathology during the last ten or fifteen years, but the records of these accomplish- ments are widely scattered in scientific journals, hos- pital reports, and elsewhere, and are often unobtain- able by the student. No attempt has hitherto been made, at all events successfully, to produce a work dealing comprehensively with the pathology of the eye. Hence the treatise now before us supplies a real want, and will prove (indeed, has already proved) of great assistance to those interested in this branch of medical science. The author has wisely divided his work into four parts, and has thereby given us volumes of convenient NO. 2040, VOL. 79] NATURE 125 and easily portable size. We doubt if he has been as well advised in extending the publication of the volumes over so long a period as four years. As a result of this, his worl: has to suffer the disadvantage, common to all scientific books of protracted publica- tion, that by the time the final volume is in print the earlier portion of the work requires revision to bring it up to date. The plan adopted by the author has been to devote the first and second volumes to the ‘‘ Pathological Histology ’’ of the ocular tissues, and the third and fourth volumes to the ‘‘ General Pathology”’ of the eye, this latter title having a very wide and inclusive character. This arrangement, although in many respects admirable, and possibly the most service- able, has led to a certain amount of repetition, neces- sitated by the consideration of subjects under two headings. For example, if the reader wishes to look up the pathology of injuries, say, of the cornea, he will find the subject partly dealt with in the chapter on the cornea in vol. i., and partly in the chapter on injuries in vol. iv. In vols. i. and ii. the pathological histology of the eye, eyelids, and orbit (cysts and tumours) is dealt with, each component part of the eyeball, e.g. the cornea, iris, lens, &c., being considered separately and very fully. As introductory to the description of the morbid histology of each structure, there is a brief but sufficient account of its normal histology. This materially enhances the usefulness of the book to those engaged in microscopic work, enabling them, without loss of time, to refresh their memory of the histology of healthy tissues, or to compare the characters of their specimens with those accepted. as normal. The bacteriology of the ocular tissues, a subject of great and increasing importance, is also included in these volumes. A brief and serviceable account is given of the established relations of micro-organisms to disease of the various ocular tissues. More than this could not reasonably be desired in a worl not dealing specially with bacteriology. The scope of vols. iii. and iv. is much wider than that of the preceding volumes, and embraces more than might naturally be expected from the title, ““ General Pathology of the Eye.’’ In addition to subjects legitimately included under this heading, vol. iii. contains a lengthy account of the normal circulation of the eye, the nutrition of the eye, and the normal intra-ocular pressure. We are unable to agree with the author’s view that ‘‘it is essential to give an exhaustive account of the normal circulation and nutrition of the eye’’ in a work on pathology. These three chapters, excellent in them- selves, are much too elaborate as an introduction to the consideration of morbid conditions, and might with advantage be greatly curtailed in future editions. Vol. iv., in addition to chapters on injuries, or- bital inflammations, sympathetic ophthalmitis, &c., contains a very instructive chapter dealing with the morbid changes in symptomatic diseases of the eye, as, for example, the ocular lesions associated ‘ 126 NATURE [ DECEMBER 3, 1908 with disease of the nervous and circulatory systems, the internal organs, &c. Its concluding chapter is on heredity in diseases of the eye. As an introduction to this subject, the author has included a brief exposition of the Men- delian theory of inheritance, taken from a paper hy Mr. R. C. Punnett, in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine. This treatise, as we have already said, is the most complete work of its kind hitherto published. In our opinion it is an extremely valuable addition to ophthalmological literature, and one which is indis- pensable to all those engaged in the study of ocular pathology. There are two special features of Dr. Parsons’s book to which attention may be directed. One is the ad- mirable way in which the author brings together and discusses the various theories which at different times have been brought forward in explanation of the pathology or pathogenesis of ocular disease. A good example of this is to be found in the chapter on sympathetic ophthalmitis. The author’s decisions appear to be strictly judicial, but he is perhaps rather lenient in reference to theories or statements which have been shown to be hardly worthy of support. ; The other feature is the very full and most valuable list of references to literature provided throughout the book. Following the method of a well-known writer of travellers’ guides, Dr. Parsons affixes an asterisk to the works which he believes to be most important, but, like the hotels in the guide, there is sometimes room for difference of opinion as to the merits of the “starred ’’ articles. In its general attributes, Dr. Parsons’s work de- serves commendation, and very little adverse criticism is called for. The author’s literary style is usually clear and decisive, though it often lacks smoothness and elegance. It is no discredit to him that in the course of so extensive a work some pages should contain a few crude or cryptic sentences. There are but few printer’s errors, but some of them ought not to have escaped notice, e.g. the printing of the word ‘‘ sarcoma ”’ for ‘* glaucoma ”’ in vol. iii., p. 1072. The illustrations, which are very numerous, are, with few exceptions (e.g. several in the chapter on the retina), very satisfactory. The large majority are from photographs, and have, therefore, the merit of unquestioned fidelity, even if they are less explicit (especially in high-power reproductions) than draw- ings. A careful index of illustrations and of subjects is given in vols. i., ii., and iii. Vol. iv. has an index of the subjects contained therein, but lacks an index of illustrations. index of subjects in all four volumes, but, unfortun- ately, it is of little use. The value of a general index in a work of more than one volume is to enable the reader to ascertain quickly in which volume he will find the subject under discussion. It is no assist- ance to him to learn that it is on p. 1339, unless he is informed in which volume this page is to be found. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] In this volume there is also a general” A STUDY IN SEAWEEDS. Die Algenflora der Danziger Bucht, cin Beitrag sur Kenntnis der Ostseeflora. By Prof. Lakowitz. Pp. viit141; 1 Vegetationskarte, 5 double plates of photographic illustrations of the plants, and 7o text-illustrations of structure. (Danzig, 1907, Kommissions verlag von W. Engelmann, Leipzig.) HIS monograph is devoted to a most careful study of the marine flora (excluding diatoms) of a region which, though poor in species, affords problems of great scientific interest; more especially with respect to the origin of the flora and its com- parison with those of other seas. The whole number of species determined with certainty amounted to only seventy-four, including four Characez, but to these must be added a few others met with only in too imperfect a state to allow of determination. Only one species, belonging to the genus Gonio- trichum, is regarded as new to science, but six varieties receive mention as previously unrecorded. The species and varieties are described as they exist in the Gulf of Danzig; their environment is noted, and their distribution within and beyond the Baltic Sea is quoted from the best works. While the de- scriptions, analytical keys, and figures make the first part of the monograph a valuable contribution to systematic botany, a more general interest attaches to the second part, in which are treated the relations of the flora to the environment within the bay, and to the floras of other regions. The physical con- figuration of the region is discussed, as well as the geological structure, and the elevations and depres- sions which can be traced as having occurred in the past. There is evidence that the district lay under the Scandinavian ice-sheet for a time, and that, as the ice retreated northwards, the connection of this sea was with the cold northern seas, over sunk portions of what is now Sweden, Arctic Mollusca (Yoldia arctica, Astarte borealis, &c.) being characteristic of its fauna. The melting of the ice led to the forma- tion of a sea with very cold water, poor in the usual marine salts. It appears to have been shut off from the present west part of the Baltic by a ridge passing through Bornholm. During this period probably the bulk of its fauna and flora arrived, about one-half of the Algae showing an Arctic character. Subse- quently, for a time, the eastern Baltic became a lake, to be afterwards again connected with the North Sea, but by a more southern outlet. The degree of salinity varied much in consequence of geological changes, which must have greatly affected the flora. Its poverty in species is very marked when compared with the 255 species recorded from the western Baltic, which has long been united with the North Sea, as at present. The less salinity has pre- vented the immigration of some species; and is prob- ably the cause of physical peculiarities in others, such as the slender forms and smaller size. The Danzig algal flora tends to be characteristic of brackish water rather than of the sea. Several species are of DECEMBER 3, 1908] NAT OKE 127 markedly boreal aspect, though probably immigrants, at the close of the Ice age, by way of the North Sea, over the sunk portion of Sweden. The var. arctica, Harv., of Sphacelaria racemosa, Grev., is of peculiar interest near Danzig, as it now occurs elsewhere only in the Arctic seas and on the coast of Scotland, and is not known from the south-western part of Norway or from Sweden. A full enumeration of sources of information adds to the value of an excellent piece of work. OUR BOOK SHELF. The Soil. An Introduction to the Scientific Study of the Growth of Crops. Second edition, revised and »edlacced. By A. D: (Hall Pp. xv-+311. (London: John Murray, 1908.) Price 5s. net. Tue fact that a second edition of this book is neces- sary is a welcome evidence of the increased attention which is being paid to the study of the soil and also of the undoubted value of the work. This edition has evidently been most carefully revised in the light of modern investigation, and is an accurate record of existing knowledge on the soil considered from its mechanical, chemical, and biological aspects. Ten years ago we were almost entirely indebted to American or German workers for any scientific mono- graph on the soil, then only considered from its physical and chemical aspects, but in this work we have in addition a most valuable chapter on the functions of bacteria and fungi in the soil, in which a well balanced judgment is pronounced on certain recently much advertised work which has not yet received the sanction of scientific opinion or even a trustworthy confirmation of its accuracy by practical men. Mr. Hall’s book is not only for the scientific student of soil problems, who can, by the use of the biblio- graphy in the appendix, become familiar with the most important research on the subject, but the prac- tical man will find a very considerable portion of the book of interest and value to him, and the care- fully reasoned conclusions will assure him of the reliability of the recommendations. The chapter on soil analysis shows the attempts which have been made to evolve an official method, and it is to be hoped, for the sake of those who often have to com- pare and argue from analyses made by different workers (in which the personal element must always be an important factor), that the methods which have been selected after most careful consideration may be generally adopted. for drawing from the almost inexhaustible store of the Rothamsted treasure-house results which _ illus- trate or emphasise his conclusions, and he has the rare quality of clothing figures and tables with in- terest. The mechanical effect of fertilisers on the flocculation of clay and the consequent alteration in texture are well illustrated by both Woburn and Rothamsted results, and the theory that the ‘‘ sad- dening ’’ effect of such fertilisers as nitrate of soda is due to the presence of common salt and to the hygroscopic character of the nitrate of soda is shown to be only true to a limited extent, the main cause being the deflocculation of the clay aggregates. We would also commend this book to the attention of science masters in secondary schools, for much of its contents could, with senior students, be utilised both for direct instruction and also for exemplifying, in a substance with which everyone must be more or less acquainted, many of the laws. of phvsical and chemical science. Mince. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] : Mr. Hall has a special faculty | ihe Stars, of sthe Vear. By HH.) Ro H.- Pp. 23: (London: King, Sell and Olding, Ltd., Knowledge Offices)" Price 1s net. Star Calendar for 1909. Edited by H. P. H. (London: Hirschfeld Brothers, Ltd.; Glasgow : A. Stenhouse.) Price Is. net. The Star Almanack, 1909. By H. P. H. (London: King, Sell and Olding, Ltd., Knowledge Office.) Price 3d. net. Tue first of these three publications forms a useful handbook for those people who, unacquainted with the oldest of the sciences, take some kind of interest in the stars and other celestial phenomena. A brief introduction of five pages form a hors d’oeuvre cal- culated to whet the appetite for a more serious study of astronomy, and gives a few facts relating to the constellations, stars, meteors, comets, &c. Then follow twelve circular charts showing the arrange- ment of the constellations in the sky at 10 p.m. about the middle of each month. These charts have a blue background with white figuring, the zenith being placed at the centre, and they are very clearly printed. Beginners should find little difficulty in locating the various groupings after studying the current chart. It should be noted that on p. 8, where the constellations of the Zodiac are given, Aquarius is wrongly placed before Capricornus. On the “‘ Star Calendar,’ consisting of four cards tied together, the charts are so combined as to give the constellations for each quarter, whilst brief notes describe the positions of the planets. The calendar is of a convenient size (15"x12"), and, being printed in colour with the conventional representations of the zodiacal signs, forms quite a decorative wall-hanging. In addition to the four quarterly charts, the ‘‘ Star Almanack ”’ contains a deal of useful information con- cerning the planets, standard times, comets, meteor showers, &c., also portraits of Sir William and Lady Huggins and a reproduction of Ritchey’s Andromeda nebula photograph, whilst a drawing by Mr. T. E. Heath illustrates the conception of a limited universe, ellipsoidal in form. The almanack would, no doubt, prove interesting and instructive if prominently dis- played in the class-rooms of elementary schools. In the first few copies issued of both ‘‘ The Stars of the Year ”’ (p. 7), and ‘“‘ The Star Almanack,’’ there occurred a slip which gave the earth’s orbital velocity as its velocity of rotation. In the later issues the latter is given correctly, and the publishers offer to exchange uncorrected copies returned to them. W. E. Rotston. Diptera Danica. Genera and Species of Flies hitherto found in Denmark. By William Lundbeck. Part ii., Asilidae, Bombyliide, Therevide, Scenopinide. With 48 figures. Published at the expense of the Carlsberg Fund. (Copenhagen: G. E. C. Gad; London: W. Wesley and Son, 1908.) Tuts useful and carefully written fauna commences with a lengthy account of the structure and habits of the interesting family Asilidz, or robber-flies, as the American entomologists call them. The author is inclined to believe that the powerful beak with which they attack their prey carries a poisonous secretion, but this remains to be proved by further observations. The systematic portion of the work is well done, the subfamilies, genera, and species being tabulated as well as described. The figures represent details, such as the head, antenna, or wing of various species, and full information is given as regards structure, habits, larvae, distribution in Denmark and elsewhere, &c. One of the largest and handsomest of the Asilidz, in Britain and Denmark, is Asilus crabroniformis, which is remarkable for its black and 128 NATURE { DECEMBER 3, 1908 yellow colour, which gives it the distant resemblance to a hornet from which it derives its name, but this is confined to its colour, for the long, tapering Asilus differs altogether in shape from a hornet. The species of the next family, Bombyliide, are stout and hairy, and those of the typical genus Bom- bvlius have a remarkable resemblance to small Bombi (humble-bees), from which, however, the two wings and the long straight proboscis at once distinguish them. The two remaining families dealt with in this volume are of small extent, and perhaps of less interest than the two first. The Diptera are a some- what neglected order of insect, but are more studied now than formerly, and we are sure that Prof. Lund- beck’s work will be found very useful to English entomologists, for whose benefit it is written in their own language. The order Diptera is probably the largest of the seven great orders of insects except the Hymenoptera, and we wish Prof. Lundbeck long life that he may be able to complete the work which he has so well begun. Moving Loads on Railway Underbridges, including diagrams of Bending Moments and _ Shearing Forces, and Tables of Equivalent Uniform Live Loads. By H. Bamford. Pp. iv+78. (London: Whittaker and Co., 1907.) Price 4s. 6d. net. Tuts is a reprint in book-form, with additions, of a series of articles which appeared in Engineering in the autumn of 1906. Those who have had any experi- ence of such work will know how tedious is the process, as usually conducted, of determining the maximum straining actions on a railway girder sup- ported at the ends, due to any given type of train load, and will appreciate the methods here given, which are characterised by directness, simplicity, and comparative brevity. The author uses analytical computation with systematic tabulation, and also, as an alternative method, graphical diagrams based on a clever adaptation of the ordinary bending and shearing force diagrams. By one or other of these methods, and especially the latter, the ‘* equivalent ”’ uniformly spread loads for both maximum bending moments and shearing forces are quickly and easily determined. The investigation is limited to the force actions on the bridge taken as a whole, and does not consider separately the resistances offered by the platform and main girders, but so far as the subject dealt with the author is to be congratulated on having produced a most useful and practical work. Practical Floor Malting. By MUHugh Lancaster. Pp. iv+211; with numerous illustrations. (London : The Brewing Trade Review, 1908.) Price 12s. 6d. net. CONSIDERING the economic importance of floor malt- ing in this country, it is somewhat remarkable that no worl on the subject possessing any claim to thorough- ness has hitherto been published. We hoped to find that the present book filled the void, but although it is a useful addition to the literature of malting, it cannot in its present form be regarded as a complete technical treatise on the subject. The author is evi- dently thoroughly conversant with the practice of floor malting, but owing, vresumably, to lack of literary experience, he has not done justice to his knowledge, and the book marred by many signs of hasty writing. As it stands, however, the work is dis- tinctly a useful one, and we have nothing but praise for the ten collotype plates it contains ‘which. illus- trate the differences existing between the various types of barley employed ‘in malting. These plates are of exceptional merit, and add very much to the value nf the book from a technical point of view. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] is is LETTERS TO THE -EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Students’ Physical Laboratories. Ir a protest is not made, I see some danger of the pioneer work done towards organising physical laboratory work for students in University and King’s Colleges in London being inadvertently ignored, and everything of that kind attributed to Finsbury. Probably, indeed, the sound work unobtrusively done in early days is known to very few. Allow me to say, therefore, from personal knowledge, that students were admitted to physical laboratory work in these colleges before 1872—in one of them, I believe, in 1866—and that the course of quanti- tative laboratory instruction through which I was myself put by Prof. Carey Foster, in topographical cireum- stances of some difficulty, was of high value; and, indeed, reached a standard of accuracy not readily eclipsed in any students’ laboratory with which I have since become acquainted. To take a single instance, Carey Foster described his ““bridge’’ method in 1872, and students were regularly | familiarised with it. I remember also making a series of well-designed experiments on moments of inertia, on the kinetic torsion of wires, and on determinations of g by falling bodies and chronograph as well as by pendu- lums. We also used to measure E.M.F. by the potentio- meter method, then called Poggendorff’s ; while other prac tical subjects were conduction of heat, rates of cooling, specific and latent heats, on the lines of Regnault; absolute density of liquids, by weighing in them a gauged ivory sphere, density of gases, &c.; a long series on magnetic monients and terrestrial magnetism in the light of Gauss’s theory ; the usual optical measurements and some less usual ; Siemens’s pyrometer (then under test for a British Associa- tion Committee) ; much work with a tangent galvanometer and resistance boxes—then comparatively new—on Ohm's and Joule’s laws; measurements of electrochemical equiva- lents, &c., &c.; all before 1875. In one of the last-men- tioned determinations a platinum basin was used and a weighable deposit obtained, very much on lines afterwards rendered secure and classical by Lord Rayleigh. Indeed, I went through most of the things done in laboratories to-day which do not involve instruments of more recent date, and in 1875 we published a joint paper, “On the Flow of Electricity in a Plane,’’ wherein the equipotential lines were plotted by an experimental method handier and more accurate than had been possible in pre- vious observations of the kind—a method invented en- tirely by Carey Foster (see Phil. Mag., December, 1875, §§ 47-50, with an incomplete continuation in 1876). It is true that in those days attention was paid to the principles of pure physics rather than to technology; and undoubtedly, as technical work became prominent, other laboratories went far ahead in such subjects as the design of practical measuring instruments and in facilities tor large-scale work. But without suggesting for a moment that a word too much has been said in praise of the energetic pioneers in the field of practical work and electrical engineering, it will. I feel sure, be admitted that to say (as on p. 74) ‘that before 1875 only five persons had experimented in elec- tricity in Great Britain, that the Finsbury system was radically different from anything which previously existed, and that before 1879 professors had merely shown experi- ments at the lecture table, is to make statements which ‘involve a considerable amount of exaggeration, and un- intentionally misrepresent the facts. I take it that the novelty at Finsbury chiefly lay in the permanent installation of a number of ingenious ap- pliances, whereby a crowd of evening students could be put through a useful course of practical work, such as would give them some preliminary idea of measuring physical quantities, and infuse their otherwise abstract notions with something definite and concrete, without the necessity for periodical preparation and clearing away by | 22 impracticably large assistant staff. DECEMBER 3, 1908] WA FOULS 129 But since the students to be educated at Iinsbury were largely of the higher artisan class, or at any rate were already familiar with machinery, perhaps I should rather put the matter conversely, and say that the object aimed at was to coax their already too material and concrete ideas towards something more generalised and abstract, by analysing into simplicity the complex machines with which many of them in their daily life had to deal, thus assisting them to grasp something of the theoretical physical prin- ciples underlying them all. An admirable object, excellently carried out! Not a word have I to say towards minimising it: only do not let us minimise the work of others either. November 21. OLiveR LopGE. Apparent Decay of Radium, I wisn to put on record an observation relating to the amount of ‘‘ electrolytic gas’’ obtainable from a solution of radium bromide. Some four years ago, about 172 milli- grams of radium salts, of which 152 were bromide and 1o sulphate, were enclosed in four small bulbs along with water, which dissolved the bromide, and in which the sulphate was suspended. THese bulbs were sealed to a small T6pler pump, and for three years the mixed oxygen and hydrogen gases were pumped off at short intervals— about four days between two extractions. With the emanation accompanying this mixture various experiments were performed, an account of which has appeared in the Proceedings of the Royal Society and the Transactions of the Chemical Society. In November, 1907, I received from the Vienna Academy what was supposed to be 0-5 gram of pure radium bromide ; { was told that that was its weight in 1905. It weighed on receipt only 0-388 gram. This substance was washed into a bulb, and sealed to the pump, along with the other bulbs. The amount of gas collected from the larger quantity, however, did not appear to be proportional to its greater weight, and as analysis of a sample showed that it consisted largely of carbonate, insoluble in water, it was resolved to convert the carbonate into bromide by introducing into the bulb with a pipette some pure hydro- bromic acid. (I may mention, parenthetically, that the small sample, converted into bromide, gained in weight to such an extent as to show that the original amount must have weighed o-4971 gram, as RdBr,,2H,O.) The gas pumped off after this addition of hydrobromic acid contained much free bromine, but after a few weeks the evolution of bromine ceased, and “‘ electrolytic gas ’’ was pro- duced to the amount of about 30 c.c. a week, always mixed with a small excess of hydrogen. This regular evolution continued from February until November 11. On _ that day the usual 30 c.c. of gas were pumped off; I have a note that ‘fan unusually small quantity of hydrogen remained after explosion.’’ On November 18 the gas was again pumped off; the quantity was approximately 13 c.c. Although it appeared unlikely that the tubes and taps should have been blocked, it was still possible. On November 25 the gas was again removed; its volume was about 1-5 c.c. At this stage air was admitted into the pump and the connected bulbs, and it was proved that there had been no stoppage. Advantage was taken of this to clean the pump and the connecting tubes, and to re- grease the stop-cocks. The air was then removed com- pletely by pumping. To-day (November 30) the gas was again pumped off; its volume was about o-5 c.c. It still exploded, and left about half its volume of excess hydrogen. Two alternative suppositions suggest themselves :-— either the radium bromide, of which the apparatus contains 0-5071 gram, implying 0-2716 gram of metallic radium, has practically ceased to decompose water (about 25 c.c. of solution are present in the bulbs), or the reverse reaction, viz. the velocity of combination of oxygen and hydrogen to form water, has increased to such an extent as to reverse the decomposition. It has been assumed that the life-period of radium is very long, say 2000 years, although Mr. Cameron and I, by measuring what we believe to be the true volume of the emanation, arrived at a considerably’ shorter period. Here, however, appears to be, on the first alternative, a proof. that one of the ways in which the radium expends at least a portion of its energy has been stopped. It would be interesting to know if the other ways, say the evolution NO. 2040, VOL. 79] ‘ of heat or the emission of ‘ by time. University College, November 30. Production of Heliim from Uranium. IN a paper in the October number of the Philosophical Magazine of this year I gave a preliminary account of some attempts to detect and measure the production of helium from the primary radio-elements, on which I have been engaged since 1905. The results given were few, and referred mainly to the element thorium. The follow- ing further results, obtained since the publication of the paper, with the element uranium carry the subject a stage further. The method is described in detail in the paper referred to. By special arrangements the solutions of the substances employed can be freed absolutely from air, and maintained in this condition indefinitely, After any desired period of accumulation the gases can be completely expelled by boiling the solution in a stream of gas from a voltameter. The expelled gases are freed from water by cooling, and then subjected to the action of the vapour of calcium in a special vacuum furnace, whereby all but the inert gases are perfectly absorbed. After cooling the furnace is filled with mercury, and the residual gas, if any, compressed into the smallest possible spectrum tube of lead glass. The minimum quantity of helium detect- able in a successful experiment has been found by re- peated trial to be 2X10-*° gram. Blank tests with a similar apparatus containing sodium sulphate solution were performed, and I feel confident that the data obtained are trustworthy. I have used two separate quantities of uranium nitrate. The first and smaller had been carefully purified by Mr. T. D. Mackenzie by extraction with ether. It contained 340 grams of the element uranium. When it became evident that the rate of production was too slow to be conveniently estimated with this quantity, a second ex- periment on a much larger scale was started. The cost of this and similar other large-scale experiments was defrayed by a research grant from the Carnegie trustees. Four kilograms of uranium nitrate of good commercial quality, which had been re-crystallised from water, were employed. It contained 1850 grams of uranium. The preparation of the experiment and complete removal of air were effected by August 15 of this year. The first test for helium was performed after a period of sixty-one days. Helium in several times the minimum quantity detectable by the method employed was proved to be present in the extracted gases. The second test was performed after a period of twenty-seven days. Helium was again present, this time in quantity not much, if any, greater than the minimum detectable. The next test was performed after twelve days. No helium could be detected, although the experiment was a singularly perfect one. An experiment was then performed with the smaller quantity of uranium after a period of accumulation of 128 days. Helium was clearly detected, and its quantity estimated to be not greater than 1-5 times the minimum quantity. The production of helium from uranium may therefore be considered to be established. With regard to the rate of production, the experiments show that this cannot be far from 2x10-"*(year)—*. That is to say, about 2 milli- grams of helium are formed per year per million kilo- grams of uranium. The second test referred to shows that the rate is not less than 1-5. The third test shows that it is less than 3:3. The last test with the smaller quantity shows that the rate is not less than 1-7, and prob- ably not greater than 2-5. It is of interest to note that the theoretical rate of production I recently calculated from the disintegration theory is 2x10-‘(year)—*, on the assumption that one atom of uranium produced but one atom of helium. These measurements, therefore, lend no support to the view, discussed in the paper referred to, that uranium on disintegration expels two helium atoms. I may mention that I have commenced the observation of a quantity of sylvine (potassium chloride), one of the minerals investigated by Strutt, and regarded by him as exceptional in containing helium which cannot be ascribed to known radio-active changes. The tests so far indicate that the rate of production of helium from this substance, if any, is below 2-5 x10-"*(year)-?. University of Glasgow. rays,’’ are similarly affected WILLIAM Ramsay. FREDERICK SODDy. 130 NA TORE [DEcemMBER 3, 1908 An Annotated Copy of Newton’s ‘ Principia.” On April 2 of this year (vol. Ixxvii., p. 510) I con- tributed to your columns a short account of an interesting copy of the original edition of the above work, which I had purchased in Sydney from among a collection of old books that had remained packed up in cases for about 140 years, and had formed part of an English estate in Chancery. The most interesting feature of the book con- sists of several pages of manuscript corrections for a second edition, and numerous amendments of the mathe- matical diagrams throughout the book, which, according to a further note forming portion of the manuscript pages, were in the handwriting of Sir Isaac Newton himself. The note in question referred to a manuscript work on ““ Optics,’? by Sir Isaac Newton, said to be deposited in the library of Trinity College, Cambridge, as affording an . opportunity for comparison of the handwriting. I stated, further, in the letter referred to, that I had had the first two pages of the notes photographed, and had forwarded them to the librarian of Trinity College for the purpose of making such a comparison. Six months have now elapsed, and my inquiry has been followed by developments, some of which must afford interest to mathematical and astronomical students. Within a few weeks of my communication with the librarian of Trinity College, that gentleman wrote to me to say that the manuscript. volume of © Newton's ‘“ Optics’? was, as stated in the note referred to, lying in that library, but that it was in .the handwriting of Dr. Roger Cotes, who had edited and supervised the printing of the second edition of the “* Principia.’’ He thought that the supposition that the handwriting in the notes was that of Newton was based on the _ belief that the manuscript ‘‘ Optics’? was in Newton’s hand- writing. So the matter was left, when you forwarded to me a long and learned letter which had been sent to you by Dr. J. Bosscha, of Haarlem, in which (after reviewing my account of the volume and the manuscript notes) the following proposition is put forward and supported :— ‘“The copy now in the possession of Mr. Bruce Smith was indeed once owned by Newton. This illustrious author put it into the hands of * his trusted suitor,’ Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, who intended to publish the second edition of the ‘ Principia.’ ”’ ‘he letter in which this conclusion is made and sup- ported is too long for quotation, but it enters into great detail with regard to the handwriting, expressing the opinion that the notes are written partly in Sir Isaac Newton’s hand, and partly in that of Fatio. A careful reference to. the book shows that there are two distinct sets of corrections—one set being carefully noted and collected in-the five blank pages at the begin- ning. and end of the volume, the other set consisting of corrections in’ the margin of the text itself, and in the diagrams to which that text refers. The. two sets of corrections certainly seem to have emanated from different minds, for those notes in the margins and diagrams are not referred to in the five pages of corrections, and those included. in the five blank pages of the volume are not carried out in the text, suggesting, as Dr. Bosscha has conjectured, that one set had been prepared by one person, and the other by another. This fact is very suggestive of the double authorship of the notes, and of the authen- ticity of the volume, remembering that Dr. Bosscha has never seen the book, and depends upon historical records for his knowledge of the notes. According to Dr. Bosscha, these corrections were well known, and formed the subject of correspondence between Fatio and Huygens, or Huyghens (the celebrated Dutch natural philosopher), in 1691, and Mr. Bosscha adds that ; aac Newton adopted some of Fatio’s corrections and rejected others, adding some more of his own. These facts, sufficiently interesting by reason of Sir Isaac Newton’s eminence and the epoch-making character of his work, seem to fit well with the character of the alterations in the volume in my possession, which, as I have said, Dr. Bosscha, of Haarlem, could never have seen. Bruce SMITH. Parliament House, Melbourne. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] The Semi-diurnal Barometric Oscillation. Wit reference to the note in Nature of November 12 (p- 47) upon the semi-diurnal pressure variation, it seems to me that the temperature variation is far more likely to be the result of the pressure variation than its cause. At all events, the pressure variation, however it may be produced, must of necessity lead to a temperature varia- tion, but the converse of this proposition is by no means certain. It seems to be admitted that the atmosphere, as a whole, has a natural period of oscillation not differing greatly from twelve hours, and, that being so, a very trifling force with the same period will suffice to produce the observed phenomena. Is it possible that the earth may encounter sufficient resistance to motion in its orbit to provide this force? If we could assume the ether to act as a perfect fluid, we should have increased pressure at the front and back, using the term with regard to the direction of the orbital motion, and decreased pressure over the intermediate great circle. The direct pressure due to the resistance would have maxima at 6 a.m. and 6 p.m., whereas the barometric maxima occur about ro a.m. and 10 p.m., but I do not think this is a serious objection. W. H. Dives. Watlington, Oxon, November 23. The Fauna of the Magellan Region, In the very interesting review of the ‘‘ Ergebnisse den Hamburger Magalhaensischen Sammelreise, 1892-3,’’ in Nature of November 19 (p. 82), the reviewer refers to “an interesting fresh discovery . . . of numerous brood pouches (ectodermic invaginations of the body wall) in Condylactis georgiana,’’ an Antarctic actinian. I have not a copy of the report to hand, but, if I remember correctly, Carlgren. here gives no figures of these ‘‘ brood chambers,’’ but describes them as of similar character to those he figured in a preliminary note on the occurrence of breeding chambers in actinians published in 1893, of specimens taken by the Vega expedition in Arctic seas. Here he shows that each invagination, although at first affecting the ectoderm only, may be enlarged by the gradual growth of the embryo so as to involve all three layers of the body wall—ectoderm, mesogloea, and endo- derm. Since then I have described three other species from the Southern Cross and the Discovery Antarctic col- lections having ‘‘ brood chambers”’ as distinct sacs pro- jecting into the gastric cavity, formed by the invagination of all three layers of the body wall. Josepn A. Cruse. Free Public Museums, Liverpool, November 23. A Disclaimer. In Nature of November 26 Mr. Soddy asserts, first, that his name as co-editor of Jon was made use of with- out his consent; secondly, that his first intimation of the appearance and of the contents of the journal was obtained from the advertisement in Nature of November 12. These assertions contradict the actual facts of the case. It is true that Mr. Soddy did not see the cover before publication; but that Mr. Soddy had not authorised the use of his name as co-editor does not tally with the fact that he made no objection to the wording of certain circulars sent him some time ago, the receipt of which he acknowledged in a letter of September 15. On these circulars he was expressly termed one of the editors. In a correspondence ranging over two months before the publication of Ion, Mr. Soddy wrote not a word against the wording of these circulars. Moreover, in his letter of September 25 he expressly desires that I should spare him as much of the editorial work as possible, as his time was limited. I thought I should be granting his request by not submitting to him the personal reports of prominent men of science, which, moreover, I, in my capacity as editor, should have included. I may take this opportunity of adding that Mr. Soddy never had any manner of par- ticipation in the journal. It will be evident that his secession will offer no hindrance to the continuance of the journal. Cnas. H. WaLter 16 Heathfield Gardens, Turnham Green, London, W., December 1. — eo oy tet DECEMBER 3, 1908 | NATURE 131 re) TWO GIFT-BOOKS ON GEOLOGY.1 T may be presumed that both these antedated works are intended for the Christmas season, and their print, illustrations, and binding make them highly attractive as gift-books for the young. Both, how- ever, contain matter based on recent observation, and both will probably bring the results of research before many who have no acquaintance with journals. There was a_ delightful bool, entitled ““The Wonders of the World,’’ published somewhere about the time of the battle of Waterloo, which we used to read side by side with Brewster’s ‘‘ Natural Magic.”’ book Charles Darwin owed his earliest inspiration. Mr. Grew’s far hand- somer volume shows how far we have progressed in style and _picturesque- ness; but it depends equally on its fas- cinating appeal to what the earth is actually doing. Some of the examples of natural processes necessarily remain the same, but Lisbon and Calabria are now overshadowed by San Francisco and the Montagne Pelée. A fine series of photographic plates, mostly from Messrs. Underwood’s well-known American series, has been chosen to illustrate the phenomena described. Extinct animals, mainly from Miss Woodward’s skilful drawings, which were first published in Knipe’s ‘f From Nebula to Man,’ are used to empha- sise the romance of palzeontology. Many of the chapters, such as viii., ix., X., Xi., and xvi., are somewhat speculative for a work that seeks to convince the reader of the romance of ordinary things. In chapter xvi., on volcanoes and mountain formation, views are propounded that still require a great deal of thinking over, and in chapter xiv. we are not sure that the author distinguishes between volcanic accumulation and elevation of the ocean floor. Matters are clearer in the pages dealing with the long history of life upon the globe, though there is still a tendency to dwell on the uncer- tain rather than on the known. This is seen in the attempts to picture the geography of past geological periods; what evidence have we, for instance, for any of the statements on p. 211? Does the author really mean that Ben Nevis and the Pennine Chain, to men- tion two of the details, stood above the sea in late Silurian times? The note of modernity struck in the second chapter by the introduction of the pear-shaped earth maintained in the twenty-second chapter by the account the rise of the proboscideans. The literary style is so direct and agreeable that few will open the book with- out wishing to read further, and some may be led on to borrow from a library the old classics of geology, which are less ‘‘ modern,’’ but on which we all are glad to build. is 1“ The Romance of Modern Geology : describing in Simple but Exact Language the Making of the Earth, with Some Account of Prehis:oric Animal Life.’ By E.S. Grew. Pp. 308. (London: Seeley and Co., Lid., 1909 {actually September, 1908.]) Price 5s. “The Romance of Early British Life from the Earliest Times to the Coming of the Danes.” By G. F. Scott Elliot. Pp. 358. (London : Seeley and Co., Ltd , 1909 [actually September, 1908.]) Price ss. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] Mr. Scott Elliot’s book follows aptly on that which narrates the building of the world. ‘‘ The Romance of Early British Life”? is cleverly written by means of a series of stories, in which the manners of suc- cessive peoples are rendered with the insight and /humour of a Dutch genre painter, and yet with the scientific | It is more to the point to say that to this | Eruption of Mount Asama, Japan. of | Eolithicus sober references to authorities that befit a man of science. Such a book, cheerful and romantic as it is, has involved a wide extent of reading. Incidents and evidences are gathered from archzological journals, and appear quite naturally in their places as parts of a connected tale. This, like the sad fate of Bardolph, in the true Shakespearean manner. We do like the names, such is not as From ‘‘ The Romance of Modern Geology."’ and O'\Wookey, selected for primeval savages, but none of their real titles have come down tous. Mr. Jack London, whose modern seamen often realise the savage, has, of course, done far better in his vivid perception of the Stone age; we may all the more congratulate Mr. Scott Elliot on having given us an independent and convincing picture. On p. 29 he states that Eolithic man, whom he has shown as terribly individualistic, ‘ nearly carried out, as only a society of squirrels and hedgehogs could do, the beautiful ideals of modern Socialism.”’ This is indeed a puzzle, as is the equally unnecessary reference to the editors of radical newspapers on oO NA TORE [ DECEMBER 3, 1908 p- 212. It requires a Charles Kingsley to carry such remarks off lightly, The Romans in Britain are shown in the usual colours, but we must remember that even the modern English are not loved as predom- inant partners and invaders. however, here styled Picts, comes off fairly well, even when invading; but we fancy that too little credit is given to it for moulding the so-called Celtic modern Irishman. The spirited illustrations, by Messrs. L. Speed and J. F. Campbell, will favourably attract the eyes of parents and guardians. The map of Britain opposite p- 226 contains too great a mixture of languages, and does not give a picture of any special epoch. This, however, can be remedied in school libraries, and we confess that we should like to conduct a class through Mr. Scott Elliot’s volume, with the aid of a good atlas and a fortnight of excursions in the field. Those would indeed be happy days for all of us. GaAs fic: THE ARCHASOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NUBIA. YH objects of the archzological survey of Nubia which has been undertaken by the Government of Egypt are, first, to ascertain the extent and value of the historical material buried under the soil; secondly, to make this material available for the re- construction of the early history of that country and of its relations with the Nile valley. There is reason to believe that in the pre-dynastic period Lower Nubia formed with Egypt a single region of culture, and possibly a single ethnological district. Later on the northern lands developed more rapidly, and Nubia failed to keep pace with Egypt. At any rate, when the Egyptians pushed southwards under the twelfth dynasty, some of the products of Nubian civilisation are found closely to resemble, in technique and material, products of the pre-dynastic age common to both countries. The present survey aims at re- constructing the culture development of some fifteen centuries of Nubian civilisation which at present are a blank. The first and second Bulletins, recently issued, supply a preliminary account of investigations in the district which, owing to the re-modelling of the Aswan dam, will now be permanently submerged. This archeological material would, in default of such an inquiry, have been permanently lost to science. The survey illustrates the variety of races and culture which prevails within this area. We have a The Mediterranean race, | succession of interments starting from the archaic | period through post-Roman, Christian, and Moslem times. The extensive denudation which has occurred has exposed the burials of the earliest age. One group of later graves contains a number of male negro bodies, most of whom met their death by hang- ing or decapitation—doubtless the record of a tragedy which followed one of the local revolts so frequent during the Roman or Byzantine occupations of the country. The survey of these cemeteries, conducted by Dr. G. A. Reisner, is supplemented by a very valuable anatomical report by Drs. Elliot Smith and F. Wood Jones, which illustrates the complexity of the ethno- logical materials now under detailed examination. From the earliest predynastic times down to the early dynastic, the whole region, according to Dr. Reisner, was characteristically Egyptian in culture; and the race occupying it is believed by Prof. Elliot Smith to be pure Egyptian. At a later period the population became isolated from Egyptian influence, and there- fore assimilated Negroid elements. We find some contracted burials of the Egyptian predynastic NO. 2040, VOL. 79] period, corpses of pure and half-bred negroes, while the majority of the bodies examined conform to a quite different physical type, the origin of which we have to seek in Syria and the south-eastern shores of Europe. The remains are in most cases excellently preserved, being packed with salt and fruits of certain plants not yet identified, and then wrapped in coarse cloth. Some of these persons, even one who bore on his arm a wooden cross as the emblem of the Christian faith, had been circumcised. Other inter- ments, again, appear from the anatomical evidence to represent .family burial places, the structural identity of the occupants being remarkably apparent. In one case, that of a young woman, the cause of death was plainly appendicitis; in another, long- standing pleuritic adhesions, and in a third osteo- arthritis, so-called rheumatic gout, were identified. This is the disease which shows itself with the greatest frequency in the bodies of all periods. The older skulls show no signs of dental caries, except in the case of the ‘‘ milk ’’ teeth of three children, which is believed to be the first recorded occurrence of dental caries in an ancient Egyptian or Nubian under the age of sixteen; but this is common in the foreign Christian group. The discovery of a case of tuber- culosis in the Biga cemetery is exceptionally interest- ing, the only other known early Egyptian instance of this disease being that of a corpse of an infant from the ancient Empire burying-ground at the Giza pyramids, which presented the typical lesion of advanced hip disease which may have been of the tubercular type. But this is not quite certain, because tubercle bacilli have not been as yet definitely traced, and Dr. A. R. Ferguson is disposed to doubt the diagnosis of tubercular lesions. The same is the case with syphilitic lesions. Dr. Elliot Smith has never observed a case in ancient Egyptian bones, and regards most of the instances hitherto reported a; due to the post-mortem destruction of the bones by beetles. It is also remarkable that there is no occur- rence of tattooing so common in modern times, nor of the custom of skin gashing, which is almost | universal in Nubia and the Sudan at the present time. The present Bulletin is intended merely to describe some of the facts which have been elicited in the course of a summary investigation of the great mass of ethnological material unearthed by Dr. Reisner. It will be followed by a detailed archzeological and anatomical report, the appearance of which will be awaited with interest. Meanwhile the anatomical and craniometrical observations by Dr. Elliot Smith, and Dr. Wood Jones’s pathological report, supply a large amount of fresh anthropological material. The Government of Egypt deserves congratulations for the initiation of a most important survey, which will supply abundant materials from which the archeological and ethnological conditions of a hitherto unexplored region can be safely reconstructed+ HIMALAYAN PHYSIOGRAPHY,! 1 response to a proposal made in 1906 by the “Board of Scientific Advice’? to the Survey of India that a paper should be compiled ‘‘ summarising the geographical position of the Himalayas and Tibet ’’ for the benefit of travellers in those regions, a series of papers on these parts has been issued which is not only of great scientific value in itself, but will surely answer the purpose of directing scien- 1 “ A Sketch of the Geography and Geology of the Himalayan Mountains and Tibet.” By Col. S. G. Burrard, R.E., F.R.S., and H: IT. Hayden. (Calcutta : Superintendent of Government Printing, 1907.) 3 Parts, price Rs. 2 each. IOS nk Qe NATURE 133 tific research towards the elucidation of many pro- blems which beset the study of high altitudes. _ The combination of authorship is sufficient indica- tion of the recognition of the close intimacy which exists between geography and geology. The three parts now issued are generally geographical in their _ purpose; a fourth which is to follow is more strictly _ geological. é Part i. deals with the subject of Asiatic peaks, and is an admirable summary of existing knowledge about them. We have a most interesting series of notes on their altitude, constitution, names, distribution, and geology. ‘* The determination of their position and heights is the first step on the ladder of geo- graphical knowledge,’’ says Col. Burrard, and the fundamental part which they play in the making of maps and in the evolution of a scientific conception of the configuration of mountain systems is well illustrated. In spite of the increase of local knowledge which must be the result of closer and more intimate exploration, every geographer will agree with Col. Burrard’s appeal for the retention of well-known names with no unnecessary and pedantic changes of spelling, or constant cor- rection of altitudes, in : DECEMBER 3, 1908] hardly treat these latter phases of mountain construc- tion with such scant respect as the geologist. Like the map-maker, who first defines all his river courses and then fills in the mountains between, he maintains that it is the river and valley which is of paramount economic importance; and if two rivers between them carve out a range in a direction absolutely transverse to the original tectonic folds, that such a range for all practical purposes may be vastly more important than the battered, undermined, and disintegrated granite core which formed the axis of the primeval fold, but which is now only to be recognised by the magnificence of its detached (but duly aligned) groups of gigantic peaks. To put it shortly, Col. Burrard maintains that inasmuch as the groups of highest peaks which follow an orderly curve through the length of the Himalaya indicate the main range of the system, this fact should be emphasised in topo- graphical maps rather than main water partings or river systems. Scientifically, doubtless, this may be correct, but the travelling public for whom maps are made will, we fear, still fail to see with the eye of scientific faith, and will continue to believe the out- our maps. As regards the altitudes, however, it might be well to con- sider whether the figures finally adopted might not be reduced to round numbers. All the diffi- culties attending the de- termination of great altitudes are touched upon by Col. Burrard, and when we consider the errors which may arise from a wrong es- timation of corrections due to refraction; from local deflection of the level; from the varying depths of snow over- lying the peak; or even from that elusive quan- tity, mean sea-level; we may fairly ask whether we are justified in crystallising the height of Mount Everest, for instance, at 29,003 feet instead of rendering it in terms (so much easier to remember) of 29,000. K, at 28,250 is satisfactory, but Kinchinjunga at 28,146 would surely be better at 28,150. A strict adherence to the mean value deduced from all observations taken is no doubt necessary as an official record, but its introduc- | tion into the ordinary map does certainly tend towards a falsq impression of minute accuracy. Part ii. deals with mountain ranges and their con- . formation, and in this part we think that the geo- graphical element has been too much subordinated to geology. Col. Burrard’s theories of the original form- ation of the gigantic uplands and hills of Asia is beyond criticism. They have long been accepted as the fundamental explanation of mountain structure, and we welcome with thankfulness a plain and simple statement of those general principles which govern the relationship between water partings and ranges; by which mountain folds have been arranged in orderly lines, determining the main features of any great system—only to be cut to pieces and re-shaped into what appears to be haphazard irregularity by ‘denudation and river action. But the geographer can NO. 2040, VOL. 79] Chart to illustrate how the Great Himalaya range termina‘es first at the Indus, and secondly at the Brahmaputra. ward and visible evidence that these peaks are on spurs emanating from a main water-parting. There is also great difficulty in determining the exact position of some of these great structural folds. Col. Burrard has apparently encountered this diffi- culty, for the letterpress at p. 123, part iii. (dealing with river systems), hardly tallies with Fig. 2 of chart xxi. in part ii. Assuming that Col. Burrard includes the Ghorband drainage with that of the Panjshir in the former (which we must do), the southern ridge, or fold, of the Hindu Kush trough gets mixed up with the continuation of the ‘‘ Kailas ’’ fold as depicted in the latter. Nor can we accept the statement as altogether proven that the Hari Rud valley represents a primeval tectonic trough and not the result of subsequent erosion. Col. Talbot (who surveyed the valley) believed it to be the latter, and there is certainly no trace of a crystalline core to the ranges north and south of the Hari Rud. It is not altogether out of place to note that the assumption of a double range for the Hindu Kush may lead to serious political complications. If this double range exists, what becomes of our boundary (at present 134 NATURE [ DecemBER 3, 1908 undemarcated except by nature) with Afghanistan? It is defined by the main water parting of the Hindu Kush. Which is to be the main water parting? One more small criticism must be permitted ere we close a sketchy notice of a work so valuable as to require serious and well-considered analysis. | The use of a publication of this sort to the ordinary traveller is largely limited by its portability. In its present form it would hardly serve the purpose of the mountaineer, who must before all things consider size, weight, and general handiness; and yet it is specially written for the mountaineer. Most of the illustrations (which probably govern the size of the issue) could be reduced to one-quarter their present size, and the rest could be folded in a separate pocket. It is much to be hoped that this treatise will have a wide circulation, but there is too much of the regular official ‘‘ Survey of India ’”’ type of publication about it for general use in its present form. ai? Ei Ele ANNIVERSARY MEETING OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. HE anniversary meeting of the Roval Society was held as usual on St. Andrew’s Day, November 30, at Burlington House. The report of the council was presented, in which reference was made to the chief subjects to which attention had been given during the year. As Lord Rayleigh expressed the desire to resign the presidency, the council submitted the name of Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., for election into the office of president. To fill the vacancy thus created it was proposed to transfer the foreign secretary, Prof. J. R. Bradford, into the office of principal secretary, and to elect Sir William Crookes as foreign secretary. The officers, and also the other members of the council whose names were given in Nature of November 5 (p. 15), were elected at the annual meeting. Among other matters mentioned in the report of the council of the Society we notice the following :— Two volumes have been issued descriptive of the physical work of the National Antarctic Expedition. During the expedition a large number of photographs were taken of the scenery and physical features, partly also of the biology of the regions visited, while Mr. E. A. Wilson made many careful drawings of the various coast-lines that were passed. Although certain of these photographs have already been reproduced in some of the reports and other works descriptive of the expedition, it was decided to publish an ample and thoroughly illustrative series of both the photographs and the sketches, accompanied with maps which should show the precise position of each spot from which a panoramic photograph or sketch had been taken. Future explorers will thus be helped to note any changes which may affect the snow-fields, glaciers, ice-barriers, or other features, while the general public will be put in possession of a remarkably striking series of views of Antarctic scenery and life. Accordingly, an Antarctic album and portfolio have been prepared by Mr. Wilson under the supervision of the committee, and are now nearly ready for publication. Within the last few weeks Dr. Mond has directed the attention of the officers of the society to the desirability of further acceleration of the catalogue of scientific papers. As the result of conferences with the officers and the director of the catalogue, he has undertaken to increase his previous generous subventions by a sum of 20001. on condition that the society fall in with his suggestion that additional expert assistance be employed to deal with the arrangement of the material for the subject indexes, and an effort be thus made to finish the index volumes for mech- anics, physics, and chemistry within two or three years. In April a letter was received from the Home Office on the subject of the disease known as glass-workers’ cataract, inquiring whether elucidation of the cause of the disease and its remedy, in the light of the physical and physio- NO. 2040, VOL. 79] logical problems involved, could be made the subject of an inquiry by a commitiee of the Royal Society. After full consideration the council appointed a committee to inquire into and report on this subiect. Changes have been made in the regulations as to grants for scientific investigations. In order that applicants may be informed earlier in the year of the decisions of the Government Grant Committee with regard to grants, the regulations now provide that applications shall be’ received not later than January 1, and it is therefore hoped that it may be possible for the general committee to meet at some time before the end of March instead of in May. In 1870 the society placed in the hands of Sir William Huggins, on loan, an equatorial mounting and twin tele- scopes, purchased by means of the Oliveira bequest, whick Was to be expended on a telescope. As was announced in last week’s Nature (p. 114), Sir William Huggins is un- able now to make such use of the instruments as would justify him in retaining them. A new home for the instruments has been found, therefore, at the University of Cambridge. At the end of last year a letter was received from the Colonial Office asking the society to advise in detail as to means for carrying out the further researches recom- mended by the tropical diseases committee, as specified in the last report to the council. At the invitation of the committee Colonel Sir David Bruce has undertaken the supervision of further investigations in Uganda, and sailed in September last. The scheme for the establishment of an International Central Bureau in connection with sleeping sickness, re- ferred to in the last report, having fallen through, H.M. Government decided to establish a National Bureau in London, to be administered on similar lines, the cost being defrayed from.Imperial funds, including a contribu- tion from the Sudan. The bureau was definitely estab- lished in June last, one of the society’s rooms being placed at its disposal at the request of the Colonial Office. In his presidential address Lord Ravleigh referred to the heavy losses by death sustained by the Society among its fellows and foreign members. Particular reference was made to Lord Kelvin, Sir Richard Strachey, Dr. Sorby, and Sir John Evans as having passed away since the last anniversary meeting. These and other main subjects of the address are here summarised :— We are fortunate in having secured for our Proceedings a review of Kelvin’s life and work, written by one who is especially well qualified for the difficult task. I do not doubt that Prof. Larmor is right in placing in the fore- front of that work those fundamental advances in thermo- dynamics which date from the middle of the last century. It was Kelvin who first grasped the full scope of the prin- ciple known as the second law, a law which may indeed well be considered to stand first in order of importance, regarded from the point of view of man’s needs and oppor- tunities. My acquaintance with Kelvin was limited, until about 1880, a time when I was occupied with measurements relating to the electrical units, and received much appre- ciated encouragement. From then onwards until his death I enjoyed the privilege of intimacy and, needless to say, profited continually from his conversation, as I had done before from his writings. Dr. Sorby belonged to a class on whom England has special reason to congratulate herself, men who pursue science unprofessionally. The names of Cavendish, Young, Joule, and Darwin at once suggest themselves. It is to be feared that specialisation and the increasing cost and complication of experimental appliances are having a pre- judicial effect in this regard. On the other hand, the amateur is not without advantages which compensate to some extent. Certainly, no one who has the root of the matter in him should be deterred by fears of such difficul- ties, and the example of Sorby suffices to show how much is open to ingenuity unaided by elaborate appliances. On the foreign list also the losses are heavy. We have especially to condole with our colleagues in France upon the havoe caused by death within the last year or two. Janssen and Mascart, who was much missed at the recent DECEMBER 3, 1908] NATURE 2215) Electrical Conference, had reached a full age; but Becquerel was in the full tide of life, and we had hoped to learn much more from him. As the discoverer of radio- activity, he had opened up inquiries the significance of which seems ever on the increase. Science has lost a leader ; his friends and the world a charming personality. During the time that I was secretary, and so concerned with the passing of mathematical papers through the press, | was much struck with the carelessness of authors in the arrangement of their manuscript. It is frequently forgotten that a line of print in the Transactions and in the new form of the Proceedings will hold much more than a line of ordinary manuscript, unless, indeed, the handwriting is exceptionally small. Unless the authors’ indications were supplemented, it frequently occurred that several lines of print were occupied by what might equally well, and in my judgment much better, be contained in one line. Even practised writers would do well, when they regard their manuscript as complete so far as regards matter and phrasing, to go over it again entirely from the point of view of the printing. In this way much expense and space would be spared, and the appearance of the printed page improved. Apart from questions of printing, the choice of symbols for representing mathematical and physical quantities is of some importance, and is embarrassed by varying usages, especially in different countries. A committee now sitting is concerned with the selection of symbols for electrical and magnetic quantities, but the question is really much wider. One hesitates to suggest another international conference. and perhaps something could be done by dis- cussion in scientific newspapers. Obviously some give and take would be necessary. venience are about balanced, appeal might be made to the authority of distinguished men, especially of those who were pioneers in the definition and use of the quantity to be represented. As an example of the difficulties to be faced, I may instance the important case of a symbol for refractive index. In English writings the symbol is usually w#, and on the Continent ». By the early optical writers it would seem that no particular symbol was appropriated. in 1815 (Phil. Trans., 1815) Brewster has m. The earliest use of u that I have come across is by Sir John Herschel (Phil. Trans., 1821, p. 230), and the same symbol was used by Coddington (1829) and by Hamilton (1830), both distinguished workers in optics. On the other hand, n was employed by Fraunhofer (1815), and his authority must be reckoned very high. As regards convenience, I should suppose that the balance of advantage would incline to yn, since n is wanted so frequently in other senses. Another case in which there may be difficulties in obtaining a much-to-be-desired uniformity is- the symbol for electrical resistance. On a former occasion i indulged in comment upon the tendency of some recent mathematics, which were doubt- less understood as the mild grumbling of an elderly man who does not like to see himself left too far behind. In the same spirit I am inclined to complain of what seem unnecessary changes in mathematical nomenclature. In my youth, by a natural extension of a long-established usage relative to equations, we spoke of the roots of a | function, meaning thereby those values of the argument which cause the function to vanish. In many modern writings I read of the seroes of a function in the same sense. There may be reasons for this change; but the new expression seems to need precaution in its use, other- | “cc wise we are led to such flowers of speech as ‘‘ zeroes with real part positive,’’ which I recently came across (Proc. Math. Soc., vol. xxxi., p. 266). But though I may use a little my privilege of grumbling over details, I hope I shall not be misunderstood as undervaluing the progress made in recent years, which, indeed, seems to me to be very remarkable and satisfactory, regarded from the scien- tific point of view. On the other hand, I cannot help feeling misgivings as to the suitability of the highly specialised mathematics of the present day for a general intellectual training, and I hope that a careful watch may be maintained to check, in good time, any evil tendencies that may become apparent. Among the notable advances of the present year is the liquefaction of helium by Prof. Onnes, of Leyden. It is NO. 2040, VOL. 79] When the arguments from con- | but a few years since Sir J. Dewar opened up a new field of temperature by his liquefaction of hydrogen, and now a further extension is made which, if reckoned merely in difference of temperature, may appear inconsiderable, but seen from the proper thermodynamical standpoint is recog- nised to be far-reaching. The exploration of this new field can hardly fail to afford valuable guidance for our ideas concerning the general properties and constitution of matter. Prof. Onnes’s success is the reward of labours well directed and protracted over many years. The discovery and application by Rutherford and Geiger of an electrical method of counting the number of a par- ticles from radio-active substances constitutes an important step, and one that appears to afford better determinations than hitherto of various fundamental quantities. It would be of interest to learn what interpretation is put upon these results by those who still desire to regard matter as homogeneous. Another very interesting observation published during the year is that of Hale upon the Zeeman effect in sun- spots, tending to show that the spots are fields of intense magnetic force. Anything which promises a clue as to the nature of these mysterious peculiarities of the solar surface is especially welcome. Until we understand better than we do these solar processes, on which our very existence depends, we may do well to cultivate a humbler frame of mind than that indulged in by some of our colleagues. A theoretical question of importance is raised by the observations of Nordmann and Tikhoff showing a small chromatic displacement of the phase of minimum bright- ness in the case of certain variable stars. The absence of such an effect has been hitherto the principal argument on the experimental side for assuming a velocity of pro- pagation in vacuum independent of frequency or wave- length. The tendency of the observations would be to suggest a dispersion in the same direction as in ordinary matter, but of almost infinitesimal amount, in view of the immense distances over which the propagation takes place. Lebedew has pointed out that this conclusion may be evaded by assuming an asymmetry involving colour in the process by which the variability is brought about, and he remarks that although the dispersions indicated by Nord- mann and Tikhoff are in the same direction, the amounts calculated from the best available values of the parallaxes differ in the ratio of 30 to 1. In view of this discrepancy and of the extreme minuteness of the dispersion that would be indicated, the probabilities seem at the moment to lie on the side of Lebedew’s explanation; doubtless further facts will be available in the near future. I cannot abstain from including in the achievements of the year the remarkable successes in mechanical flight attained by the brothers Wright, although the interest is rather social and practical than purely scientific. For many years, in fact ever since I became acquainted with the work of Penaud and Wenham, I have leaned to the opinion that flight was possible as a feat. This question is now settled, and the tendency may perhaps be to jump too quickly to the conclusion that what can be done as a feat will soon be possible for the purposes of daily life. But there is a very large gap to be bridged over; and the argument urged by Prof. Newcomb, and based on the prin- ciple of dynamical similarity, that the difficulties must increase with the scale of the machines, goes far to pre- ciude the idea that regular ocean service will be con- ducted by flying machines rather than by ships; but, as the history of science and invention abundantly proves, it is rash to set limits. For special purposes, such as ex- ploration, we may expect to see flying machines in use before many years have passed. The report of the National Physical Laboratory for the year again indicates remarkable growth. The various new buildings, which have been erected and equipped during recent years at a cost of about 33,000/., are now occupied, and the result is that both researches and test work can be carried out with much greater ease and efficiency than previously. The buildings of the magnetic observatory at Eskdalemuir are now occupied, but, unfortunately, difficulty has arisen in making the magnetograph rooms, which are underground, completely water-tight, and the recording apparatus is not yet properly installed. The progress of the ‘‘ Royal Society Catalogue of Scien- 136 tific Papers’? has advanced a definit~ stage during the year through the publication, by the Cambridge University Press, of the index volume of pure mathematics for the nineteenth century. Owing to the magnitude of the material to be indexed in the several sciences, it has been necessary to adopt drastic measures of compression, and the 40,000 entries involved in the present section have thus been condensed into one royal octavo volume of some 70Q pages. Through the kindness of Dr. Schuster I had the oppor- tunity of submitting to the council, before the expiry of my term of office, a generous proposal which he makes for instituting a fund of r5o0ol., the interest of which is to be applied to pay the travelling expenses of delegates of the society to the International Association of Academies. Dr. Schuster felt that the absence of such a provision laid a burden upon delegates, and might operate to limit the choice of the society. I was empowered by the council to convey their cordial thanks to Dr. Schuster, and I have now the pleasure of making his benefaction known to the society at large. MEDALLISTS, 1908. CopLtey MEDAL. The Copley medal is awarded to Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, F.R.S. It is now sixty years since this distinguished naturalist began his scientific career. During this long period he has been unceasingly active in the prosecution of natural- history studies. So far back as 1848 he accompanied the late Henry Walter Bates to the region of the Amazon, and remained four years there, greatly enriching zoology and botany, and laying at the same time the basis of that wide range of biological acquirement by which all his writings have been characterised. From South America he passed to the Malay Archipelago, and spent there some eight fruitful years. It was during his stay in that region that he matured those broad views regarding the geo- graphical distribution of plants and animals which on his return to this country he was able to elaborate in his well-known classic volumes on that subject. It was there, too, amid the problems presented by the infinite variety of tropical life, that he independently conceived the idea of the theory of the origin of species by natural selection which Charles Darwin had already been working out for years before. His claims to the admiration of all men of science were recognised by the Royal Society forty years ago, when, in 1868, a Royal medal was awarded to him. Again, when in 1890 the Darwin medal was founded, he was chosen as its first recipient. RuMFORD MEDAL. The Rumford medal is awarded to Prof. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, For.Mem.R.S. Prof. Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, of Leyden, has been dis- tinguished during the last quarter of a century by his fundamental investigations in the principles of the theory of radiation, especially in its electric aspect. His earliest memoirs were concerned with the molecular equivalents which obtain in the refractive (and dispersive) powers of different substances; in them he arrived at formule that still remain the accepted mode of theoretical formulation of these phenomena. The main result, that (uw? —1)/(u? +2) is proportional jointly to the density of distribution of the molecules, and to a function of the molecular free periods and the period of the radiation in question, rests essentially only on the idea of propagation in some type of elastic medium; and thus it was reached simultaneously, along different special lines, by H. A. Lorentz originally from Helmholtz’s form of Maxwell’s electric theory, and by L. Lorenz, of Copenhagen, from a general idea of pro- pagation after the manner of elastic solids. The other advance in physical science with which Prof. Lorentz’s name is most closely associated is one of greater precision, the molecular development of Maxwell’s theory of electrodynamics. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] NATURE [ DECEMBER 3, 1908 Royat MEpDALs. A Royal medal is awarded to Prof. John Milne, F.R.S., for his work on seismology. In 1875 Dr. Milne accepted the position of professor at Tokyo, which was offered tu him by the Imperial Government of Japan. His attention was almost immediately attracted to the study of earth- quakes, and he was led to design new forms of construc- tion for buildings and engineering structures with the view of resisting the destructive effects of shocks. His sug- gestions have been largely adopted, and his designs have been very successful for the end in view. Incidentally, he studied the vibrations of locomotives, and showed how to obtain a more exact balancing of the moving parts, and thus to secure smoother running and a saving of fuel. Here again his suggestions were accepted, and his work was recognised by the Institution of Civil Engineers. He next devoted himself to the study of artificial shocks produced by the explosion of dynamite in borings. He then studied actual shocks as observed at nine stations connected by telegraph wires. A seismic study of Tokyo, and subsequently of the whole of northern Japan, followed. In this latter work he relied on reports from fifty stations. The Government then took up the matter, increased his fifty stations to nearly 1000, and founded a chair of seismo- logy for Mr. Milne. On his return to England in 1895 he succeeded in obtaining international cooperation, and reports are now received by him from some 200 stations furnished with trustworthy instruments, and scattered all over the world. The work of Dr. ‘Henry Head, on which is founded the award of the other Royal medal, forms a connected series of researches on the nervous system (made partly in con- junction with Campbell, Rivers, Sherren, and Thompson), published for the most part in Brain at various times since 1893 up to the present date, and constituting one of the most original and important contributions to neuro- logical science of recent times. His first paper (‘‘ Disturbances of Sensation with Special Reference to the Pain of Visceral Disease,’’ 1893), founded on minute and laborious clinical investigation, established in a more precise manner than had hitherto been done the relations between the somatic and visceral systems of nerves. He confirmed from the clinical side the experi- mental researches of Sherrington on the distribution of the posterior roots of the spinal nerves. Davy MeEpat. The Davy medal is awarded to Prof. William Augustus Tilden, F.R.S. The researches of Prof. Tilden extend into many domains. His recent work on the specific heats of the elements in relation to their atomic weights, described to the society in the Bakerian lecture for 1900, and in two later papers published also in the Philosophical Trans- actions, is of high theoretical importance. The employ- ment of liquid oxygen as an ordinary laboratory reagent, rendered possible by the researches of Dewar and others, has enabled Prof. Tilden to test the validity of Dulong and Petit’s law and of Neumann’s law over a much wider range of temperature than was. possible before, and to give a truer estimate of the range of their validity. In the region of organic chemistry he has carried out important researches on the terpenes, such as that on the hydrocarbons from Pinus sylvestris, on terpin and terpinol, and on limettin. In inorganic chemistry, his investigations on aqua regia and on nitrosyl chloride are especially noteworthy. Darwin MEpAL. The Darwin medal is awarded to Prof. August Weis- mann for his contributions to the study of evolution. He was one of the early supporters of the doctrine of evolu- tion by means of natural selection, and wrote in support of the Darwinian theory in 1868. His great series of publications from that date onward must always remain a monument of patient inquiry. In forming an estimate of his work, it does not seem essential that we should decide on the admissibility of his germ-plasm theory. It is in like manner unimportant that he was, in certain respects, forestalled by Galton, and that his own views have undergone changes. The fact remains that he has DECEMBER 3, 1908] NA TORE a7 done more than any other man to focus scientific attention on the mechanism of inheritance. Hvucnrs MeEpAL. The Hughes medal is awarded to Prof. Eugen Goldstein. Prof. Goldstein was one of the early workers on the modern detailed investigation of the electric discharge in rarefied gases, and by long-continued researches has con- tributed substantially to the systematic analysis of the complex actions presenting themselves in that field. Of these researches may be mentioned his observations of the effect of magnetic force on striations, of the phosphor- escence produced by the kathode rays, and of the reflection of kathode rays. By his discovery of the so-called Kanalstrahlen, or positive rays, he has detected an essential feature of the phenomenon, which, in his own hands and in those of other workers, has already thrown much needed light on the atomic transformations that are involved. Tue Past anp PRESENT OF THE RoyAL SOCIETY. At the anniversary dinner, held at the Hétel Métro- pole on Monday evening, Sir Archibald Geikie pre- sided, and a distinguished company of fellows and their guests assembled together. Prof. Lorentz, in proposing the toast of ‘‘ The Royal Society,’’ said he availed himself of the opportunity for saying a few words about the Royal Society, the time- honoured and world-renowned institution which for two centuries and a half had pursued with untiring energy the object for which it was founded—the improvement of natural knowledge. Surely there were few things so wonderful as that society, originating in a small club of persons who met weekly in the most simple manner for the discussion of philosophical inquiries, and grown by its own force, unaided by the State, as other academies usually were, to a mighty body which extended its influence all over the globe, and the annals of which showed a long list of the very first and most illustrious of natural philo- sophers, from Boyle and Newton to Charles Darwin and Lord Kelvin. The most striking feature in their long history was, perhaps, the unbroken continuity between the past and the present, between the modest beginnings and the glorious onward career, a continuity that was per- + spicuous, not only in the constancy of their true and high’ scientific spirit, but also, he thought, in the outward form. The collected works of Huygens, now being pub- lished, contained about 3000 letters, and many of them were directed to or received from members of their society, the chief correspondents at the time of which he was now speaking being Moray, the first secretary, Oldenburg, and eventually their first president, Lord Brouncker. Among the subjects treated in these letters there were some very proper for illustrating the continuity of which he had spoken. For instance, Lord Brouncker devoted much of his time to pendulum experiments for the purpose of find- ing a universal and natural unit of length. He was careful about the material of which the pendulum should be made. It ought, he thought, to be of good silver. In these days they had seen Sir J. J. Thomson experi- menting with a pendulum which consisted of much more valuable material, namely, radium, though not, of course, made entirely of radium. So in those early days they could notice a feature that seemed to him to be charac- teristic of British physical science, the invention of mechanical models for the purpose of illustrating natural phenomena, a method that had borne such splendid fruits in the hands of Faraday, Lord Kelvin, Maxwell, and their successors. In responding to the toast of “‘ The Royal Society,’’ the newly elected president, Sir Archibald Geikie, spoke as follows :— It is not without interest on an occasion like the pre- sent to look back for a little at the first. beginnings of such an institution as the Royal Society, and to compare and contrast its present condition with that of its infancy. In the middle of the seventeenth century, amidst the first impetus given by the writings of Francis Bacon, a small company of enthusiasts for what was called the ‘‘ New Philosophy.’’ including such men as Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke, William Petty, John Evelyn, and Henry Olden- NO. 2040, VOL. 79] burg, met together in London, mainly for the purpose of making experiments and discussing with each other the lessons to be drawn therefrom. This select company, which some of its members knew by the name of ** The Invisible College,’’ eventually gained the sympathetic notice of Charles II. He incorporated and named them ‘The Royal Socicty,’? and such was his interest in their welfare that he was induced to grant them no less than three charters in the course of seven years. He is said to have suggested to them various subjects for experi- ment, but there is good evidence that, with his keen sense of humour, he liked sometimes to make fun of them. Pepys tells how, a few months after the society had re- ceived its first charter, the King ‘‘ mightily laughed at them for spending time in weighing of ayre and doing nothing else since they sat.’’ The Royal example was. followed with less good nature by poets such as Butler, who satirised the young society; but the philosophers outlived the sarcasm. That they were in most serious. earnest in their experimental inquiries was shown by their appointing and subsidising some of their number as ‘‘ curators of experiments,’’ whose duty it was to pre- pare experiments which were exhibited and discussed at their weekly meetings. These experimental demonstrations and the discussions arising from them, rather than the reading of set papers, were the characteristic feature of the earliest meetings of the society. In those days the range of natural knowledge was com- paratively limited, so that a fairly complete acquaintance with all its fields was not beyond the compass of any man of average intelligence and industry; but as this range widened and the boundaries of the several branches of science extended, it became in the course of years in- creasingly difficult’ to follow the original experimental arrangements for the meetings. Fully equipped labora- tories had to be created outside the Royal Society, where long and intricate series of connected experiments and investigations could be carried on in the domains of physics and chemistry, and ultimately also of biology. Hence by degrees papers descriptive of these researches supplanted at the society’s meetings the older practical demonstrations of the processes of experiment, and came to be, as they are now, the recognised form in which advances in science are laid before the society. The reading of these papers, or abstracts of them, the careful consideration of them by specially appointed com- mittees, and the ultimate publication of such of them as are approved in the Proceedings or Philosophical Trans- actions, form the main part of the scientific work of the Royal Society at the present time. We can point with not unjustifiable pride to our long series of published volumes as a memorable record of the advance of all branches of natural science during nearly 250 years, and of the share which the society has had in furthering this progress. But the meetings, discussions, and publications only a portion of the ordinary business of the Royal Society. I think it is not generally known how much additional work the society is now called upon to under- take. The confidence felt by Parliament, the Government, and the country at large in the society’s capacity and judgment is shown by the multifarious tasks which have been entrusted to it, outside of what might well be re- garded as its more legitimate sphere of operations. Thus it nominates a representative to the governing body of each of the great public schools, who is specially charged to watch over the interests of science in the general curri- culum of instruction. It has a voice in the election of some of the scientific chairs in the two older universities. It administers the annual Parliamentary grant of 4oool. for the furtherance of scientific investigations. It has been entrusted with the control and supervision of the National Physical Laboratory. It takes a large share in the visitation and direction of Greenwich Observatory. It nominates nearly one-half of the Lawes trust, which has rendered such important services to the scientific develop- ment of agriculture. Over and above these standing engagements, if one may so call them, the Royal Society is not infrequently consulted by the various public departments of the country in regard to questions wherein expert scientific knowledge form 139 NAOT E | DECEMBER 3, 1908 is required. In recent years these applications have had more special reference to the nature and origin of various diseases in our colonies and stations abroad, and the best means to be adopted for coping with them. As an illus- tration of this side of the society’s activity, I may refer to our late inquiry into Malta fever—a disease which for many years so seriously disabled our naval and military establishments in the Mediterranean basin. This investi- gation was undertaken at the joint request of the Admiralty, War Office, and Colonial Office. Within a few months we were fortunate in discovering the source of the malady, and were able to point out the precautions to be taken in dealing with the fever. The satisfactory result has been attained of almost entirely banishing the disease from the hospitals of Malta. A more difficult and pro- longed inquiry has been in progress for some years into the terrible evil of sleeping sickness. The commission sent out to Central Africa by the Royal Society soon ascertained the immediate cause of the malady, but although the investigation has been prosecuted in various directions, no certain cure or preventive has yet been tound. A few weeks ago our eminent and_ intrepid colleague Sir David Bruce, taking with him two officers of the Army Medical Department, returned to Uganda to renew his inquiries on the spot. We have also a com- mittee at work in London endeavouring to discover a drug that may be effectual in the treatment of trypanosome diseases. We sincerely hope that the various efforts now in vigorous operation may be ultimately successful, and thus that in wide tracts of Central Africa which have been so grievously depopulated, this fatal scourge, if not wholly exterminated, may at least be reduced alike in its area of distribution and in the seriousness of its effects. I may add that the Colonial Office recently established a national bureau for the purpose of collecting and dis- seminating information from all quarters regarding sleep- ing sickness, and that the Royal Society, at the request of that public department, has been glad to provide for the bureau such office accommodation as the limited space at Burlington House will permit. Ever since the year 1662 the Royal Society has met on St. Andrew’s Day for the purpose of electing its council and officers. This important annual function has been dis- charged this afternoon, with the result which is before you. The whole body of fellows must sincerely regret that our recent president, Lord Rayleigh, felt himself unable to serve the full period of his tenure of the office. We are all grateful to him for the care and attention which he constantly gave to the business, alike at the meetings of council and at those of the society, over which he pre- sided with unfailing tact and dignity. We trust that he will return from South Africa re-invigorated for the re- sumption of those studies which, while placing him in the first rank of leaders in science, have reflected so much lustre on the Royal Society. The vacancy in the secretary- ship has been filled by the election of Prof. Rose Brad- ford. Having already served for one year as foreign secre- tary, he has gained experience in the details of the busi- ness of the society, and he assumes his new duties with the heartiest good wishes of his brother-officers and, I am confident, also of the general body of the fellows. In our new foreign secretary, Sir William Crookes, we have a man of world-wide fame, whose election will be hailed abroad with not less approbation than it has received at home. There was once a time when the Royal Society, so long accustomed to reign alone among the scientific institutions of the country, was disposed to look askance upon the rise of other learned societies the main object of which was the cultivation of some single department of science Happily that time has long since passed. The most cordia! relations now bind the younger offspring to their vener able mother. These special societies, which have so multi plied in our own time, have been of enormous service in advancing the progress of their several departments of inquiry. Science has grown far beyond limits that can be adequately supervised by any single organisation Almost all the Fellows of the Roval- Society belong also to one or more of these societies; but no practical in convenience arises from any divided allegiance. While chemists, geologists, zoologists, or botanists are loyal NO. 2040, VOL. 79] members of their several special societies, they are happy to be included also in the ranks of the Royal Society. They are proud of its prestige, of its traditions, of the large part it has played in the history of British science, and of the high position which it holds among the academies of the world. They recognise its catholicity alike in the selection of its fellows and in the papers which it prints in its publications. They see that while other learned bodies properly concern themselves with their own special fields in the scientific domain, the Royal Society, true to the spirit of its earliest leaders, continues to welcome any worthy addition to any department of natural knowledge, not from its own fellows only, but from outside workers who are found to have something new and of real value to communicate. In four years hence the Royal Society will complete its fifth half-century. Nevertheless, though old in years, it remains still young in energy and aspiration. With the cooperation of the other societies we look forward to a future not less distinguished and useful than our past has been. Speeches were also made by Prof. ‘Tilden, Dr. Head, Lord Avebury, the Italian Ambassador, and the Bishop of London. NOTES. Tue account which we print elsewhere of the anniversary meeting and dinner of the Royal Society contains many interesting statements of work accomplished and under- taken. Of particular interest is the election of Sir Archi- bald Geikie as president of the society in succession to Lord Rayleigh, who. is leaving England for a long visit to South Africa, and has resigned the office held by him with such distinction for the past three years. In. nomin- ating Sir Archibald Geikie to the presidency, the council complied with a desire widely expressed in the society, and his election on Monday has given satisfaction, not only to fellows of the society, but also to the wider circle of workers in many departments of intellectual activity who admire his genius both on the scientific and literary sides. As Prof. de Lapparent pointed out in an article upon Sir Archibald Geilxie’s work contributed to our “Scientific Worthies ’’ series in January, 1893 :—‘‘ Since nothing in the world is less common than the union of scientific insight and acuteness with a vivid appreciation of nature and a delicate feeling for style, it is not strange that Sir Archibald’s fame has passed far beyond the circle of professional men.’’? The article showed that the claims of Sir Archibald Geikie to the highest form of recogni- tion in the scientific world are of outstanding importance. Of all British geologists he has long been acknowledged as the most distinguished, and his election to the presi- dential chair of the Royal Society has given universal satisfaction. WE regret to member of the November 20. M. Albert Society, learn that Royal Gaudry, died on foreign Sunday, WE notice with regret the announcement that Dr. E. T. Hamy, professor of anthropology at the Paris Museum of Natural History and member of the Academy of Medicine, died on November 18, in his sixty-sixth year. Tue death is announced of Dr. O. T. Mason, head curator of the department of anthropology of the U.S. National Museum. Ir is announced that the Nobel prize for physics has been awarded to Prof. M. Planck, professor of mathe- matical physics in the University of Berlin; and the prize for chemistry to Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., Langworthy professor of physics in the University of Manchester. 7 of Johns Hopkins since its foundation in 1876. DECEMBER 3, 1908] Pror. R. Asecc, of Breslau, informs us that the award of 2500 marks made to him by the Berlin Academy of Sciences was not a prize, as announced in Nature of November 26 (p. 104), but a grant to enable him to purchase the gallium required for the physicochemical studies which he has undertaken of that substance. Tue death is reported, after a long illness, of Dr. William Keith Brooks, professor of zoology at the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore. He was born at Cleve- land, Ohio, in 1848, and had been a member of the staff He was the author of ‘‘A Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology,” “The Stomatopoda of H.M.S. Challenger,’’ ‘‘ The Foundations of Zoology,’’ ‘‘ The Oyster,’’ and ‘“‘ The Re- port of the Maryland Oyster Commission.”” He was popularly known as ‘‘ the father of the oyster culture.” He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and of the American Philosophical Society. Tue gold medal awarded under the Shaw Trust for Industrial Hygiene was presented to Prof. Galloway, at the’ Royal Society of Arts, on November 18, “‘ In recognition of his valuable researches into the action of coal dust in colliery explosions, the outcome of which researches has been the provision of means by which the risk of such accident is materially diminished, and a consequent great saving of human life effected.”’ Pror. BEYERINCK, of Delft, writes to point out that the spectra of planets illustrated by Prof. P. Lowell in Nature of November 12, p. 42, resemble the absorption spectra of chlorophyll and accompanying pigments of different plants. For instance, ‘‘ The spectra of Uranus and Neptune coincide with a spectrum produced by a chloro- phyll solution containing much anthocyan, or perhaps still more with the absorption spectrum of a living Porphyra.”’ THE annual exhibition of apparatus is to be held by the Physical Society on Friday evening, December 11 (from 7 p.m. to 10 p.m.), at the Royal College of Science, South Kensington. From the programme, of which we have received an advance proof, there appear to be many items of considerable interest to both physicists and elec- trical engineers. We understand that invitations have been given to the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the Faraday Society, the Optical Society, and the Rontgen Society. Admission, however, except to Fellows of the Physical Society, will be by ticket only, and therefore members of the societies just mentioned desiring to attend the exhibition should apply to the secretary of the society to which they belong. For nearly a year Lieutenant E. H. Shackleton, R.N.R., and his party of explorers have been engaged in exploration in South Polar regions. The explorers were taken to their landing-place in the Far South by the Nimrod, which then returned to Lyttelton. Despatches from New Zealand now state that the vessel has just left again for King Edward VII. land to take on board the explorers. It is anticipated that the Nimrod will reach the landing-place in about six weeks. Lieutenant Shackleton and his party will, it is hoped, put in an appearance before the end of February next, after which the Nimrod will make her way back to Lyttelton. ? WE learn from the Times that the Admiralty will restore Halley’s grave in the old” burial-ground of Lee Parish Church. Dr. E. Halley, who was the Astronomer Royal from 1721 to 1742, was given the temporary rank of a captain in the Navy, and commanded a ship of war NO. 2040, VOL. 79| INCA TS TE 139 in 1698-1701, for the purpose of making observations for magnetic variations. With Sir Isaac Newton, he was re- sponsible for the Act of 1714 offering a reward to any person who should devise a method for the discovery of the longitude at sea. His grave was last restored by the Admiralty in 1854. Tue Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has decided to confer the Hayden memorial medal for 1908 on Mr. J. M. Clarke, State Geologist of New York, in recognition of his distinguished services to geological science. The medal is a memorial which Mrs. E. W. Hayden endowed in honour of her husband, Dr. Ferdinand V. Hayden, who was for several years director of the Geological and Geographical Surveys. of the territories, remaining one of the four principal geologists to the United States Geological Survey from its organisation in 1879 until his death. Provision was at first made to confer a bronze medal and the remainder of the interest of the fund annually as a recognition of the best publication, exploration, discovery, or research in the sciences of geo- logy or palzontology. The bronze medal was awarded annually until 1899, when the deed was modified so as to provide for the awarding of a gold medal once every three years. A Birt for putting in force the decisions of the Berlin Wireless Telegraphy Conference of November, 1906, as embodied in an international convention, has been laid before the French Chamber. The Paris correspondent of the Times gives the following details of the convention :— The conference has fixed wave-lengths, one of 300 metres, the other of 600 metres, for the transmission of public messages by the wireless current. All stations must be able to produce and to receive one, at all events, of these two wave-lengths. All public correspondence must be re- stricted to one of these wave-lengths. A coast station, however, can use other wave-lengths for long-distance communications, or for messages other than those trans- mitted by the public, provided that these wave-lengths are not under 600 metres and are not more than 1600 metres. Stations on board ship must use the 300-metre wave- length. ‘hey are permitted, however, to use other wave- lengths as well, provided that these are under 600 metres. Ships of small tonnage will be allowed to use a wave- length below 300 metres. Durinc the past week two important decisions have been announced in the British Courts of Appeal as to the definition of the term mineral. The question is of both scientific and commercial interest. When a railway buys land under compulsory powers, the minerals under the surface are reserved to the landowner, and have to be subsequently purchased by the railway company if at any time the proprietor is able to mine them. The railway companies are accordingly anxious to restrict the term mineral within narrow limits. The Court of Appeal, as announced in the Times of November 24, has unanimously confirmed the decision by Mr. Justice Eve in the case of the Great Western Railway Company against the Carpella Mining Company, that the china clay so extensively worked in Cornwall and Devonshire is a mineral. The Upper Court in Edinburgh, on the same day, re-affirmed the decision that in Scotland sandstone is a mineral, by dismissing an appeal by the North British Railway Com- pany in reference to the working of sandstone beside the railway station at Shettleston. THE appointment by the Government of a commission to register ancient monuments with the view of their better protection has been widely welcomed, but the 140 NADGRE [ DECEMBER 3, 1908 Government might do much to protect such remains by insisting that its own officials should treat them with consideration. One of the remarkable megalithic ruins of Malta appears to have just had a narrow escape, as in order to avoid the extra cost of a slight diversion of a new wall on the Corradino outside Valetta, one of the two most accessible of the archzological treasures of Malta was to have been ruthlessly swept away. Money for the wall was not available during the current year, so its erection was postponed, and we understand that in consequence of the protests by the Maltese archaologists and the intervention of the civil authorities the Admiralty officials have agreed that the wall shall be so diverted as to leave the megalithic remains uninjured. During the recent correspondence in the Times on the danger to the stone circles of Dartmoor, attention was directed to the destruction of a prehistoric stone group on land which had been sold to the War Office on the understanding that the antiquities should be preserved. Tue Royal Geographical Society has received from Dr. M. A. Stein an account of the final stage of his expedition into Central Asia. From an article in the Times, it appears that Dr. Stein started on August 1 last on his expedition to the sources of the Yurung-kash, or Khotan river. After making his way through the gorges of Polu to the northern- most high plateau, he turned to the west and succeeded in reaching the deep-cut valley of Zailik, which drains into the Yurung-kash. Terribly rugged as the valley of Zailik is, Dr. Stein ascended from it the high spurs coming down from the main Kwen-lun range northward, and by estab- lishing survey stations was able to map the greater portion of the region containing the Yurung-kash headwaters. On the south the party proved to be flanked by a range of snowy peaks, rising to 23,000 feet, and clad with glaciers. By crossing side spurs over passes about 18,000 feet high, and ascending the gorge of the main river, they reached after eight marches from Zaililk the glacier-bound basin in which the easternmost and largest branch of the river takes its rise. Having traced the river to its head, the party turned east to high ground on the Aksai-chin plateau. The object next accomplished was to reach the valley of the Kara-kash river. For this purpose the route which leads from Polu towards the Lanak-la pass and Ladak was followed. This took them to the uppermost valley of the Keriya river, and past the line of great glaciers which form its true sources. At last the watershed of the Keriya river was left behind, and the exploration of the hitherto un- surveyed ground westwards was commenced. The area before them, which in maps had figured as a high plain called Aksai-chin desert, proved soon of a different charac- ter. High snow-covered spurs with valleys between them were found to descend here from the range flanking the Yurung-kash. After a week they reached a large salt lake which an Indian survey party appears to have sighted more than forty years ago, but which has now become,dry salt marsh. Continuing the journey to the north-west of it, they struck the traces of the old route by which Haji Habibullah, ruler of Khotan, had endeavoured to establish direct communication between Ladakh and his kingdom. Crossing several side spurs of the main range to the north, they emerged at last, on September 18, in the valley of the easternmost feeder of the Kara-kash. THE weather summaries issued by the Meteorological Office show that for the autumn season, comprised by the thirteen weeks ended November 28, the mean tempera- ture was largely in excess of the average over the entire area of the United Kingdom. The range of temperature NO. 2040, VOL. 79] Was excessive, amounting to 60° and upwards in the east of Scotland, the east and south-west of England, and in the Midland counties. The aggregate rainfall was largely in. defect, except in the east of Scotland and the south of Ireland, in both of which districts the excess was only a few hundredths of an inch. The deficiency was upwards of 3 inches in the south-east and south- west of England and in the Channel Islands. The dura- tion of bright sunshine was in excess of the average in most of the English districts, the excess for the season amounting to seventy-five hours in the south-east of England, or 8 per cent. of the possible duration. The aggregate rainfall since the commencement of the year is in defect of the average over the entire kingdom, except in the north-west of England and the north of Ireland. In the Channel Islands the deficiency is 8-50 inches, in the south-west of England 6-14 inches, and upwards of 3 inches in the north-east and south-east of England. The excess of sunshine since the commencement of the year amounts to 151 hours, or 4 per cent. of the average dura- tion in the south-east of England. To Miss Georgina Sweet we are indebted for a copy of a paper, published in vol. xxi. of the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, on anatomical variation in the Australian tree-frog, Hyla aurea. We are indebted to Mr. A. E. Shipley for a separate copy of his account of the parasites infesting grouse, re- printed from the interim report of the Grouse Disease Com- mission, and likewise for one of a second paper, reproduced fromm the second number of Parasitology, on a thread- worm infesting the swim-bladder of a trout. In their November issue, the editors of British Birds announce that they propose to institute further inquiries and investigations in regard to *‘ wood-pigeon diphtheria,’” and for this purpose request the assistance of observers from all parts of the country, to whom schedules of queries will be supplied on application. Mr. C. B. Ticehurst will, as before, undertake the investigation. It is stated in the course of the notice that the supposed probability of this disease being communicable to man is not countenanced by Mr. Ticehurst. A musEuM at Norwich, organised and maintained by Daniel Boulter, a dealer in curiosities in that city, during a part of the last quarter of the eighteenth century, forms the subject of an interesting paper (read at the Ipswich conference) by Mr. T. Southwell, published in the October number of the Museums Journal. To the same issue Dr. F. A. Bather contributes an account of the Lund Museum for the History of Culture, to the opening of which refer- ence has been previously made in our columns. IMPORTANT developments in regard to the administration of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, are foreshadowed in the report of the conference in regard to museums in India, held at Calcutta in December, 1907. There was a very representative attendance of Indian museum directors and curators (from Kashmir to Madras), and_ specialisation in the matter of administration was the order of the day. As regards the Indian Museum, it was decided that while the geological and paleontological section will remain, as heretofore, under the control of the director of the Geo- logical Survey, the remaining collections will be placed under four distinct authorities. Archaology will be handed over to the director-general of archeology; the principal of the School of Art will assume control of the objects of industrial and fine art; the industrial collections will be transferred to the reporter on economic products; while DECEMBER 3, 1908] NAT ORE 141 the anthropological and zoological collections are to be placed in charge of a superintendent directly responsible to the trustees. An alternative proposal to link up all the sections under the administrative control of a_ single director, who would likewise be inspector-general for museums in India, was decisively rejected. WE have to acknowledge the receipt of copies of vol. xxx. of Bericht des Westpreussischen Botanisch-zoologischen Vereins, and of the Schriften dey Naturforschenden Gesell- schaft in Danzig, for 1908, the latter being now regarded as a supplement to the former. In the Bericht special interest attaches to an account, by Dr. P. Speoiser, of the distribution of the reindeer-gadfly (Therioplectes taran- dinus) in the course of a paper on the fauna of the Barent district. The species ranges all over Siberia, northern Russia, and Scandinavia, but also occurs in a few isolated localities in north Germany, namely, in eastern Prussia near Ké6nigsberg, in western Prussia in the Tucheler Heide, as well as in Pomerania, Brandenburg, and Meck- lenburg. There are also reports as to its occurrence in Austria and elsewhere. Its existence in these isolated localities may be taken as an indication that the insect has survived in such spots from the date when the rein- _deer inhabited a much larger area on the Continent than it does at present. Tue October number of the Journal of the Marine Bio- logical Association (vol. viii., No. 3) contains the results of a series of experiments which have been recently con- ducted with regard to the food of mackerel and the move- ments of these fishes, with the view of assisting the western fishery. It appears that from April until June inclusive—the main fishery-time in the western districts— when mackerel collect in large shoals, they feed almost exclusively on plankton, and also that the plankton from the contents of the stomachs of the fish is identical with that taken in tow-nets in the neighbourhood of the shoals. During two years it was found that in April zooplankton was in excess of phytoplankton, and that during such times mackerel were more numerous than during the other months. Hence the abundance or paucity of zooplankton appears to be correlated with the greater or less abundance of fish, this being confirmed by the result of five years’ experience. As regards the periodical migration of mackerel, it has been already suggested by previous authors that these are not so extensive as has commonly been supposed to be the case, and this is confirmed by the results of the recent observations. In accord with the observations of Cligny, it appears that mackerel return year after year at the close of the shoaling season to certain restricted areas not far distant from the spawning- grounds, and that at present only a few of these areas are known to fishermen. Further, these bottom-shoaling fish seem likewise to feed largely upon plankton. Additional observations are required before the bearing of these facts on the fishery can be fully realised. BEARING in mind that some of the Central American species of Sapium may be found to yield latex containing a valuable percentage of rubber, Mr. H. Pittier has placed on record in the Contributions from the United States National Herbarium (vol. xii., part iv.) the identifications of nine species of the genus collected in Mexico and Central America. Of these, six species from Costa Rica are new to science. It is noted that proterandry is general, if not universal, so that the early flowers are staminate, while the latter are hermaphrodite, and it is doubtful whether any species of Sapium are ever dicecious. NO. 2040, VOL. 79] Tue superintendent of the botanic station at St. Vincent announces in his report for 1907-8 an increase in the export of cotton, and a slightly larger crop during the year, but ventures the opinion that the limit of production has been approached ; if this be so, a yield of 175 tons represents the amount of Sea Island cotton that may be expected from the island. The output of cacao, that has increased annually since the effects of the hurricanes, now approxi- mates to the amount of 100 tons. Among the trees that flowered in the gardens, mention is made of Platymisciwm platystachyum, on account of the fragrance resembling violets diffused by the flowers. A summary provided by Mr. G. Evans of the varieties of wheat grown in the Central Provinces of India and’ Berar has been published by the Department of Agriculture in that territory. In the northern divisions wheat occupies about one-third of the cropped area; in other parts cotton furnishes the chief staple. The varieties are classified’ under the four groups of hard and soft red and hard and soft white or yellow. eee 158 Schlomann: *‘ The Deinhardt Schlomann Series of Technical Dictionaries in Six Languages: German, English, French, Russian, Italian, Spanish ” . 158 Parker: ‘‘ Highways and Byways in Surrey”’ . 158 Letters to the editor .— Students’ Physical Laboratories.— Prof. Jone Perry, BR, Seber ee ya SD) A Model Atom. —Harry ‘Bateman . oe", 159 Silk-producing Insects of West Africa. —Gerald (Ss Dudgeon . . 2) hcl aah = ALGO Vitality of Leaves. “Dr. Walter Kidd . : 160 The Exhibition of Fishes in Museums.—Dr. F. A. Mucas . ; 160 An Electromagnetic Problem. Prof. Arthur w. Conway 160 Mercury Bubbles. —Philip ‘Blackman; CyB Stromeyer . iiss, Ge LOO) The Organisation of Rural Education . aera ~ 16% The Childhood of Man. ee) By Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. 5 «) i) eee Oe Albert Gaudry. By A. Ss. W. 3 ; 163 Notes 5 cate oho eee LOA Our Astronomical Column :— The Spectrum of Comet Morehouse, 1908c . fe 209 The Changes in the Tail of Comet Morehouse . . . 169 Determination of Longitude by Wireless foe 169 Spectroscopic Binaries . : 169 A Recent Observation of Nova Cygni : . 169 Some Recent Publications of Geological Surveys. (Lilustrated.) By G. A. J. C. 170 Three Volumes on North Sea Fishery Investigation 172 The Dawn of Meteorology. re) By Prof. G. Hellmann Shige te Seo oelyes) University and Educational Intelligence . Aime, 076 ocleties;ands Academies man queen cinen Cine 7) Diary of Societies 3. emiet tobeacateliye) depen teri sie eante 180 NATURE 181 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 17, 1908. THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHER. Memories of My Life. By Dr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. Pp. viiit+339; with 7 _ illustrations. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price tos. 6d. net. HOSE who are interested in the history ofthe growth of science in this country and in the men who participated in its development will thank Dr. Galton for having provided them with a char- acteristic account of his own life and of his rela- tions with three generations of men of thought and action. Although Dr. Galton has provided a précis wherein those who know something of the author and his deeds can read between the lines, a biographer is still needed who will portray to the world what manner of man he is. Probably many will feel that the autobiographer’s ‘“ fear’’ is well grounded that he may ‘‘ have failed through over omission.’ That love of accuracy which runs through all his work appears on every page of the memories, dates are scattered with profusion, and the frequently re- corded personal incidents will delight the heart of future bibliographers. The book contains two excel- lent portraits and a bibliography of the author’s writ- ings. Very briefly, in a chapter on parentage, Dr. Galton indicates the origin of his hereditary tendencies, and the following four chapters narrate the influences of companions, school, and university which moulded his “status of pupilhood.’’ His paternal grandfather was a statistician, and so was his father; as to his mother, it is only necessary to state she was a Darwin. To his progenitors he was indebted for “a considerable taste for science, for poetry, and for statistics; also, partly through the Barclay blood, a rather unusual power of enduring physical fatigue without harmful results,’’ and, it may be added, certain of the qualities of the Quakers, though adhesion to the Society of Friends practically ceased with his grandfather’s gene- ration. On the whole he gained little from the schools he attended, and at the age of sixteen he took up his abode, as indoor pupil, in the Birmingham General Hospital; his early experiences and the ideas that oc- curred to him make interesting reading. Later he went to King’s College, London, and enjoyed to the full the wider intellectual outlook and companionship of distinguished men. The passion for travel seized him in 1840, and he went to Giessen to study chem- istry, but he played truant, and made an adventurous voyage down the Danube to the Black Sea. A visit to Constantinople and Smyrna fired his imagination. This little expedition proved to be an important factor in moulding his after-life; it vastly widened his views of humanity and civilisation, and confirmed his aspira- tions for travel. The first year at Trinity College, Cambridge, “‘ was a period of general progress, with- out much of note.’ The reading parties in the long -yacations and the later terms were full of the in- spiriting influence of older and younger men who NO. 2042, VOL. 79] have left their mark on the intellectual history of Britain, and he points out ‘‘ the enormous advantages offered by a university to those who care to profit by them.’? His health broke down in his third year, and it comes as a shock to learn that he was obliged to content himself with a poll degree; but this has since been made up to him by his university giving him an honorary degree of doctor in science (1895), and his college electing him to an honorary fellowship (1902). The following seven years fall into three periods. A visit to Egypt, when he visited Khartum, went some distance up the White Nile, and had several journeys across the desert, was not the pleasure trip it is to-day. This was followed by a tour in Syria. Some four years were then spent at home, reading, hunting, and sailing; it was at this time he invented an ap- paratus, the telotype, for printing telegraphic mes- sages. In 1850 he fitted out an expedition to a portion of south-west Africa which was then absolutely unex- plored. The results of this noteworthy expedition were published in “‘ Tropical South Africa ’’ (1853), and laid the basis of our present knowledge of the country and people of Damaraland. Recognition followed this hazardous and fruitful enterprise in the bestowal of the gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society, the fellowship of the Royal Society, and the mem- bership of the Athenzum Club. A further result of this experience was the publication of that eminently practical book, ‘‘ The Art of Travel,’? which is re- plete with common sense. Dr. Galton for many years served on the council of the Royal Geographical Society, and was intimately connected | with the ex- peditions of the great African travellers Burton, Speke, Grant, Baker, and Livingstone. It was due to his initiative that the society interested itself in geographical education at first in public schools and latterly in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. In 1853 Dr. Galton married and settled in London. Then began a life full of intellectual activity which has persisted to the present moment; various tours were taken in Britain and on the Continent, and a passion for mountaineering was developed, but no extended expedition was attempted. Dr. Galton early became a member of the managing committee of the Kew Observatory, then the central magnetic ob- servatory of the world; he became chairman in 1889, and held that post until 1901, when the observatory ceased to be an independent body; now it is merged into the National Physical Laboratory. The peculiar inventive genius of Dr. Galton here kad full scope, and he busied himself with standardising sextants, thermometers, and other instruments of precision. His interest in the movements of the air led him to map out the data. He was the first to recognise the down- rush of air associated with a high, barometer and a clear sky, with an outflow having a clock-ways twist which is the exact opposite of a cyclone and sup- plementary to it. He named this system an “ anti- cyclone.”’ Always interested in the problems of heredity, Dr. Galton has devoted the best years of his life to a study of heritability in man, as the following land- H 182 NATURE [ DECEMBER 17, 1908 testify :—‘t Hereditary Genius’’ _(1869), Men of Science’’ (1874), ‘‘ Human Faculty ’’ (1883), ‘‘ Natural Inheritance ’’ (1889), and his later writings on eugenics. Impressed with the necessity of obtaining a multitude of exact measure- ments relating to every measurable faculty of body or mind for two generations at least, he first stimulated schoolmasters to weigh and measure their boys, and established an anthropometric laboratory at the International Exhibition of 1884, and subsequently at South Kensington, several of the instruments employed being designed by him. These have formed the model of similar laboratories elsewhere. It was in this con- nection that he made an exhaustive study of finger- prints as a means of identifying persons, which led to the adoption of the system by the Criminal De- partments of Britain, India, and many foreign countries; he also demonstrated that the patterns of the papillary ridges have no racial significance. Numerous experiments were made in composite photo- graphy, of which an interesting account is given. In order to ascertain the relative position of individuals, the well-known “ centile ’’ method was devised. As a side-issue he suggested the appropriateness of utilising the median vote in councils of juries. Being satisfied of the inheritance of mental qualities and that heredity was a far more powerful agent in human development than nurture, he endeavoured to ascer- tain the degree in which breeding might, at least theoretically, modify the human race. The general result of his inquiry was to support the view “ that man is little more than a conscious machine, the slave of heredity and environment, the larger part, perhaps all, of Whose actions are therefore predictable.” marks “ English The strong practical! bent that manifests itself in whatever Dr. Galton does constrained him to apply the conclusions to which his studies on human faculty and heredity had led him. Hence of late years he has occupied himself with cugenics, though so far back as 1865 he had formulated its leading principles, and he introduced the term in 1884. He thinks that “stern compulsion ought to be exerted to prevent the free propagation of the stock of those who are seri- ously afflicted by lunacy, feeble-mindedness, habitual criminality, and pauperism, but that is quite different from compulsory marriage. A democracy cannot endure unless it be composed of able citizens; there- fore it must in self-defence withstand the free intro- duction of degenerate stock. te The aim of eugenics is to check the birth-rate of the Unfit, and to promote the improvement of the race by furthering the productivity of the Fit by early marriages and healthful rearing of their children, and thereby ‘to replace Natural Selec- tion by other processes that are more merciful and not less effective.’’ In his last utterance on this subject (cf. Narure, October 22, 1908, vol. Ixxviii., p- 645) Dr. Galton practical suggestions for creating a public opinion; he rightly recognises the enormous influence wielded by social opinion among all races and classes of mankind, and he would gives direct this tremendous force towards a favourable consideration of eugenics, trusting that practical NO. 2042, VOL. 79] results would ensue to the great betterment of man- Ixind. This bald, epitomised sketch of the life and activities of Dr. Galton indicates the wide range of his interests and powers. The practical application of scientific principles seems to be always in his mind, never from the point of view of the patentee or ex- ploiter, but invariably disinterestedly, and his eugenic investigations were fired by a burning zeal for the well-being of his fellow-men. The transparent honesty and naiveté of the man are revealed in these straight- forward memories. Perhaps we are too close to him to be able to judge how great his life’s work will loom when the history of the science of our day comes to be written, but his energy, enthusiasm and character have stimulated many during the past and the present generation, and when these qualities are associated with sound worl: accomplished and the pro- mulgation of larger views of life and duty, we can con- fidently await the verdict of posterity. A. C. Happon. ~ AN INTRODUCTION FO THE STUDY OF NATURAL HISTORY. Animal Life. By Dr. F. W. Gamble, F.R.S. Pp. xviiit+305. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1908.) Price 6s. net. HIS is a fascinating introduction to the study of animal life, marked by freshness of outlook, stimulating exposition, and vivid style. To Dr. Gamble—editor though he be of an austere ‘‘ Prac- tical Zoology ’’—animal life is ‘‘ a pageant,’’ ‘a mov- ing spectacle,’’ and his inquiry is kinetic throughout. What is all this bustle about, what are the leading motives, what are the ends achieved? In developing his subject he has proceeded by the use of three leading motives that differentiate animals from plants —movement, the acquisition of solid food, and the nervous control of response to changing order, and the three main problems the solutions of which he considers are the maintenance of self, the development of self, and the progress of the race, though he is careful to point out that the last is ‘‘ rather a motive that possesses animals than is possessed by them.’’ He begins by contrasting animal and plant life :— ““ Mass, stationariness, and pliability—the notes of plant life—are replaced in animals by purposeful eva- sion, activity, and intractability.”’ Then the fulness of the earth and dance of the sea is his theme, and °“‘ the mighty gamut of the scale of being.’’ But amid all the multitude of forms and endless variety of archi- tecture there are only a few chief styles, the history of which is briefly sketched. The stage has not always had present-day scenery and troup of players. There has been a rise and fall of races. the abun- its ““Wave after wave of life has risen from the in- exhaustible depths of nature, towered to a_ great height, and has then fallen; yet undelayed the on- ward movement continues.’’ Nothing could be better than the chapter on animal i mare), ae hel, DECEMBER 17, 1908] NATURE 183 focomotion, which is informative, stimulating, and beautiful. It is interesting to hear of the elbow- joint of the bat-fish, of the agile Malayan lizard that runs securely over the tops of grass shoots, and of the movement of the vanes on the grebe’s foot, but it is even more profitable to be led from a few simple experiments with a pennyworth of mussels to some clear ideas in regard to cilia, and then to a recog- nition that all movement partakes of this mysterious innate character, self-caused and self-sustained. With admirable vividness and a frank enthusiasm, the author pourtrays the finish and unweariedness of animal movement, which increases in perfection as we ascend the scale of being and reaches its highest manifestation in the migration of birds. But movement implies expenditure of energy, and that leads the author to discuss the varied quest for food—the vegetarian habit and the protection of plants against wholly destructive visitors, the probable origin of the carnivorous habit among marine animals, the stress of terrestrial life, and the three paths by which land animals have become carnivorous. But “* Life is a fire, now slow, now fierce, and therefore needs air as well as fuel. Changefulness is of the very essence of being, and all our rest is but hidden activity. ... The fire was lighted long ago. The twinkling flames hidden in thought, patent in con- duct, have come from the vestal lights of other genera- tions. Every moment of restful or restless activity they maintain the transformation of our bodies. .. . Food is but the laid fuel; oxygen, that which fans Rie? This is the beginning of a fine chapter on the breath of life—that is to say, on the comparative physiology of respiration, in which Dr. Gamble shows that evolution corresponds in great part with the successful quest for oxygen. “Man himself carries in his ears an unmistakable sign of his gill-breathing, watery past, and of the depths he has left behind him.’ Breakdown by oxygenation, re-construction by feeding, are the two emulating processes in animal organisms; there is ‘the downward pull of oxida- tion and the upward thrust of nutrition,’? and more and more we see how the trembling balance of life becomes steadied by firm central nervous control. Thus we are led to the seventh chapter, on the nervous and sensory system, which is very illumin- ating. ‘‘ Every living thing is an old hand,”’ and the nervous system is the seat of organic memory. “Not only day and night, winter and summer, seedtime and harvest, set agoing the inward pendu- lum of animal life, but the life and death of their associates, the swing of the tides, all the great secular movements, beat with alternating force upon the re- ceptive nervous tissue.”’ In another very interesting part of the chapter the habits of a shrimp and prawn are taken as an ex- ample of the way in which the conduct of these animals is built up out of responses to light, pressure, and taste. It is also shown that the stiffening of relatively simple responses into habit and tradition is NO. 2042, VOL. 79| a necessary prelude to advance in higher responses. Colour plays so large a part in the business of life that it is in accordance with the perspective of this volume that it should have a chapter to itself. It is a subject with which the author’s experience has made him peculiarly well qualified to deal, and we cannot but express our admiration for the way in which he works out the thesis that ‘the pigments of animals are older than the effect they produce, and that the old nutritive, purifying, and respiratory uses of colour are the basis for the more recently evolved protective, warning, or mimetic values of colouration.”’ The summing-up of the book is in the second last chapter, on the welfare of the race, of which the last chapter—on the life-histories of insects—is in greater part a series of illustrations. “The endowments of the individual, which have at first sight such an appearance of being purely personal acquisitions and advantages, are in reality of racial value,”’ and in the love of mates the higher animals “eather all their gifts to pour them into the lap of the future.’’ ‘‘ The life of animals and of work- ing men agrees in this, that, consciously or uncon- sciously, it is a strife to give their children the best chance. Their response to this spirit takes varied forms, but ultimately it is an answer to the same stimulus, and though it seems to arise within us, it is the spirit of a hive whose boundaries are not limited by the seen or tangible.” This book, the interesting contents of which we have hinted at, will delight all who read it, both those who know much and those who know little. It will charm with its style and with the wonders which it discloses. The illustrations, it should be noted, are fresh and interesting, being in great part photographs of specimens in the Manchester Museum. It will help students to organise their knowledge in the light of the general ideas which it expounds, and it will suggest observation and reflection. Some- times, perhaps, the author is the least thing too ex- uberant, as when he says :— “On our rocky coasts, from April to July, the puffin, the guillemot, and other spring migrants of the sea have made the rocks musical with their chorus.”” Sometimes, perhaps, the author’s epigrammatic style makes a difficulty instead of removing one, for there is a little of the conundrum in a sentence like this :— “© Soil is the remains of the vesture that waves in the wind and water, held in a meshwork of moulds,’’ and many will be puzzled, not enlightened, by being told that ‘fin man and creature colour is sacramental.” But we have confidence in tendering to Dr. Gamble the thanks of thousands of students of animal life, who will find, or have found, in this book one of the most charming introductions to natural history, a book full of insight and suggestion, with a delightful note personnel, a contribution not only to science, but to literature. vA. LD. 184 NATURE [DECEMBER 17, 1908 THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF INDIA. The Commercial Products of India, being an abridgment of ‘The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India.’’ By Sir George Watt. Pub- lished under the authority of H.M. Secretary of State for India in Council. Pp. viiit+1189. (London: John Murray, 1908.) Price 16s. net. Te is now almost a quarter of a century since the publication of Dr. (now Sir George) Watt's ‘* Dic- tionary of the Economic Products of India’? was com- menced. That monumental work is now out of print, and the necessity for the issue of a new and revised edition has been evident for some time. The re- issue of the complete Dictionary, however, is likely to be postponed for a good few years, so all the more do we welcome meanwhile the appearance of the present work, and we congratulate Sir George Watt on the completion of his three years’ task. As its subtitle indicates, the book is practically an abridgment of the Dictionary, published under the authority of His Majesty’s Secretary of State for India in Council, and written mainly by Sir George Watt under the direction of a supervisory committee ap- pointed by the Secretary of State. The scope of the work was to be ‘‘ confined to products which are of present or prospective industrial or economic import- ance,’”’ and, on the whole, it has kept fairly well to those limits. The Dictionary consists of six volumes with a total of more than five thousand pages, while the present abridgment is in one volume of a little more than a thousand pages, well printed, and well got up. There is, of course, room for difference of opinion as to the importance or otherwise of some of the products discussed in the abridgment, but, in the main, excellent discrimination has been shown in their selection, for which, however, we understand the author is not responsible. The articles themselves are modelled on the familiar lines of the Dictionary, and offer evidence of great industry in the consultation and quotation of all pos- sible references, although with regard to the latter a stricter system of selection would have reduced the bulk without detracting from the value of the book. Uniformity of treatment of the heterogeneous items constituting a work of this kind is not, of course, feasible even if it were desirable, but this cannot be held entirely to excuse the uneven quality of the abridgment. Some of the articles give fairly succinct, business-like accounts of their respective subjects, as, for instance (amongst the longer articles), those on india-rubber or flax, and (amongst the shorter ones) those on Calotropis gigantea, Dioscorea, or Ptero- carpus. Others, again, are unnecessarily spun out by failure to discriminate between essential and super- fluous information and between proved facts and mere opinions not worth recording. The following examples illustrate this defect. In the article on tea the historical part is padded with statements such as :— “We read that Wang Meng, father-in-law of the Emperor in the middle of the fourth century was fond of drinking tea, and set it before his friends, but NO. 2042, VOL. 79] they found it too bitter, and generally declined, feign- ing indisposition.”’ Under Acorus Calamus, which, by the way, is scarcely an important product, we are informed that ““Dr. Childe, second physician to the Sir Jamsetji Jijibhai Hospital, Bombay, tried an authentic tinc- ture for malaria, dyspepsia, dysentery, and chronic bronchitis, and after careful experiment pronounced it inert.’’ Again, in the article on Rhea, prominence is given to the fascinating effect on the author of the undying faith of a very old lady in the ultimate success of that distinctly doubtful crop. We admit the difficulty of abridging a de- scription in which one has also to incorporate the most recently acquired knowledge, but this difficulty should not necessitate the actual expan- sion of a dictionary article. Yet several of the articles in the abridgment are actually longer than the corre- sponding ones in the Dictionary. Thus in the Dic- tionary fifteen pages are devoted to Boehmeria nivea, and fourteen to Camellia theifera, while in the abridgment the number of pages are respectively sixteen and thirty-five. We mention these defects from the point of view of one who hopes to have frequent occasion to consult the work, but dislikes the trouble of sifting the gold from the dross. Despite those blemishes, however, which we trust a more rigorous application of the blue pencil will cause to disappear in the next edition, there can be no question of the great value of Sir George Watt’s book. He has laid a fresh debt of gratitude on all interested in India or its products by performing a work that very few but himself would have had the interest, industry, and patience necessary to accomplish. A. T. Gace. THE PHYSICS OF EARTHQUAKES. By Dr. Clarendon The Physics of Earthquake Phenomena. °C. G. Knott. Pp. xii+283. (Oxford : Press, 1908.) Price 14s. net. ARTHOUAKES, once regarded as portents and warnings to mankind, have become an object of human curiosity, and now form a branch of know- ledge of which the principal external relations are threefold. They are of interest to the physicist, and their interpretation demands the application of the knowledge he has won; they interest the geologist as an explanation of, and as explained by, his ob- servations of the structure of the earth; and they interest the man of commerce or affairs by their effect on man and on commerce and industry. With these varied outlooks it seems almost impossible that any one man should write a satisfactory handbook of seismology, and recent attempts leave much to be desired in their incomplete or inaccurate treatment of one or more branches of the science. Dr. Knott has confined himself to the physics of earthquakes, a department of their study with which he is well quali- fied to deal, and of which, more than of any other, an adequate text-book was required. To a large extent the bool deals with matters con- tained in other manuals, the treatment differing only —" -_ DECEMBER 17, 1908 | in form and more than usual correctness, and fre- quently in an unusual point of view. This is parti- cularly noticeable in the chapters devoted to seismo- graphs, which are refreshing in the absence of any polemical advocacy of one pattern of instrument or depreciation of another; there is little in the way of description of particular instruments or types of seismograph, and no attention is devoted to details of mechanical construction, which may vary accord- ing to the purpose of the instrument, but instead we have an impartial statement of the principles on which their construction is based and which control their action. The dynamics of the horizontal pendulum, which have been the subject of both mathematical and experimental investigation, are treated in a manner which makes them clear to any- one able to follow the simple mathematics used in the text, but it. is unfortunate that Dr. Knott had not more mercy on those less mathematically disposed than himself, and expressed his numerical results in a form more immediately intelligible than that adopted by him. This question of the behaviour of the horizontal pendulum in response to a periodic undulatory tilting, as opposed to its response to a static tilt, is one which has an important bearing on the design of seismo- graphs; in most of these the design has been to eliminate resistance so far as possible, but there is another school which deliberately introduces a damp- ing device of sufficient power to make the pendulum dead-beat or aperiodic, and it has been claimed that this damping renders the record accurate and capable of interpretation in terms of the displacement produced by a static tilt. Dr. Knott’s figures show that this claim is unfounded. Where the period of the undula- tion is not less than three times that of the free swing of the pendulum, the amplitude of the record is within 1) per cent. of the displacement due to a static tilt of the same angle, the error being in excess in the case of the free and in defect in the case of the damped pendulum. When the period of the undulation approaches nearer to equality with that of the pendulum, the amplitude of the record increases largely in the case of the un- damped pendulum and becomes diminished in the case of the damped pendulum, but in neither type is it possible to determine the true value of the angular tilt from the amplitude of the record. From this it will be seen that the result of a complete damping of the pendular swing is a diminution of sensitiveness of the instrument, and as it is only when the period of the undulation reaches three times that of the pendulum that either form gives a record capable of approxi- mate interpretation in terms of the static tilt, there is no material difference in accuracy between the two when this limit is reached. The periodicity of earthquakes is discussed at some length, with the general result that there is little evidence of the reality of any of the periods believed to have been established. We are not only in com- plete agreement with this conclusion, but would go even further than Dr. Knott in our distrust of the utility of applying the method of harmonic analysis to the discussion of effects the causes of which do not NOLO42 NOL mac! NATURE 185 vary in a harmonic manner, and the method seems particularly inapplicable to the discussion of the effect of tide-producing stresses in the causation of earth- quakes. The amount and direction of this stress, at any given instant and place, depend on the zenith distance, not on the hour angle, of the tide-producing body, and though these vary with each other, they do not vary in any uniform proportion. In these cir- cumstances an harmonic analysis of the time of occur- rence of earthquakes seems calculated to obscure rather than elucidate any direct effect of the tide-producing force, though it might reveal a tidal effect of a different nature. For the rest the book is an adequate and clearly expressed treatment of the subject it professes to deal with. It cannot be described as easy reading, yet the difficulty lies entirely in the accuracy of its expression, and the consequent necessity for the frequent use of words unfamiliar except to the trained physicist, but anyone who is desirous of understanding, and will take the trouble to master the meaning of these un- familiar terms, will find no difficulty in following the argument. METHODS OF ACCURATE CALORIMETRY. Méthodes de Calorimétrie usitées au Laboratoire thermique de l'Université de Moscou. By Profs. W. Louguinine and A. Schukarew. Translated from the Russian by G. T. Gazarian. Pp. iii+192. (Paris: A. Hermann; Genéve: Georg et Cie., 1908.) Price 8 frances. ; HIS volume by the well-known director of the thermal laboratory at Moscow University and his chief of staff does not claim to be a compre- hensive treatise on all branches of calorimetric work, but, nevertheless, it will be welcomed as_ placing before a wider public the results of much valuable research hitherto comparatively unknown, especially in detail. Some of Prof. Louguinine’s ingenious de- vices for carrying out accurate calorimetric investiga- tions have been partly described in _ specialist treatises, but we have here complete descriptions, with full and clear working drawings, published, we believe, for the first time, except in their original Russian. In calorimetry, perhaps to a greater extent than in most branches of physics, very much of the success attained in a particular experiment depends on atten- tion to what might be considered small details. In our opinion, one of the most valuable features of the book is the large number of ‘‘ wrinkles’’ or “tips? given by the writers from their own experi- ence on just those points on which the ordinary books are silent. The first chapter is an excellent discussion of the various types of thermometers used in calorimetry. The writers point out the absurdity of adhering to the | German form of thermometer with milk-glass scale, carrying the graduations behind a thin capillary tube and enclosed in an outer sheath. Even if the milk- glass scale is fastened more or less by fusion at one or the other end of the tube, the type has many draw- backs, and would probably have been replaced long 186 NA TORE | DECEMBER 17, 1908 ago by the solid-stem type of thermometer had it not been for the fact that it is nearly impossible to make clear fine divisions on the kind of glass of which these thermometers are usually made. The sensitiveness, length of degree, size of bulb, &c., of thermometers for calorimetric purposes are dealt with in detail, the authors’ conclusions being closely in accord with the recommendations of the Bureau International des Poids et Mésures. The chapter dealing with the ‘ cooling correction ”’ is specially valuable, particularly the clearly described way of graphically applying the Regnault-Pfaundler method. In the chapter on specific-heat determination, Prof. Louguinine’s tramway calorimeter is described. De- tails are given as to the curious fact, known to most who have worked at the subject, that it is extremely difficult in any form of vapour-heated vessel to ar- range that the substance to be heated really reaches the temperature of the heating vapour employed, even if this be a vapour like steam, with a relatively enormous latent heat. A list of suitable substances for attaining various steady temperatures is also given. An interesting chapter by Prof. Schukarew deals with some modifications of the Joly calorimeter, pre- senting some obvious advantages and giving increased precision. In conclusion, we may say that the book is well got up, and the illustrations are numerous and excellent. A fault, however, is the large number of misprints and errata, many of which are not corrected in the list given at the end. It is startling to find many proper names, some those of leading authorities in the domain of heat—such as Bunsen, Velten, Cal- lendar, Plattner, Wiedemann, Walferdin, Griffiths, and Dieterici—mis-spelt time after time. J. A. Harker. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. Southern Agriculture. By F. S. Earle. Pp. vi+297. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. net. OR many years there was a noteworthy dearth of books in English dealing generally with agricultural methods in the tropics and subtropics, and affording a concise summary of our knowledge of the plants of those regions. The information, it is true, was available in published form, but scattered in handbooks and pamphlets on particular plants and subjects, or buried in the files of numerous botanical and agricultural journals, so that those not actually engaged in the subject often found considerable and at times insuperable difficulties in obtaining a good, practical account of, for example, the principal fruits or the fibre-producing plants of warm countries. To the still comparatively small series of books which supply such information, ‘‘ Southern Agricul- ture,’”’ by F. S. Earle, is the latest addition. It does not profess to cover the whole range of tropical agri- culture—which, indeed, would not be practicable in a volume of its size—but it so happens that the con- ditions in the southern States and the American pos- sessions in the West Indies are so diverse, ranging NO. 2042, VOL. 79] from normal and arid subtropical regions to the’ thoroughly tropical West Indian islands, that the book will prove of utility to a much wider circle than those immediately interested in the area with which it specifically deals. This is particularly marked in the first part of the book, entitled ‘‘ General Con- siderations.’’? Here Mr. Earle has given us the benefit of his experience in various lands, and in dealing, for instance, with such subjects as irrigation he brings out well the principles underlying practice in countries possessing very different conditions, explains how irri- gation may be of value in humid as well as in dry countries, and gives useful descriptions of the methods in vogue in various districts. Other sections in this part which should be of wide interest are those re- lating to the improvement of the soil, marketing products, farm policy and management, and plant diseases. The division of plant diseases into three general groups—environmental, functional, and diseases due to parasites—and the clear discussion of the methods of dealing with each group will serve to illustrate the successful attempt to make the work more than a mere compilation of facts. The second part, ‘‘ The Chief Southern Agricultural Crops,’”’ is somewhat unequal in its treatment, but this is apparently in the main intentional, and is correlated with the relative local importance of the plants. Sugar-cane, the cereals, pasture and forage crops, tobacco, cotton, and, in particular, the fruits, are dealt with at considerable length, an account being given, not only of their botanical identity and mode of cultivation, but also of their principal pests, both insect and fungoid. Coffee and cacao are less fully treated, the large group of vegetables are disposed of in a few pages under the name of ‘‘ Truck Crops,’’ and a few notes on forestry and domestic animals conclude the volume. The book contains the best account available, within small compass, of the agriculture of the warmer regions of North America and the West Indies, and, as already indicated, has in addition many features which will ensure it being of use also in other parts of the world. W. G. FREEMAN. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY. Qualitative Analyse vom Standpunkte der Ionenlehre. By Dr. Wilhelm Boéttger. Second, revised and greatly enlarged edition. Pp. xvi+524. (Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1908.) Price 10 marks. N the second edition of this book, which made its first appearance in 1902, the author has made very considerable additions, resulting in an approximate doubling of the original size. As the title indicates, it is written from the point of view of the theory of elec- trolytic dissociation. This fact, in itself, may be suffi- cient to condemn the book in the opinion of the chemists of the anti-ionic school, but there can be no doubt that the basis furnished by the ionic theory is the one which at present must be recognised as meeting with the approval of the great majority of scientific chemists. The arrangement of the subject-matter is such that we ee DECEMBER 17, Igo8} — — NATURE 187 the chapters dealing with general questions and those treating of special matters are separated from one another. There are five sections, of which the first deals with the fundamental conceptions and relation- ships which are of importance in connection with the scientific study of analytical chemistry. Simple experiments to illustrate the difference between strong, weak, and non-electrolytes, the influence of mass in chemical change, the changes in the properties of acids and bases on the addition of their salts, the formation of complex ions, the difference between double salts and complex salts, are described among others. In the opinion of the reviewer, these pre- liminary exercises form the very best foundation of any attempt to build up a system of instruction in analytical chemistry which is to have an educational value and provide a mental stimulus for the student. In the second section the usual instructions for the carrying out of the many operations incidental to analytical work are given. The third is devoted to characteristic reactions of cations and anions, which are arranged in the usual groups, and in the fourth section the processes of qualitative analytical separa- tion are dealt with. In the fifth, the reactions serving for the recognition of the rarer elements are grouped together, and a detachable booklet contains tables for laboratory use. The text throughout affords evidence of the author’s familiarity with the recent literature bearing upon the constitution of aqueous solutions, a knowledge of which is of essential importance for the proper interpretation of the reactions which serve as the basis of analytical work. The systematic presentation of the subject in terms of the ionic theory and the use of ionic equations may possibly present certain difficulties to the student, but the fact that greater demands are made upon the mental capacity is not without its compensations. At the same time, experience has shown that many reputed difficulties are more imaginary than real, and if, as is undoubtedly desirable, the study of ana- lytical chemistry in the universities and polytechnics is not commenced until the second year of the student’s course, Béttger’s work will no doubt be adopted by many teachers who desire to eliminate from their courses the unsatisfactory features char- acteristic of many types of so-called guides to quali- tative analysis. In the interests of English students, it is hoped that the appearance of an English translation of the second edition of the boolx will not be long delayed. H. M. D. OUR BOOK SHELF. The A.D. Infinitum Calendar. (Liverpool: Collin and Irene.) WE presume that the title of the above is intended for a sort of pun, and that the a.p. may be written as in the heading with dots, or as below when we are told that it is available for any year from a.p. 1 ad infinitum, where the ad is taken as a Latin preposi- tion. We have had many perpetual calendars brought before us, but this is perhaps the most ingeniously contrived for giving by inspection and the adding NQ. 2042, VOL: fo! together of four small numbers (none exceeding six, so that it is easily done in the head) the day of the week corresponding to any day of the year. As a specimen we may take the day on which we are writing, i.e. November 18, 1908. For the tens of centuries (19) we take out the number 5; for the number in the century (08,* marked with an asterisk because it is a leap-year) we have 3; for the month November 6; and for the 18th day of it 4. Then by adding 5+3+6+4 we obtain 18, which gives Wed- nesday in the last column for the day of the week. In the second column (for months cailed A) January and February are inserted twice, for common years or leap-years, the latter being marked with an asterisk. As the calendar stands, it will serve until the year 3099, which will do for a few generations; but the authors naively add that it can easily be extended to go on to the end of time. A caution is perhaps neces- sary owing to its being so often forgotten that the alteration of the style (on the Continent in 1582 and in England in 1752) effected a two-fold change. The mere altering the rule for observance of leap-year only necessitated a slight shift, easily allowed for in a table. But the dropping of ten days from the Julian to the Gregorian reckoning, which became eleven in the eighteenth century and is now thirteen, was a different matter. Neither the calendar before us nor any similar one can give the days of the week: cor- rectly by the Julian reckoning of the days of the month after the change of style, the days of the week agreeing, but those of the month disagreeing by a number which is not a multiple of 7. \Whor its 16; The Extra Pharmacopoeia of Martindale and West- cott. Revised by Dr. W. Harrison Martindale and W. Wynn Westcott. Thirteenth edition. Pp. xl+1164. (London: H. K. Lewis, 1908.) Price tos. 6d. net. Tuts new edition of Martindale and Westcott’s “Extra Pharmacopeeia’’ contains an enormous amount of matter in a small compass, and although 1164 pages in length, 124 pages more than the last edition, by the use of thin paper it remains a volume that can easily be carried in the pocket. In addition to the preparation of our own and of many foreign pharmacopeceias, a large number of other drugs and proprietary substances are included, together with tables of atomic weights, weights and measures, tests and solubilities. Of the supplementary matter, arsen- ical contamination receives special attention, the sec- tion on radiography has been brought up to date, ““nutrimenta ’’ are considered in a special chapter, in which the work of Fischer on the structure of the protein molecule and the new nomenclature of protein substances receive notice; and serum and vaccine therapy is fully discussed. The elements of bac- teriology, opsonins, and the determination of the opsonic index, references to cerebro-spinal meningitis, trypanosomiasis, the T'reponema pallidum of syphilis, the transmission of Mediterranean fever by goats’ mill, the use of tuberculins, Calmette’s ophthalmic reaction in tuberculosis, and organotherapy all are considered. Chapters on mineral waters, analytical memoranda, including electrical conductivity, and a therapeutic index are included. Glossaries of words and phrases likely to occur as directions in foreign prescriptions are given in several languages, and should prove very useful. The index is very full and complete, and the composition of a number of patent medicines is given. The book is emphatically one which no medical prac- titioner or pharmacist can do without, and it should find a place in the library of every laboratory, for it contains data that may be of service in almost every branch of science. IRS ARS Sip 188 The British Journal Photographic Almanac, 1999. Edited by George E. Brown. Pp. 1336. (London: Henry Greenwood and Co., 1908.) Price 1s. net. ; cloth 1s. 6d. As each year begins to draw to an end, so this very excellent friend of the photographer makes its appear- ance. While the style of the volume remains the same, the text, sandwiched in between a mass of advertise- ments, will be found most useful material for the worker. Among some of the numerous subjects dealt with may be mentioned the epitome of progress since the last issue, while the recent novelties in apparatus are full of interest. The usual tables, both chemical and optical, together with the numerous for- mulze for the principal processes, form, as usual, an important part of this publication, not forgetting the calendar, directory of photographic societies, and par- ticulars of the chief photographic associations which are not included in the above directory. ’ The frontispiece is a coloured portrait of the late Mr. Thomas R. Dallmeyer, from a painting by Sandys, the three colour blocks having been made and printed by Messrs. Hood and Co., Ltd., Middlesbrough. The great number of advertisements is quite a unique feature of this publication, and the capital indices render them easy to refer to. The volume should naturally find a place in every studio or laboratory where photography is practised. The American Annual of Photography, 1909. Vol. xxiii. Edited by John A. Tennant. Pp. xliv+328. (New York: Tennant and Ward; London: Daw- barn and Ward, Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. THE twenty-third issue of this annual is a volume which will be welcomed by all photographers. It is bristling with a great number of original articles on many subjects, most of which are admirably illus- trated. These are for the most part written in a very clear manner, and summarise in a small space the par- ticular speciality of the individual writers. Thus, Mr. A. Radclyffe Dugmore leads off with ‘‘ Camera Hunt- ing for Big Game,’’ while Mrs. H. C. Sutherland writes about ‘f Animal Photography.’’ ‘‘ The Photo- graphy of Lightning ’’ is dealt with by Mr. Howden Wilkie, with some interesting photographs, and Mr. W. J. Farthing treats of ‘‘ The Camera in Natural History Research.”’ In addition to the many articles mentioned above, the volume includes some excellent reproductions of photographs taken by well-known workers. At the end are gathered together a typical collection of formule and tables, the former being selected from the methods of practical photographers. The strong binding and general character of the book reflect great credit on the editor and his co-workers, and the volume should find a home in every photographic studio. Beitrége zur Naturdenkmalpflege. Edited by Prof. H. Conwentz. Borntraeger, 1907-8.) Ir will be remembered that Prof. H. Conwentz, editor of the above publication and Prussian Com- missioner for ‘‘ Naturdenkmalpflege,’’ delivered an ad- dress on ‘‘ The Preservation of Natural Monuments ” (NaTURE, vol. “Ixxvi., p. 556) before a joint meeting of Sections K, C, D, and E at the Leicester meeting of the British Association. In this address Prof. Conwentz explained what was meant by ‘‘ Naturdenkmialer,’’ and also the aims and objects of the Prussian State Department for their preservation. The above periodical is the official organ of the department for Naturdenkmalpflege. The first Heft is subdivided into two main parts. The first part deals with the administration of the de- NO. 2042, VOL. 79] Heft i. and ii. (Berlin : Gebriider NATURE [DECEMBER 17, 1908 partment. The second part shows the progress which has been made in the care and preservation of natural monuments. The main object of the department seems to be directed towards getting the public and private landed proprietors interested in the preservation of all things of natural interest which are in any way threatened with extinction or obliteration. Prof. Conwentz, the head of the department, has travelled over the greater part of the State, and held personal interviews with local authorities, heads of departments of public and other bodies, societies and individuals who are at all likely to be interested in the movement, and, further, a great many lectures have been given all over Germany, and, indeed, in several other countries, in order to stir up public interest in the care and preservation of natural monuments, which is probably the most potent factor of all. An appendix at the end of the Heft contains much useful information in a very concise form, showing the constitution and function of the State Department for Naturdenkmalpflege. This first number covers the year from April 1, 1906, to March 31, 1907. The demand for copies was so great that a new impression was necessary. Heft ii. of the Beitrage covers the period from April 1, 1907, to March 31, 1908. ,It is arranged on the same lines as the previous number, but shows by its size and the amount of new matter it contains that great progress has been made. Many Natur- denkmaler have been catalogued, mapped out, and placed under proper care and supervision. Details of these are given, but care is taken that localities or stations where very rare plants or animals occur are not made public, as it would no doubt defeat the object of the department to let collectors and dealers know of such places. The appendix shows what recent legislation has taken place, and gives other useful information, which appears desirable or necessary for every co-worker. The Beitrige will appear from time to time, but not at definitely stated intervals, and the size and price may also vary with each new issue. A. W. B. Die periphere Innervation; Kurze iibersichtliche Darstelliing des Ursprungs, Verlaufs und der Aus- breitung der Hirr- wnd Riickenmarksnerven. By Dr. Emil Villiger. Pp. 110. (Leipzig: W. Engel- mann, 1908.) Price 6 marks. Tne manifestations of disease are made so frequently through the nervous system that there can be no doubt of the utility of such a book as this, which seeks to give the clinician a brief and clear descrip- tion of the anatomy and physiology of nerve paths as a solid basis for diagnostic purposes. It is an elemen- tary book representing well-known facts to serve the purpose of the medical man, its main interest to British neurologists lying in the fact that it represents the modern teaching of German and Swiss medical schools. From a medical point of view the most important part of the nervous system is the sympathetic, by which the viscera are brought into close touch with the central and _peri- pheral nervous system, and by which visceral disease is so frequently reflected, but the sympathetic system is altogether excluded from Dr. Villiger’s book. The sensory nerve supply of the body wall, of the pleura and peritoneum is also omitted. The levator palate is still described as receiving its nerve supply from the facial nerve. On the other hand, the segmental nerve supply of the muscles of the body and the muscular incoordinations and disturbances which follow lesions of the central nervous system are well described. 4 7 DECEMBER 17, 1908 | LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. (The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] On the Salinity of the North Sea. Tue accompanying chart of the mean salinity of the surface of the North Sea has been constructed from. the international observations made during the years 1903-7. A similar chart has been constructed by Mr. Martin Knudsen (dealing with a somewhat shorter period), and our two charts, independently prepared, agree with and confirm one another in a very close way. The general features of the chart are extremely simple; the highest salinities are found, first, around the Shet- lands, and, secondly, in the neighbour- hood of the Straits of: Dover, and the values are somewhat higher in the former region than they are in the latter, where the connection with the waters of the ocean is more remote. The salinity falls off rapidly in the Skager Rack, and is, on the whole, low everywhere in the immediate neighbourhood of the coast. We may the more easily compre- hend and describe the form and dis- tribution of the isohalines (or curves of equal salinity) by comparing with them the case of the distribution of temperature or of potential in a bar of metal subjected to a flow of heat NATURE, 189 water from the Norwegian coast predominates greatly over that from the coast of Britain. We may follow the parallel a little further, by noticing that, just as our axis is bent within the North Sea, so it is also bent, but in the opposite direction, as it passes from the Cattegat into the Skager Rack. Accordingly, we find in this latter region a disposition of the isohalines comparable, though on a smaller scale, to that within the North Sea itself, for they are crowded together on the concave side of the bent axis, that is to say, towards the Danish coast, and comparatively widely spaced on the Norwegian; while at the same time the whole system is thrust over towards the Danish side by the greater inflow from the Swedish and Norwegian coasts, to which disposition, no doubt, in this case, the course and direction of the outflowing current from the Baltic contribute. A chart of the mean annual variation of salinity, which or of electricity. In such a bar of metal, heated at one end and cooled at the other (as in Forbes’s classical experiments), we obtain a series of isotherms running transversely to the “thermal axis,’’ and arranged in an exponential series at increasing dis- tances as we pass towards the cooler end. If, in the next place, we apply new sources of heat along the edges - of the bar, it is obvious that the result will be to bend the isotherms from straight into curved lines, concave towards the cooler end of the thermal axis. Lastly, if we substitute for the straight and elongated bar a square plate, and apply our sources of heat and cold at two of its adjacent sides, then the thermal axis will be bent into a curve, and the isotherms will be crowded together upon its con- cave, and comparatively remote from one another on its convex, side. Now, neglecting the phenomena in the Straits of Dover, which are of comparatively small magnitude, we have in the accompanying chart a series of isohaline curves which corre- spond very closely indeed with the isothermal system just described. Mean Surface Salinity of the North Sea, 1903-7. Our axis is traceable through the Cattegat and Skager | variation we can show to be, on the whole, regularly Rack, along a bent course in the middle of the North Sea, to its termination in the Atlantic eastward of Shetland; the isohalines, which are essentially transverse to this axis, are everywhere rendered convex towards the ocean by reason of the influx of fresh water from the shore, and these isohalines, while they are com- paratively widely interspaced in the southern part of the North Sea and off the east coast of Great Britain, are crowded together off the coast of Norway, that is to say, on the concave side of the axis. Furthermore, we notice that the whole system of curved isohalines is thrust over much nearer to Shetland than to Norway, firstly, I pre- sume, because it is in the neighbourhood of Shetland that | the oblique north-easterly track of the so-called Gulf Stream, with its highly saline water, lies nearest to the periodic, is found to correspond very closely in its con- tours with the chart of mean salinity, for the regions of highest salinity are subject to the least variation, and those of the lowest mean salinity to the greatest. At the mouth of the Cattegat, where the mean salinity is about 25 °/,, (or 25 grams of chlorides in a thousand parts of water), the mean annual variation is nearly 10 °/,,; at the mouth of the Skager Rack, where the mean salinity is about 31 °/4o, the mean variation is about 5 °/,,; in the middle of the North Sea, with a mean salinity of 34-75 °/,,, the mean variation is only about 0-2 °/,,; and in the region of our highest salinities off Shetland, of about 35-25 °/,,, the mean variation is less, and probably very considerably less, than o-r °/,,. A further discussion of this subject, including an account of the distribution of salinities at North Sea, and, secondly, because the inflow of fresh | various depths, and of the phases and other phenomena NO. 2042, VOL. 79] 190 connected with the periodic variation, wili presently appear in the Scottish Reports of the North Sea Investigation Committee. D’Arcy W. THompson. University College, Dundee, December 9. Reform of Zoological Nomenclature. Tue labours of the committee proposed by Mr. Boulenger at the British Association for remedying the abuses of zoological nomenclature will be enormous, even if restricted to the settlement of common generic names. To hope that they should extend to large numbers of species, or to species of the less prominent groups, is, | fear, impossible unless a more wholesale method cf dealing with the names be adopted. The necessity number of species of such groups as the Polychzta is very | pressing, since hundreds of names were given by the earlier | workers, whose limited knowledge of the group made their giving a moderately adequate description of the for extending the settlement to a large species named an impossibility or apparent superfluity. Without some such arrangement as that proposed below the nomenclature of this and other similarly placed groups will remain in a state of flux for years beyond our genera- tion, and in consequence the labours of the conscientious worker will be not so much to the advancement of know- ledge as to the weighing of all sorts of circumstantial and fragments of documentary evidence to determine what some culpably incomplete description really refers to. As a case in point see the list of synonyms for Aphrodite aculeata in MclIntosh’s ‘‘ Monograph of the British Annelids,’’ and consider the patient and learned labour spent on that compilation which might have been employed in direct scientific investigation. Then compare a cuse where the species dealt with is*not a rather isolated and very well-marked form, but one having several related species living in its vicinity, none of which have any very striking characteristic! The labour in such a case¢ is end- less, the conclusion arrived at being always liable to be upset by some purely circumstantial evidence accidentally coming to light. So far as I can see, the only way in which species names can be dealt with’ wholesale, and several thousand names be given priority, once and for all, is for the com- mittee to confine themselves to the consideration of books rather than to individual names. I should suggest that experts in the systematic literature of each group prepare short lists of the most important descriptive works. Care would be taken to include only such works as contain a good number of definitions of genera and descriptions of species, and that the descriptions should be adequate and well illustrated. The number of works in each group would not be large, but the number of species contained would be much greater than could possibly be dealt with by any committee attempting to determine the extent of usage of each name separately. The names given to species described, whether as new or not in this selec- tion of works, would be made unalterable. In case of synonymy within the list, the rule of priority would apply. To give an example, again, from the Polychaeta. I should suggest the following works to be among those the nomenclature of which should be inviolable :-— (1) Claparéde, ‘‘Annelides Polychétes du Golfe de Naples”? (but possibly not his other work on Polychzeta from near the Spanish frontier). : (2) Ehlers, ‘‘ Die Borstenwurmer,’’ works on South American collections. (3) McIntosh, ‘‘ Challenger Reports,’ vol. xii. The Challenger reports would all be reckoned authoritative, I suppose, thus securing an immense number of settled names at once. (4) McIntosh, ‘‘ Monograph of the British Annelids.” Some famous works, e.g. Kinberg’s and Grabe’s, even the latter’s ‘‘ Annulata Semperiana’’ I personally should not include, and some voluminous recent literature certainly should be omitted. I do not mean that such works should be allowed to lose any of the usefulness they have at pre- sent, but should be searched rather for their facts than their namings. My plan will certainly cause some unjust neglect of some few well-made descriptions of species, but can any , NO. 2042, VOL. 79] and several recent Pr NATORE {DECEMBER 17, 1908 beneficent and effective legislation, on any subject what- ever, be framed. to avoid all injustice to small minorities ? In comparison with the injustice which gives any easy- going name-giver authority to mar the work of the laborious describer, this is nothing. It has the advantage of substituting the authority of series of the best works for that of the committee. Cavillers may object to the most authoritative committee of living and possibly interested men, but are less able to object to this reinforcement of the authority of the most eminent workers in each group, many of whom are now beyond all personal interest in the preservation or neglect of their particular systems of nomenclature. My plan is doubtless full of difficulties, but I believe not more so than any other proposed, while the remedy goes deeper, not, as in other cases, merely touching the surface of this great hindrance to progress and order. CyriL CROSSLAND. Port Sudan, Red Sea, November 13. Mercury Bubbles and the Formation of Oxide Films by Water containing Oxygen in Solution. Tue formation of mercury air bubbles described by Mr. Wright, Sir William Crookes, Mr. Hare, and Prof. Dixon seems to be a different phenomenon from that described by the late Prof. P. G. Tait in his ‘* Properties of Matter ’” (1899, p. 257) in the following passage :— ““ Even so dense a liquid as mercury can be formed into a bubble. We have merely to shake a glass bottle filled with water and clean mercury. The bubbles which form on the mercury (often detached) are full of water. Some- times we see others coming up from the interior of the mercury. These are water-skins full of mercury.” I have repeated Tait’s experiment, using a 250 c.c- bottle containing about 50 c.c. of mercury and filled quite full of water. A short, vigorous shaking fills the bottle with a foam of mercury bubbles, which quickly subsides, leaving some isolated bubbles, which also quickly sink to the bottom and disappear in the mass of mercury. The bubbles formed in this way are therefore mercury water bubbles, not mercury air bubbles. The addition of sulphuric acid to the water stops the formation of bubbles ; the shaking then breaks up the mercury into minute solid globules. During the experiment an observation was made which, while it does not bear directly on the formation of mercury bubbles, is perhaps of some interest. It was found, when water which had not been freed from dissolved gases was used, that the liquid set free by the bursting of the bubbles had a smoke-brown colour by transmitted light. As the foam subsides into the mercury below, this brown cloud is left floating over the surface of the mercury. The cloud left by the bursting of single bubbles can sometimes be observed floating in the upper part of the liquid. With water that has been freed from dissolved gases by boiling this appearance does not occur. The browned water, after standing for a few minutes, was decanted into a clean vessel, and was watched for about an hour. During this time no deposit settled from the liquid. A drop of the liquid was then examined under the microscope with illumination by an intense oblique beam of reflected light, and also by transmitted light with a high-power objective. Two kinds of particles were pre- sent, minute globules of mercury measuring from 2000 to 6000 wp, and shreds and spicules of oxide film. The latter, which are only visible under the oblique beam, are in constant pedetic movement. They are not spherical aggregates, but minute plates, which appear and disappear as they turn and twist in the unidirectional beam of light. The oxide film which forms on the stretched mercury surfaces has, no doubt, the same microstructure as I have found alike in solid and in liquid films—a kind of lenticular granulation due to surface tension. The sudden collapse of the mercury film sheds the oxide film, and causes it to break up into minute lens-like plates or spicules, which are in pedetic movement. In some cases these plates form aggregates of considerable size round the minute mercury globules. These aggregates are sufficiently massive to be visible by transmitted light. G. T. Berry. Glasgow, December 12. DECEMBER 17, 1908] NATURE 191 THE STUDY OF STELLAR EVOLUTION.1 WE are becoming so accustomed to fresh proofs of Prof. Hale’s versatility and thoroughness that the appearance of this volume hardly strikes us as being so remarkable as it would have done had another written it, but even this fact cannot detract from the feelings of wonder and admiration which are forced upon us as we peruse the contents. It should be noted that this work is not a study, but is an account of the study, of stellar evolution, telling us of the methods and apparatus applied in at- tacking the various problems, and how far such means have already been successful. It was at first intended as a handbook to the Yerkes Observatory, but the re- moval of the author to the new solar observatory at Mount Wilson, with its new equipment and newer methods, rendered it advisable that the scope of the work should be widened. Prof. Hale looks upon the evolution of stellar systems, not as an entity, but as a part of the general scheme of evolution which began with the Beginning and at present ends in the social systems which govern man, and it is in this philosophical spirit that he introduces his subject in the first chapter. The great differences between the old and the new astronomy are then pointed out, with reference to the changes introduced by the application of photography to the study of astronomy, and the consequent importance of the methods of reduction which have to be applied to the photographic results. The sun is then discussed as a typical star, and Prof. Hale answers a question which is continually being asked by persons who are not thoroughly familiar with solar work. Why at a solar ob- servatory, such as Mount Wilson, are time and oppor- tunities spent in studying stars and other masses outside the solar system? Why pay attention to those far-away systems which can never, within compre- hensible time, exert any influence on terrestrial con- ditions? The author expunges all doubt in his reply to these questions. Just as the biologist, by studying the lower forms of life, discovers the laws which re- gulate the life and being of man, so must the solar physicist appeal to those other stars, of earlier and later birth, in order to comprehend solar phenomena. Those who heard Prof. Hale’s evening lecture at the Royal Astronomical Society in 1905 will recognise the sentiment of the succeeding chapters, in which, while describing various instruments, he insists upon the useful work that may be accomplished with very modest equipments, and shows that, if the werker only gives earnest consideration to the choice of a de- finite research, he may find that his smaller instru- ments will prove equally efficient with the larger ones. Among the beautiful full-page illustrations at the end of the volume there are a number illustrating this point. Chapters dealing with the reflecting telescope and the principles of spectrum analysis, in which the work of Herschel, Fraunhofer, Kirchhoff, Huggins, Secchi, Lockyer, Janssen, and others is briefly described, bring the history of these subjects up to date, and lead to a description of grating spectroscopes, their history and manufacture. In this regard it is gratifying to be as- sured that Michelson has completed a ruling-machine, with an almost perfect screw, designed to rule 14-inch gratings, and has already completed gratings of ten and twelve inches. By constructing a machine with 1 “The Study of Stellar Evolution ; an Account of Some Recent Method of Astrophysical Research.’ By Prof. George Ellery Hale. (The Decennia: Publications, second series, vol. x.) Pp. xi+-252 3 with rog plates. (Chicago The University of Chicago Press; London: Wm. Wesl-y and Son, 1908.) Price 165. 6d. net. “ Populare Astrophysik.” By Dr. J. Scheiner. Pp. vi+718 ; 30 plates. Leipzig and Berlin: B. G. Teubner, 7928.) Price 12 marks. NO. 2042, VOL. 79] four screws he further hopes to reduce the ruling errors to one-fourth the amount produced in a single-screw machine. After discussing the phenomena of the sun’s sur- face and surroundings, and the historical discoveries concerning them, the author proceeds to a description of the evolution of the photo-spectroheliograph, in which he has played so great a part. He also»em- phasises the point that the explanation of the results offered in this chapter is merely an hypothesis which future researches may modify, and refers to the anomalous-dispersion explanation of Julius as one of the possible alternatives. The perusal of chapter xii. leaves us with the ardent desire that British authorities and capitalists would see eye-to-eye with their American confréres as to the fundamental necessity of fostering scientific work, for Prof. Hale here describes the foundation, equip- ment and work of the Yerkes Observatory. Here, as in other parts of the book, the author strongly in- sists upon the necessity for an equipment capable of undertaking the concurrent study of the correlated solar, stellar, and terrestrial phenomena. Notwithstanding the dictum of Newton and the ex- periments of Piazzi Smith and others, the question of the advantage of high altitudes for solar worl: has only become acute during the last decade or so, and no one is much better qualified than Prof. Hale to discuss this question. It is therefore with interest that we read the chapter dealing with this subject, in which he shows conclusively that altitude alone is not necessarily ad- vantageous. Many of the higher peaks surrounding Mount Wilson have been proved to be unsuitable for solar work, whilst the author’s experiences of Mount Etna, in July, 1894, were not of the kind calculated to make him regard it as an ideal site from which to attempt the photography of the corona without wait- ing for a total eclipse. Mount Hamilton, notwith- standing its glorious night “‘ seeing,’’ is said to be unsuitable for solar work on account of the atmo- spheric movements, adverse to good solar definition, set up by the intensely heated, bare rock which forms the slopes immediately surrounding the summit. In chapter xiv. Prof. Hale describes the Mount Wilson site, and, from his experience there, defines five specific requirements for a site to be suitable for the prosecu- tion of solar research and its necessary adjunct, the study of stellar evolution. After describing the Snow telescope and discussing the uses of spectroheliograph plates, the author proceeds to the study of sun-spots, and in this chapter we find one of the strongest argu- ments possible for the inclusion in a solar physics observatory equipment of the apparatus necessary for the correlated study of terrestrial spectroscopy and similar work. Prof. Hale, has just previously described the numerous pieces of apparatus fitted up, ready for instant use, in the spectroscopic laboratory, and, speak- ing of the powerful magnet used to produce the Zeeman effect, he says :—‘‘ It is not a question here of detecting magnetic phenomena in the stn, since most careful study has not revealed any evidence of solar magnetic fields capable of affecting the appear- ance of spectral lines.’? Yet quite recently, since the above statement was penned, he has published results (Nature, August 20, No. 2025, p. 369) which strongly suggest that the Zeeman effect, or something which produces similar phenomena, is en évidence in the sun-spot spectrum ! A chapter on stellar temperatures follows, and in describing the apparatus which has been used in the attempts to measure the stellar heat radiation directly, the author gives some interesting data illustrating the extreme delicacy of the apparatus with which Nichols, working at the Yerkes Observatory in 1898 and 1g00, 192 was able to detect the heat radiations received from Arcturus and Vega. The former was found to send us heat equivalent to that given by a candle about six miles away, if there were no absorption by the atmosphere, and Vega less than half that amount. Following a chapter devoted to the nebular hypo- thesis we find a discourse on stellar development, and some interesting points are made concerning the various stellar classifications in the light of recent re- search. For example, Lockyer’s temperature classi- fication has been criticised on the ground that the ob- served changes of intensity of stellar lines might be produced by an indeterminate combination of electrical and temperature action. ‘This has been recognised and reiterated by the author of the classification, who accepts the changes, whatever be their cause, as a basis on which a working hypothesis might be erected. But now we find Prof. Hale writing to the effect that the results obtained in the Mount Wilson laboratory imitation of sun-spot phenomena ‘‘ seem to favour the view that a temperature classification of the stars, oa the basis of the relative intensities of lines, is per- fectly possible.”’ In these experiments all electrical phenomena were excluded, but the above statement is not made unreservedly, as shown in the subsequent discussion of the meteoritic hypothesis: The work with the new 60-inch reflector at Mount Wilson, it is hoped, will provide a great deal of information respecting the fainter stars which has hitherto not been obtained. In dealing with the meteoritic and planetesimal hypotheses, Prof. Hale directs special attention to the outstanding uncertainties respecting the transitional stage, nebula to star, and urges the importance of directing special attention to nebulze by obtaining photographs of their structures and spectra; this re- search can only prove fruitful if the persistent prosecu- tion of correlated laboratory experiments is carried out concurrently. Discussing the question of the variation of the heat received from the sun, the author points out how small an amount of definite measurement has yet been undertaken, and urges that other observatories, in other regions of the earth, should cooperate in the bolographic work. Kodaikanal, where the dry season corresponds with the wet season in South California, and an Australian station are suggested as localities in which the ob- servations might be profitably inaugurated. The importance of active cooperation between solar and meteorological observers, such as has of late years been instituted by the International Commission, is also emphasised. The concluding three chapters (xXiii.—xxv.) are essentially of general interest. In the first the author describes at some length the making of the 60-inch reflector by Ritchey in the Mount Wilson workshops (Pasadena), and illustrations of the process are to be found among the plates. Then some possibilities of new instruments, e.g. the too-inch reflector now under construction, are reviewed, and in the final chapter warm encouragement is given to the amateur observer. This embodies a series of hints on fitting up instruments, and, coming from a master who com- menced his far-reaching studies with home-made in- struments, they should be especially welcome, as they are essentially practical. The printing and general get-up of the volume are of the high order one is accustomed to expect from the Chicago University Press, and the 104 full-page reproductions of actual photographs, which are bound up at the end, form by far the finest collection of general astronomical pictures ever yet published in a single volume. NO. 2042, VOL. 79| NATURE [DECEMBER 17, 1908 In Prof. Scheiner’s book we have a more conven- tional treatment of the subject of astrophysics, in which, in two parts, the whole subject is discussed under the customary headings and in popular termin- ology. Thus in the first section of part i. we find simple explanations of the fundamental principles underlying the methods employed, such as those of refraction, reflection, polarisation and dispersion of light, and the capacity and psychophysiological action of the eye considered as the final instrument on which the interpretation of all the phenomena depends to so large an extent. In the following section the specific instruments are described, and the construction and adjustments of the spectroscope are expounded at length. The de- termination of absolute wave-lengths introduces us to the principles underlying the employment of the grating, and to the work of Kirchhoff, Doppler, Zeeman, and other pioneers in spectroscopic research. The discussion of the spectra of elements is inter- polated with data, such as the relationships of the spectra to the element’s position in the periodic system, which should prove valuable for reference. Photometry forms the subject of section iv., and the student should find helpful the descriptions and illustrations of the various instruments, and the dis- cussion of the psychophysical actions which have to be accounted for in performing the reductions. The uncertainty which still attaches to the results obtained from attempts to measure the solar heat radiations is discussed in a brief chapter, and is well illustrated by - a tabulated statement of the values derived for the solar constant by the various observers from Pouillet in 1837 to the author in 1902; the values range from 1.7 to 3-4 gr. cals., the lowest having been obtained by Vallot in 1896, and the highest by Crova and Tlansky in 1897. The four chapters which bring the first part of the book to a conclusion deal with the application of photo- graphy to astronomical worl, and so much has already been written about the subject that there is but little new matter for the author to expound; but the instru- ments are clearly described and their various func- tions explained, the matter in the text being well illus- trated by figures. In eleven chapters (xviii.—xxviii.), the second part of the book deals with the results obtained from the em- ployment of the instruments and methods previously described. The various solar phenomena, the surface appearance and physical characteristics of the moon and planets, and the results obtained from observa- tions of comets and the zodiacal light are expounded at some length, and are illustrated by drawings and photographs in the text. These figures are generally good, but it is a pity that the drawings of several features, such as the Martian surface and the in- tensified lines of sun-spot spectra, could not have been supplemented by some of the excellent photographs now obtainable. Chapter xxiii. deals with the subject of nebulz, and includes a useful table of nearly eighty N.G.C. nebula which have been shown certainly to be gaseous; the equatorial coordinates of these objects for 1900 are given, and a striking feature of the list is the great preponderance of planetary nebulz. In the description of the physical characters, the distances, motions and extent of these gaseous masses, various tables of data are interpolated, and should facilitate references to the subject. One of exceptional interest is that in which the determined radial-velocities of thirteen nebulae are shown. Taking mean values, we see that the extremes of approach and recession are —65 and +44 km. per sec., the values obtained for N.G.C. 6543 and 6790 respectively. DECEMBER 17, 1908 | The fixed stars and their spectra and variations are next considered, and the various proposals concerning their classification are discussed; but here we cannot but express regret at the lack of scientific spirit which permeates some of the passages. For example, in de- scribing the classifications, presumably to students and general readers, we find the author stating that the classification proposed by Lockyer, having as a funda- mental feature the evolution of the heavenly bodies, is, in his opinion, based on such uncertain premises that he neglects entirely any further reference to its foundation and characteristics. Surely a classification which yet remains to be proved inadequate in the ex- planation of observed phenomena, and which explains so many of the problems of stellar evolution so simply, should not be so summarily dismissed from what is, presumably, intended as a standard work on the sub- ject. How different is Hale’s attitude mentioned above. There, whilst making the reservations which he thinks necessary, he discusses the matter in relation to the most recent work, and shows that one, at least, of the fundamental points in the temperature classifi- cation is capable of experimental demonstration. The remainder of the book is devoted to the dis- cussion of radial velocities, nove, the changes pro- duced in spectra by variation of the conditions under which the light-source is produced, the several types of stars showing extraordinary spectra, and variable stars. In conclusion, there is a chapter (xxviii.) in which the results obtained from celestial photography are discussed, special attention being paid to the photographs of nebulae and of the Milky Way. The volume is illustrated by thirty full-page repro- ductions of photographs and two hundred and ten figures in the text, and should afford German readers a good general view of the study of astrophysics. WituiAm E, Rotston. PEKING TO MANDALAY. Tee great development of the facilities for travel in the interior of China that has taken place in recent years is strikingly brought home to us by the narrative of Mr. Johnston, the magistrate of our little port of Weihaiwei, in North China. Since the days of Marco Polo, who himself travelled from the old capital of China to that of Burma, many European travellers, for instance, Baber, Colquhoun, Gill, and Morrison, haye passed through much the same localities and mainly by the same route, but none, perhaps, have traversed the greater part of the ground more swiftly than Mr. Johnston. Leaving Peking on January 13, 1906, by the great new inland railway, built by French and Belgian engineers since the Boxer occupation of Peking in 1900-1, he reached Hankow, on the Yangtse, on January 16, a distance of 759 miles, and the journey could have been done in half the time but for the train running only in the daytime, halting over- night and resuming its journey in the morning. From Hankow, shallow-draught steamers owned by British, Chinese, and Japanese companies proceed up the Yangtse thrice weekly to Ichang, at the entrance to the great gorges of the Upper Yangtse, described by Little and others, a thousand miles from the mouth of that river and in the very heart of China. In one of the Japanese steamers our author made this journey in three or four days from Hankow; and ten days more by “red boat’? took him 200 miles through the gorges and up the rapids to Wan-hsien, in the rich province of Ssuch’uan beyond 1 “From Peking to Mandalay: A Journey from North China to Burma through Tibetan Ssuch’uan and Yunnan.” By R. F. Johnston. Pp. xii+ 460; with Maps and Illustrations. (London: John Murray, 1908.) Price 155. net. NO. 2042, VOL. 79] NA TORE 193 the gorges. Here Mr. Johnston proceeded inland to Tachien-lu, visiting by the way the sacred Mount Omei, to the previous descriptions of which by Baber,? Little,* and others he adds something, though unfor- tunately he gives no photographs or sketches of the contour of the mountain. Mount Omei, which the legends associate with the mythical progenitors of the Chinese race, Fu Hsi and Nu Wo, ascribed to the twenty-ninth century B.c., and who have their caves here, early became a centre of the Buddhists. A temple to Buddha is alleged to have been erected here in the reign of Ming Ti (58-75 a.p.), under whom Buddhism is supposed to have been intro- duced into China. A remarkable feature of this mountain, and one which has evidently contributed to its sacred repute, is the phenomenon of the anthelia locally known as the ‘‘ Glory of Buddha.’? From the summit of the mountain the awe-struck pilgrim, standing on the edge of a tremendous precipice, which Baber describes as probably the highest in the world, sees, under favourable atmospheric conditions, several thousand feet below him, floating on a bank of cloud, this beautiful iridescent halo in all the bril- liant prismatic colours of the rainbow. It is of the same kind as the spectre of the Brocken, and is to be seen under similar conditions in other parts of the Alps and in the Himalayas. The necessary conditions are said on hearsay by our author, who himself was not so fortunate as to see the spectacle, to be a fairly clear sky and a bank of cloud below; but he omits an equally essential condition, namely, that the sun must be on the opposite side of the spectator to the bank of cloud. From Mount Omei Mr. Johnston passed to Tachien-lu, the well-known mart and missionary station in western China, and thence down through the wild border country to Burma. The first part of this route lay to the east of the usual track, and led for about a month’s march down the valley of the Nya Rong or ‘‘ Yalung”’ river to Li-chiang by a road ‘‘ evidently about the same” as that traversed by M. Bonin in 1895,° and by the missionary, Mr. E. Amundsen, in 1898,* and crossed by Major H. R. Davies in his exploratory survey of western China. This district and its interesting wild tribes, the Lolo or Man-tzu, and others, are so comparatively unknown that we regret to find so little new about them in this book. The author tells us that his journey ‘‘ was not undertaken in the special interests of geographical or other science,’’ but to gratify a desire for travel and to acquire some knowledge of the various wild tribes. He gives us, however, little fresh information about the tribes, not even photographs of them that are of any use for ethnological purposes. Indeed, the want of new and more precise observation is the chief defect of the book, and for a travel- book there is far too frequent a tendency to theorise and to inflate the text with discursive and speculative views on the general tenets of Buddhism and on commonplace topics of that religion taken from the well-known works of European writers. So again, when he devotes about ten pages to Mr. Kingsmiull’s extravagant theory which ascribes to the barbarous Man-tzu tribes of China a descent from ‘the stock of the Maurya family of north-western India,”’ we think that Mr. Johnston takes too seriously the legends fabricated by Buddhist priests in the countries outside India in order to affiliate themselves to the family of Asoka, the great Buddhist emperor of India. Considerable space, totalling about three pages, is taken up by the introduction of Chinese 1 “Supplementary Papers,”’ Roy. Geog. Soc., vol. i. 2 3 ” By A. Little. 2 ** Mount Omi and Bey % Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog., 1898, pp. 389 ef seg. 4 Geog. Jour., June and November, 1¢00. 194 NATG TOE [ DecEMBER 17, 1908 tvne in footnotes for common names which are already transliterated into English in the text. We have seen the Tibetan cryptic spell written in a variety of ways in travellers’ narratives, but we do not re- member to have seen it rendered ‘‘Om mane padme hom,’’ as it repeatedly appears here. On the other hand, Mr. Johnston tells the story of his journeyings pleasantly and effectively, and with much literary skill; and he gives in appendices three pages of valuable vocabularies in the dialects of five tribes (Yung-ning Liso, Yung-ning Moso, Muli [Njong], Pa-u-rong Hsi- fan, and Pa-u-rong Lolo); also some statistical and fiscal information translated at first hand from the official records of Mount Omei and the Ssuch’uan pro- vincial chronicles. He is a believer in the reality of the ‘‘ Yellow Peril,’’ and picturesquely supports the tragic con- jecture that the Western peoples some day may be crushed out of existence and their yellow doom of the conqueror in this fight is that he must never sheath his sword. New challengers are ever pressing into the lists, and the challenged must ever go armed and with lance in rest.’’ EVA We INTERNATIONAL PHYSICS. ECENT work at the Bureau international des Poids et Mesures is described in the volumes referred to below.‘ The volumes, like their prede- cessors, are full of interest to the physicist concerned with exact measurements, and are a monument to the services rendered to science by the International Committee of Weights and Measures and the director and staff of the well-known institution at Sévres. Though twenty-two nations participate in the work of the committee, the total budget of the institution is limited by statute to 4goool. a year. This sum is made up by contributions by the different nations on Crossing the Yalung River. successors scarcely regret their disappearance any more than we ourselves regret the extinction of the dinotherium or the ichthvosaurus. ‘‘ Why indeed should they?’ he ‘““When we consider how seldom the memory even of our own dead ancestors touches our sympathies or prompts an affectionate asks. thought, it will not seem strange that in days to come the victorious Yellow. man may regard the extinct White man with no more emotion than the visitor to a museum now regards the wire-linked bones of a prehistoric monster. No creature that is doomed to failure in the struggle for existence need look to the conquerors for the least sign of pity or sympathy. No less cheerfully warbles the thrush because the great aulx will flap his ineffectual wings no more. Even the crocodile refrains from shedding tears over the fossil remains of the Triassic stagonolepis. It behoves us to remember that victory in the struggle for existence is not a victory once and for all. The NO. 2042, VOL. 79] From ‘‘ From Peking to Mandalay.’ a scale based on their respective populations, the latter being multiplied in each case by an appropriate factor, I, 2, Or 3, according as the metric system is not employed, is permissive, or is obligatory. The United Kingdom recently passed from Class (1) to Class (2), and, paying only on the population of the mother country, contributed, in 1907, 6339 francs, or about one-sixteenth of the total sum required. After some interesting correspondence between the International Committee and the British Government on the question of the representation of the colonies | belonging to this country, Canada has just entered the convention as an autonomous nation having its own delegate. At the present time Great Britain is in the happy 1 “ Procés-verbaux des Séances du Comité international des Poids et " Deuxiéme Série. Tome iv. ux et Mémoires du Bureau international des Poids et Mesures.” (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1907.) Tome > DECEMBER 17, 1908] position of being the only nation having two repre- sentatives on the committee. The circumstances lead- ing to this are detailed in the ‘‘ Procés-verbaux.”’ The two members are Major MacMahon, F.R.S., and Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. One of the most important pieces of work recently completed at the bureau is the new study of the rela- tion between the metre and the wave-length of the red cadmium line. The classic research of Messrs. Michelson and Benoit fifteen years ago laid the foundation of a whole system of independent controls on the invariability of the prototype. Although the maximum divergence of the three independent deter- minations made was only one micron (0-001 mm.), and the probable error of the mean considerably less, vet it was felt desirable to repeat the work with the highest possible refinements. This has been done by Messrs. Benoit, Perot, and Fabry, employing a totally different type of interference fringes from those used in the earlier work. By this change and by the use of ‘‘invar,’’ the laborious ‘“‘ build-up ’’ pro- cess of the older method has been greatly shortened, and the precision of the measurements much enhanced. The results may be stated as follows after all cor- rections have been applied :— Mean of older determinations, I metre=1f 553 164°03A, Or Anp=0u"643 847 00 New determinations, I metre=I 553 164°13Ax or Ax=On°643 846 96 the measurements being made in dry air at 15° and under 760 mm. pressure. Among many other. matters of interest in the “ Proces-verbaux ’’ is an appreciation of the spectro- scopist Thalen, formerly the representative of Sweden on the International Committee, written by his suc- cessor, M.. Hasselberg. After the application of certain corrections, the author shows that the agree- ment of Thalen’s measurements of the wave-lengths of the three principal cadmium rays with those of Michelson is extraordinarily close. Rowland’s values are higher in each case by about one part in fifty thousand. An appendix deals with the behaviour of nickel steel standards of length. According to the latest investigations, a metre bar of the alloy invar, an- nealed in the usual way at 40° C. for many hours, grows after this treatment, at first somewhat rapidly for work of the highest precision—a micron in 100 days—and afterwards at a diminishing rate.’ A curve is given showing that a bar which has been under observation for 4o00 days has not yet quite ceased to change. During the whole period, however, its change is less than fifteen microns. There is no need to emphasise the enormous utility of invar for many purposes, though this phenomenon would appear to render it less suitable for absolute standards than Was once supposed. Passing now to the volume of the “‘ Travaux et Mémoires,’’ we find the papers included in it are six in number. Three of these relate to work done some time ago by Dr. Chappuis before his departure from Sévres, the first being an account of further studies on the gas thermometer. This is followed by full descriptions of his now classic researches on the dilatation of water and of mercury. The first paper, of sixty-six pages, deals with a repetition of the well- kknown experiments which led to the adoption of the hydrogen scale as the recognised international standard of temperature over ordinary ranges. Using both the original large reservoir of platinum-iridium and one of hard glass, values were obtained for the coefficient of expansion of hydrogen under one metre NO. 2042, VOL. 79] INGA TOMI 2 HOS) initial pressure and at constant volume, substantially identical with those found earlier. No perceptible difference of ‘‘ march’’ was found between the con- stant-volume and constant-pressure hydrogen scales between 0° and 100°. Many data are also given for nitrogen and carbonic acid. An elaborate paper by M. Daniel Berthelot dis- cusses the theory of the gas thermometer and the thermodynamic scale. It is proposed to deal with this paper in a later article on thermometry. Other papers full of great practical interest deal with the general methods of standardisation of divided scales and of boxes of weights. These give, in a summarised form, all the results of the unrivalled experience of Messrs. Benoit and Guillaume and the Sévres laboratory on these points. The remarks of Dr. Benoit in the early pages of his paper on the standardisation of weights should be studied by every constructor of weights of precision. NOTES. Sir James Dewar, F.R.S., has been elected an honorary member of the German Chemical Society. Dr. F. W. Pavy, F.R.S., consulting physician to Guy’s Hospital, has been awarded the Godard prize of 1000 francs by the Paris Academy of Medicine, for his works on carbohydrates and diabetes. Tue death is announced, at fifty-one years of age, of Dr. Giuseppe Ciscato, professor of theoretical geodesy in the University of Padua. A speciaL. general meeting of the Geological - Society will be held on Wednesday, February ‘10, 1909, in order to consider the result of the vote of the fellows on the question of the admission of women into the society. We learn from Science that Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., will give the annual. address before the Entomological Society of America at its Baltimore meeting on December 31. The title of the address will be ‘‘ Mimicry in the Butterflies of North America.” Dr. H. Brereton. Baker; F.R.S., Lee’s reader in chemistry in the University of Oxford, will deliver the Wilde lecture of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society on March 9, the subject being ‘‘ The Influence of Moisture on the Combination of Gases.’’ Tue Broca prize of 1500 francs for 1908 has _ been awarded by the Anthropological Society of Paris to Dr. Paul Rivet. The prize was founded in 1881 by Madame Paul Broca, and is awarded for the best memoir on human anatomy, comparative anatomy, or physiology in relation to anthropology. The next award will be made in 1910. A MOVEMENT, supported by the Linnean Society of New South Wales, is on foot to approach the Australian Govern- ment with the object of having Barrow Island, sixty miles off the north-west coast, set apart as a fauna reserve. The island, which is remarkable for its kangaroo, bandi- coot, rat, and wren, none of which occurs on the main- land, is likely to be leased for sheep-farming, to the detri- ment of the fauna. The wise policy of the Crown’s reten- tion of islands as sanctuaries for wild life is being amply justified by the experiences of New Zealand and the United States, and the Barrow Island fauna is worth effort to save. Tue Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia has appointed Dr. A. E. Brown as its delegate to the Uni- versity of Cambridge Darwin memorial celebration. 196 According to Science, although Darwin became a member of the Dresden Academy in 1857, before the publication cof the ‘*‘ Origin of Species,’”’ it is probable that to the Philadelphia Academy belongs the honour of having been the first foreign society to accord his great work official recognition. He was elected a correspondent on March 27, 1860. To his election Darwin refers appreciatively in a letter to Lyell dated May 8 of that year. Mr. RooseEvett will be accompanied on his African ex- pedition by Messrs. Edgar A. Mearns, Edmund Heller, and J. Alden Loring. Mr. Mearns is an army surgeon, who has written an account of the ‘‘ Mammals of the Mexican Boundary of the United States,’’ as well as numerous papers on zoology and botany. He is the founder of the American Ornithologists’ Union. Mr. Heller is a zoologist, formerly on the staff of the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago. He has had some ex- perience of African travel, having been a member of Mr. Carl E. Akeley’s exploring party in 1905. Mr. Loring is an authority on the smaller mammals, and is well known in America as a collector. Tue Carnegie Institution has made arrangements for what should prove to be important work in the develop- ment of magnetic science. According to a Central News message from New York, a vessel is being built under the auspices of the institution every portion of which is to be absolutely non-magnetic, even the anchors’ being made of bronze. The ship is to be used for the purpose of studying magnetic conditions in all parts of the world. With funds provided from the same source, Dr. Thomson and Prof. Beattie are, a special correspondent of the Times reports, engaging in a Cape-to-Cairo trek with the view of extending the magnetic survey through Africa, on which they have been at work for some ten years, some- times at their own expense and sometimes assisted by colonial Governments. EviIpENces of the growing interest in aéronautics among men of science and others of all nationalities continue to be forthcoming. The Aéronautical Society of Great Britain has just acquired an experimental ground near Dagen- ham Station, which is about half a mile long and the same distance in width. It includes certain mounds about 50 feet high, which will be useful for testing models. It is expected that the ground will be opened at an early date, and that it will be provided, as soon as funds are available, with a completely equipped scientific establish- ment. The Paris correspondent of the Globe reports that a proposal is to be made in the Chamber of Deputies ask- ing the French Government to arrange an international aéronautical exhibition for 1910, and the United States Secretary of War in his annual report just presented to ‘Congress asks for 100,0o0ol. for army aéronautics. It will be remembered that last session a grant of 40,0001. was sought unsuccessfully by the Congress War Department. THE committee of the Research Defence Society has circulated a report dealing with the work accomplished by the society since January last, the month in which it was founded. There are now 1650 members, of whom 160 are ladies. Rules for the society have been approved by the committee, and will be submitted in due course to a general meeting. Branches have been formed, or are being formed, at Birmingham, Bournemouth, Cambridge University, Clifton, Dublin, Edinburgh, Leeds, Liverpool, Manchester, Oxford, and Torquay. Eleven pamphlets of an explanatory kind have already been issued by the com- mittee, and about 500 bound sets of these have been sent to public free libraries and to the libraries of certain NO. 2042, VOL. 79] NATURE [ DECEMBER 17, 1908 scientific and educational institutions. Representatives of the society have spoken at several debates, in London and in the provinces, on the subject of experiments on animals. The report points out that the society will be glad to assist any person who wishes to lecture on the results that have been obtained by the help of research in the prevention and treatment of disease. TuE construction of a new tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe, for wheeled traffic and foot passengers, was described in a paper read by Mr. E. H. Tabor before the Institution of Civil Engineers on December 8. The tunnel is 30 feet in diameter, 3 feet more than the Blackwall Tunnel, which it resembles in many ways. It is longer, however, owing to the docks on each side of the river making an oblique crossing necessary. The approaches include about 1000 feet of tunnel, curved to a radius of S00 feet, and special machinery was necessary for facing the cast-iron segments used in the lining of this part. In order to find the nature of the strata as the work pro- gressed, a pilot tunnel was driven in advance of the main one by aid of a shield fitted with a rotary excavator. The work has been carried to a successful issue in four years, or in eighteen months less than was allowed for it, and the actual cost of about one million pounds is some- what less than the original estimate. Tue Times correspondent at Stockholm states that the Nobel prizes awarded for the year by the Swedish academies were distributed on December 10 with the usual ceremonies and commemorative speeches. The award to Prof. Rutherford (chemistry) was made on account of his researches in radio-activity; to Prof. Lippmann (physics), for discoveries in connection with colour-photography ; to Prof. Metchnikoff and Paul Ehrlich (medicine), for their researches in the subject of natural and acquired immunity ; and to Prof. Rudolph Eucken (literature), for his philo~ sophical works. All the prize-winners, except Prof. Metch- nikoff, who was prevented from attending, were. present to receive their prizes, consisting of a medal, diploma, and a cheque for 768ol., at the hands of the King. Prof. Metchnikoff’s prize was handed, on his behalf, to the Russian Minister, Baron Budberg. As already announced, the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science will meet in Brisbane on January 11 next. The association will come of age next year, and the meeting will inaugurate the jubilee year of Queensland, the history of which as a separate State dates from 1859. The new president of the association is Prof. W. H. Bragg, of Adelaide, while the sectional presi- dents are Prof. Pollock, of Sydney (astronomy, mathe- matics, and physics); Prof. Easterfield, of Wellington, N.Z. (chemistry) ; Prof. Skeats, of Melbourne (geology and mineralogy); Mr. Charles Hedley, of Sydney (biology) ; Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, of Sydney (geography); Mr. A. G. Hamilton, of Wellington, N.Z. (ethnology and anthro- pology); Mr. G. H. Knibbs, of Melbourne (social and statistical science); Mr. H. W. Potts, of the Hawkesbury College (agriculture); Prof. R. W. Chapman, of Adelaide (engineering and architecture); Dr. J. Mason, of Welling- ton, N.Z. (sanitary science and hygiene); Mr. Peter Board, of Sydney (mental science and education). The acting permanent secretary, Mr. J. H. Maiden, can be addressed at the office of the association, Royal Society’s House, Sydney, and will be glad to give further particulars and to enrol members for New South Wales. THE new radio-telegraph station, which has been erected for the Post Office at Bolt Head, South Devon, as stated in Nature of December 10 (p. 166), was opened by Mr. ‘ ¢ rw DECEMBER 17, 1908] Sydney Buxton, the Postmaster-General, on December 11. The station will be available for communication with all ships fitted with wireless telegraphy, whatever their nationality and whatever the particular system of radio- telegraphy with which they may be equipped. It will be worked in accordance with the provisions of the Inter- national Radio-telegraphic Convention, which was ratified by his Majesty’s Government in June last, and came into operation on July 1. The great majority of the liners which call at ports in the English Channel can be com- municated with through the station. It will also be avail- able for transmitting, to and from ships, messages originating at or destined for places abroad. The range of the station is 250 miles, but for the most part the station will probably not have occasion to exchange messages with ships beyond 100 miles. The station will also be used for communication with the Channel Islands if there is any interruption in the telegraph cable between England and the islands. In the course of an address at the open- ing of the station, Mr. Buxton pointed out that the primary use of wireless telegraphy is for communication from ship to shore and from shore to ship. He added that the cost of wireless stations for shore-to-shore com- munication is far less than that of a cable, and, further, that in mountainous or inaccessible districts, where the erection or maintenance of land lines is impracticable or exceedingly costly, connection by wireless telegraphy may be the most effective means of communication. Dr. CyartEs Epwarp BrrEvor, whose death on December 5, at the early age of fifty-four, we announced with sincere regret last week, was for five-and-twenty years an ardent worker in the rapidly extending field of neurology. His interest was early centred on the action of muscles, and his Croonian lectures, delivered in 1907, contained the fruits of patient observations extending over many years. Recently, he published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society an extensive monograph on the distribution of the arteries of the brain, illustrated with colour-photographs from his beautiful preparations. This research was the result of enormous industry, for in many instances five cerebral arteries were injected simultaneously with coloured fluids. His Lettsomian lectures, dealing with the diagnosis and localisation of intra-cranial tumours, were the fruit of much careful observation. Owing to his extreme modesty and the un- pretentious way in which he worked, the value of his observations was, until recently, known mainly to members of the neurological section of the Royal Society of Medi- cine, of which he was president at the time of his death; but, within the last few years, neurologists all over the world have recognised the merits of his work, and this summer, by special request, he delivered an address to the American Medical Association. Generous and un- assuming to a remarkable degree, he thought little of his own researches compared with those of his colleagues. During the preparation of the Croonian lectures it was difficult to make him understand that what he called ““simple facts’’ were unknown outside the circle of his neurological friends. He belonged to that rare group of men who inspire, not only respect, but affection in all who are brought into contact with them. Dr. Otis:‘Turts Mason, head curator of the division of ethnology of the United States National Museum at Washington, passed away on November 5 at the age of seventy years. Dr. Mason was the great exponent of the technology of the American Indians; the general trend of his studies was embodied in two valuable little books, ‘‘ The NO. 2042, VOL. 79] NATURE 197 Origins of Invention ’’ (London: Walter Scott, 1895), and ““Woman’s Share in Primitive Culture ’’ (Macmillan, 1895). Most of his memoirs were published in the Annual Re- ports of the. United States National Museum. The follow- ing imperfect list will give some idea of his activity and wide range of interests :—‘ The Human Beast of Burden ’” (1887), ‘* Cradles of the American Aborigines ’’ (1887), “The Ulu or Woman’s Knife of the Eskimo ’’ (1890), “Influence of Environment upon Human Industries or Arts ’’ (1896), ‘* Pointed Bark Canoes of the Kutenai and Ainu ”’ (1899), “‘ Traps of the American Indians ’’ (1901), “A Primitive Frame for Weaving Narrow Fabrics ’’ (1901), “* Aboriginal American Harpoons ”’ (1902). Dr. Mason was a great authority on American basketry, and published several papers on the subject; and in 1904 appeared his memorable work, “‘ Aboriginal American Basketry : Studies in a Textile Art without Machinery,’’ which consists of 377 pages, 212 figures in the text, and 248 plates, which will long remain the standard work on the subject. Dr. Mason arranged some very instructive cases in the museum illus- trating the evolution and distribution of various imple- ments, and no one who has had the privilege of being taken round the U.S. National Museum, and especially the grand collection of baskets, by Otis T. Mason will ever forget the erudition and enthusiasm of that lovable man. Tue annual general meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society was held on December 9. The report of the council announces that in recognition of the valuable services rendered by him to the agriculture of Canada, the council has elected, as an honorary member of the society, Dr. William Saunders, C.M.G., Director of Experimental Farms, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. The Earl of Jersey has been nominated for election as president of the society for the year 1909. The seventieth annual show of the society will be held at Gloucester on June 22-26 of next year, and the show in 1910 will be held at Liver- pool, At the Woburn Experimental Station field trials have been begun with the growing of different varieties of lucerne, and on the use of calcium cyanamide on corn and root crops; also, the influence of inoculating methods. for lucerne and white clover has been tried. Further work has been done at the pot-culture station on the action of magnesia in soils, and, for the Royal Commission on Sewage Disposal, an additional year’s work on the utilisa- tion of sewage sludges has been conducted. In the botanical department of the society a bacterial disease of swede turnip was investigated, which had rendered an entire crop a failure. Black-scab disease of potato, more correctly known as potato canker, made its appearance again in many places. This pest, by its steady increase, threatens to be as serious for potato growers as the potato disease. Various injuries affecting roses, potatoes, beans, peas, turnips, and swedes were reported upon. The zoo- logical department reports that, on the whole, crops appear to have been freer than usual from insect attack during Much attention has been given to a disease of the pea plant, which, although apparently widespread, the past year. has hitherto escaped observation in this country. It is dug to the so-called corn thrips, Thrips cerealium. The general interest in the external parasites of domestic animals, which has been excited by the discovery of their power to communicate disease, is still on the increase, and numerous ticks and other animals are continually sent te the society for identification from various parts of the world. A LEcTURE on the Danish North-east Greenland Expedi- tion was delivered at a meeting of the Royal Geographical 195 INAA NOTE: [| DECEMBER 17, 1908 Society on December 7 by Lieut. A. Trollé, R.D.N. The principal object of the expedition, which was planned by the late L. Mylius Erichsen, was to explore the north- east coast of Greenland from 77° N. lat. to the cairns erected by Peary in 82° N. lat., and the east side of Peary Land in about 83° N. lat. The vessel Danemark, a steam barque of 242 tons register, carried a fully equipped ex- pedition, with supplies for three years, and reached Kolde- way Island (76° 20! N. lat., 18° 30’ W. long.) on August 13, 1906, after thirteen days’ navigation through 125 miles of drift ice. Winter quarters were ultimately established near Cape Bismarck (76° 46’ N. lat., 18° 37’ W. long.-), where meteorological, magnetic, and tidal observations were established, and a number of expeditions went north- wards for the purposes of mapping and placing depdts containing stores for subsequent journeys. Towards the end of March, 1907, expeditions set out northwards in four divisions. The fourth and third divisions returned in May with valuable cartographical material; the second returned on June 23, after a remarkable journey of some 1250 miles, having reached Cape Bridgman (83° 30! N. lat.). The first division, under Erichsen, did not return, and it was only after several fruitless attempts at rescue that a sledge party sent out in the following March definitely ascertained that all the members of this division had perished. The precise value of the scientific results of the expedition is not yet known, but it is certainly exceptionally high. Large collections of ethnographical, geological, zoological, and botanical specimens have been secured, a large area of newly discovered land has been accurately mapped, and a valuable series of meteorological observations, including kite observations of the upper atmosphere, has been recorded. “© THERE is no doubt that the hopes expressed by Prof. Koch and others that atoxyl would prove a general and permanent cure for cases of sleeping sickness must now be abandoned. ... We have at present no other treat- ment, apart from atoxyl and its allies, which has shown any signs of successful results whatever.’’ These two not very hopeful statements are the opening and closing sentences in the introduction written by Dr. A. D. P. Hodges to the Quarterly Report on the Progress of Segregation Camps and Medical Treatment of Sleeping Sickness in Uganda, by Captain A. C. H. Gray, published by the Sleeping Sickness Bureau. Captain Gray’s report contains a full account of the results obtained by various methods of treatment in the three sleeping-sickness camps in Uganda, and if the outcome is not so encouraging as might be wished, the publication of so much experiment and experience in the treatment of sleeping sickness will be of great value to those engaged in the difficult quest of a remedy for this terrible scourge. WE have to acknowledge the receipt of vol. ii., No. 70, of the Anatomical Record, a serial published at Phila- delphia, and largely devoted to reviews of anatomical literature. Tue latest issues of the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum include the following, viz. :—a revision of certain species of Noctuidz hitherto included in Homoptera, by Mr. J. B. Smith (No. 1645); new American Palaeozoic Ostracoda, by Messrs. Ulrich and Bassler (No. 1646); and descriptions of fossil crabs from California, by Miss Rathbun (No. 1647). WE are indebted to Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne for a copy of a paper on the bivalve molluscs of the ‘‘ Venus ”’ group from the older Tertiary formations of England and France, this paper being extracted from the October issue of the NO. 2042, VOL. 7g} Proceedings of the Malacological Society. In addition to re-defining the genera, the author makes numerous emendations on the nomenclature commonly in use among palzontologists in this country. Tue Horniman Museum and Library at Forest Hill, according to the sixth annual report, continues to make steady progress, both as regards the increase of the collec- tions and in the matter of attracting visitors. The increase during the past year is specially notable in the ethno- logical department, the additions including implements and other specimens from the French caves, presented by the Christy trustees, and palzolithic implements from Swans- combe, Kent, the gift of Mr. J. Cross. SpEcIAL attention may be directed to a paper by Mr. R.1.. Moodie in the October issue (vol. xix., No. 2) of the Journal of Morphology on the lateral-line system in extinct amphibians. Out of the five groups into which the stego- cephalian amphibians are divided, a lateral-line system is found in all except the Aistopoda. As a rule, the system presents itself in the form of the channels of grooves constituting the ‘‘lyra’’ on the skulls of the typical labyrinthodonts; the smoothness of the bottom of these canals, which is most developed in the Stereospondyli, being apparently a feature distinctive either of age in the individual or of specialisation in the group. While these canals differ to some extent from the slime-canals of certain fishes, such as Amia, yet some degree of homo- logy between the two types of structure can be traced. For these canals on the stegocephalian skull, the author proposes definite names. In the branchiosaurian group the head-canals are lacking, and their place is taken by a true ‘‘ lateral line’? on each side of the tail, similar to that of the modern salamander Necturus. An important corollary to, or rather result of, the investigation is the determination that the bone originally termed the squamosal in the stegocephalian skull is really that element, and not, as it has been attempted to prove, the supratemporal. The paper closes with the determination of the homology of other elements in the stegocephalian skull with the cranial bones of fishes. WE have received from the author, Dr. W. L. H. Duck- worth, an admirable descriptive catalogue of the specimens illustrating the comparative osteology of man and the higher apes contained in the museum of human anatomy at Cambridge. Although intended primarily for university students, this fully illustrated pamphlet of forty pages is well worthy of the best attention of naturalists, since it contains several items of information which it would be difficult, if not impossible, to find elsewhere. As an example we may cite the author's account of the dis- tinctive characteristics of the heads of the gorilla and chimpanzee, which runs as follows :—‘‘ In the head of the gorilla the chief points of interest to be noted are the prominent brow-ridges, the flatness of the nose, the re- markable elevations on each side of the nasal aperture, the short but prominent upper lip, and the small ears with inconspicuous lobules. The nuchal region is not depressed as in man, for in the gorilla the great development of the muscles of the back of the head fills up the space between the head and the shoulders. . . . The head of the chimpanzee is smaller and rounder, and though the brow- ridges are very prominent and the upper part of the nose is depressed, yet the physiognomy is very different, owing mainly to the smaller size of the nasal ale, and the long protruding upper lip. The ears, too, are different, being very large. There is also a slight but distinct nuchal depression.” oe DECEMBER 17, 1908] Tue habits of crinoids form the subject of a suggestive paper by Mr. A. H. Clark in the November number of the American Naturalist. From the very nature of the case, very little can be actually known with regard to these deep-sea organisms in the living condition, so that we must depend largely upon inference in trying to ascer- tain their nature. Their food consists, however, of minute pelagic organisms and small crustaceans, and it is obvious that, as a rule, the largest supply of this nutriment will be obtained by those individuals which live in deep water, as not only will they obtain what they can collect by themselves, but they will also receive a rain of carcases from the upper layers. As a corollary of this, it appears that the size of these organisms depends upon the amount of their food-supply, so that the largest individuals ought to occur in the deepest water. On the other hand, where streams of ice-cold water, as on the west coast of Green- land, or still larger quantities of fresh water at a higher temperature, as on some of the coasts of Cuba, Guade- loupe, and Japan, flow into the ocean, they prove fatal to minute organisms, and in such situations the greatly increased food-supply renders it possible for crinoids to flourish and attain a large size in comparatively shallow water. Indeed, in some instances the individuals of various species attain their maximum size in situations of this nature. Crinoids present all colours except blue, and it appears that the smaller stalked forms are invariably yellow, which, as among parrots, may be the equivalent of no colour at all. A REVISED second edition of the guide to Sowerby’s models of British fungi on exhibition in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington has recently been issued. The publication, obtainable at a popular price, provides a fairly ready means of identifying the common larger Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes. The descriptions in the new edition are still confined to the models, but omitted genera are mentioned. The most observable change is the division of species, formerly grouped under Peziza, under the genera Otidia, Sarcoscypha, Macropodia, Plectonia, and Peziza. A serviceable addition has been furnished in the glossary. A DESCRIPTION, with maps, of the vertical distribution of plants in the Balkan States is contributed by Prof. L. Adamovié to Petermann’s Mitthetlungen (vol. liv., part ix.). The horizons are broadly demarcated as lowland, upland, montane, alpine, and subnival. The wheat fields rise to an altitude of nearly 4000 feet, and about the same elevation one reaches the limit of fruit trees, also of such trees as the walnut, Corylus coturna, and the chestnut. The hornbeam, poplar, and birch continue to the middle of the montane region, where they give place to beech, fir, and Scots pine. At the lower limit of the subalpine region, about 6000 feet, woods are no longer formed, and above this altitude the juniper and mountain pine are reduced to bushes. Or various plant diseases discussed by Mr. E. S. Salmon in his report on economic mycology for the year 1907-8, issued from Wye Agricultural College, the American gooseberry mildew, Sphaerolheca mors-uvae, and ‘‘ warty ”’ disease or ‘‘ black scab ’’ of potatoes, caused by Chryso- phlyctis endobiotica, must be classed as extremely noxious pests, and the apple scab, due to the fungus known as Fusicladium dendriticum or Venturia pomi, should be recognisable by all fruit-growers. With regard to the first-named, Mr. Salmon continues to urge the necessity for more drastic measures, and very rightly foresees in the potato scab another insidious pest that calls NO. 2042, VOL. 79] for NATURE 199 systematic and compulsory eradication. Apple scab is fortunately less dangerous, being amenable to treatment, but growers will be well advised to digest the advice given regarding Bordeaux mixture for controlling this and other fungal pests. Dr. H. Mottscu describes in the Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Vienna, vol. exvii., part i.) some experiments upon forcing the resting shoots of woody plants by soaking them in warm water. Twigs of the hazel, bearing male catkins, placed for twelve hours in a bath registering about 30° C. in mid-November, and then removed to a warm house, were hastened into flower in eight days. Flowers of Forsythia similarly treated developed in a fortnight. Lilac, dog-wood, horse-chestnut, and other shrubs or trees were also responsive to treat- ment. The stimulus is only effectual at a certain period, and appears to be distinctly localised. Staminate buds of hazel could be forced in November, but twigs bearing pistillate flowers could not be stimulated until December. As showing the localised nature of the effect, a photograph of a hazel shoot is given where the branches on one side that had been steeped are fully grown, while the branches on the other side remain quite dormant. Ir is well known that the central regions of Australia are too dry for successful cultivation without irrigation. There exists a vast artesian basin, but unfortunately the water obtained from the bores contains sodium carbonate, and is thereby rendered so alkaline that it cannot be used for irrigation purposes. A suggestion has been put for- ward that nitric acid should be mixed with the irrigation water in sufficient quantity to convert the carbonate into nitrate, i.e. to change the injurious constituent into a valuable fertiliser. The practical difficulties to be over- come are very considerable, but a successful result would be of incalculable benefit, and the scheme is being investi- gated in the chemical laboratory of the Sydney Depart- ment of Agriculture. In the Memoirs of the Indian Meteorological Depart- ment (vol. xx., part iv.) Mr. R. L. Jones discusses types of weather in the south of the Madras Presidency. The most important types, corresponding to the four seasons, are :—(1) cold-weather type, late December to February ; (2) hot-weather type, March to May; (3) south-west mon- soon type, June to early October; (4) north-east monsoon type, October to December. Charts showing the 8h. a.m. pressure distribution for each of these have been selected from the published daily weather reports, and explanatory notes are added to each. Abnormal conditions sometimes occur; the change, however, from one type to another takes place gradually as the year advances. In order to appreciate these, Mr. Jones deals with the normal and the most abnormal weather types for each month. The interesting; it has been a subject is important, and very £5 favourite inquiry in various countries, e.g. Abercromby’s ‘Principles of Forecasting,’’ published by the Meteor- ological Council in 1885, deals with the question ‘in con- siderable detail, so far as relates to the weather of the British Islands. WHEN we use force to move a body or impede move- ment we are conscious of our effort exerted. Reasoning from this human experience, Sir John Herschel suggested in his ‘‘ Outlines of Astronomy ’’ that the movements of falling bodies, or of any matter in space, are “‘ the direct or indirect result of a consciousness and a will existing though beyond our power to trace, which Prof. Karl Pearson refers to this and Dr. somewhere, force we term gravity.” animistic view in his ‘‘ Grammar of Science,’’ 200 NATURE [DECEMBER 17, 1908 ©. Z. Bianco, of the Royal University of Turin, now sends us a quotation from Schopenhauer’s dissertation ‘‘ Ueber den Willen in der Natur ”’ to show that the German meta- physician accepted Herschel’s speculation as to the cause of motion of inorganic matter under the influence of gravitation. Dr. Bianco deals with the same subject in a paper entitled ‘* Schopenauer e la gravitazione universale,”’ published in the Rivista Filosofica in 1906. Tue Physical Review for October contains Prof. E. F. Nichols and Dr. W. S. Day on “of residual rays in the long wave spectrum. The sub- stances tested were rock salt, ammonium _ chloride, witherite (barium carbonate), and strontianite (strontium carbonate). The radiation from a group of Nernst burners was reflected in succession from five plane sur- faces of one of these materials, and, after passing through a spectrometer composed of concave silvered mirrors and a wire diffraction grating, fell on a Nicholls radiometer, the deflection of which could be observed. The residual a paper by new groups wave-lengths . found are:—for rock salt, 52-3; for ammonium chloride, 51-4; for witherite, 46.0; and for strontianite, 43-2x10-° centimetre. A LARGE part -of the November number of the Physikalische Zeitschrift is devoted to the papers read at the Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte at Cologne in September. Amongst a number of interesting communications, we note one from Dr. J. Classen, of Hamburg, on the value of the quotient electric charge by mass for the kathode rays. His method is that of Kauf- mann, in which the velocity of the electron is taken to be that due to its passage through the electric field between kathode and anode, and the effect of a magnetic field on the path of the electron is measured. In Dr. Classen’s experiments a Wehnelt kathode is situated a millimetre in front of a large anode with a hole a millimetre diameter at its centre, and the discharge tube is placed in a mag- netic field due to two large coils arranged in the Helmholtz manner. The deflections of the rays are determined photo- graphically. The value of the quotient obtained is I-77 X10’, i.e. considerably less than the 1-86X 107 obtained by Kaufmann. WE have received a copy of the ‘‘ Guide-annuaire de Madagascar et Dépendances’’ for the year 1908. This official publication contains a complete list of Government officials in the various provinces of Madagascar, and much valuable statistical information. WE have received from Messrs.. John Wheldon and Co., of Great Queen Street, London, a copy of a catalogue of 800 books and papers on cryptogamic botany which they -offer for sale. The books are catalogued alphabetically by authors’ names under the headings algae, fungi, lichens, musci and hepaticee, filices, and general. Messrs. SpottiswoopE AND Co. have sent us a copy of the autobiography of the late Sir Edward Frankland, which was edited and concluded by his two daughters, and printed for private circulation in 1902, under the title “Sketches from the Life of Edward Frankland.’’ Copies of this Messrs. now be obtained from Spottiswoode at the prce of 3s. 6d. net. interesting volume may Tue first two numbers have reached us of Pathologica, a new bi-monthly journal devoted to pathology, and having a strong editorial The journal includes original recent publications, and reviews of books; it is published by Luigi Griffini, Genoa. NO. 2042, VOL. 79] committee. articles, abstracts of OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. WatTeER VaAPoUR IN THE ATMOSPHERE OF Mars.—A tele- gram from Prof. Lowell, published as Circular No. 106 of the Kiel Centralstelle, reads as follows :—* Quantitative measures by Very, with his new spectral comparator, of Slipher’s spectrograms Mars mmron (?),. show little a water vapor band twenty-two per cent. stronger in Mars spectrum than in our own air. Solar lines C equal.— Lowell.”’ Our readers will remember that early in the present year Mr. Slipher photographed the spectrum of Mars in which the a water-vapour band was considerably stronger, relatively, than in a similar spectrum of the moon, both spectra being taken when the objects were at about the same altitude (sce Narure, vol. Ixxvii., No. 2002, March 12, p. 442). It is to these photographs, presumably, that the above message refers, the queried word probably meaning “‘ moon.” ACCELERATION OF MatTER IN THE TalL OF MOREHOUSE’S Comet.—In a paper published in No. 22 of the Comptes rendus (November 30, p. 1033), MM. Baldet and Quénisset give further details concerning the accelerating velocities of the agglomerations seen, on their photographs, in the tail of comet 1908c. Between September 17 and November 6 ninety-six photo- graphs were obtained, with six different cameras, at the Juvisy Observatory, and, on examining these, it is quite possible to recognise the same features of the tail on photographs taken at different times on the same night and also on those taken on successive nights. The photographs taken on October 15 and 16, with an interval of nineteen hours, afford a good example. Measures made on that of October 15 showed that a luminous mass, then some 580,000 km. from the head, was travelling at a velocity of about 14 km. per sec. The same mass was easily recognisable on the photograph of October 16, and the measures showed that it was then about 2,200,000 km. from the head, that is to say, it had travelled 1,600,000 km. during the interval; had 14 km. been maintained as a uniform velocity, the distance covered would have been: only 960,000 km. Measures made on two plates taken on October 15, with an interval between the exposures of th. 4gom., showed that another similar luminous mass was travelling at the velocity of 58 km. per sec. Other peculiarities in the tail are also noted, and in one of the two photographs which accompany the paper there is a remarkable deflection in the tail, not far from the head, which seems to indicate that the ejected matter had encountered some such obstructing medium as would be provided by meteoritic débris. The peculiar changes of the comet’s appearance are also reviewed by Prof. Barnard in No. 4, vol. xxviii., of the Astrophysical Journal (p. 292, November). With three cameras, Prof. Barnard secured 190 negatives, which show very strikingly how rapidly the enormous changes in the comet’s appearance took place. Two photographs repro- duced with the paper were taken on September 30 and October 1 respectively, the interval between the exposures being barely twenty-four hours; yet the general appear- ance of the tail was utterly transformed during that interval. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SUPERIOR (K,) LAYER OF THE Sun’s Atmosruere.—In a paper published in No. 22 of the Comptes rendus (November 30, p. 1016), M. Deslandres states that by employing a large spectroheliograph of a special type he has succeeded in obtaining photographs with the pure radiation (K,) of the highest layer of the sun’s atmosphere. In previous work the calcium radia- tion, K,—the central dark reversal of the calcium K line— has always been mixed with varying proportions of the bright (IX,) reversals which bound it on either side, con- sequently the photographs haye shown the integrated phenomena of the highest layer and the layer immediately below it; but in the new photographs those phenomena peculiar to the upper layer are shown alone. The favour- able weather of the last four months has permitted a fine set of such photographs, extending over four rotations of the sun, to be obtained. | | DECEMBER 17, 1908] NATURE 201 The principal characteristic of the K, images is the appearance of the long dark lines, which M. Deslandres has called filaments, joined up by the less conspicuous and less continuous lines designated alignements; these apparently intersect at particular points, three or four of them cutting each other in the same place. Then there are large, dark patches, some of which appear to lie above facula, whilst others are either attached to filaments or are independent. Some of these filaments have been observed to ‘persist in the same heliographic positions for several rotations, just as do spots in the lowest level, and this leads to the suggestion that spots and filaments are simply manifesta- tions of the same cyclonic motions in different parts of the circulation. The analogy to terrestrial cyclonic move- ments is shown to be very close, and it is suggested that the closer study of the solar may throw valuable light upon the working of the terrestrial tourbillons. LiverPoot AstrRoNomicaL Society.—The report of the Liverpool Astronomical Society for the session 1907-8 con- tains a number of papers read by various members during the session; amongst them is the president’s address, in which Mr. Plummer gave an interesting description of the motion of Halley’s comet and the various methods by which it has been investigated. Papers were also read by Mr. Reynolds, describing the large reflector which he has set up at Birmingham and also. the one he presented to the Helwan Observatory, and Father Cortie, whose dis- course dealt with the maintenance of the sun’s heat. Oxe Hunprep New Dousre Srars.—Bulletin No. 144 from the Lick Observatory is devoted to a list of roo new double stars discovered by Dr. R. G. Aitken. This is the thirteenth list of its kind, bringing the total number of “ Aitken ’’ doubles to 31900, and it includes closer com- panions to the previously known doubles = 22, = 339, O= (App.) 41, OS 87, S. 461, B 627, and = 31. PRIZE AWARDS OF THE PARIS ACADEMY OF SCIENCES FOR 1908. AT the annual meeting of the academy, held on December 7, the president announced the prize awards as follows :— Geometry.—The grand prize of the mathematical sciences is divided in equal parts between Luigi Bianchi and C, Guichard; the Francceur prize is awarded to Emile Lemoine, for his work taken as a whole; the Poncelet prize to Prof. Fredholm, of Stockholm, for his researches on integral equations. Mechanics.—The Montyon prize (mechanics) is awarded to E. Lebert. No memoir was received by the academy on the subject proposed for the Fourneyron prize (the theoretical or experimental study of steam turbines). Navigation.—The extraordinary prize for the navy is divided between M. Labeuf (2500 francs), for his work on submarines, M. Dunoyer (2500 francs), for his electro- magnetic compass, and M. Dautriche (rooo francs), for his work on the influence of alkaline salts on the power of explosive materials ; the Plumey prize is divided between M. Codron (1500 frances), for his work on machine tools, M. Marchis (1500 francs), for his work on the use of poor gas and the production and application of low temperatures, and MM. Fortant and Le Besnerais (1000 frances), for thetr memoir on the oscillations of water along a vertical wall. Astronomy.—The Pierre Guzman prize is not awarded. The Lalande prize is divided between W. L. Elkin and F. L. Chase, for their researches on the determination of stellar parallax, M. F. Smith receiving a mention; the Valz prize is awarded to Michel Luizet, for his researches on terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity, and variable stars. No memoir has been received on the sub- ject proposed for the Damoiseau prize (the theory of the minor planet Eros based on known observations). Pierre Puiseux receives the Janssen prize for the whole of his astronomical work. Geography.—The Gay prize is divided unequally between Louis Gentil, for his topographical and geological work in Morocco, Prosper Larras, Abel Larras, and Marcel NO. 2042, VOL. 79| Traub, for surveying work in the same country; the Tchihatchef prize is awarded to Lieut.-Colonel Bernard, for his memoir on the delimitation of the Franco-Siamese frontier; the Binoux prize is divided between Paul Heil- bronner, for his memoir on the geometrical description of the French Hautes Alpes, and Jules Richard, for his works and book on oceanography. Mentions are attributed to MM. Mazeran and Réne Bossiére. The Delalande- Guérineau prize is awarded to Auguste Chevalier, for his researches on the flora and economical resources of tropical Africa. Physics.—André Blondel receives the Hébert prize, for his researches on the electric arc; Marcel Brillouin the Hughes prize, for his book on the viscosity of liquids and gases. Chemistry.—The Jecker prize is awarded to Ph. Barbier, for his researches in organic chemistry ; the Cahours prize to MM. Gain and Pierre Carré (in equal parts); Montyon prizes (unhealthy trades) to A. Frois, for his work on dust arising in industrial occupations, and Georges Claude, for his practical applications of liquid gases; the . Berthelot prize to M. Fosse; the Fontannes prize to M. Pervin- quiére ; the Bordin prize to F. Priem and M. Leriche. Botany.—The Desmaziéres prize is not awarded, but M. Hariot and Mlle. Beléze receive honourable mentions ; the Montagne prize is awarded to Ernest Pinoy, for his studies in the myxomycetes; the De Coincy prize to Paul Guérin. Anatomy and Zoology.—For his work on the Coleo- ptera, Pierre Lesne receives the Savigny prize; Jules Bourgeois the Thore prize, for the whole of his entomo- logical work. Medicine and Surgery.—Montyon prizes are awarded to MM. Frouin, Tissot, Carré, and Vallée, and MM. Rennes, Chevassu, and Joly are accorded mentions, MM. Georges Rosenthal, Adrien Lippmann, and Soubies citations. The Barbier prize is awarded jointly to MM. Piettre and Vila, for their work on the blood of mammals and birds; the Bréant prize (interest, in equal parts) between MM. Vincent and Remlinger; the Godard prize to MM. Lamy and Mayer jointly, for their studies on the mechanism of urinary secretion; the Baron Larrey prize to Dr. Bonnette, for his memoir on the dangers attending the use of blank cartridge; the Bellion prize to M. Basset, for his book on pathological anatomy, J. Alquier receiving an honour- able mention. The Mége prize is not awarded. The Serres prize is accorded to Albert Brachet, for the whole of his work on embryogeny. Physiology.—The Montyon prize for experimental physio- logy is divided equally between J. Sellier, for his studies on the comparative physiology of digestion, of muscular contraction, and the special physiology of the encephalus, Henri Pottevin, for his studies on the soluble ferments, and F. X. Lesbre and F. Maignon (jointly), for their contribu- tions to the physiology of the pneumogastric and spinal nerves. The Philipeaux prize is awarded to M. Lafon, for his experimental researches on diabetes and glycogen ; the Lallemand prize to G. Pagano, for the whole of his researches on the nervous system; the Martin-Damourette prize to Eugéne Collin, for his application of the micro- scope to the determination of substances of vegetable origin; the Pourat prize to J. Lefévre, for his studies on the energetics of the animal body. Statistics—The Montyon prize is divided between MM. Deniker and Felhoen, MM. Risser and Laurent receiving mentions. General Prizes.—Berthelot medals are awarded to MM. Barbier, Gain, Pierre Carré, Frois, and Georges Claude. Charles Frémont receives the Tremont prize and J. H. Fabre the Gegner prize. The Lannelongue prize is divided between Mmes. Béclard, Ruck, Cusco, and de Nabias; the Wilde prize between MM. Tikhoff and Charles Nordmann; the Saintour prize between Paul Gaubert and Emile Riviére; the Jérome Ponti prize between Louis Bedel and Adrien Dollfus; the Houllevigue prize between MM. Debierne, Petot, and E. Fabry. The Estrade Delcros prize is awarded to Jacques Hadamard ; the prize founded by Mme. la Marquise de Laplace to- P. M. E. Lancrenon; and the prize founded by M. Félix Rivot to MM. P. M. E. Lancrenon, G. E. A. Chavanes, and R. D. Blanchet. 20: NATURE [ DECEMBER 17, 1908 METEOROLOGY IN SOUTII VICTORIA mum occurring at 8 a.m. to 10 a.m. being the principal LAND." jones WHEN the Discovery sailed for the Antarctic regions in August, 1901, Captain Scott took out an equip- ment of meteorological instruments, but the men who were to have used them were not on board. When South Victoria Land was reached, the observations, therefore, had to be made by men who had not been trained for the work. The report on the observations which were made by Lieut. C. W. R. Royds and assistants shows that they are to be congratulated on their success in carrying out arrangements for the exposure of the instruments and their devotion in maintaining the readings during their stay in South Victoria Land. - The first volume of the report contains the observations made at the winter quarters of the Discovery at Ross Island, and also those made on sledge journeys from there at various times during 1902 / and 1903. These have been examined and tabulated at the Meteorological Office under the direction of Dr. W. N. Shaw, and have been discussed in sections by Commander Campbell Hepworth, Mr. R. H. Curtis, Dr. C. (Chreejibskeos, mViten We, mblenOiness P.R-S.; and Mr. €. 2. R. Wilson, F.R-S. The preface is by Dr: W. .N: Shaw, and Lieut. Royds has written the introduction, giving details as to the exposure of the instruments. The Discovery’s winter quarters were in lat. 77° 50’ 50" S. and long. 166° 44’ 45" E., and observations were made every two hours from February 9, 1902, to February 15, 1904. Whilst the Discovery was at Ross Island it was remarkable how infrequently did the thermometers register tempera- tures above freezing point, the maxi- mum reading being only 42° F. The lowest reading was —58°-5 F. Yet it is noted that the ship was in a position much warmer than _ the regions surrounding. The fluctuations of the temperature were rapid and violent, and generally associated with a change of wind direction. A south wind often brought a rise of temperature. The alcohol minimum thermometer was read and re-set every two hours, and when the observations were compared with the readings of the adjacent mercury thermometers the fact was brought out that there was a minimum in almost every two-hour period, and the thermograph readings also show this. The summers were notably cold; the highest mean temperature for any month was 26°-2 F., this being the mean for December, 1903. The coldest month was July, 1903, the mean temperature being —21°-0 F. These are the values given in the preface and in one of the tables, but there are two other tables which give different months and temperatures. During April, 1903, the temperature never exceeded 0° F. Discussing the readings of the minimum thermometer, it is shown that the lowest readings of the day oftenest occurred within two hours of midnight. A table is given showing the percentage frequency of the occurrence of the minimum of the day in each two-hour period. These values are given monthly and seasonally. On 37 per cent. of days the principal minimum occurred between 10 p-m. and 2 a.m. The values for the winter season show the maximum frequency at this period of the day, and also a ~econdary maximum between noon and 2 p.m., the mini- 1 “National Antarctic Expedition, tgo1-4." Meteorology, Part i., Ob- servations at Winter Quarters and on Sledge Journeys, with discussions by various Authors. Pp. xiv+548. (London: Royal Society, 1908.) NO. 2042, VOL. 79] This table is put forward as very strong evidence that during the Antarctic winter night the temperature is affected by diurnal and semi-diurnal influences. The mean daily variation of temperature amounts only to 3° in summer and 1° in winter. The sunshine recorder was not set up until September 14, 1902, and there is no record after February 15, 1904. The amount of sunshine recorded is remarkably great. In December, 1903, 490 hours were registered, this being 66 per cent. of the total possible. here were several notable spells of continuous sunshine; thus in December, 1902, there was a period of eighty-seven hours’ unbroken sunshine, and in December, 1903, one of seventy hours. During the twelve days December 6-17, 1903, there were only fifteen hours without sunshine. The amount of cloud was observed and recorded 7890 Seale of Feet ee 2 eo eT count = — etd Se ea a Nat Scate 1 40000 ‘or 158 Inches i Mile Ship Lat 7750's Long 10646 E. apwrox, Fic. 1.—Map of suuth-western extremity of Ross Island, showing winter quarters of H. M.S. Discovery. times. Less than one-tenth of the sky was occupied by clouds in 37-5 per cent. of the cases; 43 per cent. of the observations record that more than eight-tenths of the sky were clouded. The winter months were least cloudy. Although the readings of the wet- and dry-bulb thermo- meters were recorded, the values for humidity have not been tabulated, as it is the opinion of meteorologists that the relative humidity values obtained from very low thermometer readings are much open to doubt. The data are, however, sufficiently definite to show that the climate of Ross Island is undoubtedly very dry. Observations with a black-bulb thermometer in vacuo gave remarkable results in the form of high readings. Thus for the month of December, 1902, when the mean temperature was 23°-1 F., the average maximum on the black bulb was 123° F., and in January, 1903, only on one day did this thermometer fail to register 100° F. It is argued that the air over the Antarctic regions must be - DECEMBER 17, 1908] NATURE 203 very permeable to solar radiations, and that this is due to the small amount of aqueous vapour present. During the two years under discusison no rain fell on Ross Island. The measures of snowfall are somewhat doubtful, and were obtained by driving stakes into the snow and measuring at intervals the length exposed. The only point that is definite is that the total fall for the two years must have been very small. Observations on the amount of evaporation were made during the winter by weighing small dishes of ice daily, the ice having been formed in the dish so that the surface was smooth and measurable. Notwithstanding the very low temperatures of the winter months, the evaporation was very great, the mean monthly value being 0-25 inch, which is almost double that for the winter months in London, where the temperature is nearly 50° higher. These observations confirm the opinion expressed as to the low humidity indicated by the wet- and dry-bulb thermo- meter readings. The observations on wind direction, eight points, show 8 per cent. of north winds, 5 when reduced to per cent. of south winds, 61 per cent. between north and south on the east side, and 3 per cent. on the west side; 23 per The observa- cent. of the observations recorded ‘‘ calms.”’ cussions of them Mr. Curtis and Commander Hepworth reach different conclusions. Mr. Curtis, discussing the observations of pressure made by Lieut. Royds on his journey across the Barrier in November, 1903, plotted them on a distance scale, read- ing to and from the ship, and apart from the general fall on the outward journey and the rise on returning, recognises points which seem to indicate fairly definitely changes in altitude. The reading taken at the furthest point of the journey (170 miles) was about 0-25 inch lower than that taken on the ship at the same time. If this gradient was real, then the winds experienced on the journey should have been stronger than were recorded. lf the gradient was not real, then the difference was most probably due to change of altitude. Assuming a rise of 2 feet per mile (an amount apparently warranted by the evidence of ice pressure and the northerly movement of the ice barrier), and reducing the barometer readings accordingly, the pressure at the last station on the journey would then be read as one-tenth of an inch greater than at the ship. Mr. Curtis concludes, therefore, that the pressure rises to the south. Commander Hepworth, in his memoir on the climatology of South Victoria Land, males a long and careful com- parison of the observations made by all the Antarctic expeditions and on excursions from Ross Island. Atten- tion is often directed to pronounced cogee Lye uvor be) S$ differences between the weather ex- ® perienced by the sledge parties and = that prevailing at the Discovery. e Wind, temperature, and pressure all x differ, and Commander Hepworth finds & sufficient justification for accepting * Lieut. Royds’s statement that the @ winds on his journey across the 3s Barrier were south-westerly. : Captain Scott in his book, “‘ The Voyage of the Discovery,’’ says, of another excursion, ‘‘on comparing notes with this party we realised for the first time what a difference there might be in the weather conditions within easy reach of the ship. It was not only in the matter of tempera- ture—as I have already described—but £0.92F LNG Uevo! wleGe Fic. 2.—Reproductions of traces of the self-recording instruments at winter quarters, representing rapid fluctuations of temperature and an associated barometric trace. of temperatures between — 50° F. and 5° F., June 22 to 28, 1903. parison showing the absence of any noteworthy change of pressure to correspond with changes of temperature. tions at Cape Armitage, 3000 yards away, with this. On the sledge journey made by Lieut. Royds and party to the south-east, across the Great Ice Barrier, observa- tions of wind direction were made, but the rough note- book does not say whether the directions entered are “true? or *‘ magnetic.’’ Lieut. Royds afterwards wrote that they are “‘true’’ bearings, and indicate south-west winds. In the discussion by Mr. Curtis they are treated as doubtful, and as possibly easterly winds. The records of other sledge journeys often show southerly or south- westerly winds. The direction of movement of lower clouds was in 47 per cent. cases between south-east and south-west; of Mount Erebus smoke, 76 per cent. cases between south and west; of upper clouds, 64 per cent. cases between south-west and north-west. The mean barometric pressure during the period February, 1902, to January, 1904, was 29-29 inches, and comparing this with the observations made on other ex- peditions, and bearing in mind the prevalence of easterly winds at the ship’s station, it is deduced that the baro- metric pressure should be relatively higher over the regions towards the Pole. In this connection the observations made on the various sledge journeys become important, though in the dis- NO. 2042, VOL. 79] agree 29:013 10am. SMT. 29603 also in the force and direction of the wind. . . . Already we -had_ learnt that the prevalent wind at our winter quarters blew from the south-east (1) Thermograph record through the Gap, and that this wind (2) Barograph record forcom- was usually local and frequently ceased within a mile or two from the ship.”’ Commander Hepworth says that in correcting the observations of pressure made on sledge journeys he has assumed a mean altitude, whilst “it is recognised at the same time that the assumption of a mean altitude is scarcely admissible, as the whole mechanism of ice distribution implies some gradual eleva- tion southwards—how much is an open question.” By this method of correction ‘‘ the results show that the mean pressure to the south differs but little from the mean pressure at the winter quarters.” “Tt seems not improbable that indeed from Cape Adare to Mount Longstaff and even still further to the south, the distribution of pressure conforms largely to the configura- tion of the high land, and that an area of relatively high pressure lies over the land to the westward of the coast ranges and relatively low over the Ross Sea, giving gradients for southerly winds during the greater portion of the year.” The existence of the Antarctic anticyclone is not yet proved, though many facts point towards it. Some of the differences between the results arrived at by those who have discussed the observations are cer- tainly due, to some extent, to imperfections, some of them inevitable, in the observations themselves, but it seems probable that if the statements made by certain members of the expedition had been accepted, as they should have been, some of these differences might have disappeare? M. 204 NATURE [ DECEMBER 17, 1908 THE PERCY SLADEN TRUST EXPEDITION TO THE INDIAN OCEAN. FURTHER EXPLORATIONS. To complete the work of the above expedition I left in June last for the Seychelles, accompanied by Mr. H. Scott and Mr. J. C. F. Fryer as naturalists. We arrived there on July 10, but were unfortunately detained on Long Island, the quarantine station, for ten days. The time, however, was by no means wasted, as the island was fairly representative of low-country coco nut cultivation, and contained a fairly rich insect fauna, mainly of introduced species. We had boats also, and were thus enabled to examine the reefs in its vicinity, collecting particularly the sedentary organisms. On July 23 I sent Mr. Fryer to examine Bird and Dennis, two islands seventy miles to the north of Mahé, on the edge of the Seychelles Bank. He remained a fortnight on each, examining them in all their aspects. The former was barren, with a vast number of sea birds breeding upon it, while the latter was planted in coco nuts. Both proved to be formed entirely of coral material, rock and sand, and both were found to be gradually washing away into the sea. The surface reefs around them are insignifi- cant, and they gave the impression of being the remains of reefs once widely extending along the north edge of the whole bank. On his return Mr. Fryer at once started down to visit the islands of Aldabra, Assumption, Cosmo- ledo, and Astove, among which he is to work for four months. These islands lie to the north-west of Madagascar, and due west of Farquhar Atoll, visited by the Sealark in 1905. Assumption and Aldabra form the most western group, the former being a crescent-shaped bank, 33 miles long, and the latter a ring-shaped atoll, 19 miles long by 7 miles across, almost completely sur- rounded by land, with a shallow lagoon. , Astove and Cosmoledo form a second group, the former a ring-shaped atoll, 2 miles long, completely surrounded by land save for one passage to the south, and the latter an atoll, 93 miles by 7 miles, lagoon 4 fathoms, ring much broken up, with eight main islands. Aldabra is well known as the home of gigantic land tortoises. Some rock from it in my possession contains abundant silica, a fact which makes the accompanying abstracts from Mr. Fryer’s preliminary report on its adjacent islands of peculiar interest. On July 24, accompanied by Mr. Scott, I went to Silhouette, the second highest island in the Seychelles, 2467 feet. We settled at 1600 feet, within the indigenous jungle, of which a square mile still exists. Here Mr. Scott remained until October 1, obtaining a rich collection of its insect fauna, which, allowing for the difference in the size and position of the islands, appeared to be to a large degree comparable in its nature to that of the Sandwich Islands. The island itself is about 12 square miles in extent, with rugged granite hills, and two bays with flats covered with coco nuts. These owe their existence to former fringing reefs, the level of the island having changed to the extent of at least 30 feet within compara- tively recent times. The coco nut is grown up to 1200 feet, but the trees, as is also the case in Mahé, are infested with a fungoid disease, and do not bear well. After a month in Silhouette I returned to Mahé, every part of which I visited in the ensuing seven weeks. For the most part I was occupied in examining its geographical features, rocks, reefs, and jungles, and in collecting its plants, ‘of which I obtained upwards of 2000 sheets. I have little of general interest to add to my report in Nature, January 25, 1906. Mahé showed the same change of level as Silhouette, and my former impression, that there might have been a more ancient elevation of about 200 feet, proved to be erroneous. Only about 23 square miles of the indigenous jungle are now left, and that is being gradually affected by the reckless destruction of its larger trees. Mr. Scott is to collect its insects during the next four months, but it can scarcely be supposed that more than a small percentage of its indigenous fauna still manages to survive. This jungle area lies in the centre of the island, the north and south thirds of which, 1 For earlier reports see Nature, April 13, August 10, October 5s, November 9, - : December 21, 1905, and January 25, 1906. NO. VOL. 79| 2042 Jack:)) ‘Pricemasyenet each part. Tue first part is concerned entirely with roses, and includes twenty-four pages of letterpress. The writer discourses upon roses from the point of view of the garden decorator rather than that of the ex- hibitor, and, indeed, the mere exhibitor is given very little consideration. This is verv natural in such a work as this, which is undoubtedly intended for amateurs who wish to grow flowers for their own sake alone, and not for the glory that attends the winning of prizes at competitive exhibitions. The style is pleasant, and the reader is given an insight into the classification of roses in order to enable him to understand the characteristics of the numerous types. Even the novice may soon acquire some knowledge of the hybrid teas, teas, hybrid per- petuals, noisettes, moss rose, polyantha rose (Rosa multiflora), the Wichuraiana roses (including such esteemed varieties as Dorothy Perkins, Lady Gay, and Hiawatha), and other types. Some of these are DECEMBER 24, 1908 | NAR OLRE. 219 suitable tor cultivation in beds and borders, whilst | others may be used for adorning pergolas, arches, pillars, summer-houses, or other structures. Direc- tions are given for cultivation and propagation, the process of budding being explained fully and _ illus- trated with appropriate cuts. Those who are not familiar with the varieties will find the selections of roses for different purposes of great assistance in choosing those which will be most suitable for their particular gardens. The text is large, bold print, and this being upon parchment paper, the convenience of the reader has been obviously studied. The coloured plates have been prepared from paintings of well-known artists, and many of them are pleasing, but others are too impressionist in character, particularly that represent- ing a Dorothy Perkins rose growing upon old trees. The effect of the rosy crimson flowers is depicted, but one cannot in the least trace any rose foliage, and even the plant itself takes no shape, and, therefore, cannot be distinguished. The second part contains the concluding portion ot the letterpress on roses, and the remaining pages are devoted to bulbous plants. The third part is a con- tinuation of the matter concerning bulbs. excellent coloured plates of Lilium speciosum, ‘‘ Christ- mas Roses and Glory of the Snow,’’ and ‘‘ Madonna Lilies and Roses.’’? These are the best plates in the third part, and the figure of a church as the back- ground to the last-mentioned picture is an agreeable and appropriate feature. The Philosophical Basis of Religion; a Series of Lec- tures. By Dr. J. Watson. Pp. xxviii+485. gow: J. MacLehose and Sons, 1907.) Price 8s. 6d. net. Pror. Watson, who is already well known to philo- sophical students by his work on Kant, has, by the publication of this collection of lectures, laid a still larger circle of readers under an obligation. The recent congress at Oxford gave sufficient evidence of the present widespread interest in religion as a social phenomenon—an interest largely independent of any attitude towards its claims upon the individual. There will be many scientific students who will turn with profit to Prof. Watson’s addresses—admirably lucid as they are, and agreeably free from technicalities— for a treatment of the subject that forms an entirely necessary complement to the comparative method. The author presents his argument as an attempt | to solve the problem of re-building upon a basis of reason the theological beliefs which (he holds) no longer rest securely upon their ancient foundation of authority. of a ‘‘ constructive idealism ’’ based upon ‘‘ the prin- ciple that the world is rational and is capable of being comprehended by us in virtue of the rationality which | ” is our deepest and truest nature.’’ The fulfilment of this programme necessitates an examination, first, of typical views on the nature and functions of dogma (such as those of Newman, Loisy, and Harnack), and, secondly, of certain current philosophical doctrines (personal idealism, the ‘‘new realism,’’ and prag- matism) that offer solutions of the author’s problem which for one reason or another he is unable to accept. The layman will find Prof. Watson a fair-minded, an interesting, and, on the whole, a_ trustworthy guide in all these matters, as well as in the lectures on theological history which follow in somewhat loose connection with the rest. He should be warned, how- ever, that the account of the “ in the fifth lecture contains elements that most of the supporters of that doctrine would repudiate. NO. 2043, VOL. 79] It contains | (Glas- | The solution he develops takes the form | new realism ”’ given | Every reader of the book will be grateful for the excellent summaries of the preceding argument which appear at the beginning of most of the lectures. A Manual of Bacteriology, Clinical and Applied. By Prof. R. T. Hewlett. Third edition. Pp. xii+638. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1908.) Price 10s. 6d. net. Tue publication of Prof. Hewlett’s manual in its new edition serves to remind us of the enormous strides in our knowledge of bacteria which have been made within the last ten years. Bacteriology in its early days meant little more than the study of the morphology of the newly-discovered causes of disease and the search for those undiscovered. Then came the investigation of the poisons manufactured by the organisms; and now the bacteriologist is largely con- cerned with the substances whereby the organisms are controlled and defeated. Much of the new know- ledge of bacteria has come with the discovery that the organisms once believed to be unique are in many | cases only members of groups which number dozens or scores of individuals; and the aid of organic chem- istry has been invoked to differentiate the members of these groups. With this constantly widening field of work it has become increasingly difficult to give within a moderate compass an account of our present state of knowledge, and we can therefore all the more congratulate Prof. Hewlett on his success. Within the 600 pages of his book he has contrived to give an adequate account of the methods used in bacteriological research; of the morphology, appearances in culture, and distribution of the chief pathogenic bacteria; of bacterial toxins; | of immunity, and the various methods by which it is sought; and, lastly, of the details of disinfection, and the examination of water, air, soil, and milk. He has wisely omitted many of the details of the more com- plicated methods, but wherever he has done so he has been careful to give a full reference to a source where the reader can obtain the information. In his treat- ment of some of the more recent work in bacteriology he, in our opinion quite properly, reserves his judg- ment of its value, while stating fully and fairly the claims advanced. Thus, for example, he still hesitates to accept without reserve the Treponema pallidium as the specific organism of syphilis, but adds that the majority of observers hold the opposite opinion strongly. The illustrations are for the most part reproductions of actual photomicrographs, and are particularly well chosen and clear in outline. The only fault that we have to find with Prof. Hewlett is an occasional obscurity of language; in most instances the context removes any doubt as to his meaning, but in a few cases it is difficult to comprehend. Thus on p. 343 the language seems to imply that there were two dead men who recovered, and though, of course, that is not the meaning, the whole sentence remains obscure, even after the obvious correction has been made. Ticks. A Monograph of the Ixodoidea. Part i. (Argasidz). (London: Cambridge University Press, 1908.) Price 5s. net. Tue study of parasitic and disease-producing Protozoa, which has received such a great impetus of recent years, has caused much attention to be paid also to those groups of animals which, by their blood-sucking habits, are instrumental in transmitting the parasitic organisms from one vertebrate host to another. Ever since Smith and Kilborne first made known the réle of ticks in transmitting Texas-fever in cattle, much attention has been directed to this group of arachnids, 220 NATURE [| DECEMEER 2 4, 1908 which were subsequently found to be the intermediary for the transmission of the remittent fevers, caused by the presence of spirochzetes in the blood, of man in Africa, and of domestic fowls in various countries. For those who are not experts on ticks, but are made practically acquainted with them from the pathological point of view, a comprehensive mono- graph or handbook of the group has become an urgent requirement, and this need will now be supplied by the monograph of the Ixodoidea which is being produced by Messrs. Nuttall, Warburton, Cooper, and Robinson. Part i., dealing with the Argasidz, has appeared, and consists of 104 pages (not including the bibliography of 18 pages), with three plates and 114 text-figures. This monograph will undoubtedly be a most useful publication, and it is to be hoped that this example will be imitated with respect to other groups of blood-sucking invertebrates. A modern compre- hensive monograph of leeches, for instance, is also a work urgently needed by those who desire to study the transmission of the blood-parasites of fishes and lower vertebrates. Who’s Who, 1909. Pp. xxiv+2112. (London: A. and C. Black.) Price ros. net. Who’s Who Year-Book for 1909. Pp. (London: A. and C. Black.) _ Price 1s. net. The Englishwoman’s Year-Book and Directory, 1909. vit+154- Edited by G. E. Mitton. Pp. xxvi+372. (London: A. and C. Black.) Price 2s. 6d. net. The Writers’ and Artists’ Year-Book, 1909. Pp. viit+ 121. (London: A. and C. Black.) Price rs. net. TueseE four works of reference are so well known and widely esteemed that it is hardly necessary to say more than that each maintains its high level of excellence. ““Who’s Who” continues to increase in bulk; this year there are 72 pp. of additional matter, indicating | the editor’s desire to make his roll of honour as com- prehensive as possible. The ‘‘ Who’s Who Year-Book ”’ is made up of the tables which were formerly published in ‘* Who’s | LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] Flying Machines and their Stability. In the early part of this year I suggested in a letter to Nature (vol. Ixxvii., p. 293, January 30) that it would be desirable for experimenters with flying machines to direct their attention to automatic stabilising appliances, and the character of the accidents which have occurred since that letter was written tends to emphasise the importance of this. Among the six degrees of freedom possessed by any body free to move in three dimensions, viz. x, Y, 2, 0, 9, wv (x being horizontal in the direction of motion, y and z horizontal and vertical, and 4, 4, v angular velocities about x, y, and z), i, 7, and 3 may be controlled by hand, but for steady motion it is requisite that ¢ and y should be zero except when the course is changing, and @ should be zero except when the horizontal curvature of the course is changing. Of these angular velocities, any of which may be caused by instability, @ is the most dangerous, and it is to the automatic extinction of this that attention should be directed in the first place. (This is the form of instability which most kites suffer from in strong winds.) may be a source of danger if the pitching or diving is con- siderable, but wy, which corresponds to a wandering course in the horizontal plane, may be dealt with by steering. There can be little doubt, I think, that for aéroplanes the best method of correcting for @ is that adopted by the Wrights, namely, the alteration of the relative in- clination of the wing surface on either side. In this they are following the practice of the long-winged birds, but the control should be automatic. Automatic control of the wing surfaces could be effected | by any device which would copy with power the position Who,’’ with many new lists, including, we notice, one | of the Nobel prizes awarded since 1901. Every particular of importance about the useful work women are doing is to be found in the ‘ English- woman’s Year-Book and Directory’’; and as the Editor remarks, ‘‘no woman who takes any part in public or social life can afford to be without it.” Even a glance through the volume will serve to show that women are making notable contributions to knowledge, and taking an honourable part in every human life. The title of the fourth year-book sufficiently describes its scope; the volume should prove of great assistance to young writers and artists. By Hudson Tuttle. Emmet Densmore. Arcana of Nature. troduction by Dr. Pp. Ayame (London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co., 1908.) Price 6s. net. Dr. DENSMORE’S introduction includes memoirs of Emanuel Swedenborg, A. J. Jackson, Hudson Tuttle, Cora Richmond, and W. J. Colville; and this fact— since all are described here as ‘‘ psychics ’’—will serve to indicate the scope and character of the volume. ‘a, by an integral the element of which is a multiple of Tn(A7)J_n(A@) —Jin(Ar)Jn(Aa)iaa. The author believes that the investigations are valid for functions which satisfy Dirichlet’s conditions, and for no others. New Soutu WALES. Royal Society, Oc'ober 7.—Mr. dent, in the chair.—The on birth-rate: G. H. 2043, W. M. Hamlet, presi- influence of infantile mortality Knibbs. It is shown from the NO. VOL. 79| statistics of all countries furnishing accurate statistics that :—(1) For any one country uniform increments to the rate of infantile mortality tend to produce uniform incre- ments in the birth-rate; that is to say, the birth-rate B,, which would correspond to an absence of infantile mortality, is given by the equation B,=B—bu, where B is the actual irth- rate, w the rate of infantile mortality, and b a constant peculiar to each community or country. (2) The coefficient showing the influence of in antile mortality on the birth-rate as actually deduced is in all cases very small. (3) No general law exists for the world as a whole. (4) The constant b does not appear to be influenced by the magnitude of the birth-rate itself, since it is approximately the same for a country with a low birth-rate (such as France) and a high birth-rate (such as the Netherlands). (5) That the a priori tendency of in- crease of birth-rate through increased rate of infantile mortality may be masked by other influences. CONTENTS. PAGE The Anatomy of Dicotyledons. ‘By A.W. H. .. 211 Problems of the Paper Mill. . . See are The Works of Linnzus. By B. D. ae os eee 203 Practical Physics. By L. B. § OGM ho in Seng The Edible Crab . 214 The Ashmolean Natural History Society of Oxford- shire. By L. J. V 215 Electrochemical Practice and Power Development| 215 Some New Chemical Books. By J. B.C... .... 217 Our Book Shelf :— Searle : ‘‘ Experimental Elasticity.”—Dr. C. Chree, eee os Ac 218 * Beautiful Flowers and Tow to Grow Them” a6 218 Watson: ‘‘ The Philosophical Basis of Religion; a Series of Lectures” . 219 Hewlett: ‘A Manual of f Bacteriology, ¢ Clinical and Applied: > |<) tues Gg Aue} SOCKS) > on: 57h) wel Ste ee Aes GMs. 2848) «Who's Who, 2 1909 ; *“Who’s Who Year- Book for 3909”; ‘*The Englishwoman’s Year-Bouk and Directory,” 1909; ‘‘The Writers’ and ‘A:tists’ Year-Book,” 1go9 . c 220 Tuttle : ‘‘ Arcana of Nature” 220 Letters to the Editor -— Flying Machines and their Stability. —A. Mallock, SSS 220 Zeeman Effect in Weak Magnetic Fields —Prof. H. Nagaoka 7 - Beh Sih Women and the Chemical Society. = ae 30 221 Autumn, and After.—Alex. B. MacDowall en The Darwin Commemoration at Cambridge (June 22-24, 1909). By Prof. A. C. S:ward. F.R.S.. . . 221 New Light on Ancient Egypt. (Ultustrated.) By H. R. Hall 222 A Pigmentation Survey o of Scotland . : Saree a2g The New Wireless Telegraph Station. By M.S. . 224 Swedish Hydrographical and Fishery Investiga- With ay Ope 6 og ad De ben 5 WE Notes =... td Fao) 5. eae Our Astronomical Column :— Morehouse'’s Comet, 1908¢ - : 231 Observations of the Surfaces of Jupiter’s ‘Principal Satellites and of Titan . 232 Corrections of the Position and Diameter of Mercury . 232 The South Polar Cap of Mars ; tS ple Re The ‘‘ Companion to the Observatory ” : The Nizamiah Observatory at Haidarabad’ . . 232 Prize Subjects Proposed by the French Academy of Sciences for the Year 1910 232 Chemical Research at the University of Man- chester .°*. Seu che ee eae 33 Waters and Glaciers, “By G: 4. i Cay: 233 The Transvaal and Indian Departments of Agricul- ture. By Dr. E. J. Russell . 235 Who sitet the British Stone Circles ? By J. Gray 236 The British Ornithologists’ Union 238 Universily and Educa‘iona! Intelligence. . © 38 Societies and Academies . . NATURE 241 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 31, 1908. ESSENTIAL OILS AND ESSENCES. The Chemistry of Essential Oils and Artificial Per- fumes. By Ernest J. Parry. Second edition, revised and enlarged. Pp. viii+546. (London: Scott, Greenwood and Son, 1908.) Price 12s. 6d. net. ’T*HE chemistry of the essential oils is one of the most interesting, and at the same time one of the most complicated, sections of plant chemistry. Yo begin with, the true function of an essential oil in the economy and life-history of a plant is by no means clear. It might at first sight be thought to be con- nected with the reproductive agencies of the plant, and possibly as regards the flower this may be the case; a fragrant smell in the flower may be the means of attracting the insects which carry the fecundating pollen. But that the attraction of insects is not the sole function of an odoriferous oil must be obvious from the circumstance that many essential oils, as in the conifers, are to be met with in practically all parts of the plant; some are found in the fruits, and a few even in the roots. At the same time, there is much evidence to show that the occurrence of an essential oil in a plant is frequently directly related to processes which ensure the continuance of the species. The amount inereases with the growth of inflorescence and decreases after the flowering period is past. But certain oils appear to be the result of metabolic changes which are not necessarily connected with reproductive processes. Thus the essential oil of almonds is a product of the decomposition of amygdalin under the influence of the ferment emul- sin. Oil of mustard is similarly produced from a specific glucoside by the agency of myrosin. The whole subject has hardly received that attention from plant physiologists that its importance and in- terest demand. Experimentally it is confessedly most difficult, owing to the imperfection and_ restricted character of the analytical methods at the in- vestigator’s disposal, especially quantitatively; and it is, of course, accurate quantitative methods which are most needed in correlating the life-history of the plant with the occurrence and distribution of the fragrant oil. i The volume before us is the second edition of a work which made its first appearance in 1899, and it differs from its predecessor in- several important par- ticulars, partly in omissions, but more especially in extensions. Thus as regards the chemical nature of the essential oils, a comparison of the present volume with that of the first edition will serve to show the striking developments that have taken place in the interval. It is true that we have had no substantial addition to the main groups to which the various proximate principles occurring in essential oils may be referred, but the number of such substances has been greatly increased, and their physical character- istics, constitution and mutual relations have been far more accurately determined. The general survey of the chemistry of the subject given by Mr. Parry in the second chapter is as full as the limitations of space NO. 2044, VOL. 79] in a book not primarily intended for theoretical chemists would allow. The chapter on the prepara- tion of the essential oils is, however, disappointing, especially in a work which professes to deal with the technology of the subject. The author practically con- tents himself with a statement of the principles of the main processes—expression, distillation and extraction —in general use, and omits al! detail on the ground that details could not yield the practical man nearly so much information as could be obtained during a short stay in a factory. No doubt, in general, practice is worth more than precept, but if every technologist treated the practical aspects of his subject in this way technology would cease to exist. By far the largest, and indeed the most valuable, section of the work is concerned with the systematic study of the more commercially important essential This section constitutes about half the entire work. Great pains have evidently been taken in its compilation, and, so far as we have been able to discover, nothing of material importance relating to the origin, mode of manufacture and properties of any particular oil would appear to have been omitted. It need hardly be said that the well-known contribu- tions which Messrs. Schimmel and Co. periodically make to the literature of the subject have afforded the author much of his information. Indeed, it must be admitted that the amount of actual original matter other than analytical data which he has been able to contribute to his work is not very extensive, and he has to depend upon others for thé greater part of what he has to say relating to the origin and mode of extraction of the products he describes. Since Tiemann’s discovery of vanillin, which he first obtained from the glucoside coniferin more than a third of a century ago, a considerable number of so-called synthetic perfumes have been prepared, notably coumarin, heliotropin, ionone, artificial musk, and neroli. Vanillin, which is methyl protocaiechuic aldehyde, is now obtained on a considerable scale from eugenol, the main constituent of oil of cloves, and also from guaiacol, as well as by other methods, and is largely used in confectionery. Costing as much as 160l. per Ib. in 1876, it is now quoted at about 18s. Coumarin, originally discovered in the tonka bean, is found in a great number of plants, and was first synthetically obtained by Perkin. The synthetic pro- duct is now employed to a considerable extent in place of the tonka bean, as, for example, in the prepara- tion of the well-known perfume fotn-coupé. Heliotropin is the methylene ether of protocatechuic aldehyde, and was first obtained from piperine, the active principle of pepper, and is now prepared from safrol. When first discovered its price, in 1880, was zol. per Ib.; it now costs about 8s. per Ib. Ionone, the artificial violet perfume, now largely employed in perfumery, was first obtained by Tiemann and Kriiger in 1893. The preparation of these various substances artificially constitutes one of the triumphs of synthetic chemistry, and has given a great impetus to the manufacture of artificial perfumes. Practically all that has been up to the present made known on this subject is set out in detail in the last chapter of Mr. K oils. 2A2 NATURE [DEcEMBER 31, 1908 Parry’s book. Incidentally the question of what is brandy is elucidated by what is stated respecting the nature of artificial cognac oil, which, however, strictly speaking, is not an essential oil. There as the author an almost unlimited field of research in the synthetic production of perfumes. The field is still practically untilled, and a rich awaits the successful cultivator. It is, however, a moot point whether any individual synthetic perfume is the equal, from the perfumer’s point of view, of the corresponding natural perfume. Some of these synthetic perfumes in the pure or con- centrated state in no wise resemble the natural variety ; in fact, in this state they are almost repellent, and it is only when judiciously blended and diluted that their fragrance becomes eee The fragrance of a natural perfume is in all prob- ability net wholly se to a single substance or a single stimulus. Some one substance may be there in rela- tively large proportion, but associated with it are other odoriferous substances them, possibly, in minute amounts but all of them contributing to olfactory sensation which gives pleasure. A perfume, in fact, is like a piece of music. There may in the piece a dominant musical idea, but the pleasure it creates is largely dependent upon its association with tone-sensations which are not neces- sarily structural dominant idea. Synthetic can only successfully replace natural perfumes when the greatest care and judgment exercised blending. This kind of blending rises to the level of a fine art. To be suc- ‘cessful in its exercise the olfactory sense of the blender requires a_ training hardly rigorous than that required by the auditory sense of the musician. This work, with all its limitations, is still the most is, says, harvest some of only, an be parts of the perfumes, therefore, are in less complete treatise on the subject in our language, and as such is indispensable to the pharmacist, the per- fumer, as well as to the an: lytical chemist who may be concerned with the examination of a class of sub- stances of varying character and peculiarly liable to sophistication. A MONOGRAPH ON Frosch. THE FROG. Der Monographien einheimischer Band i. By Dr. F. Hempelmann. Pp. vi+2o1. (Leipzig : W. Klinkhardt, Price 4.80 marks. Biers monograph, the editor informs us, has arisen In connection with elementary biological teach- ing at Leipzig, and is intended to describe not only the habits, structure, and ley, elopment of ‘ the physi- ologist’s domestic animal,’’ but to form an introduction to physiology, psychology, the mechanics of develop- ment, classification, and distribution. It is in respect of its scope that this addition to the vast literature on the frog differs from its predecessors. At the same time it is written for beginners, and must be judged from its value as an introductory handbook to practical dissection and experiment We may say at once that taken as a whole it is a well-written and successful attempt to compress all that is important and well established concerning the NO. 2044, VOL. 79] Tiere. 1908. ) frog into 200 pages. But that is far more than an ele- mentary student can assimilate, and between what he is first to notice and what he will only notice after the primary difficulties are overcome there is no means of distinguishing. We regret that no mention is made of Marshall’s famous book, and also that figures taken from his works are borrowed merely from reproductions of them by other authors. This neglect of Marshall is, how- ever, no isolated case of the omission of some of the most important English works on the frog, both educational and other. There is surely no more im- portant worl on the distribution and systematic aspect of Amphibia than Boulenger’s Pailless Batra- chians,’’ nor is there a more readable account of the Various aspects of this very animal than that by Holmes, published some two years ago. Lister’s classical researches on the pigmented cells are nowhere referred to, whilst a small and almost unknown com pilation by John Mivart more than thirty years rig old is quoted. The first section, that on anatomy, is based on Gaupp’s well-known edition of Ecker’s work. His- tology begins on p. 6, and the student is plunged into a study of the structure of the integument before the terms ‘“‘ cell,’’ ‘* transverse section,’’ and ‘* gland ” are made clear. ‘The apparently inevitable and complicated nomenclature reaches its maximum in connection with the brain, where no fewer than four sets of terms are used for region. The difficult and complicated question how the heart distributes arterial and venous blood requires a fuller sketch of the heart itself than is given on p. 54; whilst the equally difficult each of problems of development, e.g. of what are meant by ** pronephros *? and ‘* mesonephros,’’ are scarcely The writer does not seem to appreciate the of beginners in regard to these unfamiliar alluded to. difficulties conceptions. The second section—physiology—is much _ better done, and the general features of metabolism are clearly explained. Then follow sections on heat-pro- duction, colour-change, movements, and the elementary physiology of muscle and nerve, leading up to a dis- cussion of psychology and the development of con- sciousness. Some account is given of the experimental side of development, in which, however, we miss any reference to \ssheton’s work on the growth of different regions; in fact, the phenomenon of growth does not appear to be treated anywhere in the book. The re- ferences to sex-determination (pp. 162-4) in our present ignorance are inconclusive, and might well have been omitted. Lastly, we come to ‘* Biologie ”’ (it is difficult to see why this, the most interesting part of a treatise, is put at the end by German writers) and classifi- cation. Here we must agree to differ from the author. The common brown grass frog has always been Rana temporaria to us, but to find it described as Rana muta laurenti is indeed a shock. There is really no good ground for this change. The tendency needlessly to upset well-established names is a most regrettable feature of systematists; but to introduce confusion without any right, explanation or apology into a book always fies a fruitful field of study. DECEMBER 31, 1908] —_—— intended for elementary students is really an offence. We recommend the remarks of Boulenger (‘‘ Tailless Batrachians of Europe,’’ Ray Society, p. 301) to the author. MODERN ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. Recent Advances Organic Chemistry. By Dr. A. W. Stewart. With an introduction by Prof. J. N. Collie. Pp. xv+296. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1908.) Price 7s. 6d. net. NLESS the chemist, and especially the organic chemist, adopts some elaborate system of grouping together new information as it appears, the mass of research which nowadays floods the journals makes it difficult for him to keep abreast of current investigations. The reports of the British Association on organic chemistry have served a most useful purpose in giving summaries of recent work; but they are too few in number. It appears te us that if the Association's in funds could be utilised in extending this part of its activities, they would be well spent. Three or four reports a year on different branches of chemistry would be invaluable. But until we have something of this kind we must rely on individual effort to supply the want. This, we take it, is the main object which Dr. Stewart had in view in writing his book, and we congratulate him on the result, which has taken the form of a compact, neatly bound and well-printed volume at a very moderate price. The compilation has been carried out with great discrimination. It is not matter to discuss details of modern structural formule and at the same time to sustain the interest of the reader. But Dr. Stewart has an easy and pleasant style, and, if his criticisms are occasionally rather forcible, they only add piquancy to the subject under discussion. We think the author takes too despondent a view of the present trend of organic chemistry. We are, it is true, deluged with new compounds, which seem destined to bear no fruit, but the worst that can be said of them is that they add to the bulk of our already ponderous journals. ; Nor are we of the author’s opinion in thinking that we have accumulated an immense mass of data concerning the results of reactions, but very little indeed with regard to their causes.”? The very volume before us serves to negative the statement, for the hook: bristles with facts upon which theories are based. We do, however, most heartily agree with him in emphasising the need for studying exceptions to general theories, and there is no doubt that therein Our knowledge of the inechanism of most, even of the simplest, reactions is incomplete. We know the end result, but not the intermediate steps. Moreover, there is scarcely any general reaction which is not modified to some extent in its individual applications, whereby we are forced more and more to recognise reactivity as a function of environment. But surely this is no cause for dis- couragement. There are still new worlds to conquer, and perhaps Dr. Stewart’s book may induce chemists fo give their attention to these neglected problems. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] an easy sé NATURE 243 That the author appears a little impatient of those whose attitude towards new theories is hesitating, and perhaps conservative, is perhaps natural. But it must be remembered that our mechanical concepts of atomic relations are not easy of proof, and dynamical concepts much less than statical ones. Van ‘t Hoff’s theory has afforded overwhelming evidence of the value of the statical idea, for it is the very essence of stereochemistry, and fits in admirably with the theory of atomic linking and the existence of dynamic isomers. The foundations of organic chemistry are laid on a statical basis. It is only natural, therefore, that the explanation of the physical properties of compounds should bear a direct relation to this fundamental idea. No one doubts that the statical concept is an incomplete one. It is equally certain that the whole story of molecular forces will only be known when physical and chemical properties are grouped under one comprehensive idea. But there is no reason why new theories should not be grafted on the old, deep-rooted stock, until it may be safely transplanted. We must only be sure that any theoretical development is capable of experimental study, and in this connection it is doubtful if electrons and Faraday tubes, whatever theoretical value the physicist may attach to them, will prove more service- able to the organic chemist than vortex atoms. The bool: divided into chapters or essays dealing with those topics which have attracted special attention during the last decade. It opens with a good general account of Grignard’s reaction and asymmetric synthesis. Then follows a chapter on polyketides, that is, bodies containing the CH,.CO or ketene group or its multiple, which is illustrated from the work of Collie, Staudinger, and Wilsmore. This is followed by a chapter on recent synthetic preparations of cycloparaffins, which the author terms ‘‘ polymethylenes.’? There are essays on recent work on the terpenes, alkaloids, and poly- peptides. An interesting, though a very brief, account is given on the action of light on organic compounds which embodies much of the worl: of Ciamician and Silber, and there are chapters on addition reactions and unsaturation, in which the author has something to say about his own investigations. The volume closes with a chapter touching on modern views and the inadequate nature of structural formule, and there is, finally, an excellent bibliography of organic chemical literature, which affords convincing testi- mony of the utility, if not necessity, to all organic chemists of an adequate knowledge of the German eceerer is language. THE CURVATURE METHOD OF TEACHING GEOMETRICAL OPTICS. Geometrical Optics. By V. H. Mackinney and H. L. Taylor. Pp. iiit+128. (Birmingham: J. and H. Taylor.) HE preface to this little book is somewhat mis- leading. We there read :—‘‘ The growing de- mand for a book on Geometrical Optics based upon the Curvature system has led to the production of this small volume. . ’ Tf the use of the curvature 244 method constituted the chief characteristic of the book, we should have but little to say in its favour. The curvature method undoubtedly possesses many obvious advantages, but the loose and in places quite in- accurate manner in which the elementary theory of mirrors and lenses is here set forth does much to obscure the merits of the system. The definition ‘*‘ The curvature of a circle is the angle through which a curve turns per unit length ”’ gives an early suggestion of the lack of logical clear- ness which is throughout apparent. As an instance of more serious inaccuracy the following attempt at an explanation of the formation of an image by a concave mirror may be quoted (p. 18) :— _ “To explain the formation of the virtual erect image we may imagine the mirror to consist of an infinite number of plane surfaces (Fig.). Each of these is capable of producing a virtual and erect image {as previously explained) identical in position behind the mirror with the object in front. As the object is moved from the mirror more of these supposed innumerable facets take up the reflection for the eye to view, and so the image increases rapidly in size. ay The attempt at a formal proof, for the spherical mirror, of the relation connecting conjugate foci is given later (p. 38). With no guidance as to the con- ditions limiting the truth of the statements made, and with a misleading figure, we venture to think that the intelligent student would find this bewildering. In fact, however, no real attempt is made to estab- lish, by the curvature method, the principles of elementary geometrical optics. Apart from the state- ment in the preface one would have judged the aim of the book to be quite different from this. It would appear clearly to be intended for the use of those actually engaged in optical workshops, and especially those concerned with the practice of spectacle making and of sight testing. It would seem to aim, not at providing a logical exposition of elementary principles on any system, curvature or other, but at furnishing a reader of the kind suggested with a_ sufficient modicum of information about many points likely to be brought under his attention in the course of his practice, to enable him to deal with these not unin- telligently. From this point of view it may fairly be held to have achieved some measure of success. Evidently written by practising opticians, it does con- taim, in small compass, a good deal of practically useful and important information not to be found in the ordinary elementary text-book, more especially in regard to the characteristics of the eye as an optical instrument and the problems involved in the correction of its defects. The fact that the discussion of such questions is more readily carried on in terms of curvatures and focal powers than of radii of curvature and focal lengths may, perhaps, be held to account in measure for the sentence quoted the preface. The book has some features of value to those for whom quick reference is essential: a useful summary at the end of each chapter; a few tables and data, in- cluding a table of aberrations in lenses and_ their NO. 2044, VOL. 79] hopelessly some from NATURE [DECEMBER 31, 1908 remedies, from a paper read by Prof. Silvanus Thomp- son before the Optical Society ; a list of optical works ; and, following the index, a list of articles useful in spectacle work and sight testing, with approximate prices. As a text-book on elementary optics the book needs much careful revision. We think well enough of it to express the hope that it may receive this treatment without delay. ECONOMIC ZOOLOGY. Economic Zoology, an Introductory Text-book in Zoology, with Special Reference to ils Applications in Agriculture, Commerce and Medicine. By Prof. Herbert Osborn. Pp. xv+490; 269 figures. (New York-: The Macmillan Company; London: Mac- millan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 8s. 6d. net. A Manual of Elementary Forest Zoology for India. By E. P. Stebbing. Pp. xxiiit+230+xxxiv; 422 figures. (Calcutta: Superintendent Government Printing, 1908.) Price 15s. HE teacher of zoology to students whose chief interest in the science depends upon iis relations to some branch of human industry has often to decide whether he shall give the more prominent place to general principles or to special and technical applica- tions. The rival points of view are well illustrated in these two works. Prof. Osborn, in the introduction to his handy ‘‘ text-book,’’ rightly advocates the claims of sound general principles. ‘“Tnasmuch,’’ he writes, ‘Sas economic zoology is simply an application of our knowledge of animals which affect human interests, it is easy to see that almost any phase of the study will have some bearing on the problems that concern us. Economic zoology, if studied thoroughly, must of necessity be based on accurate knowledge . . . so that it involves a study of the whole animal and all that can be learned regarding its activities.” In agreement with these principles, the author has, in the work before us, neglected no groups of the animal kingdom, even though, like the Echinoderms and the lower Chordata, they have little or no ‘economic’? importance, so far as we know at present. A knowledge of the structure of these groups is essential to any real training in zoology; and who, a dozen years ago, could have foreseen the vast economic importance of such groups as the Hamo- sporidia, the Culicide, and Ixodidae? The students now in our colleges require training not only for the known needs of the present; they are entitled to be equipped so that they can grapple practically with the unknown problems of the future. But while the principles that have guided Prof. Osborn are thoroughly sound, it is doubtful if he has made the best possible use of the space at his disposal in thus applying them. He has given clear descrip- tions of the great animal phyla from Protozoa to Vertebrata, and the leading classes and orders, illus- trated by well-chosen figures culled from trustworthy sources. Such descriptions are, however, already available in many zoological texi-books. The special text-book for the student of economic zoology should -DEcEMBER 31, 1908] NATURE 245 contain summaries of those detailed accounts of families and species, injurious or usefil to man and his domesticated plants and animals, at present to be found only in scattered original papers or in expensive advanced treatises. In this respect the book must be pronounced disappointing. Prof. Osborn well known for his original worl on insects parasitic on domestic animals, yet here he dismisses the Anoplura in seven lines, the Mallophaga in a single short page, and refers to the Oestridee only by reproducing two figures of horse bot-fly and its larva, not even men- tioning this most important family in his text. Similarly, in the section on the Hymenoptera there is no special account of the saw-flies. Such omissions are not compensated for by outlines of morphology and classification, which, though the economic student ought indeed to know them, and know them well, he can find in half-a-dozen good elementary manuals. ‘There is another branch of zoological inquiry which, though most fundamental and important to the economic student, is superficially dealt with in most elementary text-books—the branch that deals with the factors of evolution. A fairly full and critical sum- mary of modern developments of the theory of descent would be of vast benefit to the scientific agriculturist, for example. Prof. Osborn discusses these questions in eight pages, and the summary is necessarily so condensed as to be practically useless to a beginner. lt were surely better to make no mention at all of the Darwinian and Mendelian theories than to describe them in ten and fourteen lines respectively. A word of praise is due to the clear printing of the book and to the illustrations, which, with a few exceptions—printed so darkly as to be almost unrecog- nisable—are very well reproduced. While Prof. Osborn’s book is written mainly from the standpoint of the North American worker, Mr. Stebbing’s deals almost exclusively with Indian forest zoology. After a general introduction, in which the principles of structure are illustrated mainly from the Vertebrata, the invertebrate phyla—except the Arthro- poda—are dismissed in six pages. The Arthropoda are described in 148 pages, and of these 136 are devoted to an account of the Insecia. The chapters included in this section form the original and valuable part of the book. The author states in his preface that it could not have been written seven years ago, and the number of life-histories of forest insects, especially among the Curculionidae and Scolytidee, described and figured bears testimony to the industry and power of observation displayed by Mr. Stebbing. it nfortunately, many of his drawings have been aeEy coarsely reproduced; our Government publishing de- partments—both at home and ‘‘ beyond the seas ’?’— have much to learn, for the heavy, unattractive ap- pearance of too many scientific works marks their “official ’’ origin at a glance. In some cases, how- ever, Mr. Stebbing’s photographs and figures have been treated with full justice; for example, the stages of Hoplocerambyx in a sal tree (Figs. 193, 194) form a beautiful and instructive picture. In following Dr. is Sharp’s volumes of the *‘ Carnbridge Natural History,” it is unfortunate that Mr. Stebbing should have copied NO. 2044, VOL. 79] the antiquated arrangement of insectan orders now abandoned by Dr. Sharp himself. It is disappointing also to find that both Mr. Stebbing and Prof. Osborn retain the unnatural ‘‘ Class Myriapoda.’’ The concluding section of Mr. Stebbing’s book com- prises short accounts of the classes, orders, and leading families of Vertebrata, with special reference to the Indian fauna, illustrated with cuts mostly reproduced from the volumes of the ‘‘ Fauna of British India.” The most valuable feature of these summaries is in the accounts of damage done to forests by various mammals and birds. Indeed, in Mr. Stebbing’s book, as a whole, we have prominence given to the prac- tical and technical aspects of zoology rather than to those general facts and principles on which Prof. Osborn lays the greater stress. G. H. CarpENTER. OBSERVATION, STUDY, AND NAMING OF PLANTS. Nature Rambles in London. By Miss K. M. Hall. Pp. xviiit325. (London : Hodder and Stoughton, n.d.) Price 3s. 6d. net. Life Histories of Common Plants. Pp. xvit363. (Cambridge : Press, Ltd., 1908.) Price 3s. The Young Botanist. By W. Percival Westell and C. S. Cooper. Pp. xxxix+ 199. (London : Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price 3s. 6d. net. UBLIC gardens and parks provide better facilities for the observation of trees and shrubs than it is possible to obtain on rambles in the country, so that dwellers in London have full opportunity for pursuing the study of these objects. Unfortunately, many of the numerous visitors who frequent the parks have not the necessary knowledge or lack the train- ing required to make the -best use of their oppor- tunities. For these Miss Hall has prepared the notes on nature rambles, written in non-technical language, and arranged according to the seasons’ changes. Apart from the discourses on trees, a considerable amount of space is devoted to the descriptions of the birds that reside in or frequent the parks, and not the least interesting pages tell of the bee-hive that is located under Miss Hall’s charge in the Stepney Gardens. The descriptive text is set off by the ilustra- tions supplied by Mr. H. Irving, who has established a reputation for his photographs of natural history By Dr. F. Cavers. University Tutorial specimens. The title of Dr. Cavers’s book may suggest a series of short monographs on selected types; it fur- nishes, however, a compendium of the morphology and physiology of the flowering plants, followed by chapters on special orders or allied groups of plants. For the study of elementary botany the course de- lineated is both natural and practicable. The early portion of the book follows somewhat similar lines to the author's “ Plant Biology,’’ but is not so full, and is written in a more direct, #.c. less interrogative, form. Physiology provides the fundaments of the training, and a full set of experiments is outlined to enable the student to gather his principles from per- sonal observation or from attempted experiments, as some are too uncertain for the student to manipulate. 246 The notes on the different plants supply the oppor- tunities for considering accessory problems; thus the scarlet runner introduces twining, the marsh mari- gold leads up to a discourse on marsh plants, and The volume concludes with a short epitome of ecological principles, while at the end of each chapter searching questions are proposed for solution. The author is to be congratulated on the excellent features of his book, which may be summarised as a clear diction, a logical sequence, and a recognition of the essentials. The volume prepared by Mr. Percival Westell and Mr. Cooper does not present any very unique features. It is a systematic book containing a few coloured and numerous illustrations that are quite good, espe- cially those in colour. A preliminary chapter fur- nishes hints on collecting, after which an explana- tion of general systematic and morphological terms leads to the enumeration of species. The salient dis- tinctions of each order are given, and the specific characters are scheduled at the expense of much space. The book is somewhat simpler than a flora, but less complete, as only about 200 species are de- scribed. so on. ELEMENTARY PHYSICS. y Charles E. Jackson. Methuen and Co., n.d.) Physics. By (London ; (1) First Year Pp: Vil-- 02. Price 1s. 6d. (2) Kinfithrung in die Elektrochemie. By Prof. W. Bermbach. Pp. iv+14o. (Leipzig: Quelle and Meyer, 1907.) (3) Magnetism and Electricity and the Principles of Electrical Measurement. By S. S. Richardson. Pp. viiit596. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. net. (1) HIS small manual is intended as a first-year text-boolx for schools where three or four hours per week are devoted to the subject. ‘The book is divided into two portions; the first, theoretical, and consisting of about deals with units of measurement, length, area, volume, density, pressure, and force. 100 pages, The second part consists of 76 laboratory exercises bearing on the subject-matter of the first portion. In addition, examples for home work are given at the ends of each chapter. The book is written in clear and simple language, and the illustrations are good. The section on ** Mixtures,”’ p. 51, is ill-chosen. A theoretical calculation of the density of a mixture as there indicated will most probably differ from that obtained practically by the pupil, owing to change in volume on mixing. Again, good practical results can- not be obtained from the pendulum experiments if carried out according to the directions indicated on p. 85, viz. :— ‘Allow the pendulum to swing through an are of about 3 in. long and measure the time of 10 complete swings, using a watch with a seconds’ hand for this purpose. . . . Repeat taking 20, 30, &c., swings, and from each measurement calculate the time of one swing. The result in each case should be the same.”’ Again, in section 136 we are told to time 20 swings when investigating the variation of period with length, NO. 2044, VOL. 79] NATURE [DECEMBER 31, 1908 and as an example 1.42 sec. is given as a period cal- culated from such an observation. (2) The title of this book is somewhat misleading, as it does not deal with the applications of electrical methods to chemical industries, but is intended as an introduction to the study of physical chemistry. AI- though the treatment is of an elementary nature, the book may be profitably read by students of physics and chemistry. The first chapter is devoted by the author to a résumé of the laws and principles of elec- tricity; the second chapter contains the fundamental conceptions and definitions on which the science of physical chemistry is based. The remainder of the book deals with such subjects as the electrolytic dis- sociation theory of Arrhenius, osmotic pressure, con- ductivity of electrolytes, migration of ions, and the theory of the voltaic cell. References to more ad- vanced works on the subject are given at the end of the book. (3) This text-book assumes a knowledge of the elementary descriptive portions of magnetism and electricity, and is intended for those students who are pursuing the subject further, either as a branch of pure physics or in preparation for a course of applied electricity. The author does not assume more than an elementary knowledge of the principles of trigonometry and mechanics in dealing with the subject. The treat- ment, on the whole, is very clear and concise, and the book contains considerably more matter than is usually found in books of this standard. Solutions of many questions set in recent examinations are included in the text, or given as examples to illustrate the subject- matter. These will, no doubt, commend the bool to many students preparing for examinations. ‘The state- ment on p. 27, ‘* When the lines of force are parallel the field is of uniform strength,’’ is not a very in- telligible way of defining a uniform magnetic field for an elementary student. Again, on p. 97, ‘‘ If a con- ductor carrying an electric current is placed in a mag- netic field it is subject to a mechanical foree which depends on the length of the conductor, the current strength, and on a measure of the field,’? is a some- what loose statement, there being no mention of the direction of the field with respect to the conductor. In Fig. 204, on p. 446, ** Measurement of Thermoelectric Force,’’? the connections are apparently wrong, although the author gives no explanation of the various parts of this figure. : OUR BOOK SULELI. Texl-book of Physiological Chemistry, in Thirty Lec- tures. By Emil Abderhalden. ‘Translated by William ‘VY. Hall and George Defren. Pp. xiii+722. (New York: John Wiley and Sons; London : Chap- man and Hall, Ltd., 1908.) Price 21s. net. WueEn Prof. Abderhalden’s book was published in Ger- man about two years ago, its general excellence was at once noted, and it stepped immediately into the front rank of text-books which deal with this important and rapidly growing branch of physiology. Its author had already made for himself a great reputation as an original investigator, and as Prof. Emil Fischer’s chief lieutenant had done much to elucidate the fundamental question which lies at the root of biochemistry, namely, the constitution of the protein molecule. In spite of rer ea DeEcEMBER 31, 1908] NATURE 247 being a prolific worker, he has found time to write a text-book, and in so doing has established for him- self another reputation as a clear and thoughtful ex- ponent of the things the student should know. Copious references to the bibliography of the subject enhance the value of the work. Books on physiological chemistry, or biochemistry, as it is the fashion just now to term it, have been very numerous of late. This merely indicates how assiduous are the disciples of this department of science at the present day. [t was inevitable, how- ever, that Prof. Abderhalden’s book should receive the honour of translation into other tongues, and all will welcome its appearance in English dress. The trans- lators have carried out their task with great skill, and have successfully preserved the lucid style of the original. The difficulty of international nomenclature in science is always with us, but is perhaps nowhere sO conspicuous as in chemistry. Even in the English language there are no fixed rules, and such rules as do exist are often more honoured in the breach than in the observance. The Chemical Society of London has formulated laws on this question, and we believe that the American Chemical Society has acquiesced in them. There is therefore some hope for uni- formity in the future, and it is gratifying to find in the present translation that these rules are observed. In reference to protein nomenclature, a joint com- miifee of the Chemical and Physiological Societies recently issued a report, and as the main recommen- dations have been also adopted by the corresponding American societies there is again some hope that authors may see their way to adopt them also, and so d5 something to bring order out of chaos. The trans- lation of Prof. Abderhalden’s book, however, had gone to press before this report was issued, so that in certain points (for instance, the retention of the term nucleo- albumin) the old confusion is perpetuated. But, as the translators wisely say in their preface, it seems probable that in view of the rapid progress which is being made in this branch of chemistry, be- fore long we shall be able to adopt a chemical classifi- cation of the proteins which will be better than any yet proposed. \wWp JOB d8@ Double Star Astronomy. Containing the History of Double-star Work; Computation of Orbits and Position of Orbit Planes; Formule in Connection with Mass, Parallax, Magnitude, &c. ish7i= ile Lewis. Pp. 46. (London: Taylor and Francis, 1908.) Price 2s. We doubt if Mr. Lewis has done himself justice in this little work, by which is meant that anyone might read the pamphlet and fail to recognise that he was in presence of master. Within the small limits to which he has confined himself, it was impossible for the author to discuss the subject with the fulness it demands or the completeness that his experience would approve. He is our authority on double-star work. His familiarity with the subject has been abun- dantly demonstrated, his researches have been thorough and minute, and his success has been pro- nounced. We do not forget that here he is writing for amateur astronomers, who particularly affect double-star observation, and to many of whom the past history of astronomy is a blank. These will welcome the historical notes showing what has been accomplished, and by what means our know ledge has been enriched. From history the author passes to computation, and we can sincerely hope that, guided by the excellent practical methods clearly set out, and ‘illuminated by examples, many observers will be tempted to advance a step beyond mere observation. Of course, the in- formation necessary for computing a new or correct- ing an approximate orbit increases but slowly, and NO. 2044, VOL. 79| opportunities may not very readily offer. It is per- haps more desirable that an observer should be able to compare his measures of position angle and distance with the places deduced from known elements. These means are provided and illustrated here, and by using them the observer will learn whether it is worth while to continue his measures of a particular star or to remove it from his working list, because he will see not only whether there is a wide discrepancy between the measures and the computed places, pointing to the necessity of correcting the elements, but whether the position of the companion is moving so rapidly as to demand frequent measures. In a word, the student of this little bool will be able to observe more intelli- gently, more usefully, and with greater delight to himself. The Threshold of Music. By Dr. William Wallace. Pp. xiit+267. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. net. Dr. WatLace has endeavoured in these pages to trace the development of the musical sense in the human race from the earliest ages up to the present time, and to trace its relation to the development of thought in other directions. In the chronological chart which is appended he ‘‘ represents graphically in a diagram ”’ the lifetimes of the principal composers on the scale of one millimetre to the year, side by side with those of men eminent in science, literature, and art. No one will doubt the author’s main contention that the development of modern music has taken place accord- ing to the natural laws of evclution, and a book written with this object, though admittedly touching only the fringe of the subject, opens up a highly interesting field of study. Dr. Wallace clearly shows how the old classical ideal found its culminating point in the works of Beethoven, and that the demand for ‘‘ more expres- sion,’’? or, as we should say, a closer connection between music and other phases of thought, led to the development of the modern school. In our opinion the two schools stand in somewhat the same relation to one another as pure and applied mathematics. Dr. Wallace considers that still higher musical ideals may be attained in the future. But we would suggest that the transition from pure to applied music has been rather the outcome of causes which have involved degeneration from the perfection of form of the older school, just in the same way that the requirements of the practical man involve the use of approximate methods which represent a sacrifice of the perfection of form of the theories of the pure mathematician. It is little to be wondered at that in an age when men’s sense of sound is deadened by the perpetual din of electric trams, motor-cars, and typewriters they should be able to endure and appreciate complex minor chords and discords blasted out ‘“‘fff’’ or even “fffff’? by an orchestra the overtones of the instru- ments of which afford no approximation to harmonic series, and the chaotic effect of which is further intensi- fied by the acoustic properties of the concert hall. Vorlesungen iiber technische Mechanik. By Dr. August Foppl. Vol. v. Pp. xiit+391. (Leipzig: B. G. Teubner, 1907.) Price 10 marks. Tue point which strikes an English reader most forcibly on opening this book ‘is that “* technical mechanics *’ in Germany means something much more thorough and scientific than it does in England. Here we have a highly mathematical treatise on the theory of elasticity dealing with the flexure and vibrations of plates, the bending and torsion of beams, including Saint Venant’s problem and its solutions for the ellipse, equilateral triangle and _ rectangle, the latter involving the usual application of Fourier’s series, 248 NATURE | DECEMBER 31, 1908 solutions of the equations of elasticity for cylinders and solids bounded by planes, and numerous other important problems, selected, however, with a view mainly to practical applications. The volume forms a sequel to the third volume of the series, in which the elements of the theory of elasticity are dealt with. Problems are every day occurring in engineering and naval architecture which require for their solution a knowledge of the subject-matter contained in this book. Very often such problems lead to differential equations, the solution of which, subject to the given boundary conditions, would keep a pure mathematician occupied for years. It is gratifying to learn from the preface that in Germany, at any rate, the larger in- dustrial works are attaching importance to including on their engineering staffs ‘specialists possessing theor- etical knowledge of the kind here treated. A further stimulus in the same direction has been afforded by the somewhat recently instituted degree of Doctor of Engineering. In these circumstances en- gineering science is bound to progress in Germany, and important new developments and improvements may be anticipated. In England not one man in a hundred who graduates at our universities in mathe- matics attains the standard of this book, and the majority of engineering students consider that their education in mathematics has reached a very high standard if they really understand the meaning of a differential coefficient and a moment of inertia. They practically never get bevond El divided by Ro. Fads and Feeding. By Dr. C. Stanford Read. Pp. viii+163. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Tuis is an admirably clear, well reasoned, and sen- sible little book. One can only hope that it may be widely read and may do something to counteract the ridiculous views on diet which are the result of the cogitation of that dangerous class of people who, having a little knowledge, supply the remainder from their own imagination. In spite of the importance of a suitable diet for health, there is perhaps no other subject which breeds so many fads. These are dis- seminated without discrimination by the cheap Press, and are assimilated by certain sections of the public who are always on the look-out for the latest new thing in the way of being different from their neigh- bours. The key-word of Dr. Read’s book is moderation; moderation in meat-eating, in tea-drinking, in the use of alcoholic drinks and the like. He is also moderate i1 the way he deals with the faddists, the vege- tarians, the uric-acid-free dietists, the teetotalers, and the rest. Perhaps this method of dealing with them is the most effectual with the public, who, taken as a whole, are moderate, and temperate too. A reader is always apt to distrust the hammer-and-tongs argu- ment, and to label those who adopt it among the fad- dists also. Dr. Read does not concern himself with prescribing diets in disease, that is properly left to the medical attendant; he deals merely with the underlying scien- tific principles which regulate, or ought to regulate, the diet in health. There are, however, a few useful general hints laid down regarding the foods suitable in dyspepsia and in obesity. The golden rule for diet is to take in moderation the kind of food which experience has shown can be easily digested. The enthusiast who cannot see beyond his one idea is never a safe person to trust in any sphere of life. The accumulated knowledge which is the offspring of ex- perience and physiological experiment is the only sort of knowledge which is trustworthy. It is impossible for every member of the public to wade through NO. 2044, VOL. 79] physiological treatises; the least one can expect the non-scientific man in the street to do is to study such a book as the one under review, in which this mass of facts is boiled down and presented in a non- technical and palatable form. 6 JB). 181 Dyspepsie. By Georges L. Dreyfus. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1908). Price Uber Nervése Pp. iv+1o02. 2.50 marks. AtrnouGu this work of 100 pages claims to be a col- ‘lection of psychiatric researches from the Medizinische Klinik at Heidelberg, it is of the nature rather of a critical digest than an attempt to add much to our knowledge of the subject with which it deals. The researches consist of careful investigation of twelve patients suffering from nervous dyspepsia, including the chemical analysis of the gastric contents after the administration of test-breakfasts. The cases are care- fully recorded. After a historical introduction the author proceeds to consider cases of dyspepsia in which mental disease, nervousness, hysteria and acquired neurasthenia are to be regarded as the primary cause and he rightly insists that the nervous disorder in these patients is not due to the dyspepsia; but he does not point out, as he should have done, that some rare cases of nervous disorder occur as the direct result of chronic dyspepsict of stomachic origin, and that in other cases dyspepsia and nervous disease have a common cause and are not dependent on one another. This view ought to be considered in deang with acquired neurasthenia which is, according to some writers, probably due to the accumulation of fatigue products. The dyspepsias of Addison’s disease and of exophthalmic goitre are mentioned, as well as cases in which degeneration of the plexus of Meissner was found post mortem. In his summary Dr. Dreyfus maintains with justice that nervous dyspepsia is a symptom and not a disease, and that, although we are ignorant of the intimate physiology of the condition, we are in a position to assert that local treatment of the stomach by modifi- cations of diet and other means is useless. In other words, the disease, and not the symptom, must be treated. The bibliography of 10 pages is very full, so far as German work on the subject is concerned, and contains some references to papers in other tongues. The volume, which is well written and easy of re- ference, will be welcomed by future workers on dyspepsia due to disease of the nervous system. By Prof. Carveth Read. Pp.) xaubieye: Price 7s. 6d. The Metaphysics of Nature. Second edition, with appendices. (London: A. and C. Black, 1908.) net. AMONG the ways in which this edition differs from the first issue may be mentioned the fact that a preface has now been provided, and this introduction is of special interest as revealing the way in which Prof. Read himself regards his book, and his opinion of the reviews of the first edition. Referring to the nature of the work, the preface states :—‘‘ It is not a deductive system from principles, advancing from the simple to the complex, from the general to the par- ticular, or according to some such formula; but is everywhere a reflection upon experience in the light of common-sense. It starts everywhere from the facts, and these may not have a necessary order.’ To elucidate further the more important doctrines of the book, the author has added in this edition ap- pendices on truth, consciousness, transcendent being, and moral freedom. Unfortunately, no index is provided. 1 DECEMBER 31, 1908] NATORE 249 The Reliquary and Illustrated Archaeologist. Edited by Rev. Dr. J. Charles Cox. New series, Vol. xiv. Pp. 302. (London: Bemrose and Sons, Litd., 1908.) Price 12s. net. Tur quarterly numbers of this review are often noticed separately in these columns on their appear- ance. The Reliqguary is devoted to the study of the early pagan and Christian antiquities of Great Britain, medizeval architecture and ecclesiology, the develop- ment of the arts and industries of man in the past ages, and the survivals of ancient usages and appli- ances in the present. The volume for the present year contains an abundance of interesting text and excellent illustrations, and should appeal to a wide circle of readers interested in antiquities. The Class-room Atlas of Physical, Political, Biblical, and Classical Geography. Edited by E. F. Elton. Third edition, revised. Pp. vii + 48, plates + 11. (Edinburgh and London: W. and A. K. Johnston, Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. net. Tus widely known atlas has undergone a thorough revision, and may be recommended to the careful attention of teachers in schools where geography is regarded as a school subject of great educational value. The editor has been successful in his aim of providing clear maps, a full treatment of physical features, and a series of climate charts which will meet school requirements adequately. Flashes from the Orient, or a Thousand and One Mornings with Poesy. In Four Books: Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. Book second— Summer. By John Hazelhurst. (London: Hazell, Watson and Viney, Ltd., 1908.) Price 1s. 6d. Mr. Hazecnurst draws the inspiration for most of his verse from natural objects and phenomena, but occa- sionally current events, incidents relating to people of the day, and moral questions form the subjects of his sonnets. There are many evidences of the author’s versatility in the 295 pieces the book includes, and his imagination and grace will please many readers. The Country Home. Vol. i., May to October, 1008. Pp. ii+380. (London: Archibald Constable and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 5s. net. Tue first volume of this very attractive magazine, containing the monthly numbers one to six, is likely to become a popular book in country houses. Nature- study tales a prominent place in the comprehensive table of contents, and much attention is given to horticulture and other suitable pursuits for country dwellers. The illustrations are numerous and good. LETTER TO THE EDITOR. |The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of Nature. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Optically Active Liqu ds SOME years ago a method was described by N. Umow (Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie, 1899, xxx., 711) for demonstrating objectively the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light by an optically active liquid such as a solution of sugar. The method was an_ ingenious application of Tyndall’s experiment on the effect of an opalescent liquid on a beam of polarised light. It con- sisted in rendering a concentrated solution of sugar some- what turbid by adding to it a small quantity of an alcoholic solution of resin; on passing an intense beam of plane polarised light into this solution spirals of light of the spectrum colours were seen round the walls of the tube, the colours being, of course, due to rotation dispersion. Some time ago, in order to show this phenomenon, I NO. 2044, VOL. 79] | | | | made a slight modification of Umow’s method in regard to the solution, which appeared to be advantageous. A concentrated solution of sugar was mixed with arsenious oxide, and when as much of the latter had dissolved as possible, the liquid was filtered, and sulphuretted hydrogen gas passed through the filtrate. This gave a clear solu- tion of sugar and colloidal arsenious sulphide, and when an intense beam of plane polarised light was passed into such a solution the phenomenon described by Umow was very clearly seen, although some of the colours were slightly interfered with by the yellow colour of the solu- tion. For the purposes of a popular lecture I recently pre- pared a colloidal solution in water of arsenious sulphide alone—to exhibit the Tyndall effect—and another as above described, but I also filled a third tube with a solution of sugar in water (made with tap-water and filtered through ordinary filter paper). I proposed to point out that a beam of plane polarised light passed through this last tube should produce no effect, as the tube contained a true solution. On trying the experiment beforehand, however, I was surprised to find that the colours were nearly as distinct as, and certainly purer than, in the case of the solution which contained arsenic sulphide. It thus appears that in order objectively to demonstrate optical rotation nothing further than a clear aqueous solution of sugar is neces- sary, and that Umow’s addition of resin and mine of arsenious sulphide were superfluous. It seems highly probable that the simple experiment of passing a beam of plane polarised light sufficiently intense to show the phenomenon can never have been made before, otherwise the experimenter could not have failed to be struck by the colours produced. ; As regards explanation, there seem to be two possi- bilities :—(1) there may be in the solution containing sugar and water a small quantity of foreign matter, either in the colloid form or in such a fine state of subdivision as to pass through the filter paper, these particles, as in Tyndall’s and in Umow’s experiment, scattering light and thus showing up the rotation; or (2) the spirals may be due to scattering of light by the sugar molecules them- selves, which thus serve to show up their own rotation. The decision must be left to those competent to discuss the question. I will only mention in support of the first suggestion that when a beam of ordinary light is passed through the aqueous sugar solution slight scattering of the light certainly occurs, as is shown by examination of the light coming from the sides of the tube, by means of a Nicol prism. On the other hand, however, the colours seen in the tube containing sugar and water alone are but little inferior in intensity to those seen in the tube contain- ing arsenious sulphide. I have also passed a beam of plane polarised light through a tube containing a very pure specimen of menthy! acetate ([a|p'°°=—79°-5) which had been carefully dis- tilled. The colours were quite apparent in this case also, being purer, but not so intense as with the sugar solution. The scattering of ordinary light by the menthyl acetate was very slight indeed. Whatever the cause of the phenomenon may be, it is a very simple matter to demonstrate objectively to a large audience the rotation of the plane of polarisation of light. T. S. PATTERSON. Organic Chemistry Laboratory, University of Glasgow, December 18. THE FINANCIAL STATUS OF THE UNIVERSITY PROFESSOR.* HE Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching was instituted for the betterment of the calling of the teacher in the United States, the Dominion of Canada, and Newfoundland. Its first 1 “The Financial Status of the Professor in America and in Germany. Bulletin No. 2. (New York: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- ment of Teaching, 1908 ) “The Relat ons of Christian Denominations to Colleges.” An Address before the Conference on FEdication of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, at Atlanta, Ga., May 20, 1908. By Henr: Prit: hett, President of the Carnegie Foundation. (Printed at Nashville, Tennessee, 1908.) 250 NATURE [DecEMBER 31, 1908 purpose has been to establish an efficient system of retiring pensions for professors in the higher centres of learning. Up to May, 1908, sixty colleges and universities had been admitted to the benefits of its retiring allowance system, and one hundred and six professors and eighteen widows of professors are already receiving allowances amounting in the aggre- gate to more than 37,o00l. A natural sequel to this first important task has been the collection of statistics relating to the salaries of the American professors, and a comparison of the figures with those prevailing in Germany. The report which has been drawn up contains an introduction by Mr. Henry S. Pritchett, president of the foundation, while the arrangement and analysis are due to Prof. 1Dg, IL Thorndike, of Teachers’ College, and Messrs. John G. Bowman and Monell Sayre, representing the Carnegie Foundation. For the data concerning the German professor, Dr. A. A. Snowden is responsible. We learn from the report that there are about 1000 institutions in the United States and Canada bearing the title ‘‘ college ’’ or ‘‘ university.’’? A great many of these, however, do not rise above the rank of indifferent high schools ; roughly spe: iking, nearly one. half of them are not colleges in any true sense, and the pay of their teachers is proportionately small. As it would be unfair to draw conclusions from these institutions regarding the average pay of the teacher of real distinction, the committee has based its con clusions mainly on information derived from the 102 institutions in the United States and Canada which appropriate annually more than goool. for the total pay- ment of the salaries of their instructing staffs. The tables indicate that in these institutions the salary of a full professor ranges generally from about 270l. to g6ol. per annum, and that the average is about sool. It is pointed out that the variations in salary correspond to some extent with differences in cost of living, and that while a salary of 4ool. may be a comfortable one in a small town in the middle west of America, double that salary may not secure equal advantages in New York. It appears that all the salaries below 3001. are paid either at colleges where living is comparatively inexpensive, or they are paid under exceptional con- ditions, in addition to free rooms and board. From an examination of the corresponding figures for associate professors and assistants, Mr. Pritchett concludes that an American who has taken a post- graduate course and prepared himself for the profes- sion of higher teaching may hope to obtain 2501. at the age of twenty-eight, 2701. at thirty-one, 4501. at thirty-three, and sol. at thirty-five. The report also discusses the details at fifty-four of the most important institutions, where the total annual expenditure varies between 2000]. and goool. It is found that though several of these institutions are doing excellent work asia colleges, ” it is practically impossible for a “university ’’ to exist and do good work under goool. ayear. The scholarly atmosphere maintained at some of the smaller institutions is in direct relation to the relatively high salaries they pay their teachers. There are very few large prizes in the te: iching pro- fession. In only two or three colleges does the salary rise above roool., and it would appear that in several instances those drawing this salary have been appointed under conditions which have since been modified. Mr. Pritchett is keenly alive to the need for better- ing the position of the university teacher. It is pointed out that the professor can never expect to earn the large income which is the reward of enterprise and ability in such learned professions as medicine and law. The attraction which leads able men into the NO. 2044, VOL. 79] teacher’s calling springs from two sources, first, the sense of power and responsibility which the true teacher feels; secondly, the love of study and of the scholar’s life. Held in a position of highest dignity by those about him, he lives a life of frugality, of simplicity, of influence, and, above all, of happiness. He lives, as Mr. Lowell observed, in the only recog- nised aristocracy in America. A man who chooses this calling should be freed from financial worries. A salary below the line of comfort means a struggle to live and educate the children of the family. Prob- ably there are very few professors in any country who do not utilise their salaries to the best advantage by living the simple life, so that when the financial worries come the sacrifice talkes the form of abandon- ment of research and the undertaking of outside work, often remunerated at a rate which makes but a poor return for the demands it imposes on the pro- fessor’s time. The need of opportunity for research is strongly emphasised by Mr. Pritchett. Another cause which is detrimental to scholarly productiveness is the large amount of administrative and routine worl: frequently devolving on the teachers. The second part of the report deals with Germany. The committee finds that the German professor may expect in time a far greater financial and social reward than comes to his American colleague. Ele has, furthermore, a place of far greater security, and with full protection for his old age and for his wife and children. On the other hand, he has to go through a longer period of probation than the American before attaining the coveted chair. A German who possesses such ability that he may expect in due time to become a full professor, and who prepares himself for university teaching, must expect to study until the age of thirty with no financial return, to study and teach as a privat-docent until nearly thirty-six, with an annual remuneration of less than 4ol., and to teach from thirty-six to forty-one with an annual remuneration of from 120l. to 4ool., by which time he may become a full professor and will continue to receive his salary until his death. The committee is very strongly of opinion that the low scale of salaries of American professors is in no small measure due to the multiplication of weak and unnecessary colleges, and also to the tendency to expand the curriculum over an enormous variety of subjects without regard to thoroughness. A college of ten professors who are strong teachers, command- ing fair compensation and teaching only such subjects as they can teach thoroughly, is, as Mr. Pritchett points out, a far better centre of intellectual life than a college which seeks with the same income to double the number of professors and to expand the curriculum to include in a superficial way the whole field of human knowledge. In many instances given in this bulletin the low grade of college salaries is due to the attempt to maintain a university with an income which is adequate only to the maintenance cf a good college. In regard to the multiplication of classes, it is pointed out, in so many words, that as a rule neither the professors nor the president of a university college are fighting business men. When it comes to a question of asking for more money, they are by nature diffident of “ple icing their own personal claims in the foremost position, and they adopt the ‘‘ path of least resistance ’’ by associating their demand with some desirable extension of the teaching work of their institution. They hope all along that their own candle will be relieved from the pressure of the bushel which dims its luminosity. But, unfortunately, they DECEMBER 31, 1908] NATURE | 251 too often adopt a course which has the reverse effect by burden which it imposes on the ministry of begging exhausting the funds which might be theirs if they only asserted themselves with a little more push. It is this fact which has led to a result, not peculiar in any way to American universities, that the salaries of professors often decrease in direct measure as the success of their college or university increases. If Mr. Pritchett had carefully studied the universities of Great Britain he might have found some notable in- stances in our own country. Meanwhile the professor himself makes strenuous efforts to reduce his butcher’s or tailor’s bill, and if he succeeds it too often happens that his influence as a leader of thought is impaired in consequence. As the committee puts the matter, he does not feel quite justified in demanding a greater salary for himself, even though he is wasting the university’s energy in copying quotations, building fires, and hunting about the town for a cheap tailor. A course is given, though only five out of a thousand students take it, and though these five would prob- ably be as much profited by some other course already offered. Yet to give that course is to withhold an increase of tw enty. or twenty-five per cent. to some in- dividual’s salary. It is pointed out that in many things institutions might profitably cooperate. There does not seem, for example, any necessity for two universities in the same city to give courses in Syriac. The problem which this consideration presents is thus stated on p. 52 of the Bulletin. Given a certain sum for salaries for a university or college of a given size, how much must be sacrificed in the quality of the teachers in order to have enough teachers? If all the conditions of the problem were capable of exact numerical representation, this would be a_ simple problem in maxima and minima, but in view of the difficulty of translating the data into mathematical language, we may be at least satisfied with the committee’s recommendation that one 6o0o0l. .man teaching a class of thirty-six students probably means better progress than two 3oal. men each teaching eighteen of the thirty-six. Turning to the question of multiplication of colleges, an important factor in America has been the founda- tion of a large number of educational institutions associated more or less directly with certain Christian denominations. These colleges form the subject of Mr. Pritchett’s address before the Methodist Episcopal Conference at Atlanta. Colleges which are under the control of a sect, or which require their trustees, officers, or teachers to belong to a specified denomina- tion, are excluded from the benefits of the Carnegie Foundation. Mr. Pritchett pays a high tribute to the works which many of these institutions have done in the pioneer days of American education, but points out the great increase which has taken place in recent years in the expense of maintaining a genuine college on efficient lines, and finds that during the last two decades Christian denominations have found increas- ing difficulty in meeting those obligations, and the colleges controlled by them have with few exceptions received a meagre and inadequate support. There are three positions which a Christian denomination may take up in regard to education. First, it may say that the maintenance of colleges is necessary for extending and continuing the influence and power of the Church in question. Under this view the re- sponsibility of providing the funds rests with the Church itself. From the statistics given in the paper it is shown that the salaries which denominational colleges provide for their teachers even in the most favourable cases compare very badly with those pre- vailing in institutions under State or independent control. A further objection to the system is the NO. 2044, VOL. 79| money for the Church college. It is clear that ‘under such a system burdens have been imposed on the churches which they cannot efficiently bear at the present time. The second view is that a church may claim the right and duty to controi educational insti- tutions on the ground of religious fitness. But it is pointed out that the maintenance of sectarian tests does not, as a rule, conduce to the religious fitness of a college; indeed, it has often resulted in a serious lowering ‘of standard, brought about by competition between colleges of rival denominations. The third method is for a religious body to accept openly the view that colleges and universities are furthering the cause of religion generally, and that the cause can best be advanced by a Church if it exerts its best influences on higher institutions in general without reference to sectarian control. Mr. Pritchett considers that such a solution is not only theoretically but prac- tically possible, and that the abandonment of the spirit of partisanship will strengthen the churches by enabling them to appropriate to their own use in the training of their own men the facilities for general education provided in colleges. On reading these publications we naturally wish that there was some body in England corresponding to the American Carnegie Foundation, the more so as the operations of that body extend to Canada as well as to the United States. The very success of the higher educational movement in Great Britain has too often resulted in a lowering of the professors’ salaries. This is particularly unfortunate in a country where a continual struggle for the upper hand occurs between the scholarly ideal and the examination (shall we say?) ordeal. Examinations are not altogether bad in themselves; they test the student’s powers of English composition, of expressing lucidly and in- telligibly in writing the ideas which he has learnt. They should also test his resourcefulness in dealing at short notice with difficulties which have not been anticipated by the teacher. But the teacher whose tenure of office is at all insecure cannot but feel that in many instances his means of livelihood are more or less dependent on the outside show which his classes make when the numerical results of examina- tions are compared with those of other institutions. Thus, instead of devoting his spare hours to research, he is often led voluntarily to give private tuition to those members of his classes whose prospects of passing their examinations are doubtful. In other words, a premium is placed upon inferior scholarship. We have known of professors whose careers have been ruined by their too rigid insistence on high scholar- ship in contradistinction to high records of examina- tion passes. Again, the need of retiring allowances for professors was never and nowhere more acutely felt than it is in Great Britain at the present day. That it should be possible for a Fellow of the Royal Society to be reduced to extreme poverty without even a Civil List Pension, after devoting the best years of his lifetime to the interests of a “college, doing the work of perhaps five professors in a German university for a salary far below the line of comfort, is an occurrence of which our country cannot feel proud. To make things worse, this sad misfortune may not improbably have been the result of over- work in undertaking additional. administrative duties for the college in a period of emergency. If the Carnegie Foundation does no more for America than prevent the occurrence of such cases its existence will be fully justified, but it wouid be a great relief to some of us on this side of the Atlantic if a similar institu- tion could be charged with the interests of the higher teachers in Great Britain. GaHeE Bb: NA TORE [DECEMBER 31, 1908 252 THE VACATIONS OF A HATO RALIST (| Maemo eds": Ua0e | 8 aac HOSE who have read ‘In Northern Spain,’.| and plants, which have their ‘‘ probable centre of published some years ago, will welcome another book of travel by the same author. In the years 1902 and 1904 he spent the long vacation in the south of Mexico in search of zoological specimens, and the present volume not only gives us an entertaining account of the experiences “of himself and his wife in localities which are still but little known, but it is a collection of scientific observations and speculations of considerable value, in which, though zoology naturally takes the first place, other branches of research are by no means neglected. He spent a considerable | portion of his time in the tierra caliente, the hot tropical lowlands, at a season—from June to Septem- ber—when vegetable and animal life exhibits the greatest luxuriance and activity. It is, however, a period of excessive heat, and in most places heavy rainfall, so that readers of the book will obtain an unduly unfavourable impression life in America. At other times he was at work on the invigorating table-land of Mexico or the slopes of its lofty volcanoes. Everywhere he was successful in ob- taining specimens of new or rare forms of life, and to those who know the difficulties of carrying through a programme where the bridle-path and mule-train are the only means of trans- port, the amount that he was able to accomplish in the limited time at his disposal will seem marvellous. The book commences with a descrip- tion of the environs of the capital, and of Lake tropical of gives an interesting account Xochimileo, famous for its floating gardens and the axolotl that inhabits its waters, the questions which arise in connection with the life-history of the latter being discussed in some detail. The travellers spent some time on Citlaltepetl, el Volcan de Orizaba, where the author was struck by the abrupt character of the upper limits of plants on the mountain-side. ‘ Til- landsia tricolor disappears quite sud- denly from the southern slopes at aboui g600 feet; the last specimens are just as large and flourishing as those lower The “ Chinampas down, whilst the conifers upon which they grow, continue without the slightest change. The Pinus liophylla and the Abies ryeligiosa cease at their upper level as very big trees.”’ The author obtained five species of the land-newt, Spelerpes, one of which, S. variegatus, was ultimately found to extend from an altitude of gooo feet to the tropical lowlands. He states that ‘“‘a_ boxful of S. variegatus that he collected in a day’s excursion in 2 tropical region south of Cordoba lived verv well of the low but on Citlaltepetl in spite temperature, those brought from that mountain died within a few days when taken into the tropics; and he considers this to corroborate ‘‘ the fact that most creatures can endure a temporary change into cooler rer even though they may not flourish under while the reverse of such conditions prostrates and ikjlls them.’’ It is, however, doubtful whether this is true of i Through Southern Mexico. Being an Account of the Travels of a Naturali By Hans Ga F.R.S. Pp. xvi+527. (London: Witherby nd Co., 1908.) Price 18s. net. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] origin in temperate climates, and now extend into the tropics and yet remain apparently unaltered, than there are hot country species which have spread into cool climates. From Orizaba the travellers passed to the low-lying forests of the Rio Tonto, on the northern side of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where a goods van shunted on to a siding formed their headquarters. The author’s description of a tropical forest is so true. to nature that part of it may be quoted here :—‘‘ It does not begin gradually. On its outskirts it is fringed by an impenetrable wall of luxuriant herbage, shrubs and creepers. It can be entered only by hacking and slashing a path through the tangled growth, which closes up again within a few weeks, except where traffic may have produced a narrow, meander- ing track, from which it is impossible to deviate either to right left. Once inside, we are in or a ‘or Floating Gardens of Lake Xochimilco. From Mexico.’ Thro gh Southern gloomy, stuffy forest consisting of tall, straight trees, which branch out at a great height above us, there interlacing and forming a dense canopy of green through which little or no sunlight. The absence of direct light effectively prevents the growth passes of underwood, and there are no green, luxuriant plants, no flowers or grass. The ground is brown and black, covered with many inches of rotting leaves and twigs, all turning into a steaming mould. From our point of view below the canopy the leaves, branches, and even bright-coloured birds lool: blacls, and this is still more the case where, by contrast, such objects are seen through a rift in the canopy against the glaring sky.” Prof. Gadow describes in detail the adaptation of different groups of animals to forest life, and lays stress on the fact that, given the same conditions, the out- ward characters of different forms become almost iden- tical. Speaking of the arboreal Anura, he tells us that “the forests have succeeded so well that it is, for in- —e ee DECEMBER 31, 1908 | NATURE tv on 1s) stance, impossible to distinguish certain green tree- frogs of the African genus Rappia from a Hyla unless we cut them open. If they lived side by side, which they do not, this close resemblance would be extolled as an example of mimicry. In reality, it is a case of heterogeneous convergence brought about by identical environmental conditions. One might almost say that tropical, moist forests must have tree-frogs, and that these are made out of whatever suitable material happens to be available.’’ Continuing their journey by rail, the travellers reached Tehuantepec, on the Pacific coast, where the lower rainfall is evidenced by less luxuriant vegeta- tion, and thence travelled on horseback: north-westward on to the southern plateau. On the way we learn a great deal about a variety of topics, including ‘‘ white ants ’’; Anableps dowei, the ‘‘ four-eyed ’’ fish; the weaver bird and the method it has devised of suspend- ing its nests from telegraph wires; humming-birds ; rattlesnakes, and how they got their rattle, and the exemplary Chontal Indians, who never steal ‘* porque no es costumbre.”’ In some places the vegetation consists mainly of cacti. After describing the armament of spines that affords them effectual protection, the author re- minds us that ‘“‘ cattle and horses, sheep and goats, were all introduced by the Spaniards, and none of the indigenous vegetable-feeders of the plateau, such as stags, squirrels, hares, and mice, can claim to have helped in the evolution of these plants. Are we reduced for an explanation to go back to the extinct fauna? More likely it is one of those cases in which imagination has run away from a more sober and matter-ef-fact judgment. It is, no doubt, the case that the conditions prevailing on a high table-land of this kind, subject to prolonged drought, a fierce sun, great and quickly-succeeding changes of temperature, and dust-storms, have produced the characteristics of this family of plants without regard to the animals.’’. We must remember, however, that the Camelida and Equidze must in all probability have formed part of the fauna of Mexico as late as the Pleistocene, as they are found in deposits referred to that period both in North and South America. Some means of defence against these animals would have been absolutely necessary for the preservation of succulent plants in a dry climate where vegetable food was far from plentiful, and it is only reasonable to suppose that the destruction of unprotected forms contributed to the extraordinary development of spines which now char- acterises the group. In the second expedition the author and his wife travelled south from the capital by way of Cuerna- vaca to the terminus of the railway at Balsas. Thence they made their way on horseback over the mountains to a densely wooded portion of the Pacific coast, where they camped on a narrow strip of dry land between a lagoon and the sea. There is a fine description of the nightly thunderstorm which came up from over the sea, a phenomenon of considerable meteorological interest. Unfortunately, in this and many other cases we are not given the date or even the month when the observations recorded were made, though this information would have added considerably to their value. , The illustrations are plentiful and usually clearly reproduced, though one would have wished for more photographs of the phases of animal life which form such an important feature of the text; but with so much compressed into such a brief period it is easy to understand that there was no time for tele- photographic work. AW eal be NO. 2044, VOL. 79] THE HEADMASTERS’. CONFERENCE. FTER a school career prolonged to the age of eighteen in one of the great public schools, a youth should possess certain minima of endowment —moral, physical and intellectual. His intellectual assets should include a reasonable proficiency in the use of the English language, the ability to read in- telligently at least one other language, a notion of what the study of history really means (with some sense of historical perspective), and acquaintance with some fundamental scientific discoveries, together with an inkling of the importance of the advancement of man’s control over his environment. He should have an intellectual interest in at least one subject, not necessarily, nor even preferably, included in his school studies. A charge has been preferred against the schools of failing to equip the majority of the young men who leave their ranks with even this modesi minimum of mental endowment, and the authors of this charge include men whose experience and ability lend weight to their indictment. Interest in the head- masters’ debates concerning curricula should not at this juncture be confined to the ranks of the scholastic profession, There were fifty-two headmasters present at the meetings of the conference, which took place at the Merchant Taylors’ School, London, on December 22 and 23. The Rev. Dr. Nairn presided, and the larger schools were well represented. It may be well to remind our readers that by its constitution the con- ference limits its membership to headmasters of schools where a considerable number of boys remain until the age of eighteen or nineteen. A discussion of the proceedings of the annual congress should throw light on the progress being made towards an improved curriculum. Special interest attaches to the resolutions relating to the age at which the study of Greelx should begin. Two years ago the conference declared that this study should be postponed to the age of thirteen or fourteen, and that Greek should not be a subject of the entrance examination at the schools represented in the con- ference. Forty-two of the leading schools regulate the admission of boys from the preparatory schools by an examination entitled ‘‘ Common Examination for Entrance to Public Schools.’’ We find that only five of the forty-two schools have definitely dropped Greek, the remaining thirty-seven disregarding the 1g06 resolution. On the other hand, seventeen schools exclude science, and the remainder make science optional, usually as an alternative to Latin verse. The practical result is that many little boys in pre- paratory schools are specialising in classics, and their general education is impossible. In other cases we find (to quote Mr. R. C. Gilson, of Birmingham) ‘“the present stupid method of trying to teach three foreign languages together to little boys in knicler- bockers.’’ At the age when the observation of nature and education of motor-centres are of special import- ance, the public schools insist on the pursuit of Latin and Greek to the practical exclusion of manual and observational training. It is hardly to be wondered at that, to quote Mr. Gilson again, ‘‘in the name of teaching Greek the schools were turning out men who could not observe nature.’’ This state of affairs will be remedied to some extent if and when practical effect is given to the resolutions of the conference, which affirmed (1) that the average boy cannot under- take the study of more than two languages besides English before the age of thirteen years without detri- ment to his general education; (2) it is the duty of public schools to provide classes in which the study 254 NATURE [DECEMBER 31, 1908 of Greelk can be begun. ‘There is the more reason for hope that the opinions of the conference will not again be ignored in practice, since tie meeting further resolved, on the motion of Dr. Lyttelton, to appoint a committee to confer with the preparatory schoolmasters as to a scheme of studies for schoolboys from the age of nine until about sixteen. A report presented to the Leicester meeting of the British Association contained recommendations which have been endorsed during the last fifteen months by various meetings of teachers. Without undue pre- cipitancy or rash precision, the meeting decided, ‘““That this conference, while withholding its assent to many details, and in particular to the proposal to postpone the study of Latin to the age of twelve, approves of the main conclusions of the report of the committee of the British Association Education section.’’ It may be hoped that influential head- masters will find some means of translating this approval into action, especially the much-needed improvement of the position of teachers. Several administrative problems were discussed. The Board of Education was asked to proceed at an early date with the registration of teachers, the sug- gestion being made that the Registration Council should include representatives of various types of schools. A resolution welcoming the inspection of non-local schools by the Board failed to pass, the previous question being voted by a small majority. Some headmasters desired inspection as a means of bringing the authorities of the schools into closer touch with the Board, inf order that the great public schools might take their place in a coordinated system of national education. On the other side, fear was expressed lest compulsory inspection should make the headmaster responsible to two masters, the governors and the Board; any action was deprecated which would diminish or destroy the variety, of type of the secondary schools of England. As opinion on_ this matter appears to be uncrystallised, we may hope that there may be a gradual growth in the number of schools which seek inspection by the Board on their individual initiative. The conference appointed com- mittees to confer with (a) the Army Council, (b) the Oxford and Cambridge joint board. The neglect of German was deplored, and a resolution was carried in favour of dividing the emoluments of entrance scholarships so that the bulk of the money should be reserved to those in need of financial assistance. Reviewing the deliberations of the conference as a whole, it can hardly be asserted that the need for far- reaching reform of the public-school curriculum has been sufficiently impressed upon headmasters. Reform of the common examination for entrance to public schools is a mriecessary preliminary. In its present organisation this examination discourages manual training, ignores the esthetic side of education, and penalises nature-study and experimental science. The plain teaching of physiology concerning the develop- ment of the brain and of neurc-muscular systems receives contemptuous disregard. “There is a wide- spread belief that the position attained by a boy on entry to the public school depends almost entirely on his knowledge of the rudiments of Latin and Greek. We do not know of how many schools this is true, but we are certain that proficiency in natural history or physics should be no bar to a boy’s efforts to win a good position, and that no implication of intellectual inferiority should attach to the science side of the school. With great earnestness we urge the joint committee of the conference and the masters of pre- paratory schools to re-model the conditions of the entrance examination, so that young boys may pursue a broad general course, comprising literary, scientific, NO. 2044, VOL. 79] mathematical, artistic and manual training. The terms of reference assigned to the committee en- courage us to hope for a curriculum containing the studies we have enumerated up to sixteen years of age. If schemes founded on such a basis were adopted by the schools, a partial specialisation during the last two years at school would be compatible with the aim which headmasters no less than their critics have in view, viz. to ensure that the majority of boys should receive during school-life a general education in harmony with the ideas and requirements of the present century. GED BIRDS IN RELATION TO AGRICULTURE.' URING the past few years birds have received an increased amount of attention, for it has become more generally recognised that the whole question of their food supply is of great importance to British agriculture—using this term in iis widest sense. There are plenty of individuals who rightly recognise that many of our avian fauna are of much economic value, while there are also, unfortunately, a far greater number who thoughtlessly stigmatise the majority of birds—or at least birds of a certain class, e.g. owls—as useless and harmful. These less enlightened sons of the soil need showing that the majority of British birds are useful, but the showing is far from easy. It has been demonstrated over and over again that the sparrow, or ‘‘ the avian rat,’’ as Mr. Tegetmeier terms it, is entirely harmful; Yarrell has stated that the kestrel principally subsists on mice; a case is mentioned by Macgillivray in which food was brought to the nestlings by a pair of fly- catchers no fewer than 537 times in a day; and the writer has himself observed a single starling carry food to its young from a grass paddock 18 times in 15 minutes; and hundreds of similar records have served to demonstrate in some sense that many birds are useful, and confer an immense benefit on mankind. Although individual records are very valuable, they are not of the same importance as a coordinated and duplicated set of records, and the latter has been sorely needed. Mr. Robert Newstead has just made a most important contribution to our knowledge of the food of birds, his memoir on the subject being pub- lished as a supplement to the December issue of the Journal of the Board of Agriculture. As curator of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester, a large number of birds passed through Mr. Newstead’s hands, and he was wise enough to tabulate carefully the contents of stomachs, &c. No special effort was made to collect material, and for this reason the records are, perhaps, the mere valuable, since no_ selection of birds “ caught red-handed ’’ was made Full notes were also made as to sex, locality, date, &c., and the records are based on 871 post-mortem examinations of the stomach contents and the ‘pellets’? or ‘‘ castings’? of 128 species of birds. Field observations bring the records up to more than 1100. The contents of stomachs, ‘* pellets,’’ &c., are arranged under several heads, including insects, divided into beneficial and harmful in their respective orders; animals other than insects, e.g. slugs, birds, fish and other ‘‘ small deer’’; and vegetable food, which includes fruit, weed seeds, grain, &c. The birds themselves are finally divided, on the results of their partiality for given foods, into seven classes, from wholly innoxious and more or less strictly 1 “The Food of Some British Birds.” By Robert Newstead. /ournad of the Board of Agriculture, December supplement. (Board of Agriculture and Fisher-es, 4 Whitehall Place, S.W.) Price 4d. fost free. - oy DECEMBER 31, 1908] beneficial, through other grades to wholly destructive and useless species. Coming now to the results, it is shown that insects were found in 41 per cent. of the total post-mortem records and pellets, while if certain birds—e.g. finches, owls, hawks, and water birds—are omitted ‘‘ the insects forming the whole or part of the dietary of the remaining birds amount to between 7o and 75 per cent.” Large numbers of injurious insects were taken by all kinds of birds, click beetles and their larva (wire- worms), weevils, crane flies and their larva (leather jackets), surface caterpillars and winter moth cater- pillars being numerous; for example, five specimens of the rook contained between them 213 surface cater- pillars, and 120 winter moth larva were found in a jay’s stomach. Grain occurred in about 77 cases, but in almost negligible quantities, and, except in the case of the blackbird and of fruit buds damaged by the bullfinch and blue titmouse, cultivated fruit was searcely repre- sented. Noxious weed seeds were taken by many birds. Of the birds themselves, the majority come under the ‘‘ useful’ class; the song thrush, great and blue uts, greenfinch, chaffinch and rook have the balance of utility in their favour; the blackbird, bullfinch, sparrow-hawk and raven are destructive and_doubt- fully of any utility; while it is noteworthy that those species regarded as ‘‘ wholly destructive and useless ”’ number but three—the carrion crow, house sparrow and wood pigeon, the food of the two latter, however, not being considered. Mr. Newstead’s paper should be widely read, for it may certainly be held as a vindication of the bird world, and it is easy to understand the author’s emphasis of the great value of the majority of birds. \s hinted in the official preface, it is to be hoped that further reports will be forthcoming at a later date. NOT!SS Time most disastrous earthquake in Europe for years was experienced in Calabria and the district of Messina, in Sicily, on Monday, December 28. The shock occurred at 5.20 a.m., and was followed by a great sea- which appears to have destroyed Messina and Reggio, and also the greater part of the villages on each side of the Straits of Messina. Reports from Catanzaro state that the first intimation of the disturbance was prolonged, thunderous noise followed by a vivid flash of lightning, and at the same é many Wave, a time by a series of violent shocks which seemed interminable. Heavy torrential rain then fell, and continued to fall during Tuesday. Accord- ing to reports from Times correspondents, so complete has been the destruction of Messina that it is almost impossible to obtain any connected account of the character of the The centre of the disturbance seems to have been in the Straits, and it is greatly feared that the whole conformation of the neighbouring earthquake. coast-line has been On Tuesday, the officer of a torpedo-boat who left Messina for Reggio sent after a few hours the follow- ing message :—‘T cannot find Reggio; if it exists, it is no longer where it was.’’ The lighthouses in the Straits have been rendered useless by the earthquake, and it is rumoured that the configuration of the bottom of the Straits has been altered greatly. It is estimated that the number of deaths will reach the terrible total of 100,000, for in Messina alone 50,000 lives are said to have been Jost. It will be recalled that the province of Calabria was visited with like disasters in September, 1905, and October, 1907. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] changed. DEATHTEE 259 A roucu of real winter has set in over Great Britain since Christmas, and the closing days of December will be remembered for the heavy falls of snow and the severe frosts which have occurred. At Christmas a cold but dry easterly wind was blowing over the whole country, but on December 27 a shallow disturbance traversed the northern portion of the kingdom, and a fall of snow was generally experienced. The heaviest fall occurred in Scoi- land, but the amounts were fairly large over England, the fall being generally augmented on the following days, and much inconvenience was occasioned on our railways and to other traffic. The frost was exceptionally keen in all parts of Great Britain, and unusually low temperatures occurred in many places. mostly experienced on the night of December 28 and: on the following day. At Oxford the thermometer on the grass registered 14°, and at Greenwich a similar thermo- meter read 17° on the early morning of December 29. Much snow has fallen in London and the suburbs, and in St. James’s Park, the observing station of the Meteor- ological Office, the sheltered thermometer stood at 22° mid-day on December 29. The lowest thermometer readings were at The Greenwich records for the past sixty-eight years only show three instances of the highest day temperature below 25° in these occurred in 1855, 1874, and 1890, the lowest previous record December ; being 23°-2, in 1855. Intense cold has occurred generally over western Europe, the minimum thermometer in the ° at Berlin and 5° at Brussels on the night of December 28. This severe weather was accom- panied by high casterly winds in many places. screen registering 3 Wer learn with deep regret of the death of Dr. J. M. Pernter, director of the Zentralanstalt fiir Meteorologie und Geodynamik in Vienna, and professor of terrestrial physics in the university there. Dr. Pernter died on December 20 at Arco, in South Tyrol, at sixiy years of age. Tne Weekly Weather Report iust issued by the Meteor- ological Oflice gives a summary of the observations for the past year. The highest shade temperatures for the several districts range from 91° in the west of Scotland to 81° in the north of Scotland and in the north of Ireland. range from 10° in the east of in the north in the English Channel. The mean different average, but there was mostly a slight excess. ‘The lowest temperatures Scotland and in the Midland counties to 19° of Scotland and 24° temperature was not generally very from the The number of rainy days ranged from 252 in the north of Scotland to 1607 in the south-east of England, and they were mostly in fair agreement with the normal. g 51-14 inches, in the north of Scotland, which is 1-17 inches less than the average; the next largest measurement was 46-85 inches, in the west of Scotland. The largest total in the English districts was 36-36 inches, in the north-west, and the least 20-14 inches, in the north-east. The largest aggregate rainfall for the year was The rainfall was nearly everywhere in defect of the average; in the south-west of England the deficiency was 6-93 inches. The duration of bright sun- shine varied considerably in different parts of the kingdom, the largest amount being hours, in the English Channel district. In the south-east of England there was 1897 the greatest excess, the total duration being 1737 hours, which is 140 hours more than usual. We regret to see the announcement of the death of Dr. George Gore, F.R.S., at eighty-two years of age. AccoRDING to a Reuter newspapers of Burgos report that five meteoritic stones, weighing from message, the 256 NATURE [ DECEMBER 31, 1908 one to seven kilograms, fell a few days ago in the village of Jubilla del Agua, setting fire to a farm. Dr. Harotp R. D. Spitta, assistant lecturer on bacterio- logy and lecturer on clinical pathology at St. George's Hospital, has been appointed to the newly created post of bacteriologist to the Royal Household. AccorpinG to the Scientific American, the U.S. War Department has considered the advisability of immunising soldiers against typhoid fever by vaccination. It has decided that inoculation as a preventive against typhoid has been demonstrated so thoroughly, and its efficacy so well established, that the vaccination method is to be adopted in the United States Army. We learn from Science that an investigation into the cause of cancer, and its possible prevention and cure, has been begun in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, under the direction of a committee consisting of Dr. S. W. Lambert, dean; Prof. W. J. Gies, professor of biological chemistry; Prof. P. H. Hiss, jun., professor of bacteriology; Prof. F. C. Wood, pro- fessor of clinical pathology; Prof. G. N. Calkins, pro- fessor of protozoology ; and Dr. Eugene H. Pool, instructor in the department of surgery. Tue American National Association of Audubon Societies is organising a complete census of the game and forest birds of the country. This work will be superintended by a committee consisting of Mr. W. Dutcher, president of the association; Mr. E. H. Forbush, ornithologist of the Massachusetts State Board; Mr. T. Gilbert Pearson; Mr. Frank M. Chapman, assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History; and Dr. T. S. Palmer, of the U.S. Biological Survey. Thousands of question forms are to be sent to friends of the association throughout America, as well as to all wardens and officials who have opportunities of observing the bird life of their own neigh- bourhoods. The object of the census is to collect cogent evidence of the need of greater protection for the nation’s birds, especially in the interests of the crops and the trees. Tue following are among the prizes awarded by the Paris Academy of Medicine for 1908, announced in the British Medical Journal :—the Laborde prize (2ool.), for the most notable advancement of surgery, to Prof. Mon- profit, of Angers, for his work on the operative surgery of the stomach; the Theodore Herpin prize (120l.) to Dr, Albert Deschamps, of Riom, for an essay on the diseases of energy—general asthenias; the Amussat prize (qol.) to Dr. Destot, of Lyons, for a radiographic and clinical study of the wrist and industrial accidents; the Orfila prize (160l.) to Prof. Calmette, MM. Boullanger, E. Rolants, F. Constant and L. Massol, and Prof. Buisine, for researches on the purification of water that has been used in towns and of the residual water of factories. The Roger prize (100l.) to Dr. Marfan, for his treatise on the feeding of infants; the Saintour prize (176l.) to Dr. Emile Sergent, for his work on syphilis and tuberculosis; the Campbell-Dupierris prize (921.)'to Dr. Morris Nicloux, for his work on general anzesthetics from the chemico- physiological point of view; the Ernest Godard prize (4ol.) to Dr. F. W. Pavy, of London, for his work on carbo- hydrates and their transformation—a_physiologico-patho- logical study with considerations on diabetes and its treat- ment. WE regret to announce the death of M. E. Stuyvaert, who for many years occupied a prominent position in the Reyal Observatory of Belgium. For nearly thirty years NO. 2044, VOL. 79] ] he rendered loyal and efficient service to that institution, both at Brussels and in its more recent installation at Uccle. He was one of the Belgian astronomers who took part in the observation of the transit of Venus in 1882, and from that time onward he took the greatest interest in extra-meridional work. He was in charge of one of the equatorials, and was indefatigable in his observation of comets and planets, as well as of eclipses and occulta- tions. The physical appearance of the larger planets was a subject which engaged his attention, and he pub- lished several memoirs on the surface markings of Jupiter and Mars. His micrometrical measures of double stars from 1878-96 is a well-known work. In addition to instru- mental observation, he paid considerable attention to the subject of meteors and the appearance of the zodiacal light. For some time previous to his death he had been engaged in constructing a large-scale model of the moon, which, unfortunately, is left unfinished. Mr. H. Sr. Joun Gray contributes to the Times of December 26 a full account of excavations in the Maum- bury Rings Circle, of which he was in charge. This has long been regarded as the site of a Roman amphitheatre, and this view is corroborated by the fact that one of the most interesting discoveries made was that of a stratum of shell fragments, quartz, flint, land-shells, &c., similar to that used by the Romans in other places to fill up uneven patches, to prevent the slipping of the gladiators, and to absorb the blood of combatants. Fragments of pottery also indicate Roman occupation, and one portion of the site seems to have been fortified, holes for stakes cut in slabs of Purbeck limestone having been found at the point where the entrance of the arena was situated. It is interesting to find that this place was occupied by the Neolithic people as a flint workshop. Flint flakes, cores, and hammer-stones were found scattered on part of the site, and the picks made of deer’s antlers were obviously the implements by which this early race ex- cavated the remarkable pit whence the rough flints were obtained. This pit is at least 30 feet deep, one of the deepest archaeological excavations on record, one of those at Grime’s Grave being a few feet deeper. It is much to be desired that a site which seems to have been almost continuously occupied since Neolithic times by various peoples should be fully investigated, and it may be hoped that the appeal for help issued by Mr. Gray from Taunton Castle, Somerset, may meet with a liberal response. A sHorT time ago Dr. O. P. Hay’s memoir on the fossil chelonians of North America was reviewed in our columns. The author has supplemented this in No. 1640 of the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum with an account of four new species, together with a note on a fifth named by Cope. To No. 5 of vol. viii. of the Museums Journal Dr. A. Fairbank, the director, contributes an account, illustrated with plans, of the new building for the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, U.S.A., which, it is hoped, will be com- pleted early in the new year. Great care appears to have been exercised in the planning of the building, which, it is stated, will be admirably adapted for the display of the treasures with which it is to be filled. SoME time Dr. E. Fraas published an account of bones of sauropod dinosaurs obtained by himself in German East Africa. The remains were found lying on the surface of the ground in considerable numbers, and only a_por- tion of those seen appears to have been brought home. With the view of securing additional specimens, Dr. Fraas ago Td DecEMBER 31, 1908] we are given to understand, is about to make another expedition to East Africa. A peautiretty coloured plate, in addition to several others in black and white, illustrates a further report, by Mr. R. W. Sharpe, on the ostracods in the United States National Museum, published as No. 1651 of the Proceed- ings of the Museum. No. 1654 of the same publication is devoted to amphipods collected off the west coast of North America, which include a new family, together with several new genera and species. Mr. S. J. Holmes is the author of this communication. A FURTHER account of fishes of the Irish Atlantic slope forms the subject of Irish Fisheries, Scientific Investiga- tions, 1906, part v. (1908). The authors, Messrs. Holt and Byrne, commence in this issue an illustrated account of the more uncommon deep-water fishes of the Atlantic coast, with the object of rendering the species easily identifiable by fishermen, and commence with the families Scorpzenide and Alepocephalida, of which a number of representatives are figured. This is followed by an account of recent additions to the marine fish-fauna of the British Isles, these including a new species of ray. Tue greater portion of vol. xii., part ii., of the Trans- actions of the Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society is devoted to an illustrated account, by Mr. A. B. Har- wood, of the town museum, of the fossil flora of the Leicestershire and South Derbyshire Coalfield, with especial reference to the evidence it affords with regard to the age of the local Coal-measures. It is concluded that the Coal-measures of the Ashby, or central, district are lower in the series than those of the eastern and western districts, which belong mainly or wholly to the middle portion of the series. Tue opening article in the November issue (vol. ii., No. 8) of the Anatomical Record is devoted to the methods of teaching anatomy in the medical schools of the United States, more especially at Johns Hopkins University. The importance of concentrating elementary teaching is strongly insisted upon by the author of the paper, Mr. F. P. Mall, this, as applied to anatomy, meaning that the elementary work should be given during the student’s first year, the schedule being so arranged that the greater part of the time of each pupil is devoted to this subject until the elementary portion is completed. ‘‘It has been the aim of American anatomists,’’ concludes the author, ‘‘ to elevate the status of our profession, for it has been rest- ing as a compressed buffer between surgery hand arid zoology on the other.” on the one REGENERATION at the two extremities of the body in the annelid Spirographis spallanzanii forms the subject of the first article, by Mr. P. Ivanov, in vol. xci., part iv., of the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie. It is stated that in this and allied polychzetous annelids, living a sedentary life in tubes constructed by themselves, the pheno- menon of regeneration presents a special interest on account of the fact that the bodily structure of these creatures shows several peculiarities, such, for instance, as the abnormally large size of the nephridia in the anterior segments. The regenerated extremities are de- scribed in detail in the text, and fully illustrated, both from the external aspect and by means of sections, in the plates. Like many other British birds, the scaup-duck seems to be extending its breeding-range in our islands. According to an account relating to Scotland, given by Mr. P. H. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] ‘ NATURE 257 Bahr in the December number of Witherby’s British Birds, the species was recorded as breeding near Loch Hope in 1834; in 1867 a clutch of ducks’ eggs, believed to be those of a scaup, were taken, while in the following year a drake was shot in Sutherland in circumstances suggest- ing that it was breeding. The first definitely authenticated nest and eggs were obtained in Speyside in 1899, and in 1897, 1898, 1899, and 1900, as well as probably in the two following years, the species bred in the islands south of the Sound of Harris. In 1906 two other nests were discovered in these isiands, one of which is figured in Mr- Bahr’s paper. Amonc a number of articles in vol. xxx., No. 1, of Notes from the Leyden Museum, we select for mention one by Mr. E. Jacobson on the construction of the nests of the Javanese ant Polyrhachis bicolor. In common with a few other species, these ants spin nests in the leaves of palms and other trees. The example described and figured takes the form of a long and slender tube, slightly ex- panded at the two extremities, and with a minute entrance at the lower end, its total length being 25 cm. It was constructed in a palm-leaf, and when examined was found to contain one winged female, twenty-five males, twenty- four workers, and a number of pupz and larve in various stages of development. The note concludes with a de- scription of a somewhat more complicated spun nest con- structed by the West African Polyrhachis laboriosa. Tue embryology and anatomy of hyperdactylism in Houdan domesticated fowls is discussed in great detail by Marie Kaufmann-Wolff in vol. xxxviii., part iv., of Gegenbaur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch. The abnormality usually takes the form of an extra digit on the inner side of the hallux or great toe, but in some instances assumes a more complicated type. In the plates and text- figures the structure of the foot is displayed by means of sciographs, dissections, and embryo specimens. Embry- ology decisively shows that the additional digit or digits arises as a bud from the metatarsal or phalangeals of the hallux, which, in the course of its development, becomes segmented, and eventually appears as a duplication or triplication of the latter. The hyperphalangism is there- fore essentially a neomorphic, and in no wise an atavistic, condition, its evidence thus being altogether opposed to the theory of the existence in vertebrates of a prepollex or prehallux. No. 27 of the ‘“‘ North American Fauna”’ (U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture) is devoted to an account of the natural history of the Athabasca-Mackenzie region, by Mr. E. H. Preble, based on a recent biological survey of that area. The region is of considerable importance from a commercial point of view on account of the number of valuable fur-bearing animals by which it is inhabited, while it is of special interest to the naturalist as being the one in which the last remnants of the American bison survive in a truly wild state, and it is also the home of the Canadian race of the musk-ox. In the spring, when its springs and rivers are released from the icy grip of the long Arctic winter, the region is likewise the resort of countless flocks of birds of various kinds which breed within its limits, these including representatives, and in some cases the great majority, of most of the migratory game-birds of North America. The monograph, which comprises 564 pages, deals chiefly with the vertebrates, although it likewise contains a section on the trees and shrubs of the district. The explorers were unable to obtain any definite information with regard to the present numbers of the bison, but the herds are stated to be much 258 NAT ORE [ DECEMBER 31, 1908 harassed by wolves, and the opinion is expressed that unless something is speedily done to reduce the number of the latter, the bison is doomed ere long to complete extermination. Two parties, comprising respectively eight and sixteen head, were reported by the Indians to include no yearlings or two-year-olds, all the calves having been killed by wolves. Ix the December number of Man Mr. A. Lang returns to the well-worn controversy on the subject of totemism by a criticism of Dr. Seligmann’s paper in the previous number on the subject of ‘‘ linked totems.’’ He rightly questions the admissibility of the term, and remarks on the confusion between the words “‘ tribe’? and ‘‘ clan” in dealing with the subject. It seems clear that until a recognised terminology comes to be adopted by all writers, the origin and meaning of totemism must remain to a large degree uncertain, and the important problems of its relation to exogamous marriage and prohibited forms of food will continue to be incapable of solution. It may be hoped that in his great forthcoming work on totemism Prof. J. G. Frazer will finally settle the nomenclature of the subject, and thus dispose of difficulties which have led to much wearisome and embittered controversy. Mr. W.. K. the Phillips Academy, Andover, which claims to be ‘‘ the only preparatory the world that possesses “a fine museum and department of archwology,’’ has issued two fresh Bulletins, Nos. 3 and 4. The second and more important contains an elaborate monograph on the famous site of Fort Ancient, the great prehistoric earthwork of Warren County, Ohio. It is satisfactory to learn that the State Legislature has now completed the purchase of this important site, which Moorneap, of Massachusetts, school in will be preserved as a public park. Needless to say, the age of this monument and its rela- tion to the immense aboriginal cemetery at. Madisonville have long formed a subject of controversy among. American anthropologists. Mr. Moorhead, who has done much work on the spot, thinks that Fort Ancient may be some eight or nine centuries old, and he dismisses the modern articles found in a grave at Madisonville as ‘‘ intrusive.”? It is clear, however, that this résumé of the facts at present available will not close the discussion. The writer admits that “‘ we have but begun the right study of the Ohio Mounds,’’ and that it will take many years to complete the field work which is necessary before the problem of their origin and age can be finally solved. the rules and recommendations nomenclature at framed primarily for the ALTHOUGH botanical regarding: the Vienna’ Congress’ were guidance of systematic botanists, it is important that they should be generally known. A pamphlet, reprinted from the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute (vol. x\.), gives the substance of an address on the subiect read by Mr. T. F. the Auckland Institute. Cheeseman at It provides a good epitome of the salient points, and contains a list the nomenclature of New Zealand tribution to the fuller knowledge Zealand, by the same authority, is of changes caused in ferns. A second con- of the flora of New concerned mainly with the record of new localities. j INTENDING visitors to Connemara in search of botanical rarities will find it profitable to consult the account of an excursion published in the Transactions and Proceed- ings of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh (vol. xxiii., part iii.). The plants, Erica Stuarti and Erica Mackaiana, that formed the immediate object of the ex- pedition, were obtained. In part Mrs WoW: two the same NO. 2044, VOL. 79] Smith describes a 1emarkable tussock formation observed in the Scilly Isles, where plants of Arundo phragmites, Pteris aquilina, and Carex paniculata were growing together in clumps, rising as high as 8 feet above the marshy substratum. A short note on the collection of five species of Riccia in the Edinburgh district is contributed by Mr. W. Evans. AMONG the systematic articles published in the latest part (No. 9) of the Kew Bulletin, special interest attaches to the description of a new species of the Burmanniacex, Bagnisia Hillii, reported from New Zealand by Mr. T. F. Cheeseman. Species of the subfamily to which Bagnisia belongs have been hitherto collected in Ceylon, Samoa, and New Guinea, so that the discovery in New Zealand extends the range considerably further south. Another contribution of considerable interest, more especially to the small cultivator, is the account of a Lancashire willow farm furnished by Mr. W. Dallimore. The willows are grown on dry land under similar conditions to ordinary farm crops; the best twigs are obtained from special varieties of the species purpurea, viminalis, rubra, and Smithiana. WE are in receipt of the recent issues of the Agricultural News, a fortnightly paper issued by the West Indian Department of Agriculture dealing with matters. of interest to tropical agriculturists. The subject-matter consists mainly of excerpts from various agricultural journals and bulletins, the selection being carefully and intelligently made. Altogether the paper must be ranked among the most useful of our agricultural publications. ' Tue determination of total solids in sugar-mill products has usually been rather a tedious and uncertain business by reason of the instability of certain compounds in the molasses. Mr. Peck finds that the Abbe refractometer can be used conveniently, and describes the method of work- ing. in Bulletin No. 27 of the Hawaiian Sugar-planters’ Association. He gives also a set of tables to show the percentage of total solids corresponding with each re- fractive index. The agreement between the results obtained in this way, and by the older method of drying, is satisfactory, and the method promises to be very useful to sugar chemists. We dealing with Sacc.), grain have reccived from the Board of Agriculture leaflets gooseberry black-knot (Plowrightia ribesia, weevils (Calandra granaria and C. oryzae), and the apple saw-fly (Hoplocampa [Tenthredo] testudinea). They give illustrations showing the pest in its various stages, and the kind of damage it does; there is also a description, in simple language, which will help the prac- tical man in his identification. Schemes of treatment are suggested. INCREASING attention is being devoted in South Australia to fruit production and to the best methods of placing the products on the market. The Journal of Agriculture of South Australia has recently described at some length how fruit-drying is practised in California, where this practice has been developed to a high degree of perfection. The fresh fruit is first fumigated by means of sulphur, then spread on trays and exposed to the sun until dry; but as the weather conditions may become unfavourable, the larger drying grounds are also provided with elaborate drying plant, so arranged that the fruit shall be exposed to a gradually increasing temperature. The tray of fruit is placed in a gently sloping tunnel up which a stream of hot air from a furnace passes, and is gradually pushed downwards as fresh trays are put on behind. This slow DECEMBER ey 1y08] - NATURE 252) drying is found to give much better results, and to yield a finer product, than more rapid drying would do. Hyprocyanie acid is fast becoming a recognised agent for the destruction of various insect pests that infest green- trees, &c., although the conditions are not yet fully known. It is used in combating citrus seales in South Africa, New South Wales, Florida, and with which, on the whole, satisfactory. The fumigation of trees growing in the open air is made possible by covering the tree with a tent. Dr. Morrill described in Bulletin No. Bureau of Entomology, U.S. Department of Agriculture, an ingenious graduated tent that not only covers the tree, houses, for success elsewhere, results are very recently 76, but also indicates the volume enclosed, thus enabling the operator to use a definite quantity of hydrocyanic acid for each cubic foot of air. The tent is shown in the illustration; it is a large sheet with numbers painted on it in two directions at right angles, starting from the middle. A table has been drawn up showing the proper amount of potassium cyanide to use when any particular numbers mark the the tent. The method base of marks Fic. 1.—Eighty-foot tent covering large seedling orange tree, showing tent graduated for the purpose at of enabling operators to use the proper amount of potassium cyanide. Fic. 2.—Carrying 5-gallon crocks containing acid and water under the tent, preparatory to intro- ducing the cyanide. a distinct advance in outdoor fumigation by enabling the operator to avoid an excess of hydrocyanic acid, which would injure the tree, whilst ensuring a sufficiency to kill the pest. Tue Philippine Journal of Science for September (iii, No. 4) contains several papers of medical interest. Mr. Old reports several cases with unusually severe symptoms caused by stings of an unknown variety of jelly-fish, and Mr. Ruediger filtration experiments with the describes virus of cattle plague which show that the virus is small | enough to pass through the pores of the Berkefeld filters V, N, or W, but not through a Chamberland B filter. IN a second report on research work issued by the Metropolitan Water Board, Dr. Houston, the director of water examinations, details the methods employed and the results obtained .in experiments planned with a view to the detection of the typhoid bacillus in raw Thames, Lee, New River waters. The result is that the typhoid bacillus was not once detected. Dr. Houston says, ‘* the most recent tests for B. typhosus, applied to a considerable volume of raw river water, at weekly intervals, during a period of twelve months, and involving the study of 7329 NO. 2044, VOL. 79] and | pair of Zollner light )) ProfenGe samples, failed to reveal the presence of a single typhoid bacillus. It would, however, be altogether . presumptuous to infer from these observations that the typhoid bacillus is never present in the raw river waters, or to conclude of purifying the raw that any rclaxation in the processes river waters, by storage and filtration, before delivery to consumer, is justifiable.” Wr have No. 1 of the weekly report of the seismological stations established by Messrs. Nobel at Baku and Balakhany, the instruments in each station being a horizontal pendula with photographic registration. We may indication of the growing interest in the study of earthquakes and of the received take this as an recognition of its economic applicability by a firm which has always been remarkable for enlightenment and pro- gressiveness. U.S. Monthly Abbe, in a Government to with “Tt is the duty In the Weather Review for August last note entitled ‘“‘ The Duty of the Protect the People from Swindlers,” says, reference to rain-making and other experiments :— of the editor to call attention to the fact that the folly of any human attempt to make rain or to alter the weather in any way has been so abundantly demonstrated in this. country, in Europe, in Australia, in New Zealand, and elsewhere, that it is high time our law givers made it a penal offence to do this or to secure money under such false pretences as these promises are.’’ No special mention is made of the dispersion of fog; would Prof. Abbe include this under altering the weather in any way ? Tue current number of the Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society (vol. No. 25) contains an important discussion of the climate of Orkney, by Mr. M. Spence. From 1827 to 1885 observations were made Sandwick by the Rev. Dr. Clouston; since that time they have Xiv., been continued first by Dr. Fortes- cue at Swanbister, and after- wards by Mr. Spence at Deerness. Dividing the mean temperatures into two periods of forty years, the first, 1827-66, gives 46°-1; the second, 1867-1906, gives 45°-6; difference, 0°-5. A comparatively smali range is natural, from the insular position; the lowest mean for any month is 31°-3 (February, 1838), and the highest 61°-4 (July, 1852); the mean difference between day and night temperature is very small. The mean annual rain- fall (1841-1907) was 36-7 inches; the driest month is May, the wettest October. The Orkneys surpass any other district in Great Britain in the number of gales, the yearly average being about ninety-seven. Winds from S. and S.E. are much more frequent than from S.W. and W. Mr. Spence remarks that the Orkney statistics “* entirely dispose of the belief that is almost universal, at least in these islands, that there are equinoctial gales.’’ Except- ing that it avoids extremes, the whole does not vary greatly from that of the north of Scotland. climate as a From a reprint that we have recently received of Prof. L. Palazzo’s presidential address to the International Seismological Association at its meeting at the Hague in September, 1907, we observe that he attributes more par- 260 NATURE [DEcEMBER 31, 1908 ticularly the great interest now gencrally taken in seismo- logical studies to the hope that these may aid in solving the problems inherent to the constitution of the interior of the globe. In the course of his remarks he said that the great improvement in self-recording instruments has enabled us to determine the trajectories of the seismic waves, to study their reflection, refraction, dispersion, and absorption; but he remarks that we shall never be able to avoid the terrible scourge of the earthquake, nor even to foretell it. Modern discoveries, however, have led us to consider the interior of the globe to be formed of a solid nucleus, with a density and rigidity greater than that of steel. This nucleus is enveloped by a rocky crust, but between this crust and the metallic nucleus lies, at a great depth, the layer of plastic matter, of high temperature, which explains volcanic phenomena and their localisation. We have received from the Royal Observatory of Belgium the results of recent balloon ascents made at Ucele, including those arranged for by the International Commission for Scientific Aéronautics, from July 27 to August 1. The observatory was very unfortunate during this period; the records of two ascents were wilfully destroyed, and only one ascent, that of July 30, reached a considerable altitude, 15-2 kilometres, where the tempera- ture by M. Hergesell’s metallic thermometer was —59°7 C. The minimum reading of the up trace was —69°-2 C. at 13-2 kilometres. In the British Isles twenty- eight ascents were made during the above period, twelve of which were on account of the Meteorological Office. The preliminary results of the British series were com- municated to the Royal Meteorological Society by Mr. C. J. ‘P. Cave on December 16. | The average height reached was 16-4 kilometres, the highest being 23 kilo- metres, at Pyrton Hill, Oxfordshire. The records of all the balloons recovered, except one, showed the existence of the isothermal layer. Pror. Larmor pointed out several years ago in his “* dither and Matter’? that the fundamental facts of optics and electrodynamics, those of aberration in particular, re- quire us to assume that the zther does not partake to any sensible extent in the motion of matter through it. On this hypothesis there should, however, be certain modifications in the optical or electrical actions of bodies on each other according to the direction in which the wether is sweeping past them. Such effects have been sought for and not found, and the negative results led Profs. Lorentz and Fitzgerald to suggest as explanation that the bodies themselves undergo changes of shape when they move through the zther which accurately compensate these effects. More recently Prof. Einstein has shown that the “principle of relativity,’’ according to sae which only relative motions of bodies with respect to each other can produce observable effects, leads to the same law of change of shape, and Prof. H. A. Bumstead, in an interesting article in the November number of the American Journal of Science, is disposed to accord it a position analogous to that of the second law of thermodynamics. He applies it in succession to the torsion pendulum, the gravitation pendulum, and to several problems of gravitation, and shows that it leads to a slight modification of the law of gravitation and to consequences which ought to be capable of detection astronomically, As a supplement to Rivista Marittima (Rome) for November are published two papers, by Prof. Guido Cora, on geography and oceanography during the nineteenth century. In the second paper Prof. Cora gives a short, but comprehensive, review of the chief problems of oceano- | o!.25. NO. 2044, VOL. 79| graphy from its foundation to the present time. The papers should be valuable as guides to work accomplished in geography and oceanography during last century. Mr. C. Baker, of High Holborn, London, has _for- warded a copy of the 1909 issue of section iv. of his cata- logue. The catalogue is divided into four parts, dealing respectively with aids to vision, prismatic and other optical appliances, projection apparatus, and meteorological and allied instruments. We have also received the current issue of Mr. Baker’s classified quarterly list of second-hand instruments which he has on sale or hire. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. SeaRcH FOR aN Uxtra-Nertuntan PrLanet.—Following the recent interesting discussion by Prof. Forbes at the Royal Astronomical Society, of the probable existence of a planet beyond the orbit of Neptune, there is an interest- ing note by Prof. E. C. Pickering in No. 4292 of the Astronomische Nachrichten (p. 323, December 18). In this note Prof. Pickering mentions that as the result of an investigation, an abstract of which was read at the American Academy of Arts and Sciences on November 11, Prof. W. H. Pickering finds evidence of the existence of an ultra-Neptunian planet, which at the epoch 1909-0 will be located approximately in R.A. 7h. 47m., dec. +21°. Photographs of this region have already been taken with the 24-inch Bruce telescope at Arequipa, and the Rev. J. H. Metcalf is also employing his 12-inch doublet for the same research. As this region is now easily accessible, Prof. Pickering asks that other astronomers, having the use of suitable instruments, should join in the search. Should the pro- posal be accepted by any number of workers, it is proposed that a systematic study of this portion of the ecliptic might be organised. FurTHER OBSERVATIONS OF MORENOUSE’S ComET, 1908e. —In No. 24 of the Comptes rendus (p. 1263, December 14) M. J. Guillaume gives some further interesting details concerning the remarkable changes which took place in the form of comet 1908¢ as observed at the Lyons Observa- tory. On October 24 the nucleus was seen to be elongated and to have a granular appearance with a small stellar condensation, of about the thirteenth magnitude, towards the eastern extremity of the head. The light of a star, of the tenth or eleventh magnitude, appeared to be augmented as the head of the comet passed before it until it reached the eastern edge, when sudden diminutions of brightness occurred at intervals of several seconds. Remarkable oscillations of the brightness of various parts of the coma were also observed, and on November 17, when the field of the telescope was artificially illuminated, the comet disappeared with a star of the ninth magnitude. The same number of the Comptes. rendus also contains the results of observations of the comet’s position, made at the Toulouse Observatory between October 2 and 13. Tne Figure or tne Sun.—In No. 26 of the Contribu- tions from the Observatory of Columbia University, New York, Prof. Charles Lane Poor brings together in a general discussion the results hitherto obtained from in- vestigations dealing with the figure of the sun, and its possible variations. Some of the earlier results were directly contradictory in their statements as to whether the equatorial or the polar diameter was the longer, whilst later results indicate that although there may be a fluctuating difference, its magnitude is insufficient to show definitely. Prof. Poor, summing up the general results of the pre- sent investigation of meridian, heliometer, and photo- graphic measures, concludes that the exact shane of the sun is not known, but the generally accepted idea that it is a sphere is at least open to question. AJ] the measures show a departure from the spherical form, but the differ- ence between the various radii probably does not exceed \ DECEMBER 31, 1908 | The available heliometer measures indicate a fluctua- tion of the sun’s shape corresponding with the 11-3-year sun-spot period, but probably not exceeding o”:10, whilst the observations of Ambronn and Schur possibly indicate another, shorter, period, of about twenty-eight days. To determine this question, a long, homogeneous series of observations is necessary, and a photographic heliometer would probably furnish the best results. Experiments in this direction have already been made. A ReMmarKasBLe Meteor.—In No. 4287 of the Astrono- mische Nachrichten Prof. Kopft describes a remarkable meteor which left a persistent, drifting train for about half an hour. The meteor was first seen at 12h. 55m. (M.T. K6nigstuhl) at Heidelberg, and was brighter than Venus, its colour being a yellowish white. It appeared about 2° east of a Urs Majoris, and travelled along a path parallel to the line joining « and y Ursx. ‘The luminous trail changed its shape and position, and was finally observed at 13h. 25m. SuN-spots IN 1907.—The frequency and heliographic dis- tribution of sun-spots in 1907 are discussed by Dr. Rudolf Wolf in No. 99 of the Astronomische Mitteilungen. The monthly relative numbers show maxima in February and September, the daily relative number between February 9-14 exceeding 170; for the year the mean monthly number was 62-0. Some interesting tables and curves show the relations between the variations in sun-spot numbers and terrestrial magnetism. Tne Parattax or 61 CyGni.—The results of a new determination of the parallax of 61 Cygni, carried out by Prof. G. Abetti at Heidelberg 1906-8, are published in No. 9, vol. xxxvii., of the Memorite della Socteta degli Spettroscopistt Italiani. About 7ooo observations were made, and their reduction, in three series, gives the following figures for the parallaxes of the components’ of the star:—6r Cygni pr. r=+0"-24, mean error, +0"-05; 61 Cygni f. r=+0"-22, mean error, +0"-05. ADVANCE IN KNOWLEDGE OF CANCER. [X conformity with a scheme of inquiry embarked upon in October, 1902, the third scientific report of the Imperial Cancer Research Fund, recently issued, treats, like its predecessors, of cancer as a problem of general and experimental biology. It contains no definite answer to the questions, What is the nature and what the cause of cancer? and beyond demonstrating that systematic experiment justifies the early surgical removal of a tumour as the only possible treatment at the present time, the report is silent as to remedial and preventive measures. These shortcomings will almost certainly arouse misgivings on the part of those who cannot appreciate how progress is made in any field of knowledge. They will also, no doubt, be seized upon by persons who, in their ignor- ance, assert that all scientific efforts should be _ con- centrated on utilitarian ends, and they will be exploited by the charlatan, to whom for a space a free field is still left for his nostrums. The sustained efforts of the past six years to penetrate the mysteries of cancer have been accompanied by a corresponding activity on the part of faddists and quacks who advertise them- selves by proclaiming the failure of scientific investiga- tion to yield ‘‘ practical fruits.” The danger of their literary activity is but enhanced by the powers of diction and of exposition possessed by some of the writers. They could profitably devote their literary ability to expound- ing to the public the true facts and difficulties of the cancer problem instead of the ridiculous causes they maintain before a jury of the credulous and the suffer- ing. In the absence of this enlightened attitude on their part it is my duty, since the second scientific report was followed by volumes of nonsense on the part of such persons, bluntly to inform the general reader of the folly of ignoring the necessity for the early surgical removal of cancer, and of running from one faddist or quack to another yet more ignorantly sanguine. If, in the future, the progress of scientific investigation provides a substi- tute for or an adjunct to surgical treatment, there will NO. 2044, VOL. 79] NATURE 20: be no needless delay in placing it within the reach of the cancer patient. Meantime, the importance of the investigation of cancer is only too grimly emphasised by its frequency as a cause of death. ‘lhe number of deaths recorded from cancer increases from year to year throughout the world, civilised and uneivilised, human and animal. Taking England and Wales as an example, in 1889, on an average, the chance of a man above thirty-five years ultimately dying of cancer was one in twenty-one, and for a woman above the same age one in twelve. The in- crease in the number of deaths recorded from cancer makes the corresponding chances to-day one in eleven for men and one in seven tor women. Scarcely a family of large size escapes attack. ‘There is no circle of acquaint- ances, no chance asseinblage of persons at a table d’héte or in a tube lift, but contains prospective victims. But is cancer really increasing? ‘he accurate use of statistics, and the careful scrutiny of the scientific value of the data upon which they are based, still withhold an affirmative answer. If it be further asked, Is not cancer much more frequent in races living under European civilisation than in the rest of mankind? recent investigation has disposed of the fiction that many races of mankind are exempt- Where the disease was said to be rare, e.g. in Japan, there are excellent statistics of which Europeans were previously ignorant proving the great frequency of cancer among the Japanese, and, taking another example, in- vestigations in Indian hospitals show that certain forms of cancer very common in London hospitals are probably not less common in hospitals throughout Hindustan. In the case of most other races there are insurmountable difficulties in the way of even thus roughly estimating its frequency among them. ‘Therefore it is idle to affirm or to deny that cancer may be more common in some races than in others. The disease occurs throughout the human race, and its association with forms of chronii irritation having nothing in common beyond this associa- tion is a fact of more moment than any futile discussion of the relative liability of different races. The additions, during six years, to our knowledge of its occurrence in man, as well as in tame and wild animals, tell hard against those who, at the close of the nineteenth century, argued that the increase in the number of deaths attributed to cancer was real, and merely a penalty for living under the influences of European civilisation. Much additional evidence has been obtained of the extent to which cancer pervades the vertebrate scale. The similarity of the disease throughout vertebrates is illus- trated most diagrammatically by a series of preparations of skin-cancers from mammals to marine fish living in a state of nature. Wherever data are available, for animals as for man, the liability to cancer is shown to be greatest in the last third of the span of life, whether it be short or long; the ‘‘ age-incidence’’ of cancer in man_ has acquired enhanced significance by the establishment of this generalisation. The widening of our knowledge of the occurrence of cancer is only one example of how revived interest in mere observation has put an end to the era of unverified, and often unverifiable, speculation which characterised the last twenty years of the nineteenth century, when exact methods of studying the clinical course, the anatomy, and the microscopical structure of tumours had reached their natural limitations. The study of cancer solely from the standpoint of its being an infective disease had yielded equivocal and self-contradictory results. Statistical methods had become barren from want of data to work on. No point vulnerable to an attack in the rear by the experi- mental method could be discerned.! In short, there was a standstill in the advance of knowledge. As is usual in all similar epochs in the progress of science, observation, hypothesis, and experiment had ceased to advance hand in hand. The arm-chair speculator had the field to him- self. With only the knowledge derived from the bedside, the study of the structure of tumours in man, imper- 1 Asa matter of fact, such a point of attack had existed since the time when Hanau and Morau had successfully inoculated cancer fr. m one animal’ to another, but those engage | in cancer research had either failed to realise the significance : f this imprrfect w ork or had been baffled by the difficulties which had to be overcome in attempting to imitate it. 262 NATURE [ DECEMBER 31, 1908 fect data of its incidence in Europeans, and hearsay statements of its absence elsewhere to guide him, he little comprehended the futility of the explanations he so lightly advanced, and others of his kind equally lightly refuted. A general feeling of the hopelessness of penetrating to the truth was abroad, both among the public and the medical profession, who, the limits of surgical aid having been reached, were despondent in the extreme. The universality of this conviction led to the spontaneous and independent formation of ** cancer research committees ”’ in different countries at the end of the nineteenth century. The whole outlook of the. cancer question has been changed by the successful application of the comparative biological and experimental methods to its study, and by the restoration of the legitimate relations of observation, speculation, and experimental verification. In this revival the committees formed in different centres have played very unequal shares, according as their proceedings have conformed to the methods which advance natural know- ledge. To demonstrate fully the adequate evidence upon which the claim—cautiously advanced in the first and second scientific reports and earlier papers—is based that a new and rational era of investigation has been in- augurated, and to urge continued confidence in the investigation of cancer, are the primary objects and the main justifications of the third scientific report of the Imperial Cancer Research. The time has not come when practical applications of the additions to knowledge are to be expected, nor has accident yet yielded any. Although the rapid accumulation of new faets forbids the premature formulation of a generalisation attempting a unification of the mass of new and old knowledge, many results. of far-reaching importance have been attained. The work of recent years has made it more certain than it ever was before that cancer contains no virus or other parasite foreign to the living organism. One is often asked if a relative suffering from cancer is dangerous to others, e.g. a grandmother to her grandchild—the chief solace of her old age—or if an historic family mansion should be burnt down because many progenitors inheriting it had died of cancer. During six years many tens of thousands of mice suffering from cancer have been under the most stringent observation. If cancer were comn- municable in the sense in which infective diseases are communicable, animals housed along with those naturally suffering from, or inoculated with, cancer would be the first to suffer. In an experience extending over six years, 1.e. almost three times the average length of a mouse’s life, exhaustive investigation has shown that this risk does not exist. This fact of itself satisfies those handling the animals. They incur still less risk in passing many hours daily dealing with cancerous animals in a room in whic 10,000 of such mice and rats are usually housed at one time. If such a ‘‘ cancer house ’’ as never before existed has no dangers to human beings who spend their days in it, fortiori other persons have no ground for appre- Homerons These results are of great practical value. They reinforce ovinions often expressed jin the past for othe- reasons. The presence, every day in the year, of some 50,000 persons suffering from cancer in England and Wales constitutes no menace to the health of those near and dear to them, nor to the health of the population generally, as would a smaller number of people suffering Trom small-pox. Notwithstanding the unwise assertions irresponsible enthusiasts will continue to make from time to time, what was a justifiable cause of public alarm has been removed by experiments on the transference of cancer from one animal to another, and on the housing of large numbers of cancerous with sound animals over a pr olonged period. It has been demonstrated completely that artificial transference from animal to animal is due to the implanta- tion of living cells. This is a factor which does not come in at all in reference to the frequency of spontaneous cancer in man or animals. In corresponding observations on mice suffering from spontaneous cancer no case of transference has occurred. In this respect cancer presents a marked contrast to other diseases, e.g. tuberculosis, equally widely dissemin- ated and common to man and the whole vertebrate phylum, for although no race of mankind is exempt, and cancer extends down the vertebrate scale to marine fish living in NO. 2044, VOL. 79] a state of nature, there are the most striking limitations to its communication from one individual to another, There is no connecting link, as it were, between the disease as it presents itself in nearly allied species nor yet even in in- dividuals of the same species. There is nothing which, while foreign to the animal body, is nevertheless common to cancer wherever it occurs. There is nothing equivalent, e.g., to the characteristics of tuberculous tissues which, no matter what the species of animal, are stamped with unmis- takable common features by the presence of the tubercle bacillus. The properties of the tubercle bacillus obscure all the natural properties of the tissue containing it, and they confer upon such tissue new properties essentially the same in all species of animals. Tubercular tissue has common properties in all animals; the distinctions of species, and of individual tissues of one and the same species, are submerged in their acquirement of a new property, conferring on them the power of conveying the disease to previously healthy tissues, not only from one animal to another of the same species, but also to others of different species. The tuberculous tissues themselves, however, die when transferred to a new animal; they do. not grow, they merely hand on the cause of the disease. viz. the bacteria, which continue to grow in new soil. How, then, is the pervasion of the animal kingdom by cancer explicable? It is intelligible because experiment has proved that cancerous tissues retain, not only the characters of the species of animal, but also those features distinguishing the several normal tissues of an individual and because the general conclusion from comparative ana experime ‘ntal investigation is that cancer arises de novo in each individual attacked, by a transformation of healthy tissue, one case of cancer having no relation to any other Vhis genera! conclusion is based upon observations anc experiments of very varied but confirmatory nature. When a piece of cancer-tissue of a mouse is implanted into another mouse, certain of the cells continue to grow in the new animal and others die. The cells which con- tinue to grow are the cancer cells proper. The other cells which die, formed the scaffolding of supporting con- nective tissues and blood-vessels. The process of trans- ference can be repeated ad infinitum, the powers of growth of the cancer cell being inexhaustible; they set at defiance the laws determining the specific sizes of the bodies and the organs of vertebri ites, and determining the specific duration of the lives of different vertebrates. The cancer cells retain their characters unaltered in the course of artificial propagation, and the connective tissue scaffold- ing, supplied afresh by each successive host, remains — identical with that which the cancer cells had in the animal where they originated. This scaffolding is called forth by the cancer cells themselves, and is of the nature of a specific reaction on the part of the ordinary con- nective tissues and blood-vessels of the host. The scaffold ing is characteristically different for different tumours, and as will be stated below, the cancer cell is unable to con- tinue to live and grow without it. The propagation of cancer is only possible in animals of the same species, e.g. from mouse to mouse or rat to rat, but not from mouse to rat or vice versa. Since the limits to transplantation are the same as those which limit the transplantation of normal tissues, e.g. the grafting of skin, the facts are of themselves evidence tha* cancer tissue contains nothing extraneous to the animai in which it appears. The distinctive differences in the new scaffolding which different tumours even of the same organ, e.g. the mamma, re-acquire after every transplanta tion are inexplicable on the assumption that the tumour cells contain a common virus endowing them with their peculiar properties. Thorough investigation of questions of metabolism has shown the relations of a tumour to its host to be merely those of nutrition, similar to those of the foetus in utero to its mother. More than seventy transplantable tumours of very varied nature have been studied in the laboratory, and the above facts hold for them all. The features of growth and of histology exhibited by different spontaneous tumours remain distinctive in the course of continued propagation, and they give weighty indications of the nature of the changes responsible for the _ acquisition of cancerous properties, since there is neither DECEMBER 31, 1908] NATURE 203 progress to a uniform histological structure nor a gradual | kind quite unknown betore. Most painstaking observations advance to the exhibition of uniform biological behaviour, nor acquisition of a uniform rate of growth. ‘The trans- formation of normal into cancer cells really covers a scale of changes which do not pass into one another. Permanent features are stamped upon cancer cells at the outset. There is no transition from one degree of the cancerous change to another. In the transplantation of a tumour into a new host success or failure is determined primarily by two factors. These are the qualities of the tumour cells and the nature of the *‘ soil’? the new animal offers, During continued propagation the cells of the tumours of a single organ, e.g. the mamma, exhibit other differences corresponding to those mentioned above with reference to the ** support- ing’ scaffolding, and together with them pointing still more strongly to primary qualitative differences in the cells of different tumours. Although cancer occurs spon- taneously mostly in old animals, young animals are more suitable for growth. The introduction of a minute particle of cancerous tissue into a normal animal leads to all the consequences which accompany the growth of a _ spon- taneous tumour. Thus the adequacy of the assumption with regard to man, that the origin of cancer is primarily circumscribed, is demonstrated. A consideration of all the results proves that the genesis of a tumour and the growth of a tumour are two different things. The * soil’? which different races of mice offer, as it were, for the growth of cancer varies naturally in suita- bility ; but tumours can gradually or rapidly adapt them- selves to a soil which was unsuitable, e.g. when a Danish tumour was first transplanted in England it grew in only 5 per cent. of the mice inoculated, but later the success rose to 90 per cent. There are natural constitutional conditions which are favourable, and others which are un- favourable, to the growth of a tumour. The unfavourable conditions act as sieves, permitting certain Ixinds of cells to pass, and once they have passed they can multiply beyond our powers of measurement. The “soil”? can, however, also be modified experi- mentally. It can be made absolutely unsuitable for growth or rendered more suitable than normal. Mice and rats ean be rendered unsuitable for growth only by vaccinating them with malignant new growths of their own species and by vaccinating with normal tissues of their own species. In the latter case the degree of ‘‘ resistance ’’ normal tissues produce directly corresponds to the close- ness of the relationship between the normal tissue vaccinated and the tumour subsequently inoculated, e.g. skin protects best against skin cancer. These facts refer us back again to the limitations to the transplantation of tumours, and together with them demonstrate the reten- tion by malignant new growths, not only of the tissue characters of a species, but also of the biochemical as well as of the histological characters distinctive of the eral species. A sarcoma of a rat or cat, vaccinated into a mouse, lacks the power of protecting it against sub- sequent inoculation of a mouse sarcoma; this fact shows, as clearly as the method permits, the absence of any extraneous agent common to the growths of these different species. The growths of different species of animal resemble one another just as much, and differ just as much, as their respective organs and tissues do. As differences exist in certain properties of tumours already alluded to above, so corresponding other differences are revealed by the extent to which tumours, when vaccinated, induce protection against one another. A tumour does not vaccinate so well against other tumours as it does against itself or against those of its own kind. A lesser degree of protection which one kind of mouse-tumour induces against other kinds is due, probably, not to cancer-tissue as such, but to its properties quad mouse-tissue. Animals which are absolutely protected against inocula- tion do not yield a serum which, when introduced into new animals, has a power of protecting them against in- oculation, still less is there any evidence of immune sera having a power to cure animals of tumours already grow- ing. Highly immune mothers do not transfer immunity to their offspring as do animals immune to diphtheria or other poison of infective disease. Indeed, the mechanism of the protection which can be induced against cancer is of a NO. 2044, VOL. 79| have been necessary to penetrate somewhat into its nature. Artificially protected animals do not supply the cancer cell with the peculiar scaffolding of supporting tissues it requires in order to grow into a tumour. It dies because it cannot grow into an organised tissue, and hence cannot nourish itself; being damaged, it falis a prey to the natural guardians—the phagocytes—of the body. The process is the same whether vaccination has been made with cancer or with normal tissue. The way in which this protection becomes general in the body fluids or tissues has not yet been fully ascertained; nevertheless, so far as it is known, it helps to elucidate the spontaneous healing of primary and secondary growths in man, and its further study gives promise of our being able ultimately to enhance the powers of resistance of the body to a degree which will prevent the dissemination of a primary growth. Before so much can be attained there are many difficul- ties to be overcome, not the least of which is the dis- covery of the fact mentioned above, that the soil may be rendered more than normally suitable for the growth of cancer. Hypersensitiveness can be induced by many different agencies; indeed, as contrasted with the induc- tion of protection, it is not specifically induced.t The growth of one tumour does at times make the ‘“* soil it of an animal more favourable for the growth of a second tumour, and therefore, presumably, for dissemination. It is much more difficult to protect an animal already bear- ing a tumour against the transplantation of a second which has tumour than it is to protect an animal not already got one. Animals spontaneously attacked with cancer make efforts, which are sometimes successful, to cure themselves both of primary and of disseminated growths, e.g. in the vessels of the lungs. There is no longer room for scepticism regarding the statements which have been made from time to time of similar occurrences in man. The process of spontaneous healing is much more common in animals bearing transplanted tumours. In their case it can be studied in great detail, and it has been found to follow the same course as in man. A weighty factor contributing to its occurrence resides in the properties of the cancer cells themselves, for it has been discovered that they multiply with unequal rapidity at different times. They alternate regularly between positive and negative phases of growth. They are much more vulnerable to attack in the negative phase, e.g. through the heightened unsuitability or resistance which can be induced in the soil as described above. The further study of the relations obtaining here will ultimately assist us to prevent a primary tumour from disseminating and establishing offshoots in remote parts of the body. : A startling phenomenon has been stumbled upon during the artificial propagation of epithelial malignant new growths (carcinomata). In the course of time some of these tumours have been replaced by connective tissue new growths (sarcomata). There is no question of the con- version of epithelial into connective tissue cells. All the facts point to the acquisition of cancerous properties by what were previously normal connective tissues, viz. cells of the supporting scaffolding or ‘‘ stroma.’’ It appears probable that in this way malignant new growths have been produced for the first time experimentally. The development of sarcoma in this way occurs in circumstances throwing much light upon why cancer in man Is so fre- quently associated with chronic irritation, as referred to above, and resulting continuous or intermittent attempts at regeneration and repair in man. Together with other facts, notably the «differences in incidence of cancer in different races of mankind as determined by the applica- tion of irritants to different parts of the body, it gives the coup de grace to the generalisation of the idea that cancer is of congenital origin. Many new facts recorded above are of fundamental importance in enabling us better to comprehend the nature of cancer. Two factors have been proved to be of prime importance in its development ; one is the alteration within 1 The variety of the agents which render an animal hypersensitive for the growth of cancer acquires added interest when regarded in association with the vaviety of causes of chronic irritation related to the development of cancer in mankind, as referred to above. 204 NALOLE, [DeEcEMBER 31, 1908 a circumscribed area of what were normal into cancerous cells, either under the influence of unknown causes in the body itself or through the mediate intervention of diverse external chronic irritants, which may be actinic, chemical, bacterial, mechanical, in short, are legion; the other factor is the constitutional condition of the living body, which may favour or hinder growth of the limited number of altered cells into a tumour. Extensive observations on in- breeding stocks of cancerous mice show that in-born pre- disposition plays only a very subsidiary, if any, part in determining both the one and the other; both are acquired. Cancer is a foe to all men, and the liability to it being in all probability acquired may ultimately be found to be avoidable. A sudden revolution of all former views on the nature and treatment of cancer has not been effected. Much of the knowledge inherited can be utilised, much of it must be discarded. I have not dwelt on the initiative, the sacrifices, and the patient toil of my colleagues Bowen, Cramer, Gierke, Haaland, Murray, and Russell, nor on the enlightened and generous encouragement of the executive committee of the Imperial Cancer Research. It will be evident to all who read my colleagues’ papers in the re- port how much they have contributed to raise the British national investigations of cancer to the premier position among similar institutions abroad. I have not made refer- ence to work by other distinguished investigators, but full credit is given to them in the report itself. Slowly feel- ing the way from one certain step to another has often simply meant being met by new and unsuspected difficul- ties. Each hitherto unsuspected difficulty when overcome has, however, brought us more nearly face to face with the realities of cancer genesis, cancer growth, and the natural means by which the body protects itself against them; they all are better comprehended and nearer solu- tion to-day than ever before. Ee Fees STUDIES IN ANTHROPOLOGY. THE growing interest in the study of anthropology as a branch of university teaching is illustrated by the publication of the Proceedings of the Anatomical and Anthropological Society of Aberdeen, of which Prof. R. W. Reid is chairman, for the years 1906-8. The most important contribution in the volume is a report by Dr. G. A. Turner on the natives of Portuguese East Africa south of latitude 22°. The habits, customs, and mode of chief races in this territory, the life of the three Myambaams, Mtyopis, Shangaans, and Lourengo Marques Boys, are described chiefly with reference to the principal forms of disease which appear in their kraals. Incident- ally, some remarkable customs of much interest to the anthropologist are discussed. Thus, if a man dies of a disease like consumption, which causes constant gasping for breath, the officiant at the burial has to open the thorax of the deceased in the middle line and remove both the lungs and heart. These are so placed in the grave that they will not slip back into the thorax when they are laid upon it. The rite is obviously a piece of sympa- thetic magic intended to save the person conducting the interment from contracting the disease. Full details are given of the remarkable habit of the Mtyopi women, who produce, by means of cicatrisation, lumps varying in size from that of a walnut to a pea along the breast, abdomen, and legs. The males of the same tribe file their teeth in the form of pegs, of which the rather doubtful explanation is suggested that it is a mark of primitive cannibalism, because they would be better able to tear human flesh if their teeth were filed. The existence of the practice, however, among tribes who are not cannibals seems to indicate that it is more prob- ably one of the savage’s misguided attempts at personal ornamentation. Witcheraft is common among these races, and the witch is much dreaded and often shamefully treated. Some natives, we are told, were in the habit of bringing suspected women for cxamination by the Portu- guese commandant, who was asked to report on their alleged possession of supernatural powers. Finally, to put an end to such proceedings, he shrewdly gave as his ‘verdict that while he was unable to detect anything extracrdinary NO. 2044, VOL. 79| in the women, he could not speak with such confidence of their male companions. This opinion abruptly brought the investigation to a close. The methods of circumcision are fully described, the most remarkable feature in the operation being the extreme cleanliness enforced upon the performer of the rite, a precaution which usually obviates the risk of septic poisoning. Local anthropology is represented by a paper by Dr. W. R. Macdonell on the physical characteristics of the medical students at the University, a summary of a long series of measurements which have been taken with the utmost care. For the purpose of comparison the subjects were divided into two groups, those of pure Scotch descent on both sides and those where one or both parents were foreign to Scotland. The general result is that in physical characteristics the two groups are practically identical. They closely resemble Cambridge students and graduates in length and breadth of head, but they are slightly lower in stature. In all three characters they are uniform with the rural population of Aberdeenshire. The average growth between the nineteenth and twenty-third year of age is about 1} per cent. in all characters except auricular height, in which it is about 3 per cent. There is prac- tically no difference between honours and pass men in length and breadth of head, and the Aberdeen head is not larger than that of other classes of the community. PERSONAL AND ENVIRON- MENTAL.* HREE well-printed -and well-filled volumes conraining all the addresses and papers read at last year’s School Hygiene Congress in London, and a summary of many of the important discussions, have been published recently. On a more leisurely and comprehensive review than was possible at the congress itself, one cannot but be struck with the small amount of irrelevant matter. School hygiene, involving, directly or indirectly, the whole series of . HYGIENE s) systems of modern education, lends itself to the fanatic, the crank, and every other type of abstractionist. It is, how- ever, with agreeable surprise that one finds here a large number of papers full of concrete experience, presented in a well-ordered way. Like the four volumes of the first con- gress (Nuremberg), these three form a most convenient con- spectus of school hygiene at the present day. There are signs that the movement has become more mature, for the studies are in many respects more detailed. It is difficult to select papers for special observation, but there are many that will repay reading and re-reading. The general address by Bishop Welldon on ‘‘ The Effect of School ‘Training on Mental Discipline’? contains many well-loaded aphorisms, but it is disconcerting to read :—‘ But, at whatever cost, the habit of unquestioned obedience must be created in the young. When I was headmaster of Harrow School, I used to say to my young colleagues, * Begin by making the boys feel that you are prepared, if need be, to grind them to powder; then you may safely grant them as much liberty as you will.’”’ This is one ideal, but it is not the ideal of Froebel, of Pestalozzi, of Herbert Spencer, of Earl Barnes, of Stanley Hall. The discussion on duration of lessons, sequence of sub- jects, and seasons of the year as affecting school work, contains good papers by W. H. Burnham (Clark Univer- sity, Mass.), by M. Chabot (Lyons), who enters into much exact detail, and by Dr. L. Burgerstein (Vienna), whose well-known handbook on school hygiene is a standard. Another ‘‘ set discussion on the lighting and ventilation of class rooms ’’ contains a careful paper by MM. Courtois and Dinet. The general conclusion is that class rooms in France have too little cubic space, and that the air should be slightly warmed and free from dust. Griesbach’s method of estimating fatigue by the asthesio- meter was discussed by Dr. Altschul and others. Obviously, the method needs to be applied with skill, but, on the 1 Second International Congress on School Hygiene. London, 1907. Transa tions, Vols. i., ii, iii. Edited and arranged by the Ordinary General Secretari-s, Dr. James Kerr ard E White Wallis. Price 5s. each volume ; complete in three volumes, 12s. 6@ ; bound rss. net. Vol. i., pp. xxiv+391 ; vol. ii.. pp. xv-+401-848 ; vol. iii., pp. vit-S49-1008. (London: Royal Sanitary Institute.) DECEMBER 31, 1908] whole, the conclusion was favourable. Dr. M. C. Schuyten (Antwerp) gives some favourable evidence, so does Dr. H. Baur (Wirttemberg), who used Scheiner’s experiment as a test of fatigue. ‘Lhe question of suicide at school elicited a very full and detailed paper from Dr. G. W. Chlopin (St. Petersburg). It is obvious that national temperament, as well as school pressure, counts for much in the percentages In Russia the suicide occurs three times as often in the middle schools for boys as among the general population of all ages. In the middle schools for girls the tendency to suicide is about three times weaker than at the gym- nasium or real schools, and not more than in the general Russian population. No general solution is offered. These papers are enough to indicate the large variety of material contained in these transactions. One general feature is obvious—personal hygiene distinctly predomin- ates over environmental hygiene, although the latter is far from neglected. We have no space to note the papers on residential schools, school epidemics, administra- tion questions, medical inspection, special schools, &c. The editors are to be congratulated on the practical nature of the volumes. It is only right to direct attention to the elaborate address prepared by Prof. Griesbach on the relations between medicine and pedagogy; the tables are of great value. PREHISTORIC POTTERY IN AMERICA. HE Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, has issued as part of the thirteenth volume of its Pro- ceedings another of its great monographs, finely illus- trated with coloured and proc plates, on a group of mounds in Arkansas and Mississippi, prepared by Mr. Vessel of the “teapot” variety. Near Menard Mound. Height 6°25 inches. C. B. Moore, who has made a speciality of this line of investigation. These mounds fall into three groups :— those of the Lower Arkansas, the Yazoo and Lower Sun- flower Rivers, and those at Blum. A number of inter- ments, many of which are of the ‘* bunched ’’ or contracted type, has been examined, and a large collection of objects, such as pottery, bone pins, shell and copper ornaments, has been made. Some bones showing marks of specific disease have been unearthed, but there is some doubt whether these belong to the pre-Columbian period, and the sites may have been used for interments after Euro- peans reached the country. The most important examples are those of pottery, which, though inferior to specimens found in other sites, is still highly artistic, well baked, and carefully wrought. It consists of pots, bowls, and bottles, of the last the long-necked or carafe type being comparatively abundant. An interesting variety is the “‘ teapot’’ class, a_ vessel with a more or less globular body, a circular opening at the top surrounded by.a low neck, with a spout and small knob.at opposite sides of the body. This- class, for the United States at least, seems to be peculiar to the NO. 2044, VOL. 79| NATURE 265 The pigments used are generally clays, white or tinted with iron oxides, of which careful analyses have been made by Dr. H. F. Keller. In decoration the scroll pattern is predominant; but in one very beautiful bottle the spaces in the yellow ware are defined on the body in white pigment, the interior being occupied by five-pointed stars and figures resembling an arrow-head, Arkansas region. somewhat analogous to the copper pendants found at Moundville, the circular portions of which contain Swastikas or stars. On the base of another vessel the Swastika reappears, and the same emblem is common on shells and stamped ware from the southern States. Prof. Holmes, in a con- tribution to this report, interprets this well-known symbol as a representation of the world, the division into four quarters being a convenient mode of marking the groups of guardian deities to whom it was necessary to make offerings or appeals. This explanation, however, hardly accounts for the symbol in other parts of the world. On ; the whole, these discoveries are of the highest value as opening up a comparatively novel chapter in the art development of prehistoric America, while the forms and schemes of ornamentation deserve the attention of designers in our day, who mag find much interesting suggestion in the work of this early school of artistic pottery. INHERITANCE IN SILKWORMS.' (a is not surprising that animals which breed so fast and occupy so little room as silkworms should have afforded the material for the experimental investigation of heredity. The publication before us is the outcome of the third considerable series of breeding experiments with this moth. The first to appear was that of Coutagne (‘‘ Re- cherches experimentales sur 1’Héredité chez les Vers a Soie’’). This work was done without a knowledge of Mendel’s observations, a fact which only increases the value of the work in the eyes of those who are not familiar with this author’s other writings. The experiments, on the other hand, of Kametaro Toyama were carried out with the full knowledge of Mendelian principles, and were, indeed, set on foot with the object of testing them. Mr. Kellogg’s experiments were started a year later than Toyama’s—in 1901. Mr. Toyama, who published his results before Mr. Kellogg, obtained results confirmatory of Mendelian hypotheses. But Mr. Kellogg does not find this to be the case with all his characters; in fact, he finds that the characters of the larvae behave in Mendelian fashion in inheritance, whilst those of the cocoon exhibit considerable exceptions to this rule. The author suggests that the cause of this is that the cocoon characters have arisen by the selection of fluctuating variations, whilst those of the larvae have arisen as discontinuous variations. Mr. Kellogg’s position with regard to the application of Mendelian principles to his results may be stated in his own words :—‘ Toyama finds the larval variation of colour-pattern and the cocoon differences of colour to follow Mendel’s law. I do not. By the use of many repetition or check lots I find the larval characters to exhibit a great fidelity to Mendelian principles in their mode of inherit- ance, but with the cocoon colours I find exceptions so numerous, so varied, and so pronounced as to lead me to lay great stress on the potency or influence of individual or strain idiosyncrasies.”’ The chief criticism we are inclined to make is that far too little numerical evidence is given for the generalisa- tions which are made. In an experiment in which nearly everything turns on the numerical proportion in which individuals with particular characters occur, we look for a far more detailed account of the results obtained. For example, Mr. Kellogg whets our appetite by telling of his experiments with a character of the egg, or rather of the female which lays it. Most races lay eggs which stick to the box in which they are laid, whilst some strains of the Bagdad race lay ‘‘ non-adhesive’ eggs. ‘*‘ The one race in my possession whose eggs are regularly (this regularity is not absolute) non-adhesive is the Bagdad Leland Stanford 1 “‘ Inheritance in Silkworms.” Ry Vernon L. Kellogg Pp. 89. (Cali- Junior University Publications. University Series, No. i. fornia: Stanford University, 1908.) 266 race... .’’ Well, we want to know exactly. how many have laid adhesive eggs. The author tells us that the egg- character is non-Mendelian, and that, though of course a character of the female, it is transmitted through the female. We want the details of the evidence on which this statement is based, in the form of a table preferably. In no case is the probable error of his results worked out. THE OLDEST EUROPEAN SEDIMENTS. M R. J. J. SEDERHOLM, director of the Geological Survey of Finland, has issued in English his “Explanatory Notes to accompany a Geological Sketch- map of Fenno-Seandia’’ (Helsingfors: Frenckellska Tryckeri-aktiebolaget, 1908). The beautifully coloured map of Norway, Sweden, and Finland (Prof. W. Ramsay’s *Fenno-Scandia”’) that accompanies this memoir was originally issued in Bulletin No. 23 of the. Commission géologique de Finlande. _ Photographs are given of critical rock-specimens, such as the conglomerates that mark un- conformities between the Archaan systems in Finland, and the early pre-Cambrian (Bottnian) banded sediment of the shores of Nasiiarvi. This rock indicates seasonal stratifi- cation, strangely like that of the adjacent Glacial clays of Pleistocene age. Those who have seen the actual specimens, or, better still, the beds in the field, cannot deny the existence of an immense series of pre-Cambrian sediments in Fenno- Scandia. The gneisses, such as those of the Hang@ islets, are by no means the oldest or fundamental rocks, ~ but result from the intrusion of granite into various series and at various times. Some of the granites in the north of Finland appear to be post-Silurian, as in Scandinavia. Sederholm’s admirable summary is, of course, written from a Finnish point of view, and some of the results may meet with criticism when applied to Scandinavia; but they de- serve the keen attention of geologists in our own islands, where post-Silurian movements have masked much of the older sequence, but where patches of ungranitised pre- Cambrian sediments may remain amid metamorphic areas. A visit to Finland healthily counteracts the tendency, still apparent in some quarters, towards bringing all our clearly stratified rocks somehow into the Paleozoic era. Dr. A. Mickwitz has recently proposed (Bulletin de VAcadémie impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 1907, p- 699) to correlate the results of deep borings on the south side of the Gulf of Finland, in the hope of ascer- faining the relations of the lower Cambrian strata of Russia to the pre-Cambrian beds ° that appear across the sea in Finland. Perhaps the areas. still unexplored by the Kinnish Survey may include some Paleozoic strata. For the present, the ‘‘ Jatulian ’’ dolomites, sandstones, and true bedded anthracites are sufficiently fascinating. What forms of vegetable life in pre-Cambrian times furnished the bed of coal 7 fect thick in Olonetz? (Co Uae alla Cy METEORIC SHOWER OF JANUARY. HE Quadrantids, or Bodtids as they are sometimes called, the former constellation being moderr. and not fully recognised, ought to reappear under auspices on the nights of Saturday, January 2, and Sunday, January 3; but the shower is a very fugitive one, and its more abundant phase will probably be confined to a few hours on one of the nights mentioned. These January meteors really form a very rich stream, and I believe that, next to the Perseids, Leonids, and Andromedids, they are entitled to take precedence as re- gards numbers; but the annual returns are seldom well observed in this country owing to cloudy weather, moon- light, and other causes. Moreover, the radiant’ is only at a satisfactory height for the plentiful display of its meteors just before sunrise. At 9 p.m. in the latitude of Greenwich the point of radiation is only fourteen degrees above the northern horizon. Observations are best made, *herefore, in the early evening between 5 p-m. and 6 p.m., or during the few hours before sunrise. The meteors are generally fairly rather swift flights and flaky trains. conspicuous objects, : bright, with longs, They are decidedly and easily identified from membeys NO. 2044, VOL. 79] INCA Te ae: favourable | [DECEMBER 31, 1908 of the secondary showers of the epoch, which are. not abundant or individually rich. This year the gibbous moon will slightly interfere with observations -beforé-: mid- night, but the morning hours, if -atmospheric conditions allow, ought to provide a very suitable time for witnessing the spectacle. W.. F. DENNING: - UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL é INTELLIGENCE, 7a Tue annual meeting of the Mathematical Association will be held on January 12, 1909, at’ King’s College, London. Addresses will be delivered by Dr. H. T. Bovey, F.R.S., rector of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, on the mathematical preparation for students who propose to take up technical work; by Mr. Alfred Lodge, on the introduction of the idea of cross-ratio and homography, and its connection with involution; and by Prof. G. H. Bryan, F.R.S., on a proposal for the unknown digit. Tue annual meeting of the Geographical Association will be held on January 6, 1909, at the London School of Economics. In the morning, at 11.30, short papers .on practical problems will be read.. Mr. .J..Fairgrieve will deal with the weather report and the teaching of geo- graphy, Dr. A. J. Herbertson will- give hints on- hanging and storing maps, and Mr. J. A. McMichael will give a demonstration of the method of making models by serial In the afternoon, after a business meeting, ‘the sections. president, Mr. Douglas W. Freshfield, , will deliver his address, Dr. H. R. Mill will lecture on the rainfall’ of the British Isles, and a lantern exhibition will be given of. the set of views of the Dora Baltea, which has.been prepared for the association by Mr. G. W. Palmer. The Geographical Association is, we are glad to find, con- tinuing its excellent work in the direction of encouraging more scientific methods of teaching geography in schools. Monthly meetings for teachers and others are to be held on the last Friday evenings of January, February, and March next for the discussion of problems likely to assist teachers in their work, and in other ways the association is endeavouring to assist improved methods of geographical instruction. The honorary correspondence secretary, Mr. J. F. Unstead, 39 Greenholm Road, Eltham, is willing to give full particulars of the work of the association. Tue annual meeting of the recently formed American Federation of Teachers of the Mathematical and Natural Sciences was held at the Johns Hopkins University, Balti- more, on December 28 and 29. On the second day a joint meeting was held with the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at which numerous problems of science teaching were discussed. From Bulletin No. 1 of the federation, which has been received, we learn that seven associations have formally joined the federation. Fourteen others have the matter under consideration, and are expected to take action on it at their next meetings. Among pieces of work of obvious interest and importance which the federation proposes to undertake may be men- tioned investigations and reports on such matters as the bibliography of science teaching and the history of science; the best means of publication for new material of interest to teachers of science; the best means of securing the most favourable conditions for science teaching, - including’ a share in the shaping of college entrance requirements. - It is important to notice that the articles of the federation provide, not for the formation of a new national society of teachers of mathematics and science, but for a collective representation of existing local societies in matters of broad general interest. Each local society, of which there are many in the United States, preserves its independent identity and methods of work. Already the federation“has begun work by undertaking the compilation of a‘ biblio- granhy of the literature on the teaching of science and mathematics. The work is. being done by cooperative effort, part having been assigned to each of the federated associations. A committee on bibliography has been appointed, with Prof. Richard E. Dodge, of Teachers’ College, New York, as chairman. The list to be prepared is to ‘include books, articles in veriodicals, scientific journals or association reports, including foreign contribu- DECEMBER 31, 1908 | NAT CRE. 267 tions, if any.’’ The object is to prepare a bibliography of contributions to science teaching in the last decade ‘‘ that will be a working basis for any teacher of science, and especially for any in an institution with limited library facilities.’? Since reviews of recent publications on science teaching are valuable in making up programmes of study, this bibliography should be an aid in this way, and should encourage the study of the literature of the subject. For convenience and effectiveness in covering the whole field of science teaching, specialists have been appointed to undertake the work in six subdivisions. The federation has already a membership of more than 1600, and is the most representative body of teachers of science in America. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, June 25.—‘‘Note on the Instability of Tubes subjected to End Pressure, and on the Folds in a Flexible Material.’’ By A. Matlock, F.R.S. When a straight rod is subjected to end compression it is stable for small lateral displacements unless the com- pressing force exceeds a definite limit, depending on the elastic constants of the material of the rod and its length and cross-section dimensions. If this limit is exceeded the rod is unstable, and the least departure from straightness grows under the action of the force, the axis of the rod then taking the form of assumed by the deformed tube depends on the ratio (h/7r) of the thickness of the walls to the diameter, and will be such that the potential energy of the combined bending and shearing involved may be a maximum. If the crushing is continued until the tube is greatly reduced in length the folds are seen to develop into the symmetrical shapes shown in the photographs (Figs. 1, 2, 3), for which n=1, 2, and 3 respectively. For n=1 the folds are circular in plan and independent of @; when n=2 the plan of the folds is a square, and when n=3 the plan is hexagonal. It may be noticed that the instability always shows itself first at one end, and that since the reaction against end pressure decreases as the deformation goes on, each fold is completed in succession, the next not becoming marked until the reaction is increased by the previous fold resting against the last but one. November 5.—‘‘ Note on Tidal Bores.’”? By Lord Rayleigh, O.M., Pres.R.S. It was shown long ago by Airy that when waves advance over shallow water of depth originally uniform, the crests tend to gain upon the hollows (see also ‘‘ Scientific Papers,’’ vol. i., p. 253, 1899), so that the anterior slopes become steeper and steeper. Ultimately, if the conditions are favourable, there may be formed what is called a bore. Ordinary breakers upon a shelving beach are of this character, but the name is usually reserved for tidal bores advancing up rivers or estuaries. Interesting descriptions of some of these are given in Sir G. Dar- win’s ‘* Tides’’ (Mur- ray, 1898). Although the real bore advances up the channel, we may for theoretical purposes “‘reduce it to rest ’’ by superposing an equal and opposite motion upon the whole water system. We have then merely to investigate the transition from a relatively rapid and shallow stream of depth 1 and velocity u to a deeper and _— slower stream of depth I’ and Fic. iS) one of the well-known elastic curves, and this is the only form which a solid rod can take in the circumstances. With tubes and plates, however, the case is different, for with the tube the ratio of the thickness of the walls to the diameter of the tube has to be considered as well as the ratio of the diameter to the length. Thus a tube the length of which is insufficient to produce instability involving a bending of the axis may become unstable by the crumpling up of the walls, the axis itself remaining straight. In the case of solid rods the governing condition is the constancy (to the first order) Z of the length of the axis; with tubes and plates it is the constancy to the same order of the area of the mid-wall surface. Con- sidering the case of tubes in rather more detail, take the axis of the tube as ¢ and let its unstrained | radius be 7,. Under end compression the surface may become unstable by deformation into any of the cylindrical harmonics of | the type or | y=1r)+a cos 26 cos oe) where 4 is the angle which r makes with a fixed diameter of the tube and A the length of the fold parallel to the axis. The order of the harmonic which will naturally be NO. 2044, VOL. 79| velocity wu! (Fig. 1). The places where these velocities and depths are reckoned are sup- posed to be situated on the two sides of the bore, and at such distances from it that the motions are there sensibly uniform. The problem being taken as in two dimensions, two relations may at once be formulated connecting the depths and velocities. By conservation of matter (‘* con- tinuity ’’) we have Fic. 3. lu=l'w' ; (1) Fic. 1. and since the mean pressures at the two sections are gl, sgl’, the equation of momentum is Iu(u—u') =3 g(l°—P) ; (2) | whence ‘ u?=1g(1+l).I'/I, u?=9(1+l).1/V. (3) The loss of energy per unit time at the bore is thus . Pei Lu (4x? + 407) — lee (See + 4.90’) Hle.g (1 —2) ase (4) 4ll’ That there should be a loss of energy constitutes no 268 difficulty, at least in the presence of viscosity; but the impossibility of a gain of energy shows that the motions here contemplated cannot be reversed. In order to recur to the natural condition of things where the shallow water is at rest, we have to superpose the velocity uw taken negatively upon the above motion. The velocity of the bore is then uw, and that of the stream above the bore u—u'. If I is relatively small, w is much greater than w’. The reasoning just used is very similar to that applied by Stokes (Phil. Mag., vol. xxxiii., p. 349, 1848) and by Riemann (G6ttingen Abh., vol. viii., 1860) to sound waves of expansion moving in one dimension. ‘The matter is dis- cussed in ** Theory of Sound,’ § 253, where it is shown that the discontinuous solution, obtained from the prin- ciples of conservation of mass and momentum, violates the condition of energy. When this was pointed out to Stokes by Kelvin, and later by myself (Stokes, ‘‘ Math. and Phys. Papers,’’ vol. ii., p. 55), he abandoned his solution, which is, however, maintained by a competent German authority (private correspondence). It is clear, at least, that when the motion is such as to involve a gain of energy, the solu- tion cannot be admitted. The opposite case stands upon a different footing, and we may, perhaps, imagine the redundant mechanical energy to be got rid of somehow at the surface of discontinuity. Even then we should have to face the complication entailed by the development of heat. In the present case of liquid, the heat is of little consequence, and since the motion is not entirely in one dimension, we escape the necessity of dealing with a single plane of discontinuity. November 12.—‘‘ Further Observations on Welwitschia.”’ By Dr. H. H. W. Pearson. Communicated by Prof. A. C. Seward, F.R.S. The material whiéh forms the subject of this investiga- tion was collected at Welwitsch and Haikamechab, in Damaraland, in January and February, 1907. Macro- spores and embryo-sacs are frequently present in the pith region of the female cone-axis. This confirms the view, already adopted by most authors, that the ovule of Wel- witschia is cauline. Sporogenous cells have not been found in a similar position in the male cone. The female cone and the male flower are probably derived by reduction and specialisation from an amphi- sporangiate strobilus of a type similar to that of Bennettites. At the end of the free nuclear division the embryo-sac contains about 1024 nuclei which are equivalent in all visible characters. Cleavage of the cytoplasm occurs, resulting in the septation of the whole sac into compart- ments. In respect of the morphological character of the endosperm, Gnetum and Welwitschia are widely separated from Ephedra, in which the endosperm is a prothallus of the normal gymnosperm type. It is suggested that the endosperm of the primitive angiosperms was homologous with that of Welwitschia. ; _ It appears that (1) the Gnetum-Welwitschia alliance has its origin in the same stock as the angiosperms, but separated from the angiosperm line before the carpel became the pollen-receiver ; (2) Welwitschia is the most specialised living representative of the race to which it belongs. Zoological Society, December ts.—Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Some notes on the muscular and visceral anatomy of the batrachian genus Hemisus, with notes on the lymph hearts of this and other genera: F. E. Beddard.—New species of Lacerta from Persia : G. A. Boulenger.—Some wart-hog skulls in the British Museum: Dr. Einar L6nnberg.——Two Chinese Serow skulls: R. Lydekker. Warning coloration in the musteline Carnivora: R. I. Pocock.—A new river-crab of the genus Gecarcinucus, from New Guinea: Dr. W. T. Calman.—Mammals collected in the provinces of Shan-si and Shen-si, northern China, by Mr. M. P. Anderson, for the Duke of Bedford’s zoological exploration of eastern Asia: Oldfield Tnromas. Thirty-three species were in- cluded, represented by 335 specimens, presented, as before, to the National Museum by the Duke of Bedford. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] NAL UGE. [DECEMBER 31, 1908 Tinnean Socrets, Decemler 17.—Dr. D. H. Sewtt, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The Anomura of the Sudanese Red Sea: W. Riddell.—Forms of flowers in Valeriana dioica: R. P. Gregory. In 1877 Hermann Miller described four forms of Valeriana dioica, dis- tinguished from one another by the size of the flower and by the relative development of the male and female re- productive organs. The phenomenon appears to be very similar to that which was described by Darwin in Rhamnus catharticus. It has been found that the in- dividuals of Valeriana dioica may be conveniently arranged in four groups, which are distinguished as, respectively, “ female,’ ‘* hermaphrodite,’’ ‘* long-styled male,’’ and ““ short-styled male ’’; but while the central types of each group are readily distinguishable, it must be distinctly recognised that they are connected by a series of inter- mediate forms, and that there is no discontinuity between successive groups. The precise structure of the flowers of each plant varies considerably, as regards the relative development of the reproductive organs, with the age of the flower examined; but in addition to this there is, in some cases, a very wide range of variation in this respect, quite independent of the age of the flower.—Etudes sur les Cirrhipédes du Musée de Cambridge: Prof. Gruvel.— The Rhynchota obtained on the Sealark Expedition : W. L. Distant. The author stated that the collection made by Mr. Gardiner in the Seychelles comprises forty species, viz. twenty-eight species of Heteroptera and twelve of Homoptera. Walker was the first to write on the Heteroptera of these islands, and in 1872 he described three species collected by Dr. Perceval Wright, one of which was found by Mr. Gardiner. In 1893 Bergroth and Reuter worked out the collections made by M. Ch. Alluaud and Pére Philibert so far as the Heteroptera was con- cerned, and were able to enumerate thirty-seven species. Geological Society, December 16. — Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The igneous and associated sedimentary rocks of the Tourmakeady district (County Mayo): C. I. Gardiner and Prof. Sidney H.~ Reynolds, with a paleontological appendix by F. R. C. Reed. The succession of the Ordovician rocks of the dis- trict appears to be as follows:—? Bala beds; Llandeilo beds: (c) Shangort beds; (b) Tourmakeady beds; (a) red felsite or rhyolite; Arenig beds—Mount Partry beds: (d) variable tuffs, grits, and cherts; (c) coarse quartzose and felspathic grits; (b) grits, graptolitic black slates, and radiolarian cherts; (a) coarse conglomerates. A series of graptolites from the Mount Partry beds prove to be of Upper Arenig age—about the zone of Didymograptus hirundo. The puzzling beds of the district are those of Llandeilo age. Although the limestones (Tourmakeady beds) occur in the main as disrupted blocks in the Shangort beds, the fossils indicate that there is little difference in the age of these deposits; probably, after the deposition of the limestone, but during the prevalence of the same faunal types as those of that deposit, the limestone was broken up by voleanic explosions, and its fragments were deposited as the peculiar limestone-breccias. The intrusive rocks are in the main felsites with quartz-crystals, and often contain augite. Interesting intrusions of olivine-dolerite, horn- blende-lamprophyre, and_ fine-grained oligoclase-bearing rocks are scattered throughout the district. he appendix embodies a description of new species of brachiopods and trilobites. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 14.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—The approximate calculation of inequalities of a high order: Maurice Hamy. A calculation to the second degree of approximation of the disturbance of one planet by another.—Contribution to the study of Haemogregarina lacertae of Danilewsky and Chalachnikow: A. Laveran and A, Pettit. A detailed account of the appearances of this parasite in various stages of development, with nine illustrations.—Observations concerning the direct dehydra- tion of certain alcohols: Louis Henry. In an earlier paper it has been shown that dimethyl-isopropyl-carbinol, heated with acetic anhydride and a few drops of sulphuric acid, gives, not the acetate, but a mixture of the hydrocarbons DECEMBER 31, 1908] NATURE 209 —— tetramethyl-ethylene and isopropyl-methyl-ethylene. In this reaction the acetic anhydride was regarded as the true dehydrating agent, but in the present paper this view is shown to be incorrect. In the absence of the sulphuric acid the acetate is alone formed, and it is the presence of the very small amount of sulphuric acid which determines the formation of the ethylenic hydrocarbons. —Physical observations of the comet 1g08c, made at the Observatory of Lyons: J. Guillaume. A detailed account of the changes of form undergone by the comet as observed between October 24 and November 28.—Observations of the Morehouse comet, 1908c, made with the Brinner-Henry equatorial of the Observatory of Toulouse: MM. Saint- Blancat and Rossard. Two tables giving the results of observations of the positions of the comet and of the com- parison stars between October 2 and 14.—Geodesic lines : Jules Drach.—The number of double integrals of the second species of certain algebraic surfaces: L. Remy.— Description of the Voisin aéroplane used by MM. Farman and Delagrange: G. Voisin.—The compensation of com- passes of great magnetic moment: Louis Dunoyer.— | he magnetic dichroism of calcite and of dolomite in mixed liquids: Georges Meslin.—The influence of pressure on the phenomena of ionisation; curves-of current and curves with constant field: E. Rothé.—Rotatory power at low temperatures and the connection between the absorption of light and rotatory polarisation in crystals of cinnabar : Jean Becquerel.—The theory of absorption in gases: L. Bloch. A modification of Lorentz’s theory on the basis of Walker’s hypotheses. The formule arrived at. still await experimental verification—The magnetism of the rare earths: B. Urbain and G. Jantsch. For groups of the rare earths, the salts of which possess nearly identical solubilities, and the atomic weights of which are nearly the same, the coefficients of magnetisation vary consider- ably, and hence may serve to determine the composition of mixtures which scarcely admit of analysis by other methods. Results are given of measurements of oxides of the type X,O,, in which X may be neodymium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, or dysprosium.—The variations of the composition of the colloids which are formed in a solution of ferric chloride according to the conditions of hydrolysis: L. Michel.—Remarks on the magnetic properties of the’ simple bodies: P. Pascat. The following law is enunciated :—the atomic suscepti- bility is an exponential function of the atomic weight for diamagnetic bodies of the same valency and of analogous chemical properties. Some of the experimental data in support of this are given.—The preparation of thorium chloride: Camille Matignon. The oxide is heated in a mixture of chlorine and the vapour of chloride of sulphur, the chloride being formed at a temperature sufficiently low to permit the use of glass tubes in the place of porce- lain tubes required by other methods. Thorium chloride, if quite pure, is not so hygroscopic as has been stated by previous workers.—Studies on aluminium. The analysis of aluminium powder: E. Kohn-Abrest. Two methods of analysis are suggested, and the results given of their application to a sample of aluminium powder.—The dis- sociation of sodium bicarbonate: M. Soury.—The atomic weight of silver: Louis Dubreuil. A reply to some recent objections of A. Leduc.—The true atomic weight of silver : G. D. Hinrichs. The value 108 is maintained to be the true experimental atomic weight of silver.—The action of sulphur chloride (S,Cl,) on metals and metalloids: Paul Nicolardot. In all the actions described S,Cl, acts like HCl, and not as a chlorinating agent.—The action of heat on iodic anhydride: Marcel Guichard. Iodine pentoxide is unchanged by heating until a temperature of 300° is reached. Above this temperature iodine and oxygen are given off. The non-decomposed portion becomes chestnut coloured. Comparative analyses of the white and brown anhydride gave similar results, all agreeing well with the composition of I,0,. The brown colour appears to be due to minute traces of iodine retained by the undecom- posed anhydride, and no proof of the formation of a lower oxide could be obtained.—Research on the occluded gases contained in a, complex brass containing manganese and filled with cavities: G. Guillemin and B. Delachanal. —The waxes of the Conifere: a new group of natural NO. 2044, VOL. 79] principles: J. Bougault and L. Bourdier.—Syntheses of derivatives of camphenylone: J. Bouveault and G. Blanc.—The action of sulphuric acid on aldehyde and paraldehyde : the preparation of crotonic aldehyde : Marcel Delépine. Acetaldehyde, carried as vapour in a current of air into pure sulphuric acid maintained at 10° C. to 15° C., is absorbed, and distillation of the diluted acid gives a 30 per cent. yield of crotonaldehyde, together with a new polymeride, C,H,,O,. The substitution of paralde- hyde for aldehyde improves the yield.—The action of acids on diiodo-a-methylsparteine : Amand Valeur.—The action of ferments at varying temperatures: C. Gerber. Attempts at the molecular analysis of protoplasmides: A. Etard and A. Vila. Anhydrous methyl alcohol is sug- gested as a suitable means of separation.—The influence of some mineral salts, especially stannous chloride, upon fermentation: G. Gimel. Two types of yeast (the elliptic wine yeast of Jacquemin and a distillery yeast of the Frohberg type) have been submitted to the action of salts of various metals. The results with tin and bismuth salts are the most striking. The addition of o-or per cent. of stannous chloride increases the yield of alcohol by 4 per | cent., a property possessing obvious industrial applications. —The influence of light on the development of fruits and seeds: W. Lubimenko.—Contribution to the cytological study of the Endomyces : Saccharomycopsts capsularis and Endomyces fibuliger: A. Guilliermond.—The production of a new variety of spinach, Spinacia oleracea, var. poly- gama: M. Blaringhem.—The structure of the ciliary retina: J. Mawas.—An Acrasped without medusa : Taeniolhydra Roscoffensis: Edgard Hérouard,—The rhythmic appearance and stages in_ the experimental inversion of the chlorotropism of the Pagura: Romuald Minkiewicz.—Studies on the cancer of mice: the histo- physiology of certain cells of the conjunctival stroma of tumour B: L. Cuénot and L. Mercier.—The treatment of deep-seated tumours by a method allowing the action of radiant matter to proceed at close quarters with the tissues without altering the teguments: E. de Bourgade la Dardye. Zinc sulphide is injected, and this rendered phosphorescent by the X-rays. Cases are cited in which the method has been used with advantage.—The treatment of arterial hypertension by the high-frequency current: G. Lemoine. Good results have been obtained in five cases, full details of each being given.—The radiographic study of the articulation of the elbow and knee in a girl three and a half years of age: Maxime Ménard.—The (Corréze) : fossil man found at Chapelle-aux-Saints Marcellin Boule.—The white rhinoceros, re-found in the Soudan, is the unicorn of ancient times: E. ibs Trouessart.—The Haleciidee, Campanulariide, and Sertu- lariida of the Challenger collection: Armand Billard. —The appearance of males and hermaphrodites — in parthenogenetic reproduction: J. Pantel and R. de Sinéty.—Microseisms of long duration: José Comas Sola._The Phoridw and Leptide of Baltic amber: Fernand Meunier.—The influence of deflation on the con- stitution of the ocean floor: J. Thoulet. December 21.—M. Emile Picard in the chair.—Remarks on Fredholm’s equation: H. Poinearé.—The action of lines of electric energy on hailstorms: J. Violle. In a previous note the author described the ravages caused by a hailstorm, the path of which followed exactly a wire carrying current at a high potential. Such a wire gives off torrents of ions carrying large electric charges, the effects of which are exactly comparable with those pro- duced by the hail cannon. Although one electric trans- mission line is insufficient to protect a district, several might have a protective effect—The mode of action of electricity in electric parthenogenesis: Yves Delage. It has been found that the condenser used in the experiments previously described permitted a leakage of current, the resistance being of the order of 20 megohms. It is con- ceivable that the acid and allcali produced by this current from the salt in the solution might account for the observed phenomena, which would thus reduce to a case of chemical parthenogenesis.—The forms of endogenous multiplication of Haemogregarina lacertae: A. Laveran and A. Pettit. A detailed description with diagrams.—Observations of the 270 sun, made at the Observatory of Lyons during. the third quarter of 1908: J. Guillaume. Observations were taken on sixty-seven days, and the results are summarised in three tables giving the number of spots, their distribution in latitude, and the distribution of the faculz in latitude. —The cyclid of Lie: A. Demoulin.—The singularities of analytical functions: Paul Dienes.—Multiform integrals of differential equations of the first order: Pierre Boutroux. —The condition that seven right lines should be situated on a surface of the fourth degree: E. Traynard.—The Thomson formula, T=27/CL, relating to the discharge of a condenser: André Léauté. In the case of coils carrying several layers of wire, the capacity is no longer negligible, and the Thomson formula requires modification. The theory of this case is developed in the present paper, and it is shown that the current due to the discharge of a condenser through a coil with two layers may be con- sidered as formed by the superposition of an_ infinite number of sinusoidal currents, the amplitude of which tends towards zero with the period. This theory explains the presence of striz in induction sparks.—The radiation and temperature of the flame of the Bunsen burner: E. Bauer. The eneaues of the Bunsen flame found by these measurements is 1760°+50, and is near the 1870° found by M. Féry, on the assumption that the emission of the D line is a purely thermal phenomenon.—Super- tension and viscosity: Ch. Marie.—The synthesis of ammonia by means of peat: H. Woltereck.—The incon- veniences of potassium bichromate when used as a_pre- servative for milk samples intended for analysis:, A. Monvoisin. The addition of 0-1 per cent. of potassium bichromate to milk samples intended for analysis is at present compulsory in France. This addition prevents the detection of added formaldehyde or hydrogen peroxide, and also renders it impossible to state whether the milk has been heated or not.—Contribution to the study of the humic matter in peat wool: L. Roger and E. Vulquin. —The reciprocal influence of respiratory phenomena and the behaviour in certain Actinia: Henri Piéron.—The development and affinities of Sorosphaera Veronicae: R. Maire and A. Tison.—Carpocyphosis : the normal anatomy and pathology of the lower radio-cubital articulation: R. Robinson.—The discovery of a human _ skeleton at Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze): A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon. Details of the discovery and removal of this fossil skeleton, described by M. Boule in the Comptes vendus of last week. Both above and around the skeleton were many broken bones, as well as tools of flint and quartz. The animal remains included the reindeer, horse, and a large ruminant.—The anatomy of the appe ndicular organs of the female reproductive apparatus of Periplaneta orientalis: L. Bordas.—Experimental researches on the evolutive mutations of certain crustaceans: Edmond Bordage.—The upper limit of the proportion of the encephalus with respect to the weight of the body in birds : Louis Lapicque.—Syllis vivipara and the problem of -its sexuality: Aug. Michel.—Filtration of the X-rays by aluminium: HE. Guilleminot.—Geological. structure in the Salzkammergut in the neighbourhood of Ischl and Aussee: Emile Haug.—The hydrography and climate of Algeria since the Oligocene epoch: J. Savornin.—The substratum of the nappe du charriage in the Peloponnesus : Ph. Négris.—The supposed submarine spring of the Port- Miou (Bouches-du-Rhéne): E. A. Martel. This spring the existence of which has been described in various works for the last 200 years, does not appear to exist.—The variations of climate: Henryk Arctowski.—The seismic disturbances of December 12 and 18, 1908: Alfred Angot. —The traces of a positive movement along the western coast of Corsica, and its function in the morphology and evolution of the coast-line: Paul Castelnau.—The telluric currents between stations of different altitude: Bernard Brunhes. New Soutu Watges. Royal Society, November 4.—Mr. W. M. Hamlet, presi- dent, in the chair.—Note on pucherite from West Australia : E. Griffiths. The physical properties and composition of the mineral ag free with those recorded in Dana’s ‘‘ System of Mineralogy ’’ for the mineral pucherite. This is believed to be the first recorded occurrence of pucherite in Australia. NO. 2044, VOL. 79] NATURE {[ DECEMBER 31, 1908 DIARY OF SOCIETIES. MONDAY, Jaxuary 4. Society or CHemicat INpusTRy, at 8.—Cinchonamine and Certain Other Rare Alkaloids : B. F. Howard and O. Chick.—Reactions between Dyes and Fibres; W. P. Dreaper and A. Wilson.—A Physico-chemical Method for Comparing the Antiseptic Value of Disinfectants: Drs. S. B. Schryver and R. Lessing. Victoria InstiruTE, at 4.30.—Life in a Country Town of Lycaonia— (Conditions of Christian Life under the Eastern Empire): Sir W. M. Ramsay. THURSDAY, January 7. RONTGEN Society, at 8.15.—A Description of Three Sub-standards of Radio-activity recently prepared for the Réntgen Society: C. E. S. Phillips.—A New Localising Apparatus designed by Staff-Surgeon Dr. _ Gillett: H. C. Head. CONTENTS. PAGE Essential’ @Oils:and Essences stan sae eee 241 A Monograph onthe Frog ... ae 242 Modern Organic Chemistry. By J. 'B. cs 243 The Curvature Method of ee Geometrical Opticss 2c. 5 : 243 Economic Zoology. “By Prof. G. HL Canesten 244 Observation, Study, and Naming of Plants . . 245 Elementary Physics) (7 sitet cee emie pool: ean eer ee Our Book Shelf :— Abderhalden: ‘‘ Text-book of Physiological Chemis- try, in Thirty Lectures.,—W. D. H. . . 246 Lewis: ‘‘ Double Star Astronomy ” 247 Wallace: ‘‘ The Threshold of Music” 3) AF Foppl: ‘‘ Vorlesungen iiber technische Mechanik yb Read : ‘‘ Fads and Feeding.” —W. D. H. 248 Dreyfus: ‘‘ Uber Nervose Dyspepsie” .». . ... . 248 Read: ‘‘ The Metaphysics of Nature” es 248 ‘The Reliquary and Illustrated Rchecloccen Peace 243) “The Class-room Atlas of Enya, Political, Bibli- cal, and Classical Geography ” : 249 Hazelhurst :; ‘‘ Flashes from the Orient, ora Thowsend and One Mornings with Poesy” 249 she Country) Home sane aseriens 249 Letter to the Editor :— The Objective Demonstration of the Rotation of the Plane of Polarisation of Light by Optically Active Liquids.—T. S. Patterson .. . - 249 The Financial Status of the University. Professor ByG td. Boe 2 : LY ah so eae . 249 The Wacations of a ‘Naturalist. (7lustrated.) By ifs, SBS) ORO ee ref 2 Peete 252 The Headmasters’ Conferences By G, F. D. 253 Birds in Relation to Agriculture. ....... 254 Notes. (///ustrated.). .. op TO mMIE Osa! o 255 Our Astronomical Column :— Search for an Ultra-Neptunian Planet 260 Further Observations of Morehouse’s Comet, 19082 260 sibe Higure of the Sun.) sacs, tue e-eeaareane 260 A Remarkable Meteor. ...... . 261 Sumespotsin' 1907, , sr sua ue 261 The Parallax of 61 Cygni . Sa ty. 261 Advance in Knowledge of Cancer. By E: F, B:. | 26% Studies in Anthropology is 264 Hygiene—Personal and Envionmentalle 264 Prehistoric Pottery in America. (J///ustrated.) 265 Inheritance in Silkworms ; ss icine: 265 The Oldest European Sediments: By G. A.J. C. 266 Meteoric Shower of January. By W. F. Denning. 266 University and Educational Intelligence. . .. . 266 Societies and Academies. (///ustrated.) 267 Diaryfofesocieties! . « y., <-icmey cits, meee 270 OWA TC Lek 271 THURSDAY, JANUARY 7; 1909. ALL ABOUT WATER. Water: Its Origin and Use. By William Coles-Finch. Pp. xxi+483; with illustrations. (London: Alston Rivers, Ltd., 1908.) Price 21s. net. HERE is little about water on which Mr. Coles- Finch does not touch in this volume, for he even takes his readers back to the day when the world was but a glowing mist and oxygen would not have combined with hydrogen. The method has its dis- advantages, though useful to anyone in want of an encyclopeedic treatise, because the author has often to fall back on second-hand information, not even ex- cluding the ‘‘ science notes ’’ of a daily journal. His manner of reference also is slipshod, for he is generally content with simply naming the author. But readers are not always trustful, and like to be enabled to consult the original passage—especially after coming across one or two rather puzzling misprints, such as Gretroz for Giétroz, Maindetta for Maladetta, Dema- vena for Demavend, Dun, perhaps for Dust, and Brunz (the name of a Swiss Lake), we presume for Brienz. Small inaccuracies—such motes as might so easily have been removed by inducing a friend more familiar with the scientific side of the subject to read the proof sheets—are rather too numerous. Here are a few samples. The difference between hard and soft water is said on p. 127 to consist in the relative quan- tities of carbonate of lime in it, yet just below come the words, “ there are two kinds of hardness, permanent and temporary,’’ the one due to the presence of calcium sulphate, the other to its carbonate. The amount of chalk in the world is probably over-estimated by for- getting that it means one, not every kind of limestone. Ice-fields are said, on p. 195, to form every winter on polar seas, but the author directly afterwards speaks of them as occurring on Iceland, and makes an extra- ordinary statement about those of Greenland. ‘‘ The ice-fields of Greenland are beyond our comprehension ; how high the plateau rises we cannot say... . Noman has yet penetrated more than 130 miles from the west coast, where the ice is nearer the sea. It is related that explorers, after travelling 130 miles, saw a solid wall of ice 6000 feet high, and rising towards the east ”’ (p. 195). Has he forgotten Nansen and the ‘‘ First Crossing of Greenland,’’ not to mention later explora- tions? The statement about the ‘‘ parallel roads ’’ in Glenroy is confused. Also, the author is hardly justified in taking it for granted that the erratics near Wolverhamp- ton mark the terminal moraine of a glacier, or that the Scandinavian ice-sheet successfully crossed the deep channel bordering the Norway coast, to deposit boulders at Cromer, and, as he might have added, at least as far inland as Bedford. The Lofoden Islands are hardly ‘‘ a typical instance of the manner in which the sea has swallowed up the solid land ’’ (p. 330), un- less this is by submergence, which he clearly does not mean. They afford no parallel with Reculver Church. “The Lake of Campania in Italy’? near Baiz NO. 2045, VOL. 79] is usually called Avernus or Averno, aad “ Lake Chala on Mount Kilimanjaro ’’ does not lie 400 to 800 feet below the summit, for, according to Meyer, Lake Jala, discovered by New, is ‘‘ at the foot of Kiliman- jaro on its south-eastern side.’’ The Lago d’Alleghe in the Italian Tyrol was not formed by the terminal moraine of a vanished glacier, but by a berg falt in 772, The height of the Lake of Geneva above sea- level is understated by about 70 feet. The maximum depths of the Lake of Constance and of the Lago Maggiore are incorrectly given. "The Dead Sea can hardly be said to be ‘‘ deeply embedded in lofty cliffs of limestone,’? and we have no reason to suppose that volcanic activity had much to do with forming the Lake of Tiberias. There is no eruption of Vesuvius on record until a.p. 79; it was an earthquake which damaged Pompeii in A.p. 63. The hippopotamus neither has a horn nor had one in the days of Palzolithic man (p. 240). But, apart from these slips, and notwithstanding some defects of arrangement and a little too much sermonising, Mr. Coles-Finch’s book contains a large amount of interesting information. We are told among the obiter dicta that Manchester soot comprises 50 per cent. of substances which are not carbon. Among these are ‘‘ snow-white samples of ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate, calcium sulphate, and a beau- tifully crystallised paraffin hydrocarbon.”’ In fact, the heavy hydrocarbon oils in household soot amounted to 13 per cent., and Prof. E. Knecht, who analysed the material, manufactured from these components S90, dye stuff which was capable of producing absolutely fast shades of brown on cotton’?! We heartily sym- pathise with the author in his denunciation of the domestic fireplace, so much beloved in this country, for it often contributes about one-half the soot which fouls the atmosphere of London, and produces the minimum of effect at the maximum of cost. We would also gladly commit to his mercies the hooligans who wreck trees planted to adorn towns, and wilful wasters of water such as those who leave a tap running while they are away for a holiday in order to secure that their drains are scoured. Perhaps the most valuable part of the volume is that dealing with practical matters, where Mr. Coles- Finch speaks from experience, such, for instance, as his description of a water-bearing fissure in the chalk, discovered at a depth of 120 feet while making a well at Strood for the supply of Rochester. Such fissures are, of course, well known as important sources of water supply in the Thames basin, but we do not remember to have seen in any book generally acces- sible plans, sections and illustrations of them. The volume is abundantly illustrated by reproduced photographs, the majority of which have been taken in the High Alps and other mountain districts by Mrs. Aubrey Le Blond. Some of these, perhaps, are not very closely connected with the text, and Mr. Coles- Finch has too often failed to indicate by a reference the subject which a picture is meant to illustrate ; but they are often so pretty as to add materially to the | attractiveness of the volume; though in some, as will L 1772 DD <-/- NATURE [JANUARY 7, 19Cc9 happen in Alpine scenery, the rocks have come out too dark. Among the full-page illustrations, hoar-frost on a tree, a frozen lake in the Engadine, and a view at Ragaz strike us as particularly good. In fact, though the book is certainly not free from defects, it has not a few countervailing merits. COLOUR AND PIGMENTS. Colour-sense Training and Colour Using. Taylor. Pp. 88. 1908.) HIS should prove a very useful little book to teachers who wish to explain the fundamental laws of colour to their pupils. The old division of the spectrum into the three primaries—blue, yellow and red—still persists among artists and leads to much confusion of thought, and doubtless a book of this character will assist in bringing in a truer perception of the nature of colour-vision, while it is not so diffi- cult as Prof. Church’s book or Sir William Abney’s “Colour Measurement and Mixture.’ The author in dealing with this subject takes the ordinary Young-Helmholtz theory of the primary colour sensations, and is quite right in so doing. It is simpler, and at any rate covers most of the facts, and there is no need in a book of this character to discuss any rival which may exist. The weakest chapter in the book is that dealing with the mixing of pigments, and in a future edition this chapter might well be re-written and developed. One of the most important lessons the artist can learn from the study of the theory of colour is the extent to which he can limit his palette and get all the effects he requires. For instance, by means of a rich madder, cobalt yellow, viridian, and cobalt blue, every tint can be obtained, including a deep, rich, velvety black, while a complete spectrum can be constructed on a lower key by the use of black, Indian and Venetian red and yellow ochre, and it is therefore of great importance that the art student, having once mastered the theory, should test it by experiments with a few selected pigments, and should realise for himself that lampblack and yellow ochre really give a green, and that he can get practically a complete absorption of the spectrum from not than three or four pigments. It is also of importance that he should be trained to use a palette consisting of permanent pigments, and should avoid as far as possible those that are fugitive. It is therefore a pity to see in a modern text-book an artist advised to use such pigments as crimson lake, carmine, indigo and These should all be excluded. The writer has also apparently not realised the extent to which his theory will assist the artist who wishes to paint in the method of the French impressionist school by the juxtaposition of small dots By E. J. (London: Blackie and Son, Ltd., theories more gamboge. of colour instead of by an actual mixing of the pigments. If, for instance, blue and yellow are painted small dots side by side, from a little distance the effect is to give a grey and not a green; in green the colour which cannot be in fact, is one produced by such juxtaposition of pigment, but must NO. 2045, VOL. 79] be obtained either by the use of a green pigment or the mixing of a blue and yellow so as to leave the net result of their mutual absorptions. A short dis- cussion, therefore, of the French method of painting as opposed to the method of mixing pigments, and a statement of the actual results obtained by blending in the eye of the lights reflected from two separate pure pigments painted side by side, would be of great value to the modern artist. Most of our painters to-day make use of both methods to get their — effects, and would probably be much helped by being taught a few fundamental principles. The only refer- ence which the author has to this method of painting is to be found on p. 60, where he says the designers | avoid dirty tones by placing the pigments very close, with the alternate colours in dots and dashes, but he does not seem to realise that the resulting colour may be quite different from that obtained by blending the pigments. There is another difficulty which faces the artist in dealing with actual pigments, and which has not been discussed by the author. Many when mixed with white completely alter in tint, and the matter is not so simple as it would appear from the description in the text of the graded tones to be obtained in this way. To take a simple instance, the great value of yellow ochre to an artist is that it can be mixed with white without an alteration in the tint, so that the yellow ochre let down with white has the same colour value to the eye. This is not true of most other yellows, and consequently yellow ochre is invaluable for producing the effect of bright sunlight falling on a white surface. With reference to the training of children in the meaning of colour, it is open to question if the modern kindergarten methods are wise. The colours which are used in practice for training young children, and from which they are supposed to build up various patterns, are remarkable for their peculiar ugliness and the hideous colour schemes which result from them. Children grow up with a beautiful perception of true colour schemes in many lands where the kindergarten methods have never been heard of, and one of our greatest diffi- culties at present is that those engaged in trade processes which involve the use of colour have no fine sense of what is beautiful. Jt is surely an open question whether the hideous colours presented to very voung children in the kindergarten classes are not positively injurious, and tend to destroy any in- stinctive taste for colour with which they have been | endowed by nature. THE Atlas of Canada. White. Pp. 21; 83 plates. of the Interior, 1906.) HIS atlas, which has been compiled with great care, shows, in a form which can usually if not always be easily comprehended, much of the informa- tion which is at present obtainable concerning the Great Dominion. It contains about forty maps, and rather more than that number of plates of diagrams. ATLAS OF CANADA. Prepared under the direction of J. (Canada: Department the — JANuARY 7, 1909] NATURE 273 Regarding the arrangement of the maps it is unfor- tunate that some method more in agreement with the principles of geographical development has not been fcllowed; why the distribution of telegraphs and tele- phones should precede that of temperature and rainfall is not easy to understand. In a few cases also the maps might have been improved; it is to be regretted, for example, that some other method than that chosen was not adopted to show the physical features of the land, at least in the better-known parts of the country. To mark everything’ above 2000 feet in height in one of three shades of brown results in a map which is decidedly wanting in plasticity. The map showing drainage areas would also have been rendered more effective had it been printed in different colours. The greatest defect, however, in this part of the atlas is the absence of a few maps illustrating and explaining the development of agriculture in Mani- toba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta. The value of the book would have been enhanced by the introduction of some maps similar to those which accompanied Prof. Mavor’s report to the Board of Trade on wheat- growing areas in Canada, showing the regions in which the cultivation of wheat is considered possible, the districts in which it is at present grown, the lands which have so far been occupied, &c. Considerable attention has been paid to meteorology, and some valuable information is given. Besides the isothermal charts, which show temperature reduced to sea-level, and are therefore not particularly illuminating at first sight, in the case of Canada there are several interesting maps showing the number of days during the year in which the temperature -is above 32°, 40°, 50°, 60°, and 70° respectively. It is to be hoped that in the course of time it will be possible to verify and extend this information, which is likely to be of great value in Canada, where it is directly connected with important agricultural pro- blems. Unfortunately, we are not told over what period the observations have extended. Space will only permit us to remark that among the remaining maps there are several! interesting ones showing the inter- national boundary at various places, and several which show the railways of Canada, completed or pro- jected, along with the sphere of influence of each system. To many of the maps also are appended useful tables of statistics. That part of the atlas which is occupied by dia- grams contains a great deal of valuable information, information of a kind, however, which in the case of a country like Canada begins to be out of date even before the publication of the work in which it is con- tained. Nevertheless, it suffices to show that within recent years the progress of Canada has been, on the whole, steady and continuous, even although the com- plete story of its development is not told here. A few examples will illustrate this. The occupied land has increased from 36,000,000 acres (of which 17,000,000 acres were “‘ improved ’’) in 1871 to 63,000,000 acres (of which 30,000,000 acres were ‘‘ improved ’’) in 1901. The wheat area has been largely extended, though we miss a few diagrams which would have made the extent of this increase visible at a glance. NO® 20455, NOL. 79] The exploitation of the mineral wealth of Canada has increased very rapidly within the last twenty years, and is still increasing, notwithstanding the greatly decreased amount of gold which has been pro- duced within the last few years. Regarding the forest products of the country, further information would have been welcome, and the same is true with regard to manufactures. The figures and diagrams which are given under this last head show that the capital invested had increased from 80,000,000 dollars in 1871 to 450,000,000 dollars in 1g01, while the number of em- ployees had risen from 180,000 to 313,000 during the same period. (The diagrams, however, do not make it clear how far these figures are comparable.) The chief manufacturing province is Ontario, while Quebee takes second place, and the remaining pro- vinces are of less importance. The most striking fact brought out by the series of diagrams on the foreign trade of the country is the extent to which the United States is taking the place of Great Britain as the chief importer into Canada. While Canada still sends more of her goods to this country than she does to the States, the latter country supplies her with more than twice the amount that Britain does. The latest figures given are for 1904, but since then the advance of the United States has been continued. A number of diagrams deal with population in various aspects. One of these shows the distribution of males and females in the different provinces, and incidentally throws light on the conditions of life in different parts of the country. In British Columbia and the Territories, men outnumber women consider- ably; in Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta to a less extent, and elsewhere only very slightly. The death- rate in all the provinces is less than the average for the British Isles, except in the case of Quebec, where it is higher. In 1891 Quebec was the most illiterate of all the provinces, but the large immigration from the continent of Europe during the following ten years has led to that position being taken by Alberta and Saskatchewan. There is much in the atlas which it is impossible to touch upon in this review. We can only express our gratification that the Canadian Government has seen its way to publish so important and valuable a work, and hope that the Governments of other countries may follow in its steps. ANIMAL HISTOLOGY. A Text-book of the Principles of Animal Histology. By Ulric Dahlgren and Wm. A. Kepner. Pp. xiii+ 515. (New York: The Macmillan Co.; London : Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 16s. net. ig many respects Messrs. Dahlgren and Kepner’s “Principles of Animal Histology’? may be re- garded as a decided advance on the current text-book. It is no mere compilation; its method of treatment is novel, the subject-matter embraces a considerable amount of new and original work, and it presents a wider view of histological study than any previous treatise on the subject. The scheme of the book is the study of structure 274 NAIURE [ JANUARY 7, 1909 based on functional value, the functions of the various tissues and organs being discussed as an introduction to their intimate structure. The scope is necessarily a very wide one, and as a consequence the description of detail is in many cases limited, and in some cases tends to obscurity. The authors confine their aim to general principles which shall serve as a broad foundation for further studies (vide preface). The treatise, however, is better adapted as a reference book for the more advanced student who has already some acquaintance with his- tological detail than as a guide to one commencing its study. Although the function of the structure is the key- plan of the work, insufficient force is given to the mutual interdependence of the two, the significance of a structure as a functional adaptation being fre- quently lost sight of. The statement in the preface that ‘all structures exist only for the purpose of performing certain functions in some particular way ”’ is dangerous and open to misinterpretation, while the statement in the text (p. 185) that nerve cells of a size beyond a definite limit “ are obliged to develop in their cytoplasm a set of channels that will serve to increase the power of nutritive exchange ’’ is open to more than criticism, and is misleading to a degree. The various theories as to the intimate structure of protoplasm are fairly well given, but it is not made sufficiently clear that the hypothetical structure of protoplasm is largely founded on the examination of dead tissue, and that the appearances presented by tissues which have been treated by hardening and staining reagents may give a very inadequate picture of living matter. Electrical and light-producing organs are dealt with in chapters replete with instruction and teeming with interest, but the treatment of gas and heat production is not so satisfactory. It is not sufficiently insisted upon that the production of heat is a necessary con- comitant of most metabolic processes, while it is pushing the processes of secretion too far to suggest that heat is to be regarded as the outcome of certain specialised granules for which the term ‘ thermo- chondria ’’ is proposed (p. 141), or that the gas which fills the swim-bladder of a teleost fish first appears in special gas-secreting cells in the form of granules (p- 334). Chondrostosis involves a bewildering succession of complicated changes, a convincing account of which has yet to be written. A perusal of its description in the work under notice (p. 70) will not bring con- fused ideas into order. The changes taking place are described as a transformation of hyaline cartilage into bone, that the process is fundamentally neoplastic not being recognised. The statement that ‘‘ when ossi- fication begins a vascular loop enters the bone bring- ing with it the various bone-making cells ’’ endows the blood-vessel with a potency of active migration which it certainly does not possess; the so-called vascularisation of the cartilage certainly involves an active migration of cellular tissue, but the vessels which appear therein undoubtedly develop in situ. A description of the intermediate stage, the forma- NO. 2045, VOL. 79] tion of a temporary metaplastic bone represented by the calcification of the cartilage, is omitted, the de- position of the lime salts being entirely ascribed to the osteoblasts. That the bone formation begins in the middle of the ‘‘ joint ’’ of an embryonic finger is a novel use of the term joint; it is perhaps popularly correct, but not to be expected in a scientific text-book as a term defining a digital segment. Bone, it is — stated, can be formed in the connective tissue, but no account is given of parostosis, and this omission is a serious one. Vertebrate histology, on the whole, receives scant treatment. and this will be felt in studying the abbre- viated descriptions of the retina (p. 255 et seq.), the organ of Corti (p. 221), and the organs of digestion (chapter xv), but the authors hint that such matters are adequately dealt with in medical text-books, and this relative deficiency is more than compensated for by such able and comprehensive contributions as the sections dealing with nephridial tissues, mechanical protection, poisonous fluids, &c. The book is richly illustrated; the figures, for the most part in black line, are exceedingly clear and instructive, and add vastly to the value of the work as a whole. Many of the illustrations are original; others are selected from well-known sources with a wise discrimination. The chapter on “‘ technic ’”’ (!), although very abbre- viated, gives a good practical outline of general methods of hardening and staining, but the sugges- tions, scattered throughout the text, as to the methods for elucidating the details of special tissues are scanty in the extreme, and of no practical value. The whole bibliography is slender; the authors seem to have relied largely on the results of their own original research; this, however, adds greatly to the intrinsic value of the work. Typographical errors are numerous; ‘‘ Haidenhain ’’ in the text, and the titles of French and German papers quoted on pp. 166, 173; 501, &c., stand in need of correction. With some amendments in the text, a few more details concerning the preparation of tissues for ex- amination, and a more complete bibliography, Messrs. Dahlgren and Kepner’s treatise will prove an in- valuable addition to the library of the biologist. INDIAN WILD-FOWL. The Indian Ducks and their Allies. By E. C. Stuart Baker. Pp. xi+292; illustrated. (Bombay : Natural History Society; London: R. H. Porter, 1908.) Prices2l. 25. net. HE enormous flocks in which many members of the duck tribe visit the plains of India during the cold season, coupled with the relatively large number of species by which the group is there repre- sented, affords ample justification for the issue of this handsome and superbly illustrated volume. For these swarms of ducks, geese, swans, and mergansers naturally attract the attention of a host of sportsmen, many of whom are anxious to identify the species of the birds which go to form their bag, and ascertain something about their natural history. Neither is the JANUARY 7, 1909] NATURE 275 bool of less importance to the ornithologist—either | of the former a statement to the effect that the palate professional or amateur—for Mr. Stuart Baker has much new matter to record concerning many of the species passed under review, while the thirty coloured plates—reproduced from sketches by Messrs. Grén- vold, Lodge, and Keulemans—have a distinct scientific value of their own, altogether apart from their beauty as works of art. The origin of the book dates from 1896, when the author was asked to communicate a series of illus- trated articles on Indian ducks to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society which should in- corporate the numerous notes on the group published in the Indian scientific journals and sporting papers since the issue of Hume and Marshall’s well-known ““Game-birds of India.’’ These articles were com- menced in the eleventh volume of the aforesaid serial, and the work now before us is a reprint of the series, with such additions and emendations as were necessary to bring them up to date. Apart from the flamingoes, which are brigaded with the ducks under the general title of ‘‘ Chenomorphe,”’ the author recognises no fewer than forty-three repre- sentatives of the group as visiting or permanently residing in India. He is, however, somewhat of a splitter,’’ and certain of his species, as in the goose- section, would very probably be relegated to a lower grade by many naturalists. We are also inclined to disagree with his views as to the multiplication of generic groups. The division of the flamingoes into two genera, and likewise the splitting of the brent- geese into Rufibrenta and Branta, are examples of what appears to us totally unnecessary complica- tion in this matter. The author has, however, taken Count Salvadore’s British Museum catalogue of the group as his guide, and he has adhered religiously to the classification therein adopted. We confess to a feeling that it would have been better to follow the late Dr. Blanford’s volume in the ‘‘ Fauna of British India,’’ whereby greater simplicity would have been secured, and at the same time some advance made towards uniformity in the names of Indian animals. In this connection we may note the urgent need of a proper table of contents at the com- mencement of the volume, the one which does duty therefor being too absurd for words, two out of its half-dozen items being “‘ title-page ’’ and ‘‘ contents,”’ while a third is ‘‘ Indian Ducks.”’ For a book which must be largely patronised by sportsmen (if it is to make a profit), we also venture to think that too many technical terms, or definitions, are introduced without any sort of explanation. What, for instance, will the sportsman (or, for that matter, the amateur naturalist) make of the bald statement that the Chenomorphz are characterised by having the ‘‘ palate desmognathous,”’ or what will he under- stand by the ‘‘ neotropical region ’”?? If such expres- sions are used at all, they ought to be adequately explained; but in our opinion they are altogether out of place in a work of this nature; the professional naturalist does not want them, and the amateur and the sportsman do.not understand them. In the place NOe 2045, VOL: 70 “e in the dry skull is of the closed or bridged type, and that the difference between the bridged and the open or slit type may be realised by comparing the skull of a duck with that of a fowl, would have been much more to the point; while as regards the latter it would have been infinitely better to use the ordinary names, South and Central America, in place of neotropical region. With these exceptions—if it be added that the author has an extremely old-fashioned and obsolete way of spelling Indian place-names—we have nothing but commendation for the volume before us, the species being clearly and carefully described, with full and well-written notices of their distribution and habits. As Mr. Baker observes, the collection and collation of a vast amount of scattered information concerning the Indian Anatida renders it from the first possible to know the extent of our information on the subject, and to realise what gaps require filling up. The book should be in the library of every Indian sportsman, by whom it should be taken into camp in each winter’s sporting trip. R. L. BIOCHEMICAL MONOGRAPHS. The Nature of Enzyme Action. By Dr. W. M. Bay- liss, F.R.S. Pp. ix+oo0. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1908.) Price 3s. net. The Chemical Constitution of the Proteins. By Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer. In two parts. Part i., pp- Xiit+100; part ii., pp. xi+66. (London: Long- mans, Green and Co., 1908.) Part i., 3s. net; part ii., 2s. 6d. net. Neuere Ergebnisse auf dem Gebiete der speziellen Eiweisschemie. By Emil Abderhalden. Pp. 128. (Jena: G. Fischer, 1909.) Price 3.50 marks. Intracellular Enzymes. A Course of Lectures given in the Physiological Laboratory, University of London. By Dr. H. M. Vernon. Pp. xi+240. (London: John Murray, 1908.) Price 7s. 6d. net. HE number of books issued in any particular subject is not always a sure criterion of the importance of that subject. In this particular instance, however, where a shower of five monographs has suddenly fallen, not only is the interest which _ bio- chemistry is at present attracting indicated, but a perusal of the books themselves shows that they deal with a subject of supreme importance both to the chemist and to the biologist. The first three on the list, that by Dr. Bayliss, and the two parts from the pen of Dr. Plimmer, are monographs which are being issued under the joint editorship of Dr. F. G. Hopkins, of Cambridge, and Dr. R. H. Aders Plimmer, of University College, London. To some extent the idea is similar to that underlying the issue of the ‘‘ Ergebnisse der Physio- logie ’’? in Germany, only with this important differ- ence, namely, that the individual monographs or chapters (each written by someone who is master in that particular subject) are issued independently of the others, so that if necessity arises a new edition of any 276 NATURE [JANUARY 7, 1909 one of them can be printed without re-issuing the whole series. The rate of progress now being made in biochemical science is so rapid that this method of publication is the best that can be adopted for keeping abreast of increasing knowledge; and, in addition to this, those interested in any particular subiect will be able to obtain the latest information at minimal expense. Dr. Bayliss’s essay on enzyme action is a fitting introduction to the series, not only because of its excellence, but also because it is becoming recognised that the action of ferments lies at the root of biochemical actions. Outside the living organism the same chemical changes can be made to occur, but only, as a rule, at a high temperature or by the aid of powerful reagents. In the body, the changes are produced at body temperature with far greater rapidity, and in the presence of moderate concentra- tions of acid or alkali. The enzymes responsible for this action are catalysts; that is to say, their presence induces a rapidity in the chemical transformation of the substances they come in contact with, in a manner analogous to that seen in the action of inorganic catalysts. Any deviation from the laws of catalytic phenomena which they exhibit depends upon the colloidal nature of the enzymes. This statement gives in brief the gist of the book. Such questions as the reversibility of ferment action, the nature of the com- pound between enzyme and substrate, and auto- catalysis both positive and negative are also discussed, the whole forming an up-to-date, clear and readable exposition of our knowledge on this most important subject, a subject which Dr. Bayliss’s own original work has done so much to elucidate. Dr. Plimmer’s work is a brief and masterly exposi- tion of the present state of protein chemistry, and is most appropriately dedicated to Prof. Emil Fischer, whose epoch-making discoveries have done so much to render clear what before was so obscure. In the first of the two parts, the protein molecule as a whole is first examined, and then the individual amino- acids which form its constituent units are treated, and finally, in the second part, the attempts made by Fischer and his colleagues to build albumin from its constituent bricks are described. It is in this last aspect that the subject is least complete, because, although Fischer has been successful in forming short linkages of amino-acids which he terms polypeptides, and although some of the longer chains he has con- structed bear a close resemblance to the peptones, it is well known that his ultimate aim, the synthesis of albumin itself, has not yet been realised. One cannot, however, doubt that this culmination of his work is only a matter of time. Prof. Abderhalden, monograph, traverses much the same ground. He has been Prof. Fischer’s right-hand man throughout his arduous work, and so is well fitted to expound it. His pamphlet is a reprint of the chapter he has written on the subject in Karl Oppenheimer’s ‘‘ Handbuch der Biochemie,’’? which is now issuing from the press. It must not be supposed that either Dr. Plimmer’s NO. 2045, VOL. 79] in his | or Prof. Apderhalden’s contributions to the subject cover the whole ground. In Oppenheimer’s hand- book there are several other chapters on the proteins which deal with them from other points of view. There is, for instance, their importance from the biological side, and the réle they play in life and in the metabolism of living cells. But before it is pos- sible to understand that to the full, the chemistry of the protein molecule must be understood first. That is the foundation upon which the biologist must build, and that is the reason why so many researchers are spending their lives on the purely chemical aspect of this most important question. Proteins are the most abundant of the constituents of protoplasm; they are always present and never absent, and so far no other laboratory has succeeded in constructing them but the laboratory of the living cell. Chemists and biologists alike, however, are beginning to doubt whether proteins are exclusively endowed with the properties we term vital, and are beginning to direct their attention to some other substances which are universally present in protoplasm, and which manifest the character of lability to an even greater degree than do some of the proteins. These substances are termed lipoids, and cholesterin and lecithin may be taken as examples of the class. As a rule they are present in much smaller quantity than are the proteins, but they appear to be an indispensable part of th living molecule. ; In Dr. Vernon’s little book we return once more to the question of enzymes. It is the seventh of a series of books which Mr. Murray is issuing under the auspices of the University of London; like the others, it is the outcome of a course of lecures de- livered in the physiological laboratory of that institu- tion, and it will compare very favourably with its predecessors. é As already stated, it is becoming more and more clearly recognised that the activities of living protoplasm are bound up with the activities of fer- ments, the complex organic keys which are able to lock and unlock the unions between the elaborate molecular groups of which living material consists. The action of extra-cellular enzymes, such as pepsin and trypsin, which do their work outside the body- cells, has been familiar for many years. So also is the enzymatic activity of such micro-organisms as yeast and bacteria. But the conception that: meta- bolism in the higher organisms is mainly the result of ferment action in their cells is a comparatively new aspect of the subject, and consequently the one in which the gaps in our knowledge are the most numerous. Dr. Vernon himself, by his original work on autolysis, on tissue erepsin, and other ferments of similar nature, has done a good deal to bridge over these intervals, and is therefore well fitted to lecture upon and write about the subject in a systematic manner. ‘The book that he has produced is eminently readable and highly instructive, and its perusal should be thoughtfully undertaken by all those interested in the mechanism of the many problems presented to the student of animal and vegetable life. Wi Dir: JANUARY 7, 1909] DATE OTe 277 ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS. (1) Elementary Solid Geometry, including the Men- suration of the Simpler Solids. By W. H. Jackson. Pp. xiit+159. (London: Edward Arnold, 1907.) Price 2s. 6d. (2) Euclid Simplified in Accordance with the New University Regulations, with Additional Propositions and Numerous Examples. Fourth edition. By Saradaranjan Ray. Pp. xvit271. (Calcutta: The City Bools Society.) Price 1.8 rupees. (3) A Preliminary Geometry. By Noel S. Lydon. Pp. iv+108. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) Price Is. (4) Examples in Graphical, and Pp. xli+344. Price 5s. (1) HE study of three-dimensional geometry is generally more or less neglected in our schools; this excellent text-book should materially help to correct this fault; its effect on the reader enhance his sense of the importance and attractive nature of the subject. In part i. the properties of the line and plane and of the simpler curved surfaces are demonstrated with Euclidean rigour, but with a de- lightful freshness which recent reforms have done so much to encourage. Moreover, the numerous and well-chosen exercises, and the admirable figures and diagrams, are quite a feature of the book. Part ii. deals with the mensuration of solids. It is as effective as before; in style and treatment and in the diagrams and exercises the same high standard is maintained. Prof. Horace Lamb has written an appreciative pre- face, and there is no book on this branch of mathe- matics more worthy of adoption in our schools and colleges. (2) In this geometry, in order to preserve con- tinuitv and for convenience of reference, the sequence and indeed the numbering of Euclid’s propositions are maintained, while the arrangement is designed to meet the requirements of the new syllabus of geometry for the matriculation examination of the Calcutta University, which will be found very similar to the schedules now prevailing in this country. In re- modelling Euclid according to this scheme, proposi- Elementary Mechanics, Practical, Theoretical. By W. J. Dobbs. (London: Methuen and Co., n.d.) tions of minor importance are relegated to exercises, and new propositions are added. The enunciations and proofs are revised and often re- written. Many exercises are provided. The book will appeal to those who wish to follow the new methods with as little departure from the old as possible, and who are not prepared to accept the reform in its entirety. (3) This useful little book gives a simple and orderly course of practical geometry for beginners, intended as a preliminary to a formal and deductive study of the subject. ‘The pupil becomes acquainted with the terminology and with the properties of the simpler plane figures, and to some extent is trained to use his reasoning faculties. The author is very successful in carrying out his scheme. (4) The distinction between theoretical and applied NO. 2045, VOL. 79| is to j the | mechanics is gradually losing its significance, and it is now generally recognised that the subject of mechanics cannot be satisfactorily taught without some amount of experimental and practical work done by the student himself. The present book is written from this point of view; the graduated series of examples, arranged in chapters, are experimental, numerical and graphical, and are accompanied by just sufficient explanation and discussion of principles as, with the guidance of a teacher, will enable the student to dispense with an ordinary text-book. The apparatus used, while effec- tive for its purpose, is of the simplest character, and is for the most part made by the student himself. Statics is fully discussed before dynamics is taken up, a sequence which, we think, is the right one. The conception is good and well worked out, and the book will commend itself to many teachers. TWO SPECULATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO GEOLOGY. Die Entstehung der Kontinente, der Vulkane und Gebirge. By P. O. Kohler. Pp. vit+58; 2 figures. (Leipzig : W. Engelmann, 1908.) Price 1.60 marks. Die geologischen Grundlagen der Abstammungslehre. By G. Steinmann. Pp. ix+284; 172 figures. (Leipzig: W. Engelmann, 1908.) Price 7 marks. HESE two books have little in common except that they are both German speculative discus- sions of geological principles. Herr P. O. Kohler’s pamphlet on the origin of continents, volcanoes, and mountains is a contribution to dynamical geology, in which he rejects some of the most generally accepted facts in geological morphology, and opposes especially some of the main conclusions of Prof. Suess. The author denies the existence of ‘‘ Senkungsfelder,’’ or foundered blocks of the earth’s crust, and he declares that raised earth blocks—the Schollen of Suess—are statically impossible. Herr Kohler regards plutonic and volcanic intrusions as closely allied, and attaches great weight to the extent of plutonic activity; he describes the views of those whom he calls the “passive plutonists ’’ as erroneous in all important respects, and he traces their errors to two chief fallacies—the secular cooling of the earth and its higher internal temperature. Prof. Steinmann’s book is a bold attempt to re- classify the animal and vegetable kingdoms. He advocates principles which, if not altogether new, have long been out of fashion and lead to startling and incredible results. Twenty years ago Prof. Steinmann was driven to study the bases of the current theory of phylogeny, as it would not fit the facts; and in this volume he gives a most interesting sketch of the history of the subject, followed by a statement of the principles and results obtained by his own long studies. Most paleontologists share Prof. Stein- mann’s faith in the importance of the historic evidence. The positive records of geology as to the succession of life on the world afford the ultimate test by which all theories of evolution must be judged. A sufficient volume of evidence may not be collected 278 for several generations, but when it comes its con- clusions will have to be accepted, for it consists of the actual facts as to the development of life on the globe, The weight assigned by Steinmann to the value of the historic method is not exaggerated, but his methods of using it are open to question. He advances two main principles, racial immor- tality and the primary importance of external characters. He emphatically denies the current belief that whole classes of animals and plants have become extinct. He says groups of animals always survive, though we fail to recognise the connection between successive generations. That organic variation should never have followed unsuitable directions and that there are no dead ends in the tree of life is a startling doctrine. This principle of racial immortality leads Prof. Steinmann to conclusions which are not likely to be generally accepted. The trilobites, according to his views, must have lineal descendants, and he finds that various insects are the progeny of different families of trilobites. Prof. Steinmann’s second principle is equally revolu- tionary. He holds (p. 119) that ‘‘ for phylogeny the most significant characters are sculpture and form.” Engineers have been driven to give torpedoes: shapes which resemble those of some sharks, some Mesozoic marine reptiles and whales. This external similarity is usually regarded as an adaptation to the physical necessities of rapid progress through water; but this homoplastic explanation is rejected by Prof. Stein- mann. In accordance with his view that form and sculpture are the best guides to relationships, he main- tains that the whales are the direct descendants of Mesozoic reptiles. The numerous characters in which the Cetacea agree with mammals and differ from reptiles Prof. Steinmann dismisses as of secondary importance, and as due to a sort of zoological fashion. He maintains that their external resemblances show that the various Cetacea are derived from various groups of reptiles. The Delphinidz (dolphins and porpoises), according to Steinmann, are the de- scendants of the Ichthyosaurians, the sperm whales of the Plesiosaurs, and the whalebone whales of such reptiles as Clidastes and Mosasaurus. Similarly, he derives the Casuaries from Ceratosaurus, the Pata- gonian Miocene bird Phororhacos from Belodon, and the walrus from Dinoceras. Prof. Steinmann’s views as to the relationships of various invertebrates and plants are equally startling. The tunicates he represents ingeniously as shell-less descendants of the Rudistida, and the characters believed to connect the ascidians with the ancestors of the invertebrates, he says, are of secondary import- ance, and have been recently acquired. Prof. Steinmann has done such valuable work both in paleontology and geology that his views are always entitled to careful consideration; but he must not be surprised if the arguments in his present essay are generally dismissed as unconvincing, for they require the re-classification of both animal and vegetable kingdoms on lines which have been almost unani- mously rejected by modern biologists. If th NO. 2045, VOL. 79] NATURE [JANUARY 7, 1909 OUR BOOK SHELF. Das Gebiss des Menschen und der Anthropomorphen. Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuchungen. Zu- gleich ein Beitrag sur menschlichen Stamm- geschichte. By Dr. P. Adloff. Pp. 165; 9 text- figures, 27 plates. Price 15 marks. Tuts excellent book is part of the literature of an arduous if somewhat wordy warfare concerning the genealogy of mankind in general and of that variety in particular known as the ‘‘ Neanderthal” or ““Spy’’ man which broke out some years ago amongst the anatomists along the Rhine valley, and, as this work shows, is still being carried on with great vigour. The outbreak was really a consequence of the discovery of Pithecanthropus erectus by Eugéne Dubois in 1894. In the light of that discovery, Prof. Schwalbe, of Strassburg, commenced a critical re- examination of the remains of the Neanderthal-Spy race, and came to the conclusion that they could not be regarded as ancestral to modern Europeans owing to their many physical peculiarities, and that they constituted a species of mankind, to which the name Homo primigenius was applied. Prof. Kollmann, of Basel, slighted the specific marks assigned by Schwalbe to Homo primigenius, and set out to find the ancestry of modern man in a race of pygmies, with as yet but little success. Then came the discovery of the Krapina men in Croatia by Gorjanovié-Kramberger, with teeth belonging to some ten individuals in excellent preservation, and of a type almost unknown among modern men. While the dis- coverer regarded the Krapina men as mere variants of modern man, Adloff excludes them from the ancestry of modern Europeans, and gives them the specific name of Homo antiquus. The discussions and the disputes have been widened by the Dutch anatomists, Klaatsch (now in Breslau) and Bollx, of Amsterdam, the first of whom upholds the theory that man and anthropoids have sprung independently from a lemuroid stock, while the second maintains that the old-world apes and monkeys are derived from a stock akin to the South American monkeys. It was to clear up the points in dispute that Dr. Adloff produced the work under review ; but it is to be feared their settlement is as far off as ever. Dr. Adloff has made a special study of teeth and has taken much pains to obtain access to all available material. He has described and figured all he has seen with accuracy, and thus produced a work which must prove of the greatest value to all who are investigating the problems connected with the origin of man. The facts will stand, but it is to be feared that most of the author’s inferences are not of an abiding value. The discussion has scarcely received the attention it deserves in England; the present position of matters may be gleaned frem this work. Aue: The Hope Reports. Vol. vi. (1906-8). Edited by Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. (Oxford: Printed for private circulation by H. Hart, 1908.) THE memoirs contained in the bulky sixth volume of the Hope Reports were published separately in the course of the two years from June, 1906, to June, 1908. They bear eloquent witness to the quantity and quality of work which is being turned out by the Hope Department of Zoology in the University of Oxford. The first ten memoirs are chiefly or wholly concerned with bionomic subjects—e.g. particular cases of mimicry sometimes studied on the spot, the recent developments in the theory of mimicry, experi- ments on seasonally dimorphic forms, the natural (Berlin: Julius Springer, 1908.) January 7, 1909 | NATURE 279 attitudes of rest in British moths, predaceous insects and their prey. A subject like the last, for instance, worked out by the cooperation of many naturalists, commends itself as zoological work of the soundest sort; it brings together a mass of trustworthy in- formation in regard to insect natural history, it has an obvious bearing on the theory of selection, and it makes towards supplying a trustworthy basis for practical measures. Three of these interesting bionomical memoirs are contributed by Dr. F. A. Dixey, two by the Hope professor, and one each by Messrs. T. R. Bell, A. H. Hamm, S. L. Hinde, W. J. Kaye, and S. A. Neave. Three papers by Dr. Long- staff contain records of observations—chiefly bionomic —on_insects met with in various parts of the world. Then follow papers, chiefly of a systematic nature, on Blattide by Mr. R. Shelford, on ‘‘ grasshoppers ”’ by Dr. J. L. Hancock, on beetles by Commander J. J. Waller. After these the volume ends, as it began, with bionomical inquiry, from which modern ento- mologists are seldom far away. We cannot look over a volume like this (reviving our recollections, in some cases, of papers we had read before) without feeling afresh that the entomologist, more, perhaps, than most naturalists, has his finger on the pulse of evolu- tion. The Hope Reports show that he is not unaware of his great opportunities. Calcul graphique et nomographie. Pp. xXxvi+392+xii. (Paris: Price 5 francs. Tue ‘‘ Encyclopédie scientifique’ of which this book forms one volume is intended ultimately to consist of tooo -volumes divided into 4o sections, written by specialists in different sciences, and edited by Dr. Toulouse. While aiming at the completeness of an encyclopaedia, it differs from most publications bearing that name in that it consists of small volumes, each treating of one subject, instead of bulky volumes, each containing a number of widely diverse articles. In this volume M. d’Ocagne deals with graphical methods of computation, a subject in the development of which he has himself played an important part. It is pointed out that such methods are sufficiently accurate for the solution of most problems, financial calculations and certain geodetic operations constitut- ing an exception, though even in these graphic methods may play an important part. The first part of the book deals with graphical algebra and graphic methods of integration, the second with nomography. The latter subject is treated from two points of view, between which a kind of principle of duality exists— the method of concurrent lines, and the method of collinear points. In the former the relation between three variables is determined by the intersection of the lines corresponding to constant values of the respective variables; in the latter three straight or curved lines are scaled, and the simultaneous values of the variables are represented by collinear points on the scales which can be read off by laying a ruler across them. In Prof. d’Ocagne’s hands this method has effected quite a re- volution in simplifving numerical approximations, and it has the merit of being easily extended to more than three variables. By M. d’Ocagne. Octave Dion, 1908.) Mythenbildung und Erkenntnis. Pp. viiit312. (Leipzig: Price 5 marks. Tus is an interesting contribution to the literature which in recent times has been filling up the gap be- tween mathematics and philosophy. In it the author traces the origin of mythical superstitions in primitive races and their subsequent replacement by the critical methods of exact analysis. He further discusses the NO. 2045, VOL. 79| By G. F. Lipps. B. G.. Teubner, 1907.) application of symbolic methods to the representation of phenomena connected with the universe, with ex- istence, and with thought. The book forms a suitable sequel to Poincaré’s ‘‘ Science and Hypothesis,’’ and is published in the form of the third of a series of books bearing the title of Poincaré’s volume. While covering a somewhat different field, Dr. Lipps’s method of treatment is more constructive in character. He has attempted to build up a connected theory rather than to ask the invariable question, Why ? The Old Yellow Book. By Charles W. Hadell. Pp. viiit+eclxii+345. (Washington: Carnegie In- stitution, 1908.) Tue first part of this large volume consists of a com- plete photographic reproduction of the ‘‘ Yellow Book,’’ now in the library of Balliol College, which formed the theme of Browning’s poem, ‘‘ The Ring and the Book.’’ This is followed by an English trans- lation, as well as translations of two other sources of information relating to the Franceschini murder case, and an essay by the author on ‘‘ The Making of a Great Poem.’’ The photographic reproductions, as the author points out, are of first importance to secure the scholarly world against the possible destruction of the unique copy in Balliol College. At the same time, seeing that a few blemishes, due to creases in the original book, have been removed, and that the pages have been re-numbered, it seems a pity that the present book was not properly guillotined before being issued to the public. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] On the Magnetic Aciion of Sun-spots. It was perhaps to be expected that the recent discovery of the Zeeman effect in the spectra of sun-spots should revive the idea of a direct magnetic action originating in the sun and observable at the surface of the earth. A numerical estimate is therefore called for as to the magni- tude of the disturbance which might be produced by such a direct action. A solar vortex involving electric circulation, and con- sequently magnetic fields, will be most favourably placed to produce magnetic action if its apparent position is at the centre of the solar disc. If we consider the dis- turbed area, which for convenience I shall call the spot, as a magnetic pole, the first question that arises refers to the whereabouts of the opposite pole. We may place it at the further end of the solar diameter passing through the spot, and thus again assume the most favourable conditions. If, now, the vertical forces on the solar surface are treated as made up of a series of spherical harmonics, we need only consider the first term from which forces varying inversely as the cube of the distance are derived, because the numerical values of the forces derived from the higher terms are, at the distance of the earth, at least a hundred times weaker. Write, therefore, for the vertical force F F=By+higher terms, where mw is the cosine of the solar co-latitude measured from the spot. The coefficient B is determined in the usual way by aE | Fudu=# =H" As the spot is confined to a small region, for which m=1, and F has only finite values over this region and at the opposite pole, we may for the left-hand side of the NA TORE. [JANUARY 7, 1909 2Fa, where a is the area of the spot solar hemisphere. This leads to bstitute equation st measured in terms of the B=3Fa. The vertical force will not be constant over the whole spot area, but we may now take F to be the average vertical force, and its variations are immaterial when it is only a question of evaluating the order of magnitude of the effect. At the distance of the earth the corresponding force acting in a direction radial from the sun is equal to 3Faa where a is the angular semi-diameter of the sun as viewed from the earth (2*=10-‘). If we adopt Zeeman’s estimate of 3000 C.G.S. for F, the only remaining quantity to be estimated is a. We may take account of the atest possible collective effect of all spots by imagining them all of the same polarity and placed at the = centre of the solar disc; a then re- presents the total spotted area which may be obtained by the Greenwich tables. If include in the spot area the penumbra as well as the umbra, we find the value to be about 500 in millionths of the sun’s hemisphere, but in years of sun-spot maxima this number will be considerably exceeded. ‘Talking the year 1893, which was the mosi prominent sun-spot year since 1870, I find that on August 7 the value of the units. reference to we average above a was 5128 in Writing 0-005 for a, the radial solar E ‘ force is found from the above ex- pression to be 4-5x10—* C.G.S. On the Greenwich curves such a_foree would be represented by a displacement of one-tenth of a millimetre. The magnetic based, our calcula- disappear which form or fields on the cannot, of sun, on tions are course, suddenly, and in view of the smallness of the effect the only question that can arise is whether, if persistent for i sufficiently long time, periodic variations might just be traceable. Some years ago I worked out in full the periodic effects of ‘a magnetised and rotating sun (Phil. Vag., vol. xlvi., p. 395, 1898). The main periods intro- duced are two, one of twenty-nine days, if the synodic revolution of the sun is twenty-seven days, and one equal sidereal day. (The period of twenty-seven days drops out altogether.) As regards the former it could only itself if the magnetic state of the persisted for a sufficiently long period, and would probably in length to the period, show sun even then escape detection owing to its smallness. Similarly, the sidereal period would be hidden behind that of equal period and much larger amplitude which is introduced by the seasonal fluctuation of the ordinary diurnal period; but we need not enter into a detailed dis- cussion of the possibility of tracing minute effects. My main obiect has been to show that the magnetic disturb- ince hitherto associated with the state of the sun’s surface cannot be accounted for by the direct magnetic action of Prof. Hale’s electric vortices. ARTHUR SCHUSTER. Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake. [He accompanying traces show records of the Italian irthquake of December 28, 1908, given by the Milne cismograph and the declination, magnetograph respectively it Kew [The former shows a very sudden arrival of seismic waves of some magnitude at 4h. 23-0m. a.m. G.M.T.) If these represent ‘“‘ preliminary tremors ”’ n earthquake originating in Italy, about 2000 kilo- away, one would expect the large waves not to ) 1ee til some seven minutes later. Ordinarily, the nplitude occurs some little time after the large ce In the present case, however, the ma hown at either gh. 31-1m. or 4h. 32-7m., he la s overlapping at. both these times. This means ; ( ent of more than 17 mm. at the end of the boon NO. 2045 VOL. 79] It is unusual for the Kew magnetic curves to show any record whatever of earthquakes. On the few past occasions when the magnetic traces have shown anything, it has taken the shape of a burr of vague outline, indicating that the magnets have been put in oscillation. (Ordinary magnetic changes are not discontinuous, and for these the magnets are practically dead-beat.) The present occasion is, I think, unique in that not one, but several, of these burrs are distinctly visible in the original declination curve, though in a copy they will, I fear, be indistinct. ‘The time scale is only 15mm. to the hour, and an uncertainty of at least 0-5 minute must be allowed in estimates of time- To prevent prejudice, the four burrs distinctly seen were measured prior to an inspection of the Milne trace, and the times allotted were respectively 32, 36, 40, and 47 LS Ee Yee ht. 7 ta} ~@32 Kar bee 2F: (Gor Jroree Anphlude - > M7 m- dbarakon, 2 aio. Fic. 1. minutes after 4 a.m. These answer apparently to the seismic movements of which the measured times are 32-7 (or 31-172), 35:5, 39-6, and 46-7 minutes after the hour. The original declination trace shows a distinct movement at 4-27, but this is of a different type, and may not be of seismic origin. There is also at 4.23 or 4.24 a very faint suggestion of movement. This may answer to the com- menci seismic movement, but, unlike the other move- ments on the declination trace, it was not noticed until after the Milne record had been examined, and it should be regarded as doubtful. The horizontal-foree curve showed only one conspicuous burr, the measured time which was 4:33. For some for Was Any time prior to 4.23 the edge of the declination curve pretty sharp, and apparently no disturbance existed. magnetic effect originating at the seat of the earthc should have affected the Kew magnets several minutes in advance of the*earliest s Thus in it least, the movements shown on the magnetic curves are of purely mechanical origin—the magnetograph acting a seismograph—or else they represent some magnetic effect arising in neighbourhood on the arrival there ismie record. this case, as the near of the earthquake waves The periods of the declination and horizontal-force magnets and of the Milne boom are respectively about 103, 13s, and 173 seconds, and as recorders of earthquakes JANUARY 7, 1¢09] none of the three is dead-beat. Thus the apparent ampli- tudes of the records will depend on the proximity of the natural period to that of the seismic wave. This may account for the fact that whilst the seismograph and the horizontal-force magnet indicate a maximum of disturb- ance at from 4.31 to 4.33, the declination magnet indicated more disturbance at 4.36. A movement of 17 mm. on the seismic trace answers to a tilt of fully 9’, but it may be produced in a varicty of ways, and no immediate deduc- tion is possible as to either the character or the amplitude of the disturbing motion. C. Curee. January 1. [Added January 4.—An examination of the glass scale used with the magnetic curves shows that a correction of about —o-5 minute is required to the times deduced by it. This brings the above times from the magnetic and seismic curves into even more perfect agreement.] The Commercial Products of India, Ir is not customary for an .author to reply to his reviewers, but I trust. you will permit me to depart from that usage. Captain A. T. Gage; superintendent of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, stands, to my recent work ‘‘ The Commercial Products of India,”’ in an entirely different position from an anonymous reviewer, and his opinion, as expressed in certain passages of the notice published in Nature of December 17, 1908, therefore seems to me to call for a reply. Captain Gage accuses me of having “‘ unnecessarily spun out’’ certain articles by a “‘ failure to discriminate between essential and superfluous information and between proved facts and mere opinions not worth recording.’’ He then proceeds to exemplify that contention by quoting one sentence regarding tea. Removed from its context, that particular passage might fall under the condemnation he has passed upon it, but when read in connection with the sentences. immediately preceding and following, its mean- ing and value are, I venture to think, abundantly brought out. The contention, it will be seen, is advanced that even in China tea appears to have been first used as a vegetable or medicine, and that it was not until the fourth century that its modern usage as a beverage began to attract attention. If I am justified in assuming that many of my readers may find interesting what had proved such to myself, it seems likely that the fact that the habit of tea drinking is not very ancient, even in China, will not be regarded as superfluous information. Then, again, Captain Gage apparently. objects. to. my method of exemplifying the failure, so: far, with rhea cultivation in’ Kangra. I have given. prominence (so he affirms) to the fascinating effect on myself personally. of the undying faith of a very old lady.- Now anyone at all familiar with the «recurrent interest in rhea and -China grass—aware, in fact, of the extent of capital even now at stake—would hesitate to pronounce. rhea,’ as Captain Gage has done, ‘* a distinctly; doubtful crop.’’ The fibre, at all events, is in itself immensely valuable, hence,. in reviewing India’s position ‘in the, controversy of future production, I felt myself. compelled to give actual results in preference to. dogmatic pronouncements. My posi- tion regarding India’s future participation is briefly that, while we have the ‘undying faith’? of some of the pioneers, the results so far attained have not been exactly favourable; but I have urged that there is distinctly a future for the crop when certain misleading statements and misconceptions have been effectively removed. In other words, I by no means concur with Captain Gage that rhea is “‘ distinctly a doubtful crop.”’ But my reviewer has fallen foul of me because my abridged articles on tea and rhea (as he thinks) are longer than the originals. Perhaps I may be permitted to ex- plain that the chief difficulty I experienced in writing the work in question was the necessity, imposed on me, to restrict and restrain my efforts on every hand by calcula- tions or ratios of space to articles, and by the final accomplishment of the entire task within one volume. Captain Gage’s criticisms on the science of circumscrip- NO. 2045, VOL. 79| NATURE 281 tion are, in fact, examples of that very difficulty, only that he fails in the all-important detail of accuracy. If he will consult again the original work he will perh dis- cover that it often happened that a subject was there dealt with under two or more positions. In the new work each had to be disposed of once and for all. Hence Boehmeria nivea—Rhea—does not have fifteen pages in the old and sixteen pages in the new work, as Captain Gage affirms, but sixty and sixteen pages respectively. So also Camellia thea—Tea—does not have fourteen pages in the old and thirty-five pages in the new work, as Captain Gage also affirms, but eighty-two and thirty-five respectively. The articles on these two subjects thus occupy, as near as possible, the exact spaces reserved for them in the scheme of the new publication. GEORGE WatTrT. Richmond, December 19, 1908. The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere. I HAVE read with much interest the letters on this sub- ject that appeared in Nature during last February and March, and also, the account of the discussion at the British Association (Nature, October 1, 1908), and my only excuse for re-opening the question at this late date is that a point seems to have been overlooked which appears capable of explaining the phenomena without any appeal to an isothermal layer. Both in the correspondence and in the discussion several physicists cast doubt on the accuracy of the thermograms, but, so far as I have seen, only Mr. A. L. Rotch, at the British Association, men- tioned that his instruments were verified for low tempera- tures and pressures. The following physical effect on the barographs does not appear to have been mentioned, and I should be glad to know what precautions are taken to eliminate it in practice. Pressures are necessarily regis- tered by aneroids, and it appears to be assumed throughout all these discussions that a lower pressure on an aneroid means a higher altitude, but this is not so. In 1892, when I was a temporary observer in Ben Nevis Observatory, Mr. Edward Whymper visited the district to have some four- teen or fifteen aneroids of various sizes compared with the mercurial barometers at the low-level station, and as soon as possible afterwards at the top of the hill. It was in- variably found that the indexes kept on falling after the aneroids had been brought to rest in the observatory. The rate of fall was at first fast, but became slower as time went on, and it depended upon the difference of pressures between the two stations and also upon the time taken in transit from one to the other, being greater for greater differences of pressure and less for longer times of transit. The aneroid would tend to give the true pressure immediately on arrival or after some hours, according as the standardisation had been rapid or slow. The effect is due to a kind of elastic fatigue, and was reversed on returning the aneroids to sea-level. Mr. A. Mallock, F.R.S. (Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. Ixxx., p- 530), has shown that up to the altitudes corresponding to pressures of about 100 millimetres of mercury the velocity of the balloons increases slightly, but at these aititudes it decreases so suddenly that the hypothetical balloons with which he deals must there have ceased rising. It is clear that at such altitudes the conditions are most favourable to the operation of elastic fatigue. The change of pressure to which the aneroid has been subjected is considerable; the time of ascent is fairly rapid, and the velocity is suddenly destroyed; but although the balloon may cease to rise, the apparent pressure does not cease to fall. Consequently, when the barogram is deciphered. if the effect of elastic fatigue is ignored, an increased height will be inferred at the same epoch as a constant temperature. There may even be an increase of tempera- ture if the balloon should leak slightly or if the gas should be sluggish in acquiring the low temperature of the air into which it has risen, and, cooling somewhat, causes the balloon to descend slightly. It should be remembered that at these altitudes a small change of. pressure corre- sponds to a very considershle change of altitude, so that this effect of fatigue would be greatly exaggerated. The great differences of altitude at which the isothermal layer 282 INDAT Ci | JANUARY 7, 1909 has been met would, on the above supposition, receive a simple explanation in the varying mean densities of the balloon and its contained gas on different occasions, since the balloon will come to rest when its mean density is equal to that of the air in which it floats. In this connection it may not be out of place to recall that an increased velocity of the balloon does not indicate an ascensional current, nor does a decreased velocity indicate a downpour of air. In the latter case, what: has more probably happened is that the balloon has crossed a surface of discontinuity in density, and is less buoyant. J. I. Crate. Survey Department, Giza, Egypt, December 5, 1908. Ir does not appear to me that the explanation suggested by Mr. Craig is tenable. I will first state that the instru- ments used in England are calibrated over the whole range of: conditions to which they may be exposed by placing them in a glass vessel so that they are completely covered by. liquid which has been cooled to the desired temperature by solid CO,, and then exhausting the air by a pump. Thus the instrument is exposed at the same time to the conditions of pressure and temperature which it will meet with in use.° This is done both before and after each ascent, unless, as sometimes happens, such damage is done by the finder as to render the second calibration impossible. On the Continent, at one station at least, and perhaps at most, the pressure is reduced slowly for the express pur- pose of meeting the point raised by Mr. Craig. In England, and for the same reason, air is generally left in the aneroid box. Very thin metal is used; the box is dried, the faces are squeezed together so that they nearly touch, and the box is then sealed up. The result is that the pressure scale depends on the elasticity of the enclosed air chiefly, and only slightly on the elasticity of the metal. Of course, there is a large correction for temperature which involves extra trouble in the calibration, but, on the whole, I believe this system to be the more accurate. The lag of an aneroid box no doubt produces the results described by Mr. Craig, but the error so produced, when expressed as a percentage of the whole deflection of the box, is, I think, small. We have many records in. which the isothermal part of the trace covers more than 100 mm. of pressure, and an error of this magnitude could not possibly be produced by the elastic fatigue of the box. Further, in general the balloons burst while they are rising; they start with an ascensional velocity of more than 600 feet per minute, and we have good ground for thinking that the pace is accelerated towards the top. They fall in about half the time they take to rise, and hence, unless there be an isothermal layer, the instrument cannot remain in air at the same temperature for sufficient time for the slow expansion of the box to take place. If further evidence is required it may be given in the fact that the up and down traces show, with hardly an excep- tion, practically identical temperatures, especially in the isothermal region, where, if a lag came into play, they ought to be most divergent. With regard to ascending and descending currents, we know from our experience with kites that such exist. The pressure of the air must be continuous, but discontinuity in the density may arise from an inversion, the tempera- ture suddenly rising with the height. Five degrees centi- grade is a not uncommon amount, but this means a change of density of less than 2 per cent. The free lift of a balloon in these ascents is about equal to the whole weight lifted, and hence a sudden change of 5° C. may mean a change of 4 per cent. in the free lift. To meet this the square of the velocity must change by 4 per cent. and the velocity by 2 per cent. This is of quite a different order to the observed variations in the vertical velocity, which in the lower strata may reach 50 or more percent. It would be of interest to know the rate at which the. gas inside approximates to the outside temperature, and the amount of difference which may arise from solar insola- tion. No doubt the point raised by Mr. Craig is an important one, and may lead to serious errors in the height unless especial care is taken to guard against it, but it cannot NO. 2045, VOL. 79] account for the observed phenomena. In England, at least, we have never claimed great accuracy in the re- corded heights, and I do not believe such accuracy to be possible, but our traces show the commencement of the isothermal part at 10 to 12 kilometres, and the balloons often reach 18 kilometres. That elastic fatigue can account for the space between 11 and 18 kilometres is out of the question. W. H. Dives. Curious Effect of Surface Ablation of a Glacier, DurinG a traverse of the Gorner Glacier last summer, a peculiar feature in connection with the surface ablation came to my notice which I have never seen described or even referred to. | therefore venture to give a short description of this interesting phenomenon. The surface of the glacier is studded with the usual pools of clear water, due to clusters of small stones which become heated and sink some distance in the ice, the north and south retaining walls of the pool sloping in a northerly direction. On the southern or sunny side of most of the pools there was a spine-like projection of ice standing vertically from the general surface, and tapering upwards to a jagged knife-edge with an east and west alignment. Upon’ the northern rather flat (or slightly concave?) sides of these spines there were sometimes vertical ridges, and at irregular intervals the remains of thin, horizontal shelves of ice, which represented former levels of the water in the Spine-like projections of ice upon the sunny side of pools (formed by clusters of small stones) on the Gorner Glacier, August, 1908. Height about 18 inches. pools. The sketch roughly shows this disposition. At the time there was no opportunity of making accurate measure- ments; many of the spines, however, were at least 18 inches high, and there appeared to be a proportional relation between the height, width, and breadth of the spine and the width and depth of the pool. Apparently each projection is the relic of what was the southern wall of the pool when the general surface of the glacier was at a higher level (as shown by the horizontal shelves of ice), and which by some means, perhaps partly because that wall is in shade, has been maintained at a low temperature, and thus enabled to resist the general surface ablation. BERNARD SMITH. Blackheath. Moral Superiority ? Is this worthy of record as exceptional? I fed the birds with soft lumps of bread (not crumbs) this morning; there was a strong frost and 6 inches of snow. The first instant arrivals were two. redbreasts and a blue tit. All three flew to the same lump of bread; but the little tit turned with fury on his two (ordinarily) combatant opponents, drove them away, and—while I watched—took his fill of the bread he had won until the usual crowd of sparrows appeared, when he decamped with what was left of his meal, and then the redbreasts—as always—ruled the roost. F. C. CONSTABLE. Wick Court, near Bristol, December 30, 1908. : a ¢ rigid : WR BA se we Fuh rae Fic. 25.—Variation of the Obliquity-of the Ecliptic, roo A.D.-4000 B.C. into here, the angle between the plane of the earth’s equator and of the ecliptic—called the obliquity of the ecliptic—is getting smaller. The result is that the sun’s declination at a solstice, which defines the value of the obliquity, is less now than it was in times past. This rate of change is very slow, as will be gathered from the diagram—Fig. 25—a little more than half a degree in 4000 years. The present value is 23° 27/; in 1680 B.c., the date of the erection of the sarsens at Stonehenge, according to the measures made by Mr. Penrose and myself, it was 23° 55/. Now in these latitudes this change of half a degree in declination produces a greater change in the azimuth. Ina previous diagram I have given not only the solstitial azimuth at the present day, in lat. 50° N., but also that of 1680 B.c., showing that there is a difference of nearly one degree; still, this is not certain of detection considering monument conditions. Hence, in attempting to deduce a definite date from a solstitial alignment, favourable conditions of the monument, such as the avenue at Stonehenge, and 1 Continued from vol. Ixxviii., p. 574. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] (Stockwell’s Values.) January 7, 1909] NATURE 283 SURVEYING FOR ARCHAOLOGISTS.* exceedingly careful observations are absolutely Vi THE FINDING oF DATES. essential. Any others are practically valueless, ee ; because, as will be gathered from the curve, Fig. 25, (1) By Solstitial Alignments. an error of only 10! in the derived declination pro- PN the astronomical study of ancient monuments, the | duces an error of some 1300 years in the date. archeologist’s measures of azimuth and altitude It is only the solstitial alignment that can help us, enable him to determine the declination of the celestial | in consequence of the sun then arriving at the extreme bodies the rising and setting places of which are | declination. An equinoctial alignment is of no use, indicated by the direction of avenues or of outstanding | because with any value of the obliquity the sun’s stones seen from the centre of a circle. declination at the equinox is always 0°. But this, after all, is but the means to an end; it is From May—November alignments it is impossible to only a first step. deriveany date, owing to the rapidity with which the The second step is to find, if possible, from the | sun’s declination changes at those seasons of the declinations, the time at which the sun or a star | year—more than a quarter of a degree each day. occupied these declinations. This tells us when the The only serious attempt so far to derive a date by “ancient ’’ stone monument was set out, and because | an alignment to the solstice, using the change in the the monument is an ancient one it is certain that the | obliquity of the ecliptic, was made by Mr. Penrose declination of the sun at a solstice and that of the | and myself at Stonehenge, but there is little doubt stars were different from what they are now. I will | that as our knowledge of the monuments increases -deal with the sun first. other alignments as definite as the avenue at Stone- In consequence of causes which need not be gone | henge will be found. The conditions of observation at Obliquity Years Stonehenge will be gathered from Fig. 26, in which the line drawn through the centres of the naos, circle and vallum, and passing to the north of the Friar’s Heel, represents the com- mon direction of the avenue and of the axis of the temple. (2) By Stellar Alignments. In previous notes I showed how with certain data, including a measured azi- muth and altitude, the declination of the star which rose on the alignment indicated by the monument could be found. Having this declination, the next step is to inquire which star occu- pied that position in times past, and when. In dealing with stars, the problem of finding a date is much more within the possibility of observation than in the case of the sun. The stars change their declination 47° in 25,800 years, that is, 1° in 550 years on the average, and some stars at some times change 5) it much more rapidly. This relatively very great change in the declination of stars from century to century is brought about by the action of the sun and moon. The action referred to does not depend upon the actual attractions of the sun and moon upon the earth as a whole, which are in the proportion of 120 to 1, but upon the difference of the attraction of each upon the earth’s bulge at the equator, arising from the fact that the equatorial diameter is the larger. As the sun’s distance is so great compared with the diameter of the earth, the differential effect of the sun’s action is small; but, as the moon is so near, it is so con- siderable that her precessional action is three times that of the sun. An important result of the action on the protuber- ance has now to be considered. The change in the position of the equator caused by the attraction is brought about by a rolling motion, which is neces- sarily accompanied by a change in the earth’s axis. In Fig. 27, ab represents the plane of the ecliptic, CQ a line perpendicular to it, hfe the position of the equator at any time at which it intersects the plane of the ecliptic in e. The position of the earth’s axis is in the direction Cp. When, by virtue of the pre- cessional movement, the equator has taken up the 284 NAT ORE [JANUARY 7, 1909 position lkg, crossing the plane of the ecliptic in g, the earth’s axis will occupy the position Cp’. The lines Cp and Cp’ have both the same inclina- tion to CQ. It follows, therefore, that the motion of the earth’s axis due to precession consists in a slow revolution round the axis of the celestial sphere, per- N ) Fic. 26.—General Plan of Stonehenge; the outer circle, naos and avenue; F.H.=Friar's Heel. pendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. During this movement, while the inclination of the two planes remains nearly 233°, the position of the celestial pole, and consequently our pole star, are constantly changing. 2 u Fic. 27.—Showing the effects of precession on the position of the earth's axis. An ordinary celestial globe represents the right ascensions and declinations of stars at some epoch near our own time, but some years ago | devised a globe in which the changes brought about by this preces- sional movement can be shown in a very concrete manner, so that the changes in position can be readily understood. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] The precessional globe, as I called it, is, in fact, arranged so that the position of the celestial pole and equator, and consequently the positions of the stars, may be represented at any epoch. In the globe pivots are provided so that it may be turned on the pole of the ecliptic; round these at a radius of 235° are brass circles (one of which is shown), with holes in them, each of which may also be used as a pivot. One pair of pivots on the latter circles corresponds to the present celestial poles, and represents the heavens as they are at the present time; the globc is arranged to turn on these. the ecliptic pivots being thrown out of gear. Other pivots on the brass circles correspond to other dates, the whole circle being tra- versed in about 25,800 years. For example, if we wish to set the globe to represent the conditions 2000 years ago, we first swing the globe on the poles of the ecliptic, then turn it until the desired points on the brass circle are brought under the other pivots. Thess are then screwed into position, and the first two are freed. There is a brass meridian, passing round the globe at right angles to the horizon, which is graduated as in the ordinary celestial globe. Several astronomers, including the late Mr. Hind, Dr. Danckworth, Dr. Lockyer, and Mr. Stockwell, have occupied themselves in calculating the right ascensions and declinations occupied by stars in past Fic. 28.—The Precessional Globe. a, Pole o! eclipuc; 8, brass circle, with | holes on positions of celestial poles at different epochs ; C, screw pivot for N. pole of ecliptic ; p, screw pivo: for N. celestial pole at different | epochs ; E, scale of y denoting position of celestial pole at definite epochs (set for 1364 B.C.); F-G, brass meridian; H, H, H, H, wooden horizon ; J, ecliptic ; K, celestial equitors drawn for different epochs. times. Curves given in ‘‘ Stonehenge ’’ (pp. 116-117) | show the changing declination of the brightest stars— and this is the component of greatest importance to the archeologist—from 250 A.D. to 2150 B.C. January 7, 1909] A glance at the curves will show that the same declination is occupied by different stars at different dates ; hence it may happen that the declination found fits more than one star within probable date limits, and so we have to decide which is the more likely star to have been observed. It might at first sight seem that it would be difficult to settle which star is really in question. But in practice the difficulty does not often arise. We now know that the stars used were those in high northern or southern declinations for noting the time at night in the way the Egyptian temples have familiarised us with, and stars nearer the equator to serve as ‘‘ morning stars,’’ warners of sunrise. The stars with about the dates already revealed by the work of the last few years may certainly be con- sidered in the first instance. It is really not a remarkable fact that so few stars are in question, for the use made of them was very definite. Capella, Arcturus, @ Capricorni, Pleiades, and Antares almost exhaust the list. The use of the precessional globe saves many intri- cate and laborious calculations when only an ap- proximation is required. Thus warning stars at any quarter of the May or solstitial year at any given date may be found by rectifying the globe for the latitude of the place of observation, marking the equator at that date by a circle of water-colour paint by holding a camel’s-hair pencil at the east point of the wooden horizon, and rotating the globe. The in- tersection of the equator and the ecliptic gives us the equinoxes at that date, their greatest separation the solstices. With these data we can mark the required position of the sun on the ecliptic. This done, if we rotate the globe so as to bring the sun’s place 10° below the upper surface of the wooden horizon, the star the rising of which can be used as a warner will be seen on the horizon. Nor does the use of the globe end here. With,a given azimuth, which are all marked on the wooden horizon, the globe may be adjusted to different dates and then rotated until at a certain date a star rises at that azimuth. Norman Lockyer. SUR VE Y:S GEODETIC HE latest volume (vol. xviii.) of the Great Trigo- nometrical Survey of India contains the records of astronomical observations for latitude extending over the last twenty years. It is, in effect, the con- tinuation of vol. xi., and brings this particular de- partment of Indian Survey statistics up to date. It consists chiefly of tabul: ited records; 543 pages alone in part ii. being absorbed by tables of astronomical latitudes. There i is therefore nothing to offer in the way of remark or criticism on the great bulk of detail contained in this volume except congratulation on the completion of a worls involving so much labour in compilation. It is, perhaps, the most interesting ot the whole series of Great Trigonometrical Survey records, and the interest of it to the general reader lies in the preface, where Colonel Burrard, in plain and simple language, gives the reasons for the faith that is in him as regards the present position of geodetic worl in India. To those who have pinned their faith to the rigid accuracy of geodetic triangulation as the basis of fixed points for the further extension of minor systems of triangulation and of topographical survey, it may at first sight appear somewhat disturbing to be assured that there is no finality in sight for the value of any fixed point in India, either in latitude, longi- tude or altitude. Geodetic science can only develop on a system of trial and error. Only by the most NO. 2045, VOL. 79] NATURE 285 rigidly exact systems of measurement possible to human agency can the shape of the earth’s figure be precisely determined, and only, when the precise shape of that figure has been determined, can geodetic cal- culations be satisfactorily computed. Hitherto these calculations in India have been based on an assumed earth-figure known as Eyverest’s spheroid, and al- though this assumption is not absolutely justified by continuous observation, Col. Burrard rightly main- tains that it would be a mistake to break the con- tinuity (and thereby destroy much of the value) of the Great Trigonometrical Survey series by the introduc- tion of tables based on new, and possibly only half-digested, data. Similarly he pleads for absolute accuracy in the determination of latitudes, for it is only when the riddle of the earth’s shape shall be solved by the men of science of the future, and the pathway to positive deductions therefrom straightened out, that the full value of this most remarkable body of results (obtained by new and more perfect instru- ments from observations of stars of which the position is now more certainly known than heretofore) can be effectively utilised The deflection of the plumb-line forms one of the principal subjects of scientific investigation of which the record is to be found in this book. This deflec- tion is determined by the difference in latitude ob- tained for any fixed point between the results of geodetic triangulation and of astronomical observa- tion. For reasons already suggested in connection with the assumption of the earth’s figure, as well as the fact that the origin of geodetic latitudes in India (at the Kalianpur base) is itself an assumption, there still remains an element of uncertainty in these deter- minations. They are exceedingly interesting. ‘‘ In the Himalayas ’’ (which is, perhaps, a slightly vague definition) the deflection amounts to —35-29s.; at ‘the foot of the Himalayas it is —10-90s.; in central India it amounts to +0.94s. But it must be remembered that in dealing with this matter of rigid accuracy we have still to reckon with minutely small errors, quan- tities that are immaterial for the practical purpose of supplying a basis for map-making. For instance, the most improved methods of observing with the best of new instruments only displaces the assumed value of the Kalianpur latitude by 0.3”. In the matter of longitude there is, however, a recognised error of 2! 27", which is an error too large to be neglected. This has to be eliminated from Indian mapping; although, again, Col. Burrard deprecates any inter- ference with the continuity of Great Trigonometrical Survey records in the series ended by this eighteenth volume. To this extent Indian topography and Indian geodesy must remain discrepant for a space of time. There is, however, one element of disruption in Indian Geodetic Survey work with which no man of science can deal. This is caused by e: irthqualkes, and the resulting displacement of marlk-stones is not easily determined. There may be little relative displacement over a large area, whilst the absolute displacement of the whole area may be considerable. It is impossible to re-triangulate the vast spaces which would be necessary to determine this, nor does it appear to be at all easy to discover what may be the effect of such disturbances in altitude. The most careful levelling (thr ee times repeated) over the eighteen miles separat- ing Dehra from Mussoorie only revealed a probable diminution of 53 inches in the Himalayan altitudes at Mussoorie after the latest, and most violent, earth- quake. Meanwhile geodetic science fulfils its mission admirably in the great practical work of establishing the basis for topographical survevs. These never can be affected by those small geodetic adjustments which are all-important to the scientific theorist, although it 286 NATURE [JANUARY 7 I9¢9 is quite possible that such displacements as are caused by earthquakes might be troublesome to the map- maker. Topography, however, can never be final; never (under some conditions) complete. Col. Burrard, in his admirable preface, aptly quotes the shifting Indus as a case in point. Could the whole Indus valley be surveyed in any one year we could then say ‘‘ that was the course of the Indus in the year ” As it is we can never hope to possess an accurate topographical representation of the Indus from the mountains to the sea at any one time—nor does it much matter if we cannot. The expense and the labour of geodetic triangula- tion undoubtedly imposes certain limitations on its prac- tical use, and probably no record in scientific history of its misapplication is more remarkable than that which may be found in the Government report on the Boundary Survey between British Bechuanaland and German South-west Africa, Here an elaborate series was extended at a ridiculous cost, and involving the labour of several years, in order to determine the position of a meridian line (running through the Kalahari desert) which had been defined by diplomats in England as the only possible boundary. The possibility of the existence of gold or diamond mines demanded an exact and visible demarcation no doubt; but where that demarcation was carried through the undeveloped and waterless wilderness was not a matter of signifi- cance, provided it were somewhere near the defined line. It may be that the meridian (almost the worst boundary definition possible) was without an alterna- tive, in which case a most important word must have been inadvertently omitted from the protocol, or agreement. That word was “ approximate.’’ A free use of it in the original definition, and a liberal interpretation of it in the field, would have enabled a topographer to run a plane-table traverse quite sufficiently close to the meridian on a ““chronometric ’’? longitude to have fixed up the boundary marks as he proceeded, and so to have com- pleted the whole boundary in, say, one-fifth the time and at one-tenth the expense of the geodetic determination. It is not as if this geodetic determina- tion resulted in rigid (and unnecessary) accuracy. Col. Burrard’s preface to his eighteenth volume at once disposes of any such possible pretension; nor is it as if it formed the basis for useful topography, for not a square mile of topography resulted. The only result is a possibly useful basis for the extension of future triangulation in German territory—-and for this the German Government should have paid. Ts EL: THE ROLE OF LIQUID CRYSTALS IN NATURE. HIRFY-SIX years have elapsed since Prof. Otto Lehmann, while a student at Stuttgart, de- signed a novel form of microscope which permitted ot the optical examination of substances at tempera- tures differing considerably from that of the surrounding air, and thus obtained access to an almost virgin field for research, to the cultivation of which he has strenuously devoted himself. The results of a long series of observations were collected and published in the form of the fine volume entitled “* Flissige Krystalle,’? which was noticed in NATURE in 1904 (vol. Ixx., p. 622). Prof. Lehmann, however, by no means intended that work to constitute his last word on the subject, and, as is testified by the numerous papers which have since that date appeared from his pen in various journals, he has in no way relaxed his efforts in the prosecution of his investiga- tions. Of recent years, moreover, other workers have NO. 2045, VOL. 79] in greater number been attracted to the subject, and their observations are, on the whole, in harmony with his, and confirm the substantial correctness of the views he has put forward. In particular, mention may be made of Prof. D. Vorlander’s extensive in- vestigations of the azoxy-compounds. Although there was in early days, not unnaturally, considerable scepticism regarding the correctness of Prof. Leh- mann’s observations and the deductions he made from them, there is at the present time little reason to doubt the reality of the existence of anisotropic liquids and the importance of the réle they play. At first sight ii may seem ridiculous and absurd to suppose that any immediate relation can subsist between the properties of liquids and crystallised matter. The study of the characters of crystals has demonstrated that the molecules composing a crystal are regularly arranged at the nodes of the corre- sponding space-lattice. Such a structure possesses great rigidity, a character incompatible with the mobility of a liquid. It is, indeed, very probable, as Mr. William Barlow suggests, that the spheres of influence of the constituent atoms are all in contact with their immediate neighbours, and the molecule has no separate entity in the crystal. On the other hand, in a gas the molecules have clearly a distinct exist- ence; they are in constant motion, and for the greater part of their course are remote from one another, and, if not kept within bounds in some way, would altogether part company. It is not difficult to suppose that a liquid may be a compromise between such different states; it may retain, though to a_ lesser degree, both the regularity of the solid and - the mobility of the gas. That extreme rigidity is not an essential property of a crystalline structure is evinced by certain minerals—mica being a _ conspicuous example—which are susceptible of considerable bend- ing without permanent derangement of the structure. Solid substances brealk when the limit of elasticity is reached, or, in other words, when no further slipping of the spheres of influence upon one another is possible without a collapse of the equilibrium. There are, however, substances with small rigidity in which a greater amount of shear is possible; to these viscous substances, of which the melted modification of silver iodide is a familiar instance, Prof. Lehmann applied the term ‘‘ fliessende Krystalle.’’ Finally. there are substances with almost negligible rigidity in which so much relative slipping is possible without a collapse that, though anisotropic, they are as mobile as water ; these he has called ‘‘ fllissige Krystalle.”’ No sharp distinction can, however, be drawn between the three groups. Indeed, one curious sub- stance, the ethyl para-azoxycinnamate, has been dis- covered which is solid in the direction of the principal axis, but fluid at right angles thereto. Further, some substances, such as cholesteryleaprinate, have two liquid modifications. Certain of them—para-azoxy- anisol, for instance—become turbid on melting, but on increased heating suddenly clarify at a definite temperature. The turbid liquid was at first supposed by many physicists to be an emulsion; but recent investigations by Dr. R. Schenk and Dr. A. C. de Kock indicate that the turbid liquid is a homogeneous phase. The mutually repulsive action—possibly an electromagnetic phenomenon—that characterises the molecules of a gas takes in a liquid the form of an “expansion-force,’? as it is termed by Prof. Leh- mann. This force varies in different directions according to the symmetry of the molecule, and con- sequently the envelope of the liquid crystal, as seen in the microscope, is polyhedral, the corners being rounded owing to the effect of surface-tension. The contour is circular when the expansion-force is nearly January 7, 1909] NATURE 287 uniform in all directions, or is small compared with the surface-tension. This tension is merely a con- venient way of expressing the resultant effect of the mutual attractions between the molecules upon the envelope. The curious myelin forms developed when certain fatty substances are dissolved in water are an interesting illustration of this phenomenon. It has recently been discovered that, while the interior is isotropic, the envelope is liquid-crystalline, and that the typical marrow-like shape results from the pre- ponderance of the latter; the contour is circular when the envelope is thin. It was with some hesitation that Prof. Lehmann proposed the extended signifi- cation of the word crystal; it is, however, difficult to suggest an alternative, and, etymologically at least, a good claim may be made out for its use to denote the fluid form. That crystals, when placed in the saturated mother liquor, grow and have the power of healing fractures are characteristics so similar to the attributes of certain of the lower organisms that they suggest the possibility of crystallised matter being a form of life; but a little consideration raises insuperable objections to such a theory. Prof. Lehmann’s researches, how- ever, throw fresh light upon the problem, and he ventures with some confidence to assert, not that crystals themselves are living, but that crystallisation is the agency made use of by living growth. A glass or jelly, or any other amorphous substance, does not grow; on cooling it passes gradually from the melted to the solid condition, and forms about a large number of nuclei, just as happens in the condensation of vapour. Crystallisation is a very different pheno- menon; the growth is rapid and the nuclei are com- paratively few. The distinction consists in the want of homogeneity of an amorphous substance, which results in the neutralisation of the intermolecular action. In such a substance doubtless several arrange- ments of the constituent parts are possible for equilibrium, and though there may be uniformity over a not inconsiderable region—judged by molecular dimensions—the resultant effect is chaos. Prof. Lehmann noticed further that liquid crystals, when under the influence of a magnetic field, coalesce and range themselves with their axes in the direction of the lines of force; in other words, the growth of an individual takes place. In fact, the similarity in aspect and behaviour between certain liquid crystals and bacteria is remarkable, and can scarcely be accidental. Prof. Lehmann suggests that in life the directional force is that mysterious essence so much discussed and so little understood—the soul. In support of this bold hypothesis he puts forward many cogent arguments and. marshals an array of facts, but much work and consideration are necessary before it can be accepted with any confidence. Nevertheless, it must be admitted that Prof. Lehmann has made an important contribution to the solution of the great question confronting alile science and philosophy— what is life? (G2 LSS METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. aL He British Meteorological Office is making arrangements in conjunction with the Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg, for an experiment in the trans- mission of meteorological reports by wireless tele- graphy. The intention is to make an experiment ex- tending over a period of three months. It was anticipated that arrangements would be concluded in time for commencement with the New Year. It has been found necessary, however, to postpone the actual experiment until February. In the meantime the pre- NO. 2045, VOL. 79] parations for the transmission to the Meteorological Office of reports from the ships of the Allan, Ameri- can, Anchor, Atlantic Transport, Canadian Pacific, Cunard, Dominion, Red Star, and White Star lines have been completed, so far as they can be without trial, and the agents of the Marconi Company in London have already notified their officials to proceed from January 1. There are many points as to instruments and other matters likely to arise which can only be solved by experience, and the position for effective cooperation will be improved by a trial of the arrangements in view. With this object, instructions as to observations and forwarding the information have been sent to the lines which are so courteously aiding this experiment, and full advantage is being taken to secure observations at once, and to avoid the loss of information for so important a month as January. Wireless telegrams from ships in different parts of the Atlantic may be expected now at any time. The disturbances which exert such an important influence on our weather, especially in the winter, arrive almost without exceptiom from the Atlantic, and it is believed that observations showing the movements of these disturbances will materially add to our knowledge of the weather changes, and aid in weather forecasting. THE ITALIAN EARTHQUAKE. EVER had earthquake taken such toll of human i life as that which has just devastated Calabria. Hundreds had been killed by a single earthquake, or thousands, exceptionally the number had run to tens of thousands, but the Yeddo—now Tokio—earthquake of 1703, with its death-roll of 200,000, had stood ina class by itself; yet even this great number seems in- sufficient to count the deaths on the morning of December 28, 1908, and if to those whose lives were ended by the immediate effects of the earthquake we add the subsequent deaths from injury, exposure, and sickness, the loss will amount to well over a quarter of a million lives. In face of such a disaster humanity, staggered at first, has thought of nothing but relief or palliation, and the daily newspapers, filled with accounts of de- struction, misery and rescue, have contained little in- formation from which we can form a proper judg- ment of the nature of the shock or its magnitude. This much, however, is clear, that the earthquake was of the first order, not so great, perhaps, as the Californian or Chilian earthquakes of 1906, but far greater than the Calabrian ones of 1905 and 1907, and as great as either of the celebrated earthquakes in 1783, which caused 40,000 deaths in the same districts as have just suffered an even greater loss of life. From Pizzo the band of destruction extends south- wards for about 50 miles through ill-starred Monte- leone, which no earthquake seems to spare, Palmi, and Bagnara, to Reggio di Calabria. In Sicily Messina has been destroyed, and Gazzi, but except from this narrow strip of country we have few reports. Catanzaro suffered, to what extent does not appear, and at Cosenza the damage was great; in Sicily houses were destroyed in San Filippo, near Milazzo, and many were damaged in Caltanisetta and Noto, yet Catania escaped uninjured, and at Taormina only one building is said to have suffered any injury. The shock was felt, though slight, at Brindisi and Taranto, at Naples and Castellamare, and at Palermo the population fled in terror into the streets, though no damage was done. From the interior of Aspromonte no news has come as yet, but the scanty information, summarised above, is enough to show that this earthquake, like most of those in Calabria and Sicily, was polycentric, originat- » 288 NATURE [JANUARY 7, 1909 ing, not from a single focus or centrum, but from a number of centres of greater intensity, the greatest of which lay close to the coast and for the most part be- neath the sea. Moreover, it was no mere earthquake, but one of those great disturbances by which the whole world is shaken, which penetrate deep into its sub- stance, and result in a permanent alteration of its shape. This would be sufficiently proved by the great sea wave which washed the shores of the Straits of Messina and the Tyrrhenian Sea, which swept over Messina and Reggio with a height of 30 feet, which caused three deaths at Catania and reached at least as far as Malta. This wave could only have originated in a great displacement of the bed of the sea, the nature of which is indicated by the narrative of the captain of the Hopewell; according to him, the boat, which was passing through the Straits at the time of the earthquake, seemed to leap into the air, as if a mine had exploded underneath her, and immediately afterwards a mountain of water was heaped up to starboard and rushed furiously towards Messina, while soundings showed that the bed of the sea had risen ten feet. This last statement requires confirmation, and only careful and extended surveys can define the extent and nature of the displacements which have taken place; but, even without these details, the breakage of all submarine cables, no less than the sea wave, show that the earthquake must have been accompanied by the production, under the sea, of a) “Sfaulteaor dislocation of the surface, such as is not an infrequent accompaniment of very great earthquakes. — ee The most interesting and important question raised by this earthquake and its predecessors of 1905 and 1907 is whether the region may now look for respite or whether it is becoming unfit for human habitation, a question the answer of which requires a consideration of what is known of the cause of earthquakes and the past history of Calabria. Whatever may be the ultim- ate cause of an earthquake, there seems little room for doubt that it is of the nature of a gradually in- creasing strain, leading, in the end, to sudden rupture and the setting free of forces of which we still know little. Sometimes this strain will grow until the relief comes in a single great earthquake, with nothing visible or noticeable as a preparation or warning; in other cases we have had what, after the event, have been recognised as preparatory shocks. As an instance may be taken the Japanese earthquake of 1891, which gave rise to displacements along a fault-line 65 miles in length, and was preceded by minor earth- quakes at either end of the line of this fault; it has been suggested, and the suggestion is plausible, that these gave partial relief to the growing strain, but that the ultimate effect of this partial relief was to equalise the strain along the line of the fault until finally no partial relief was any longer sufficient, and a general yielding resulted in the Mino Owari earth- quake and fault. Similarly, the shocks of 1905 and 1907 might be re- garded as preparatory to the greater earthquake of 1908, and the supposition gains weight from the fact that they affected respectively the northern and the southern portions of the area in which the recent earth~ quake took its origin; but this interpretation suffers from the absence of any certain test by which we may kxnow the preparatory shocks from the earthquake of which it is the forerunner, and be certain that the last of the trio is not itself preparatory to a still greater shock. Some light seems to be thrown on this ques- tion by the earthquakes of 1783; on February 5 of that year a severe and destructive earthquake ravaged much the same region as the shock of 1905; it was followed next day by an even greater earthquake, which, like the last, destroyed Messina, and was NO. 2045,, VOL. 79] + accompanied by a great sea wave; other lesser but still destructive shocks took place-on February 7 and March 28. It will be seen from this that the events of the three days of 1783 were not unlike those of the three years of 1905-8, and the analogy bears closer examination, so we may conclude that, as the great cataclysm of 1783 was followed by a sixty years’ respite from destructive earthquakes, and the lesser one of 1638 by a twenty-one years’ respite, so the disaster of 1908, though it will be followed by a series of after- shocks, some of which probably will be severe, may reasonably be expected to inaugurate a long era of comparative repose during which the population will have time to recover. But so long as it consents, or prefers, to huddle together in towns and villages which, however gratifying to the artist’s eye, are villainously built, and designed in defiance of every precaution which should be taken in an earthquake- shaken country, so long will every earthquake of any degree of severity result in loss of property and of human life. Is6t 1D)5 (Os Few precise particulars as to the physical characteristics and effects of the Italian earthquake have appeared in the daily papers. We are glad to notice that Prof. Ricco, director of the observatory at Catania, has been instructed by the Italian Government to study the causes and effects of the disaster. The following extracts, chiefly from re- ports in the Times, have been selected from a mass of descriptive material relating to the earthquake. Sea WAVE. An officer of the Italian torpedo-boat Sajfo, carrying bread to Messina, has given the following account of the catastrophe :— “At 5.20 a.m. we noticed the sea suddenly rising until it attained an enormous height, giving a violent shock to ourselves and all the shipping anchored in port, finally hurling itself with a deep rolling noise towards the quay, overturning a bridge and smashing to pieces most of the ships. “A moment afterwards the surface of the sea appeared covered with wreckage and cargo, cases of paraffin oil, and boxes of fruit. An exceedingly dense cloud covered the city. “*Only at dawn was it possible to form an idea of the disaster. Almost the. whole city was reduced to a heap of ruins. In the midst of all this ruin were still standing the walls of the Town Hall and the Trinacria Hotel. The streets were completely obstructed in several parts of the city, which were now reduced to ruins. Red flames arose, accompanied by huge columns of smoke.”’ The captain of the Russian cruiser Admiral Makaroff states that the great shock lasted 37 seconds, and was followed by four huge waves, while minor shocks con- tinued to be felt during the whole time that his crew were engaged in the work of rescue. The sea wave which followed the earthquake invaded Reggio so far as the Corso Garibaldi, namely, more than 10 metres above sea-level. The houses near the sea were flooded up to the first storey, and several were washed away by the waves. Twenty-nine miles of railway have been destroyed, and all the stations near Reggio are in ruins. A man who was just embarking on a ferry-boat to go from Messina to Reggio when the shock occurred describes how the level of the water seemed suddenly to descend until the ferry touched bottom, and then rose toa great height again—he says eight yards—hurling the ferry-boat on the landing pier, which smashed it to pieces. METEOROLOGICAL CONDITIONS. On Sunday, December 27, heavy rain fell in the afflicted district, the downpour during the night being torrential. At about 5.15 a.m. on December 28 three distinct and long earthquake shocks are said to have been felt at Messina. Only a little rain fell on that day, but there January 7, 1909] NATURE 289 was heavy rain at night aud all Tuesday, when there was also a high wind. Almost immediately after the carthquake the very cold weather in northern Russia suddenly changed, and the weather resumed its normal state. AFFECTED AREA. y The sea-wall in front of the city of Messina has been broken up and has fallen, and the sea-walk has sunk under the water. Prof. A. Ricco, the director of the observatory at Catania, states that the docks and other harbour works at Messina have sunk to the level of the water. At Reggio the destruction seems to be even more com- plete than at Messina, for the whole of the city has been razed to the ground. The greater part of the sea front is under water. The whole area of the ground below Reggio seemed to have turned over, and a great part of the city is in ruins, covered by the sea. In many places deep chasms appeared in the streets. Of all the villages looking towards Reggio on the coast, not one has been left standing. The Prefect of Reggio states that the centre of the town has settled down to the sea-level, and only the small villas on the promenade between Reggio and Campi, situated on the highest point of the town, remain standing. The sea front has been swept away, while the water in shore is blocked with sunken débris. Access by sea is impossible, and the town cannot be approached by land, as for a radius of eleven miles the country has a torn and twisted appearance, roads, bridges, footpaths, and railway lines being uprooted. The face of the country has changed, and big fissures in the land have appeared. The greatest damage was done in the low-lying and unfortunately most important portions, but both at Reggio and Messina this seems to have been due to the actual shock of the earthquake. The subsequent wave flooding the lower houses is said to have risen gently, and does not appear to have added much to the total damage. In Reggio all the new houses of not more than 32 feet in height have resisted the shock completely. The houses along the Via Marina and the Corso Garibaldi on the.sea front fell down to the first floor. Many of the old houses lost their walls on the side which faced the sea to the north. The new dwellings erected at Ferruzzano by the Milan Committee after 1905 have suffered no damage, though they were severely shaken; this is attributed more to the fact of their limited height than to their special construction. The Admiral-Superintendent of Malta Dockyard has re- quested the Collector of Customs to make it known that the statement that the Straits of Messina are unrecog- nisable is incorrect. The topography of the Straits is said by him to be unaltered. A message from Rome on December 30 states that the submarine cable with the Ionian Isles is broken, and it is feared that the earthquake may have caused damage in the group. The commander of a torpedo-boat, which was sent to inspect the Lipari Islands, has informed the Ministry of Marine that the shock of December 28 was very severe, and that several buildings were cracked, but that no one was killed. Prof. Ricco informed a correspondent of the Daily Mail vhat the earthquake had its maximum violence in Sicily and at the southern point of Calabria. The ruin spread irom Castroreale, in Sicily, to Palmi, in Calabria, or a distance of forty miles. Damage to buildings occurred trom Riposto and Patti, in Sicily, to Pizzo, in Calabria, a distance of eighty-six miles. The earthquake was felt violently from Mistretta and Noto (Sicily) to Cosenza (Calabria), a distance of 186 miles. It was felt, though enlv slightly, at Marsala and Trapani (Sicily), and even in Naples. Taormina has escaped unscathed, except that the hotel San Domenico, occupying the site of the old Dominican monastery, has been somewhat damaged. SrersMoGrapnic REcORDs. The seismographic instruments at Laibach Observatory registered the earthquake at 5.22 and 6 a.m. Of twelve NO. 2045, VOL. 79] instruments, only one was able completely to register the successive shocks, as the oscillations were more violent than the instruments could measure. The maximum oscillation was registered at 5h. 26m. 16s. The seismic commotion noted at Ekaterinburg, and other observations, indicate that the wave of the disturbance moved south-west to north-east Europe. The seismograph at Perth Observatory, Australia, recorded the earthquake, showing apparently at two periods of maximum intensity. Western vibrations SuBSEQUENT DISTURBANCES. A slight further shock was felt at Palermo on December 30. There was a more violent shock at San Marco Argentino during the night of December 29, accom- panied by prolonged subterranean noise. Many houses were damaged, among them the church and the public buildings. Shocks, less severe but always accompanied by sub- terranean rumbling, were felt in many places in Calabria during December 31. Two earthquake shocks were felt at Algiers at about 6.30 p.m. on January 1. The shocks lasted about three minutes, and damaged some telephone wires. Etna, Stromboli, and Vulcano were quiescent before and throughout the earthquake disturbance. On January 3, however, at 5.22 a.m., a violent shock of earthquake last- ing three seconds was felt in the island of Stromboli. It was accompanied by an eruption of the volcano and pro- longed subterranean rumblings. Buildings were seriously damaged, many houses being rendered uninhabitable. At 11.44 p-m. on January 4 a shock of earthquake was felt at Tenerife, lasting twelve seconds. Bells were rung in the houses, and furniture was overthrown. SuMMARY OF PHENOMENA. The Rome correspondent of the Times gives the follow- ing details of the earthquake in telegrams on January 2 and 4:—Among the phenomena which accompanied the movement the most notable is the wave which swept both shores of the Straits. The accounts as to the height to which the sea rose vary enormously. At Riposto, on the Sicilian coast, it was said to be 10 metres high. That seems to be an exaggerated estimate, and no doubt more exact knowledge will be soon forthcoming. All the survivors speak of the subterranean rumbling sound, which they generally describe as a dull roar that seemed beneath and around them, simultaneous with the first shock, and lasting during the subsequent shocks. Of the number, frequency, and violence of the subsequent shocks there are again very yarying accounts. The apparatus in the Observatory of Mileto, Calabria, had registered twenty- cight shocks before it was destroyed. Vast fissures in the ground are reported at both Reggio and Messina. At Messina some eye-witnesses declared that the ground seemed to throw out stones, which were hurled to a con- siderable distance. The weather conditions of those days have their significance. There was a marked depression in the extreme south of Italy two days before. On both December 27 and 28 it rained, and on the night of December 27 it rained in torrents. Rain fell again at intervals throughout Monday and Tuesday (December 28 and 29), and on the latter day it was accompanied by a violent wind. Prof. G. B. Rizzo, who fortunately escaped from his fallen observatory at Messina, states that the action of the sea wave has been much exaggerated. In his opinion, the shock on the Sicilian side of the Straits caused a movement of water against the Calabrian side, followed by a re-flow against the Sicilian side and Messina, naturally with less violence. Very little loss, he thinks, was caused by the wave at Messina, where the sea hardly advanced ten yards beyond the sea-wall. What is really remark- able, and should be the object of careful study, is the raising of the level of the seashore; Prof. Rizzo noticed that several boats anchored some distance from shore were left high and dry. On the other hand, the ground has sunk in some places in the city, notably near the Municipal Palace and Via Seminario, where in one place it has fallen cleven vards. 290 NATURE [JANUARY 7, 19C9 DR. GEORGE GORE, F.R.S. TD GEORGE GORE, F.R.S., whose death was announced last week, was born at Bristol in 1826, the son of a small cooper. First as errand-boy and afterwards as cooper’s apprentice, he devoted him- self to whatever scientific studies came within his reach. He went to Birmingham in 1851, and made his home there for the remainder of his life. His occupaticns were numerous and varied; at one time he was a prac- titioner in medical galvanism, at another chemical ex- pert in a phosphorus factory, and again a lecturer in physics and chemistry at King Edward’s School. He always, however, employed himself in original inves- tigation, more especially in the province of electro- metallurgy, whenever his other work would allow, and his knowledge of electrochemical processes enabled him to be of the greatest service to the electroplating industry in the town of his adoption. His researches on hydrofluoric acid and the fluorides, definitely proving the analogy of these compounds with those of chlorine, are well known to chemists, and in 1865 he was elected to the Fellowship of the Royal Society in recognition of the value of his work. It may be noted in this connection that many years later he was only just anticipated by Moissan in the isolation of fluorine. In 1877 the honorary degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by the University of Edinburgh as an acknow- ledgment of his services to science. Some years later he declined the offer of a knighthood, but in 1891 he accepted a Civil List pension. From the age of thirteen he had had to rely upon himself for his own education, which occupied all his Spare time at a period when he was earning his living by arduous labour. Hence it is not surprising to find that one of his characteristics was an extraordinary degree of energy, which, making him one of the greatest of workers, enabled him to accomplish very much, even for a lifetime of close upon eighty-three years. His was a restless mind, constantly seizing upon fresh subjects for research, and the result of this may be seen in the length of the list of publications associated with his name in the Royal Society’s cata- logue. It may be, indeed, that this very quality, by distributing his energies, was an obstacle to achieve- ments of still greater importance which might have ensued upon the concentration of an intellect com- bining so much ingenuity and so great a capacity for work. He was strongly impressed with the necessity for State endowment of scientific research, and was partly instrumental in procuring for the Royal Society the Government grant of 4oool. a year for this purpose. In addition to his contributions to learned societies, he published a text-book on ‘‘ The Art of Electro- metallurgy,’’ and a volume on ‘ The Electrolytic Separation of Metals’’; he also wrote a treatise on “The Art of Scientific Discovery.’’ His mind always had a bent for philosophy, which expressed itself more especially in his later years. He was an unswerving materialist, and his views may be gathered from his recently published work on ‘‘ The Scientific Basis of Moralitv.”’ G. A. S. PROF. J. M. PERNTER. VAN announced with deep regret last week, the death of Hofrat Prof. Josef Maria Pernter took place after a long illness at Arco, South Tyrol, on December 20. From 1897 until compelled in the early part of last year to abandon his work, Pernter Was professor of meteorology and geodynamics in the University of Vienna, and director of the Austrian NO. 2045, VOL. 79] Zentralanstalt for those sciences. The institute is situated in the Hohe Warte, about three miles from the centre of the city of Vienna. He was born on March 15, 1848, in Neumarkt, Tyrol. In 1864 he entered the novitiate of the Society of. Jesus, and became successively professor of philosophy at Presburg, professor of physics and mathematics at Kalécsdé, Hungary, and at Kalks- burg. He left the society in 1877, and in 1882 became an assistant in the Central Meteorological Institute of Vienna. In 1890 he was made professor of cosmical physics in Innsbruck, but returned to Vienna as director and professor upon the retirement of Hann. Throughout his tife he was a_ sincere churchman, and occupied a position of great influence among Catholic university students. His best known work is his ‘* Meteorological Optics,’’ an admirable and exhaustive treatise the publication of which is not yet completed. And apart from his official work as director of the Austrian Meteorological Service, there are many valuable papers by him on various branches of meteorology to be found in meteorological journals or in the publications of the Vienna Academy, of which he was a corresponding member. His friends will probably remember him best as a controversialist of the best kind. Himself full of vigour, energy and ‘‘ Geist,” he possessed the power of putting his ideas with perfect fairness into the most lucid and vigorous language, both in conversation and in print. His contributions to the discussion of the question of the cannonade against hail concluded with a masteriy summary in ‘‘ Das ende des Wetterschiessen’s ’’ in the Meteorologische Zeitschrift of 1907. He was an active member of the International Meteorological Committee, and presided over the con- ference of directors of meteorological institutes and observatories at Innsbruck in 1905. His work, both official and unofficial, was characterised by great thoroughness and vivacity. ; In recent years he suffered most poignant family bereavement. He lost his young daughter in 1904 and his wife in 1906, and from these losses he never recovered. He leaves an only son, who is still of student age. NOTES. M. P. Vittarp has been elected a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, in the section of physics, in suc- cession to the late M. Mascart. Pror. A. Bénar, of the Ecole supérieure de Pharmacie of Paris, has resigned the general secretaryship of the Paris Chemical Society. He will be succeeded by M. Freundler, of the faculty of science in the University of Paris. Mr. Artnur H. Situ has been appointed keeper of the department of Greek and Roman antiquities in the British Museum, in succession to Mr. Cecil H. Smith, who was recently appointed director of the Victoria and Albert Museum. Ar the initiative of the Association internationale de l'Institut Marey, a subscription list has been opened for the erection of a monument to the late M. E. J. Marey. We learn from La Nature that donations may be sent to M. Carvallo, at the Institut Marey, Parc des Princes, Boulogne-sur-Seine. A committee of management has been formed, with M. Chauveau as chairman. Dr. H. W. Witey, the chief of the bureau of chemistry in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is directing atten- sae wR, in * “erty, January 7, 1909] tion to the need of isolating consumptives on railway journeys, particularly in travel by sleeping-car across the American continent. He is arranging apparatus to take samples of the air breathed in these cars for the purpose of analysis in the interest of the public health. A GRATIFYING sign of the increased interest in hygiene in America is reported from Tuskegee, Alabama, where a meeting of the National Negro Anti-tuberculosis Con- gress was held on December 19, 1908. It was decided to begin the organisation of anti-tuberculosis committees in all negro lodges and business leagues. Hitherto, owing largely to the neglect of normal precautions, the mortality from consumption has been exceptionally high among the coloured population. Tue death is announced of Prof. Richard Pischel, who had occupied the chair of Sanskrit in the University of Berlin since 31902, and was elected a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences in 1903. Prof. Pischel was born on January 18, 1849, and took his degree at Breslau in 1870. He was for ten years professor of comparative philology at Kiel, and was afterwards at Halle, from whence he was called to Berlin. His ‘‘ Vedische Studien,”’ published in conjunction with Geldner (1889-1901), played an important part in vindicating the specifically Indian character of the Rig-Veda. Tue Paris correspondent of the Times states that on December 31, 1908, Mr. Wilbur Wright accomplished at Le Mans a flight lasting 2h. 20m. 23-2s., the distance covered being officially returned at nearly 125 kilometres. A year ago Mr. Farman flew 1093 yards in 88 seconds, and now Mr. Wright has traversed 136,106 yards in 8423 seconds. There has thus been a decided advance both as regards duration of flight and distance covered. A Reuter message from Brussels states that King Leopold’s prize of 25,000 francs (1000l.) will be awarded this year to the author of the best work on aérial navigation. Tue Berlin correspondent of the Globe states that a series of interesting experiments is being carried out by the German military authorities with regard to the employ- ment of wireless telegraphy by balloons. These experi- ments are being made by means of registering balloons fitted with a wireless-telegraphy apparatus. When a message has been received by the balloon an ingenious mechanism opens the valve, and the balloon descends. The military authorities hope to be able soon to extend the working of wireless telegraphy to the military steerable balloons. Tue summary of the weather issued by the Meteorological Office for the week ending January 2 gives some interest- ing temperatures which occurred in the recent severe frost, to which reference was made in our issue last week. The summary states that the lowest of the minima were gener- ally registered on December 29 or 30, and were so low as 3° at Swarraton, near Worthing, on December 30, 5° in the Midland counties, and 7° at Cambridge. Temperatures at other than the usual stations are also given. At Liphook, in Hampshire, about thirteen miles to the south of Aldershot, the thermometer in the screen fell to 1° below zero on December 30, at Buxton and Epsom to plus 4°, and at Great Billing, Northampton, to plus 6°. The thermometer exposed on the snow at Tunbridge Wells fell to 2° below zero, and at Epsom to 8° below zero. The temperature at Greenwich on the morning of December 30 fell to 12° in the screen, and to 2° on the grass. There have only been four winters during the last fifty years in which the sheltered thermometer has fallen below 12° at Green- NO. 2045, VOL. 79] NATURE 291 wich, and the lowest temperature recorded is 6°-6, on January 5, 1867. Subsequent to the close of the frost on December 30 the weather has been unusually mild for the time of year over the entire kingdom, and the thaw was both sudden and complete. Tue weather statistics kept at Greenwich Observatory during 1908 show the year to have been generally one of normal conditions. The aggregate measurement of rain was 23:8 inches, which is 0-3 inch less than the average of the previous half-century. The largest measurement in any month was 3-66 inches, in July, which is 1-26 inches more than the average; the other months with an excess of rain were March, April, June, August, and December. The month of least rainfall was November, with 0-76 inch, which is 1-46 inches below the average; the deficiency in September was 0-93 inch, and in October 0-81 inch, giving a total deficiency of 3-20 inches for the three autumn months. There were in all 155 days with rain, the greatest number in any month being twenty, in December, and the least six, in June. Snow fell on twenty-three days during the year, and eight of these occurred in March. The mean air temperature for the year was 50°-1, which is in precise agreement with the average. The highest mean for: any month was 63°-1, in July, and June and August each had the mean above 60°. The coldest month was January, with the mean 36°-3, which was 2°-1 below the average. The range of temperature was 72°, the absolutely highest reading being 84°, in July, and the lowest 12°, in the recent frost on December 30. Frost occurred in all on forty-four nights, and thirty-two of these occurred from January to March. The temperature was above the average on forty-six nights in the two months October and November, and there were only three nights with frost. The duration of bright sunshine was 1633 hours, which is 132 hours in excess of the average for the previous ten years; the most sunny month was June, and the least sunny December. Mr. F. L. Dames, Steglitz, Berlin, has sent us copies of catalogues of works on entomology (No. 97) and botany (No. 98). Tue early development of the polycladian Planocera is discussed by Mr. F. M. Surface, who has sent us a copy of his paper, in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for December, 1907 (issued February, 1908). As the paper reaches us somewhat late, we are unable to refer to its contents. Messrs. MacmILian anp Co. have just published another of their series of coloured wall-pictures of farm animals, this being the portrait of the shire stallion champion ‘“Hendre Royal Albert.” This animal, which is a bay, with a white ‘“‘ blaze’? and white ‘* stockings,’’ has been finely depicted by Mr. J. Macfarlane, the painter. In an article in the December (1908) number of Naturen Mr. O. Nordgaard is led to the conclusion, from the enormous numbers of flint-implements to be met with in certain parts of the country, that during the early human period Norway possessed a Cretaceous formation, which has now been denuded away. Ix Nature for March 21, 1908, was published a notice, by Dr. P. L. Sclater, of a pamphlet by Mr. W. Rodier on the best means of exterminating rabbits in Australia, while a second notice was communicated by Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier to our issue of November 13, 1902. Both notices are commendatory of the plan, which consists in killing off the females, and thus causing a preponder- 292 NALORE [January 7, 1909 ance of males, which will kill a considerable proportion of the largely diminished number of young. Mr. Rodier has favoured us with a new edition of his pamphlet, entitled ““ The Rabbit Pest in Australia,’’? published in Melbourne. Tue effect of alkaloids on the early development of the echinoderm Toxopneustes variegatus forms the subject of a paper by Mr. S. Morgulis published as No. 14 of Con- tributions from the Bermuda Biological Station. Previous experiments have shown that the addition to the water of small quantities of pilocarpine hydrochloride results in the increase of the size of the embryos in certain echinoderms, and it was thought that a further study of such abnormally large embryos might contribute information on the problem of growth. The new experiments did not yield the antici- pated results, but the author nevertheless gives a summary of his work, which may not be devoid of interest. SoME interesting experiments on the action of radium rays on developing plants are described by Prof. C. S. Gagee in the December (1908) number of the American Naturalist. The general result of these is to demonstrate that radium rays act as a stimulus to plants. If this stimulus ranges between a minimum and an optimum point, an excitation function is the result, but when the optimum point there depression ot function, terminating in complete inhibition of growth as the strength or duration of the treatment is maintained above the point in question. is passed ensues a The results of experiments on germinating lupin-seeds, Timothy trated by means of photography as matic curves. grass, &c., are illus- well as by diagran- COLONY-FORMATION among rotifers, according to Mr. F. M. Surface, to whom we are indebted for a separate copy of a paper from vol. xi., No. 4, of the Biological Bulletin, on the formation of new colonies in Megalotro- choa alboflavicans, is not common. In certain species of the family Melicertidze the individuals do, however, become aggregated into colonies, the young being hatched as free- swimming units. In the case of the species described, these young do not leave the colony singly, but come together into a swimming ball which reacts positively to light. Under this ball subsequently breaks up into free individuals, which again collect into a permanent colony. In the formation of these colonies the mucus-like secretion of a gland plays an important part. certain conditions Arter the death of the great embryologist Prof. K. E von Baer, there was found among his papers an unpub- lished biography of Cuvier, which is of very* considerable interest as being an account of a great naturalist by one of his own contemporaries. The memoir was published, under the editorship of Prof. Ludwig Stieda, of Konigs- berg, in the Archiv fiir Anatomie for 1896, and of this a French translation has appeared in the Annales des Sciences naturelles, Zoologic, for 1908. This biography, together with Eckermann’s ‘‘ Conversations avec Goethe dans les derniéres Années de sa Vic,’’ published at Magde- hourg in 1848, forms the subject of an article by Dr. E. Trouessart entitled ‘* Cuvier et Géoffroy Saint-Hilaire Naturalistes Allemands,’’ of which the first part appears in the December (1908) issue of La Revue des Idées. The first-named of the two is somewhat severely criticised, the claim put by von Baer that Cuvier was in part a German by descent apparently exciting the ire of the French reviewer. A second article in the serial cited is devoted to a review, by Mr. Etienne Rabaud, of de d'aprés les memoirs forward Vries’s mutation theory. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] Mr. C. J. Herrick has favoured us with separate copies of two papers from vol. xiii., No. 2, of the Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, one on the phylo- genetic differentiation of the organs of smell and taste, and the other on the morphological subdivision of the brain. Smell and taste, as he points out, are the only two senses in vertebrates the receptive organs of which are adapted to respond directly to peripheral chemical excitation; and he concludes that the agencies which acted to produce these senses are to be sought primarily, not in the stimuli calling forth the reflexes, but rather in the character of the response evoked by the stimulus. In the second paper it is pointed out that whereas the subdivision of the human brain into regions, as made by the early anatomists on the foundation of gross external form, has a certain functional as well as morphological basis, when the attempt was made to study the regions thus named from a comparative point of view, the morphological defects of the scheme became at once apparent. Several alternative schemes have been suggested, but as none of these, in-the opinion of the author, is satisfactory, he proposes a new one for the entire nervous system, which is split up into four primary divisions, viz. systema nervorum sympathi- cum, s. n. cerebro-spinale, s. n. periphericum, and s. n. centrale. For the divisions of the brain itself we must refer our readers to the original paper. Tue second Bulletin of the Sleeping Sickness Bureau, edited by the director, Dr. A. G. Bagshawe, contains a summary of the results of the work hitherto published by investigators upon certain aspects of the sleeping-sickness problem, supplemented by~ statements based- upon the editor’s own experience in Africa, and by conclusions of a practical nature deduced from the array of facts brought together. The chief subjects dealt with in the present number are diagnosis and symptoms of human _ trypano- somiasis, transmission of Trypanosoma gambtense, in- cubation period of human trypanosomiasis, toxin-formation in trypanosome-infection, and recent work on treatment. With reference to the vexed question of the transmission of sleeping sickness, it concluded that “‘in devising measures for prevention we may disregard other species and concentrate our attention and energies on Glossina palpalts.’’ This publication is especially valuable for those who are investigating sleeping sickness far from centres of scientific libraries, and require in- formation with regard to the results of other workers in the same field. is civilisation and A synopsis of the Philippine species of Freycinetia (Pandanacex), prepared by Mr, E. D. Merrill and pub- lished in the botanical series of the Philippine Journal of Science (No. 5), assigns twenty-four species to the islands, a number considerably greater than is found in any other region; moreover, Of the species of Philippine oaks, which are summarised by the same author, most are endemic, but four species are common to the Celebes or It is noted that one, a new species, sheds thin flakes similarly to the they are all endemic. Borneo. its bark in ordinary species of birch. QvotinG from his experience of insect pests in Indian forests, Mr. E. P. Stebbing communicates to the Indian (November, 1908) cogent arguments regarding the danger of pure forests, and points out the necessity for taking into consideration the dangers of insect and Forester plant pests before drawing up forest working plans. Special observations in the case of an attack by bark- borers on deodar showed that the ravages were consider- ably greater where the deodar formed pure forest than on areas where the deodar was mixed with oak. January 7, 19091 NATURE 293 Sometimes, as in the case of a species of Tomicus bark-beetle infesting blue pine and spruce, more than one of the principal trees in a mixed forest is attacked. Tne notes on annual flowers by Mr. A. Watkins pub- lished in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society (vol. xxxiv., part ii.) contain hints for the amateur gardener as well as queries for the plant breeder. The author observes that annuals well repay extra attention, especially in the matter of sowing and transplanting so as to give them plenty of room. As a puzzle in variation, reference is made to the Countess Spencer variety of sWeet-pea, from which for a long time no fixed type could be obtained; the explanation offered attributes this difficulty to a period of variability for the strain. As a successful instance of selection, Mr. Watkins mentions his production of the Mandarin erecta compacta variety of Eschscholtzia. Tue report on the operations of the Department of Agri- culture, Madras Presidency, for the official years 1906-7 and 1907-8 shows that steady progress is being made in improving the native husbandry. Experiments are recorded on the growth of paddy, the most valuable and important crop of the Presidency, of sugar-cane, jute, and agave. There are numerous experiments on cotton, some of the famous black cotton soils occurring in this region, and on methods of irrigation. The department keeps in touch with the native cultivator by sending out agricultural in- spectors to help the ryots in their cultivation of the various crops; it also distributes seed superior to that in common use, and, in certain cases, gives premiums by way of encouragement to those natives who succeed with the improved methods. Tue Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture has recently issued a Bulletin (No. 51), by Messrs. Patten and Gallagher, dealing with the absorp- tion of vapours and gases by soils. The problem is very intricate, and is not likely to be solved until more light has been thrown on the constitution of colloids; in this respect it resembles many other soil problems. Although the present publication does not carry us much further, it a useful function in collecting a good deal of scattered work, and directing attention to a problem of great practical and scientific importance. serves BuLtetIN No. 80 of the North Dakota Agricultural College Experiment Station gives descriptions of the common weeds of North Dakota, and of the methods by which they may be eradicated. It is recommended that re- course should be had to spraying with ‘solutions of either ferrous sulphate, copper sulphate, or sodium arsenite. Sodium arsenate cannot be recommended, since it does not dissolve with sufficient readiness. Spraying is not an un- common: practice in England, and it is on the increase ; the necessity of saving labour compels the modern farmer to do by chemical means what his predecessor did by hand. Tue report of the director of agriculture of the Federated Malay States for the year 1907 which has just come to hand shows continued progress in many directions. The climate is probably unsurpassed for rapid growth of vegetation, but these conditions are also favourable to insect and fungoid pests, and the appointment of a Govern- ment mycologist will prove a useful step. There is, however, no chemist as yet. The agricultural work to be on useful and calculated to aid the development of these States. Work has appears lines, materially NOs 2945, VOL. 79] been done on padi and on cocoanuts, both highly valuable crops, but perhaps the most striking advance is seen in rubber cultivation. The acreages in the Federated Malay States (exclusive of those in Johor, Malacca, and Province Wellesley) have been as follows :— Year Acreage Year Acreage TSQVApeccae tals 345 1903 i 1,239 TSQSme sy ee 15700 1904 19,239 1899 35227 1905 43.338 1900 4,693 1906 85,492 1901 5,965 19¢7 126,235 1902 7,239 There was in 1907 a marked fall in the price of rubber, which, however, only stimulated the planters to improve their methods and decrease the cost of production. The industry is very profitable; even the lowest price yet reached for plantation rubber is more than 100 per cent. above the cost of production. Experiments are in hand to discover still better methods of working and of coping with the root fungus Fomes semitostus and the termite Termes gestroi, which are at present the worst rubber pests. Pror. T. J. J. SEE contributes to the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society a further paper dealing with his interpretation of the cause of earthquakes and the origin of mountain ranges. The paper is illustrated with a series of very striking relief maps of the continents, taken from Frye’s ‘‘ Geography,’’ which are intended to illustrate the author’s contention that the highest mountain ranges border the deepest oceans. The series of memoirs by Prof. See, of which this is the last, may be regarded as part of the modern revolt against the doctrine which regarded the earth as an inert mass cooling by radiation into space, and attributed all changes which have taken place in it as due to secular contraction. We wonder whether his last paper may not also be an indication of a return to the fashion of the lengthy titles which delighted our forefathers of a century ago. Aw excellent custom prevails in America, which might well be imitated in other countries, that just when a special piece of scientific work is needed someone is always ready to defray the cost. This is the case with the in- vestigation of the races of the Philippine Islands, which is due to the liberality of Mr. R. F. Cummings, of Chicago. The report on the Tinggian tribe by Mr. F. C. Cole, which is the first of the series, amply justifies the expenditure on the work. The Tinggians are a fairly civilised tribe, practising rice farming on a large scale, and occupying the subprovince of Abra. They are ruled by a tribal council, before which everyone, including all duly married women, may bring their grievances. They revere a sky spirit, known as Kadaklan, but their religious rites are mainly devoted to the propitiation of the evil spirits which infest the earth. These rites are in a large measure of the shamanistic type, and in their domestic ceremonies sympathetic magic plays a leading part. Special attention is paid to the propitiation of the spirits of the dead, for whom blankets and other things likely to be wanted in the world are hung on a rope suspended over the corpse. Marriage is said to be pro- hibited between blood relations, and it is alleged that there is no clan system, an assertion which, on the analogy of other races in a similar grade of culture, further investi- gation will perhaps correct. other Tue September (1908) number of the Philippine Journal of Science contains a classification of the racial types found among the students at the University of Michigan, 204 NATURE [JANUARY 7, 1909. the percentage frequency in each class being stated. It is suggested that the numerous composite types may be explained by the action of inheritance from three primary types, in accordance with the lines laid down by Mendel. L’Aéro Mécanique is the title of a new monthly paper published at Brussels (Rue royale 214). No. 5 before us contains, among other articles, one by Captain de Vos on the much-vexed question of the flapping wing of the bird, and extracts from current journals, patents, and so forth. Tue Revue générale des Sciences reproduces in its issue for December 15, 1908, the address given by Prof. H. Poincaré to the Mathematical Congress at Rome on ““The Future of Mathematics.’? In the introductory part, which precedes the discussion of special regions of mathe- matical study, the author discusses the aims and objects of the pure mathematician, the reasons for his insistence on rigour and elegance in his proofs, and his relationship to the engineer. Tue equilibrium of a flexible string forms the subject of a paper in the Transactions of the American Mathe- matical Society, ix., 4, by Prof. E. B. Wilson. It is pointed out that the ordinary solutions for the cases of a rectilinear field, whether parallel or central, fail to lead to interest- ing problems when the string has a free end, but the Paper shows that there is a large class of cases, which may be explicitly integrated by quadratures, where this objection does not apply. A uistory of the origin of the theory of the zther is contributed by Dr. Léon Bloch to the Revue générale des Sciences, xix., 22. It deals very largely with the theories of Newton and Hooke. The author shows that as new physical discoveries have taken place, the theory of the zther has undergone a continual process of evolution, and he predicts that the same will take place in the future. A rigorous dynamical theory of this medium which does not admit of modification in the light of new discovery cannot be regarded as final. : Pror. E. B. Witrson, writing in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society (December, 1908), dis- cusses the analogy between statistical mechanics and hydrodynamics, an analogy primarily based on the identity between the Eulerian equation of continuity and the corre- sponding relation between the differential coefficients of momenta and coordinates. According to this view, it is obvious that the determinantal relation of the kinetic theory represents the Lagrangian equation of continuity. The purpose of the paper is to examine whether the equa- tions of motion, and in particular those of irrotational motion, have any analogues on the dynamical side. The search does not appear to lead to any results of great importance so far. Messrs. BurrouGHs WettcomME anp Co. have sent us a copy of Wellcome’s ‘‘ Photographic Exposure Record and Diary ”’ for the year 1909, and an examination of it shows that in this handy little book the owner possesses a store of practical information in the smallest compass for one shilling. In this year’s issue a further attempt has been made, and we think with very successful results, to con- dense statements to the minimum number of words, and this has allowed extra matter on other subjects to be inserted. A new feature of the article on exposure is the insertion of two tables dealing with the relative speed of bromide papers and lantern plates. These should be found very useful, because if the user knows the correct NO. 2045, VOL. 79| exposure for any one of these, that for any other can be determined at a glance. Other items here tabulated are the various exposures of interiors, copying and enlarging, moving objects, &c., and an excellent list of plate speeds, brought up to date, is added. Perhaps the main feature of this pocket-book is the exposure calculator at the end, which by this time has become of such general use. In this issue the series of illustrations of character- istic subjects is printed on a separate card and placed in the pocket of the book, the use of the calculator being thus facilitated. WE have received from Messrs. John J. Griffin and Sons, Ltd., of Kingsway, London, a conveniently arranged and profusely illustrated catalogue of models for teaching machine construction and drawing, pattern making and foundry practice, building construction, and mining opera- Teachers of these subjects should find the catalogue of great assistance and very suggestive in developing the practical side of the instruction they give. tions. WHITAKER’S Baronetage, Knightage, and Companionage for the Year 1909’ is now available. The character of this work of reference is too well Iknown to make any extended description of its contents necessary. A new feature of the present issue is an addition to the introduction in the form of an “ Official Glossary,’’? which provides useful information to persons who are not experts in the various departments with which the volume deals. The work includes an extended list of the Royal Family, the peerage with titled issue, dowager ladies, baronets, knights and companions, home and colonial bishops, and an index to country seats. * Peerage, useful Messrs. ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND Co., Ltp., have published a revised and abridged edition of ‘‘ The Life Story of Sir Charles Tilston Bright, Civil Engineer ; with which is Incorporated the Story of the Atlantic Cable and the First Telegraph to India and the Colonies.’’ The present volume has been prepared by Mr. Charles Bright alone, who, in the task of writing the original work, was assisted by his uncle, Mr. E. B. Bright. The book was reviewed at length, soon after its original appearance, in Nature for October 26, 1899 (vol. Ix., p. 613). This abridgment appears appropriately, since 1908 was the fiftieth anniversary of the Atlantic cable, and the short account of the work of so exceptionally able, energetic, and enthusiastic a man as the late Sir Charles Bright should be welcome to many readers. The price of the new issue is 12s. 6d. net. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN JANUARY :— Jan. 7. 13h. 21m. to 16h. 41m. Transit of Jupiter’s Satellite III. (Ganymede). ‘ 10. 19h. Jupiter in conjunction with the Moon. (Jupiter Allin oe)s It. 14h. 23m. to 15h. 32m. Moon occults y Virginis (mag. 4°2). 22. gh. 4tm. to 13h. 32m. Transit of Jupiter’s Satellite IV. (Callisto). 23. oh. 12m. Minimum of Algol (8 Perse). 25. 5h. 59m. to 7h. 2m. Moon occults 30 P-scium (mag. 4°7). »» 7h. 44m. to 8h. 37m. Moon occults 33 Piscium (mag. 4°6). 26. 6h. 1m. Minimum of Algol (8 Persei). s,s 16h. Mercury at greatest elongation, 18° 25’ E. 30. 20h. Mercury in conjunction with Uranus. (Mercury oO 21’ N.). ~~ January 7,°1909] Comet. Morenouser, 1908c.—From Mr. R. C. Johnson, one of the secretaries of the Liverpool Astronomical Society, we have received an enlarged copy of an excel- lent photograph of Morehouse’s comet, taken by him, at his observatory at West Kirby, on November 15, 1908. The original photograph is one of a series of twenty taken with a 63-inch reflector of 28 inches focal length, and received 42 minutes’ exposure, from 5h. 42m. to 6h. 24m. (G.M.T.). The main streamer of the tail is very bright for a distance of about 40! from the head, and extends to the edge of the plate, about 34 degrees; at the end of the bright portion this streamer divides into three distinct branches, in each of which there are several convolutions. In addition to this, there are several shorter streamers, two of which curve towards the south. Numerous observations of this comet, made between September 18 and October 30, 1908, at the Royal Observa- tory, Rome, are reported in No. 4293 of the Astronomische Nachrichten (p. 331, December 27, 1908), and afford further evidence of the remarkable changes which took place in the form and brightness of the tail. An ephemeris, covering the period January 13 to July 13, in ten-day intervals, appears in Circular No. 144 of the Harvard College Observatory. By the beginning of June, when the comet again reaches a declination observable in these latitudes, its computed brightness will be but about one-third that at the time of discovery. A photograph of the spectrum of the comet, taken with the 8-inch Draper telescope on November 17, 1908, shows six broad bright bands which appear to coincide with H¢, He, H8, Hy, H&, and the band at A 464-473, characteristic of the spectra of stars of the fifth type (Harvard College Observatory, Circular No. 145). Tue Totat Sorar Ec.ipse oF 191r AprIL 28.—In a re- print from vol. Ixix. of the Monthly Notices (R.A.S.), pp. 30-32, with which the author has favoured us, Dr. Down- ing sets out the conditions for the total solar eclipse of April 28, 1911, as it will be observed at Neiafu, a port on the south-west coast of Vavau Island, one of the Tonga group. At this station totality will last about 3m. 37s., the altitude and azimuth (from N.) of the sun being 43° and 49° respectively. Mail steamers from Sydney call at Neiafu every four weeks, and the town is the headquarters of the Governor and of several English and German trading firms. A Sixt Type oF STELLAR SpectTRA.—In Circular No. 145 of the Harvard College Observatory Prof. Pickering suggests that, for the purpose of facilitating reference to them, a number of stars already announced as having *‘ peculiar *’ spectra should be assigned a class to them- selves. This class would include a number of doubtful fourth-type stars, the spectra of which contain rays of much shorter wave-length than those of the normal fourth type; stars having spectra somewhat similar to those of the fifth type, but with the bright bands apparently reversed on a continuous spectrum; and stars of which the spectra are generally similar to the above, but show minor peculiarities. It is proposed that the new class should be designated type VI., class R, and Prof. Pickering publishes a list of fifty-one stars all of which would certainly be included in this class; none of these is brighter than magnitude 7-5. Several of the spectra of this type are reproduced in the circular, together with spectra of types I., IV., and V. for comparison. Tue ASTRONOMICAL AND ASTROPHYSICAL SOCIETY OF America.—A_ brief résumé of the proceedings of this society, at its ninth meeting held at Put-in-Bay, Ohio, August 25-8, 1908, is published by Messrs. Jacoby and Sears in Science for December 11, 1908 (N.S., vol. xxviii., No. 728). Two special committees were appointed, one to deal with the question of luminous meteors, the other to consider comets. Brief abstracts of many of the papers read at the meet- ing are published in Science, but they are too numerous to be discussed here; mention of some of them has already been made in these columns. : NO. 2045, VOL. 7a] Niet ORL 295 SpEctRoscopic Binaries.—In No. 5, vol. ii., of the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada Mr. Plaskett announces that spectrograms taken at the Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, show that y Aquarii and t Andromedz are spectroscopic binaries. Spectrograms of the former, taken during July and August, 1908, indicate a variation in the radial velocity between —4o km. and +23 km., whilst spectrograms of the latter, taken in August and October, 1908, indicate a range from —11 km. to +32 km. Tue VartasLE Star U GeminorumM.—The third volume of Recherches astronomiques de l’Observatoire d’Utrecht is devoted to a very full discussion, by M. J. van der Bilt, of observations of U‘Geminorum, made between 1856 and 1907. This discussion occupies 115 pages, and is accom- panied by twenty-seven plates giving the variously derived light-curves, one plate showing the normal curves of the long and the short maxima, and a final plate reproducing a chart of the stars surrounding this peculiar variable. At the end of the discussion the author strongly emphasises the necessity for making constant observations of this star if its peculiarities and apparent anomalies are to be completely understood. In the preface, Prof. Nijland states that whilst the first of these ‘* Recherches ’’ appeared in 1864, it is hoped that in future the volumes will appear at shorter intervals ; vol. iv., dealing with observations of Jupiter, is already in the press. Tue Heavens at a Giance.—Mr. Mee’s handy card calendar for 1909 is similar to its predecessors in giving a great deal of useful astronomical information in a very compact form. For amateurs who wish to keep au courant with astronomical events, this calendar is an extremely useful aid, and may be obtained from Mr. Mee, Llanishen, Cardiff, for sevenpence, post free. SURVIVALS OF PAGAN BELIEFS AMONG THE INDIANS OF SOUTH CALIFORNIA. HE Luiseno Indians of South California, who with the kindred Diegueno tribe are the only survivors of those attached to the Franciscan missions, form the subject of a monograph by Miss C. B. DuBois, issued in the third bulletin of the eighth volume of the ethnological publications of the University of California. Though they have been exposed to European influence for more than a hundred years, and have lived for nearly two generations under rigid Christian discipline, it is re- markable that so many of their pagan beliefs and customs have survived. It is still more noteworthy that, about a hundred and twenty years ago, a pagan missionary move- ment extended from them to the Diegueno tribe, among whom the new cult which centres round the personality of Chungichnish was introduced. This new faith, like others which have extended beyond their original home, had every requisite of a conquering religion—a distinct and difficult rule of life demanding obedience, fasting, and self-sacrifice—and it enforced its commands by an appeal to the fear of punishment, a threat that avengers in the shape of stinging weeds, the rattle-snake and the bear would punish neglect of its observances. The most important of the rites connected with the Chungichnish cultus is that of Toloache, or the initiation of youths and girls. In the case of the former, the candi- dates, in a state of nudity, are dosed with a decoction of the jimson-weed (Datura meteloides), which contains a powerful narcotic and excitative principle. After the in- toxication produced by this drug has passed away, the secret dances of the tribe are performed and the mystic songs are sung. The Shaman who conducts the proceed- ings asserts that he is possessed of magical powers, and the initiates are instructed to imitate his feats. During the dance the performers appear to speak in the tongues of beasts and birds, a rite possibly connected with a belief in personal totem animals or guardian spirits, which up to quite recent times survived among this people. These rites are followed by a fast from salt and meat sometimes lasting two or three weeks, and meanwhile the youth is instructed in the tribal code of etiquette and morals. He | is told, for instance, that no one should eat immediately 296 NATORE [JANvaRY 7, 1909 ‘on rising lest. the spirit which was absent from his body in sleep should be unable to return. On the same _prin- ciple, on return from an expedition into the hills he must defer eating so as to permit the wandering spirit to rejoin its mortal body. This initiation rite is accompanied by an _ elaborate symbolism, of which Wanuwat, or the sacred net, and a form of painting. or modelling in sand are the most prominent features. The net is said to symbolise the Milky Way, a prominent. feature in the night sky of that region, which is regarded as the home of the dead; and the main idea seems to be based upon an attempt to free the departed spirits from this earth, and to prevent their return by binding them in the net of the Milky Way. The sand painting may perhaps best be described as a cosmological model in which the tribal conception of the relation of this world to the heavens is portrayed. The annual commemorative rite for the dead is_per- formed over. images representing the departed, a custom common to the Hindus and other savage or semi-savage races. Singing and dancing, with whirling of the bull- roarer, precede the burning of the images, in some cases the clothing and ornaments being consumed, in others removed by the friends. Like the rite of the sacred net, the intention seems to be to expel the spirits of the dead from the neighbourhood of the living. The Creation legends of the tribe, now for the first time fully recorded by Miss DuBois, are of considerable importance, and must be taken into account by all studenis of comparative mythology. In the beginning existed only Kivish Atakvish, the Void, who was followed by Whaikut Piwkut, “‘ the whitish gray,’’ who created two great round balls, which were male and female. The union of Sky and Earth then produced the First People, now repre- sented by the magic mortar, wampum strings, the mast used in the death rites, and other sacred obiects, animal and vegetable. Then appears a deified hero, Oniot, who is done to death by Wahawut, the witch, and, as in the Hindu Yama saga, death thus entered the world. Besides these is a group of interesting sky myths. The remark- able element in these legends is that they imply a suc- cession of births or existences, some of them psychic, up to the present hardly known in native American thought, and Mr. Kroeber, the editor of the report, goes so far as to suggest that they represent Oceanic or Asiatic influence. But it must be remembered that these rites and legend: have been for the first time recorded at a very late period in the history of the tribe, when it had been for a lone period exposed to foreign influences. Possibly much of this elaborate symbolism is of native origin, but the inte-- pretation of them now explained by the few survivors of the tribe who were initiated into the mysteries some- what obscure, and may not be really primitive. A strong case can undoubtedly be made out for the in- dependent origin of native American culture, and th: theory of early historical relations between its races and those of Asia is beset by enormous difficulties. On the whole, it seems probable that. the interpretation of these 1S LLuiseio myths will not lead to a modification of the view generally accepted by anthropologists, that they are of indigenous growth. The question is, however, not free from difficulty. They are in themselves of great interest, deserve attentive study, and their collection is another debt which ethnologists owe to the enterprise of the anthropo- logical department of the University of California. FIELD NATURAL HISTORY. O the Transactions of the Edinburgh Field Naturalists’ and Microscopical Society, vol. vi., part i., Mr. N et has contributed a charmingly written and exqui- sitely illustrated account of. the. bird-life of an outlying, Adam and consequently little frequented, island -in the Outer Hebrides group. After remarking how little of interest in the way of bird-life is noticeable from the single village, the author proceeds to give his experiences of the purple sandpiper, of which several specimens, in what appeared to be the breeding-plumage, were observed on the high ground of the interior, where it was hoped they would be NO. 2045, VOL. 79] found nesting. Careful search failed, however, to bring eggs to light, while the actions of the birds themselves did not suggest that they were breeding. On the-sea-cliffs the birds absolutely swarmed. The lower levels, at: a height of 100 feet, or occasionally 200 feet, form the re- sort of the oyster-catcher. ‘‘ Beyond. the. oyster-catchers’ territory was the domain of the big-gulls—the herring and the lesser black-backs; in fact, their. respective spheres of influence encroached upon one another, and. the, clamorous cloud of swirling gulls,, which even: encanopied the. intruder, were invariably ‘threaded’ by the high- pitched, piercing notes of a ‘sea-pie.’ The herring gull was by far the most abundant species. ... When you had passed within the dominion:of the gulls, you were on the brink of the cliff-wall, and from some coign of vantage might look down on.the perpetual wonder and prodigality. of a rock-fowl city. . For .sheer impressiveness you were perhaps wise to choose a stance as far down. as you could reach in one of the great chasms which the ceaseless grind of the tide and the stress of Atlantic weather had gnawed From the “‘ Bird-life of an Outer Island.” Razorbills and Kittiwake. into the very vitals of the island.’’ One of the illustra- tions from-this paper is here reproduced. contributes + To the same Transactions Mr. R. Service some interesting observations: on variation. in the mole. The largest male obtained: measured 7%. inches in ‘length, but an inch less than this still. indicates a large individual ; » 53 inches is about the average for the’ female, the maxi- mum observed being 6} inches. Great variation in the tint of black individuals is noticeable. As regards more striking abnormality cream- colour-variation, the commonest is | colour, ranging from pale cream to deep rusty yellow, but | a comparatively common phase shows a patch of yellow | but or rufous on the breast or abdomen, or on both. In’ some instances the light area extends over the’ whole of «the under-parts, while in other cases it takes the form of a narrow or broad line down the middle of the same region, in all individuals the light area has a longitudinal extension, and it is always sharply defined from the dark parts. A really white mole very rare. There seems little doubt that the tendency to colour-variation runs in particular families of moles. is JANUARY 7, 1909] NA LORE 297 HIGHER EDUCATION IN LONDON. THE London County Council wholly maintains fifteen institutions in which instruction in science, art, and technology is given. The number of students at the council’s various technical institutes enrolled up to the end of March, 1908, was 6527, as compared with 6215, and the number in attendance during that month was 4436, as compared with 4152 for the corresponding period of 1907. The number of day students enrolled for the same period in 1908 was 1702, as compared with 1455 for 1907, of whom 1337 were in attendance, as compared with 1109 for 1907- In addition to providing institutions, the council partly maintains by money grants many other educational centres offering technical, scientific, or art instruction. The grants to polytechnic and kindred institutions are based on a variety of considerations, including the provision of special instruction and the attendance at classes, but the total contribution to any one polytechnic is not in any one year to exceed 7500l., or any smaller sum actually required to enable the governors to meet their liabilities for the period for which the grant is made. The ten polytechnics to which the council makes grants are distributed all over the county, und comprise the Battersea Polytechnic, the Borough Polytechnic, and_ the Woolwich Polytechnic on the south, and the Birkbeck College, City of London College, Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Northern Polytechnic, Regent Street Polytechnic, Sir John Cass Technical Institute, and South-Western Polytechnic on the north side of the River Thames. The instruction given in these institutions is of a very varied character, including such subjects as geometry, building construction, mathematics, modern languages, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, tanning, leather, paint and varnish trades, carpentry and joinery, plumbing, other building trade subjects, including brickwork and masonry, experimental physics, and organic and inorganic chemistry. Where art classes are held special attention is given to the development of the classes on craft lines. The council, by virtue of its large grants in aid, appoints representa- tives upon the governing body or the committee of manage- ment of the several institutions. For the last completed year (July 31, 1907) the grants to the institutions of polytechnic rank amounted to 68,233!., Or 33-4 per cent. of their total income from all sources. Building grants amounting to g4o1l. were also made in the same period, and equipment grants 9125]., making a total of 86,7591., or 39-6 per cent. of total income, against 40-2 per cent. for the preceding year. Grants are made to the governors of various polytechnics and technical institutions in aid of equipment required for continuing the work of such institutions at a high point of educational efficiency, having regard to the most recent scientific technological developments. In addition to the ten polytechnics referred to above, equipment and maintenance grants in aid of the various classes in science, art, technology, and certain other sub- jects were made to the governors or committees of eighteen other institutions under the council’s regulations relating to aid to evening classes in science, art, and technology. The actual grants—building equipment and maintenance— to all institutions in the session 1906-7 amounted to 86,7591. The estimated grant for the financial year was 115,476l., as compared with 110,0001., the estimated grant for the year 1907-8. The total number of individual students attending institutions of polytechnic rank aided by the council during the year 1907-8 was 27,275. Attention has also been given to the extension of facili- ties for such technical instruction of boys in the day- time as would serve as a connecting link between secondary and higher elementary schools and the higher technical college or university, or would offer facilities for pre- liminary training in the daytime for those who intend to enter the engineering and allied trades, or trades where skilled workers in artistic crafts are required. Such day technical schools are intended to be auxiliary, and not alternative, to apprenticeship, and their object is to train 1 Extracted from the Annual Report of the Proceedings of the London County Council for the year ended March 31, 1908, published in December, 1908. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] future foremen, managers, and especially expert workers. So far as possible, the students will be drawn from the higher elementary and secondary schools at the age of fifteen, and they will receive special instruction during a period of two years. The curriculum will include instruc- tion in science, drawing, modelling, English and general subjects, and workshop practice with distinctive trade bias, about half the time each week being devoted to the latter, but no attempt will be made to train fully for any par- ticular trade. The workshop practice will be so arranged as to give the students a fair knowledge of workshop tools and processes. By means of such classes it is hoped that the gap between leaving day school and apprenticeship will be filled in such a manner as to enable the boys after- wards to acquire their practical experience readily and thoroughly, and that the boys will have learned a great deal more of the principles upon which the practice of mechanical engineering depends than could be learned by them if they entered the works at the age of fourteen. The place of the polytechnics in any general scheme of coordination of technical education in the county, and their place in any scheme for the coordination of all types and grades of education, are matters of grave importance. The necessity for greater coordination between the work of polytechnics themselves, and the concentration of their efforts on carefully graded schemes of instruction in par- ticular subjects, are matters which will receive careful consideration with the view of the prevention of over- lapping and the determining of the sphere of work of each particular institution. The constantly improving means of communication between various parts of London will render possible coordination on these lines, as the isolation of the institutions, which has hitherto been a serious bar, no longer exists. The importance of obtaining definite information relating to the students admitted to the polytechnics, technical in- stitutes, and schools of art aided or maintained by the council, the age at which they enter, the duration of the period they are under instruction, the courses of study followed, their progress and the occupations they intend to follow, has long been recognised as being of great value in the solution of the problem. No systematic inquiries can at present be made so far as evening students are concerned, owing to the large amount of labour which would be entailed upon the officials of the institutes con- cerned, and the disinclination of the students to furnish the desired information. The governors of the various aided institutions have, therefore, been asked to supply the information for day students only. The steady increase in the number of students for in- struction in scientific, technical, and artistic subjects has necessitated careful consideration of the question of the provision of further facilities for such instruction, both immediately and in future years. In dealing with this matter the committee has been guided by the experience of past years, the extension of such work to meet the requirements of modern science and industrial development, the large increases each year in the number of students in attendance at the various institutions, the needs of par- ticular districts, and, finally, the cost both in respect of capital and maintenance expenditure of such institutions. The council’s scholarship scheme provides for the award of about 2000 junior county scholarships annually, one- third to boys and two-thirds to girls, to those candidates who prove themselves qualified to receive secondary educa- tion. A junior county scholarship consists of free educa- tion for a period of three years, subject to renewal for two years more, provided that the scholar is satisfactory in conduct and attainments. A maintenance allowance of 6l., rol., or 152. a year is attached to the scholarship in cases falling within prescribed regulations. Junior county scholarships are tenable in such secondary schools as are or may be conducted by the council itself, and in such others as the council may from time to time approve for the pur- pose; 1899 such scholarships were awarded in the year under review. A return is submitted annually to the council showing the incomes of the parents of junior county scholarship holders. The following table shows the incomes of the parents of scholars elected in July, 1907 :— 298 NAT ORL. [JANUARY 7, 1909 B ys Girls Total Annual income of parents é x No. Per cent.| No. | Percent. No. | Per cent. Less than £160... | 604; 821 |1062| 85°5 (1666 84:2 More than £160 and less than £300 ... 99] 134 | 151] 12 250 12°6 Above: 300) tee yew) oars Bill 255) | Galea sce: Potall. Se. ek || 36 — 1980 — Up to 1906 the council offered 1200 probationer scholar- ships, without income limit, of the value of 15]. a year, in addition to free education. These scholarships are tenable for one or two years, and are awarded on condition that the scholars undertake to enter the teaching profession on the completion of the scholarship course. During the year the council awarded 749 such scholarships, together with twenty-eight free places at secondary schools, to students residing outside the county. From 1907 provision will be made for the award of only 800 such scholarships, and the actual number awarded each year may not amount to this number. The council awards 100 intermediate county scholar- ships annually to pupils between fifteen and seventeen years of age, tenable until the end of the school year in which the pupils attain the age of eighteen, with possi- bilities of extension for another year. During the year seventy such scholarships were awarded to boys (including twenty commercial intermediate scholarships) and thirty to girls. The scholarships consist of free education at a cost not exceeding 25]. a year, together with maintenance grants rising from 20l. a year to 35/. a year. The income restriction is 4ool. a year. The commercial scholarships are tenable in the commercial department of the Cantden or Hackney Downs London County Council secondary schools. The council awards fifty senior county scholarships or exhibitions annually; they confer free education (not ex- ceeding 3ol. a year) and such maintenance allowance (not exceeding 60]. a year), at such rate and for such periods, not exceeding four years, as the council may in each case determine. They are tenable at such universities or university colleges as the council may from time to time approve for that purpose, not more than five such scholar- ships awarded annually being tenable for one year at the London Day Training College. The council has also at its disposal a certain number of free places for day students at schools of the University of London. As the number of applications was not so great as in previous years, the council awarded during the year thirty-nine senior county scholarships and exhibitions, together with fourteen free places at various colleges. It is generally admitted that the scholarship systems, both of the late Technical Education Board and of the council, have been remarkably successful. The county scholarship system has really formed a ladder to carry promising scholars from the public elementary to the secondary schools, university colleges, and universities. That the council has secured able candidates for its scholar- ships is shown by the fact that each year the council’s scholars have obtained scholarships in the universities or institutions of university rank. Five such scholarships were obtained at Oxford and Cambridge during the year under review, and many senior county scholars have obtained degrees with honours. P On the more technical side, exceptional distinction has been gained by scholars in research work, while others have obtained good appointments owing to their technical and artistic achievements. By the regulations of the Board of Education a secondary school ‘‘ must offer to each of its scholars an education of a wider scope and higher grade than that of an elementary school, and provide a progressive course of instruction (with the requisite organisation, teaching staff, curriculum, and equipment) in the subjects necessary to a good general education upon lines suitable for scholars of NO. 2045, VOL. 79] an age-range at least as wide as from twelve to sixteen or seventeen. Provision made for scholars before the age of twelve must be similarly suitable, and in proper relation to the work done in the main portion of the school.”’ The pressing need for further inducements and facilities for children to proceed to a secondary school after leaving the elementary school has long been recognised by the council, and by means of a system of scholarships a bridge by which even the poorest children may pass from the elementary to the secondary school has been provided. The course of instruction in secondary schools, approved by the Board of Education, is framed so as to lead up to a definite standard of attainment, and not to stop short at a merely superficial introduction to any branch of instruction. Apart from the council’s own secondary schools, there are a large number of secondary schools in respect of which the council makes both maintenance and equipment grants, and which are regularly inspected by the council’s officers ; the total number of such schools is now fifty-two. The total amount of grants made in respect of secondary’ schools for the educational year ending July, 93,9701. In accordance with a scheme approved by the late Technical Education Board in 1902, the annual grant of 10,0001. to the University of London, to be divided equally between the four faculties of arts, science, engineering, and economics, has been continued. In addition, annual grants have been made since 1895-6, together with occasional equipment grants, to four of the constituent colleges of the University, the council thereby obtaining the right to a certain number of free places. 1908, was UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. Ir is proposed, says Science, to collect 1500l. with which to purchase the valuable chemical library of the late Prof. W. O. Atwater, and present it to Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. The library contains more than 5000 volumes, including about 2500 volumes of periodicals. Two courses for teachers, arranged in connection with the London County Council Education Committee, will begin at University College on January 23. Dr. Wood- land will begin a course of lectures on ‘‘ The Structure and Natural History of some Common Animals,’’ and Dr. Fritsch will begin a similar course on ‘‘ Fundamental Prin- ciples of Botany.’’ On Tuesday, February 23, Prof. Pearson will deliver a lecture on ‘‘ The Purport of the Science of Eugenics.’? This will be the first of a course of lectures on national eugenics, to be given on Tuesdays in the second and third terms, by Prof. Pearson, Mr. Heron, and Miss Elderton. THE annual meeting of the Public School Science Masters’ Association will be held at Merchant Taylors’ School, Charterhouse Square, E.C., on January 12. In the morning, at 10 a.m., an exhibition of scientific apparatus and books will be opened, and at 10.30 a busi- ness meeting will be held. The president, Sir Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., F.R.S., will afterwards deliver an address _upon the relation of general to technical science teaching. At the close of the morning session Mr. M. D. Hill, of Eton College, will speak on anthropometry in schools. The afternoon meeting will be devoted largely to a dis- cussion upon science curricula in public schools, and the debate will be opened by the following papers :—Mr. G. F. Daniell, on the report of the British Association upon the sequence of studies in science; Mr. W. D. Eggar, of Eton College, on geography considered as a science subject; Mr. R. G. Durrant, of Marlborough College, on to what extent and at what stage should prevalent views on the nature of solution be taught in schools; and Mr. G. H. Martin, of Bradford Grammar School, on science for the ““ classical side.’’? At the close of the discussion, Mr. C. I. Gardiner, of Cheltenham College, will deal with the ques- tion of the refusal of the General Medical Council to recognise public schools as institutions where medical education can be commenced. JANuARY 7, 1909] NATURE 299 Tue annual meeting of the Association of Directors and Secretaries for Education was held on January 1 in the council chamber of the London County Council, when an address on ‘‘ The Finances of Education ’’ was delivered by Mr. W. Avery Adams, chairman of the association and secretary to the Bristol Education Committee. In open- ing his address, Mr. Adams said that the scheme for raising the Bristol University College to the rank of a university, owing to the generosity of Mr. H. O. Wills, promises shortly to be carried into effect, thus securing for the west of England the same opportunities for intel- lectual and professional training as are available in other parts of the country. Alluding to the Scottish Education Act, he directed attention to the powers which are to be granted to school boards in Scotland to compel attendance at continuation classes up to the age of seventeen. If such a remedy for the educational leakage which now went on is practicable in Scotland, said Mr. Adams, surely it is not unreasonable to suggest that it is practicable in England. The principal theme of the address was the finances of education, and Mr. Adams insisted that one of the chief hindrances to progress is the financial strain now put upon the local education authorities (1) by the imposi- tion on the part of the State of new and onerous duties ; (2) by the continual growth of what may be termed the ordinary items of expenditure; and (3) by the failure of Whitehall to contribute a fair share of the total burden of the increasing cost. The development of our educational system, which has advanced enormously during the last six years, has also entailed a large annual increment to the rates; and, apart from what has already been accom- plished, there are still many urgent educational reforms which would doubtless be undertaken by local authorities if it were not for the reluctance of Whitehall to bear a fair share of the cost involved in carrying out the improve- ments. Among these reforms may be placed :—(1) the re- duction in the size of the classes; and (2) the replacement of supplementary teachers by certificated teachers. The Government grant in support of national elementary educa- tion is totally inadequate. In conclusion, Mr. Adams emphasised the fact that the exiguous grant given by the State to the local universities, which have now become an indispensable part of our educational system, is not creditable to a wealthy and progressive nation like ours. The outcry heard against the growing burden of the cost of education is not the expression of a spirit of grant- greed, but represents a fear that through inadequate Government support the schools may send forth scholars who will not be equipped properly for the warfare of life or for taking their part in the struggle which has to be made unceasingly for the maintenance of the commercial and industrial position of our nation. SOCIETIES AND_ ACADEMIES. LonpDon. Royal Society, November 12, 1908.—‘‘ The Occlusion of the Residual Gas and the Fluorescence of the Glass Walls of Crookes Tubes.’’ By Alan A. Campbell Swinton. Communicated by Sir William Crookes, F.R.S. In a previous paper’ the writer has described experi- ments indicating that the occlusion of the gas is due to its being driven into the glass, in which it forms bubbles on subsequent heating. The present paper deals with Mr. Robert Pohl’s sugges- tion that the bubbles are not due to the gas at all, but to chemical action on the glass, when heated, of aluminium disintegrated from the electrodes. The author finds that after prolonged sparking portions of the internal surface of the glass of tubes with external electrodes consisting of caps of tinfoil show numerous but very small bubbles when heated. This, as it would seem, entirely disposes of Mr. Pohl’s contention. The electric discharges passed through the tubes were so weak that the heating of the glass was very slight. The temperature cannot thus have been sufficiently raised either to allow of the gas passing into the glass by ordinary, diffusion, as suggested by Sir J. J. Thomson, or 1 ** The Occlusion of the Residual Gas by the Glass Walls of Vacuum Tubes,” Roy. Soc. Proc , A, vol. Ixxix., pp. 134-7. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] of the gas being evolved inside the glass by chemical de- composition due to heat, as put forward by Mr. Soddy and Mr. Mackenzie. Grinding away the glass to the extent just necessary to prevent the formation of bubbles on subsequent heating also showed that the depth to which the gas is driven into the glass varied from 0.0025 mm. for tubes with external electrodes to as much as 0-015 mm. with internal elec- trodes, the distances being in all cases considerably less— about one-tenth—than the distances between the surface of the glass and the centres of the bubbles produced by subsequent heating. By means of a fluorescent screen placed behind a patch- work screen of different thicknesses of aluminium foil, it was ascertained that the maximum thickness of aluminium through which kathode rays will pass is about o-o14 mm., which agrees very fairly with the above-mentioned figure of o-o15 mm. Thus neither the explanation of Sir J. J. Thomson nor that of Mr. Soddy and Mr. Mackenzie seem necessary, for the gas in the first instance travels into the glass only about the same distance that kathode rays penetrate into aluminium, and it is therefore reasonable to suppose that the gas is driven in mechanically according to the writer’s original contention. Diffusion, however, probably takes place when the glass is softened in the flame, when the gas penetrates further and forms bubbles on cooling, in much the same way that air bubbles are formed in ice. Experiments were also made on the fatigue of the glass in respect to fluorescence. Except in cases where this fatigue was due to deposits of electrode matter or of carbon, it was found necessary, in order to do away with it, to grind away a thickness of glass approximately the same as had to be removed to prevent the formation of bubbles on subsequent heating. It would therefore appear that fatigue is intimately connected with, and is perhaps the direct result of, the penetration and presence of the occluded gas. That part of this fatigue is very permanent is shown by a tube in the author’s possession, which still shows fatigue due to bombardment it received in 1898. Though part of the fatigue is permanent, most of it is but temporary. This may be due to the gradual escape of such portion of the gas as has been driven into the glass only such a very short distance that the latter is unable permanently to retain it. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 28, 1908.—M. Bouchard in the chair—The lava of the last eruptions of Vulcano, Eolian Isles: A. Lacroix. In the cases of Mt. Pelée, Vesuvius, and Etna it has been proved that in a given eruption any changes in the chemical composition of the lava are very slight, and are not systematic. Observa- tions published by various authors on the products of the last eruption of Vulcano appear to lead to different con- clusions. Various specimens of the lava from this erup- tion have been analysed, and the existence of such marked differences is not confirmed.—Some properties of the tubercle bacillus cultivated on bile: H. Calmette and C. Guérin. The authors are convinced that experiments in tuberculosis in which cultures in glycerol, gelatin, potato, or broth are used give different results from those of natural in- fection. They have found that the bacillus grows per- fectly on pure bile with 5 per cent. of glycerin and sterilised, and after several successive cultures on this medium it acquires very distinct physiological characters. Full details are given of the mode of working and of the appearance and properties of the bacillus thus obtained. It is easily absorbed through the wall of the digestive tube, and when it has penetrated in sufficient quantity in this way it can create lesions with rapid calcification such as could never be obtained experimentally with cultures in ordinary glycerin media.—M. Villard was elected a member in the section of physics in the place of the late E. Mascart.—Concerning the distribution of the aphelia of the minor planets: Emile Belot. A diagram is given of the distribution—The use of coloured screens and orthochromatic plates for the photographic observation of the fixed stars: CEsten Bergstrand. The combination of a yellow screen and an orthochromatic plate produces much greater clearness in the images, and also eliminates the 300 NATURE [JANUARY 7, I 909 harmful influence of atmospheric refraction. It is to be recommended in all precise measurements of position, and especially in work on stellar parallax.—The principles. of flight with wings: L. Thouveny.—A special model of a balloon: M. Radiot.—The problem of efforts in the theory of elasticity: A. Korn.—The magnetic rotatory power of the vapour of calcium fluoride and of nitrogen peroxide in the neighbourhood of their absorption bands: A. Dufour. The vapour of calcium fluoride in the magnetic field possesses a positive magnetic rotatory power outside and near the doublets of all the components of the band D/ and negative in their interior; the rotation may attain a value of 40° to 50° in the centre of the doublets. Similar observations on nitrogen peroxide are described.—The law of the maximum of kathode phosphorescence in binary systems: G. Urbain. It is now well established that, in opposition to the views of Sir W. Crookes, pure sub- stances do not give rise to phosphorescence. A brilliant phosphorescence is always the result of a mixture of two substances, and there is a certain percentage. of one of them which gives a maximum result.—The electrical resistance of the alkali metals, of gallium, and _ of tellurium : A. Guntz and W. Broniewski. These metals were introduced into a U-shaped capillary tube, with suitable precautions as to purity and freedom from oxida- tion. The resistances of cesium, rubidium, potassium, sodium, and lithium were measured at —187°, —78°.3, o°, and a fourth higher temperature, and the results com- pared with those calculated from the formula r-=(2F+T) xconstant, in which 7, is the resistance at the temperature t, F the absolute temperature of fusion, and T the absolute tempera- ture of the body. Measurements are also given for gallium in both the solid and liquid state and for telluriu-n. —The reduction of uranyl chloride: Cchsner de Coninck. An attempi was made to determine the atomic weight of chlorine by reducing U,O.Cl, in hydrogen at a red heat. but the results were found to be of no value.—The pre- paration of ether salts of the cyclic series: A. Béhal. A mixture of acetic acid and benzyl chloride, heated to the boiling point, slowly gives off hydrochloric acid, benzy] acetate being formed. The action is accelerated by the presence of certain catalytic agents, bismuth chloride being especially active in this respect—The preparation and pro- perties of B-gluco-heptite: L. H. Philippe. By reducing the gluco-heptonic lactone obtained from ordinary glucose with sodium amalgam, E. Fischer obtained B-gluco- heptose. The author, by pushing the reduction a stage further, has prepared a new heptavalent alcohol, B-gluco- heptite, the physical and chemical properties of which are given.—The facies of natural crystals: Paul Gaubert.— The development of the perennial plant compared with that of the annual plant: G. André.—The presence of urea in some of the higher fungi: A. Goris and M. Mascre. Certain species of fungi have been found to contain from 2-7 to 43 per cent. of urea. It still remains to be proved whether the urea was present as such in the fungus, or was formed during the process of drying.—A new artificial peroxydase: E. de Steecklin. Tannate of iron acts as a peroxydase, the monophenols being attacked with especial ease.—The green pigment of the bile: M. Piettre.—Th physiological function of the arborescent glands connected with the female generating apparatus of Periplaneta orientalis: L., Bordas.—The stratigraphical definition of the Sicilian stage: Maurice Gignoux. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, January 7. R6NTGEN Society, at 8.15.—A Description of Three Sub-standards of Radio-activity recently prepared for the Réntgen Society: C. E. S. Phillips.:—A New Localising Apparatus designed by Staff-Surgeon Dr. Gillett: H. C. Head. FRIDAY, January &. Royat AsTRoNomIcAL Society, at 5.—A New Dividing Engine: G. T. McCaw.—Fluctuations in the Moon's Mean Motion: Prof. Simon Newcomb.—Obseryations of Comet c 1908, Morehouse : R. C. Johnson.— Development of the Disturbing Function in Planetary Theory in Terms of the Mean Anomalies and Constant Elliptic Elements : P. H. Cowell.— Note on Major MacMahon's Paper on the Determination of the Apparent Diameter of a Fixed Star: A. S. Eddington.—Probable Papers: Ona Chinese Planisphere: E. B. Knobel.— Observations of Occultations of Stars by the Moon in the Year 1908: Roval Observatory, Greenwich.— Observations of Saturn’s Ninth Satellite, Phcebe, from Photographs taken with the 30-inch Reflector in 1908 : Royal Oktservatory, Greenwich. NO. 2045, VOL. 79] MONDAY, January 11. RoyaL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. TUESDAY, JaNuary 12. - ZooLocicat Society, at 8.30.—Zoological Results of the Third Tan- ganyika Expedition, conducted by Dr. W. A. Cunningt)n, 1904-5.— Report on the Copepoda: Prof. G. O. Sars.—Studies on the Flagellate Blood Parasites of Freshwater Fishes: Prof. E A. Minchin.—A Further Note on the Gonadial Grooves of a Medusa, Aurelia aurita: T. Goodey. —The Tuberculin Test in Monkeys, with Notes on the ‘emperature of Manmals: Dr. A. E. Brown.—A few Notes on Balaena glacialis and its Capture in Recent Years in the North Atlantic by Norwegiau Whalers: Prof. R. Collett. WEDNESDAY January 13. Geotocicat Society, at 8.—On Labradorite-Norite with Porphyritic Labradorite Crystals ; a Contribut on to the Study of the ‘‘ Gabbroidal Eutecticum": Prof. Johan H. L. Vogt.—On the Genus Loxonema, with Descriptions of New Proterozoic Sp-cies : Mrs. Jane Longstaff. Society oF Pupiic ANAlysTs, at 8.—(1) The Analysis of Complex Candle Mixtures; (2) The Detection and Estimation of Mercury in Nitro-Explosives : Otto Hehner. THURSDAY, January 14. Roya Society, at 4.30. Instirution oF Exvecrricat. ENGINEERS, at 8.—The G. B. System from a Tramway Manager's Point cf View: Stanley Clegg. FRIDAY, JANUARY 15. INSTITUTION OF MecCHANICAL ENGINEERS, at $.—The Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply: John Don. CONTENTSs. PAGE All About Water es, kerr os) Sli Golourand (Pigments: 2)4.) eee cee one 272 The Atlas of Canada . . ff) So Ot Omni e 0 272 Animal Histology Fr ac OO oto BMT by Shree: 7/33 Indian Wild-fowl. ByR.L. ...... 3) Aerie Biochemical Monographs. By W. D. H. Fike. Gach y/s Elementary Mathematics 277 Two Speculative Contributions to “Geology. | By SVN Gr 9 2 28) 277 Our Book Shelf :— Adloff: ‘* Das Gebiss des Menschen und der Anthro- pomorphen. Vergleichend-anatomische Untersuch- ungen. Zugleich ein Beitrag zur menschlichen Stammgeschichte.”—A, K. 278 she Lope Reports?) = cayareue tise = ites) ie eee ea d’Ocagne : ‘‘ Calcul graphique et nomographie” . 279 Lipps: ‘‘ Mythenbildung und Erkenntnis”. . . . . 279 Hadell':. “* The Old! Yellows Book 1 = .4)4) a. see) Letters to the Kditor :— On the Magnetic Action of Sun-spots.—Prof, Arthur Schuster, F.R.S. pte: peMeog tet 279 Kew Records of the Italian Earthquake. (///us- trated.) —Dr, C, Chree, F.R.S. Perce fe ea 85 2%l0) The Commercial Products of India.—Sir George Wiatt, Cal Es i. meee : + uy Reo The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere.—J. I. Craig; ‘WH: DinesROR'S2 464 oe han Curious Effect of Surface Ablation of a Glacier. (Zllustrated.)—Bernard Smith ey tap aaa 282 Moral Superiority?—F. C. Constable . ; : 282 Surveying for Archeologists. VI. (//lustrated.) By Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. o~F oo fly or MOAR RE Pa io, From ‘‘ The People of the Polar North.” will be of much value, as suggested by Mr. Herring, in tracing the racial origin of the people is doubtful, for very close analogies to some of these tales will be found in the lore of the most distant parts of the earth. For example, the tale of the man who married the goose by stealing her coat of feathers, which she had laid off while bathing, is paralleled by a very similar tale in the ‘‘ Arabian Nights.”’ Very little information about the physical charac- teristics of the Eskimos is given in this book, except what can be derived from the excellent representations of typical natives by Count Harald Moltke. The faces of the Polar Eskimos appear to be decidedly mongo- loid. But all measurements of Eskimos hitherto made show that they have a very low cephalic index, not higher than 77, and in some groups as low as 73. This would appear to point to a cross between a mongoloid and some dolichocephalic race, such as was 312 NATCURE 9 [JANUARY 14, 1906. to be found in Neolithic times in north-western Europe. ‘The portraits of the West Greenland type show that they approximate much more closely to the European type. These people live much further south, on the tracts of land left between the margin of the great Greenland glacier and the west coast. _The West Greenlanders appear to have abundant supplies of food, obtained by hunting and fishing, walrus, seal, halibut, and salmon in the greatest abundance being readily obtainable by the active native. They are very hos- pitable and superstitious, the latter trait, accord- ing to the author, being due to the influence of the long winter night. The East Greenlanders have now mostly. migrated Fic. 2.—Greenlandic Woman from Kangeq, near Godthaab. From “‘ The People of the Polar North.” from the east coast to West Greenland. Apparently, before they moved, owing to their isolation they had reverted to a state of savagery and developed a kind of murderous mania whieh led to the most terrible tragedies. Now, when living amongst the West Greenlanders, they appear to have greatly advanced under the influence of the Danish missionaries. The map attached to the volume would be of much greater value if it contained more of the places referred to in the text. This book, however, will take a high place as a study of the characteristics of an extremely interesting and fast vanishing people by a competent and sympathetic observer. NO. 2046, VOL. 79] coe ologists resumed their investigations, A HUMAN FOSSIL FROM THE DORDOGNE VALLEY: HE curtain which conceals the early history of our race is being in these last years lifted at frequent intervals to afford us glimpses into the distant past. Among the latest revelations are those by the Swiss explorer, M. Hauser, of a nearly complete human skeleton—not yet fully deseribed—from a rock-shelter in the Vézére Valley, chinless, with the great orbits and retreating forehead characteristic of the Neander- thal type; and those still more recently made by the well-known prehistorians the Abbés J. and A. Bouyssonie and M. L. Bardon during their excavation of a cave opening in the vale of a small tributary of the Dordogne river, in the commune of La Chapelle-aux-Saints, in the Corréze. Their careful and scientifically conducted excava- tions had previously, in 1905, been rewarded by the discovery of numerous quartz and s, jasperoid flint implements, scrapers (racloirs) and lance-heads (pointes), with others rather better finished and suggestive of the Aurig- nacian, which, taken with the entire absence of ruder amygdaloid implements (coups de poing) and of all worked bone, fixes with precision the archaeological horizon as Late Mousterian. The fauna associated with these industrial relics includes reindeer, horse (rare), badger, woolly rhinoceros, marmot, wolf, fox, sheep or goat, a large bovine, and birds, and is characteristic of the cold climate of that epoch, which corresponds, in a geological terms, to the Middle Pleistocene. 7 During last autumn the same three arche- with the result that on August 3, while digging a trench in the cave, they uncovered a human skeleton, lying on its back, with the head, which was protected by _ stones, directed to the east. Vhe right arm was bent so that the hand lay towards the body, the left arm was slightly extended, and the limbs were drawn up. Above the head were several large fragments of bone laid flat, while near by was placed the terminal phalanges of the hind hoof, with several of its associated bones, of a large bovine. The body was, therefore, intentionally buried, and as there is an entire absence of fire- places it is concluded by the excavators, but probably not with universal accord, that the cave was not used as a dwelling, but only as a burying-place, where the abundance of bones and implements indicate only the hold- ing of numerous funeral-feasts. These human remains, which are of the greatest anthropological importance and interest, have been described by M. Mar- cellin Boule, the distinguished palaontologist, in a preliminary note read on December 14 last before the French Academy of Sciences, and pub- lished in the Comptes rendus of the academy cited below. The bones comprise a much broken cranium and mandible, vertebraze and limb-bones of a man of r'6om. (a little more than 5 feet 2 inches) in stature. As the edges of the cranial fragments were unworn, it was possible to piece them very accurately together. The 1 ‘‘T'Homme fossile de la Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze)." Note de M. Marcellin Boule (Comptes rendus de ! Académie des Sciences, t. cxlvii., No. 24, December 14, 1908), ; “‘Découverte d'un squelette LTumain mousterien 4 La Chapelle-aux-Saints (Corréze).” Note de MM. A.and J. Bouyssonie et L. Bardon (Comptes rendus, t. cxlvii., No. 25, December 21, 1908). ad af 4 7 JANuaRY 14, 1909] WATE LE 3 13 o cranium, from the state of its sutures and its dentition that of an aged male, is remarkable for its size in com- parison with the short stature of its owner, and for its simian or pithecoid characters. The skull is dolichocephalous (index 75), and remarkable for its thick bones, its flattened cranial vault, enormous brow- ridges (which are more prominent than in the original Neanderthal cranium), with a deep groove above them stretching from one orbital process to the other, for its much depressed occipital ** bulging,”” for the back- ward position of the foramen magnum, the flattening of the occipital condyles, and the feeble development of the mastoid processes. The very prognathous face has large and prominent orbits, with a deep depression between them separating the short and very broad nose from the forehead. The upper maxillary differs widely from that in all living races of mankind, in projecting in front, into a sort of muzzle; while the palatine contour is very simian. The lower jaw is re- markable for its massiveness, the great width of its condyle, the shallowness of its sigmoid notch, the ob- fiquity of its symphysis, and the absence of chin. The La Chapelle-aux-Saints cranium, therefore, pre- sents the characters, in some respects exaggerated, which distinguish the Neanderthal and Spy calvaria, all of which, though widely spread over Europe, but on about the same geological horizon, certainly belong, in M. Boule’s opinion, to one type. Its mandible also presents the characters of the fossil mandibles, of the same age, known as Naulette, Spy, and Malarnaud. In the same palzeontologist’s estimation, the Neander- thal type should be considered a normal human type, characteristic of certain parts of Europe in the Middle Pleistocene. This type is different from, and lower than, any now living, for in no existing race are to be found united the low characters seen in the La Chapelle-aux-Saints cranium. M. Boule, however, is not prepared to separate the Neanderthal-Spy-La Chapelle-aux-Saints group generically, but he would not hesitate to distinguish the La Chapelle-au-Saints man specifically from those of all other human groups, living or fossil. He con- siders it certain that the Neanderthal-Spy—La Chapelle- aux-Saints group represents a low type, nearer to the anthropoid apes than to any human group, and mor- phologically he would place them between Pithecan- thropus and the lowest living races, yet without imply- ing that they are in the same genetic line. The men oi the Middle Pleistocene, judged by their physical characters and the relics of their industry, were in a primitive condition intellectually; while those who lived during the Upper Pleistocene possessed mental powers of a much higher order and were capable of producing true works of art, and their crania acquired the principal characters—the fine forehead, large brain, heaven-surveying countenance—of Homo sapiens. A special interest attaches to the description given above of this new type of Homo, when we recall the various drawings of supposed ‘‘ humans” left us by the men of the Upper Pleistocene on reindeer horn, ivory, and fragments of schist. These artists have depicted for us an extensive zoological picture-gallery, with a fidelity to nature hardly to be surpassed by any present-day artist. Their sketches are all from sub- jects with which they were intimately acquainted, and if there be forms among them which so far have not been recognised by us, we may rest assured that they were also reproduced from actual models. Among the palzolithic engravings much criticised are those of various anthropoid forms—such as the two accompany- ing examples (Figs. 1 and 2) from M. Piette and MM. Cartailhac and Breuil—which some ethnologists have hesitated to recognise as human, because of their pro- nounced simian characters. The description given NO. 2046, VOL. 79] above of the man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints seems to fit, in his snout-like jaws, semi-erect attitude, gibbon- like nose (especially Fig. 2), with wonderful exacti- tude, the drawings preserved to us at Mas d’Azil and elsewhere. Two very interesting questions suggest themselves: Are these pictures of a race surviving from the Middle Pleistocene? and, Were the artists of the Reindeer age depicting individuals of their own race? The present writer is convinced, and has long held, that they certainly depicted people con- temporaneous with themselves, and reproduced them Fic. 1 as accurately as they did the bisons, horses, and rhinoceroses amid which they lived. Vitle WO) 1% BLACK-WATER FEVER. \\ E have before us a very careful and detailed study of one of the most dangerous of tropical diseases, which has numbered many victims amongst Europeans of all ranks and classes in various parts of the world; the public that reads Nature will not need to be reminded of the sad death of that distin- guished zoologist, Mr. J. S. Budgett, from black- water consequent on malaria contracted during his collecting expeditions in Africa. The authors are especially concerned with the question of the nature and origin of blacl-water fever ; the prophylaxis and treatment of the disease are dealt with very briefly. After a historical introduction the etiology of black-water fever is discussed and narrowed down to two alternative hypotheses, (1) that the disease is due to a specific organism, (2) that it is of malarial origin. It is then shown that the disease is not due to any parasite visible to critical micro- scopical examination, and that ‘‘ the trend of evidence is steadily in favour of a malarial, as against a specific, origin.’ Facts are brought forward to show that in black-water fever the process of blood- destruction is what the authors propose to call “lyseemia,’? namely, ‘‘ that condition, in which the red cells undergo solution in the plasma, and in which 1 “Black-water Fever.” By S. R. Christophers and C. A. Bentley. Scientific Memoirs by Officers of the Medical and Sanitary Departments of the Government of India, No. 35. Pp. iv+239. 314 NALOTRE, results true hamoglobinzmia followed by hazmo- globinuria.’’ Parasitic, osmotic, and chemical actions having been excluded as causes, it seems to the authors ‘‘ most probable that black-water fever is due to some specific hamolysin arising within the body ” as the result of certain conditions, “induced by repeated attacks or infections by malaria. The haemolysin is believed not to be derived from the malarial parasites themselves, but to be thrown out by the cells of the body in response to stimulation, as a result of the constant phagocytosis of red cells. ‘‘ If hamolysins are formed against the blood there seems no agent so likely to effect this as the endothelium.’’ The prophylaxis of black-water fever is ‘‘ simply the pre- vention, as far as possible, of malarial infection, and the prompt and efficient treatment of this disease.” In the palliative treatment of black-water fever the authors wish to show that ‘‘ there are excellent reasons for believing that good results may be expected from. serum-therapy.”’ The Government of India is greatly to be congratu- lated on the enlightened manner in which it aids ferward the production, and undertakes the publica- tion, of important and valuable investigations of this kind. ANIMATED PHOTOGRAPHS IN NATURAL COLOURS. HE production of photographs in colour by means that may fairly be described as photographic is now quite common. Though the simple method of getting pigmentary colours in the picture by the direct impact of the coloured lights proceeding from the object has not been, and may never be, realised, ex- cept, perhaps, to a certain extent by very prolonged exposures, the indirect three-colour process in its numerous modifications has thoroughly established itself as a quite practical method. It is natural, therefore, that endeavours to get kinematograph views shown on the sheet in natural colours should follow on the same lines that have made such great successes possible in single photographs. Three-colour projection involves the taking of three negatives and the making from these of three suitably coloured positive transparencies which may then be superposed to form a single coloured transparency, or, using suitable colours, projected by three lanterns separately upon the screen and superposed there. The latter method would obviously commend itself in kinematography, because of the difliculty, if not the impossibility, of uniting three long strips into one, maintaining correct superposition from one end to the other. Besides, three lanterns would obviously give a good illumination on the screen more readily than one lantern. Many attempts, or at least suggestions, for it is difficult to know whether a verbal description really means See more, have been made in this direction. Mr. Albert Smith, in a lecture recently given at the Rey: ul Society of Arts, described the difficulties he met with in a really practical and per- severing attempt, in conjunction with Mr. Charles Urban, to succeed on these -lines. There was not only the difficulty of photographing with the neces- sarily short exposure through the red screen, which was eventually overcome, but the practical impossi- bility of getting correct, or even passably correct, registration of the three pictures on the screen. This is a very different problem in kinematography from the production of a single three-colour picture. Ob- viously the three series of photographs must be taken simult: ineously, and although the three kinematograph cameras. may be sy nchronised, as they are necessarily somewhat bulky, the three points of view must be separated, and this introduces differences in the pic- NO. 2046, VOL. 79] [JANUARY I4, 1909 tures analogous to the differences between the indi- viduals of a stereoscopic pair. But this is not the only difficulty. It is comparatively easy to get three pictures on the screen from three lanterns or a triple lantern correctly superposed when the lanterns are quite still; but it is a very different matter in the case of kinematograph projection apparatus, for here the film runs through it in a series of rapid jerks, and the slightest movement of the apparatus produces a very much increased effect on the screen, because of the very considerable magnification necessary. Mr. \lbert Smith describes the result of his best attempts is *‘ unbearable confusion.”’ All the mechanical difficulties of registration, and the dissimilarity of the photographs taken from three points of view, are done away with by using one film only and allowing the three coloured images to alternate. This has, turther, the very great ‘advan- tage of simplification, for the apparatus for taking and projecting is single only instead of three-fold. Ot course, the film must pass more quickly through the apparatus, as it requires three pictures to form the single complete impression instead of one. The difficulties of this are obvious in a general sense, and it also means a shortening of the exposure time in taking the pictures, a disadvantage especially with the red and green screens. Still, the method was successful, but Mr. Albert Smith found the colours to be ‘‘ washy and ineffective.’’ It is not obvious why this must needs be so; probably the defect might have been remedied, but Mr. Smith applied himself to further simplification, and aimed, in spite of theory, at reducing the colour records to two. In this he has been surprisingly successful, as his demon- strations show. It is not easy to follow his reasoning as to the most suitable colours, but as a matter of fact it seems that he uses a red inclining to orange and a green inclining to blue. The two colour screens are on a disc that rotates in front of the lens so that each alternate picture is taken and afterwards pro- jected through the one colour. Thus the ordinary apparatus is available by the addition of the rotating disc that carries the colour screens, there is no difficulty with regard to registration, and the increase in speed of working, as compared with the ordinary kinematography, is doubled only instead of tripled. Doubtless there are imperfections in the colours, but the same may be said of all three-colour work. It has, however, been demonstrated that greys are fairly well reproduced, and that there are no striking errors even in such compound colours as purples. A com- parison of the results so-obtained with an autochrome slide made of the same view shows practically no difference to the ordinary observer. We may there- fore say that Mr. Albert Smith’s method is not only very good as a first step towards kinematography in colours, but that it is a really practical methed. PROE. HH. (G.9 SHEE ENG Bakes Jts2 death of Prof. H. G. Seeley, which toolr place at his residence on the morning of January 8, makes a big gap in the ranks of the compara- tively small body of British vertebrate palzeontologists, among whom the deceased professor was entitled to rank as the doyen. Born in London in February, 1839, he seems to have acquired literary and scientific tastes at an early age, and in the ’sixties we find him established at Cambridge, where he was taken up by the late Prof. Adam Sedgwick, and employed to work at the fossil vertebrates then being rapidly accu- mulated in the Woodwardian Museum, and likewise to lecture on geology when the aged professor was incapacitated from doing so by infirmity or illness. It was at this time that the so-called coprolite diggings ee January 14, 1909] IAT AOL 315 o were in full swing in the neighbourhood of Cambridge, and Seeley was to the fore in bringing to light what was to a great extent a new Mesozoic vertebrate fauna, albeit one of which the remains were for the most part in a sadly fragmentary condition. This was, in fact, the first of Seeley’s two great op- portunities in this field of research, and he undoubtedly made the most of it, for it is to him that we owe the first discovery of birds in Cretaceous strata—birds which, as Prof. Marsh subsequently showed, retain evidence of reptilian affinity in the possession of a full series of teeth. Much information was likewise acquired at the same time in regard to the structure of pterodactyles, of which numerous remains were obtained in the coprolite workings. The results of these studies were published in a somewhat bald form in a preliminary ‘* index *’ to the remains of Mesozoic birds and reptiles in the Cambridge Museum. Although entered as a student at Sidney Sussex College, Seeley never took a degree, and soon after Sedgwick’s death he left Cambridge for London, where in 1876 he was appointed to the chair of geo- graphy at King’ s College. In the same year he was chosen professor of geography and geology at Queen’s Cellege, London, while five years later he was ap- pointed dean of the college. In 1890 he commenced lecturing on mineralogy and geology at the Royal Indian Engineering College at Coopers Hill, and year later was appointed to fill the post previously held by Prof. Martin Duncan. Finally, in 1896, he became professor of geology and mineralogy at King’s College. As if all this was not work enough for any man, he likewise conducted for many years the excursions of the London geological field class. In 1862 Prof. Seeley was elected a Fellow of the Geo- logical Society, and in 1879 he was admitted to the fellowship of the Royal Society, while in 1905 a fellowship at King’s College was awarded him. He served on more than one occasion on the council of the Geological Society, from which body he also received a medal. The honorary memberships of foreign scientific bodies accorded in honour of his labours are too numerous to mention on this occasion. The second great opportunity in his career came in 1889, when, under the auspices of the Royal Society, Seeley started for South Africa in order to collect and study the remains of the marvellous anomodont rep- tiles which render that country of such intense interest to the palzontologist. On his return, he spent a large amount of time and labour on working out his collections, many of the results of these studies being published by the Royal Society in its Transactions. As each section of the work was completed, such specimens as were his own property were presented to the natural history branch of the British Museum, where they form some of the most prized treasures of the fossil reptile gallery. In this investigation Prof. Seeley definitely recog- nised the intimate relationships existing between the anomodont reptiles and the lower mammals, a matter on which previous writers had displayed some degree of hesitation and wavering. If he had done nothing else, his claims to a high place in the records of paleontology would have been fully established by the recognition of this one great fact. For the trend of all subsequent work has been to emphasise the intimacy of this relation between mammals and the anomodonts. In several respects Prof. Seeley was unlike other men, so that his work can scarcely be judged by the ordinary standards, and the time for a final judgment has not yet arrived. That palaontological (to say nothing of geological) science has lost a student with an almost superhuman store of knowledge is, however, admitted by all. Re. NO. 2046, VOL. 79| NOTES. On December 31, 1908, Mr. H. B. Woodward, F.R.S., retired from the Geological Survey of Great Britain, after more than forty years’ service. His post as assistant to the director has been taken by Dr. A. Strahan, F.R.S., and the vacancy in the district geologists thus created has been filled by the promotion of Mr. George Barrow. A pott has been taken of the proprietors of the London Institution in connection with the proposal to amalgamate the institution with the Royal Society of Arts. The result shows that the majority of the proprietors are in favour of the scheme for the amalgamation of the two societies. A meeting of the board of management of the London Institution is therefore being held as we go to press to consider the next step to be taken. Pror. J. ArtHuR Tuomson, of Aberdeen University, has been invited by the lecture committee of the South African Association for the Advancement of Science to give the ~ South African Lectures ’’ for 1909. The lectures are to be delivered in August and September in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Bloemfontein, Kimberley, Cape Town, Grahams: town, and Durban, and at the request of the committee they will have special reference to the Darwin centenary. The previous lecturers were Prof. Raleigh, Magdalen College, Oxford, and Mr. Herbert Fisher, New College, Oxford. Tue Paris correspondent of the Times reports that on January 6 the driver of the Céte d’Azur express attacked by an eagle while the train was proceeding from Chalon sur Saéne to Fontaines station. The bird, which measured 2 metres across the flew into the cab of the engine, and was only overcome after a severe struggle. Was wings, Science the announcement of the death on December 19, 1908, at the age of fifty-eight years, of Prof. Thomas Gray, professor of dynamics and engineering at the Rose Polytechnic Institute, and dis- tinguished for his work in these subjects. WE regret to notice in death, on December 25, 1908, of Major Percy B. Molesworth, R.E., in the forty-second year of his age. He died at Trinco- mali, Ceylon, where he had been stationed for some years. Major Molesworth was one of the most careful and assiduous of planetary observers, especially of Jupiter and Mars. He published in the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society a long series of observations of Jupiter made in 1903-4, and recorded what appears to be a unique instance of perceptible change on the planet’s surface_in the course of a few minutes. He made of observations, amounting to many thousands, of transits of spots on the planet, the results of which were published in the Memoirs of the British Astronomical Association, of which he was one of the most devoted members of the observing sections. He made a fine series of observations and drawings of Mars, extracts from which were published in the Monthly Notices, the full report being placed for WE regret to see the announcement of the a series reference in the library of the Royal Astronomical Society, of which society he had been a fellow since 1898. He was a member of the British Astronomical Association from its foundation. A MEDICAL congress, due to the initiative of Sir George Clarke, the Governor, is to be held in Bombay, and will begin on February 22. On the opening day Sir George Clarke will deliver the presidential address, and the sec- tional meetings will last during the next four days. There will be an exhibition of medical, surgical, and sanitary 316 appliances. Among others concerned in research work specially affecting India who have expressed their intention of being present at the congress meetings are Profs. Ronald Ross, Kitasato, and Musgrave. Papers are ex- pected to be communicated by Sir Patrick Manson, Sir Lauder Brunton, Prof. Osler, and others. The attendance at the congress is expected to be very large. The secretary of the congress is Colonel Jennings, c/o Messrs. King, King and Co., Bombay. WE regret to see the announcement of the death of Dr. D. A. Robertson, the distinguished surgeon-oculist, at seventy-two years of age. Dr. Robertson was for several years lecturer on ophthalmology in the University of Edinburgh, and he was president of the International Ophthalmological Congress in 1894. He was an ex- president of the Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom, and was president of the Royal College of Surgeons, Edinburgh, in 1886, president of the ophthalmo- logical section of the British Medical Association in 1808, and president of the Edinburgh branch of this association. Many geologists and other friends and fellow-workers of the late Mr. Joseph Lomas will welcome the oppor- tunity of subscribing to a memorial fund which is being raised for the benefit of his wife and children. As was mentioned in Nature of December 24, 1908 (p. 226), Mr. Lomas was killed in a railway accident in Algeria while on his way to study the rocks in the desert region of North Africa, this investigation being undertaken for a committee of the British Association. The devotion to scientific work which characterised Mr. Lomas meant the sacrifice of time and means that might otherwise have been used more selfishly. It is not surprising, therefore, to know that he was unable to make adequate provision for his wife and children. There should be a generous response to the appeal which has just been issued by a committee which includes the names of many distinguished men of science who knew Mr. Lomas, and of which Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., is one of the hon. treasurers. Subscriptions should be sent to the hon. treasurers, ““Lomas Memorial Fund,’’ Education Committee, 14 Sir Thomas Street, Liverpool. On Tuesday next, January 19, Prof. Karl Pearson will begin a course of two lectures at the Royal Institution on “Albinism in Man”; on Thursday, January 21, Prof. J. O. Arnold will commence a course of two lectures on ““ Mysteries of Metals,’’ and on Saturday, January 23, Sir Hubert von Herkomer delivers the first of two lectures on (1) “‘ The Critical Faculty,’’ (2) ‘“‘ Sight and Seeing.’’ The Friday evening discourse on January 22 will be delivered by Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, on ‘‘ The World of Life: as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism,” and on January 29 by Sir Frederick L. Nathan, on “Improvements in Production and Application of Gun- cotton and Nitro-glycerin.”’ Since the great earthquake in Sicily and Calabria on December 28, 1908, there have been a number of after- shocks, and a little additional information about the dis- turbance. Prof. Oddone informed a Press representative on January 6 that the observatory building at Messina has been damaged, but a subterranean chamber used for seismic investigations has escaped harm. The Vicentini seismograph registered the great earthquake up to the moment of maximum intensity, and the record is con- sidered to be of considerable interest in the study of the earthquake. From the record it appears that the earth- quake began with a very slight shock, which was re- NO. 2046, VOL. 79] NATURE [JANUARY 14, 19c9 peated. It increased in violence for ten seconds, and then grew less severe for another ten seconds. After these movements ten minutes passed without disturbance. = , = NO 2047, Wie. 79| 1.—Excavations at the main entrance to the Kesslerlcch in 1902. inquiry succeeded in tracing the fraud to an artful workman and an innocent schoolboy; but for a time suspicion fell upon other and far superior specimens. Heim, however, who is here quoted in full, proved his case for the reindeer; a pig that had somehow got figured with a curly tail was shown to have a most proper and straight one in the original; and the carved head of a musk-ox, one of the most valuable relics (plate xxxii.), has proved especially convincing. In fact, only three forgeries are now recognised, thanks to the very searching criti- cism which each object has under- gone. On plate xxxii., by the by, the numbers 5 and 6 should be inter- changed. Dr. Heierli’s own excavations were in the yellow loam, which must have accumulated during the epoch of the occupation of the cave by man (p. 60). The hearths in this show that successive groups, of settlers came in, but all the remains are classed as Paleolithic, and mostly as Magdalenian. There are no signs of climatic alteration during this epoch (p. 213); but the water-level in the loam has now climbed some four metres higher than when the cave was first inhabited. The loam is regarded by Prof, Meister as accumulating, partly Fic. 2.—Incised drawings on reindeer horn, from the Kesslerloch. The two lower photographs are from casts in which t!e curved aiurfaces of the horn are brought into one plane. JANUARY 21, 1909] in-a shallow stream, while the last extension of the Rhine glacier withdrew from northern Switzerland D. 56). : A full account is given by Prof. Hescheler of the animal remains, which include representatives of the lowland fauna of pre-Glacial times, of an Arctic or Alpine fauna, now known to have been strongly present, and of a fauna proper to the Magdalenian epoch, suggesting steppes and tundras. The cave- dwellers fed mostly on reindeer, hare, horse, and ptarmigan, and probably had no domesticated animals. Among the more interesting remains found may be mentioned those of the mammoth, the lion, the woolly rhinoceros and the muskkx-ox. Ge A eG: THE NEW IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. WE imagine that few, if any, members of the old Corporation of the Imperial Institute, which was dissolved by Act of Parliament in 1903, believed that within a very few years the institute would be able to produce the record of useful work which has just been presented to Parliament.’ The policy at first adopted, and persisted in long after it had been discredited, led to a failure, in so far as the complete fulfilment of the objects for which the insti- tute was founded was concerned, and lent plausibility to the view that South Kensington was too ‘“ in- accessible ’’ to become a centre of scientific and com- mercial information concerning the raw materials of the Empire. It has been amply proved, however, now that the original failure was not due to this cause. South Kensington is no longer inaccessible, and in any case the exact position in London of a central establishment, which has to be in close touch with distant parts of the Empire, whence its work chiefly comes, as well as with manufacturers throughout the United Kingdom, is a matter of secondary importance. Whatever may be urged against the South Kensington site, it has not stood in the way of the accomplishment of an increasing volume of work which, it is clear from the present report, must have taxed to the utmost the power and capabilities of the relatively small staff allotted to the institute. The new era dates from 1903, when the Imperial Institute was transferred to the Government and placed under the control of the Board of Trade, with Prof. Dunstan as its new director. This Government depart- ment seems, however, to have been primarily interested in developing in the city a Commercial Intelligence Office, and appears to have done little to facilitate reconstruction at South Kensington. The institute made steady if slow progress during this period, as shown by the report on its work presented to Parliament in 1906, and received increasing support from the colonies, with the result that in 1907 its man- agement was delegated, under the Act of 1903, to the Colonial Office, representation on the board of man- agement being given to the India Office and the Board of Trade. It may be claimed that the present measure of suc- cess is the result of steady and persistent work on scientific lines, and is indeed the outcome of the foun- dation in 1896 of the scientific and technical depart- ment, with the assistance of the Royal Commissioners of the Exhibition of 1851, who, however, ceased to contribute to the support of this department when the institute was transferred to the Government. The present report deals with each of the several divisions of the work carried on, but we need only 1 Report on the Work of the Imperial Institute. 1¢06 and 1907. Reports—Annual Series, No. 584. By Prof. W. NO. 2047, VOL. 79] Colonial R. Dunstan, F.R.S. NATURE 343 refer to that of more immediate scientific interest. This concerns the operation of the institute in conducting investigations and inquiries relating to the commercial utilisation of the raw materials of the Empire. This work has benefited the British manufacturer, as well as the colonial producer, as is shown by many instances quoted in the report. It is obviously of first importance that this scientific work should be directed to practical ends and made to tell commercially, so that, as a rule, the results are of technical and com- mercial rather than of purely scientific interest. Nevertheless, the members of the scientific staff have made a very creditable contribution to more purely scientific knowledge, no fewer than thirty communica- tions to the Royal and other scientific societies being noticed in the report. These relate chiefly to the re- sults of researches on the constituents of new vegetable and mineral products. The material placed at the dis- posal of the institute is so valuable and important, from this point of view, that, in the interests of science, it would be a wise step for the Colonial Office to enable the scientific members of the staff to devote more time to such investigations as these, most of which can only be undertaken successfully by such men with special training and experience, who are at present deterred from undertaking it by the pressure of routine work. We observe that satisfactory working arrangements have been concluded with agricultural and other tech- nical departments in the colonies, by which only such investigations are conducted at the institute as require special knowledge and experience, or are of a technical character needing reference to manufacturers at home. The colonies are thus left free to devote attention to such work as can best be accomplished on the spot, whilst relying on the Imperial Institute for the conduct of investigations which can most usefully be carried out by a central department at home. Brief mention may also be made of two other branches of activity. The ‘ Bulletin of the Imperial Institute ’? serves as a medium for the publication of the more important official reports of investigations, and also for the dis- semination of information respecting developments in tropical agriculture and the utilisation of raw materials. This quarterly publication is stated in the report to have a large and increasing circulation in this country and the colonies. The public exhibition galleries contain exhibits repre- sentative of the natural resources of practically all parts of the Empire. Their reorganisation has been in pro- gress since 1903, and new products, maps, statistical diagrams, &c., are continually being added, with the view of rendering the ‘‘ Court ”’ allotted to each British possession as representative as possible of its present economic development. The report mentions that special facilities are now afforded to schools, with the object of rendering the exhibition galleries useful as a means of teaching the geography of the colonies and India, and that these facilities are being taken advan- tage of to an increasing extent. The Imperial Institute in its new régime still suffers to some extent from the prejudice created by its false start. Now that it has justified its existence and shown that it can render services of great importance to the Empire, it may be expected that something further will be done to strengthen its general and finan- cal position. - The present report shows that its opera- tions are hampered for want of space. The arrange- ments made with the Government by the former corporation included the occupation of a portion of the building by the administrative offices of the University of London. In view of the increasing need, both of the university and the institute, for adequate accommoda- 344 NATURE [JANUARY 21, 1909 tion in which to carry on their work, which, though entirely different in character in the two cases, is of great importance to the nation, the situation will before long require reconsideration, as new con- ditions have arisen since the arrangement was entered into in 1903. BALTIMORE MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION. HE sixtieth annual meeting of the American As- sociation for the Advancement of Science and of the several affiliated societies was held at Balti- more, Md., on December 28, 1908, to January 2, 1909. In practically all respects the meeting was the most successful in the history of the association. It was the largest meeting ever held, and the total attend- ance is estimated at about 1800. In addition to the several sections of the association, important meetings were held by the following bodies :— The American Society of Naturalists, the American Society of Biological Chemists, the American Anthropo- logical Association, the American Folk-lore Society, the American Philosophical Association, the American Physical Society, American Psychological Association, American Physiological Society, American Society of Vertebrate Palzontologists, the American Chemical Society, American Society of Zoologists, American Nature-study Society, American Mathematical Society, the American Federation of Teachers of the Mathematical and the Natural Sciences, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, American Alpine Club, Association of American Geographers, Association of Economic Entomologists, the Botanical Society of America, the Entomological Society of America, Geological Society of America, Society of American Bacteriologists, Association of American Anatomists, Southeri Society for Philosophy and Psychology, the Sullivant Moss Society, and the Wild Flower Preservation Society. The address of the retiring president of the asso- ciation, Prof. E. L. Nichols, of Cornell, was entitled “Science and the Practical Problems of the Future,” and was printed in an abridged form in last week’s Nature. It was an address of very broad bearing, written by an eminent physicist and at the same time by one engaged in university work. It contained a strong plea for research work in pure science at the universities. The addresses of the vice-presidents, that is, presidents of sections, were all upon important topics. Vice-president Wilson, before the section of ‘zoology, spoke on recent researches on the determina- tion and heredity of sex; Vice-president Talbot, before the section of chemistry, spoke of science teaching as a career; Vice-president Crowell, before the section of social and economic science, spoke on the influence of science on investments; Vice-president Lovett, in mathematics and astronomy, had for a title ‘‘ The Problem of Several Bodies: Recent Progress in its Solution ’’; Vice-president Miller, before the section of physics, spoke on the influence of the material of wind instruments on the tone quality; Vice-president Bessey addressed the botanists on the subject of the phyletic idea in taxonomy; Vice-president Hektoen, before the section of physiology and experimental medicine, spoke of opsonins and other anti-bodies; Vice-president Boas addressed the section of anthro- pology and psychology upon the important topic of race problems in America; and _ Vice-president Landreth, before the section of mechanical science and engineering, spoke of governmental control of public waters. The addresses all through the meeting assumed in general an aspect of great interest. Dr. Bogert’s ad- dress as retiring president of the American Chemical Society was on the subject of the function of chemistry in the conservation of natural resources ; NO. 2047, VOL. 79] Prof. Muensterberg, as president of the American Philosophical Association, spoke on the problem of beauty; the address of the president of the American Society of Naturalists, Prof. Penhallow, of McGill University, was entitled ‘‘ The Functions of the Ameri- can Society of Naturalists ’’; Vice-president Brown, before the section of education, dealt with world standards of education. The public addresses were of extreme interest. Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., of the University of Oxford, addressed a large audience on the subject of mimicry in the butterflies of North America; Dr. Albrecht Penck, of the University of Berlin, spoke on the same night before an equally large audience on man, climate, and soil; Mr. W. A. Bryan, of Honolulu, gave a public lecture on a visit to Mount Kilauea, illustrated by moving pictures—this address was appropriate in view of the proposed visit of the association to Hawaii in 1910. An important feature of the meeting was an address by Major Geo. A. Squier, of the United States Army, before the section on mechanical science and engineering, on the subject of recent progress in aéronautics, which was followed by the decision of the section to devote special attention to the field of aéronautics in its future work. Several symposia of great interest were held during the meeting. That given under the auspices of the section on social and economic science, on the subject of public health, was listened to by a large audience, and included papers by Dr. Wiley, on the nation’s pure food problem; by Dr. Howard, on the economic loss to the people of the United States through insects that carry disease; by Mr. Horace Fletcher, on vital economics; by Prof. Irving Fisher, on the movement for health reform; and by Surgeon-General Wyman, on public health administration. The same sectior held symposia on tariff reform and on stock exchange regulation. An important symposium was held under the section of physiology and experimental medicine on the regulation of physical instruction in schools and-colleges from the standpoint of hygiene. The section on geology held a symposium on the subject of correlation, in which the most eminent geologists of the United States took part, and the section on physics held a session at which papers of general interest to scientific men of other specialities were presented. Possibly the event of greatest general interest was the Darwin memorial day programme, held on Friday, January 1. Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.., was present from England at the invitation of the association to take part in the exercises of the day. Introductory remarks were made by the president of the association, Prof. TIT. C. Chamberlin, of the University of Chicago, and the following addresses were given :— The theory of natural selection from the point of view of botany, by Dr. John M. Coulter, of the University of Chicago; fifty years of Darwinism: past and future ex- perimental work bearing on natural selection, by Prof. E. B. Poulton, of Oxford University; the cell in rela- tion to heredity and evolution, by Dr. E. B. Wilson, of Columbia University; the direct effect on environment, by Dr. D. T. MacDougal, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; the behaviour of unit characters in heredity, by Dr. S. W. E. Castle, of Harvard University ; mutation, by Dr. Chas. B. Davenport, of the Carnegie Institution of Washington; adaptation, by Dr. Carl H. Eigenmann, of the Indiana University; recent paleontological evidence of evolution, by Prof. H. F. Osborn, of Columbia University. These addresses will be published in a memorial volume, together with the following addresses, which were on the programme, but were not read owing to the necessary absence of the authors :— JANuARY 21, 1909] NATURE 34 ry Determinate variation, by Dr. Chas. O. Whitman, of the University of Chicago; the isolation factor, by Dr. David Starr Jordan, of Stanford University ; evolution and psychology, by Dr. G. Stanley Hall, of Clark University. At night on Friday, January 1, a Darwin memorial dinner was given, attended by about 300 naturalists. Following the dinner, addresses were given by Dr. W. H. Welch, on the debt of medicine to Darwin; by Dr. Albrecht Penck, on the geographical factor in evolution; and by Prof. E. B. Poulton, on Darwin’s life and character. Prof. Poulton was particularly happy in his address, and his visit to America at this time and for this purpose was a great gratification to all the members of the American Association. At the close of the dinner a congratulatory telegram was sent to Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace. The association decided to meet in Boston during convocation week, 1909-10, and the following plans were laid for future meetings: 1910-11, Minneapolis ; summer of 1910, Honolulu; 1911-12, Washington ; 1912-13, Cleveland; 1913-14, Toronto. The follow- ing officers for the coming year were elected :— President: David Starr Jordan, Stanford University ; Vice-presidents: Section A, E. W. Brown, of Yale Uni- versity; Section B, L. A. Bauer, of Carnegie Institution ; Section C, Wm. McPherson, of Ohio State University ; Section D, J. F. Hayford, of U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; Section E, R.-W. Brock, director of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada; Section F, W. E. Ritter, of University of California; Section G, D. P. Penhallow, of McGill University; Section H, Wm. H. Holmes, of Bureau of Ethnology; Section I, Carroll D. Wright, of Clark College; Section K, C. S. Minot, of Harvard Uni- versity; Section L, James E. Russell, of Columbia Uni- versity; General Secretary: Dayton C. Miller, of Cleve- land; Secretary of the Council: F. G. Benedict, of Carnegie Institution. Among the resolutions of general interest passed by the council were one protesting against special legislation against vivisection; another requesting Congress to do away with tariff on scientific books, instruments, and apparatus; and a third requesting Congress to enlarge the scope of the National Bureau of Education. Much pleasure was expressed during the meeting at the very courteous action of the British Association in making the officers of the American Association honorary members for the coming Winnipeg meeting, and in offering to the fellows and members of the American Association membership in. the British Association for the meeting on the same terms as old members of the British Association, including the receipt of the report of proceedings of the meeting. It seems certain that there will be a large attendance of members of the American Association at the Winnipeg meeting. THE PROMOTION OF RESEARCH. She question of the promotion of research is one which makes a very direct appeal to scientific men, most of whom have at some time or other been confronted with the difficulties raised by it. In a little volume which has reached us a scheme is outlined for the promotion of scientific research, under which public money may be awarded to persons making dis- coveries prescribed by Parliament. According to the scheme, any person who has made such a discovery may apply for a grant, the application being accom- panied by a_ specification of the discovery. The specification is examined for formalities and for novelty of subject-matter, and afterwards all the specifications accepted in one year are submitted to an pyesueation 1 ““ 4 Scheme for the Promotion of Scientific Re earch.” By Walter B. Priest. 2nd edition. Pp. iv+64. (London: Stevens and Sons, 1908.) NO. 2047, VOL. 79] as to the nature and novelty of all the discoveries for that year, grants being then made in relation to the discoveries which comply with the terms prescribed by Parliament. It will be seen from this brief statement of the scheme that it bears a close resemblance to the grant of Letters Patent to inventors, and, in fact, the scheme is based on the Patents Acts. The patent law enables an inventor to obtain a grant, not of money, but of a monopoly, for a limited time, and by somewhat similar procedure the scheme enables a person making a dis- covery prescribed by Parliament to obtain a grant, not of a monopoly, but of money. There can, unfortun- ately, be no doubt that many discoverers have hitherto met with very inadequate remuneration, and that some have not been recognised at all. While it is doubtful whether the establishment of such a scheme would enable discoverers to be remunerated adequately, it would certainly provide for the recognition by the State of ‘‘ true and first discoverers,’’ and to this extent at least would diminish injustice and encourage scien- tific research. It might also exert a powerful, though indirect, effect on manufacture, for if such a scheme had been established, and if Parliament had pre- scribed, say, discoveries relating to glass for optical instruments, how different might have been the position to-day of English manufacturers of optical instru- ments. The adoption of such a scheme could without doubt be utilised to accelerate the solution of some of the important problems of physical and chemical science, and many of the life and death problems of medical and biological science. AN INVESTIGATION OF: THE SOCIOLOGY AND RELIGION OF THE ANDAMANESE. HE inhabitants of the Andaman Islands have long been recognised as one of. the most primitive races of mankind. By their geographical position and their ferocity towards strangers, they were practically isolated from the rest of the world until 1858. The tribes of the Great Andaman, which constitute by far the largest part of the whole race, are rapidly diminishing in numbers, and are fast forgetting their ancient lore; the next half-century will witness their entire extinction. It was thus highly desirable that a full investigation should be made of these interest- ing pygmies before it was too late. Through the labours of Mr. E. H. Man and the publications of Sir Richard Temple and Mr. M. V. Portman, a good deal was known concerning the general life of the people, their language, and other subjects, more par- ticularly those of the southern tribes of the Great Andaman. Owing to recent developments in the studies of comparative sociology and religion, it was desirable that Mr. Man’s observation should be con- firmed and extended. When the Board of Anthropological Studies in Cam- bridge was entrusted with the selection of the first Anthony Wilkin student, it had no hesitation in ap- pointing Mr. A. R. Brown, of Trinity College,. to undertake this important investigation. He started for the Andamans at the end of August, 1906, and spent two dry seasons of six months each at his field work in the jungles of the Andaman Islands. Mr. Brown was able to confirm a great deal of what Mr. Man had written concerning the southern tribes and to supplement this by a thorough study of the northern tribes of the Great Andaman. Measurements on the living subjects prove the An- damanese to be a very homogeneous race, with little variation and a strongly marked racial type. In 346 their social structure and magical and religious beliefs they are the most primitive people who have yet been systematically studied. The Australians, so often spoken of as very primitive people, have well-developed totemic and local organisations, a classificatory system of kinship names, and elaborate systems of myths and magical beliefs. The Andamanese have no system of clans, but live in small hordes having little cohesion. Their system of kinship terms appears to be ante- cedent to the classificatory system. Their myths and magical beliefs are equally simple and undeveloped. The Little Andamans are still left for future in- vestigation, although Mr. Brown spent three and a half months with these wild islanders. As, however, there’ was no interpreter, the amount of progress which he made in learning their language was in- sufficient to enable him to pursue the investigation of their sociology and religion, but he has recorded their material culture. A. C. Happon. NOTES. Tue third annual general meeting of the British Science Guild will be held at the Mansion House to-morrow, January 22, at 4 p.m., under the presidency of the Lord Mayor. Mr. Haldane, president of the Guild, will address the meeting, and will be supported by Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S., Sir F. Pollock, Bart., Sir Aston Webb, R.A., Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., Sir Boverton Redwood, Dr. Bovey, and other speakers. WE see with deep regret the announcement that Dr. Francis Elgar, F.R.S., whose scientific and practical work in naval architecture is of world-wide renown, died suddenly on January 17 at sixty-three years of age. Tue British Association will meet in Winnipeg from August 25 to September 1 of this year. The president-elect is Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S.; and the following sectional presidents have just accepted office :—A (Mathematical and Physical Science), Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S.; B (Chem- istry), Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; C (Geology), Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S.; D (Zoology), Dr. A. E. Shipley, F.R.S.; E (Geography), Sir Duncan A. Johnston, K.C.M.G. ; F (Economic Science and Statistics), Prof. S. J. Chapman; G (Engineering), Sir William H. White, K.C.B., F.R.S.; H (Anthropology), Prof. J. L. Myres; I (Physiology), Prof. E. H. Starling, F.R.S.; K (Botany), Lieut.-Colonel D. Prain, F.R.S.; L (Educational Science), Dr. H. B. Gray; and subsection, Agriculture, Major P. G, Craigie (chairman). A handbook of preliminary in- formation, drawn up by the local executive committee, may be obtained from the office of the British Association, Burlington House, London, W., or will be sent to applicants enclosing 23d. for postage. A sum of 20,0001. has been placed in the hands of the trustees of the medical school of the London Hospital to be invested to the best advantage, and the income from it to be expended in the advancement of medical research and the promotion of higher education in medicine. The administrators are the chairman, Mr. Sydney Holland, and two members of the acting staff of the hospital. It has been settled that the money is to be spent on in- ‘easing the facilities for research, and not for the routine ing of candidates for examination. The benefits d from the gift will not be confined to those students educated at the London Hospital, but will be open to qualified medical men from any part of the British Empire who are willing to give up their time to advancing medical knowledge within the walls of the London Hospital or NO. 2047, VOL. 79] NATURE [JANUARY 41, 1909. college. The donor of this munificent gift desires to re- main anonymous, in the hope that the fund which he has thus started will be added to by others, and that in time it may become of such magnitude as to be of great use fo the present and to all future generations in the fight against, and the prevention of, disease. AN interesting summary by Dr. H. R. Mill of the rain- fall of the British Isles in 1908 appeared in the Times of January 16. The discussion is only a preliminary one, containing results of observations at ninety representative stations, and comparisons with the average of the last thirty years. A complete discussion of the data will appear later in ‘‘ British Rainfall,’’ but the author remarks, ** the laborious re-computation from all the data ultimately avyail- able rarely shows the preliminary estimates to be much in error, though, of course, greater detail becomes possible.’’ The production of the present summary in so short a time reflects great credit on the promptitude of the voluntary observers and on the staff of the British Rainfall Organisation. The figures show that the year was technically dry; the following are the percentages of the average for the general rainfall:—England, S., 86; Wales, 95; England, N., 91; Scoland, 98; Ireland, 101; British Isles, 93. The monthly values are, of course, much more variable than the annual; the author summarises them as follows :—‘‘ The collective rainfall of the country was above the average from March to the end of September. The dry October brought it back to the average, the dry November greatly reduced it, but a really wet December would have made it up in the end; and even with the moderately dry December the final deficiency, as has been shown, was not very great.’’ June was very dry in England, but less so in other parts. The rainfall for London (Camden Square) was 23-67 inches, an inch and a half below the thirty years’ average; but, the author remarks, London is a large place; the general average of the district ranges from about 23 inches in the low-lying parts near the river to at least 27 inches on the encircling girdle of hills. M. Antony Poincaré has been elected president, and MM. Eiffel and Maillet vice-presidents, of the French Meteorological Society. Dr. Sven Henin arrived at Stockholm on January 17, and had an audience of the King of Sweden, who pre- sented him with the Grand Cross of the Polar Star. He will give an account of his recent expedition in Tibet at a special meeting of the Royal Geographical Society to be held in the Queen’s Hall on February 8. It is announced in the Chemist and Druggist that Baron Bessiéres has left a legacy of 32001. to the Pasteur Institute, Paris, to be employed in scientific researches in accordance with special instructions he has left with his executor. THE seventieth birthday of Prof. G. Lunge will be celebrated on September 15, and a local committee has undertaken to arrange a suitable commemoration of the occasion. Chemists who desire to be associated with this festival should communicate with Dr. E. Berl, Ziirich IV, Sonneggstrasse 84. Tue council of the Institution of Civil Engineers, after consideration of the papers on Indian engineering subjects published in the Proceedings for the past session, has awarded the ‘‘Indian premium’’ of the institution for 1908, of the value of 33/., to Mr. F. P. Anderson, for his paper on river control by wire net-work. “ JANUARY 21, 1909] Pror. E. A. Mixciis has left England for three months, accompanied by his assistant, Dr. Woodcock, on a visit to the zoological station at Rovigno, in order to carry on researches on the development of the trypanosome of the little ow] (Athene noctua). All communications should be addressed to him at the Zoologische Station, Rovigno (Istria), Austria. Tue Geological Society of London will this year award its medals and funds as follows :—Wollaston medal, Mr. Horace B. Woodward, F.R.S.; Murchison medal, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole; Lyell medal, Prof. Percy F. Kendall ; Bigsby medal, Dr. John Smith Flett; Prestwich medal, Lady Evans; Wollaston fund, Mr. Arthur J. C. Molyneux ; Murchison fund, Mr. James V. Elsden; Lyell fund, Mr. R. G. Carruthers and Mr. Herbert Brantwood Muff. Durinc the past few days the following earthquake shocks have been reported :—January 13, Rome.—Earth- quake shocks at 1.45 a.m. reported over northern Italy. Two distinct shocks with a few seconds’ interval. Vienna. —Slight earthquake shocks at many points in the southern part of Austria, extending from Serajevo to Trieste. January 15, Cape Town.—Several shocks of earthquake have been felt recently in various parts of South Africa. One was felt at Johannesburg on this date. Pror. Ricco, director of the Catania Observatory, who has just returned from Calabria, has stated to a corre- spondent of the Times that the quay and the houses at Reggio which stood near the landing quay of the ferry- boat have sunk considerably as a result of the recent earth- quake; the point of the new jetty was actually under water. The sea wave, he says, reached a height of 11 feet at Villa San Giovanni, 13 feet at Pellaro, and rather more at Lazzaro; at Catania it was nearly 7 feet high, and: at Messina 63 feet, though it did more damage at Messina than elsewhere. Tue death is reported of Prof. G. W. Hough, professor of astronomy at the North-Western University, Evanston, Illinois. Prof. Hough was born in New York State in 1836. After holding a subordinate post at the Cincinnati Observatory, he was appointed in 1860 director of the Dudley Observatory, Albany. In 1879 he became director of the Dearborn Observatory, Chicago, and professor of astronomy at Chicago University. He was appointed to his chair at Evanston in 1887. He published many reports embodying his discoveries, which were particularly con- cerned with double stars and with the planet Jupiter, and invented several instruments for use in astronomical and meteorological investigations. Tue late Prof. Tait contributed to NATuRE between the years 1887 and 1893 a valuable series of papers on the physics of golf. It is interesting to note that these scien- tific articles are becoming a kind of classic, from which writers on the game quote with assurance. In Golf Illus- trated for January 1, a contributor, by means of a search- ing analysis of Prof. Tait’s writings, shows how mythical must be the story, so familiar on all golf links, that the redoubtable F. G. Tait in 1893 disproved his father’s supposed dictum by driving a golf ball further than had been declared from mathematical calculation to be possible. So early as 1891 (see vol. xliv. of Nature) Prof. Tait had begun to see the’ explanation of the prolonged flight of a golf ball, and he was the last man to dogmatise on a scientific problem which still demanded a complete solu- tion. It is said that he never denied the mythical tale; but was the question ever distinctly put to him? More- over, it should be remembered that Prof. Tait enjoyed a NO. 2047, VOL. 79] is NATURE 347 good story to the full. No doubt the genial banter between father and son when the historic drive was made goes far to explain the germ of the myth. Tue British Museum was opened on January 15, 1759, and therefore completed a century and a half of existence on Friday last. An interesting article in the Times of January 14 describes the origin and work of this great national institution. It is of particular interest to recall that Sir Hans Sloane, who was Newton’s successor as president of the Royal Society, was chiefly responsible for the foundation of the museum, and that the main lines of its present constitution are laid down in his will. He made vast collections of specimens relating to natural history and antiquities; and the Act of Parliament of 1753, to which the museum owes its formation, states that one of the objects is ‘‘ the purchase of the museum or collec- tion of Sir Hans Sloane.’’ The first directing officer of the museum, styled the principal librarian, was a man of science—Dr. Godwin Knight—known for his improve- ments of the mariner’s compass. Until 1865 the chief accessions were specimens relating to classical antiquities, but upon the death of Mr. Henry Christy in that year, the museum accepted his ethnographical and prehistoric collec- tions. In 1880 the natural history collections were removed to the new building provided for them at South Kensing- ton, and it is becoming evident that further separation of the museum and the library must be contemplated. Upon this point the Times remarks:—‘‘In the future the in- evitable and constant growth of the library will call for additional space, and the ultimate separation of the: national museum and the national library will undoubtedly come. Such a division is unquestionably more natural tham the present state of things, which we accept because it has been of slow and unnoticed growth. The separation of the natural history collections may be described as beneficial to both sides of the museum, and may well serve as a precedent for the Government in the future, whenever the question may arise.” PRESIDENT ROOSEVELT has signed, says Science, a pro- clamation setting aside and naming the Ocala National Forest in Marion County, in eastern Florida, the first created east of the Mississippi River, and another pro- clamation creating the Dakota National Forest in Billings County, North Dakota. The two proclamations add two more States to the list of those wherein land will be put under scientific forest administration. There are now nineteen States, and Alaska, having national forests. Before the creation of the Ocala, in Florida, the two forests in Arkansas, the Ozark and the Arkansas, were the easternmost national forests. Practically all the other national forests are in the Rocky Mountain and the Pacific coast States. The Florida forest has an area of 201,480: acres, of which about one-fourth has been taken up under various land laws. It covers a plateau between the St. John’s and Ochlawaha rivers, and at no point is an eleva- tion exceeding 150 feet above sea-level obtained. The new Dakota national forest consists of 14,080 acres in the Bad’ Lands region. Its creation is important, for it means that an experimental field for forest planting has been secured’ in North Dakota, the least forested State in the Union, having only 1 per cent. of tree growth. The Forest Service expects to establish forest nurseries with the hope that in time to come the area may be re-forested by artificial means. Tue annual general meeting of the Institute of Metals was held on January 19, when a paper on the relation between science and practice, and its bearing on the utility 348 of the Institute of Metals, was read by Sir Gerard Muntz, Bart. In this paper attention was directed to the fact that among members of the institute are to be found manufacturers, men of science, and engineers. In some cases the three grades are enrolled in one individual, but generally it will be from the harmonious correlation of the three grades that the benefits of the institute will accrue. After summarising the demands made upon the time and ability of the manufacturer, and pointing out that often cause and effect are noticed and taken advantage of in practice, but the reason why never discovered, and so it happens that the road thus shown is not explored, Sir Gerard Muntz dealt with the work of the man of science. Given, he said, results, cause and effect the man of science, if he persistently devotes himself to the task which is offered him, will probably eventually arrive at the why and wherefore of the matter. The man of science, he continued, has the necessary time; his vocation, as a rule, is embowered “‘ in that cloistered seclusion which allows of consecutive thought and reasoning out of obscure and difficult subjects.”” No doubt a worthy tribute to the man of science on Sir Gerard Muntz’s part, but it would have been more convincing had he made it clearer how the man of science he had in mind gains his livelihood. Referring to laboratory work, Sir Gerard Muntz said that without it nothing can be done; but, he went on, it is not sufficient for the man of science to demonstrate in the laboratory. Science must be reduced to practical form for everyday use before it can be made serviceable in manufacture. The practical worker has to depend on the man of science, and needs guidance in not too elaborate a form. Systematic ornithologists will welcome a list of new gencric names proposed for birds during the years 1901 to 1905 inclusive, together with records of a number. of older names not to be found in the ‘‘ Index Generum Avium.”’ The list has been compiled by Mr. C. W. Richmond, of the U.S. National Museum, and is published as No. 1656 of the Proceedings of that institution. The additions to the ‘‘ Index Generum”’ are about 350 in number, but a certain proportion of these rank as nomina nuda. A paper by Dr. E. D. Van Oort on the birds of the Netherlands, published in vol. xxx., Nos. 2 and 3, of Notes from the Leyden Museum, is illustrated by an exqui- site photographic plate of two male barn-owls killed in Holland remarkable for their pure white breasts, totally devoid of black spots. In one the feathers of the disk are likewise nearly pure white, while in the other those on the lower border of the same are tipped with orange-buff and blackish-brown. Tue Journal of the Royal Society of Arts for December 25, 1908, contains the report of a lecture on the birds of India, delivered before the Indian section of the society by Mr. Douglas Dewar. After referring to the fact that India does possess song-birds, and mentioning the fearless- ness and numerical abundance of Indian birds and the charm of birds in general, the lecturer proceeded to discuss the scientific study of birds, more especially in connection with natural selection. Ix the twenty-second annual report of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, Prof. Herdman laments the decease of two original members of the committee (Messrs. 18s IDE and A. Leicester), as well as of other supporters of the Marine Biological Station at Port Erin. He further deplores the lack of earnest and well-to-do amateur naturalists, who formed the main support of that NO. 2047, VOL. 79] Darbishire NATURE [JANUARY 21, 1909 institution twenty years ago, and pleads the urgency of additional financial assistance if the work and publications (which yearly become more expensive) are to be carried on as heretofore. In response to a desire expressed by certain foreign visitors, Prof. Herdman has included in the report a detailed description, with plans, of the hatchery and hatching-boxes. The work of the institution has been carried on successfully during the year, although the problem of hatching and rearing lobsters has not been solved. No. 2 of the fourth volume of the Journal of the South African Ornithologists’ Union contains the report of the committee for bird-migration for the years 1906 and 1907. Although a very large number of post-cards was circu- lated, the replies received were disappointingly small, not one out of 100 schoolmasters to whom cards were sent answering the appeal. Six species were entered in the schedule, namely, the swallow, bee-eater, lesser kestrel, greenshank, stork, and white-winged pratincole, and re- ports on the arrival and departure of these and other species were received from fifteen stations, ranging from Cape Colony to the Orange River Colony and Transvaal. The dates of the arrival of the swallow range from August 28 (Amersfoort, Rolfontein, 1906) to December 6 (Bethulie, 1907); the stork first appeared during 1907 on September 20, but the bulk of these birds seem to have come between November 9 and 24, while greenshanks were seen at three stations in the first half of October. The committee has sent out another series of circulars and cards, to which it may be hoped a larger proportion of replies will be received. ANOTHER issue (No. 1652) of the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum is devoted to copepod crustaceans para- sitic on fishes from the Pacific coast of North America, with descriptions of several new genera and many new species. The author, Mr. C. B. Wilson, had the oppor- tunity of working at a very extensive collection, which yielded very interesting results. Although the number of new species may appear relatively large, it is stated that a great difference between the Atlantic and Pacific re- presentatives of these parasites is only what was to be ex- pected, and but little was previously known of the latter. “The novelty of the characters of these new forms is of much less importance than the close relationship which they show between species inhabiting widely remote locali- ties. ... There are close correspondences between the Atlantic and Pacific copepods similar to those found in other groups of animals, particularly, perhaps, in the fishes which serve as hosts for these parasites.” Tue first part of vol. iv. (zoology) of the report on the scientific results of the voyage of the Scotia during the years 1902-4, under the leadership of Dr. W. S. Bruce, has been received from the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, Edinburgh. From the start of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition to its finish a daily record was kept of the observations of the naturalists both on board the ship and at the summer station. A field note- book, or naturalists’ diary, of the expedition was thus secured, and this record is reproduced with no material alterations in the work just published. The interest and value of this zoological log is increased by many very striking pictures of oceanic and Antarctic life and scenes, the thirty-three plates including no fewer than a hundred illustrations from photographs. We propose to defer further notice of the work until other parts of the fourth volume of the report of the expedition have reached us. “Fs JANUARY 21, 1909] Tue editorial of the Indian Forester (December, 1908) is devoted to a well-merited eulogy of the services rendered to the Government of India by Mr. S. Eardley-Wilmot, the late Inspector-General of Forests. During the six years that he has occupied that post steps have been taken towards the better training and higher qualification of the staff, improved conditions of service, and the inaugura- tion of the research institute at Dehra Dun; further, public opinion has been moved to recognise the value of the forests and to appreciate the work of the forest officers. In the Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club (November, 1908) there is published an account of an investigation, by Mr. A. E. Hilton, into the streaming movements of plasmodia of the Mycetozoa.. It is noted that the movements consist of rhythmic alternating currents that reverse on an average about every ninety seconds, and it was found possible to superimpose on the normal currents special movements induced by tapping lightly on a cover-glass placed on the specimen. Thus it is argued that pressure and suction or pulsations in the plasmodium are the cause of the currents, and it is sug- gested that such pulsations are probably indications of respiration proceeding in the organism. Tue subject of plant fasciations is treated by Miss A. A. Knox in Publication No. 98 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Fasciation is applied to that deviate from the normal circular shape, becoming more or less flattened, and that often show repeated branching. The plants investigated were Cinothera biennis, Cinothera cruciata, and other species of the genus. They produce rosettes of closely compacted leaves in the first year, and throw up flowering shoots later. They may either fasciate as rosettes, producing lopsidedness of stem and leaves, or subsequently, when the elongated stems become flattened or branch. Four different methods of forming fasciations are illustrated, but in each case development proceeds from a special meristem. In all cases fasciation is attributed to injuries inflicted by insects, and the author differs from de Vries in considering that the tendency to fasciation is not a heritable factor. stems Tue third and seventh volumes of the publication Recueil de l'Institut Botanique Léo Errera, Brussels—to give the title as modified on the last volume—have recently been issued. This publication originated in connection with the purpose of bringing together the papers emanating from Prof. Errera’s laboratory. The third volume, containing contributions by several workers that were published in various journals during the years 1885 to 1900, indicates the wide scope of the research prosecuted there. Several papers by Dr. E. Laurent, notably the account of a study of the organisms giving rise to leguminous nodules, deal with the action of soil and fermentation bacteria. Cultures of the Mucedinez are described by Mr. A. de Wevyre, the effect of external factors on karyokinesis is discussed by Dr. E. de Wildeman, and the morphological articles by Dr. J. Massart include a valuable thesis on recapitulation and innovation in plant embryology. To the Reliquary for January Mr. J. L. Cowan tributes an interesting paper on aboriginal American indus- The chief and earliest of these is basketry, which was found in an advanced stage when Friar Marcos de Niza visited the south-western States in 1539. The designs are not accidental, nor do they represent the artistic concep- tion of the worker. Each has its traditional significance— the cobweb pattern being connected with offerings to the spider deity, the deer-hunt with gods of the chase, and so on. Even a break in the design marks a place where evil NO. 2047, VOL. 79] con- tries. NATURE 349 spirits can find exit, instead of being confined to injure the owner. In the same way each colour has its own significance, red being the most sacred, as typifying the life of man. ‘The transition from basketry to pottery, the basket being covered with clay to save it from injury by fire, can here be clearly traced. Pottery still maintains its ancient perfection only among the Hopi and Zuni com- munities, the former being specially noted for grace of design, artistic decoration, and faultless workmanship. The latest industry is that of blanket weaving. The arts of plaiting and weaving were known. to the natives before the arrival of the European, but it is only since the intro- duction of sheep and goats that the craft of blanket weaving has been developed, with the result that the Navajos now admittedly make the finest specimens in the world. Miss E. H. Hatt has shown some courage in selecting as the subject for a doctorate dissertation at- Bryn Mawr College ‘‘ The Decorative Art of Crete in the Bronze Age,’” while Dr. A. J. Evans is still engaged at Knossos, and other promising sites in the island still remain unexcavated. This art series, extending over some two thousand years, begins with simple linear geometric ornament, notably with the zigzag motive. This develops into curvilinear designs, among which.are motives resembling natural objects which gratify the primitive instinct for imitative art. Later on these exhibit increasing realism; but the. non-imitative ornament is even more typical. - By the Middle Minoan III. period this is superseded by pure naturalistic design, due to a local school trained under Egyptian influence. In the great palace-building age at Knossos and Phaistos con- flower designs replace, in part, naturalistic motives. Lastly, we reach the stage of debased forms of naturalistic motives unintelligently copied, indicating not only lack of artistic originality, but the approach of a purely geometric style. Miss Hall’s classification and analysis of the evolution of this school of art will probably not meet with general acceptance in all its interpretations, and her conclusions are always liable to be upset by new discoveries, but as it is accompanied by good sketches of typical examples it will be useful to students of this chapter in art history. ventional Unper the title ‘‘ The Diet of the Hindu,’’ we published in November last (p. 42) a descriptive notice of a memoir by Captain D. McCay, in which he showed, in a systematic manner, and after thorough investigation, that a vegetarian dict has a deleterious effect on the metabolism and efficiency of the inhabitants of Bengal. We have received from Mr. Bernard Houghton, of Sagaing, Burma, a letter in reference to this article in which he points out that the Bengalis live in a damp, hot climate, that dhall bulks largely in their food, and that this diet is rich in purine substances. He is inclined to attribute part, at any rate, of their malnutrition to these circumstances. He states that the Burmese, who are rice-eaters, are in the hospital re- turns free from the diseases Captain McCay alludes to, and he believes that the same is true of wheat-eating Punjabis. In conclusion, he asks whether . there is any evidence that these diseases’ are prevalent amongst the rice- eating Chinese and Japanese peasantry. In reference to these remarks, our reviewer, before whom we laid Mr. Houghton’s letter, replies that he did not deal with the inhabitants of the Punjab and of Burma because he is not aware that similar experimental and statistical evidence is available on the metabolism of these people. If there are any differences in the general metabolism of the two classes of vegetarians referred to, they may be due to variation in climatic influences or to the amount of purine substances in the food, but positive statements cannot be made until 35° comparative data and statistics are produced. In reference to Mr. Houghton’s last question, attention may be directed to the prevalence of the disease called beri-beri among the rice-eating nations, and that diet is an important factor was very strikingly seen at the siege of Port Arthur. At that date the Japanese Navy had abandoned their rice diet, whereas the Army had not, otherwise the two services lived under the same conditions; beri-beri still continued to decimate the soldiers, but among the sailors it was prac- tically stamped out. Tue Meteorological Office has sent us the monthly meteorological charts (r) of the North Atlantic and Mediter- ranean, and (2) of the Indian Ocean and Red Sea, for the present month. In addition to the usual statistical in- formation referring to winds, ocean currents, &c., prepared for the month in question from various publications of the hydrographic and meteorological offices in this country and abroad, all available space, both on the face and back of the charts, is utilised by data of much importance to sea- men. A cablegram from Canada, dated December 12, 1908, reported heavy, close-packed ice at Quebec and L’Islet. On the back of the Atlantic chart is reprinted a very interesting memorandum on observations of waves and swell, drawn up by the late Sir G. G. Stokes while he was a member of the Meteorological Council. With reference thereto, the remark is made that ‘‘ We learn from Sir George Gabriel Stokes that the low swells of deep water, which have long periodic times, cause high rollers when they come into shallow water.” WE have received from Dr. J. R. Ashworth a copy of an analysis of the meteorological elements of Rochdale, from observations since 1878, reprinted from the Trans- actions of the Literary and Scientific Society of that place for 1908. The author has subjected the monthly means to harmonic analysis, and has computed six component curves for each element. This method discovers several interesting points relating to the climate of Rochdale, e.g. the fifth subperiod of the rainfall formula exhibits a re- markably large amplitude; the author points out that “‘ its maximum occurs on December 29 and every succeeding 73 days.’’ A comparison with the rainfall at other stations shows, e.g., that at Stonyhurst an equally large value for the 73-day period is exhibited, while at Oxford and Cam- bridge this subperiod is insignificant. This method is, generally speaking, too laborious for ordinary observers, but Dr. Ashworth’s investigation will be of considerable use to students to whom the advantages of exhibiting results in the most concise form and the best means of ‘calculating the constants may be unknown. Perhaps the greatest living advocate of the method is Prof. J. Hann; students will find much valuable information on the subject and on the meaning of the various parts of the formula in his papers in Himmel und Erde, vol. vi., parts viii. and ix., and Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. xxv., pp. 40-65 (translation by Dr. R. H. Scott). Vo. xl. of the Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, issued in 1908, contains several interesting contributions. Mr. R. Speight (p. 16), in a Paper on terrace-development of Canterbury rivers, properly emphasises the importance of considering the varying amount of waste material supplied to the streams in suc- cessive epochs. Mr. A. M. Finlayson describes the interest- ing veins of scheelite and quartz that are now mined in the goldfields of Otago, the price of the dressed ore having risen in fifteen years from 201. to 160]. per ton. Dr. P. Marshall shows that the so-called gabbro of Dun Mountain NATURE [JANUARY 21, 19¢9 7 and he makes the interesting suggestion that this rock probably results from the digestion of an adjacent lime- stone in the peridotite magma which provides the well- known dunite. Botany is represented by nine papers, in- cluding Mr. D. Petrie’s account of a visit to Mt. Hector, 5106 feet in height, in which the changes in the flora, and even in the characters of individual species, at successive elevations are discussed. Mr. H. Guthrie-Smith, in ‘‘ The Grasses of Tutira,’’ describes the struggle between alien grasses and the returning indigenous species over farm lands watched by him for twenty-five years. The land has already become ‘‘ sick ’’ of the alien species, and, as its fertility lessens, the hardier native species tend to resume possession, and thus to redress ‘‘ the balance of nature.’ There are twenty zoological papers, mollusca being largely dealt with; Mr. W. H. Webster contributes seven new species, which are figured. Strong pleas are put in for the protection of native birds, presumably with the exception of the kea, which Mr. G. R. Marriner again holds up to obloquy. This volume, including as it does 608 pages and thirty-four plates, is a monument to the activity of the local societies and of the central institute that unites them. Everyone who is working at radio-activity at the present time feels the need of a standard of activity in terms of which all measurements of activity can be expressed. It was suggested three years ago by Prof. H. N. McCoy, of the University of Chicago, that the activity of one square centimetre of a layer of suitable thickness of uranium oxide, U,O,, would furnish an excellent standard. In the December (1908) numbers of the American Journal of Science and of Le Radium Prof. McCoy gives an account of the work he has done, in conjunction with Mr. G. C. Ashman, to show that such a layer has all the properties required in a standard. The oxide is easily prepared, and samples prepared from three different sources gave identical results. A layer of thickness such that 0-02 gram goes to the square centimetre gives the maximum activity due to the a rays. The radiation due to the B rays is small. Messrs. H. F. Ancus anp Co., 83 Wigmore Street, Cavendish Square, have just issued a summary of cata- logues of apparatus for testing and correcting vision, relative magnification, actual magnification, projection, prismatic work, angular and linear measure, and other scientific observations. Of particular interest is the announcement of a series of demonstrations on the manipu- lation of the microscope and its accessories, free to all who care to avail themselves of them. These demonstra- tions should be of real service in showing what can be accomplished by modern instruments and preparations. Tue ‘‘ Science Year Book and Diary’’ for 1909 is now available. It is edited, as in former years, by Major B. F. S. Baden-Powell, and maintains the distinguishing characteristics to which attention has been directed in these columns on previous occasions. Among other additions in the present issue may be mentioned a table of the vegetable kingdom specially compiled by Dr. Rendle, of the British Museum. The frontispiece consists of an excellent portrait of Sir William Ramsay, K.C.B., F.R.S. The book is published by Messrs. King, Sell and Olding, Ltd., Chancery Lane, London, and its price is 5s. net. Messrs. MAcMILLAN anpD Co., Lrp., have published a new edition of Mr. T. A. O’Donahue’s “‘ Colliery Survey- ing.”” The book was reviewed on its first publication in Nature of March 11, 1897 (vol. lv., p. 438). It is only necessary to add that extensive revisions and additions consists of grossularite and a pyroxene or an amphibole, | have been made in the present issue. NO. 2047, VOL. 79] * ee ee ee ee ey ee eee JANUARY 21, 1909] OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. PeriopicaAL COMETS DUE TO RETURN THIS YEAR.—In a letter to the Observatory (No. 405, January, p. 56) Mr. Lynn directs attention to the periodical comets which may be re-discovered during the current year. Halley’s comet cannot be reckoned among those of 1909, for its perihelion passage does not take place until next year, but it seems likely that it will be re-discovered, at least photographically, before the present year closes. The only short-period comet likely to be re-observed is that generally known as Winnecke’s, because he, after re- detecting it in 1858, proved its identity with the object discovered by Pons in 1819. The period is about 53 years, and it was re-observed in 1869, 1875, 1886, 1892, and 18908 ; on the latter occasion it passed perihelion on March 20, so it should become observable early this year. In 1880 and 1903 it was unfavourably situated, and was not seen. Tut CHANGES IN THE TalL OF MOREHOUSE’s COMET.— In No. 4297 of the Astronomische Nachrichten (p. 1, January 9) Prof. Max Wolf discusses the forms and motions which successively occurred in the tail of comet 1908c, as shown by measurements of photographs taken at the Heidelberg Observatory. Prof. Wolf gives the results of his measures of pairs of photographs taken at definite intervals, and shows that the matter forming the tail appears to have been expelled in waves, these waves being shorter than the similar ones seen in Daniel’s comet. The length of these waves appears to be approximately proportional to their distance from the nucleus, whilst their amplitude is still nearer pro- portional to their distance. Examined in the stereoscope, these wave-forms take a screw-like appearance, the south-eastern edge of each condensation or cloud appearing to be nearer to the observer than the north-western edge. In general, the measures show that recognisable condensations travelled mite a greater velocity as they receded further from the ead. Tue Macnetic Fie-tp 1N Sun-spots.—In No. 4, vol. xxviii., of the Astrophysical Journal Prof. Hale publishes a full discussion of the recent work which led him to recognise the existence of powerful magnetic fields in sun- spots. As previously described in Nature (August 20, 1908, No. 2025, p. 368), these fields were demonstrated by the appearance of the Zeeman effect in connection with certain lines in the sun-spot spectrum. Subsequent work has amply confirmed the conclusions then arrived at, and one or two difficulties have been removed. One of these difficulties was that certain doublets did not appear as triplets even when the spot was as much as 60° from the centre of the sun; another was that the iron line at A 6302-71 appeared as an asymmetrical triplet in the spot spectrum, and was accordingly classed as a doublet with an interfering line of some other element. Work on labora- tory spectra, carried out by Dr. King, has, however, shown that these apparent anomalies occur in the terrestrial spectra, and are therefore real phenomena due to the magnetic field. Tue SpectRuM oF Mars.—The occurrence of the a water-vapour band in the spectrum of Mars, previously reported briefly, is discussed at some length by Mr. Slipher in the December (1908) number of the Astro- physical Journal (vol. xxviii., No. 5, p. 397), and illus- trated by reproductions of the convincing spectra obtained by the author at the Lowell Observatory. Previous investigators of the question of water-vapour bands in the Martian spectra have been at a loss because, whilst visual observations were necessarily unconvincing, photographic observations of the most suitable region of the spectrum, the a band, were very difficult. Mr. Slipher used especially bathed plates, which gave good spectra of this region, and by taking a comparison spectrum of the moon on the same plate, with the altitudes of the planet and the moon approximately the same, he obtained indubitable evidence that water-vapour plays an important part in the planet’s absorption. The photographs reproduced show the reinforcement of the a band in the spectrum of the ‘low sun’ as com- NO. 2047, VOL. 79] NATURE. 351 pared with the ‘“high sun,’’ and then show the strong reinforcement of this band in the spectrum of Mars as compared with that of the moon; whilst, on the photo- graphs compared, the other lines and bands of the Martian spectrum are generally weaker than they are in the moon, the a band is, without any question, appreciably stronger. More observations are necessary before the amount of water-vapour in the planet’s atmosphere can be stated, but the results favour the existence of ‘‘ snow caps ’’ and a moderate temperature rather than ‘“‘ hoar-frost caps ’” and a low temperature for Mars. A Brityiant Mereor.—Mr. P. Evans, of Kettering, reports that he observed a brilliant meteor at that place on January 11. The object appeared at Sh. 10m. p.m., its head being very bright, ‘‘ like burning magnesium,” and followed by a tail 10° or 15° long; Mr. Evans adds that the meteor was seen low down in the west, and travelling in a southerly direction. CAMELOPARDALIS, CAMELOPARDALUS, OR CAMELOPARDUS ? —Prof. E. C. Pickering devotes Circular No. 146 of the Harvard College Observatory to a discussion of the proper spelling of the name of this constellation, named by Hevelius in 1690, in order that a uniform spelling may be rigidly adopted by astronomers when making references to it. After consulting the classical, zoological, and astro- nomical authorities, he concludes that the correct spelling is Camelopardalis. REPORT ON AFFORESTATION IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. THE second report (on afforestation) of the Royal Com- mission appointed to inquire into and to report on certain questions affecting coast erosion, the reclamation of tidal lands, and afforestation in the United Kingdom has just been published as a Blue-book (Cd. 4460, price 6d., Wyman and Sons, Ltd., 109 Fetter Lane, E.C.). It will be remembered that in March, 1908, the terms of reference of the Royal Commission on Coast Erosion were extended so that the commission should inquire and report ‘‘ Whether in connection with reclaimed lands or otherwise, it is desirable to make an experiment in afforestation as a means of increasing employment during periods of depression in the labour market, and if so by what authority and under what conditions such experiment should be conducted.” We propose to discuss the report later, and only give now the summary of the conclusions of the commissioners. SuMMARY OF PRINCIPAL CONCLUSIONS. (1) The natural conditions of soil and climate in the United Kingdom are favourable to the production of high- class commercial timber such as is annually imported into the country in very great quantities. (2) The afforestation of suitable lands in the United Kingdom, if undertaken on an adequate scale and in accordance with well-recognised scientific principles, should prove at present prices a sound and remunerative invest- ment. (3) In estimating the profits of sylviculture account must, moreover, be taken of two facts, the increasing consump- tion of timber per head of population all over the world, in spite of the introduction of alternative materials, and, further, the exploitation, waste, and destruction by fire of the virgin forests, especially those yielding the more important building timbers. Already a noticeable shortage of timber supply has resulted, as is evidenced by steadily rising prices and depreciating qualities in all markets. It seems impossible to escape from the conclusion that this tendency will be continued and accentuated, and that a steady and a very considerable rise in prices may be looked for throughout the present century. The security which afforestation offers for investment is therefore likely to be an improving one, with a corresponding increase in profits, but, to avoid all that is speculative, this prospect has been disregarded in framing our estimates. (4) The amount of land suitable for afforestation, but not now under timber, in the United Kingdom may roughly Jae NAT OF. [JANUARY 21, 1909 be put at a maximum of 9,000,000 acres. In determining this figure two considerations have been taken into account, besides elevation and physical suitability of soil. The first is that the value of the land is not in excess of a sum on which a fair return may be anticipated on the expenditure. This will naturally vary according to the productive capacity of the soil and the crop which it will carry. The second consideration is that the land could not be more profitably utilised in any other way. (5) A forest of 9,000,000 acres, in which are represented the various series of age-classes, may be expected to yield 9,000,000 loads annually in perpetuity. The importation of foreign timber from temperate climates into the United Kingdom in the year 1907 exceeded 8,500,000 loads, or approximately the annual supply which could be expected from the afforestation of the above-mentioned area. (6) The withdrawal of 9,000,000 acres from its present uses would cause some gradual curtailment of food sup- plies and displacement of labour. Land suitable for afforestation is mostly devoted to the production of mutton. Calculations on the basis of the present consumption show that at most 60,000 tons, or 4:8 per cent. of the total home production of meat, or 2-6 per cent. of the present national consumption, would be ultimately displaced. As to labour, the employment furnished by the present uses, mostly sheep farming, to which the land in question is devoted, may be taken to average one man to 1000 acres. ‘This does not represent one-tenth of the permanent employ- ment afforded by the maintenance of a similar area of land under forest. (7) Systematic sylviculture aims at the production of a steady and continuous supply of marketable timber. To ensure the maintenance of these supplies the area should be divided for planting by the average number of years which the crop needs to mature; for example, if the life of the crop be taken as eighty years, the area to be afforested every year would, out of a total area of 9,000,000 acres, be 112,500 acres. But a more rapid system of plant- ing may be adopted without seriously complicating the rotation, and further, some adaptation to the temporary fluctuations of the labour market is feasible. (8) The distribution of this 9,000,000 acres of suitable land is somewhat irregular. By far the largest areas are to be met with in the west and north of England, and throughout similar regions in Scotland. Ireland and Wales also contain a relatively large amount of this type of land. In the south and east of England, on the other hand, the areas in the aggregate are less extensive. Great diversity exists in the size of these areas, some counties offering large contiguous stretches, while in others the areas are characterised by their discontinuous nature. (9) The administration of national forest lands should be entrusted to special commissioners. (10) In dealing with these lands, subdivision into distinct districts, with an executive and administrative subcentre, commends itself from various points of view. Thus local employment would be afforded, local subsidiary industries would be encouraged, public recreation grounds would be provided, and, in connection with the establishment of such forests, small holdings would undoubtedly be multiplied. (11) Sylviculture in the United Kingdom is an enterprise which rarely appeals to the private landow ner or capitalist. The prolonged time for which capital must be locked up before any return can be expected, the loss of rent and burden of rates over the whole period, and the absence of security for continuous care and management, act as deterrents. None of these objections applies to the State, the corporate life and resources of which lend themselves in an especial degree to an undertaking of this character. If the State plants, it will certainly reap, which the individual owner can rarely hope to do. (12) If afforestation be promoted on a large scale the provision of suitable lands is the first step. For this purpose a general survey should be made, and the extent and distribution of such lands ascertained. As a rule, it will be found expedient for the State to purchase from time to time such areas as are destined for planting, but some progress may conceivably be made slong the lines of profit-sharing, in which case the owner NO. 2047, VOL. 79] would forego | the purchase price. Experience proves that, although much of the land required may be expected to be purchase- able by voluntary treaty, yet compulsory powers would be necessary to facilitate transactions where voluntary treaty had broken down. The principle laid down in the Small Holdings Act of 1907 for the acquisition of lands should govern these proceedings as to arbitration, restrictions, and safeguards. Where private owners can satisfy the Forest Commissioners that they are able and willing to afforest under their supervision and to their satisfaction, and give an undertaking to that effect, compulsory powers should not be enforced against such owners so long as that under- taking is fulfilled. (13) The value of land falling within the definition of “suitability > may be taken, except in rare instances, to lie between 21. and tol. freehold value; but the average value of suitable lands, including the necessary buildings -and other preliminary equipment, may be taken as 61. 10s. per acre, and the average cost of afforestation also at 6l. 10s. per acre. If 150,000 acres be annually taken in hand, a sum of about 2,000,0001. would be needed annually to finance the undertaking. (14) Money expended in afforestation differs in kind from other calls on the national purse. It is a productive invest- ment-of capital. To provide this capital sum out of. taxes would be an act of unprecedented generosity on the part of the present generation of taxpayers in favour of their posterity. No stronger justification for proceeding by loan than a reproductive outlay exists. The loan should be based on actuarial calculations showing initial: cost, expenses of upkeep and management calculated at com- pound interest over the whole period, and the value of the property when fully matured. Such actuarial statements we have given, which show, for the full scheme, that, after allowing 3 per cent. compound interest on all the capital invested, at the end of eighty years amount to 17,411,000l. per annum, while the value of the property might be expected to be 562,075,000l., or 106,993,000l. in excess of the sum involved in its creation. A smaller scheme, involving the afforestation of 6,000,000 acres (75,000 acres annually for eighty years), would show a profit of about 10,000,000l. annually, or a capital value of 320,000,0001., being 60,944,0001. in excess of the cost of production. (15) Coming to ways and means by which a loan of this character may best be provided, a point of great importance to be borne in mind is that, although the period of rotation of a timber crop may be taken as eighty years, yet, after forty years, owing to the value of thinnings and the receipts of some short-period crops, the forest becomes practically self-supporting. Between the fortieth and cightieth years, the sales of timber will be sufficient to meet the annual charges, including the upkeep and the extension of the forest. After the eightieth year a large annual revenue will be derived. These considerations point to a free loan from the Treasury to the Forest Com- missioners; the net deficit to be met would in the first year be 90,000l. or 45,000l., according to the extent of the operation, and would reach its maximum in the fortieth year, amounting in that year to 3,131,250l. or 1,565,625]. After this period the deficit would be insignificant, while in the eighty-first year the revenue derived would be 17,411,000!. Or 10,000,0001. respectively, representing about 3% per cent. on the total accumulated costs of the under- taking. (16) On the question of labour and its relations to forestry, the conclusions to which the evidence before them leads your commissioners are that the operations involved in afforestation vary in the degree of requisite skill from little or none in rough road-making and surface draining to a considerable amount in the planting. Your com- missioners wish to make it clear that they have in con- templation a scheme of national afforestation on economic lines. They have no hesitation in asserting that there are in the United Kingdom at any time, and especially in winter, thousands of men out of worl: for longer or shorter periods who are quite ready and able to perform the less skilled work without vrevious training, and with satis- factory results. There is a still larger class of unemployed who are capable of being trained to perform this or the the approximate equalised revenue would» January 21, 19c9] ————— ee higher class of labour, and such men can, if desired, be recruited through labour colonies, distress committees, labour bureaux, or charitable agencies. There is, then, no need to accept inefficient labour with the object of affording occupation to the unemployed. The labour employed in the national forests should not fall below the ordinary standards, and should be remunerated at the ordinary rate of the district for similar labour. Subject to the requisite Standard of efficiency being attained, prefer- ence should be given to those temporarily or permanently unemployed in the district, especially where evidence of such efficiency can be furnished by public or private agencies for the reclamation and training of the unemployed class. (17) To establish afforestation on commercial lines does not, however, preclude its being used as an instrument of social regeneration. A broad view of economics cannot exclude from its cognisance the grave national charge which unemployment with all its concomitant results involves, to say nothing of the personal deterioration by which it is often accompanied. Sylviculture is not un- suitable for building up the moral and physical fibre of even the most depressed of the unemployed classes, and its agency may well be invoked for this purpose, and advantage taken of its healthy and wholesome influences, provided that any additional expense incurred by the employment of less ‘efficient labour be defrayed from a _ separate account. (18) In estimating the amount of employment furnished by afforestation, it is well to distinguish between the temporary labour involved in the creation of the forest and the permanent labour needed for its maintenance. Taking varying circumstances into consideration, it may be said that, on the average, it will take twelve men to afforest 100 acres in the planting season of four to five months, and that every 100 acres afforested will provide permanent employment for at least one man. If 150,000 acres be annually taken in hand, the labour of 18,000 men will be needed, and permanent employment will in due course be afforded to 1500 men, rising by an additional 1500 every year until the end of the rotation. The number permanently employed would then approach 100,000. The labour absorbed by felling and converting timber, to say nothing of subsidiary industries which spring up around a timber supply, has been considered too remote to warrant detailed estimation, but there is undoubtedly a large field of employment in this connection. It is important to remember that, on the basis of 1,000,0001. being annually spent on the operations of afforestation, apart from the cost of the land, employment would be afforded, directly and indirectly, to many more than 18,000 men. Indeed, the number employed may be roughly taken to be repre- sented by about double that figure. For the incidental occupations, such as building, the making of implements, the provision of materials, &c., all involve the employment of additional labour. (19) A special advantage of forestry in relation to labour is that it offers a new source of employment. The labour connected with timber and timber products imported into the country is performed abroad, and thousands of families are maintained on the produce of the labour associated with the timber industry. Another advantage bound up with the extension of sylviculture is that the market for its produce is so great that it is incon- ceivable that it could seriously interfere with the out- put from private woodlands, and no. difficulty of competition between the State and individuals need be apprehended. (20) The acquisition of grazing areas, private or common, for sylviculture might necessitate a modification of the existing agricultural system on certain farms. It is un- reasonable to supnose that the remaining lowland areas on such farms could not, in many cases, either be adapted to other forms of agriculture or be profitably utilised for small holdings. Further, the conversion of comparatively unprofitable lands into forests enhances the productiveness of the adiacent areas, and should materially assist the small holdings movement. It has also the advantage of furnishing winter employment to small holders. NO. 2047, VOL. 79] NATURE ee SCIENCE MASTERS IN CONFERENCE. HE Association of Public School Science Masters held its ninth annual meeting at the Merchant Taylors’ School on January 12, under the presidency of Sir Clifford Allbutt, K.C.B., F.R.S., who delivered an address entitled ‘The Function of Science in Education.”’ ““Tf,”? he said, ‘‘ our fathers looked out from a darker world upon a narrower dawn, it was upon an_intenser light and a nearer vision than ours. We know better where we are, it is true; we can.see more—we certainly run after more; but are we pressing as keenly forward on the line of promise? We are cutting and paving the road better for the throng upon the route; but the engineer who maps and makes the road may be too busy to regard the forerunners who, heedless of moss and rock, are cry- ing to the multitude to cast aside every weight and race forwards to the light. Still, both prophet and engineer are needful to us, and it is a straight and business-like inquiry for men of science to ask themselves how far they are engineers, how far prophets. ‘“The home and the school should develop the service of the child, the imagination of the child, “his intellect, and his ethics. Morals cannot yet be explained to him scien- tifically; the help of science to ethics will be recognised later. If scientific training does not generate the passion for righteousness, by its ordinances these aspirations are directed and fortified. Until the conceptions of modern science had permeated us, we had no full sense of the unity of society nor of our duty to our neighbour. As now the survival of the fittest has become an emulation, not of individuals, but of social groups, it is the most coherent groups which will govern the earth. In_ science may be discovered the sanctions of simplicity, sincerity, and brotherhood to chasten a luxurious age, such as in former times literature alone, even an Augustan literature, failed to regenerate. “What do we mean by science? We do not contemplate experimental science only, we include the pristine idea of all orderly knowledge, of analysis of concepts for the con- struction of systems of affirmative propositions. There is no branch of education, or of the business of life for which it is to fit us, which science is not busily re-handling, re- modelling, and re-interpreting. This is not to say that the methods you and I represent are to become sole masters of mankind. Action may be sicklied o’er by too much thought, by too much analysis, and herein is engendered that distrust—reasonable and unreasonable—which the humanist has always felt of the man of science. The humanist winces to see the flower of literature stiffened into a diagram. My point of view demands the pursuit of what is Called ‘classical’ culture, not as in_ itself education, but as a constituent of education. “The British boy, generically speaking, is a very matter-of-fact little person; very serious, very curious, and very handy. It is from his great example man that he may learn flippancy, satiety, mental inertia. In our educa- tional methods do we foster the precious seriousness of the boy? Do we feed his curiosity, or do we snub and disgust it, so that when he leaves school all or much of his natural ardour for knowledge is blighted? All school- masters must learn, what the science-master can teach them, that, if by his own hands the boy can contrive no great art, yet it is immediately by promoting the activity and precision of his nervomuscular system that nature 1s building up, not his practical brain only, but also much of the hive of his mind—not to mention the congruities of bodily sanity. The boy will tolerate drudgerv if his seriousness is not fatigued, and if his eyes are lifted con- tinually over the dry intermediate task to realise what he is to see at the end of the hard high road. He must be led, not only to do the right things, but also to enjov them. (By the way, is there a public-school plaving-field in England which has been accurately surveyed and mapped by the boys?) The boy’s curiosity might be better cherished by a more comprehensive literary outlook. By the new history, the new archeology, the new geography, the ‘classics’ are indeed becoming more of a living sub- iect: we are bold enough to claim that it is by science that these changes have been wrought, and that, with- 354 out leaving other studies undone, natural scicnce taught by masters who retain the keen curiosity of the boy, who are still as serious as the boy, and who can beat him in handiness and research, is an integral part of educa- tion. It is eminently fitted to cherish his seriousness, to develop his curiosity into research, and to multiply his formative dexterities. “JT admit a little bias against abstract science for boys. Some mathematics must enter into the curriculum; but my impression is that most schoolboys are almost as in- capable of abstraction as terriers. Some older boys can get no inconsiderable grip on universals; but it is a topsy-turvy education which begins with universals and ends with a few particulars. For most boys natural history and mechanics may prove more congenial than chemistry. “Science is not a hobby, nor even a modern system of utilitarian ingenuity; it is a way of observing and inter- preting everything, including religion. In later life, most of us have to concentrate upon specific studies or crafts; but while I plead for even more differentiation for the various boy than at present he has, I protest that to box off ‘ science ” artificially on a ‘ modern’ or any other ‘side’ is to perpetuate an unnatural schism. An educa- tion which is not modern is an anachronism. I do not desire to see headmasters more specifically scientific than linguistic ; but he who is to mould a school should inspire it as a whole, and be in full and understanding sympathy with every part and function of it. If he only knows so much of science as to misunderstand it, or just to tolerate it, the educational mill will continue to throw out, to the right and to the left, batches of half-educated men.’’ Mr. L. Cumming, in moving a vote of thanks, took the opportunity to point out that their boys had to pass examinations, and that examiners set questions on “abstract science.’’ Dr. Garnett, in seconding the vote, directed attention to the fact that some boys can learn from reading, some from tactile perceptions. We should be ready to gain access to the mental citadel by the par- ticular gate which happened to be open. In his reply, the president said that there will be a great saving of time when the scientific spirit gets possession of the school and compels coordination in teaching. The uni- versities were partly to blame for the perpetuation of the segregation of schoolboys into classical, modern, and other sides, as their prizes are on the side of Greek and Latin. Mr. M. D. Hill gave an account of the anthropometric work which has been carried on for fifteen months at Eton. Anthropometry includes psychological and_physio- logical characters as well as morphological, tracing corre- lations between characters while examining the effect of environment. Psychologists, ethnologists, and statesmen require data which must be obtained from anthropometry. Already the examination of 500,000 children in Scotland as to colour of hair and eyes has solved problems of race- migration. Their work at Eton was connected with medical inspection. Instructions for practical work could be found in the report of the committee of Section H of the British Association, 1908. Mr. Gray, as secretary to this committee, expressed the hope that public schools would take up the inquiry so as to make it national in scope. We want an audit of national physique. Mr. Earl (Tonbridge) had found the value of such observations from the schoolmaster’s point of view, as they make possible the detection of defects, and in his experience remedial treatment has resulted in the improvement of the physical tone and alertness of boys. In the afternoon there was a discussion on the British Association report on the sequence of science studies in boys’ schools. Mr. G. F. Daniell introduced the subject. saying that the inquiry had shown the existence of general agreement as to the subiects to be taught and as to their sequence, but that great diversity of opinion and practice exists in regard to methods. This diversity was approved ; the teacher’s liberty should be preserved and the influence of external examinations restricted. Mr. W. D. Eggar (Eton) spoke of the growth of geography as a_ school subject. This quite desirable growth had made the sub- ject too wide for one teacher; he advocated putting physio- graphy into the science course, and leaving commercial NO. 2047, VOL. 79] NATURE [January 21, 19¢9 and historical aspects to be aealt with by other than “science ’’ masters. Mr. R. G. Durrant (Marlborough) read a paper on teaching the nature of solution in schools, and advocated the introduction of the ionic theory as soon as the boys had some idea of atoms and molecules. Mr. G. H. Martin (Bradford) gave an account of his science course for boys on the classical side. He had found most successful results from geology, and he concluded that the only form of science suitable to such boys was one which, besides being of immediate application, furnishes the basis of an after-school hobby and permanently enlarges the mental outlook. A discussion followed, in which Sir Clifford Allbutt, Prof. Armstrong and others took part. A resolution protesting against the refusal of the General Medical Council to ‘‘ recognise ’’ public schools in their regulations for the registration of medical students was passed on the motion of Mr. C. I. Gardiner. As in former years, the exhibition of apparatus formed an important and instructive feature of the meeting. Twenty-four members contributed useful and novel pieces of apparatus, often of much ingenuity, and occasionally of delightful simplicity. Several well-known firms of apparatus dealers and publishers sent displays which filled the great hall, and the whole display could not be exhausted in the four and a half hours allotted to its examination. We note a few of the objects of interest. Dr. T. J. Baker showed a safe method of liberating hydrogen from water by action of potassium. A layer of naphtha is poured on the water, and a fragment of potassium is thrown in. The form of Hore’s apparatus exhibited by Mr. D. J. P. Berridge derived interest from the fact that it was designed by a boy at Malvern. Mr. Berridge’s still and water-bath (made by Fletcher, Russell and Co.) is of a serviceable pattern for school laboratories. Several teachers will thank Mr. Cooke for his method of burning magnesium in steam by plunging an ignited helix into a flask where water boils briskly. Mr. Cross exhibited “components ’’ for building up ‘‘ simple machines ’’ and compounding them; being well made, they should have much educational utility. Electrical instruments such as can be built in school workshops—perhaps the best way of teaching electricity to many boys—were shown by Mr. L. Cumming. Quite a large and varied set of exhibits was contributed by Mr. Garbutt, including a nearly fool- proof apparatus for showing the volume composition of hydrogen chloride, and an ordinary Bunsen burner con- verted into a rose burner by drilling holes near the top of the tube and putting a small flat asbestos circle or dish on the top. Most of us have experienced trouble from burettes with broken taps; Mr. Hedley showed us how to repair them with ebonite taps, shaped by any carpenter. Mr. Martin’s laboratory illustrations of geological pheno- mena helped to enforce the arguments of his paper. Mr. Ryley’s evaporating crucible and Mr. Talbot’s lantern are already well known. We liked Mr. Leyland Wilson’s improved shelf for ovens, and his method of purifying sulphuretted hydrogen deserves trial. He passes the impure gas over calcium hydrate and moist sawdust, which absorb the sulphuretted hydrogen only. The latter can be liberated at any desired rate whenever required by passing a current of carbon dioxide over the calcium sulphydrate. Among the trade exhibits we may mention the galvano- meters and curved mirrors by Messrs. Philip Harris and Co., who have just issued an excellent catalogue. Messrs. Becker have attained the acme of simplicity in their burette stand, made in teak, at half-a-crown. We saw some useful clamps for chemical and optical apparatus at the stand of Messrs. Collins. Messrs. Reynolds and Branson have fitted a thoroughly satisfactory microscope attach- ment to the Stroud-Rendell lantern, and a blow-fly pro- boscis was shown with good definition and illumination. It is a pity that so few science-masters employ the lantern microscope for class purposes. Good design and accurate finish characterised the instruments for teaching mechanics which Mr. G. Cussons had on view. Experienced workers would not like to be without his ‘‘ tripod and capstan ”’ stands and clamps. We were reminded that we live in an age of luxury when we looked at Messrs. Griffin’s electric furnaces; but the same firm caters for those who, from choice or necessity, seek to reduce expenditure on JANUARY 21, 1909 | NATURE 335 apparatus. Their school microscope, with objective eye- piece, rack focussing stand with firm foot, is priced at 35s. We welcomed old and tried friends in the Becker’s Sons’ balances, and a new one in the Dobbs’s dynamometer, which appeared among Messrs. Townson and Mercer’s display. Mr. Thomas Wyatt exhibited the appropriately named Massey series of apparatus for practical mechanics, and some Haldane Gee instruments of better construction than those on the market in former days. The stills and ovens of Messrs. Brown and Son are well known to chemists ; they should be well known to science masters. We have not space to describe the extensive exhibit of books by Messrs. Arnold, G. Bell, Clive, Macmillan, Methuen, and the Cambridge and Oxford University Press. Some of the amateur exhibitors were at too little pains to show their work effectively, and we would remind them of the necessity of making clear at once, by diagram or otherwise, the main point of their exhibits. If a plan of the exhibits could be added to the catalogue it would be helpful. The trade exhibits are of undoubted utility, especially to country workers, but it is to be hoped that the invaluable display of resourcefulness and ingenuity springing from our school laboratories will not be relegated to a subordinate position. The thanks of all who had the good fortune to see this successful exhibition are due to the hon. secretaries, Mr. D. J. P. Berridge and Mr. fe H. Martin, for their skilled cataloguing and organisa- ion. The president of the association next year will be Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S., who has given the society much help since its foundation. G. F. DanieELt. VARIOUS INVERTEBRATES. * HE fourth volume of zoological reports on the Discovery collections is full of interest and fine workmanship. It well deserves its beautiful ‘‘ get-up.’’ Dr. H. F. Nier- strasz describes the single Solenogaster in the collection— naming it rather awkwardly (Proneomenia discoveryi, sp. n., and takes a survey of the family Proneomeniide. Prof. G. H. Carpenter gives an account of a remarkable collembolon—Gomphiocephalus hodgsoni, g. et sp. n.— apparently an ancient connecting link between Poduridze and Entomobryide. In contrast to these two cases of sparse material, we find Mr. W. M. Tattersall reporting on more than ten thousand schizopods, mostly referable, how- ever, to one species. He and Mr. Holt have been able to add ten to the previous list of seven South Polar schizopods, and the present memoir . as some interesting results as regards life-history and dist-ibution. The collec- tion includes no species of ‘schizopod common to both polar regions, but all the genera save one, Antarctomysis, are represented in northern waters. The northern species are quite distinct from their southern allies. Similarly Dr. R. N. Wolfenden notes that the Antarctic copepod fauna is distinct from that of Arctic seas, and that the species which are typical of the Antarctic and most numerous do not extend far into the southern Atlantic at least. The Discovery, like the Gauss, was fortunate in finding the interesting crinoid Promachocrinus, which was one of the prizes of the voyage of the Challenger. Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell deals with this re-discovered treasure, and with a number of interesting new forms; he also directs attention to the ‘‘ bewildering *’ variability of several species, e.g. Cycethra verrucosa, His memoir has numerous illus- trations of a certain dry humour, as when he notes that “even the most recent writers on echinoderms have not yet promulgated the doctrine that difference in size is a specific character, though I am not quite sure that in practice they do not sometimes act as though they had.’? It has been supposed that none of the Antarctic echinoderms has free- swimming larvee, but Prof. E. W. MacBride and Mr. J. C. Simpson describe the plutei of a sea-urchin and an ophiuroid. They also found an unsuspected brood-pouch in Cucumaria crocea, a well-known holothurian. Bell’s Antedon adriani yielded two species of Myzostomum, which Dr. Rudolf Ritter von Stummer-Traunfels deals with. 1 National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-4. Zoology. Pp. 280; 59 plates. British Museum, 1908.) y NO. 2047, VOL. 79] 7 Natural History. Vol. iv., (Printed by OrJer of the Trustees of the One is new, M. avitarcticum, illustrating the common experi- ence that every new species means another new species— of parasite; the cther, M. cysticolum, has been previously recorded from Ross’s Sea in the Antarctic, from off the east coast of Japan, and from the tropical West Atlantic— a remarkable distribution which finds its explanation in the antiquity of the myzostomid group and in the uniformity of deep-water conditions. The sipunculids are represented by some thirty specimens. These Mr. W. F. Lanchester describes under the title Phascolosoma socius, n. Sp., and in so doing makes some interesting critical remarks on the relative value of the systematic specific characters in this group. Two new sea-anemones are described by Mr. J. A. Clubb, but the most interesting part of his report is the description of the sixteen ‘* brood-pouches ” of Cribrina octoradiata (Carlgren) from the Falkland Islands. Each pouch arises as an invagination of the three layers of the body-wall, retains its external pore, and usually contains two embryos. In reporting on the tetractinellid and monaxonellid sponges, Mr. R. Kirkpatrick describes twenty-two new species of the latter, and establishes four genera. Some of the records of Antarctic distribution are striking, e.g. that of Esperiopsts villosa, Carter, a form fre- quently ‘recorded from high northern latitudes, but only from one intermediate station, viz. in deep water off the Azores; or that of Sphaerotylus capttatus (Vosmaer), an Arctic form, not reported from any intermediate locality—as yet. There are no fewer than nineteen plates illustrating this memoir, and there are twelve illustrating Mr. TH: Jenkin’s admirable account of the Calcarea, which teems with novelties, two new families, six new genera, and new species galore. Altogether, it cannot be doubted that the Discovery was true to her name. THE DANISH NORTH-EAST GREENLAND EXPEDITION. HE account of the Danish North-east Greenland Expedi- tion, given by Lieut. A. Trolle before the Royal Geographical Society on December 7, 1908, is printed in the January number of the society’s journal, with several instructive illustrations and a map. During this expedi- tion, which lasted two years, the little-known fjords and coast of north-east Greenland were explored, and much other valuable scientific work was accomplished, though the tragic death of the leader, Mylius Erichsen, and his two companions, Hagen and Brénlund, while on a sledge expedition, gives melancholy interest to it. In his lecture Lieut. Trolle only referred in general terms to the results of the scientific work carried on by the various observers during the expedition, as these will be published later, but the subjoined extracts from the paper, and the two jilustrations here reproduced by permission of the Royal Geographical Society, will show that the expedition was marked by notable achievements. The object of the expedition was to explore the last of the hitherto unexplored parts of Greenland. The whole of the west coast from 78° N. lat. to Cape Farewell is, as is well known, under the administration of Denmark. On the east coast there is a Danish colony at Angmasalik, while great parts of the coast had been mapped by Captains Holm, Garde, Ryder, and Amdrup. The stretch from 72° to 77° N. lat. had been explored, chiefly by Clavering and Sabine, by the Germania Expedition, by the English whaler Scoresby, and the Swedish explorer Nathorst. From 77° N. lat. and farther north the country, how- ever, Was practically unexplored, though the Duke of Orleans, on the Beigica, in 1905, had gone as far as 782° N. lat., and from his ship had seen part of the outer islands. The north-west had chiefly been explored by British and American expeditions, and the chief merit of the Danmark Expedition is that it has now supplemented what was still wanting in a knowledge of the outlines of Greenland by exploring the whole of the north-east coast. The expedition consisted of twenty-eight members, and a characteristic feature of its organisation was the un, usually large scientific staff and proportionately small crew, in the proper sense of the word. Thus there were six 356 NATURE [JANUARY 21, 1909 cartographers (under Captain Koch, R.D.1I.), two meteor- ologists, two zoologists, one botanist, one geologist, one hydrographer, one ethnologist, one physician, and two painters, besides one ice-master, two mates (both of whom belonged to the cartographers’ staff), two engineers, two Fic. 1.—Typical Fjord in the interior of King Frederick VIII. Land, Lat. 77° N. stokers, three Eskimo, and only three sailors. The scien- lific staff, however, had agreed to do the common ship’s | work besides their own special work, and, upon the whole, this arrangement worked rather satisfactorily. The expedition left Copenhagen in June, 1906. On July 31 we saw our first ice, passing along the outer rim of some small hummocks, and on the next day at the border of the heavy pack-ice, as well as at the edge of the continental shelf. We knew this because our sounding-lead, which had just shown a we were depth of 1300 fathoms, now only showed 165. This seems to indicate that the chief branch of the south- going polar current runs across the shoals which are found eve ry where out- side the east Greenland, but gradually lessens its strength over thi deep sea. We fought our wav through the ice, one day, in spite of continuous efforts, only advancing a mile or two, the next coast of day perhaps proceeding ten to fifteen miles. Twice we were surrounded by the ice for a period of thirty-six hours, and in the beginning it looked danger- ous enough, but the conditions soon became better, and we got through. On August 13—we had taken thir- teen days for 140 miles—we reached land. At last we were sailing in the so-called shore-water, where the _ ice was very loose. We had reached as far north as we had ever dared to hope, but we tried to go still further in th« shore-water. At Isle de France (773 N. lat.) we were stopped by impenc- trable pack-ice, and had to go back, after having landed Captain Koch and other cartographers, together with some _ big cac of provisions, at the most northerly point of the cont t [The harbour place which we chose was one we had p ously found inside the outer range of ice, and thus protected against the heavy pressure of the pack. NO. 2047, VOL. 7] | We anchored the Danmark, the bow pointing southward, | and with hawsers from the stem to the shore. After that | we built some houses ashore, in which the various branches of scientific research were to be carried-on, and the latter | commenced. The land of King Frederick VIII. is a beautiful mountainous country, in many places very much like Norway— the same picturesque valleys, the same deep fjords, with steep mountains, as high as 2000 feet on both sides, which have ‘inspired our two painters, Fries and Berthelsen, numerous islets and rocks intersected with sounds. Every- where there were traces of glaciers from the Ice period, but still earlier the country must have had a_ milder climate. The geologist, Jarner, found -mpressions of animals and plants from this period in the sandstone of the Malemuk Mountain, on Koldewey Island, and Hochstetter Foreland, and brought a fine collection home. The country is not very. wide. At 77° lat. the bottom of the interior fjords is reached about forty to sixty miles from the coast, and here generally a glacier is coming down from the in- land ice. Farther north, at Jékel Bay, however, the inland ice goes directly into the sea, and the coast-line here consists of two ranges of islets. — At the Malemuk Mountain there is some more free land, but it is narrower, and becomes lower and lower, until. it finally disappears, and the inland ice again goes straight into the sea. Danmark | Fjord is a big, mountainous fjord, eighty miles deep. Peary Land is not covered with inland ice; its southern coast is very low, and in the interior there are moun- ; tains to a height of 2000 feet. All this coast-line | up to Cape Bridgeman and most of the edge of the inland ice has been mapped by the cartographers’ staff, under Captain Koch, by theodolite measurements in a very Fic. 2 —Edge of the inland ice, Lat. 77° N. exact manner. The country in the neighbourhood of the harbour has been mapped topographically, and _ the triangulation there is brought in connection with the German triangulation in 1870. The most interesting geographical feature is the big JANUARY. 21, 1909 | NATURE 304 peninsula going eastward to 12° W. long., so that the outlet between Greenland and Spitsbergen of the great Polar basin thus becomes rather narrow. In this con- nection I shall just mention that Dr. Nansen, on account of his hydrographical observations in the Polar sea, sup- posed the existence of a suboceanic ridge between Green- land and Spitsbergen, and as the coast of Greenland here is quite flat, the probability is that such a ridge really exists. The frontier of the inland ice is in some places quite steep, in other places you might have mounted the inland .ce without knowing it. The glaciers are few and not very productive; still, the fjords are sometimes quite’ filled up with icebergs stranded on barriers in the mouths of the fjords. In the interior, about forty miles from the edge of the inland ice, we found and mapped out some islands, nuna- lands, quite surrounded by the inland ice. Strange though it may sound, we here saw flowers and tracks of foxes ; also in some places coal. During the winter the land was covered with snow, with only here and there some bare wind-swept spots. In the spring this snow partly evaporated, even with a temperature of 20° F. Then the water began to melt in the ravines, and, running under the glaciers, it formed the most fantastic ice-grottoes, where the light was broken into all colours through the crystal-like icicles. The change into summer was quite sudden. Gradually the temperature of the snow had risen to zero, and then in one day it all melted. The rivers were rushing along, flowers were budding forth, and in the air the butterflies were fluttering. It was a lovely time, bringing hard work for the botanist Lundager and the zoologists Manniche and Johansen. The birds came nearly all on the same day, most of them even at the same hour. One day we had only had the ordinary ptarmigan and the raven; the next we had the sanderling, the ring-plover, the goose, the eider duck, and many others. Young sanderlings, icelandic ring-plovers, and Sabine gulls were found by Mr. Manniche, our indefatigable ornithologist, and fine speci- mens were brought home. Of larger animals we found bears, musk-oxen, and wolves; foxes on land, and walruses and seals at sea. Bears are rather plentiful; we shot ninety in all, but musk- oxen and wolves are scarce. The five wolves we got were, I believe, all that were there. They were very meagre, and looked as if they had had nothing to eat for a long time. The snow-hares, which we found in great numbers, were very tame in April and May, and we could then go quite close to them. In the sea, the lakes, and the rivers animal life was not abundant. Some polar cod and inferior animals were usually the results of our net-fishing. In one of the lakes, however, salmon were plentiful. Especially in the autumn we had the most beautiful Fata Morgana, with castles and ships high up in the clear air, while also the outlines of the coast were quite changed. The explanation of this is the great difference in tempera- ture between the air and that of the new ice, which has still the temperature of the water. Our meteorologist, Mr. Wegener, studied these phenomena with great skill, and, moreover, took magnetic and electrical observations. In the beginning of November the sun left us for good, the red colours of the southern sky grew fainter and fainter, while from the north darkness spread all along the sky. The temperature went down; in February and March it was as low as —s58° F., but at times it would again rise to 32° and even to 34°. Mr. Wegener sent up his kites and balloons throughout the whole winter, and the instruments often registered a much higher tempera- ture in the upper strata of the air. As a rule, the weather was calm and clear, but when the barometer sank the temperature rose, and the sky became overcast ; we all sought shelter, for then we knew that a storm was coming, drifting the snow high above the masthead, and generally lasting for two or three days. We spent two years in Greenland, and in these two years the weather was quite different. (The winter of 1906-7 was cold and calm, that of 1907-8 milder and more windy. The ice in the first winter grew 6 feet thick and broke up very late, in the second it was only 4 feet thick.) In the middle of February the sun came back, and Mav NO. 2047, VOL. 79] and June were a period of fogs and faint sea breezes. Otherwise, the wind was constantly from the north-west, coming from the high pressure of air which is found over the inland ice. We found no living Eskimo, but everywhere along the coast up to the Danmark Fjord we found their tent stones, their meat caches, and in some places even winter dwell- ings. From kayaks and umyaks they have hunted the same animals which we found there, and besides whales and reindeer, which we did not find. Our ethnologist, Thostrup, made a very interesting collection of their various tools, &c. < Outside the coast the pack-ice was moving southward with the polar current, and we have mapped out the border of this pack-ice, which showed that the current is every- where following the line of the outer islands and -rocks; while in the waters inside this line pack-ice is rarely found. It was rather an interesting fact that we found great lanes in the ice from 80° to 82° N. lat. At the Malemuk. moun- tain we found open water every time, in April, June, and November, the cause of which may be the current. The water in’ the fjords was mixed polar and gulf water, the gulf. water probably running in along the supposed Greenland-Spitsbergen ridge and going southward with the polar current. : By making holes in the ice’ investigations were carried on even at a temperature of —2° F. In. a big fresh-water lake salt water was found, giving an odour of sulphide of hydrogen at the bottom. The lake must formerly. haye been a fjord, but the land rose so that the fiord became a lake. The geological conditions, as well as the fact that we found the carcase of a big whale at the’ border of. this lake; seem to strengthen this theory. The tides were not very strong; the ordinary difference between high and low water was 5 feet. ; : UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CamMBRIDGE.—The council of the Senate reports that it has had under consideration the position of the study of astrophysics in the University in connection with the offer of the Royal Society to give to the University the equip- ment of Sir William Huggins’s observatory. It is of opinion that the time is opportune for giving further recog- nition in Cambridge to astrophysics. With the approval of the general board of studies, the council recommends to the Senate the establishment of a professorship of astro- physics, without stipend and limited to the tenure of office of the first professor. Mr. H. O: Jones, of Clare College, has been approved as deputy for Sir James Dewar, the Jacksonian professor of experimental philosophy, during the Lent term of 1909. An examination for minor scholarships in natural science and mathematics will be held in Downing College on Tuesday, March 2, and subsequent days. The examina- tion in natural science will consist of paper work and practical work in (1) chemistry, (2) physics, (3) biology, (4) comparative anatomy, (5) botany. No candidate will be examined in more than three of the above subjects, and great weight will be given to proficiency in some one subject. ’ ; The qualifying examination for the mechanical sciences tripos is now held in June and at the end of November. The majority of the students take the examination in June, and experience has shown that the November examination ‘s not much used. It is proposed to substitute for this latter an examination in November at which the best students—those who desire to take the tripos in two years— may pass the examination immediately on coming into residence. * Mr. W. Morcan has been appointed professor of motor- car engineering at the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol. Ir is announced in Science that Mr. G. M. Laughlin, of Pittsburg, has bequeathed 20,000]. to Washington and Jefferson College. 358 NATURE | JANUARY 21, Lucg Pror. A. L. Lowe t, professor of political science in Harvard University, has been selected to succeed Dr. Eliot as president of the University. Prof. Lowell was born in Boston in 1856, and represents a family which has been prominent in Massachusetts affairs for a century. A RevuTER message from Berlin states that a professor- ship of aéronautics has been instituted at G6ttingen University. The Minister of Education has appointed Prof. Prandtl, professor of applied mechanics at Géttingen, to lecture on the whole field of aéronautics. Captain H. G. Lyons, F;R.S., Director-General of the Survey of Egypt, has been appointed lecturer in geography at the University of Glasgow from the beginning of the next academic year. Captain Lyons, who was vice-presi- dent of the geographical section of the British Association last year, has also been appointed by the West of Scotland Provincial Committee to be lecturer in geography to teachers in training. As an instance of practical science at universities, the New York correspondent of the Times states that the Columbia Wireless Club, composed of students of the scientific department, will soon be prepared to inaugurate inter-collegiate wireless telegraphy with the students of Princeton University, New Jersey, and with the University of Pennsylvania. The novel experiments will be watched with interest as a method of teaching practical develop- ments of science. Tue Board of Education has issued as a Blue-book (Cd. 4440) the reports from those universities and university colleges in Great Britain which participated in the Parlia- mentary grant for university colleges in the year 1906-7. The present volume is the first of a series in which all the reports in any one volume relate to the same academical year. It is much to be regretted that the Board of Educa- tion makes no attempt to collate the particulars provided concerning the seventeen institutions participating in the annual grant, which now amounts to 100,000l. It is at present a long and tedious process to compare, say, the income, the endowments, number of staff, and students of one institution with those of another. The arrange- ment of the volume, in fact, compares very unfavourably with the similar report of the U.S. Commissioner of Education published at Washington. The Board of Educa- tion may earn very easily the gratitude of students of the progress of higher education in this and other countries by including in the report of next year a series of tables summarising and comparing the educational condition of things in the universities and university colleges here con- cerned. It would then prove possible to understand more precisely why certain institutions are selected to receive a Treasury grant while others are precluded. For instance, we have before us the report for the session ending in August last of the East London College, which the Senate of the University of London recognises as a school of the University. The Treasury appears to be the only body which as yet has not accorded full recognition to the East London College of its status as the University College for East London. During the session 1905-6 the governors made a formal application for the college to participate in the Treasury grant. The inspectors appointed by the advisory committee of the Treasury visited the college and a favourable report was published. Yet no grant was awarded. If the tables suggested were available, it might be easier by careful comparison to understand this and other decisions. At present it is possible only to puzzle over the question. The number of students of university standing, the number of university successes, and the out- put of research work at the East London College seem to compare favourably with those of several of the university colleges receiving grants. Tue annual meeting of the Mathematical Association was held at King’s College, London, on January 12. The associ tion now consists. of 496 members, representing an increase of more than 20 per cent. on the preceding year. The year which has just ended has been characterised by unusual activity. The formation of local branches has for many years been considered desirable, and a first move in this direction has been made by the formal recognition of a North Wales branch under the local secretaryship of NO. 2047, VOL. 79] Mr. T. G. Creak, of Llanberis. The association has appointed representatives on a joint committee with the Public Schools Science Masters’ Association to consider the best means of coordinating teaching in mathematics and science. Dr. Bovey, F.R.S., read a paper on the mathe- matical training of technical students, in the course of which the necessity was pointed out of teaching such students to realise the value and utility of the theoretical training which they were receiving. Dr. Bovey considered the influence of the teacher, the text-book, the mental powers of the student, and carefully planned courses. The question further arose as to whether the teaching of technical students should be in the hands of mathematicians or engineers. While favouring the latter choice, Dr. Bovey quoted the opinion expressed by Prof. Slichter, who considered that the most competent teacher should be an engineering graduate, but that it would be necessary for him to have at least three years of post-graduate study in advanced mathematics. It was, however, impossible to induce graduates of technical schools to give this amount of time to preparation for instructional work when other fields of work offered such far better and more immediate prospects. Dr. Bovey thinks that in these circumstances the best plan at present is to secure an excellent mathe- matician, and to induce him to fit himself for the post by making himself in some degree familiar and sympa- thetic with the engineer’s point of view and with the class of problems with which his students will have to deal in after life. Papers were subsequently read by Prof. Alfred Lodge on homography and cross-ratio, and by Prof. Bryan on the need of a new symbol, in approximate calculations, to denote digits the values of which are un- known, and which at present are represented by zeros. In his retiring address the latter directed attention to the serious danger of the extinction of the English mathe- matical specialist, and the necessity of fighting against this tendency. Engineers and others had plenty of problems for which all the resources of the mathematician were needed, but the latter found that this work interfered with his means of earning a livelihood. In defending the specialist against the attacks of the outside public—attacks essentially peculiar to Great Britain—Prof. Bryan pointed out that men who had specialised in part ii. of the mathe- matical tripos were prominently to the front on all com- mittees appointed by the association for reforming mathe- matical teaching on common-sense, practical lines. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, Received August 10, 1908.-~‘‘ Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles. Twelfth Note. Proprioceptive Reflexes.’’ By Prof. C. S. Sherrington, E.R.S. Whereas most reflexes are excited by environmental changes acting directly as agents on the receptive organs, by proprioceptive reflexes are meant reflexes excited habitually by the organism acting as agent upon itself, and thereby applying its own organs or parts as stimuli to its own nerves. In propioceptive reflexes the organism applies itself as a stimulus to itself. By its own act and in its own substance it excites one or more of its own receptor organs. In the bending of the knee, the organism, by executing the movement of a part of itself, supplies by that means an alteration of the condition of that part, and so stimulates certain reflex ares, propio- ceptive arcs, arising in that part. The reaction thus excited is causally less directly related to the environment than are reflexes excited directly by the surrounding world. In other words, an important difference between propio- ceptive and other reflex reactions is that the former stand only in secondary relation to the external world, whereas the latter stand always in primary relation to it. One outcome of this is, as has been previously* pointed out, that the proprioceptive reflexes tend to ally themselves to, fuse with, and habitually reinforce other reflexes of exteroceptive and interoceptive origin. It is shown in the present paper that the bending of (London 1 Sherrington, ‘‘ Integrative Action of the Nervous System.” and New York, 1906.) JANUARY 21, 1909] NATURE SHS) the knee causes, by stretching the extensor muscle of the knee, a reflex inhibition of the contraction of that muscle ; the muscle assumes, in consequence, a greater length. This reaction is termed in the paper ‘‘ the lengthening re- action.”” It is shown that the afferent nerve of the extensor muscle itself is absolutely indispensable for this reaction. Conversely, there is ‘‘a shortening reaction.’’ When the extensor muscle is either passively or by its own active contraction shortened, there occurs a change in the reflex are of the muscle itself which makes its tonic length less. The result is that a transient contraction of the muscle becomes prolonged by a persistence of the tonic contrac- tion, and this latter is the shortening reaction which appends itself to the transient contraction, however in- duced. The shortening reaction is, like the lengthening reaction, brought about by the afferent nerve-fibres of the muscle itself; these in some way regulate and adjust the reflex tonus of the muscle. If the afferent nerve-fibres of the muscle itself are severed, the ‘‘ shortening reaction ” and the long, persistent after-contraction which it effects are entirely wanting in the reactions of the muscle. This is so whether the afferent fibres have been severed only a few days or for three months. : Attention is directed to the similarity between these proprioceptive reflexes of the extensor muscles as studied in cat and dog and the reactions observed by v. Uexkiill and others in tonic preparations of various invertebrate muscle, e.g. the retractor muscle of Sipunculus. The similarity is close enough to leave little doubt that the phenomena achieve the same practical end. Mathematical Society. January 14.—Sir W. D. Niven, president, in the chair.—The canonical form of a linear substitution: H. Hilton.—Researches concerning the solu- tion of the quintic equation: J. Hammond.—Octavic and sexdecimic residuacity: Lieut.-Colonel A. Cunningham. —Change of the variable in a Lebesgue integral: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—Abel’s extension of Taylor’s series: Rev. F. H. Jackson.—Note on the evaluation of a certain integral containing Bessel’s functions: Prof. H. M. Macdonald. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical 5oci-ty, Decemt er 15, 1908. — Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The volatility of radium A and radium C: W. Makower. The experiments described were carried out with a view to deter- mine the volatility of radium A, and also of re-determining that of radium C under different conditions to see whether the volatility of this product was influenced by its environ- ment. The volatilisation point of radium A was found to be goo® C. Radium C was found to begin to volatilise at a temperature between 700° C. and 800° C. When deposited on a platinum or nickel surface the volatilisation was found to be complete at 1200° C., whereas when de- posited on quartz the volatilisation was still incomplete even at 1300° C. The same result was found whether the deposit had been previously dissolved in hydrochloric acid or not. Finally, experiments were made to see whether radium C is charged at the moment of its production from radium B. Experiments in which the emanation exposed to an electric field was contained in a furnace at 950° C. failed to reveal any evidence of a charge carried by radium C.—Note on the production of white ferrous ferro- cyanide: R. L. Taylor. A little solution of either hydro- sulphurous acid or of sodium hydrosulphite, added to a solution of ordinary ferrous sulphate, frees the solution so completely from any trace of a ferric salt that it gives a pure white precipitate with potassium ferrocyanide, instead of the light blue precipitate usually obtained. The white precipitate rapidly turns blue when exposed to the air, and it is also instantly turned blue when ordinary tap-water is added to it, owing to the oxygen which is dissolved in the water. Water which has been previously well boiled to expel dissolved air does not alter the colour of the pre- cipitate. _ Hydrosulphurous acid or sodium hydrosulphite will turn Prussian blue perfectly white. : January 12.—Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., president, in the chair—The influence of light on the coloration of certain marine animals (Hippolyte, Wrasses): Dr. F. W. Gamble. The author gave an account of his work on NO. 2047, VOL. 79] the colour-physiology of Hippolyte (the ASsop-prawn), and of one of the common British wrasses (Crenilabrus melops). Hippolyte is a variably coloured prawn, each colour variety agreeing closely with the tint of the weed on which. it is found, and upon which it feeds. Previous experiments made jointly by the author and Prof. Keeble have shown that this remarkable sympathetic coloration is in all probability not inherited—i.e. the colour varieties do not necessarily breed true, but that the harmonious motley exhibited by this varying species is the outcome of a very special colour adaptation undergone by each individual, and that the coloration is controlled largely by the colour of the weed at the time when the young prawn settles down upon it, after a brief free-living larval existence. The results of more recent researches by the author on this subject have shown that the amount of pigment in the larva varies, in all races but the green one, with that in the parent. The more there is of it in the parent, the more highly coloured is the offspring. Green parents, however, gave rise to three kinds of broods :—(1) highly coloured ones like those of brown parents; (2) pale ones; and (3) a mixed brood, containing coloured to colourless in the proportion of 3:1. Coloured light experiments yielded an unexpected result, namely, a complementary colour to that of the light employed. Thus, under the influence of green light for a month, Hippolyte lost its yellow pig- ment and became brilliantly scarlet, while under red light it became green. In both cases the animal at starting was of a transparent and almost colourless appearance. The value of this complementary colour production (which does not appear to have been recognised in animals pre- viously) upon the problem of the coloration of Hippolyte was briefly discussed. Paris. Academy of Sciences, January t1.—M. Bouchard in the chair._The families of Lamé resulting from the displace- ment of a surface which remains invariable in form: Gaston Darboux.—A general method of preparation of the monoalkyl, dialkyl, and trialkyl-acetophenones : A. Haller and Ed. Bauer. The ketone (methyl, ethyl, or propylphenylketone) is dissolved in pure dry benzene, an equimolecular proportion of finely divided sodium amide added, and heated on the water bath until a clear solution is obtained. The alkyl bromide or iodide is added drop by drop to this solution. By this method the following ketones have been prepared and their properties given in detail :—trimethylacetophenone, ethyldimethylacetophenone, methyldiethylacetophenone, triethylacetophenone, methyl- ethylpropylacetophenone, and allyldimethylacetophenone.— Dirichlet’s series: Harald Bohr.—The double integrals of the first species attached to an algebraic variety : Francesco Severi.—A theorem on differentials : WwW. H. Young.—A particular critical point of the solution of the equations of elasticity in the case where the forces on the border are given: A. Korn.—The theory of the moon: H. Andoyer.—A dynamometer for testing motors with large angular velocity: M. Ringelmann. The defects of the Prony brake for testing high-speed motors are reviewed, and a new form of dynamometer described, by means of which the total energy furnished at each instant by the motor can be read off, and is at the same time recorded. —A formula for velocity applicable to propulsion in air: Alphonse Berget. A modification of a formula devised = 375 =p for the velocity of steam vessels. V=C a/ Ey where \ is Q S the velocity in myriametres per hour, F the horse-power, S the surface of maximum section of the balloon in square metres, and C the coefficient of utilisation. The latter is shown to vary between 3-0 and 5-0 for various types of steerable balloon.—The radiation of cerium oxide: M. Foix. Some experiments are cited in support of the theoretical relation given in an earlier paper.—A modification of the phonograph: M. de Pezzer.—Aqueous solutions of pyridine: E. Baud. The freezing points of aqueous solutions of pyridine varying in concentration from 5 per cent. to 100 per cent. are given. The densities and refractive indices of these solutions were also measured, and also the heat of solution of pyridine in a large excess of water. Only two hydrates of pyridine, with two and six molecules of water, are indicated by these 360 NATO LEE [ JANUARY 21, 1909 experiments.—Lzvo-cz good yield of this umpholic acid: Marcel Guerbet. A id is obtained by heating. I-borneol with dehydrated caustic potash in sealed tubes. The acid has. a rotation a,=-—49-1.—The alkaline reduction of o-nitrodiphenylmethane: P. Carré. Reduction with zinc dust and caustic soda gives o-hydrazodiphenylmethane and o-aminodiphenylmethane.—The influence of aération on the formation of volatile products in alcoholic fermentation : - E. Kayser and A. Demolon. The amounts of aldehyde, acids, and esters are all modified by access of air to fermenting liquids. The presence of air, therefore, is an essential condition for the production of bouquet in wine.—The anatomy of the human thymus: Henri Rieffel and Jacques Le Mée. The two lobes of this gland are not united, but are easily separable, at least in the case of newly born infants. The contact of the thymus with the thyroid gland is not exceptional; this contact has been observed in 20 per cent. of the glands examined.—The rudimentary organs of the larve of the Muscidaz: J. Pantel.—Contribytion to the study of the singing voice: M. Marage. Curve tracings are given showing the changes taking place in the transition stage between chest and head notes.—The action of ink on the photographic plate: Guillaume de Fontenay. A criticism of some experiments by M. Darget.—The treatment of Baleri in the horse by orpiment: A. Thiroux and L. Teppaz. It is now shown that there are three forms of trypanosomiasis, curable by treatment with orpiment, in- festing horses in Gambia, Souma, and Baleri. The diseases caused by T. congolense and T. brucei still have to be studied from this point of view.—Studies of cancer in mice. The different types of tumours appearing in the same growth: L. Cuénot and L. Mercier.—An enormous urinary calculus in man: A. Guépin. This calculus was removed from a man sixty-eight years of age, measured 8-5 cm. by 6:8 cm. by 4-5 cm., and weighed 220 grams.— The source of the Bise at Thau: MM. Chevallier and Sudry. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, JANUARY 21. Royvat Society, at 4.30.—Syntonic Wireless Telegraphy ; with Specimens of Large Scale. Measurements: Sir 0. Lodge, F.R.S., and Dr. A. Muirhead, F.R.S.—The Leakage of Helium from Radio-active Minerals : Hon. R. J. Strutt, F.R. S.—The Mobilities of the Tons produced by Réntgen Rays in Gases and Vapours : E. .M. Wellisch.—Determination of the Surface Tension of Water by the Method of Jet Vibration : Prof. N. Bohr.—The Photo-electric Fatigue of Zinc, II.: H. Stanley Allen. Linnean Society, at 8.—The Genus Nototriche, Turcz: Arthur W. Hill.— The L ngitudinal Symmetry of Centrospermez : Dr. Percy Groom. Royat INnstTiTuTION, at 3.— Mysteries of Metals: Prof. J. O. Arnold. INsTITUTION OF MininG AND METALLURGY, at 8.--A Theory of Volcanic Action and Ore Deposits, their Nature and Cause: Hiram W. Hixon.— An Instance of Secondary Impoverishment : H. H. Knox.—The Silver Islet Vein: Walter McDermott. FRIDAY, JANvARY 22. Royat InstTiTuTION, at 9.—The World of Life: as Visualised and Inter- preted by Darwinism : Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S. Puysicat Society, at 5.—The Effective Resistance and Inductance of a Concentric Main, and Methods of Computing the Ber and Bei and Allied Functions: Dr. A. Russell.—_(1) The Luminous Efficiency of a Black Body ; (2) The Use of the Potentiometer on Alternate Current Circuits: Dr. C. V. Drysdale. INSTITUTION OF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Experiments on a Diesel Engine: W. E. Fisher and E. B. Wood. MONDAY, January 25. Royat Society oF Arts, at 8. —Electric Power Supply: G. L. Addenbrooke. RoyaL GEOGRAPHICAL SocieTy, at 8.30.—A Proposed North Polar Expedition : Captain Roald Amundsen. InsTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 5,—On an Approximate Method of Valua- tion of Whole-life Assurances, grouped according to Attained Ages. with Allowance for Selection, on the Basis of Ol) Mortality: E. H. Brown. TUESDAY, January 26. Roya INSTITUTION, at 3. —=Albinism’s in Man: Prof. Karl Pearson, F.R.S. Roya ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.30.—Annual General Meeting. President's Address: The Relation of Anthropology to Classical Studies : Prof. W. Ridgeway. MINERALOGICAL Society, at 8.—On the Identity of Poonahlire with Mesolite: Dr. H. L. Bowman.—Contributions to the Study of Parallel Growths: Dr. S. Kreutz.—Note on the Spontaneous Crystallisation of Solutions in Spherulites: J. Chevalier —On a Method for Studying the Optical Properties of Crystals: the late Dr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.—Some Additional Localities for Idocrase in Cornwall: G. Barrow and H. H. Re: as.—Detrital Andalusite in Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Sand : H. H. mas. NSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further Discussion: Speed on Railway-curves: J. W-. Spiller.—A Practical Method for the Improvement of Existing Railway-curves : W. H. Shortt. WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 27. GeEoLocicaL Society, at 8.—The Conway Succession: Dr. ae The Depth and Succession of the Bovey Deposits : srowne. NO. 2047, VOL. 79] High Gertrude L. A. J. Jukes- Royat Society of Arts, at 8.—The Part played by Vermin in the Spread of Disease: J. Cantlie. BriTISH ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION, at 5- b Society or Dyers anp Corourists, at 8.-~The Locust Bean, and its Practical Application: M. C. Lamb and F, J. Farrell.—Chlorinated Wool: H. P. Pearson. THURSDAY, JANuARY 28. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: The Action of the Venom of Sepedon haemachates of South Africa: Sir Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S., and Dr. J. A. Gunn.—The Colours and Pigments of Flowers with Special Reference to Genetics: Miss M. Wheldale.—The Variations in the Pressure and Composition of the Blood in Cholera ; and their Bearing on the Success of Hypertonic Saline Transfusion in its Treatment: Prof. Leonard Rogers, I.M.S.—The British Freshwater Phytoplankton, with Special Reference to the Desmid-plankton and the Distribution of British Desmids : W. West and G. S, West. Roya InstituTion, at 3.—Mysteries of Metals: Prof. J. O. Arnold. INsTITUTION OF ELECIRICAI. ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Parallel Operation of Alternators: Dr. E. Rosenberg. Royat Society oF ARTS, at 4.30.—Some Phases of Hinduism: Krishna Gobinda Gupta. FRIDAY, JaNvary 29. Roya INSTITUTION, at 9. —Improvements i in Production and Application of Gun.cotton and Nitro- glycerine: Sir Frederick L. Nathan. SATURDAY, January 30. Roya InstiTuTI0n, at 3 —Sight and Seeing: Sir Hubert von Herkomer. Essex Fiecp Cus, at 6 (at Essex Museum of Natural History, Romford Road, Stratford).—Subsidence of Eastern England and Adjacent Areas : W. H. Dalton.—Some Notes on ‘‘ Moorlog,” a Peaty Deposit dredged up in the North Sea: H. Whitehead and H. H. Goodchild. CONTENTS. PAGE Plant Physiology and Ecology. By W.G.S... . $31 Marine Metabolism. By E. W. Nelson. .... . 332 Anatomy of the Horse . Set aie eke how feline MSOC Glass Decoration. By W. R. ass a eesoe Astronomy, Myth, and Legend. By H, R. Hall. 335 Heat for Engineers. By Prof.C. A. Smith . . . « 335 Highway Engineering . . Feo isibs! cs it wi ABO Pure and Analytical Geometry SM peseRt eats, Sete yechce 337 Our Book Shelf :— Albrecht : ‘‘ Formeln und Hilfstafeln fiir geographische Ortsbestimmungen” . Bos has. Co REO Macnamara: ‘‘ Human Speech, _ a Study in the Purposive Action of Living Matter.”—J.G.M. . 338 Bennett: ‘t Exercising in Bed..—R. T. H. . . - 339 Waterbury : ‘* Cement Laboratory Manual.”—C. Se 339 Wright: ‘**Saint’ Gilbert: the Story of Gilbert White and Selborne ” 339 Houard : “Les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’ Europe et du Bassin de la Mediterranée ” . 339 de Miremont: ‘‘ Practical Coastal Navigation, facltdiee Simple Methods of finding Latitude, Longitude, and Deviation of Compass.” Commander H. C. IGOCKYEr ... 5. oy Rae mene 340 Letters to the Editor :— ’ The Radiation of the Active Deposit from Radium through a Vacuum.—S. Russ and W. Makower 340 The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere.—R. F. Hughes; W. H. Dines, F.R.S. : - 340 An Electromagnetic Problem. — Norman R. Campbell . lake es iis 341 Radium in the Earth. — Percy Edgerton sor 341 Primitive Man in the Kesslerloch. EA ae By (Cis NG fas ees R 342 The New Imperial Institute . : 343 Baltimore Meeting of the American ‘Association. 344 The Promotion of Research 4 345 An Investigation of the Sociology and Religion of the Andamanese, by Dr. A. C. Haddon, F.R.S. 345 Noteahe.:. iy, Nie tS aKa Our Astronomical Column :— Periodical Comets due to Return this Year. . . . . 351 The Changes in the Tail of Morehouse’s Comet. . . 351 The Magnetic Field in Sun-spots . .. . .. ++ + 351 pbhepspectrum,afe Mars. js uaamen me ich January 28, 19c¢9] members of the Anthropological and Geographical Socicties. The Wahlburg medal of the latter society has been con- ferred on Dr. Sven Hedin, and the society has raised a fund of 10,000 kroner (about 555/.), to be known by the which will be devoted to purposes of geographical research. explorer’s name, Tue following are the names of officers and council elected at the annual meeting of the Royal Meteorological Society on January 20:—President, Dr. H. Mellish; Vice- Presidents, Mr. W. W. Bryant, Mr. W. H. Dines, F.R.S., Commander M. W. C. Hepworth, C.B., Dr. H. R. Mill; Treasurer, Dr. C. T. Williams; Secretaries, Mr. F. C. Bayard, Commander W. F. Caborne, C.B.; Foreign Secre- tary, Dr. R. H. Scott, F.R.S.; Council, Messrs. R. Bentley, F. J. Brodie, C. J. P. Cave, Dr. H. N. Dickson, F. Druce, E. Gold, R. Inwards, B. Latham, R. G. K. Lempfert, Colonel H. E. Rawson, C.B., Captain R. C. Warden, Captain D. Wilson-Barker. An Imperial International Exhibition is to be held this year on the site occupied by the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908. The exhibition will be opened early in May, and close in October. We notice that the general committce includes a generous proportion of well-known men of science, and that prominence is to be given in the exhibi- tion to science and technology. Among the groups of exhibits to be arranged will be collections representing education, mechanical and civil engineering, agriculture, mines and metallurgy, and chemical and electrical indus- tries. Judging from the detailed subheadings under which the exhibits are to be arranged, the exhibition, as a whole, will serve to illustrate recent progress of applied science in various countries. Tue International Waterways Treaty, which was under discussion in the United States Senate last week, is the outcome of the International Waterways Commission, con- sisting of three representatives from the United States and three from Canada, which was appointed four years ago. Among the objects which the treaty has in view is the preservation of the levels of all the international waters in the North American continent—a matter of vast import- ance to the peoples of both countries, and, in the case of the river Niagara, to the whole world. According to the Ottawa correspondent of the Times, the two countries are entitled to the water in equal proportion, but if the United States were to take a quantity similar to that taken by Canada, unquestionably the beauty of the American falis would be spoiled and, perhaps, entirely destroyed. One mile above the Niagara Falls the water flows evenly between the two countries, but as it approaches the crest of the falls the current swings over towards the Canadian side. The Waterways Commission recommended that the limit of Canada’s rights should not exceed 36,000 feet per second, and, in order to preserve the American falls, a limit was suggested of 18,500 cubic feet per second for the United States. The latter provision has been increased by the new treaty to 20,000 feet, as experiments made last summer demonstrated that the effect of the diversion of water on the American falls was less than had been antici- pated. Canada receives 16,000 feet more than her neigh- bour, and this will enable the three companies on tie Ontario side to develop 425,000 horse-power, as against 236,000 on the New York side. By the new treaty neither country can take any action which will lower the levels of the waters of the Great Lakes without the consent of the commission. In the opinion of competent authorities, the diversion of 20,000 feet per second for the Chicago Drainage Canal, which has been proposed, will affect the NO. 2048, VOL. 79] NATURE levels of Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Eric, lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence River seriously. It is not likely that the commission will authorise the diversion of so large a quantity of water. A MOVEMENT has been set on foot by the English Ceramic Society for a conference of representatives of the various technical institutes and to consider ways and means of arranging for the ‘‘ grading”? and standardising, so far as possible, of the refractory materials, such as fire- clay, magnesite, &c., used in the construction of furnaces, kilns, ovens, &c. Representatives of various institutes of societies met at Stoke-on-Trent on January 4 and formed themselves into a committee for the standardisation of refractory materials. The general opinion of the repre- sentatives present was that there is need for such a com- mittee, and that the following preliminary scheme. should be adopted :—(a) to arrange and classify the various re- fractory materials—clay; siliceous, as silica and gan- nister ; special, as magnesite, chromite, &c. ; (b) to arrange standard specifications for the raw materials and for the manufactured products; (c) to consider the possibility of arranging for uniformity in certain ‘stock’ or “standard ’’ sizes; (d) standard methods of testing, analysis, &c. To carry out this scheme, it was agreed that the representatives of the institutes should consult with their respective fellow members, and wherever possible pro- cure information bearing on their specific requirements, together with data as to furnace temperatures and con- ditions of operation. There is no doubt that the work undertaken by the committee is important. The methods in vogue for the investigation of clays have so advanced in recent years that this subject can now be treated in a manner which would have been impossible five or six years ago. It is to be hoped that all consumers of refrac- tory materials will communicate their views on the matter either to the secretaries of the different institutes and societies or direct to the general secretary, Dr. J. W.: Mellor, English Ceramic Society, Stoke-on-Trent. societies Tue life and works of Thomas Pennant (1726-98) form the subject of this month’s contribution to the biographies of early British ornithologists in Witherby’s British Birds. Few persons other than professed naturalists are probably aware of the number of works which flowed from the pen of this voluminous writer, not many of which are, how- ever, now consulted. The memoir is illustrated by a re- production of the portrait by Gainsborough. Tue retirement of Mr. Montagu Browne from the pest of curator has furnished the authorities of the Leicester Museum and Art Gallery with a favourable opportunity of reviewing, and when necessary modifying, the arrange- ment and scope of the natural history exhibits. Accord- ing to the sixteenth report, dealing with the period from April 1, 1905, to March 31, 1908, it has been decided to display collections forming a complete record of the natural history, geology, and antiquarian ethnography of the district. In addition to this, as may be justifiable in a city so large as and so distant from the metropolis as Leicester, general collections in certain groups are to be exhibited. In future the reports will be issued and pub- lished annually. Two papers on the mammalian brain appear in the January number of the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. In the first of these Prof. Peter Thompson gives a description of a model of the brain of a feetal cat 20 millimetres in length, while in the second Dr: E. H. J. Schuster continues his elaborate and richly illustrated 376 NATURE [January 28, 1909 account of three Chinese brains in the museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Special interest attaches to the model of the kitten’s brain on account of the fact that very few such models illustrating the early stages of mammalian cerebral development have hitherto been pre- pared. It is noteworthy that this brain presents a striking resemblance to that of the human fcetus at the third month. WE are indebted to Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell for certain desirable corrections in a note published in Nature for November 12, 1908, on this article in the American Naturalist for September of the same vear on the Miocene fresh-water beds of Florissant, Colorado. He points out that it is the genus Trichophanes, and not the Florissant representative thereof, that was first described from Nevada. Also, it is the existing genus Percopsis, and not Trichophanes (which is solely Miocene), that lived in open glacial water during the Florissant period. In place of expressing a definite opinion on the bearing of the Florissant fauna and flora on the problem of a former connection between the southern continents, the author leaves the question open. We may take this opportunity of mentioning that a case containing a_ representative series of the Florissant fossils was recently placed on exhibition in the reptile gallery of the geological depart- ment of the Natural History Museum. An illustrated paper, read at the Ipswich Conference of 1908, on the history of the museum at Ipswich, by the curator of that institution, forms the opening article of the Museums Journal for December last. This is one of the few local museums established in the eighteenth century, dating from 1791, when the Rey. William Kirby, the well-known entomologist, was granted the use of a room in the Town Hall as a museum. From this humble beginning the present institution, with its invaluable collec- tion of Crag vertebrates, has been gradually evolved. A great impetus was given in 1846 by a member of the local firm of Ransomes and Sims, when a special build- ing was erected; another advance was made in 1868, when the erection was enlarged, while in 1881 the present hand- some building was opened to the public. It is mainly to the energy of the late Prof. Henslow that Ipswich owes its collection of phosphatic nodules containing vertebrate remains from the Crag. At the Physiological Laboratory, London University, South Kensington, the opening lecture of the year was delivered by the director, Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S., on January 10, the Vice-Chancellor, Sir William J. Collins presiding. Dr. Waller took as his subject the positive and negative phenomena attendant upon the activity of living matter, as illustrated by the electrical phenomena aroused in the retina by light. He showed experiments demonstrating the double effect of light upon the retina, and demonstrated similar currents in response to electrical stimuli. Experiments on nervé were shown in illustration of the same principle, and the effect of anesthetics at definite percentage was demonstrated with the aid of Dr. Waller’s chloroform balance. The effect upon muscle of anesthetics in solution was demonstrated as a lantern experiment, the ‘physiological equivalence brought out by this method being that one molecule of chloroform is physiologically equivalent to ten molecules of ether and to 100 molecules of alcohol. This method is also convenient for the physiological standardisation of drugs. The Vice- Chancellor, Sir William J. Collins, spoke of the laboratory as fulfilling in one subject, physiology, the general aim of NO. 2048, VOL. 79] the University, since its re-constitution, to become a seat of learning, to bring to a focus at the headquarters of the University the knowledge and talents of the distinguished men in the many colleges of the metropolis, and con- gratulated Dr. Waller on the success that had attended his efforts during the last seven years, The Vice- Chancellor referred to the liberal donors who had supported the work financially, Sir Walter Palmer and Mr. George and Mr. Alfred Palmer at the University, South Kensing- ton, and Dr. Ludwig Mond and Dr. Plimmer at the University, University College. In connection with the proposed utilisation of the river Tuolumne, flowing through part of the famous Yosemite National Park, California, as the source of a water-supply for San Francisco, Mr. J. Muir contributes a short article to the Century Magazine (January) on this valley, the Hetchy-Hetchy. It is not difficult to understand that this is the home of magnificent specimens of California live- oak and white pine, below which the ground is tufted “* with ceanothus and manzanita bushes, azalea and brier- rose.’’ Fortunately, the conversion of a valley into a water-reservoir does not necessitate the annihilation of natural scenery, and this article will serve its purpose if such a disaster is averted. AN investigation of the nuclear changes during the first division in the pollen mother-cell of species of C£nothera, undertaken by Mr. R. R. Gates to look for an explana- tion of the hybrid and mutant formation in the genus, is described in the Botanical Gazette (July, 1908). The early stages of the first heterotypic division appear to favour the end-to-end rather than the lateral union of homologous chromosomes. It was observed that frequently pairing of the chromosomes on the nuclear spindle fails to tale place, with the result that two chromosomes of a pair proceed to the same instead of to opposite poles, and so enter the same daughter nucleus. If the chromosomes are trans- mitters of definite characters, one nucleus would then be lacking in a certain character, and thus a hypothesis may be deduced for explaining the peculiarities noted. Tue recently published number of the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society (vol. xxii., part i.) contains the report of a lecture by Sir Herbert Maxwell on the need for scientific management and extension of the forests in the United Kingdom. He points out that the proportion of woodland to the total area is about 4 per cent., less than in any other European country, and that the existing woods are a source of great expense instead of producing revenue. It is instructive to contrast with this an article on the Ziirich woods by Mr. F. Story. These date back to the fourteenth century, and yield a good annual profit. Beech forms the bulk of the hard- wood forest; sycamore and ash come next in importance, while oak is practically disregarded; spruce is the most valued conifer. Within modern times a saw-mill and turnery, also apparatus for drying and impregnating timber, have been introduced. In a memorandum on the meteorology of India during October and November, 1908, Dr. G. T. Walker, director- general of observatories, discusses in detail the conditions likely to affect the precipitation of January and February. From present data and from experience gained from the indications of previous years, the inference drawn is that it is ‘‘ probable that the amount of rainfall in northern India and of snowfall on the neighbouring mountain areas will, at any rate during the earlier part of the season, approximate closely to the average.”’ January 28, 1909} NATURE 377 o Ix the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for September last Prof. C. F. Marvin describes a new form of com- pensated siphon barograph, consisting of three separate parts, which he has invented and has found to give very satisfactory results. The long and short branches of the siphon are simple, straight tubes fitted into the upturned branches of the bend, or U. This three-piece construction enables the barometer to be filled very easily, and, when once filled, it can be dismantled and transported without loss of the vacuum. In the barograph illustrated in the paper the changes are magnified five times by means of a large and small wheel operating on the principle of the wheel and axle, with a pen marking upon a drum driven by clockwork in the usual way. The drum revolves once in three days and two hours, moving at the rate of about a quarter of an inch per hour. The instrument is provided with a time-marking device consisting of an electromagnet, which operates once each hour. A small section of an actual record is reproduced in the paper, and shows that the pen responds to minute changes of level of the mercury. Prof. Marvin concludes by giving useful illustrations of the various methods adopted in filling barometer tubes. Tue British Fire Prevention Committee has just pub- lished two pamphlets giving particulars of experimental tests which have been carried out by it of the merits of asbestos cloths, sand, steam, hand-pumps, buckets of water, and other appliances in common use for extinguish- ing fires when they originate. The tests appear to have been thorough, and they were also carried out with impartiality, so that the records furnish valuable data for determining which is the most suitable equipment to adopt in given circumstances. Tue current number of the Zeitschrift fiir physitkalische Chemie (January 5) contains a contribution by E. Cohen and H. R. Kruyt on the E.M.F. of the Weston cell. They are unable to confirm the abnormal results for 10 per cent. and 12-5 per cent. cadmium amalgams described by Janet and Jouaust, but are in agreement with Bijl’s views. At 0°, cells made up similarly show variations amounting to o-2 millivolt, and if an accuracy of this order is re- quired in comparisons at low temperatures the cells must be immersed in a bath. Full details are given of the precautions taken to secure the purity of the materials used, and a diagram is given of a convenient form of cell. THe notification of the Metropolitan Gas Referees for the year 1909 is practically identical with that for 1908. In addition to a detailed account of the construction of the apparatus used, methods of testing are laid down for the detection of sulphuretted hydrogen, the determination of the amount of sulphur compounds (other than sulphuretted hydrogen), of the illuminating power with the London Argand, No. 2, and with the flat flame, of the gross and net calorific values, and of the pressure. Of 2, the only figures now subject to statutory require- ments are the sulphuretted hydrogen, pressure, and illuminating power as measured by the No. 2 London Argand. IN a paper published in No. 4, vol. xxviii., of the Astro- physical Journal, Prof. Fowler and Mr. A. Eagle describe a method whereby from any prismatic spectrum a rectified copy, for comparison with a grating spectrum, may be obtained; the importance of such a method will readily appeal to all spectroscopists. Dr. E. S. King has previously obtained such corrected copies, but, apparently, he secured the necessary adjustments of his copying apparatus .by trial. In the method now published these NO. 2048, VOL. 79] adjustments may be calculated so that the apparatus may be set up straightway, and very accurately rectified spectra obtained. The writers state the formule they have developed for this purpose, and also give an example to illustrate the accuracy of the results obtained. In a section of the spectrum of the iron arc, extending from A 4823 to A 5127, the greatest error in the result amounted to only o-1 of a tenth-metre; this corresponds to a displacement of about 1/300 of an inch, the range of the whole spectrum being more than ro inches. Messrs. ISENTHAL AND Co.’s new list of rheostats con- tains illustrations and particulars of many forms and types of resistances for switchboards, bridges, and experimental work. A neat form of potentiometer rheostat is shown, which consists of a cylindrical block of serpentine having a helical groove cut on its outer surface, into which the wire is placed. A central spindle is firmly fixed to the block, and a screw-thread is cut on this spindle having the same pitch as the helical groove on the block. Recent Brivurant Firesarts.—Mr. W. F. Denning writes :—A brilliant Quadrantid passed horizontally, with a slow motion and long course, along the W. heavens on January 6, 8h. 4om. Other fine meteors were noticed on January 7, 9h. 27m.; on January 11, 5h. 30m., 7h. 4om., 8h. 11m.; January 13, gh. 48m.; January 17, 8h. 20m. ; January 19, 5h. 50m., 7h. 5om., &c. But the most striking object of all was that of January 11, 8h. 11m., and a large number of descriptions of the appearance and position of this brilliant visitor have come to hand. From these I have worked out the real path as follows :—Height, 58 to 29 miles over Llandovery to Usk, South Wales; length of path, 52 miles; velocity per second, 13 miles; radiant point, 332°+36°; earth point, Chippenham, Wilts. The meteor was estimated by Mr. H. Chapman, of Newtown, N. Wales, as brighter than the full moon, and it gave two flashes of sufficient intensity to light up the firmament and terrestrial objects for several seconds. The meteor moved slowly from a radiant in the western sky. Several of the observers describe the motion as undulatory, as though the object experienced some difficulty in penetrating our dense atmosphere. The radiant point is not conformable with that of any known meteoric shower, but it falls in the same place as that of an active stream or streams visible in the months of July, August, and September. Martian Features.—In No. 34 of the Lowell Observa- tory Bulletins Prof. Lowell describes, and gives the posi- tions of, certain white spots which have been observed in the arctic and subarctic zones of Mars, time after time, by the Flagstaff observers... Eight of these spots have been recorded, and they do not appear to be restricted to any NO. 2048, VOL. 70| NATURE [JANUARY 28, 1909 zone, although, individually, they always appear .year after year in the same place. The chief of them appears in long. 206°, lat. 83° N., and was first observed by Schiaparelli in 1884; in 1903, at Flagstaff, this spot was kept under observation from June 21 to August 10 (Martian dates), being seen at every one of the six presentations. To account for the appearance of these white spots a natural supposition would be that they are snow-fields or glaciers on high mountain tops; but observations show that there are no considerable mountains on Mars, there- fore the question as to the nature of these phenomena remains to be solved by future discussion. In a paper communicated to the Royal Astronomical Society (Monthly Notices, vol. Ixix., No. 2, December, 1908) M. Antoniadi discusses a composite drawing which he made from a print showing forty images of Mars, taken at the Lowell Observatory. The analysis of the photo- graphs and the comparison of the results with those previously obtained from visual observations lead to some important conclusions respecting the objective existence of certain features about which various visual observers have hitherto disagreed. In general, the photographs confirm the existence of many features reported by Schiaparelli, Lowell, and others, and, what is perhaps more important in the discussion of the results obtained by different observers at different epochs, they afford strong evidence of change in several important features of the planet’s disc, e.g. the Syrtis Major is shown to be of a slightly different shape on these photographs, taken 1907, July 11, from that observed visually by Schiaparelli between 1877 and 1888. : Atmospueric PoLarisaTIoN.—In an extract from Astronomische Nachrichten (No. 4283) Herr Chr. Jensen discusses the question of atmospheric polarisation, and shows that there are two neutral points where there is no polarisation. These two points are shown to vary with the solar activity and the amount of volcanic dust and other impurities in the atmosphere, and the author suggests that more observations should be made by meteorologists and astronomers in order to elucidate the question of relation- ships suggested by the results of his discussion. MakING A FoRTY-CENTIMETRE (15-7 INCHES) CASSEGRAIN RerLecTtor.—In a brief note which appears in No. 4295 of the Astronomische Nachrichten M. Schaer describes the method of making a 4o-cm. Cassegrain reflector, which he has made and has found very efficient at the Geneva Observatory. The large disc is 7 cm. in thickness, and is pierced by a central hole 8 cm. in diameter; the method of mounting is the older one employed by Herschel, and is found to give sufficient resistance to the flexure of the mirror. A great disadvantage in a Cassegrain telescope, as com- pared with a refractor, is the amount of stray light which enters the ocular and reduces the contrast of the image. This may be eliminated by suitable diaphragms, but it is a difficult matter to fix the latter in exactly the correct position. M. Schaer has surmounted this difficulty by mounting a conical tube inside the telescope, so that the stray light is intercepted before it reaches the eye-piece. This conical tube is made of thin sheet iron, and is 150 mm. long; the diameter of the open end is 60 mm., that of the eye end 75 mm., and as the focal plane is limited to 70 mm. diameter, this additional tube in no way interferes with the image. Tests made with this instrument indicate that in intensity of the focal image it is superior to a crown-flint refractor of equal aperture, whilst its superiority for photography is obvious in many directions. THE PoLes or Douste-star Orpits.—In No. 4291 of the Astronomische Nachrichten Prof. Doberck discusses the relation of the poles of double-star orbits to the ecliptic and to the galaxy. The results show that the poles do not lie along the galaxy nor near the pole of the ecliptic, but it appears to be more probable that they lie along the ecliptic than that they lie near the galactic pole. RemMaRKaBLy Dark PENUMBRAL ECLIPSE OF THE Moon.— Visual observations and photographs made at the Juvisy Observatory show that the penumbral eclipse of the moon, which took place on December 7, 1908, was an exception- ally dark one. By giving short exposures on slow plates the — January 28, 1909] NEA TOT EE Ong it was found possible to obtain photographs on which the contrast between the eclipsed and uneclipsed parts of the lunar disc was very striking; on the photograph repro- duced the latter is almost entirely obscured. Several other observations recorded in the January Bulletin de la Société astronomique de France confirm those made at Juvisy. L’ANNUAIRE ASTRONOMIQUE ET METEOROLOGIQUE, 1909.— Amateur astronomers and meteorologists who read French will find M. Flammarion’s year-book a valuable acquisi- tion. The volume for 1909 contains the usual data, with the calendar of events so useful to amateur observers and others interested in astronomical phenomena, and some useful instructions to observers; the annual review of the progress of astronomy during the past year should also prove interesting. The ‘‘ Annuaire”’ is published at 1.50 rancs. THE BRITISH SCIENCE GUILD. HE third annual general meeting of members of the British Science Guild was held at the Mansion House on Friday last, January 22, under the presidency of the Right Hon. the Lord Mayor. We give this week extracts from the report of the executive committee pre- sented by Sir W. Ramsay, and adopted on the motion of Sir Frederick Pollock, seconded by Sir Oliver Lodge. The president of the Guild, in his address at the annual meeting last year, remarked:—‘‘ It is known now that without skill it is impossible to hold your own in the competition of the day. The change that has come over things in the last fifty or sixty years is immense. Without science no one can organise his business; without science no nation can keep its place in the yan. Therefore, one of the great responsibilities of the nation is, not only to keep her knowledge in the minds of a few individuals abreast of the age, not only to produce her Kelvins and her Darwins, but to see that her science is disseminated and that it enters the mind and actuates the endeavours of her Captains of Industry generally. This is the creed of the Guild, and that is the lesson which we ourselves have endeavoured to teach.”’ During the year the Guild has steadily laboured for- ward, and, in spite of the vast quantity of inertia against which its missionary efforts have to contend, the nation is gradually commencing to realise the importance of the scientific spirit. Public speakers, particularly those who have to do with educational subjects, are almost unanimous in urging the importance of the inclusion of science in all educational schemes. Dr. Warren, the Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University, at the last annual meeting made the following striking re- marks :—‘‘ If there is one thing about which I have been persistently keen all through my academic career, it has been the desire to introduce science into the regular and compulsory curriculum of Oxford, to ensure that everyone who takes the ordinary degree should at least know what science and the scientific attitude of mind are like. I hope S shall see this accomplished before my own active career closes. Following this, Sir William Anson, the representative in Parliament of the same University, has recently said :— “No boy should leave school without the rudiments of one branch of science and some knowledge of scientific method.”’ The Chancellor of the Exchequer recently affirmed at Bangor that what is wanted is not only teachers, but also explorers. Science has its dark continents, unlimited oceans, chartless. Germany has said, You must have a university to teach and to educate and to develop the German mind, and now the effect is seen in the German industries. Visiting recently one of the largest workshops in Germany, he was taken round by a professor. In these workshops the professors are the experts. The Germans get their ideas from their professors. We in this country heave coal and blast rocks, but the great industries that finish these products are elsewhere. The universities are the factories where the future of the country is being NO. 2048, VOL. 79] ; torged. ‘here is no investment that will produce such a return, not to the investor, but to the generations to come, as the endowment of higher education. The public Press is also becoming more constant ‘in pointing out the need of scientific education; in urging that with each year it becomes more clear that scientific knowledge is the root of both social prosperity and social progress; that the real function of a university is not to teach men a business, but to cultivate their intellects, to make them the best possible citizens, and, humanly speak- ing, the most accomplished citizens; that a university ought to be the nursery of our leaders of industry, of our politicians and professional classes; of all men, in fact, upon whose initiative and by whose counsel the great affairs of the nation are carried on. It was mentioned in last year’s report that the main educational advance had been in primary education. This has again been the case in the year just passed. Of course it is of the utmost importance that primary educa- tion should be efficient, because unless there is a sure foundation the edifice can never be satisfactorily completed ; but it must be remembered that secondary education is also of the highest importance. Unfortunately, owing to religious and denominational differences, there is much un- rest in the educational world, and this most seriously militates against efficiency. Until some adequate settle- ment, agreeable to all parties in the controversy, is arrived at, the cause of true education must inevitably suffer. In Scotland, where sectarian strife is happily non- existent, primary and secondary education reach a much higher level than in the rest of the United Kingdom. It is with the sincerest pleasure that we note the passage into law of the Scottish Education Bill, which deals in particular with compulsory attendance at continuation schools. In connection with the higher scientific and technical education, the Imperial College of Science is now being organised, and the appointment of Dr. Bovey as its prin- cipal is noted with particular pleasure. As a consequence of this reorganisation, the technological education of London is being placed on a much firmer footing. The Senate of the University of Manchester, having realised the necessity of the times, are fitting out new laboratories, a number of them to be employed entirely for chemical research in connection with commercial problems. In last year’s report attention was directed to the very meagre national endowment of the universities of Great Britain and Ireland. It is much to be regretted that the Government have not seen their way to imcrease this national endowment, which, compared with what is granted to universities abroad, is infinitesimal. The sight of the ancient universities struggling to obtain an adequate sum from private sources to enable them to carry out needed reforms is one which could not be witnessed on the Continent of Europe. It is now universally admitted that those countries which most efficiently support their universities and technical schools, and where education of the highest class can be obtained the most readily with the lowest fees, are most in a position to command the markets of the world. Surely it is high time that more attention was paid by the State to the needs of the universities and colleges. It should be realised that there are many steps to be taken beyond primary education if the nation is to be in a position to compete with its rivals. Our national system of education must eventually include the universities. The neglect of higher education, and the difficulties of finding ways and means which the universities have had to put up with, account for the loss of many specialised trades to the country. Little can be expected from a university or technical institute which is always in the throes of trying to make income balance expenditure. It sometimes happens that a beneficent donor will give a new wing or building to a university or institute, but for- gets that such a building will require a staff and an income to keep it up. The consequence of this is that fees are often exorbitant, and students who have the ability to take advantage of the instruction, but not the pecuniary means, are prevented from attending. It also causes the staff to be inadequate, overworked, and underpaid. An overworked staff is unable to spare time for original investigation, anc 380 NATURE [January 28, 1g09 the natural sequence is that unless they have extraordinary energy they neglect research, lose their originality, and in consequence, become inefficient teachers. We are glad to acknowledge that in many ways the present Government has made new departures in directions which cannot fail to benefit the nation by bringing science to bear more fully upon various departments and utilising it to greater effect. _ We also note an increasing recognition of the national importance of the work done by scientific men, and of the men themselves as nation builders. A remarkable indica- tion of this new spirit was recently afforded by the official dinner, presided over by a Cabinet Minister, given to the members of the International Conference on Electrical Units, and provided for out of a new fund. The new Irish Universities’ Bill, which enacts that universities shall be erected and endowed in Dublin and Belfast, is very welcome, and there is already some evidence that advantage will be taken of the greater educational Opportunity thus given to the Irish people. The Colonial Office, after consultation with the Roval Society, has established a national bureau in London to deal with sleeping sickness, that terrible disease which decimates yearly the population in many of our tropical possessions. The cost of administration is to be defrayed from imperial funds, including a contribution from the Sudan. The bureau was established in June, and one of the rooms of the Royal Society has been placed at its disposal. 5 After centuries of neglect, the condition of our ancient and historic monuments is now recognised as a matter worthy of the nation’s care. Three Royal Commissions have been appointed dealing with them in England, Scot- land, and Wales respectively. The Board of Trade has appointed a committee to deal with international exhibitions, in order to organise and arrange the part to be taken by this country in connection with them. This permanent committee is to take the place of the special commissions which have in the past been appointed by Government to deal with each large inter- national exhibition. In all probability, by having a per- manent committee, a more continuous policy will be evolved. The French have had such standing committees for many years, the committees having to deal both with internal exhibitions and with those held outside France. They have also a special organisation to deal with jury awards, and it would be well if some such organisation could be arranged in this country. The value of such an organisation was particularly noticed by those who served on the juries at the Franco-British Exhibition. The French jurors came over here completely organised, but the British jurors had to start their organisation de novo. If there had been a British standing committee to arrange beforehand the modus operandi, this would not have been the case, and much valuable time would have been saved. 1 In consequence of the new allocation of the land follow- ing the withdrawal of the Board of Education from South Kensington, the Solar Physics Observatory, which was founded by the Government in 1879, and located there as a temporary measure, is to be removed elsewhere. It has been decided to locate it near Caterham, to occupy a posi- tion goo feet high, previously a mobilisation centre, which has been placed at the disposal of the observatory by Mr. Haldane. In the near future; therefore, it will be possible to carry on the important investigations under much more satisfactory conditions. The President of the Local Government Board has authorised for the current year a large number of re- searches in connection with the annual grant voted by Parliament in aid of scientific investigation connected with the causes and progresses of disease; also chemical and bacteriological investigation, as to the influence of soften- ing and other chemical processes on the purity of water supplies from chalky sources. The Board of Agriculture has shown increased activity, and although little is so far done for research, pamphlets of great use to farmers have been widely distributed. The appointment of these committees and the increased means of research are steps in the right direction, but they are purcly departmental. It is interesting in this connection to direct attention to NO. 2048, VOL. 79] the speech made by our president at the anniversary dinner of the Chemical Society nearly four years ago (Daily Telegraph, March 30, 1905) :—* Mr. Haldane expressed his conviction that the problem that lay in front of the British nation was how to develop the grey matter of the executive brain. All the controversies that agitated the minds of politicians were of less importance than the big question of how to make the permanent element in politics more powerful and better. There was too little science in it at the present time. There was hardly a department which did not require the aid of science if it was to be effective, but there were not attractions like those held out by private firms and foreign Governments to lead men of the highest attainments to put themselves at the disposal of the State. Was it impossible to hope for the birth of an era when the head of the Government should have at his disposal a corps of the finest brains which the nation could produce ? If great Britain was to hold her own, she must not be behind Germany, the United States, or France in this matter.” The importance to the nation of such a council as that ‘referred to by Mr. Haldane was first pointed out by the Duke of Devonshire’s Commission in 1874. As mentioned in last year’s report, a deputation of the Guild on the pollution of rivers and water supplies was received by the Right Hon. John Burns (President of the Local Government Board) on October 31, 1907. Mr. Burns | expressed his intention of bringing in a Bill to deal with the subject in the spring of 1908. No legislation upon this subject was, however, brought forward. It is hoped that this does not mean that nothing is to be done next session, as the matter is one of the utmost urgency. Conveyance of Scientific Literature at Reduced Rates. The question of a reduction in postal rates on scientific literature was brought before the Postmaster-General by a deputation organised by the Guild, and received by him on March 12, 1908. The following memorandum was submitted to the Post- master-General by the deputation :— This deputation has been organised by a committee of the British Science Guild, and represents seventy-five societies which have asked to have this matter favourably considered. The names of these societies are given as an appendix. This list of societies is very far from exhaustive, and, as a matter of fact, only 100 societies were consulted in the first instance, a good many of which by their position could not take action in this matter. It will be understood, therefore, that there is an almost unanimous desire on the part of the scientific and learned societies in Great Britain and Ireland that the Government will see its way to help them in the matter which is now put forward. These socicties fully acknowledge the sympathetic treat- ment which a few of their number have received from the Government in such matters as the provision of rent-free quarters, monetary help in the prosecution of original re- search, in exemption from income tax, and in other ways, but they wish to point out that only a few societies really benefit by the first two of these concessions, and that even then this help is small. The societies wish, however, that these may be taken as precedents for conferring upon them the further small benefits which they now ask for. This deputation would claim that the scientific and learned socicties in this country are thoroughly deserving of sympathetic and generous aid from the Government, for the advancement of science and of original investigation in Great Britain is to a large extent due to their fostering care and to the fact that they afford facilities for the publi- cation of original worlk and for its free discussion, and by circulating large numbers of their proceedings and trans- actions describing such original work, they disseminate widely the most recent scientific and other discoveries. The societies in question’ are thus practically the custodians of the national advance in science, and it is almost a truism to say that the material progress of the country is strictly dependent on the applications of science, and hence that such societies help largely in keeping -our country in a position to compete with other countries in commerce and industry, and that without this continuous January 28, 1909] NATURE 381 advance in scientific work Great Britain must gradually recede from its premier position among nations. The work of these societies not only fosters the advance of science, but it is largely educational, and this educa- tional work is of the highest type, as it follows on after the ordinary general education is finished. The present Government, it is known, is keenly anxious to foster educa- tion in every possible way, and it is suggested that this is a legitimate direction in which aid is at once possible without any reference to politics and without undue expense. The deputation wishes to urge very strongly that these societies are in no way working with the view of ulterior profit, but that they work solely for the advancement of knowledge and the well-being of our country. The deputa- tion would invite reference in this connection to the balance sheets of various societies, and from these it will be seen that their expenditure is solely with the view of fostering science, and that in no way does any profit accrue to their members. : The cost of the publication of the journals of the various societies is a very large item in their expenditure, and the cost of the postage of their journals to the members is in many instances a very heavy tax on their resources. ‘Lhis item of cost handicaps such societies in many ways. A reduction in the rate of postage would give great relief to such societies, while the cost to the Post Office, and finally to the public, would be almost nominal. So heavily do some of the societies feel this rate of postage on their publications that they now actually employ their own servants or special messengers to deliver their publications in London with considerable saving in expense to themselves. Cases may be mentioned showing this. The deputation does not ask for any precise amount of reduction, but would plead for some consideration and help in the matter, and in passing would mention that the news- paper rates in this country are much lower than the rates at which scientific publications can be sent. The deputa- tion also does not suggest any very hard and fast definition as to the line to be drawn between the publications of learned and scientific societies and other serial publica- tions, but it is suggested that the case of each society, applying for any favourable rate which might be granted, should be considered by the Postmaster-General himself, and if he is satisfied that such society is working wholly (a) for the public benefit; (b) for the advancement of know- ledge or learning; (c) without any view to profit to its members, and fulfils any other conditions the Postmaster- General may think fit to add, then such benefit could be granted to each individual society which may be approved. With this end in view, the following is a suggested regulation for any concession which the Postmaster-General and the Government might be pleased to make :-— ; *“ Any publication coming within the following descrip- tion can, on the application of the society, and upon pay- ment of an annual fee of 5s., be registered at the General Post Office for transmission by inland post as a publication of a society as hereinafter defined.”’ DEFINITION OF A PUBLICATION. (Under this Section.) ““ All such scientific, learned and technical publications as may be issued periodically not for profit, but for the advancement of knowledge by societies and institutions in the United Kingdom.”’ The deputation would urge that such a regulation (which may, of course, be amplified if necessary) would at once differentiate the publications for which relief is sought from all magazines and other similar periodical matter which are published as commercial speculations, whereas, on the other hand, if the rates of postage to be given to the periodicals by scientific societies are reduced, the defini- tion above given could equally be used to assimilate their treatment with that already given to the newspapers in this country. The executive committee of the Guild subsequently decided that it is undesirable to proceed at present any further in this question, but it is hoped that circumstances may prove to be more favourable later, when perhaps a further move may be made. NO. 2048, VOL. 79] Reports of Conimittees. During the year meetings of a number of committees have been held. In some cases the results obtained have been incorporated in the form of reports, from some of which extracts are given below. Two reports upon educa- tional subjects appear elsewhere in the present issue. Coordination of Charitable Effort. At the last annual meeting of the Guild Sir William Bousfield directed attention to the want of coordination in charitable effort, and suggested that this would be a very fitting matter for the Guild to inquire into. As a consequence, a subcommittee ‘was appointed to deal with the subject. In a memorandum drawn up for the com- mittee Sir William Bousfield says :— ‘“There would appear to be few subjects on which scientific thought and deductions from practical experience in the past would be more valuable to the community than those relating to expenditure on relief of the poor and provision for sickness and incapacity for work. The amount spent at present out of the national income on these objects and the waste is extremely great. The funds are provided by the State, including central and local authorities, by subscriptions made by the classes who receive the benefit, and by voluntary contributions given in the form of charity by the wealthier sections of the public. “The time seems to have come when the relation of these various efforts towards the same objects should be examined from a general and national point of view. At present there is no common aim realised by those who improve the lot of the needy or of persons depending on weekly wages and their families. There is a great over- lapping in administration, owing to the absolute ignorance of charitable people as to what the working classes are themselves doing, or what provision is being made by the State, and vice versd.. New charitable organisations are constantly springing up on a large scale, which merely duplicate the work of others and add greatly to the cost without necessity. “The general effect of this want of system has been very unfair to the poor themselves, and has promoted a pauperised spirit. “The want of recognised principle to guide the com- munity in its aim of improving social conditions leads to all kinds of contradictory proposals, and Parliament and the nation alike are at sea and in a state of bewilderment when wide and far-reaching schemes for that end are set on foot.” Agricultural Committee. A committee has been formed to inquire into the present condition of agricultural research. Mr. A. D. Hall has drawn up a report dealing with agricultural research in the United Kingdom. Mr. John Percival has drawn up a report dealing with the state of agricultural research in the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, and Germany, and the amount of State aid which is extended to the different experimental farms and _ institutions. The subject, how- ever, being very broad, there still remains a large amount of work for the committee to undertake. Franco-British Exhibition. Owing to the action of the executive committee of, the Guild in 1907, a special science committee, consisting of members of the British Science Guiid and representatives of the Royal and other societies, with Sir Norman Lockyer as chairman, organised a separate Science Section of the Franco-British Exhibition. The executive of the exhibition most generously granted to the committee the use of the large building, which was specially erected for the pur- pose, having a floor space of 14,000 square feet. Not only did they build and grant this hall free of cost, but they also contributed a sum of 1oool. to defray the cost of the glass exhibition cases, with installation and other expenses. The total contribution of the executive to the cause of British science exceeded zoool. The Guild feel that this public-spirited action on the part of the exhibition authori- ties calls for the highest praise. In no other international exhibition has a special portion been entirely devoted to science. 382 NATURE [January 28, 19¢9_ The Synchronisation of Clocks. Attention was directed in the public Press by Sir John Cockburn to the divergence in time shown by the publicly exposed clocks in London and other large centres, also tlie inconvenience thus caused to the public. A suggestion was received by the executive committee that a subcom- mittee should be appointed to deal with the subject. After careful consideration of evidence brought before it, the committee drew up the report printed in Nature of August 13, 1908. This report was sent to the Lord Mayor, the London County Council, the General Post Office, His Majesty’s Office of Works, the Local Government Board, the British Horological Institute, and the various railway companies. Most of the bodies referred to merely acknow- Iedged receipt of the communication, or else expressed dis- inclination to act owing to administrative difficulties or to the expense of synchronisation. The reply received from the Public Health Department, Guildhall, City of London, is of special interest, as it states ‘‘ that the Corporation on March 26, 1903, made it a condition of future consent to the erection of clocks over public ways in the City that they should be synchronised with Greenwich time.” Naming of Streets. The executive council has considered the matter of naming new streets, and the re-naming of streets, the names of which it is intended to alter, after distinguished men of science, now deceased. The members of the executive committee were requested to send in names which they considered it would be desirable to employ in this way. A list containing a large number of names was thus drawn up, and was presented to the executive committee, who, after careful consideration, reduced it to the following thirty-one names :—Newton, Darwin, Harvey, Jenner, Huxley, James Watt, Gilbert, Kelvin, Faraday, Joule, Clerk Maxwell, Stokes, Tyndall, Captain Cook, Livingstone, Franklin, Ross, Bruce, Mungo Park, Cavendish, Dalton, Priestley, Boyle, Andrews, Halley, Herschel, Horrocks, Adams, Bradley, Howard, Piddington. This list was then sent to the County Council with the following letter :— ““T am directed by the president, Mr. Haldane, to ask you to be so good as to bring before the L.C.C. the striking difference which exists between the street nomen- clature in London and Paris. In the latter City there is no illustrious French man of science whose name is not connected with some street or square. It is hardly too much to say that in London there is no case of which the Same can be said.”’ “This matter has been inquired into by the executive committee of the British Science Guild, and I am directed {o forward to you the accompanying list of thirty-one names, which they have carefully considered, and think could be properly used in this connection should the oppor- ‘unity arise in the naming of new thoroughfares or the «hange of name of old ones.’’ “They are well aware that the present condition of ‘hings has arisen in the past because there has been no such body as the London County Council interested in the aation’s history and intellectual development; in its absence, the builder and the owner of the land during the fast 300 years have been the chief people interested.” New Patents and Designs Bill. Two years ago the Guild appointed a committee to consider the question of the amendment of Patent Laws. Sir John Cockburn was also appointed to confer with the authorities of the Associated Chambers of Commerce, and to take part in a deputation to the President of the Board of Trade. It is with pleasure that the Guild is able to direct attention to the beneficial effect of the new Patent Act of 1907, the results of which are now beginning to be apparent. So far back as 1884, in his presidential address to the Society of Chemical Industry, the late Sir William Perkin said that one of the causes of the loss of the coal-tar colour industry to this country was the condition of our patent laws. For more than twenty years Mr. Levinstein and others have been working to convince the Governments of the need of reform in this direction. The consequences of the Act now in force are that, not only are many wealthy foreign firms building new factories NO. 2048, VOL. 79] in this country, but that licences to work foreign patents are being obtained by many purely British firms which, before the passing of this Act, they were unable to secure. Messrs. Meister Lucius and Brunning, of Héchstam Main, in Germany, have erected a factory at Port Ellesmere, on the Mersey, and are now employing a large staff of work- men in the preparation of anilin dyes, synthetic indigo, and fine chemicals. The Badische Anilin- und Soda-Fabril are also erecting large works on the Manchester. Ship Canal. The Gillette Razor Company, of America, have works at Leicester. The German Pottery Co., of Alfred Johnson and Co., are starting works in Kent, and many other firms from abroad are setting up works at Liver- pool, Manchester, Warrington, Enfield, Tottenham, and other localities. Altogether about twenty new works have been erected by foreign patentees owing to the passing of this new Act, and independent of these a large number of licences have been granted to British firms. i Formation of Sections in Australia and Canada. A committee has been formed in Sydney, New South Wales, with the Hon. Sir H. Normand MacLaurin, Chan- cellor of Sydney University, as chairman, and Dr. Walter Spencer as secretary. A number of members have joined the New South Wales branch of the British Science Guild. In Montreal a strong committee has been brought together, with Mr. George E. Drummond as president and Prof. H. T. Barnes as secretary. It is intended to hold a meet- ing at the end of the winter, either in Montreal or Toronto, to inaugurate the Canadian branch of the Guild. The formation of branches of the Guild in the colonies will add strength to the parent society, and cannot fail to foster goodwill between the colonies and the Mother Country, thus helping to strengthen the fabric of the Empire. Presentation of Illuminated Address to President Falliéres. The opportunity of the visit of the President of the French Republic to England to inspect the Franco-British Exhibition was taken advantage of to present him with an illuminated address. The movement was originated by Sir Nerman Lockyer, and after consultation with the Royal Society and the Royal Academy, the Guild was asked to undertake the work. The address was presented on May 27, 1908, at St. James’s Palace, and was received by M. Falliéres in a most cordial manner. : SYSTEM AND SCIENCE IN EDUCATION. Primary and Secondary Education. AFTER taking into consideration the memorandum pre- pared by the chairman of the executive committee, the education committee has adopted the following reso- lutions which embody and extend those already submitted to the executive committee :— (1) No local authority or other body should be empowered to grant total exemption from attendance at school to children under fourteen years of age. (2) Provision should be made for compulsory attendance at day or evening (preferably day) continuation schools for young persons above the age of fourteen years, who are not attending craft or secondary schools, for two to four hours a week during two years of forty weeks in each year. Pupils attending evening continuation schools be- tween these ages should not be permitted to commence work before 8 a.m. on those days on which they attend the schools. The number of hours during which pupils attend part-time day or evening continuation schools should be counted as ‘* hours of employment ’’ for the purpose of the Acts dealing with the employment of young persons. (3) There should be established in all educational areas a sufficient number of craft schools with a two-years’ course for boys and girls between the ages of about four- teen and sixteen years. Due regard should be paid in these schools to the continuance of the general education of the pupils, but special provision should be made for sound scientific and technical training in relation to the industries or requirements of the district. The aim of these schools should be to provide preparatory training in 1 Reports of two committees of the British Science Guild presented at t annual general meeting on January 22. , . January 28, 1909] NWA BORE 383 handicraft for pupils who propose afterwards to follow industrial or commercial careers or to manage households intelligently. The fees should be low, and there should be scholarships giving free tuition, travelling, and maintenance allowances, graduated according to the ages of the scholars. ‘these schools might also provide for the continuation classes referred to mm clause 2. (4) Local education authorities should be urged to estab- lish or aid in establishing an adequate supply of secondary schools of a high educational type. These schools should have highly qualified staffs adequately paid, and should be administered by a board of governors or managers. No efiort should be spared to make these schools thoroughly efficient, and to this end the curriculum followed should admit of some amount of variation. Where the majority of pupils remain to eighteen years of age a higher standard on the purely academic side could be aimed at than in the case of schools where the bulk of the pupils leave at sixteen years of age or thereabouts. To secure that the best minds in the primary school shall pass into the secondary school, there should be a sufficient number of free places and maintenance scholarships to render secondary education accessible to boys and girls capable of benefiting by it who propose to remain at school until the completion of at least a four-years’ course from the date of entry. (5) A primary school certificate should be introduced which would serve as a passport to the craft school and the secondary school. School certificates should also be granted to pupils who work satisfactorily through the courses at the craft school or at the secondary school. The certificates should be based not upon examinations, but chiefly upon reports by the teachers as to the ability of the pupils to profit by higher courses of instruction. (6) The matriculation examination of any _ British university, and the secondary school leaving certificate, certain requirements being satisfied, should qualify for entrance to any British university or technical college, and fo the various professional courses, without further examination and in lieu of the present preliminary examinations. (7) School records and the reports of teachers should at every stage supersede largely the present system of estimat- ing ability by examinations. The award of scholarships should be based largely upon the reports of the teachers of the schools which the pupils are attending at the time of their promotion.. School-leaving certificates should be awarded only to pupils in schools certified as efficient for that purpose by a responsible inspecting authority, and a list of these schools shouldbe published. Schools in which this privilege was abused should be removed from the list. By placing upon the teachers the responsibility for nominating pupils for certificates or scholarships, the credit of the school would soon secure that only the most capable or promising pupils would have their passage facilitated to places of higher learning. In all examinations the teacher should be associated with the external examiner. (8) In every public or private primary or secondary school, the instruction in all branches of the curriculum should be so given as to accustom the pupil to careful observation and experiment, whatever may be the specific nature of the subject that is being studied; and to this end not only should there be a proper amount of labortory and workshop practice, but the scientific spirit of the laboratory and workshop should so far as_ possible be employed in the ordinary class-room. In this way the school would provide the best kind of preliminary training for industrial life, and would also ensure that those who subsequently receive a university education shall bring to the work which will devolve upon them in various fields of activity, including the administration of public depart- ments, an adequate training in scientific method. (9) An arrangement should be arrived at whereby a satis- factory report as to educational efficiency,» made by a re- sponsible inspecting authority would in ordinary cases render similar inspection during the same school year unnecessary. (ro) Local authorities, governing bodies, and parents should realise that the salaries at present paid are in most cases quite inadequate to secure a supply of highly-qualified and capable teachers. The opportunities for advancement offered by other careers attract from the teaching profes- sion many men, who by attainment and aptitude would NO. 2048, VOL. 79] promote the educational welfare of the nation. The condi- tions of service, salaries, and outlook of assistant teachers, whether engaged in the work of primary, secondary, or technical education, are in general most unsatisfactory, and unless they are improved they must fail to attract or retain the services of many men and women best qualified for the profession of teaching. A high standard in education can only be attained by generous provision for those who do the work, both in their active and declining years. Until tiis is recognised, it is futile to anticipate progress in procedure or success in any organic educational system, or to obtain from the present efforts and expenditure on education a sufficient return. The Cost of teaching Practical Science in Schools. An opinion expressed by the headmaster of Eton at a general meeting of the British Science Guild in 1907, to the effect that an extension of the teaching of science in public schools is checked by the heavy expenses attaching to practical worl, has been undér the consideration of a subcommittee of the Guild, and its members beg to make a brief statement of their convictions with regard to such practical teaching of science and the question of its exten- sion. The procedure adopted in teaching science should always differ considerably from that employed in teaching literary and linguistic subjects, and ordinarily does so differ. The main reason for this distinction lies in the fact that all exact physical knowledge must admit of objective realis- ation, that is, its demonstration in material objects under natural conditions must be possible; while the acquisition of any part of this knowledge already recorded, not to mention possible additions to the stock, necessarily involves extensive experience of a concrete character. The equip- ment for this purpose, still considered in some quarters as more or less separable from the course of instruction, involves expense, but that expense may be regarded, not so much as a defect at once tangible and flagrant in a branch of education still under suspicion, but rather as the life-blood of an activity inherent in modern civilisation. Whether a given society ignores it or turns it to its own use, the movement continues—in Lebensfluthen, in Thaten- sturm. Expense is a relative term. All those who have been engaged in teaching science for the last twenty years are aware of a revolution during that period in the character of the apparatus employed for instruction in schools. A remarkable change has taken place in the direction both of cheapness and of simplicity. These results have been gained by organised efforts on the part of science masters by meeting in conference or by publication. It is widely recognised among these masters that simplicity and plain- ness in apparatus is a positive gain, and that the educa- tional value of the instruction even increases with the bare- ness of the material by which it is supplied. As experience in this work has widened, it has become more and more apparent that scientific method rather than technical know- ledge should be the aim of school teaching, and that in the earlier stages at all events preference should always be given to the study of the course of events which are normal and familiar rather than of such as are exceptional or specialised. There has been, in other words, an increas- ing tendency to assimilate the scope of elementary scientific study to the ordinary experience of civil and industrial life and the material of experiment to the range of every-day requirements. It is now generally admitted that the over- elaboration of apparatus inhibits enterprise and invention in the young pupil just as a costly mechanical toy stunts the imagination of the child, while it tends also to separate the exercises of the laboratory too abruptly from the events of the daily round. It is maintained that workshop prac- tice may with advantage supplement the work -of the laboratory and give it a broader practical basis: that the surviving though weakened boundary-wall between them might be broken down, with gain to both in the matter of increased economy as well as of added wealth of interest. Such an outlet for the practical exercise of inductive reasoning is an urgent need in a scheme of education which is still very largely a matter of deductive exposition. A large stock of the experience only to be gained from an intimate acquaintance with the qualities and limitations - 384 NATURE [January 28, 1909 of matter is a necessary disciplinary corrective of all abstract thinking, whether scientific or not, and we should beware how we repress it lest we destroy that practical- mindedness which we treasure as one of the most valuable of our national assets. Imbued as we are with these con- victions, it is discouraging to meet with opinions which appear to have been formed at a period when they were in some measure justified by the direct transference to the school of the practice of the university without the neces- sary adaptation to a lower intellectual plane, and by other inevitable errors of the early and empirical stage of science teaching. It is some relief, however, that the charge which has to be met is a matter of pounds, shillings and pence, and not one of squandering educational opportunity or of wasting human effort. Economy bears upon science teaching precisely at it bears upon every branch of education and every department of social administration, nor do its principles perforce wither away in the atmosphere of science. As practical experi- ence extends, as the supply of trained teachers improves, as examinations become more scientific and less restricted in style, so will the spirit of investigation and research be stimulated, and sound standards of thought be established. Indeed, the question of outlay will almost cease to be relevant as the relation of output to expenditure improves, but if definite statements be called for, a wide range of inquiry has furnished them. From the information thus gained, it appears that the present average expenditure on apparatus and material is about 1/. per annum for each pupil receiving practical instruction in science in the public schools, and about ros. per annum for each pupil in other secondary schools. It may be safely accepted as a maxi- mum _ estimate—a fairly generous one—that physical and chemical laboratories can be equipped, maintained in appa- ratus, and supplied with consumable material, and provision also be made for the practical study of animate nature, on a basis of 100 boys working for 10 hours a week (or 40,000 boy-hours per annum), by an average annual expen- diture of 1501. for a period of ten years. After this period of installation and accumulation of plant, the annual cost of maintenance and renewal need not exceed 1ool. In other words, the cost per head should never exceed 30s. a year during the early constructive stage, and may be expected to fall much below that value after a period varying with the scope of the work, the degree of special- isation, and the number of students. But it is imperative that expenditure should be guided by experience, for a wrong start by a tyro may hamper himself or his successor for years. For this reason there is much valuable work to be done by any independent body which would undertake to serve as a standing committee for the sifting and co- ordination of results in these matters, and for advising and guiding those in need. Save for a few of the chief public schools, the statements here made in connection with secondary education are fortunately to a great extent unnecessary. There are now about 750 secondary schools in England and Wales in- spected by the Board of Education and receiving grants for efficient teaching. In these schools there are about 100,000 pupils taking a course which has been approved by the Board, and this course must provide instruction in science. The Board insists that ‘‘ the instruction in science must include practical work by the pupils.’? In each of these secondary schools, and they include most of the grammar schools and endowed schools of the country, one or more laboratories must be provided. They are to be fitted with benches for their special purpose, and sup- plied with water, gas, and, when possible, electric current. Sufficient apparatus must also be provided for a reasonable course of work. The governing bodies of all these schools must provide laboratories and apparatus for individual practical work whether they like it or no. The schools are not regarded as efficient or entitled to receive grants in aid of education, unless they comply with the regulations laid down by the Board for individual practical work in science. Provision for this purpose cannot be evaded by any secondary school which receives grants in aid, nor, on the other hand, would any reduction in its cost permit the teaching to be extended beyond the limits already imposed by the rightful claims of other subjects. Secondary schools which are less local in character and not qualified to receive grants, but NO. 2048, VOL. 79] are subject to considerable competition among themselves, are prompted by motives of self-preservation to give a prominent position in their curricula to scientific training. It is now only a few public schools which remain in an exceptional position and offer but limited opportunities of learning science to a portion of their pupils. If an exten- sion of science teaching in such schools be desired, the cost of its provision does not appear to be the real obstacle. THE WORLD OF LIFE: AS VISUALISED AND INTERPRETED BY DARWINISM. HE lecturer began by stating that, although the theory of Darwinism is one of the most simple of com- prehension in the whole range of science, there is none that is so widely and persistently misunderstood. This is the more remarkable, on account of its being founded upon common and universally admitted facts of nature, more or less familiar to all who take any interest in living things ; and this misunderstanding is not confined to the ignorant or unscientific, but prevails among the educated classes, and is even found among eminent students and professors of various departments of biology. Darwinism is almost entirely based upon those external facts of nature, the close observation and description of which constituted the old-fashioned ‘‘ naturalists,’’ and it is the specialisation in modern science that has led to the misunderstanding referred to. Those who have devoted years to the almost exclusive study of anatomy, physiology, or embryology, and that equally large class who make the lower forms of life (mostly aquatic) the subject of micro- scopical investigation, are naturally disposed to think that a theory which can dispense with all their work (though often strikingly supported by it) cannot be so important and far-reaching as it is found to be. Numbers, Variety, and Intermingling of Life-forms. Coming to the first great group of facts upon which Darwinism rests, the lecturer directed attention to the great number of distinct species, both of vegetable and animal life, found even in our own very limited and rather impoverished islands, as compared with more extensive areas. Great Britain possessed somewhat less than 2000 species of flowering plants, while many equal areas on the Continent of Europe have twice the number. The whole of Europe contains gooo species, and the world 136,000 species already described; but the total number, if the whole earth were so well known as Europe, would be almost certainly more than double that number, or about a quarter of a million species. The following table, show- ing how much more crowded are the species in small than in large areas, was exhibited on the wall. It affords an excellent illustration of the fact of the great intermingling of species, so that large numbers are able to live in close contact with other, usually very distinct, species. Numbers of Flowering Plants.* Square miles Species The County of Surrey ... 760 ... 840 A portion containing ... ... ... 60 ... 660 A “4 Re hie Ste 10 600 3 D pee tooo. bt My dom. | hss) The above figures were given by the late Mr. H. C. Watson, one of our most eminent British botanists, and as he lived most of his life in the county, they are probably the results of his personal observation, and are therefore quite trustworthy. : Continuing the above inquiry to still smaller areas, one perch, equalling 1/160 acre, or less than the 1/ 100,000 of a square mile, has been found to have about forty dis- tinct species, while on a patch 4 feet by 3 feet in Kent (or about 1/25,000,000 of a square mile) Mr. Darwin found twenty species. 1 Abstract of discourse delivered at the Royal Institution on Friday January 22, by Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, O.M., F.R.S. 2 Other tables illustrating similar facts in other, parts of the world wer= prepared, but nct exhitited, as being likely to distract attention from the lecture itself. January 28, 1909] NATURE 385 The same law of increase of numbers in proportion to areas applies to the animal world, if we count all the species that visit a garden or field during the year, though those that can continuously live there are not perhaps so numerous in very small areas. The Increase of Plants and Animals. The powers of increase of plants and animals were next Giscussed, and were shown to be enormously great. An oak tree may produce some millions of acorns in a good year, but only one of these becomes a tree in several hundred years to replace the parent. Kerner states that a common weed, Sisymbrium Sophia, produces about three- quarters of a million of seeds; and if all these grew and multiplied for three years, the plants produced would cover the whole land surface of the globe. Equally striking is the possible increase in the animal world. Darwin calculated that the slowest breeding of all animals, the elephant, would in 750 years, from a single pair, produce nineteen millions. Rabbits, which have several litters a year, would produce a million from a single pair in four or five years, as they have probably done in Australia, where they have become a _ national calamity. As illustrative of this part of the subject, the lecturer referred at some length to the cases of the bison and the passenger pigeon in North America, and the femmings of Scandinavia. In the insect tribes still more rapid powers of increase exist. The common flesh-fly goes through its complete transformations from egg to perfect insect in two weeks, and Linnzeus estimated that three of these flies could eat up a dead horse as quickly as a lion. It is these enormous powers of rapid increase that have ensured the continuance of the various types of existing life from the earliest geological ages in unbroken succession, while it has also been an important factor in the produc- tion of new forms which have successively occupied every vacant station with specially adapted species. Inheritance and Variation. The vitally important facts of inheritance with varia- tion were next discussed, and their exact nature and universal application pointed out. The laws of the fre- quency and the amount of variations, and their occurrence in all the various parts and external organs of the higher animals, were illustrated by a series of diagrams. These showed the actual facts of variation in adult animals of the same sex obtained at the same time and place, which had been carefully measured in numbers varying from twenty to several thousand individuals. The general result deduced from hundreds of such measurements and comparisons was that the individuals of all species varied around a mean value, that the numbers became less and less as we receded from that mean, and that the limit of variation in each direction was soon reached. Thus, when the heights of 2600 men, taken at random, were measured, those about 5 feet 8 inches in height were found to be far the most numerous. About half the total number had heights between 5 feet 6 inches and 5 feet 10 inches, while only ten reached 6 feet 6 inches, or were so little as 4 feet 10 inches, and at 6 feet 8 inches and 4 feet 8 inches there were only one of each. The diagrams from the measurements. of various species of birds and mammals were shown to agree exactly in general character, and the further fact was exhibited by all of them that the parts and organs varied more or less independently, so that the wings, tails, toes, or bills of birds were often very long, while the body or some other part was very short, a point of extreme importance, as supplying ample materials for adaptation through natural selection. The Law of Natural Selection. The next subject discussed was the nature and mode of action of natural selection. It was pointed out that since the Glacial epoch no decided change of species had occurred. This showed us that the adaptation of every existing species to its environment was not only special, but general. The seasons changed from year to year, but the extremes of change only occurred at long intervals, perhaps of many NO. 2048, VOL. 79] centuries, with lesser, but still very considerable, varia- tions twice or thrice in a century. It was by the action of these seasons of extreme severity at long intervals, whether of arctic winters or summer droughts, that the very exist- ence of species was endangered; and it was at such times that the enormous population of most species and their wide range over whole continents always secured the pre- servation of considerable numbers of the best adapted in the most favoured localities. Then the rapidity of multi- plication came into play, so that in two or three years the population of each species became as great as ever, while, as all the least favourable variations had been destroyed, the species as a whole had become better adapted to its environment than before the almost catas- trophic destruction of such a large proportion of them. It is the fact of the adaptation of almost all existing species to a continually fluctuating environment—fluctu- ating between periodical extremes of great severity—that has produced an amount of adaptation that in ordinary seasons is superfluously complete. This is shown by the well-known fact that large numbers of adult animals that have not only reached maturity, but have also produced offspring and successfully reared them, continue to live and breed for many years in succession, although varying considerably from the mean, while almost the whole of the inexperienced young fall victims to the various causes of destruction that surround them. The Nature of Adaptation. The next subiect discussed was the complex nature of adaptations in many cases, and probably in all, a subject of great extent and difficulty. The lecturer directed special attention to the relations between the superabundance of vegetation in spring and summer, the enormous, but to us mostly invisible, hosts of the insect tribes which devour this vegetation, and the great multitudes of our smaller birds the young of which are fed almost exclusively on these insects. Without these hosts of insects the birds would soon become extinct, while without the birds the insects would increase so enormously as to destroy a con- siderable amount of vegetable life, which would, in its turn, lead to the destruction of much of the insect, and even of the highest animal groups, leaving the world greatly impoverished in its forms of life. The vast numbers of insects required daily and hourly to feed each brood of young birds was next referred to, and the wonderful adaptation of each kind of parent bird which enables it to discover and to capture a_ sufficient quantity immediately around its nest, in competition with many others engaged in the same task in every copse and garden, was next pointed out. The facts were shown to involve specialities of structure, agility of motions, and acuteness of the senses, which could only have been attained by the preservation of each successive slight varia- tion of a beneficial character throughout geological time ; while the emotions of parental love must also have been continuously increased, this being the great motive power of the strenuous activity exhibited by these charming little creatures. Lord Salisbury on Natural Selection. As illustrating the strange and almost incredible mis- conceptions prevailing as to the mode of action of natural selection, the lecturer quoted the following passage from the late Lord Salisbury’s presidential address to the British Association at Oxford in 1894. After describing how the diverse races of domestic animals have been produced by artificial selection, Lord Salisbury continued thus :— ‘© But in natural selection, who is to supply the breeder’s place? Unless the crossing is properly arranged the new breed will never come into being. What is to secure that the two individuals of opposite sexes in the primeval forest, who have been both accidentally blessed with the same advantageous variation, shall meet, and transmit by inheritance that variation to their successors? Unless this step is made good the modification will never get a start: and yet there is nothing to ensure that step but pure chance. The law of chance takes the place of the cattle- breeder or the pigeon-fancier. The biologists do well to ask for an immeasurable expanse of time, if the occasional 386 NATURE [JANUARY 28, 1909 meetings of advantageously varied couples, from age to age, are to provide the pedigree of modifications which unite us to our ancestors, the jelly-fish.”’ Here we have the extraordinary misconception presented to a scientific audience as actual fact, that advantageous variations occur singly, at long intervals, and remote from each other, each statement being, as is well known, the absolute reverse of what is really the case. ignores the fact that ‘every abundant species consists of tens or hundreds of millions of individuals, and that as regards any faculty or quality whatever, this vast host may be divided into two portions—the less and the more adapted —not very unequal in amount. It follows that at any given time, in any given country, the advantageous varia- tions always present are not to be counted by ones and twos, as stated by Lord Salisbury, but by scores of millions; and not in individuals widely apart from each other, but constituting in every locality or country some- where about one-half of the whole population of the species. The facts of nature being what they are, it is impossible to imagine any slow change of environment to which the more populous species would not become automatically adjusted under the laws of multiplication, variation, and survival of the fittest. Almost every objection that has been made to Darwinism assumes conditions of nature very unlike those which actually exist, and which must, under the same general laws of life, always have existed. Protective Colour and Mimicry. The phenomena of protective coloration and mimicry were very briefly alluded to, both because they are com- paratively well known and had formed the subject of previous lectures, while they are very easily explained on the general principles now set forth. The explanation is the more easy and complete, because of all the characters of living organisms, colour is that which varies most, is most distinctive of the different species, and is almost universally utilised for concealment, for warning, or for recognition; and, further, its useful results are clear and unmistakable, and have never been attempted to be accounted. for in detail by any other theory than that of the continuous selection of beneficial variations. The Dispersal of Seeds. The subject of the dispersal of seeds through the agency of the wind, or of carriage by birds or mammals in a variety of ways, and often by most curious and varied arrangements of hooks, spines, or sticky exudations almost infinitely varied in the different species, was also briefly treated, since they are all readily explicable by the Jaws of variation and selection, while no other rational explana- tion of their formation has ever been given. Conclusion. In concluding, the lecturer directed attention to a series of cases which had shown us the actual working of natural selection at the present time. He also explained that these cases were at present few in number, first, because they had not been searched for, but perhaps mainly because they only occur on a large scale at rather long intervals, when.some great and rather rapid modification of the environment. is taking place. In the following paragraph he endeavoured to summarise the entire problem and its solution :—‘‘ It is only by con- tinually keeping in our minds all the facts of nature which I have endeavoured, however imperfectly, to set before you, that we can possibly realise and comprehend the great problems presented by the ‘ World of Life —its persistence in ever-changing but unchecked development throughout the geological ages, the exact adaptations of every species to it actual environment both inorganic and organic, and the exquisite forms of beauty and harmony in flower and fruit, in mammal and bird, in mollusc and in the infinitude of the insect-tribes; all of which have been brought into existence through the unknown but supremely marvellous powers of Life, in strict relation to that great law of Usefulness, which constitutes the fundamental principle of Darwinism.”’ NO. 2048, VOL. 79] It totally” LONG-DISTANCE TELEGRAPHY. HE developments which have recently taken place in long-distance direct telegraphic working show that progress has been made in telegraphic transmission by wire as well as in wireless telegraphy. The direct trans- mission of public messages between London and India was put into operation last week, and messages were sent at the rate of forty words per minute between London and Karachi. Direct working with Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras has been successfully established, the experiment of direct transmission to the first-named centre being attempted for the first time last Saturday, when a world’s record was established of about 7000 miles. Direct Wheatstone working over the line between London and Teheran—a distance of 3748 miles—has been possible since the beginning of 1903, but no land line existed between Teheran and Karachi. This line has been recently erected by the Indo-European Department of the India Office,. and was put into operation in November, 1907, bringing the total length of line—London to Karachi—up to 5532 miles. Wheatstone automatic transmission is used throughout the line, and many improvements in telegraphic instruments which have been introduced in recent years have been installed. One of the latest key-board per- forators is the Kotyra, which is so arranged that the key- board is made to actuate three electromagnets so con- structed that the necessary number of blows are communi- cated to the keys of a Wheatstone perforator. At cuch relay station a receiving apparatus is placed in circuit enabling the operator in charge to see how the signals are leaving that station, and any fault in regulation can be at once rectified. The great advantage of being able to transmit direct messages over such distances is that, apart from the time saved and the consequent increase in the capacity of the line, greater accuracy is ensured owing to the fact that no intermediate handling takes place. Thus liability to error is reduced to a minimum. The importance of this will be understood when it is realised that 1600 messages per diem—g7 per cent. of which are in code—are sent on the average over this line. The Indo-European Telegraph Company and the Telegraphic Department of the India Office have, with the cooperation of the Indian Govern- ment, achieved a great success, considering the enormous difficulties attendant upon a land line traversing every variety of country and exposed to all sorts of climatic conditions. Je Lay Me UNIVERSITY _AND- EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGce.—Mr. H. F. Newall, F.R.S., has been elected a fellow of Trinity College. Mr. Newall has been engaged for many years in astrophysical research at the observatory, in connection with a large Equatorial presented to the University by his father. He was formerly an assistant to the Cavendish professor of physics, and demonstrator in the Cavendish Laboratory. He is at present assistant director of the Observatory, treasurer of the Cambridge Philo- sophical Society, and president of the Royal Astronomical Society. Mr. Newall, by his continuous generosity, has firmly established the study of astrophysics in the Univer~- sity, and to him the University owes a considerable debt of gratitude. } Lonpon.—A course of eight lectures on _ national eugenics, in connection with the Galton Laboratory, will be given at University College on Tuesdays at 5 o’clock, beginning on February 23. The first lecture will be given by Prof. Karl Pearson, on ‘‘ The Purport of the Science of Eugenics.’ On the four following Tuesdays the lectures will be given by Mr. D. Heron, and will deal with the following subjects :—methods of eugenic inquiry; trans- mission of physical characters in man; transmission of psychical characters in man; inheritance of disease’ and deformity. The course will be continued in the third term, beginning on May 4, when Miss E. Elderton will lecture on ‘‘ Effects of Kinship in Marriage ’’ and ‘‘ Comparison of Heredity and Environmental Factors.’’ Full par- a. January 28, 1909] IMAI IM OM kd Bo 7, ticulars of the lectures can be obtained from the secretary of University College. Tue annual prize distribution and conversazione of the Northampton Polytechnic Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C., will be held on Friday and Saturday, February 5 and 6. The Earl of Halsbury, P.C., will distribute the prizes on February 5, and after the prize distribution the new build- ings, which have been recently erected in the courtyard with funds provided by the London County Council, will be formally declared open. After the above ceremonies the whole of the laboratories, workshops, drawing offices, and studios of the institute will be on view in working order. Tue second international course for legal psychology and psychiatry will be held at Giessen (Grandduchy of Hesse), Germany, on April 13—18. The course will be under the direction of Prof. Sommer, with the cooperation of Profs. Mittermaier and Dannemann, of Giessen, and Prof. Aschaffenburg, of Cologne. All communications should be addressed to Dr. Sommer, professor of psychiatry, Univer- sity of Giessen. An article by Prof. Fleming in Engineering for January 8 directs attention to the need for a revision of the syllabus for the B.Sc. degree in engineering at London University. It is contended that the syllabus now in force enables a candidate to obtain the degree without having undergone a systematic training in civil, mechanical, or electrical engineering, owing to the freedom of choice allowed, especially in the second or ‘‘ B”’ group of sub- jects. The experience of several years has shown that a large number of candidates exercise their freedom of choice by taking the path of least resistance, and they do not, as a rule, select subjects which form complete and well- arranged courses of study. Subjects of minor importance have, to the majority of candidates, a wide popularity for examination purposes, and Prof. Fleming suggests that if university degrees are to possess, or to continue to possess, any importance in the engineering world, the courses of study must be framed solely with a view to equip students for their work in after life, and not for the immediate purpose of passing an examination. We have received a copy of the second series of papers published by the Department of Education of the Armstrong College, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The special feature of the pamphlet is a very full account of an experiment of a novel character in training-college practice. As Prof. Mark R. Wright, the head of the department, points out, in ordinary school work there is a tendency for the relations between teachers and taught to become formal and artificial, and the motive of the experiment described in these pages was to determine how far a training-college camp could be made to obviate such tendency and to import human- ising influences and greater cordiality into the work of education. Outdoor life and the study of nature under skilled guidance were among the distinguishing character- istics of the fortnight’s life under canvas, and the results of the experiment appear to have been gratifying. The experiment is, we understand, to be repeated annually, and we hope it may be imitated by other training-college autho- rities. There can be no doubt that intelligent, well-planned experiments, followed by an impartial and correct account of the results obtained, will contribute more than any other expedient to the development and formulation of a science of education. These ‘‘ papers” may be commended to the attention of students of educational problems. Tue report on the operations of the University of the Punjab for the year ending September 30, 1908, emphasises the contention, says the Pioneer Mail, that in Indian uni- versities the arts side, which comprises exclusively literary courses, is patronised to the neglect of the scientific side of education. In the Punjab University there is no faculty either of engineering or of commerce. There is a faculty of science, but its examinations, compared with those of the faculty of arts, do not attract many candidates. Referring to the examinations of the two faculties held in 1908, it is pointed out by our contemporary that in the matriculation examination, whilst in the arts faculty there were 3408 candidates, of whom 1470 were successful, in the science faculty there were only 72, of whom 36 were successful. In the intermediate examination, whilst 697, NO. 2048, VOL. 79] of whom 308 were successful, appeared on the arts side, the number of those who appeared on the science side did not exceed 39, and of these 18 were successful. Whilst 315 appeared for the degree of Bachelor of Arts and 116 were successful, a much smaller number, of whom 5 were successful, competed for the degree of Bachelor of Science. As regards the master’s degree in the two faculties, whilst 42 competed on the arts side, there were only 4 on the science side. The results on the science side were, how- ever, better than those on the arts side. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, Reczived November 3, 1908. —‘* Reciprocal Innervation of Antagonistic Muscles. Thirteenth Note. The Antagonism between Reflex Inhibition and Reflex Excitation.’”’ By Prof. C. S. Sherrington, F.R.S. In this paper the question is raised as to how reflex excitation and reflex inhibition are related one to another in their action on a reflex centre common to both of them. In the case of such antagonisms as the action of the vagus and accelerans on the heart and that of the vasodilatator and vasoconstrictor nerves on a_ vascular area, and that of depressor and excitatory asphyxial in- fluences on the vasomotor centre, several observers have shown that the antagonism is a pseudo-antagonism rather than a real antagonism—that is, the one action interferes with the other by delaying it, but does not directly annul it or really abolish or counterbalance it. The present paper brings experimental evidence that in reflex inhibition and reflex excitation playing upon a common centre we have two influences which are really in the strict sense antagonistic in that they behave one to another as two forces which act in opposite direction at the same point of application. The result is an algebraic summation of the effects obtainable from the two nerves—the excitatory afferent and the inhibitory afferent—singly. The individual effects of the two nerves fuse to a_ resultant. The two opposed nerves must have in the reflex centre a common locus of operation. There the antagonistic influences collide. This point of collision may lie at a synapse, in which case the opposed influences may be thought of as altering oppositely the permeability of the synaptic membrane. Or it may lie in the substance of a neurone, if so, probably in the motoneurone itself, and in that part of it which lies within the reflex centre. In either case the net change which results when the inhibitory and excitatory afferents are concurrently stimulated is an algebraic sum of the plus and minus effects producible by the two antagonistic nerves singly. Tracings illustrate the experimental results. November 19, 1908.—‘‘ Measurement of Rotatory Dis- persive Power in the Visible and Ultra-violet Regions of the Spectrum.’? By Dr. T. Martin Lowry. In order to measure rotatory dispersive power in the visible region of the spectrum, the light from an arc formed between a pair of rotating metallic electrodes is concen- trated by a lens on the widely opened slit of a constant- deviation spectroscope. An achromatic lens of 22-inch focus (displacing the telescope of the instrument) casts a magnified image of the slit on the polarising prisms of a triple-field polarimeter. The colour of the image can be varied by rotating the prism of the spectroscope; its maxi- mum width for monochromatic illumination is determined by the openness of the spectrum and the efficiency of the dispersive system. Of the twenty-six wave-lengths employed, those shown in heavy type can be read with the full width of the aperture, the remainder as bands occupying one-third of its width; the yellow mercury doublet can be read as a single band or as two narrow separate lines :— Tee ee G70Siee Nave D803) aliens 5351 (flame spectra) Hg ... 5790 ... 5769 ... 5461 ... 4359 ... (enclosed arc) Cd ... 6438 ... 5086 ... 4800 ... 4678 Cu ... 5782 ... 5700 -.. 5219 ... 5154 --- 5105 4708 ... 4651 ... 4587 ... 4378 Zn ... 6364 .. 4811 ... 4722 ... 4680 Ag ... 5469 ... 5209 388 NATURE | JANUARY 28, 1909 A photographic method is also described which can be used throughout the visible and ultra-violet regions of the spectrum. December 10, 1908.—‘‘ Results of Magnetic Observa- tions at Stations on the Coasts of the British Isles, 1907.”’ By Commander L. Chetwynd, R.N. Communicated by Rear-Admiral A. M. Field, R.N., F.R.S. With a view to compare the values of secular change of declination, horizontal force, and inclination, at various stations on the coasts of the British Isles, with the values derived from the continuous records at Kew Observatory, observations have been made at certain stations selected from those occupied by Riicker and Thorpe during their magnetic survey for the epoch January 1, 1891. The observers detailed to make the observations were Captain M. H. Smyth, R.N., H.M.S. Research; Captain W. Pudsey-Dawson, R.N., H.M.S. Triton; and Captain J. W. Combe, R.N., H.M. surveying vessel Gladiator. The stations selected were fairly distributed around the coasts, so that a mean of the results would represent the mean for the whole area embraced. The observations have been reduced to the epoch January 1, 1907, by means of comparisons with the records at Kew Observatory. The resulting values of mean annual changes for the British Isles are as follows :— a é 21-year period, 16-year period 1886-1907 1891-1907 (1) Declination... SS hey tod — 571 (2) Horizontal force... +19 or +18 y (3) inclinations eke. eG - 14 (4) Vertical force (excepting the results at Dublin and ManerasVior)aesee eee = veo) eek) Tip The mean annual changes of declination at Kew com- parable with (1) a and 6 are respectively 5/.2 and 4/-9. Thus the mean for the British Isles during the 16-year period is o’-2 greater than at Kew. The mean horizontal force change appears to have been 3 ¥y less than at Kew. The mean inclination change during the 21-year period was o/-1 less, and during the 16-year period o'-6 less, than at Kew. The mean vertical force change during the 16-year period has been 8 y less than at Kew. Diagrams showing the mean annual changes at Kew from 1889 to 1904 indicate that the declination change, which since 1894 has been decreasing in amount, is now increasing, and that the probable value at Kew for January 1, 1907, is 4/8. For the whole of the British Isles, therefore, the mean value is assumed to be ue The annual increase of horizontal force continues to diminish, and is at the present time very small; there has been a very marked diminution during the last two years, and the annual increase may shortly become a decrease. The annual change of inclination continues to decrease in amount, and is now 1’ (nearly). A comparison of the value of the mean annual change of declination at Kew, Greenwich, and Stonyhurst shows that during the period embracing Riicker and Thorpe’s survey (1886-94) the change at Stonyhurst was consider- ably greater than at Kew and Greenwich, this being in accord with the results found by Riicker and Thorpe (that the secular change was greater in the north-west than at Kew). Since the year 1894, however, the values have been in closer agreement, that at Stonyhurst being slightly less than at Kew. Thus it is indicated that the variations of secular change are not, over the area referred to, synchronous. Comparisons of results of declination observations made at sea with those made on shore show considerable differ- ences, and although the sea observations cannot be con- sidered to the same degree of accuracy as the shore observations, the differences are in most cases outside the margin which might be assigned to this cause. The results indicate that the values at sea are, off the east coast generally greater, and on the west coast gener- ally less, than the corresponding values adduced from observations made on shore. It is intended to investigate this subject further. NO. 2048, VOL. 79] Royal Meteorological Society, January 20.—Annual meeting.—Dr. H. R. Mill, president, in the chair.—Presi- dential address, Some aims and efforts of the society in its relation to the public and to meteorological science : Dr. Mill. In dealing with the subject-matter of meteor- ology, as of other sciences, there are two extreme points of view which appeal to opposite types of mind; these are the simply observational and the purely analytical, and it is one of the great advantages of a scientific society to bring representatives of the two types together, and to encourage mutual toleration and understanding. After referring to the activity of the society in the establishment of well-equipped and care- fully inspected stations for accurate observations of meteor- ological phenomena, and to the work carried out by various special committees, the president proceeded to direct atten- tion to two lines of usefulness open to the society at the present time. One is the correction of the impulsive sensationalism and anti-scientific spirit in meteorological matters of a certain section of the Press in this country, which no doubt faithfully reflects the somewhat muddled ideas of the careless public; of these he gave some striking instances. The other is the advance which has been made in meteorological science during -the last few years, and the new opportunities it brings. He alluded to the popular errors which are current concerning published weather records, and the prejudicial effect of these on the meteor- ological departments maintained by many municipalities. He had heard of instances of reports being suppressed in order to ‘‘ obviate misconceptions,’”? and of instruments being moved in order to obtain more agreeable records. He deprecated the keenness of rivalry between health re- sorts claiming low rainfall, high sunshine, and small range of temperature, and pointed out that modern bacteriology had shown that dust, not rain, was the chief menace to public health. He went on to say that we now stand at an important point in the history of meteorology, which bids fair to expand in interest and importance in the twentieth century as chemistry did in the nineteenth, and from the same cause, the increasing necessity of apply- ing its principles to practical ends. The point of view of the meteorologist to-day is different from that of fifty or even of twenty years ago. Then the only department in which much general interest could be expected was climatology—the study of the average conditions of the atmosphere at different places. Much remains to be done in that direction; but the main interest is being diverted from the study of the air 4 feet above the ground, on the study of which climatology has been based, to the vast expanse of the upper atmosphere miles above the abode of man. He believed that in a few years the practical needs of aviation will demand a far more exact knowledge than is now required of atmospheric circulation, of the relation of wind to gradient, of the disturbing influence of insolation on pressure, and especially of the nature and movements of cyclones and squalls, and these things be- coming of practical importance, it will become worth while commercially to find the means for studying them. The position of meteorology now is not unlike that of oceano- graphy before the necessity of laying cables led to the exact study of ocean depths, and it is to be expected that the flving machine will do for the study of the air what the cables did for the study of the sea. Entomological Society, January 20.—Mr. C. O. Water- house, president, in the chair.—Presidential address, The claws of insects: C. O. Waterhouse. After briefly describing the various forms of insects’ claws, which are classified as toothed, appendiculate, bifid, or pectinate, and having given examples of each, the president suggested as a subject for investigation, which he hoped entomologists would take up as a study, ‘‘ Are these forms of claw merely the result of heredity without any special object, or is there evidence to show that the different forms are adapted to! particular modes of life, in fact, have been developed to meet special needs?’’ He then proceeded to show by numerous examples that closely allied species often had dissimilar claws, that insects with quite different habits had the same form of claw, and that others with different forms of claw seemed to have the same habits. The ques- tion, therefore, appeared to be still an open one requiring careful investigation. January 28, 1909] NATORE 389 DvBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, D-cember 22, 1908.—Prof. A. F. Dixon in the chair.—The production of ammonia from atmospheric nitrogen by means of peat: Des, del5, (Cs Woltereck. The author showed that by the various pro- cesses known only about one-third of the nitrogen con- tained in the peat can be recovered. The evolution of the synthesis from the use of hydrogen and nitrogen with reduced iron, down to coke and peat, with air and steam was described, and the analogy of this process with that using iron was definitely proved by the use of sugar carbon, free from nitrogen, thus demonstrating the in- disputable cooperation of atmospheric nitrogen.—The pollination of certain species of Dendrobium : Dra. iH. G: Kerr. An arrangement often found in the flowers of the section Eu-dendrobium is described, whereby the elasticity of the filament causes the anther to be jerked down and to block the passage past the stigma to the nectary as the visiting insect withdraws from the flower. By this mechanism only the first visitor can pollinate the stigma. The pollinia are only discharged as the visitor leaves, consequently it is evident that cross-pollination only can occur. The mechanism is quite different from that de- scribed by Darwin in D. chrysanthum, which, he believed, aided self-pollination. Experiments on many specimens of sixteen species of Eu-dendrobium in their native habitats showed that self-pollination was effective in only 8 per cent., and cross-pollination in 100 per cent. Modifications of the mechanism described allowing self-pollination are found in the species which contribute this 8 per cent. The paper also contains descriptions of arrangements obtaining in other Dendrobia which favour or oppose self-pollination, as well as records of experiments on these species of self- and cross-pollination. All the observations were carried out in the natural localities—The absorption of water by seeds: W. R. G. Atkins. An examination of the behaviour of seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris and Lathyrus odoratus, both living and dead, in water and salt solutions, shows that no semi-permeable membrane exists in them until after germination, when the proto- plasm of the cells acts as such. The evolution of CO, may be detected within two hours after moistening air- dried seeds, whether they are living or killed by chloro- form. Paris. Academy of Sciences, January 18.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—Some applications of the method of M. Fredholm : H. Poincaré.—A general method of preparation of the trialkylacetic acids: A. Haller and Ed. Bauer. Ketones of the type C,H,.CO.C.R,R,R, were dissolved in benzene and heated with sodium amide, and split up quantitatively into benzene and the amide of the trialkylacetic acid, ; (R,R,R,)C.CO.NH, ; the latter, treated with nitrosyl sulphate, gives the corre- sponding acid, C(R,R,R,).CO.OH. The method is general, and has been applied to the preparation of pivalic, dimethylethylacetic, dimethylpropylacetic, methyldiethyl- acetic, triethylacetic, and methylethylpropyl acetic acids, as well as the corresponding amides. The distinguishing physical properties of these compounds are given.—A heemogregarian of Tupinambis teguixin: A. Laveran and M. Salimbeni. This organism appears to constitute a new species, for which the name H. tupinambis is pro- posed. The paper is accompanied by six diagrams showing various stages of development.—An epithelium with striated muscular fibres: F. Henneguy. A demonstration of the existence of striated muscular fibrille in the walls of the epithelial cells of the digestive tubes of Alcyonidium hirsutum and Bugula alveolata.—An apparatus for record- ing the absolute acceleration of seismic movements: G. Lippmann.—the evolution of the Tertiary mammals: the importance of migrations. The Pliocene epoch: Charles Depéret.—M. W. Kilian was elected a correspondant in the section of mineralogy in the place of the late M. Peron. —Discussion of the micrometric measurements made at the Observatory of Lyons during the eclipse of June 28, 1908: F. Merlin.—A zenithal photographic telescope: A. de la Baume Pluvinel. The instrument is designed to determine the astronomical coordinates of the place where it is set up. The latitude is deduced from the zenithal distance of No. 2048, VOL. 79] a star measured on a negative, the longitude from a know- ledge of the time at which the star occupies, on the negative, a certain position corresponding to the passage through the meridian.—A problem concerning geodesic lines: Jules Drach.—A generalisation of a theorem of Jacobi: W. Stekloff.—The theory of continuous func- tions: Maurice Fréchet.—Differential equations _ the general integral of which is uniform: J. Chazy.—Some optical and magneto-optical phenomena in crystals at low temperatures: Jean Becquerel. A discussion of the causes of the differences between the conclusions of the author and those of MM. H. du Bois and Elias.—A characteristic property of a hexagonal network of small magnets: L. de la Rive and Ch. Eug. Guye.—An optical arrangement for varying the lighting of a surface accord- ing to a law determined in advance: Th. Guilloz.—The rapid preparation of calcium phosphide for making hydrogen phosphide: C. Matignon and R. Trannoy- Dried calcium phosphate is heated with aluminium powder, and the mixture started off at a dull red heat. The pro- duct is a mixture of calcium phosphide and alumina, which on treatment with water gives a nearly pure non- inflammable phosphoretted hydrogen. The only impurity of the gas obtained in this way is hydrogen, which may be present up to 3 per cent.—The action of sulphur chloride, S,Cl,, on the metallic oxides: F. Bourion. It has been found that in certain cases in which the method of treat- ing the oxide with chlorine and sulphur chloride fails, the latter alone gives a good yield of the anhydrous chloride. Amongst other chlorides prepared in this way, that of samarium is noteworthy, as of all the oxides of the cerium group this is the most difficult to transform into chloride. ~ Colour reactions of dioxyacetone: G. Denigeés.—The nature of the bromacetamide of Hofmann: Maurice Francois. This bromine derivative can be prepared by the evaporation of a mixture of hypobromous acid and acetamide. On this account the author considers its com- position to be CH,.CO.NH,.Br.OH.—Researches on the products of saponification of dioxalsuccinic ester. Isopyro- mucic acid: E. E. Blaise and H. Gault.—The prepara- tion of aldehydes and anhydrides of acids: A. Béhal. Benzylidene chloride, heated with acetic acid, reacts accord- ing to the equation C,Hs.CHCI, + 2CHy.CO,H=2HCl + CsH,CH:0 + (CH;CO),0. The presence of certain salts, such as chloride of cobalt, assists the reaction.—The artificial oxydases and peroxy- dases: M. Martinand.—The successive induction of coloured images after a very strong stimulation of the retina, and the classic theories of vision: Romuald Minkiewicz.—X-rays of high penetration obtained by filtration. Their advantage in radio-therapy for the treat- ment of deep-seated tumours: H. Guilleminot. The filtration of the rays through 5 mm. of aluminium is re- commended; the issuing rays will be approximately “ monochromatic.”? Although the absolute quantity trans- mitted will be much reduced, necessitating a longer ex- posure, the percentage absorption in the soft tissues will be small, and deep-seated tumours can be more effectively reached by the rays.—The identification of revolver bullets : \V. Balthazard. The problem was to prove whether certain bullets found on the floor had traversed the arm of the wounded person. It is shown that after traversing a cloth material, characteristic markings are produced on the leaden bullet, and these are not obliterated by the sub- sequent passage through flesh, provided a bone is not encountered. It is even possible to identify the nature of the garment through which the bullet has passed by a careful examination of the markings on the bullet—Sexual reproduction in the Actinocephalids: P. téger and O. Dubosca.—Sonie Sertulariide in the British Museum collection; Armand Billard.—Biological researches on the conditions of viviparity and larval life of Glossina palpalis : E. Roubaud.—New observations on the habits of the asparagus fly (Platyparea poeciloptera) in the neighbour- hood of Paris. The insufficiency of the method of destruc- tion now in use: P. Lesne.—A possible interpretation of the waves of the principal phase of seismograms : M. de Montessus de Ballore.—The earthquake of December 28, 1908, recorded at the Fabra Observatory, Barcelona: J. Comas Sola. 390 IPA TORE | JANUARY 28, 1909 New SoutH WALEs. Linnean Society, November 25, 1908.—Mr. Ilenry Deane, vice-president, in the chair.—The réle of nitrogen and its compounds in plant-metabolism, part i., historical: Dr. J. M. Petrie. A summary of the recent advances made in the study of proteins and their antecedents in the plant. An account is given of the nitrogen compounds which occur in seeds, and the modern views of their function in germination.—The réle of nitrogen and its compounds in plant-metabolism, part ii.: Dr. J. M. Petrie. Deals with the non-protein nitrogen compounds of seeds, and gives the results obtained from the analyses of the seeds of thirty different plants. Previous investigators have seldom found less than go per cent. of the total nitrogen existing as protein, whereas the author finds as much as 45 per cent. of non-protein nitrogen compounds in ripe Acacia seeds. Exact descriptions of the methods employed are also given.—Contribution to a knowledge of Australian Hirudinea, part ii.: E. J. Goddard. A new genus is proposed for a leech from a fresh-water pool at Oberon, New South Wales.—Contribution to a knowledge of Australian Oligocheta, part ii.: E. J. Goddard. Another phreodrilid worm, from pools on the Mt. Wellington plateau, Tasmania, is described. It is of interest because its Tasmanian habitat completes the circuit of distribution of the family—from South America to New South Wales. —lIllustrations of polycotyledony in the genus Persoonia (N.O. Proteacez): J. J. Fletcher. In 1882, as the result of his examination of the fruits of twenty-three out of a total of sixty-one described species of Persoonia, the late Baron von Mueller was able to announce that the embryos of nineteen of them were polycotyledonous. The object of the present paper is to supplement the Baron’s observations in so far as these relate to the species of Persoonia to be found in the neighbourhood of Sydney and on the Blue Mountains, from a study of seedlings, and whenever it was possible of a considerable number of them. The cotyledons of about 700 seedlings, representing ten species, four of which are not in the Baron’s list, and, in addition, the embryos of two species of which seedlings were not | procurable, one of which is’ not in the Baron’s list, were examined. The only seedlings or embryos with two coty- ledons met with were those of P. ferruginea, Sm. Not only is the number of cotyledons in all the other species examined inconstant, but about 10 per cent. of the total number of seedlings were found to possess one, occasion- ally two, or rarely three notched, bifid, or bipartite cotyle- donary members; some of these possibly may have been cases of connate cotvledons. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, January 28. Roya Society, at 4.30.—The Action of the Venom of Sefedon haemachates of South Africa: Sir Thomas R. Fraser, F.R.S.. and Dr. J. A. Gunn.— The Colours and Pigments of Flowers with Special Reference to Genetics : Miss M. Wheldale.—The Variations in the Pressure and Composition of the Blood in Cholera ; and their Bearing on the Success of Hypertonic Saline Transfusion in its Treatment: Prof. Leonard Rogers, I.M.S.— The British Freshwater Phytoplankton, with Special Reference to the Desmid-plankton and the Distribution of British Desmids : W. West and G. S. West.—The Selective Permeability of the Coverings of the Seeds of Hordeum vulgare: Prof. Adrian J. Brown.—The Origin of Osmotic Effects. II. Differential Septa: Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S. Roya InstirTuTion, at 3.—Mvsteries of Metals: Prof. J. O. Arnold. InsTITUTION OF EnEecrrical. ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Parallel Operation of Alternators: Dr. E. Rosenberg Royat Society oF Arts, at 4.3 Gobinda Gupta. o.—Some Phases of Hinduism: Krishna FRIDAY, JANvuARY 29. Royav InsTiTuTION, at 9.—Improvements in Production and Application of Gun-cotton and Nitro-glycerine: Sir Frederick L. Nathan. SATURDAY, January 30. Roya Institution, at 3.—Sight and Seeing : Sir Hubert von Herkomer. Essex Frevp Cvup, at 6 (at Essex Museum of Natural History, Romford Road, Stratford).—Subsidence of Eastern England and Adjacent Areas: W._H. Dalton.—Some Notes on ‘‘ Moorlog,” a Peaty Deposit dredged up in the North Sea: H. Whitehead and H. H. Gocdchild. 4 MONDAY, FepRvuarY 1. Royat Society oF Arts, at 8.—Electric Power Supply: G. L. Addenbrooke- Society oF Cuemicat Inpustry, at 8.—The Manufacture of Nitro- cellulose : Sir Frederick Nathan. TUESDAY, FEBrRuary 2. Roya Instirurion, at 3.—The Architectural and Sculptural Antiquities of India: Prof. A. A. Macdonell. NO. 2048, VOL. 79] ZooLocicat Society, at 8.30.—Notes on the Fauna of Christmas Island: Dr. C. W. Andrews, F.R.S.—Report on the Pathological Observations at the Society's Gardens during 1908: Dr. H. G. Plimmer.—Preliminary Account of the Life-history of the Leaf-insect, Phyddinme orurtfoliwn, Serv.: H. S. Leigh.—The Mammals of Matabeleland : E. C. Chubb. Royat Society oF Arts, at 4-.30.—The Production of Wheat in the British Empire : Albert E. Humphries. InsTiruTION oF Crivit ENGINEERS, at 8.—On Heat-flow and Temperature- distribution in the Gas-engine : Prof. B. Hopkinson. WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 3. Society or Pusric ANALysTs, at 8.—The use of Quartz Combustion Tubes especially for the Direct Determination of Carbon in Steel : B. Blount and A. G. Levy.—The Composition and Analysis of Chocolate: P. A. Ellis Richards, C. H. Cribb, and N. P. Booth.—Note on some Commercial Samples of Monobrombenzene: J. H. Coste. ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8. THURSDAY, FEBRvuarY 4. Royat Society, at 4.30.—P7vobable Papers: On the Electricity of Rain and its Origin in ‘I hunderstorms : Dr. George C. Simpson.—'l he Effect of Pressure upon Arc Spectra, No. 3, Silver. A 4000-A 4600: W. G. Duffield.—The Tension of Metallic Films deposited by Electrolysis : G. Gerald Stoney. Civit anp MecuanicaL ENGINEERS’ Sociery, at 8.—The Stability of Arches: Prof. Henry Adams. LINNEAN Society, at 8.—On Fucus spiralis, Linn.: Dr. F. Borgesen.— Economy of /chnexsmon manifestator, Linn, : C. Morley.—Un the Polyzoa of Madeira : Rev. Canon Norman, F.R.S. RONTGEN Sociery, at 8.15.—The Transport of lons: Dr. Howard Pirie. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 5. Roya InstiTutioN, at 9.— The Influence of Superstition on the Growth of Institutions : Prof. J. G. Frazer. InsTITUTION OF CrviL ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Design and Construction of Docks: Sir Whately Eliot. CONTENTS. PAGE Religious and Sexual Psychology. By N. W.T. . 361 The Bone Marrow = 2 a pte: Se ees 5 362 Progress of Climatology. By R.G.K.L...... 363 Some New Text-books of Inorganic Chemistry. By IPR Eh CnC ees oS cln Bebo oc Ha Our Book Shelf :— Davies: ‘‘The Theory and Practice of Bridge Construction in Timber, Iron and _ Steel.’”— et. B: 3), 30's) ge wey cae es Oh (as ee Ot Gulliver: ‘Metallic Alloys: their Structure and Constitution ” Pe beet Soto rs «SOR Rust: ‘‘ Ex-meridian, Altitude, Azimuth, and Star- finding Tables”; Putman: ‘‘ Nautical Charts” ; Park: ‘‘A Text-book of Theodolite Surveying and Levelling.’—Captain H. C. Lockyer 365 “* Penrose’s Pictorial Annual ; a Review of the Graphic Arts?” ;\-“* The ProcessWear Book va.) . | “seamen Oo! - he, Edinburgh'School(Atlis*s ~) cua. « ols enEsaG Letters to the Editor — The Product and Rays of Uranium X.—Frederick Soddy . 10) cca siRsemeie tee ye OE The Origin of the Aborigines of Tasmania. —H. Ling Roth; J. W.G. ite ghadh is = ews. Se OM Warm Months in Relation to Sun-spot Numbers. (With Diagram.)—Alex. B. MacDowall . 367 Recent Earthquakes. ByR.D.O. ..... ae 368 Gravitational Theories a. & Beye ey aes 369 Mountaineering in Northern Norway. (J///lustrated.) ByaVV. G.. 3. 3) Jeune cise , « 369 A National Scheme of Afforestation. ...... . 370 Dr, Francis Elgar, LL.D., F.R.S. By Sir W. H. WWihite, KC. B) URIS ice cies cy icutcl one meine NCU Es |e Oso co Deyo Hi Our Astronomical Column :— Recent Brilliant; Fireballs) sear.) 1 es )-tinioa eS Martian) Heatures” | (5p eaten ieiee iene >t re lela usar mmm Atmospheric Polarisation . oh 3S ye ol RS Making a Forty-centimetre (15°7 inches) Cassegrain Reflector. ., Vie. 3 She? Pane aS The Poles of Double-star Orbits .... . hou BOTS Remarkably Dark Penumbral Eclipse of the Moon 378 L’Annuaire astronomique et météorologique, 1909 . 379 peheybritish) Science (Guild sage oe eee 379 System and Science in Education. ........ 382 The World of Life: as Visualised and Interpreted by Darwinism. By Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, (Ohio el a MS Seco >. o Oo bo oc Sell Long-distance Telegraphy. ByJ.L.M. ..... 386 University and Educational Intelligence. . . . . . 386 Societtesjand/Academies) ay een nn tene mre 387 IDENT? CHC CSC Gg Gh anh Go op ob on 6 390 NATORE 391 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 4, 1909. A SURGEON AND A PATHOLOGIST ON CANCER. (1) The Natural History of Cancer, with Special Refer- ence to its Causation and Prevention. By W. Roger Williams. Pp. xiv+519. (London: W. Heinemann, 1go8.) Price 21s. (2) Lectures on the Pathology of Cancer. By Dr. Charles Powell White, Pilkington Cancer Research Fellow. Pp. vii+83; 33 figures. (Manchester : University Press, 1g08.) Price 3s. 6d. net. (1) HE author of this volume has contributed exten- sively to the literature of cancer from 1882 onwards. Both from the scope and from the dura- tion of his inquiries into the various manifestations of this disease in man, he would certainly seem to have earned the right to express opinions to which other students of the subject must give consideration. The volume contains an immense amount of material, partly the harvest of the author’s own experience and partly culled from the literature of the subject. This rich collection of facts, with complete references to the original sources, while evidence of the wide reading of Mr. Williams, must also make the volume valuable in the limited spheres of which it treats as a book of reference for workers on cancer. Unfortunately it has not been the author’s desire to make the compilation and digest of much of the literature of cancer the main purpose of his book; indeed, in this field he has been forestalled by a masterly digest of the literature, which is at the same time an admirable history of the advance in knowledge of cancer, by Dr. Jacob Wolff, ‘‘ Die Lehre von der Krebskrankheit ’’ (Jena: Fischer, 1907). Rather would the author direct attention to what he is pleased to stigmatise as ‘‘the extraordinary concatenation of blunders with which the history of the experimental study of cancer is cumbered,’’ and to the ‘* stagnation of comparative pathology.’’ These serious charges are made because Mr. Williams’s ‘* work has hitherto re- ceived no recognition from contemporary pathologists occupied with various will o’ the wisps,’’ and because his voice has been crying in the wilderness since 1888, when, by the publication of ‘‘ The Principles of Cancer and Tumour Formation,’’ he attempted to ‘ repair Virchow’s error, by laying the foundation of a modified cellular pathology, in harmony with modern biology.” The author is at his best when dealing with the clinical course and the pathology of the disease in man, of which, as a surgeon, he has ripe experience; but most of what he has to say of value appeared in ‘‘ The Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine,’’ vol. xvii., 1899. It is to be regretted that in the fields of general biology he exhibits that combination of imperfect knowledge and intolerance of the conclusions of workers in spheres outside his own, which, only too frequently, have been features of the contributions of a few other authors who during the past three years NO. 2049, VOL. 79] | have settled the problems of cancer to their own satisfaction in almost equally bulky volumes. Mr. Williams is obviously not equipped to deal with the natural history of cancer in the wider sense. Analogies between lumps of tissue in the higher plants and in the higher animals have no dangers for him in a chapter on ‘‘ Tumours in Vegetable Organisms,’’ at the end of which he refers the Acari to the order Insecta. On p. 205 he writes :— ““Tt has recently been demonstrated by Boveri and Delage, that denucleated eggs of the sea urchin can be fertilised, when they give rise to the normal gastrula and larve; so that... the nucleus is not the sole vehicle of heredity.” Of course, Boveri’s experiments led to quite the contrary conclusion. They demonstrated that the gastrule had the characters of the strange species introducing the male nucleus. Mr. Williams’s preju- dice in favour of his own case is well illustrated by his allusion to Darwin and Haeckel as ‘‘ the great lieutenants ’’ of Herbert Spencer, and by his bald statement (p. 357), ‘‘I also believe that acquired characters are hereditable.’’ ‘‘ The phenomena of parthenogenesis are of much interest, as representing a transition from sexual to asexual reproduction,’’ another positive statement of a dubious validity (p. 207). His main argument is that the frequency of cancer goes hand in hand with the average well- being. The inhabitants of Norway—among whom the death-rate from cancer is about the highest in Europe—are therefore pictured as the best nourished in Europe. Any Norwegian or Swede would have informed the author that his assumption is erroneous. Referring to the frequency of cancer of the skin of the abdomen in Kashmir (p. 36), where a charcoal oven is worn round the waist, he asserts that ‘* the disease is probably more akin to keloid than to cancer, and, like the former, it is probably due to microbic infection.’’ As a matter of fact, the disease is weil known to be cancer of the skin, to form secondary growths in the adjacent lymph-glands, and to follow prolonged chronic irritation. These and many equally erroneous dogmatic state- ments, together with the violence of his language when referring to work—hbiological, pathological, statistical and experimental—incompatible with. the views Mr. Williams holds, show that he is unable to interpret his facts without prejudice. It is not sur- prising, therefore, to find that many of the major problems of cancer which still await solution are, for the author, matters no longer admitting of discussion. Indeed, in his preface he claims :— is ‘© T have devised a new method of cancer research—— which may be called synthetic—whereby I have shown that there are modes of life, various habits and se forth which tend to prevent the incidence of cancer almost entirely in healthy stocks, and greatly te reduce its ravages even among the _hereditarily disposed.” The volume contains not a particle of evidence to justify this claim, which is all the more deplorable in that the author goes out of his way time and time Pp 392 again to pour ridicule on the reasonably substantiated claims of other workers to have made some slow progress by the application of the experimental method, but who, more modest than himself, still remain non magistri sed discipuli naturae in regard to cancer. (2) Dr. Powell White’s volume is in many respects an antithesis to that of Mr. Roger Williams. is solved into two component movements, which cause a variation of the positions of the moving coils at the receiver. These coils, actuating the two levers to which ihe receiving pen is attached, reproduce the motions of the pencil at the transmitter. When the paper available for mitter has been used up, it is by pulling a lever, which at re- writing on at the trans- fed forward mechanically the same time causes a Mig iii. - Ty Telewriter Transmitter and Receiver arranged with Telephone and Departmental Exchange. current to be sent through both lines and operates a relay which actuates the paper in the receiver proportionate Before starting to send a message, a button is presse on the transmitter, and this automatically ensures the lever at the receiving end being in the proper position for the instrument to receive a message. The receiving pen— before contact is made by the pencil on the transmitter— reposes in an ink-well, and this ensures that plenty of ink is always obtainable. The telewriter is also fitted with a telephone, and communication can be held by either method over the same lines, but not simultaneously. An advantage of the telewriter over the telephone is that, should the person rung up be out, the can be written and will await his return. No operator is necessary to receive the messages, and so long as the roll of paper in the receiver lasts, so long can messages be received. The ordinary telephone wires are all that is necessary for the operation of the telewriter, the power being message 442 -— NATURE [ FEBRUARY I1, 1909 obtained from cither batteries or the central station supply. Both direct current and alternating currents can be used, but in the latter case a rectifier must be placed in circuit. Messages can be sent to practically any number of tele- writers from one transmitter, thus assuring the same message being received simultaneously on the various receivers. The Postmaster-General has granted a licence for twenty- one years to the Telewriter Syndicate, and after 1gIl, when the National Telephone Company's licence expires, the Telewriter Syndicate will operate its own system and establish telewriter exchanges, paying royalties for the same. These lines will be independent of the Post Office telephones, but will be leased from the Post Office, and tclephonic communication in addition is to be a sine qua non on all these lines. _At present the telewriter is established chiefly on private lines, and is working satisfactorily in many large ware- houses, stores, and offices, but messages and sketches have been successfully sent from London to Manchester over the Post Office telephone trunk lines, which were used, by permission, for the experiment. Arrangements and special instruments are now being made with the view of sending similar messages over the existing trunk telephone line from London to Paris. SOME ENTOMOLOGICAL PAPERS. A MONG recent papers on entomology in serials with which we have been favoured, special reference may be made to one by Mr. P. H. Calvert on the dragon-flies (Odonata) of Mexico and Central America, published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for October last. This paper, which is mainly based on the article by the same author in the Biologia Centrali Americana, forms an important contribution to the study of insect-faunas generally, and treats in great detail of the relationships of the group under consideration. It is assumed—and probably correctly—that the adult insects do not wander far from the haunts of their aquatic larve, but until this is definitely ascertained the generalisa- tions, as the author points out, must be regarded as more or less provisional. To the sixth part of vol. vy. of the Annals of the South African Museum Mr. L. Peringuey contributes a seventh instalment of his account of the coleopterous fauna of the country, dealing in this instance with considerably more than one hundred species and several genera described as new. The paper, which is illustrated by two monochrome plates, is of a purely taxonomic character, with the descrip- tions in Latin. An addition to our knowledge of the aphides of ‘Japan is furnished by Mr. G. Okajima in vol. viii., No. 1, of the Bulletin of the College of Agriculture of the Imperial University of Tokio. This paper is devoted to the descrip- tion of three new species of Trichosiphum, a genus founded so recently as 1906 for the reception of another Japanese representative of the group. To the same issue this author contributes a more generally interesting paper, namely, One on the structure of the aphid antennz. These antennx are composed of not more than six joints, of which the third and later . ones (especially the third) usually bear sensory pits. For their distal portion the name ns flagellum”? is adopted. It is found that, as regards minor characters, the antennz present specific differences which harmonise well with the various groups into which the family has been divided. In a third paper in the serial last cited Mr. T. Miyake gives a list of Japanese Panerpide, together with descrip- tions of ten new species of the type-genus, all of which are illustrated in an accompanying plate. All the new species, which display the general type of colouring characteristic of these elegant insects, agree with the other Japanese members of the group in regard to a peculiarity in one part of the wing-venation. : Under the title of Indian Forest Memoirs, the Govern- ment of India has commenced the issue of a new quarto serial, intended for the publication of the more important results of the investigations of the Imperial Forest Re- search Institute. The publication of Indian Forest NO. 2050, VOL. 79] Records is to be continued for minor papers, and the two serials are to constitute the Forest Zoology Series. The first part of the Memoirs is deyoted to an account, by Mr. E, P. Stebbing, of some undescribed Scolytidz of economic importance from the Indian region. Until recently, very little was known with regard to the Indian representatives of this group of bark-boring beetles, and scarcely anything of their life-histories and food-plants. It is now ascertained that the Scolytide are of very con- siderable importance to the Indian forester, this being specially the case as regards the great coniferous forests of the Himalaya. Other species, referable to the genus Sphzrotrypes, are, however, detrimental to the sal-forests and other broad-leaved timber-trees. In the present memoir Mr. Stebbing describes three new species of the last-named genus, five of Polygraphus, and two of Dryocetes. Among the species of Sphzrotrypes, one, S. assamensis, infests the sal-timber of Assam and eastern Bengal, and a second, S. quercyi, the oaks of Kumaun. The Angolese tiger-beetles of the subfamily Cicindelinz form the subject of an article by Messrs. F. Creighton Wellman and W. Horn in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for November, 1908. Angola, it appears, is divisible into three distinct physical regions, namely, lowlands, mountainous slopes, and high plateau, the climate of the second of these being cooler and moister than that of the first, although not to the same degree as the third. Each of these areas has its own special tiger-beetle fauna, that of the middle zone possessing the largest number of species. In this place reference may be made to investigations undertaken in Cornell University by Mr. B. H. Guilbeau, of which the results are published in the American Naturalist for December, 1908, as to the mode in which the ‘‘ cuckoo-spit insects’’ (Cercopida) secrete the foam in which they are enveloped. By cleansing the nymphs from the investing froth, it has been ascertained that the fluid issues from the anal aperture, and is converted into froth by periodical removals of the tip of the abdo- men, which is re-introduced holding each time a bubble of air. Viscosity is imparted to the fluid by the secretion of the glands of Batelli. In conclusion, brief mention may be made of an interest- ing article, by Mr. A. H. Swinton, on the vocal and instrumental music of insects, the first instalment of which appears in the January number of the Zoologist. THE CHARGES ON IONS.* , THE ratio of the charges of ions in liquids to those pro- duced by various methods in gases is a factor that enters into many investigations connected with molecular theories, so that it is of importance that the connection between these charges should be investigated by some accurate method. The simple relations that hold between the charges of ions in liquids can be easily deduced from the theory of electrolytic conduction. It follows immediately from deter- minations of the electrochemical equivalents that the charge on any ion in a liquid is either equal to that on a hydrogen atom or an exact multiple of it. No method has been devised for determining this charge directly, but the value of nxe, the product of the number of molecules in a cubic centimetre of a gas at standard pressure and temperature (15° C.) and the charge e expressed in electrostatic unts, is accurately known, and is approximately 1-23 x 101°. In gases it is possible to obtain a rough estimate of the charge on an ion. The method of determining the charge, which requires a cloud to be formed in the gas, was given by the present writer (Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. ix., part v., February, 1897), and was first applied to the ions in newly prepared gases. The same principle was subsequently used by Sir J. J. Thomson and Prof. H. A. Wilson in determining the charges on ions pro- duced by R6ntgen rays, ultra-violet light, and radio-active substances (J. J. Thomson, ‘‘ Conduction of Electricity through Gases ’’). The numbers obtained for e in electro- static units range from 3x10-'° to gxX10~-!°, but an 1 Based upon papers by Prof. J. S. Townsend, F.R.S.,and Mr. Haselfoot, communicated to the Royal Society January and November, 1908. Ferruary II, 1909| accurate estimate of any of the charges has not been obtained owing to the difficulties of experimenting with the clouds. As no trustworthy * independent estimates have been made of n, the value of the product nxe for gaseous ions can only be obtained by this method within wide limits differing by a factor of 10 or 20. It cannot, there- fore, be muintained that the direct determination of e in gases leads to any trustworthy information as to the simple relations that hold between the charges on the ions. A more accurate comparison of the charges on the various kinds of ions can be obtained from determinations of the rate of diffusion of ions in gases and the velocity under an electric force. With this object in view, the rates of diffusion produced by various methods in gases were determined, and it was shown that the value of nxe for negative ions in gases agreed within 10 per cent. or 15 per cent. with the value for monovalent ions in liquids, and the value for positive ions in gases was some- what larger (J. S. Townsend, ‘ Diffusion of Ions in Gases,”’ Phil. Trans., vol. exciii., "1899, and vol. cxcv., 1900). The probable error in the numbers obtained is about 10 per cent. or 12 per cent., so that it is desirable to know more definitely if all these charges are exact multiples of the same atomic quantity, as it is a question of fundamental importance. The problem of the determination of nxe for gases has been again undertaken, and a simple experiment has been devised whereby the exact value of nxe can be immediately deduced from the ratio of the charges acquired by two conductors under special conditions. The method is ex- plained in a paper in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. Ixxx., January, 1908, and two papers recently com- municated (November, 1908) contain further experiments by the present writer on ions produced by Rontgen rays, and an investigation by Mr. Haselfoot of the ions produced by radio-active substances. The principle of the method consists in finding the extent to which a uniform stream of ions. having a_ circular cross-sectional area, S, opens out as the ions travel a given distance under a known electromotive force. For this purpose three plates, A, B, and C, are arranged parallel to each other, the middle plate, B, and the lower plate, C, having each a circular aperture cut through its centre.. A disc, D, is fixed in the aperture of the plate C, so that the surfaces of the disc and surrounding plate are in the same plane, the disc being a little smaller than aperture in order to insulate it from the plate. The area of the hole S in the middle plate B is equal to the area of the disc plus half the air-gap between the disc and the plate C. The plates A and B are connected to suitable numbers of accumulators so as to maintain the same uniform field above and below the middle plate B. The plate C and disc D are insulated, and each maintained at zero poten- tial by a special form of induction balance, which gives the charges acquired simultaneously by the disc D and plate C. The gas in the space between A and B is ionised by R6ntgen rays or by radio-active substances, and a uniform stream of ions passes through the aperture in the middle plate. The ions travel to the lower plate under the uniform electric field, and the stream opens out by diffusion, so that some of the ions q, arrive on the disc D, and the rest q, arrive on the plate C. The ratio q,/q. is found accurately by means of the induction balance, and the value of nxe may be obtained from the ratio. The equation connecting nxe and the ratio n,/n, is somewhat complicated, and it would be impossible to explain in a short space how the connection between these quantities is found, but it may be stated that a complete solution of the problem can be obtained in a series of Bessel’s functions. The experiments have been made with different forces and pressures, and it has been found that the value of nxXe for negative ions is in all cases within 3 per cent. or 4 per cent. of the value 1-23x10'°; under conditions where the greatest accuracy can be obtained the results are in tloser agreement with this number. For positive ions the value of nxe depends on the nature 1 Prof. Perrin has recently announced a new method of determining which gives trustworthy results. The number x comes to 2x 10! and corre- sponds to an atomic charge 4'1X10-!. (Jean Perrin, Comptes rendus, October 5, 1908). NO. 2050, VOL. 79] NATURE 443 of the radiation. © With non-penetrating secondary rays from a polished metal surface the value obtained was 126X10!", and for penetrating rays from a_ tarnished surface, or a surface covered with a thin layer of vaseline, larger values were obtained, the greatest being 2-4xX TO ‘Thus the negative ions have always a charge which exactly equal to the charge on a monovalent ion in liquid electrolyte, and the positive ions have either single or a double charge, the number of either kind in a conducting gas depending on the nature of the radiation. The values of nxe for positive and negative ions pro- duced by- the a and f rays from radio-active substances are both approximately 1-23 x 10'°. In addition to the above results, a notable effect. of small traces of moisture on the motion of negative ions was observed. When the gas is very dry the negative ions move as if they were very small particles, but when a small amount of moisture is admitted the mass of the negative ion is greatly increased, and obeys the same laws of diffusion as the positive ions. The motion of the positive ions under similar conditions is not affected by the dryness of the gas. Joun S. TowNsEND. ppa METEOROLOGICAL CHARTS OF THE INDIAN OCEAN. THE Indian Ocean is claiming at the present time a large share of the attention of meteorological offices. Recent issues of Nature have contained notices of meteor- ological charts for this area issued by the Meteorological Department of the Government of India and by the Meteorological Institute of the Netherlands (Nature, vol. Ixxviii., pp. 169, 487). The present charts are prepared by the Deutsche Seewarte. In area they exceed considerably those referred to above, for they embrace the region between latitudes 30° N. and 50° S., and longitudes 18° E. (Cape Town) and 158° E. The Australian waters and the eastern margin of the Pacific Ocean are thus included, while special inset charts extend the area northwards to include the Yellow Sea and the Sea of Japan. To deal effectively with the results, a scale of approximately 6 mm. to one degree at the equator has been selected, and in consequence an inconveniently large size of page, viz. 36 inches by 27 inches, has had to be adopted. The preparation of the results has occupied five years. The meteorological information has been abstracted mainly from the log-books of German vessels, but we are glad to note that, in addition, use has’ been made of all avail- able published information. The arrangement of the data on the charts, of which there is one for each month, is similar to that adopted on the charts for the Atlantic Ocean issued by the Seewarte. _ Conspicuous blue wind roses show for each square of 5° the percentage frequency of calms and of winds from each of sixteen directions. The mean wind force for each direction, on the Beaufort scale, is indicated by the number of barbs on the wind arrows. Small but distinct black arrows give the direc- tions of surface currents, with the average and the maxi- mum. observed displacement in nautical miles per day. Special attention has been devoted to a critical examina- tion of the current data, and several interesting articles on the subject appear on the backs of the charts. A state- ment of the number of observations on which each wind and current arrow is based would have been welcomed by students. In addition, each chart gives the tracks for steam and sailing vessels, the normal paths of hurricanes, the fre- quency of fog and ice, and the lines of equal magnetic declination. The region of easterly variation is dis- tinguished by a special tint. The text printed over the land areas gives, in addition to the necessary explanations, a brief summary of the weather conditions of each month, with special reference to the frequency of hurricanes. On the back of each chart we find four smaller maps, giving the annual change of magnetic variation, the average air temperature over sea and land, the average temperature of the surface water, and the average baro- metric pressure. In connection with the latter, we miss 1 Deutsche Seewar'e, Monatskarten fiir den indischen Ozean. (Hamburg Eckardt und Messtorff, n.d.) 444 an account of the diurnal variation of pressure, which is so important in the tropics. The only reference to this phenomenon is contained, incidentally, in an article on rules for handling the ship in hurricanes, given on the back of the chart for December. The remaining space on the backs of the charts is utilised to the full. On several of them detailed information is given of the systems of storm signals used in the area covered by the charts. Others give particulars of the time- signal stations. Numerous fully illustrated articles give particulars of meteorological events of special interest, such as the Hong Kong typhoon of September 18, 1906, and other famous hurricanes. In addition, we have a number of monographs on all manner of subjects of interest to the sailor and the meteorologist. Among them we mention specially one on the prevalence of easterly winds to the south of latitude 50° S. We congratulate the Seewarte on the completion of so important and arduous a piece of work, which is sure to prove of the utmost value both to sailors and students. THE FILTRATION AND PURIFICATION OF WATER FOR PUBLIC SUPPLY. (GREAT progress has been made in recent times in the appliances for purifying water. It is no longer necessary to go to distant uplands for a pure and palatable supply. By the methods of treating ordinary river water, carrying possibly hundreds of objectionable germs per c.c., drinking water is now being prepared from the lower reaches of the Thames and of many Continental rivers as wholesome as can be obtained from the mountains of Wales or of Scotland. So great has been the activity of scientific workers in this field that a new and complex branch of technology may be said to have come into existence. With reference to sources of supply, water companies should not place too much reliance on the innocuousness of supplies drawn from country districts. Water-courses and reservoirs should be protected from the intrusion of harmful matters, and the adjacent ground should be fenced off and planted. Special precautions are needful for pre- venting the ingress of impurities to wells and bore-holes, and where pollution occurs the origin of the same may be detected by suitable experiments. Storage reservoirs are a useful adjunct to a purifying plant, even when not re- quired for conserving the supply, and it has been proved by the researches of Dr. Houston that the bacteria of enteric practically all disappear from impounded water in two or three days. Still, as it appears that even here the survival of the fittest holds good, and that a few germs live on for weeks, water undertakers are not relieved from the duty of further treating the supply. Sedimentation proceeds more or less rapidly in stagnant reservoirs, but it has been found at the Paris installations that effective precipitation can be secured by running the water in channels, with frequent changes of direction. Thus space is economised. Discussing the retention of bacteria in filter beds, the lecturer directed particular attention to the functions of the filtering skin. It appears that in the finishing filter at Bedford, which is fed by a sprinkler, no skin is formed at the surface, because the water does not rest there. It sinks at once into the sand, and at a depth of about an inch and a half a slimy growth is easily perceptible on the grains, and this possibly serves the same purpose as the network of algoid growths bedecking the open sand beds. There are five distinct ways in which the sand bed operates in eliminating impurities, but what is most important in the operation of these beds is the circum- stance that, after cleaning, a considerable time must elapse before the purifying agencies come into effective action. Water managers should have the means of finding out when the effluent is pure, and in order to do this they must rely on bacteriological analyses. This is the method adopted on the Continent. Unfortunately, it is generally neglected here, and it is a matter of chance in too many 1 Abstract of a naper by Mr. John Don selected by the Council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for the first award of the “ Water Arbitration Prize,” 1908, and read before the Institution on January 15. NO. 2050, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY II, I19C9 cases whether there may or may not be dangerous germs passing through. Chemical analyses alone cannot reveal whether the filtrate is wholesome or not. The amount of nitrogen present as nitrate and nitrite is important enough, but analysts should not rely on this as the chief criterion for determining the purity of a sample. Fine Silica Sand ands Grit for Final Filtration Gay lo © A o i 2 3 $ 5 6 Feet Waste 2-3 Y Jr oh SS eS ES eee Fic. 1.—Compressed Air and Oxidising Waterworks Filter (Candy). Recently many mechanical appliances have been brought into use for the purification of water, and among these the Jewell filter is largely used in America. A precipitate of sulphate of alumina forms an efficient skin within a short time after cleaning, and thus there is a great saving Ozoniser. a Raw water inlet. U Purified water outlet. d Chamber catch ozone to unabsorbed h Chamber for waste gases. k Baffle plates. SOLO ILOOILELIIOOPDILL LIAL Fic. 2.—Sketch of Ozonising Apparatus (Howard-Bridge). Scale about 4s. Action of the Apparatus :—As the raw water passes down the pipe @ it draws the unabsorbed ozone by way of the tube / from the chamber d. Freshly ozonised air is also drawn into the current from the ozoniser through the pipe x. After traversing the vertical pipes, the water is caused to pass round a series of baffle plates #, and finally flowing under the recess at d it reaches the outlet. of time. The water also passes through the filtering layers forty times more quickly than it does in the open sand filter, but the effluent, subjected to every test, proves to be of a high degree of purity. In Britain, Mather and Platt’s and Bell’s filters are of similar construction, and FEBRUARY II, 1909] NATURE 445 have like advantages. Very fine work is done by the Candy filter, which dispenses with precipitants, and owes its efficiency to oxidium, a substance with properties akin to those of spongy platinum. Cheapness in working is a feature of this installation (Fig. 1), and the effluent is eertified by the highest authority to be excellent. Great interest has been taken of late in the ozone purifi- cation processes, which are in operation at Wiesbaden, Nice, Philadelphia, and elsewhere. The chief difficulty in the meantime is to reduce the cost of working to some- thing approaching the outlay for mechanical filtration by other means. Of the efficiency of ozone treatment there can be no question. The bacteria are practically eradi- cated. The filtrate is sparkling and palatable, even when the raw water is very bad. Progress has been made in reducing costs, and in particular the Howard-Bridge A. sean Cyl- inder. Bearings Hollow ‘Trunnions. Cylinder Sup- rts. for x ci Cz, ports. Support of In- let Pipe. Support of much longer period, and there is considerable saving of space and of working expenses. A necessary adjunct to all filtering appliances is a regulator to control the speed of the flow. Filters in which precipitants are employed also require a regulator for adjusting the dosage to the amount of water passing, and various attempts have been made to perfect an appliance for this end. Variations in the state of the raw water have also to be considered. In the course of distribution of the filtered water to consumers, impurities creep into the mains and service pipes, the chief being iron oxide and filaments of creno- thrix, and in special cases lead and its compounds; but by suitable means all these can be eliminated, and without much outlay. On the whole, the application of scientific method and research to the technicalities of water purifi- Outlet Pipe. x o Curved Beakers, Inlet Pipe. Outlet Pipe. Distributing Pipe. Gear Wheel. Outlet Cover, Valve. Air Inlet Air Outlet. FR SMR OMS Section at XxX. Ins.12 6 O 2 2 3 7 Ss 6 e 9 £0 704 12 Feet L ; f ' Fic. 3.—Rotating Cylinder containing fragments of Iron (Anderson). system effects a saving by collecting the unused ozone | cation have brought about many valuable improvements, (see Fig. 2, d) and returning it to the incoming stream. Many appliz ances are being tested at Paris for the purifi- | cation of river water, and notable results are being obtained from the Anderson system. this case is iron oxide. So much as metre is taken up by the raw water in traversing cylinders charged with scrap iron, and the oxide serves to precipitate fine silt and plankton, and finally to form a filtering couche on the sand beds (Fig. 3). It is here that the sedimentation by tortuous movements, and by conducting the flow over and under baffles, has been found to give such admirable results. Another remarkable system which is doing good work in the banlieue of Paris is the Puech-Chabal. Here the raw water is first passed through the roughing filters, dégrossisseurs, so called, in which it leaves a large part of the suspended matters. The dégrossisseurs are com- posed of grits and pebbles graded from about walnut size to gravel in the last of the series. The rough filtration enables the finishing filter to continue in operation for a NO. 2050, VOL. 79] The precipitant in | 3 grams per cubic }; son ; | Geology, and it may be expected that the future has much in store for the water engineer. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampBripGe.—The following have serve, for eight years from February electors to the professorship mentioned before _ their names :—Chemistry, Prof. Wood; Plumitan, Mr. Molli- Anatomy, Dr. Langley; Botany, Prof. I. B. Balfour ; Dr. A. S. Woodward; Jacksonian, Prof. Larmor; Medicine (Downing), Dr. Fletcher; Mineralogy, Dr. Marr; Political Economy, Dr. Marshall; Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, Mr. F. Darwin; Experimental Physics, Sir W. D. Niven; Mechanism and Applied Sciences, Dr. Forsyth; Physiology, Prof. Starling; Surgery, Dr. Gaskell; Pathology, Sir T. Clifford Allbutt ; and Agriculture (Drapers), Prof. Biffen. nominated to on the board of been 20, 446 NATURE [ FEBRUARY II, 1909 Mr. J. Bb. Peace, of Emmanuel , College, has .been appointed chairman of examiners for the mechanical sciences tripos, 1909. Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, of St. John’s College, has been nominated to represent the University on the occasion of the celebration in July of the fiftieth aniversary of the foundation of the Anthropological Society of Paris. Dr. T. G. Longstaff. will deliver a lecture in Cam- bridge on Friday, February 12, on his explorations in the Himalayas. "A lecture will be delivered in the Sedg- wick Museum at 5 p.m. on Tuesday, February 23, by Dr. Agnes S. Lewis, ‘* On some Deserts that I have Crossed.”’ Dr. Sven Hedin will deliver a lecture before the University on Thursday, March 4. With the object of encouraging original research in sanitary science, the Grocers’ Company offers two scholar- ships, each of "3001. a year, with an allowance to meet the cost of apparatus and other expenses in connection with the work, tenable for one year, but renewable for a second or third year, subject to the conditions of the scheme under which they are established. The next election will take place in May. Applications must be sent in before April 1 to the clerk of the Grocers’ Com- pany, Grocers’ Hall, London, E.C., from whom a form of application and further information may be obtained. The observatory syndicate has reported that, following closely on the generous gift of the Huggins instruments by the Royal Society, another offer of valuable spectro- scopic instruments has been made to the astrophysical department of the observatory by Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G., R.E. Among the instruments are a four-prism quartz spectroscope with 5-inch quartz objective, a two- prism dense flint spectroscope with 43-inch Cooke achro- matic objective, and a heliostat with 12-inch flat mirror by the late Dr. Common. Mancuester.—Dr. W. H. Lang has been appointed Barker professor in cryptogamic botany, and Dr. Marie C. Stopes has been appointed, for one year, special lecturer in palzeobotany. A RECENT number of Science announces the following benefactions to higher education in the United States. Gifts to the amount of 69,3001. to Princeton University, of which the largest, 40,o00l., was that of Messrs. David B. Jones and Thomas D. Jones, of Chicago, for the Palmer Physical Laboratory endowment fund. Other donations were 5rool. from the committee of fifty and 7oool. from the General Education Board. More than 8000. has been subscribed towards a fund of 20,0001. to endow a chair of physiology at the University of Cincinnati, of the late Mr. Joseph Eichberg. of Middlebury College, states that 18,3001. has been con- tributed toward the 20,0001. needed to secure the D. K. Pearson building and endowment fund of 20 ,oool. By the will of Dr. James G. Wheeler, Broughton, the James Millikin University, Decatur, will come into possession of his estate, estimated to be worth from 15,0001. to 25,0o00l. The Ohio State University has received 20001. from Mr. Robert T. Scott, Cadiz, the income to be used for the aid of poor students. From the same source we learn that Mr. John D. Rockefeller has made a further gift of 250,0001. to the University of Chicago. His gifts to the University now amount to more than 5,000,000l. At the last meeting of the board of directors of Bryn Mawr College a gift of 20,0001. was presented to the board by the Alumnz Association of the college, the first instalment of the sum of 200,o001. which the alumnz have undertaken to try to raise for the additional endowment of the college. The alumnz have made it a condition of their gift ‘that the money shall be used for academic salaries, and they have endowed the chair of mathematics with this first 20,0001., and stipulated that the money released by free- ing the college from maintaining this profes sorship shall used in raising the’ salary of each full professor in college. in honour President John Thomas, be the THE annual prize distribution of the Northampton Poly- technic Institute was held on Friday, February 5, when the prizes were distributed by the Earl of Halsbury, P.C. In the course of his address Lord Halsbury dealt very fully with certain aspects of technical education, particu- NO. 2050, VOL. 79| larly with the progress made during the six years since he last officiated at the Northampton. Polytechnic Institute in a similar capacity. It appeared to him that the world is somewhat more awake now. than it was some time ago, not only in this country, but in other countries, and that people are beginning to think that unless they are to be outstripped in the battle of the industries they must look to themselves and consider in these battles, as well as in battles of another sort, that the people who sleep on what they have guc are very likely to lose it, and that we-in England. are in danger of being left behind in the race. The need for high scientific training was’) emphasised by reference to the discovery of the part. played» by ‘fleas ‘on rats in the dissemination of disease, and the ‘* Ca Canny ’ principle was severely condemned. The liberality of the County Council towards the institute was suitably empha- sised in connection with the new buildings which were opened during the evening. The need of such institutes in view of the decadence of the system of apprenticeship was emphasised very strongly. At the end of his speech Lord Halsbury, as Prime Warden of the Saddlers’ Com- pany, announced that the company has entrusted the Northampton Institute with certain bursaries to be applied by the institute to those students in training who require such assistance, the bursaries being specially intended to assist the students in their work in the workshops during their four years’ training in the day engineering courses. At the conclusion of the prize giving, Lord Halsbury pro- ceeded to the new building, which has been erected at a cost of goool., the funds being provided by the London County Council. In the large lecture-room of these build- ings they were declared open. On the Friday evening and on the following evening some 6000 visitors inspected the institute. Tue annual general meeting of the Association of Technical Institutions was held at Grocers’ Hall, London, on February 5 and 6. ‘The business meeting on the first day was preceded by a luncheon, at which members of the association were entertained by the Grocers’ Company. In proposing the toast of ‘‘ The Association of Technical Institutions,’’ Sir William White said he does not believe in the truth of the statements as to the decadence of England, but he is sure that if we are to keep the position we hold we must as a nation lose no opportunity of developing the technical institutions of the country. Sir Norman Lockyer responded, and during the course -of his remarks said if Mr. Haldane had gone to the Education Office instead of the War Office, we should have had a Board of Education responsible for all education from top to bottom, instead of the truncated body we have at present. There would be a general staff, full of know- ledge, directing everything, so that in a few years’ time by this organisation and the administrative conditions it brought about we should have such a peace army as Mr. Haldane is endeavouring to give in the shape of a war army. At the subsequent meeting Dr. George T. Beilby, F.R.S., was elected president for 1909, and proceeded to deliver his address. If, he said, the members of the association are possessed by the belief that the industrial future of the nation must largely depend on the spread of education in science and in the application of its laws to the affairs of daily life, then they cannot escape from the conclusion that it is their particular duty to see to it that they are taking a leading part in this vitally important work. If, he pointed out, the training.in technical institu- tions is to be modelled on the lines of the best professional standards, it is necessary to secure the active cooperation of representative men from those industries for which. it is proposed to train the students. With the help of such representatives courses of instruction, practical as well as theoretical, must be organised. The same kind of reality must be given to the practical side of the work as is found in the clinical teaching of medical students, and it must be made compulsory for all who desire to obtain the full diploma of the college. On the second day Principal F. C. Forth, of Belfast, read a paper on the management of the entrance examinations giving admission to the evening classes of a technical institute, and Mr. Sidney Webb “opened a discussion on compulsory attendance 2+ evening classes. FEBRUARY I1, 1909] NALORE 447 AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, December 10, 1908, —‘‘ Potential Gradient in Glow Discharges from a Point to a Plane.” By J. W. Bispham. Communicated by Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. Three types of discharge were examined; for very small currents (type A) the glow was limited to the immediate neighbourhood of the point. For larger currents (type B) the luminous glow spread out in a conical form from point to plate, and the current, as indicated by a telephone in circuit, became intermittent. The oscillations of current amplitude could be augmented and decreased in frequency by capacity and inductance, and striz then began to appear. Che striz were absolutely steady to the eye, in spite of the intermittent nature of the current. When the current was still further increased the flow became continuous, and the glow (type C) was limited to the neighbourhood of the axis of discharge. In this condition the point appeared to be exerting no peculiar effect—the discharge was simply that between two small electrodes. An exploring electrode was inserted between the point and the plane, and by means of flotation on mercury it could be made to take up any position on the axis relative to the point and plane. ‘The electrode took up the potential of the gas, and in this way potential curves were obtained ang the electric force at various points calculated from them, Electric-force curves were obtained for the A type which indicated that it only possessed a limited range of stability, not being obtained at all for pressures less than 11-3 mm. (point negative) and 3 mm. (point positive) in discharges in hydrogen. Current increase led to the production of the B type of discharge. For the B type of discharge it was observed that the kathode dark space was abnormally large, and also that the kathode glow was a doublet con- sisting of two bright layers separated by a layer of very low luminosity. Apparent reversals of field were observed near the elec- trodes, but it was found that these apparent reversals varied with the capacity of the electroscope used to measure the potential, and they were interpreted to indicate local excesses of positive and negative electrification rather than reversals of field. The distortion of the potential curve Was increased by increasing the capacity of the electro- scope. No distortion was observed in the case of the C type of discharge, and the capacity of the electroscope did not affect the readings. Evidently the distortion of the curve was to be associated with the intermittent character of the discharge in type B. It was concluded (for type B) that the Crookes dark space was positively electrified, while negative ions were in excess at a point further away from the kathode. Similarly, when striz were obtained the anode side of a stria was positively electrified, while the kathode side was negatively electrified, as indicated by the potential curves. In the C type of discharge a constant and normal kathode fall was obtained for wide ranges of pressure and current variation, and the curves were of the same type as has been obtained by Prof. H. A. Wilson for discharges between small plane electrodes. They afforded testimony as to the efficient working of the explorer. In this type of discharge, also, the kathode dark space was observed to be unusually large, and the negative glow resembled rather a large stria embedded in a pale blue halo. Some of the curves obtained for the point glow (A type of discharge) indicated that the discharge proceeded in two stages, a discharge from the point to the neighbouring gas, succeeded by a discharge from this gas to the plate. Royal Microscopical Society, January 20.— Anniversary meeting.—Lord Avebury, F.R.S., president, in the chair. —Presidential address, entitled ‘‘ On Seeds, with Special Reference to British Plants’’: Lord Avebury. In this the president more particularly dealt with the seeds of gymnosperms and monocotyledons, in continuation of the address of the previous year, in which the seeds of dicoty- ledons were considered. ; Physical Society, January 22.—Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Effective resistance and inductance of a concentric main, and methods of computing the Ber and Bei and allied functions: Dr. A. Russell. The following NO. 2050, VOL. 79] SOCIETIES simple formula for the effective resistance R, per centi- metre length, of the inner conductor of a concentric main for high-frequency currents is obtained :— R=(pm/ 27a) (0-7071 + 1/2ma + 0-265/m*a*—0-35/m*a"), where p is the volume resistivity of the conductor, a its radius, m*=87"yf/p, mw the permeability of the conductor, and f the frequency of the alternating current. This formula may be used in wireless telegraphy for calculating the resistance of a conductor when other conductors carry- ing high-frequency currents are not too close. For values of ma greater than 6 the maximum inaccuracy of the formula is less than 1 in 10,000. In obtaining the solu- tion, exact formule are obtained for the density of the current at all points on the inner and outer conductors.— Note on the luminous efficiency of a black body: Dr. C. V. Drysdale. The importance of efficient methods of light production renders it of interest to ascertain the possibilities of a black body as a light radiator at various temperatures, and the author has attempted to obtain these from the radiation formula of Wien. The energy radiated between any two wave-lengths is written down, and the total radiation calculated. This, in conjunction with Kurl- baum’s determination. of the radiation constant, and Lummer and Pringsheim’s results, gives rise to the formula given in the paper. A table and curves calcu- lated from these formulae have been worked out by Mr. A. F. Burgess, and show the relation of the total and luminous radiation and luminous efficiency for various temperatures. The comparison of the luminous energy so calculated with the intensity of light radiation found by Prof. Féry leads to a mechanical equivalent of light of about 0-075 watt per candle, which is a fairly probable figure. The results show the enormous extent to which the luminous efficiency is dependent upon the temperature, and how extremely low it is at ordinary temperatures. At 1500° C. the efficiency is only of the order of 1 per cent. or less, while at 2000° C. it is about 3 per cent. The highest efficiency is obtained at a temperature of about 6500° C., and is then only between 4o per cent. and 50 per cent. This strongly points to the necessity for working in the direction of selective radiation or luminescence.— The use of the potentiometer on alternate current circuits : Dr. C. V. Drysdale. The great difficulty in alternate current measurement lies in the shortness of the range of the instruments available, and there is therefore a great need for some instrument which, like the direct potentio- meter, should be capable of measuring P.Ds. and currents of any range with accuracy. By interposing an ammeter on the dynamometer principle in the main circuit of a potentiometer and deriving the current from the secondary of a phase-shifting transformer, it is possible to check the instrument with direct current against the standard cell in the ordinary way, and then to reproduce the same current in the potentiometer circuit and to bring it into coincidence of phase with the P.D. to be measured. Experiments have been made with this device by Mr. A. C. Jolley and the author, first as to the accuracy of current measurement using an ordinary low-resistance standard, and have been found to give very good agreement with a Kelvin balance. Other tests have been made to obtain the vector difference of potential across a resistance coil and a choking coil connected in series, and the triangle of voltages so formed was found to be very nearly closed. The tests so far made seem to indicate that an alternate current P.D. of o-1 volt can be measured to an accuracy of 0-2 per cent. or closer. The author has also designed a universal potentiometer on this principle which serves both for direct- and alternate- current measurements, and for testing P.D., current, phase, power, inductance, capacity, &c. Royal Anthropological Institute, January 26.—Annual general mceting.—Prof. W. Ridgeway, president, in the chair.—Anniversary address, the relation of anthropology to classical studies: Prof. Ridgeway. The results that had followed from the use of the anthropological method in the study of the classics were pointed out. Subjects which had long been obscure or had given rise to wild specula- tions, in the light of anthropology took-upon themselves a clear meaning. For example, Aristotle’s account of the origins of Greek society, an account which had for long 448 NA TOEELE [FERRUARY II, 1909 perplexed scholars, can be explained by comparing it with institutions still surviving amongst primitive peoples; but it is only of recent years that any such comparison has been made, or such an explanation given. It is not only in the domain of sociology or religion that such a com- parative method is of service. The art of the Greeks, for example, can be shown to have been at one time in a stage comparable to that of the modern savage, from which it has directly developed. Again, a knowledge of anthropology will be of great service to an intelligent understanding of classical literature. The attacks which have been made on classical studies, and especially on the teaching of Greek, are in great measure due to the classical scholars themselves, who by their pedantry and _ indiffer- ence to scientific method have caused the reaction which has set in against these studies. Mineralogical Society, January 26.—Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—The identity of poonahlite with mesolite: Dr. H. L. Bowman. Small colourless prisms, associated with stilbite and pale green apophyllite from Poonah, which appear to be identical with the mineral described by H. J. Brooke in 1831 as poonah- lite, are shown by analysis to be mesolite, having a com- position corresponding to a mixture of two molecules of scolecite with one of natrolite. The optical characters are similar to those recently observed by Gorgay in mesolite from the Fer6ée Islands.—Cross-planes in twin-crystals : Dr. J. W. Evans. A twin-plane is composed of two equivalent planes, one from each component crystal, and every line in it is composed of two equivalent lines. A cross-plane is also composed of two equivalent planes, but there are only two, four, or six lines (at right angles in pairs) composed of equivalent lines. A plane of composi- tion is always a twin-plane or a cross-plane. In the former molecular distances are the same in all directions in the plane, in the latter in two, four, or six directions only.—Comparison of the refractive indices of adjoining crystals in a rock slice which have their directions of vibration oblique to one another; Dr. J. W. Evans. The Nicols are placed with their directions of vibration parallel and bisecting the angle @ between the directions of the vibrations the refractive indices of which are to be com- pared. The light received from these directions will (apart from interference) be proportional to cos?@/2, and that from those at right angles to them sin? @/2, so that the former will bear to the latter the ratio cot?@/2. If 6 be less than 35° this will be greater than ten, and the light from the directions at right angles may be neglected both in respect of its direct effects on the Becke phenomena and its indirect action in producing interference.—Note on the spontaneous crystallisation of solutions as spherulites : J. Chevalier. Experiments on solutions of potash-alum, sodium, ammonium and lithium sulphates, &c., made at the suggestion of Prof. Miers in the Oxford Mineralogical Laboratory, show that spherulites and sphero-crystals are characteristic of the spontaneous crystallisation of many solutions in thin drops. When other crystals grow first, it is probably because they have been introduced, the drop in that case appearing to be metastable. The spherulites mark the passage of the solution to the labile state.—A method for studying the optical properties of crystals: the late Dr. H. C. Sorby. The author gives complete details of his work on the determination of refractive indices in thin plates, of which preliminary accounts have been pub- lished in the first two volumes of the Mineralogical Magazine. The method he describes in the case of doubly refractive minerals is identical in principle (though devised quite independently) with that given by the Duc de Chaulnes for singly refractive substances, but is worked out in far greater detail—Some additional localities for idocrase in Cornwall: G. Barrow and H. H. Thomas. During the mapping of the metamorphic area round the Bodmin Moor granite, further occurrences of idocrase have been found in the altered limestones. Well-shaped crystals of the mineral, up to 6 mm. in length, are fairly common in drusy cavities. They are perfectly uniaxial, but show in thin sections considerable variation jn the double re- fraction, especially in the outer layers of the crystals. The idocrase is associated with pale pink to pinkish-brown garnet (often in regular intergrowth with the idocrase), NO. 2050, VOL. 79] pale green diopside, and epidote approximating to clino- zoisite in its low extinction and _birefringence.—Detrital andalusite in Tertiary and Post-Tertiary sands: H. H. Thomas. Occurrences of detrital andalusite are described in sands from various localities in West Wales. In no sedimentary rock of greater antiquity than the Pliocene has detrital andalusite been found. In the sands of West Wales the mineral occurs as slightly elongated, somewhat angular grains, often showing very intense pleochroism from blood-red to pale greenish-blue. It is associated in these sands with pink garnet, greenish-brown augite, cyanite, zircon, rutile, tabular anatase, staurolite, brown and more rarely blue tourmaline, green hornblende, bright green epidote, cordierite, iron ores, and in some cases glaucophane.—The energy of twin-crystals: H. Hilton. The author determines in a simple case the conditions according to which a twin-crystal may be a more stable form, or, in other words, may have less surface energy than a simple crystal of the same volume. Geological Society, January 27.—Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The Conway succession : Dr. Gertrude L. Elles. In this area the author found a complete succession of strata, from Llandeilian up to Salopian date. A table of the divisions proposed is given. The beds are described in ascending order, lists of fossils being given from the more important exposures. ‘There is no break in the sequence between the Ordovician and the Silurian rocks in the district. A detailed comparison is established between the rocks of this area and those of South Wales, the Rhayader and Tarannon districts, Lake- land, the south of Scotland, and Pomeroy. The Conway Mountain volcanic series appears to be equivalent to the Borrowdale volcanic rocks of the Lake District, and the Cadnant Slates and Bodeidda Mudstones equivalent to the Upper Dicranograptus Shales, Trinucleus beds, and Sholes- hook Limestone of South Wales, the Sleddale and Roman Fell groups of Lakeland, and the Upper Glenkiln and Lower Hartfell of the south of Scotland. The Deganwy Mudstones are paralleled with the Redhill beds and the Ashgill Shales. Close comparison is possible between the graptolitic zones of the Gyffin Shales and corresponding beds at Rhayader, Tarannon, in the Lake District, and the south of Scotland.—The depth and succession of the Bovey deposits: A. J. Jukes-Browne. The total thick- ness of the Tertiary beds in the Bovey basin has never yet been ascertained. Some years ago a boring, which reached a depth of 526 feet from the surface, was put down. Particulars concerning the beds traversed by this boring have led to a discussion of the succession of the Bovey deposits, so far as they have been explored. A generalised description of the strata seen in the Heathfield pit, and penetrated by the boring from the bottom of that excavation, is given. The conclusion arrived at by Pengelly in 1861 with regard to the relative age of the beds exposed in the ‘old coal-pit’’ south-east of Bovey Tracey, and those proved in a boring to the east of it, is confirmed. The total thickness of the ‘* Eocene ’’ beds is estimated to be about 613 feet. The Bovey basin itself is regarded as a tectonic basin or post-Eocene péri- cline, and not as a lalke-basin. Heer’s view of the manner in which the lignites were formed is dissented from, and the “identification of some of the plants discussed, and it is concluded that the lignites, which form the mass of the lower beds, represent the growth and decay of successive swamp-forests. Assuming these lower beds to be of Eocene age, and contemporaneous with the Bournemouth beds of the Hampshire basin, it is pointed out that nothing has yet been proved with regard to the higher beds, which may be of Bartonian or even of Oligocene age. MANCHESTER. Literary and Philosophical Society. January 26.—Prof H. B. Dixon, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—The dowels of some Egyptian coffins of the twelfth dynasty: T. G. B. Osborn. An examination was made of various wooden coffins of the twelfth dynasty in the Manchester Museum, using microscopic methods with the view of determining the timber emploved in their construction. The wood used in making the body of the coffins was found to be sycamore (Ficus sycomorus), while the dowels or wooden pins, with FEBRUARY 11, 1909] NATURE 449 which they were joined, were of acacia, a harder and tougher wood.—The diatomaceous deposit of the Lower Bann Valley, N. Ireland, and prehistoric implements found therein: J. W. Jackson. The diatom deposit occupies a considerable area on both sides of the river Bann, and varies in thickness from 6 feet at Culbane to 18 inches near Lough Beg. At Toome and the Ferry near Lough Beg the clay is cut out in brick form, dried, milled, and put up in sacks for export. ‘The prepared material, known as ** Kieselgthr,’’ is used in about fifty manufactures as varied as ‘‘ polishing powder,”’ ‘‘ filtering material,’’ “‘ insulating medium,” and ** tooth and face powders.’’ The prehistoric implements found in working the clay were collected by the late Mr. R. D. Darbishire and Mr. Bell, of Belfast. They comprise large numbers of worked flint flakes, viz. knives, borers, and scrapers, a few flint celts and arrow- heads, a number of implements made of coarse clay-slate, and several others. Other objects described were grind- stones, found near Culbane ; clay-slate whetstones, one being of peculiar interest from bearing on its face a number of rune-like characters, possibly inscribed thereon to convey a message; and a large saddle-quern, weighing 62 l|b., also found at Culbane. Some Oghamie scribings from other parts were referred to. The tools probably range from the Neolithic to the Bronze age. DUBLIN. Royal Irish Academy, January 25.—Dr. F A. Tarleton, president, in the chair.—The Irish horse and its early history: Dr. R. F. Scharff. That the modern Irish horse shows remarkable traces of an eastern strain is well known, and has been alluded to by many writers. This is currently believed to be due to human introduction of Spanish horses possessing eastern characteristics. Prof. Ridgeway contended that a superior class of horses re- sembling the Libyan race had been sent to Ireland even since pre-Christian times. The author exhibited Irish horse remains from crannogs, bogs, marls, and caves, and showed that all these were quite as Arab-like as any modern Irish horse, even more so. He expressed the view that, as some of these bones belonged to wild horses, the eastern features in the modern races were not altogether the result of artificial introduction, but due to inheritance from the original wild stock of the country.—A supple- mentary list of the spiders of Ireland: Denis R. Pack- Beresford. The list contains the record of fifty-eight species of spiders taken in Ireland since the publication of Prof. Carpenter's ‘‘ List of the Spiders of Ireland’’ in 1898. Only one species—Lophocarenum stramineum, Menge—has not yet occurred in Great Britain, though it has been taken in two localities in the south of Ireland. A single specimen of the rare Eugnatha striata, L. Koch, is recorded from Sligo, and Gongylidiellum paganum, Sim., Lophomma statiorum, Sim., and Wideria melanocephala, Camb., have been taken in Co. Carlow, having only previously been found in single localities in England. An exotic species—Triaeris stenaspis, Sim.—a_ native of Venezuela, has been taken in the Botanic Gardens, Glas- nevin, in the hot-houses. A second list contains a few corrections in nomenclature of species in Prof. Carpenter’s list, and a third gives all the records available at present of new localities for some of the rarer species inhabiting Ireland.—Contributions towards a monograph of the British and Irish Oligochwta: R. Seuthern. Ten new species were described, and twenty-one additions to the fauna of the British Isles were recorded. The total number of species and subspecies now known to occur in the British Isles is 135. A consideration of the distribution of the Irish earthworms leads to the conclusion that the j Lusitanian species, at least, are part of a pre-Glacial fauna. This is opposed to the “‘ glacial’? theory advanced by Prof. Michaelsen to explain the present distribution of the Lumbricidie. Paris. Academy of Sciences, February 1.—M. Bouchard in the chair.—The diffusion of saline manures in the soil: A. Muntz and H. Gaudechon. A patch of soil containing a salt such as potassium chloride or nitrate attracts moisture from the surrounding earth, giving a damp patch. This explains why it is not advisable to use such manures NO. 2050, VOL. 79] at the time the seeds are planted, since if the seed is in a saline patch it is killed by the strong solution, and out- side such a patch the soil is rendered too dry for germina- tion. Even in moist soils diffusion of the salt horizontally takes place with extreme slowness.—A fructification of a Lycopodinium found in the Trias: P. Fliche.—Results of micrometric measurements made at the Observatory of Lyons during the eclipse of the sun of June 28, 1908: J. Merlin.—Ihe comparative activity of the Leonid and Geminid swarms of November 14, 1907: Maurice Farman and Em. Touchet.—New researches on the selective absorption and diffusion of light in interstellar space: G. A. Tikhoff. Photographs of the Pleiades were made through four screens allowing the passage of the ultra- violet, indigo-violet, yellow-green, and orange rays re- spectively. “he proofs thus obtained showed very clearly that, with a few exceptions, the difference of brightness of the brilliant and feeble stars of the Pleiades increases in an unexpected manner in passing from the orange rays to the ultra-violet. The general results are in accordance with the predictions of Prof. Turner in a recent note on the diminution of light in its passage through interstellar space, based on the supposition of the scattering of light by particles disseminated through space.—Families of Lamé composed of Dupin cyclids: A. Demoulin.—Some remarks on geodesic lines, with reference to a recent note by M. Drach: M. Hadamard.—The integrals of an algebraical differential equation of the first order: Pierre Boutroux. —The application of a generalised theorem of Jacobi to the problem of S. Lie-Mayer: W. Stekloff.—The approximate representation of continuous functions by a multiple integral: M. fFréchet.—The diminution of phosphorescence at low temperatures: J. de Kowalski. Various derivatives of benzene cooled to the temperature of liquid air were exposed to the rays of a mercury arc lamp. The phosphorescence was then observed through different screens, and the time during which the light was visible noted. It was found that the diminution of intensity was more rapid with the long wave-lengths than with the short wave-lengths.—Some new reactions of dioxyacetone: G. Deniges. A solution containing dioxy- acetone, sulphuric acid, and potassium bromide gives definite colour reactions with gallic and salicylic acids and other organic compounds.—The action of air and other oxidising agents on coals: O. Boudouard. In contact with air, coals absorb oxygen, especially at high tempera- tures. Coking coals, oxidised at 100° C., lose their power of coking, and after such treatment contain humic acid. —The formation of hydrocyanic acid in the action of nitric acid on phenols and quinones: A. Seyewetz and L. Poizat. Hydrocyanic acid is formed by the action of a boiling solution of nitric acid (20 per cent.) on numerous organic compounds, especially those containing a phenolic or quinonic group. This is due to the presence of nitrous acid, since if urea or aniline be present no hydrocyanic acid is formed, and a theory based on this fact is sug- gested.—The action of nitrosobenzene on the secondary amines: P. Freundler and M. Juillard.—Some reactions of the 9: 10-dihydride of anthracene and of anthranol: R. Padova. A condensation product with benzophenone chloride is described.—The combustion of gases without flame and on the conditions of lighting by incandescence : Jean Meunier.—The extension of the notion of solubility to colloids: M. Ductaux. The ordinary definition of solubility is inapplicable to colloids. If a colloid solution is placed in a vessel permeable to the solvent, the latter will escape through the walls, and the concentration of the colloid will increase up to a certain limit, which defines the solubility at the temperature of the experiment. The classification of colloids is considered from this point of view.—The action of acids on peroxydiastase: Gabriel Bertrand and Mile. M. Rozenband.—The maltase of maize: R. Huerre. Different species of maize contain maltases differing in their temperatures of maximum activity, and also in the range of temperature over which hydrolysis of starch takes place-—The use of ferrous arseniate against the parasitic insects of plants: MM. Vermorel and Dantony. This insecticide possesses the advantages of adhering well to the plants, strong in- secticidal powers, little or no damage to the plant, and less 450 dangerous to man than other arsenical compounds pre- viously proposed.—Concerning the anatomy of the human thymus: René Cruchet. The results recently published by MM. Henri Rieffel and Jacques Le Mée confirm the results published by the author seven years ago.—New cytological researches on the aseptic autolysis of the liver : L. Launoy.—Researches on the contagion of tuberculosis by air: M. Le Noir and Jean Camus. Experiments made with the air of a hospital ward filled with tuberculous patients showed that while no bacilli could be detected in the air, the dust was infected.—The duration of the hypo- tensive effects resulting from high-frequency currents : E. Doumer. The good effects are in general durable. In cases where there was a tendency to relapse, a very short course of the original treatment was sufficient again to lower the blood pressure.—The immediate and ultimate results of arterio-venous suture: Albert Frouin. —The various types of stolon in Syllidians, especially a new species (Syllis cirropunctata): Aug. Michel.—The evolutive cycles of a Scyphistome: Edgard Hérouard.— The existence of coal at Gironcourt-sur-Vraine (Vosges) : René Nickles. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Fepruary 11. Roya. Society, at 4.30.—The Nerves of the Atrio-ventricular Bundle: J. Gordon Wilson.—An Experimental Estimation of the Theory of Ancestral Contributions in Heredity: A. D. Darbishire.—On the Determination of a Coefficient hy which the Rate of Diffusion of Stain and other Substances into Living Cells can he measured, and hy which Bacteria and other Cells may be Differentiated: H. C. Ross.—The Origin and Destiny of Cholesterol in the Animal Organism. Part III., The Absorption of Cholesterol from the Food and its Appearance in the Blood: C. Dorée and J. A. Gardner —On the Origin and Destiny of Cholesterol in the Animal Organism. Part IV., The Cholesterol Contents of Eggs and Chicks: G. W. Ellis and J. A. Gardner. InstITUTION OF ELEcrrRIcAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Use of Large Gas Engines for Generating Power: L. Andrews and R. Porter. MATHEMATICAL Society, at 5.30 —On the Relation between Pfaff’s Pro- blem and the Calculus of Variations: Prof. A. C. Dixon.--On Implicit Functions and their Differentials: Dr. W. H. Young.—On a Certain Family of Cubic Surfaces: W. H. Salmon.—Some Fundamental Pro- perties of Lebesgue Integrals in a Two-dimensional Dpmain: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—Modular Invariants of a General System of Linear Forms: Prof. L. E. Dickson.—The Conformal Transformations of a Space of Four Dimensions and the Generalisation of the Lorentz Einstein Principle : a Bateman and E. Cunningham.—On Indeterminate Forms: Dr. W. H. oung. FRIDAY, Fesrvuary 12. Roya Instirution, at 9.—The Electrical Properties of Flame: Prof. H. A. Wilson, F.R.S. PuysicaL Society, at Address. MAatcacotocicat Society, at 8.—Annual General Meeting.—Presidential Address : Darwinism and Malacology : B. B. Woodward. INsTITUTION oF Civit. ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Design and Construction of Docks: Sir Whately Eliot. 8.—Annual General Meeting. — Presidential MONDAY, Feprvuary 15. Royar Society oF Arts, at 8.—Modera Methods of Artificial INumina- tion: Leon Gaster. Vicrorta INsTITUTE, at 4.30.—Discoveries in Babylonia and Neighbouring Lands: Dr. T. G. Pinches. TUESDAY, Frsrvary 16. Royav Instirurion, at 3.—The Architectural and Sculptural Antiquities of India: Prof. A. A. Macdonell. ZooLocicat Soci yy at 8.30.—The Fauna of the Cocos-Keeling Atoll: F. Wood-Jones.—Contributions to the Anatomy of certain Unguleta, including Tapirus, Hyrax, and Antilocavra: F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.— Le Rhinocéros Blanc du Soudan: Prof. E. L. Trouessart. Royat Statistica Society, at 5.—Forestry in Some of its Economic Aspects: Prof. W. S merville. {nsTITUTION OF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—The Design of Marine Steam- Turbines: S. J. Reed. Rovac Socimtry or Arts, at 8.—The Commercial Relations of France and Great Britain : Yves Guyot. WEDNESDAY, Frervary 37. OSCOPICAL SOCIETY, a —Ona German Silver Powell Port- scope, made in : A. A.C. E. Merlin: The “Red Snow” aerella nivalis: G. S. West. Rovat Mereorotocicat Society. at 7-30:—Report on the Phenological Observations for 1908: E Mawley.—Uhe Cold Spell at the End of December, 1908: W. Marriott. NO. 2050, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY II, 1909 THURSDAY, Fesruary 18. .30.—Probable Papers: On the Osmotic Pressures of aS aaa Solutions, Bee II., Weak Solutions: Earl of Berkeley, F.R.S., E. G. J. Hartley and J. Stephenson.—On the Spon- taneous Crystallisation of Monochloracetic Acid and its Mixtures with Naphthalene: Prof. H. A. Miers, F-R.S..and Miss F. Tsaac.—An Appa- ratus for Measurements of the Defining Power of Objectives: J. de G. Hunter.—On Best Conditions for Photographic Enlargement of Small Solid Objects : A. Mallock, F.R.S. Roya Institution, at 3-—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Mexico: Dr. Hans Gadow, F.R.S. Linnean Society, at 8.—Discussi n on Alternation of Generations: opened by Dr. W. H. Lang. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 19. Royat Institution, at 9. - Recent Advances in Means of Saving Life in Coal Mines: Sir Henry Cunynghame, K.C.B. INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Annual General Meeting. —Further discussion : The Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply : John Don. InstTiTuTION OF Civit. ENGINEERS, at 8.—Standardisation in Engineering Practice: Dr. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. CONTENTS. PAGE A New Encyclopedia of Agriculture. -By Dr. E. J. Russell : 5 : Piet eer Ra sen Aa The Campaign against Tuberculosis, By R. T. H. 422 Tradition and Monumental Remains .. . - 423 Vaccination and Opsonic Action DR eee eg) Science out of School. By G. F, Dy) 0.) 2 2 aed Physical Acoustics oe bb inc orice Gon LAS , Our Book Shelf :— Wheeler: ‘‘The Zonal-belt Hypothesis. A New Explanation of the Cause of the Ice Ages.”— (Gi 7S [onl Ca weld Galhion by La 426 West and West: ‘‘A Monograph of the British Desmidiacez ” a Sane Teich Ge aed 20 McConnell: ‘‘ Crops, their Characteristics and their Cultivation” . PE Prbecr cs, ce: Reet Macaccter 427 South: ‘The Moths of the British Isles.”— N/a pe CMM 8 is 4 Bae S yo SI Munro: ‘‘Les Stations lacustres d’Europe aux Ages de la Pierre etdu Bronze” . . ey Stroobant : ‘* Les Progrés récents de l’Astronomie.”»— WiTE: Rolston: +)... Shcentmeen pasadena eT Letters to the Editor :-— Seismograms of the Earthquake of January 23. ( Wzth Diagram.)—Dr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S. . . 428 The Italian Earthquake.—Rev. Dr. A. Jrving 428 The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere.—R. F. SUL) 01. ro Oi Ss an bln oe . A28) The Size of the Leather Turtle.—Dr. F, A. Lucas. 429 Moral Superiority among Birds.—Laura D. H. Dukes. . 3-2 » 429 Women and the Fellowship of the Chemical Society 429 Periodicity in the Sun and the Red Variable Stars 43 The International Congress of Chemistry . apeAg2 The Hutton Memorial Medal and Research Fund. CUPS LOD) ea ae PUBOE De Det op 3c W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S. By H.B.W. .... . 433 INGIAS i Ga eee Men ce cS CSYC) Our Astronomical Column:—- Water-vapour Lines in the Sun-spot Spectrum . . . 438 The Spectrum and Form of Comet Morehouse . . . 439 Parallax of 23 H Camelopardalis Beppe yo» fis{s) The Stars of the ¢ and ac Subdivisions in the Maury Spectral Classification : Dich oe ep el a AO) The Stars surrounding 59 Cygni. . . ....... 439 Errors of Double-Star Measures ......... 439 Electrification of Railways kore ete o =, 6480) The Telegraphic Transmission of Writing. (Z//us- trated.) . ae SEE CA ohMGs OW chase yo KI Some Entomological Papers ... . Pane Soe 442) The Charges on Ions. By Prof. John S. Townsend, Pek: . 442 Meteorological Charts of the Indian Ocean . . - 443 The Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply-.a(W2th Diacrams.)|. . g.0 0 ee naa University and Educational Intelligence. . 5 eo CkIS SocietiesjandjAcademies 5) = 7.5) asus eeenrday DiarysofeSocieties - . . . | Gans cee eenee en d5O -_ NATURE 451 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 18, 1909. APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY OF THE : CIRCULATION. Therapeutics of the Circulation: Eight Lectures de- livered in the Spring of 1905 in the Physiological Laboratory of the University of London. By Sir Lauder -Bruhton, Bart., F.R.S. Pp. xii+272. (London: John Murray, 1908.) Price 7s. 6d. net. ERHAPS there is no department of the healing art in which the vivifying and reconstructing influence of physiology and of laboratory methods is more apparent than in that devoted to the study of disorders and diseases of the circulation. Of this position the recently published volume of lectures by Sir Lauder Brunton affords an excellent illustration, for all through its pages we see how physiology aids the physician, not only in clarifying his conceptions of clinical facts, but in applying and inspiring his treat- ment of circulatory ailments. For the execution of the work the author possesses the happy combination of advantages derived from his early laboratory training under the celebrated Ludwig, from his life-long love of physiology, and from his extended experience as a clinical worlser and teacher. It has been said that the physician is—or should be —a physiologist and something more; and_ that “something more ’’ is the practical quality of apply- ing, not only his pathological, but also his physio- logical data to the work of the hour. The dominance of that quality in the author’s handling of the material of his lectures is a prominent feature of the volume. In the earlier lectures we have an exposition of the physiology of the circulation. The clear and comprehensive description of the forces at work will be appreciated, not only by professional readers—_ whether physiologists or clinicians—but by those members of the community who take an interest in the study of physiological subjects. Moreover, even the medical reader fairly conversant with clinical work on the circulation may, by the perusal of these lectures, gain something in the clearness of his conception of the fundamentals presented by an author who has the gift of exposition and happy illustration. In the first lecture we have a description of the parts played by the heart, the arteries, capillaries and veins, the vaso-motor system of nerves, and the acces- sory aids to the circulation furnished by the fasciz and muscles; these and cognate topics are discussed under such headings as sleep of the heart, motor and peristaltic action of arteries,- accessory muscles of the circulation, arterial tension or blood-pressure and its regulation, the influence of the muscular and splanchnic areas, depressor nerves, independent pulsa- tion of veins, &c. ; But the physiologist and pathologist will be more particularly attracted to that portion of the lecture which is devoted to the study of the point of origin and the conductivity of the impulse which culminates in the contraction of the ventricle, a subject which has, especially of late vears, fascinated the pathologist as well as the physiologist—for it-affords the kev to | i ‘ NO. 2051, VOL. 79| the irregularity of the heart’s action, and to the disso- ciation of the auricular and ventricular contraction. It is now some twenty-five years since Gaskell demon- strated the continuous track of the impulse from the venous sinus, in which it originates, to the auricle, and from the auricle to the ventricle; and the sound- ness of this physiological conclusion has since been confirmed by the work of Stanley Kent, W. His, jun., and more recent workers (such as Tawara and Keith), who have established the existence of a specialised muscular tissue possessing neuro-muscular properties, which forms the anatomical basis of the track fol- lowed by the impulse from the sinus to the ventricle. In introducing this subject the author cites the work of Romanes on the medusa, a polyp which is cir- cumscribed by a bell-shaped piece of contractile protoplasm margined by a nervous gangliated chain and a fringe of mobile tentacles. This work, though executed some few years before that of Gaskell, forms a happy illustration of the broad results of the inquiry into the conductivity in the heart muscle, and will well repay perusal. Some recent workers hold that it is an inherent property of the heart muscle to originate and conduct the stimulus which causes the heart to beat, they regarding this function as independent of the nervous ganglia and the nerve fibres in the heart. The author is not one of these. He says, referring to his work with Cash :— ‘“These experiments, which were not only very numerous but very varied, seemed to us to show that, just as in a medusa, there are in the heart two distinct channels, the nervous as well as the muscular, by which stimuli are conducted from one part of the heart to another, and that the nervous conduction may interfere with the muscular conduction *’ (pp. 32-4). Furthermore, he points out that ‘‘ the importance of the cardiac ganglia in originating the beats of the heart has been prominently brought forward since these lectures were given, by Dogiel and Arch- angelsky, Pfliiger’s Archiv, July, 1906’ (p. 30); that ““ Kronecker and Imchanitzky have shown that the bundle of Stanley Kent and His (connecting the auricles and ventricles) can be ligatured without dis- turbing the coordination between the auricles and ventricles ’’ (p. 225); and that Paukul has found nervous plexuses in that bundle, ‘injury of which disturbs coordination, while ligature of the muscular part of the bundle does not impair coordination *’ (p. 2215). In connection with this subject, the reader will also find further interesting matter in the appendices A and D. In appendix A the author treats on the conduction of stimuli and the contractility of organic tissues allied to that of the fibres of His and Pur- kinji in the heart—such as contractile vegetable protoplasm (producing the movements of plants), con- tractile animal protoplasm (amceba, leucocytes), neuro- muscular cells (fresh-water hydra). Appendix D is an epitome of an interesting contribution by the author’s old friend and fellow-worker of nearly forty years ago in Ludwig’s laboratory, Prof. Kronecker, of Berne, who has done so much to advance our knowledge R 452 of the physiology of the heart. From it we gather, among other things, that it was Kronecker who dis- covered ‘that the heart is not irritable during systole ’’—denominated by Marey the _ refractory period; that Kronecker and his pupils found that the heart ‘‘ ceases to beat if its contents are deprived of all stimulating properties ’’—from which fact we may infer ‘‘ that there is no true automatism in the ven- tricle, but only intermittent action to a constant stimulus ’’; that ‘‘ no other material enables the heart to beat except serum albumin, and to a very slight degree, serum globulin ’’; that Bowditch’s law (mini- mal stimuli causing maximum pulsations, or in a word ‘all or nothing”) holds good without any exception; that the rhythmicality of the flow through the arteries causes much more fluid to pass through them than when the flow is continuous; and that self- massage of the heart and vessels is an important factor in maintaining the efficiency of the circulatory ‘mechanism. The last-named topic (self-massage of ‘the heart, arteries, lymphatics, and veins) is also fully discussed by the author, who points out its important bearing on the nutritive integrity of the heart and the arterial wall. The author suspects that some may consider he has devoted too much space to the consideration of self-massage of the heart and vessels, and the conduction of stimuli in the heart. There is no doubt, however, that he is justified by the scant reference to these subjects in the text-books and by their practical importance. In lectures ii. and iii., and in the appendix B, we vhave a very full and well-illustrated description of most of the instruments which have been devised for the measurement of blood-pressure in man for clinical purposes. The variety in construction shows us what a large amount of thought and ingenuity have been expended in devising them, so as to satisfy as much as possible clinical needs and accuracy. The introduction of such devices into clinical work has always been regarded with suspicion by physicians, who ever since the days of Herophylus have trusted with implicit faith to the infallibility of the tactus eruditus. In view of this natural distrust it is therefore of some import- ance, when discussing the claims of these innovations, to attach due weight to the objections which may be advanced to their adoption. The author does not, however, touch on this aspect of the clinical employ- ment of blood-pressure apparatus. Probably this omission has arisen from want of space or the unsuit- ability of the subject for treatment in these lectures. We are therefore left to infer that he highly appre- ciates the advantages derived from the adoption of the methods now in use for the clinical measurement of blood-pressure, and that the practical value of these methods is amply justified by observation and experi- ence; and there is no doubt that that is the verdict of the majority of those who have so far adopted these methods. The test of their usefulness is measured by the help and satisfaction they afford in the daily routine of practice rather than in the discovery of minor defects, which actually do not count for anything in disturbing the conclusions of the physician in clinical work. The author has, therefore, wisely devoted a 2051, VOL. 79| NO WO, NATURE [FEBRUARY 18, I1go9 large portion of his lecture to this important subject, which more than any other has made it possible to apply our knowledge of the physiology of the circula- tion to the service of man. To comment on the remaining lectures in which the author discusses in an instructive manner various diseases of the heart and their treatment would unduly extend this review, and introduce topics some- what extraneous to the scope of Nature. But these remarks should not be closed without a reference to the profusion of excellent illustrations, which add greatly to the clear conception of the text, and the admirable indices, which facilitate easy and accurate reference. JUSTUS VON LIEBIG. By Jacob Volhard. Band I., pp. (Leipzig: J. A. Justus von Liebig. xii+456. Band II., pp. viii+437. Barth, 1909.) Price 24 marks. HIRTY-FIVE years have passed since Liebig died, and we are at length presented with a biography worthy of the man and his work. At the time of his death innumerable articles on his life and achievements appeared in the newspapers and period- ical press of practically every country in the world, and almost every known scientific society having rela- tions with chemistry made reference to his splendid services, and to the irreparable loss which humanity had suffered by his decease. Some of these, such as the memorable lecture of Hofmann, are among the classics of chemical bio- graphy. But a generation has had to come and go before the appearance of a worlk which would serve to fix for all time without question Liebig’s true place in the history of the science he did so much to illumine and develop. The delay has not been without its compensations. Time is required to estimate the real value of such services as Liebig was able to render. The outcome of his work was not wholly apparent during his lifetime, or even in the years immediately following his death. Germany was barely a united nation in 1873. Although the seed of her supremacy ; in chemistry, and in many branches of the chemical arts, had been sown in the early Giessen days, and although he lived to see the signs of its abundance, Liebig died before the harvest was garnered. It is hardly garnered yet. The impetus which he gave to the study of chemistry still males itself felt, not only in his native country, but throughout the world. To him, more than to any other man, is due the inception of the movement resulting in that development and extension of the industries dependent upon organic chemistry which is the most remarkable features of our times, Liebig, a man of good fortune in his life, as the Romans say, is fortunate also in his biographer. With the possible exception of Hofmann, no more fitting choice could have been made than Prof. Volhard. The author and his subject were on terms of strong per- sonal friendship, dating, indeed, from Dr. Volhard’s early youth. He was, in fact, like a son of the house in Liebig’s family. For some years Dr. Volhard one of FEBRUARY 18, 1909] acted as Liebig’s assistant, and ultimately was en- trusted by him with the delivery of the course of lectures on organic chemistry which he regularly gave in the summer semester. It is this intimate personal knowledge of his subject, and the whole-hearted sym- pathy, appreciation, and respect which, a_ life-long intercourse had engendered, that gives to Dr. Vol- hard’s work its special and peculiar value. It is quite impossible within the compass of a notice such as this to do more than briefly indicate how admirably Dr. Volhard has risen to his opportunity. As already stated, the work is worthy of the subject, and no higher praise is possible. Justus von Liebig—the first of his name to be en- nobled—belonged to an Odenwald family which could trace its ancestry as far back as 1575. Some of the members spelled the name as it is pronounced, viz. Liebich. Justus was the second son in a family of ten children, and was born in 1803. His father, Johann Georg Liebig, was a druggist and drysalter in Darmstadt, who had his shop in a little house in the Kaptaneigasse, one of the oldest streets in the old town. His mother, Marie Caroline Moser, was de- scribed as an active little woman with the bright eyes and sharply cut features of her famous son. Indeed, from her Liebig seems to have inherited also many of his mental and intellectual characteristics, his energy, and remarkable power of work. It is easy to determine the conditions which made Liebig a chemist. From his earliest years he was familiar with the sight of chemical operations. Chemical utensils and apparatus were his toys, and for a time he had no other aim in life than to follow his father’s occupation. But as his knowledge in- creased his interests widened, and science eventually claimed him. Even before he left the gymnasium he had settled in his own mind what his life’s work was to be—‘ Chemiker will ich werden, nicht Apothe- ker ”—and accordingly in 1820 he was sent to Bonn to listen to Kastner’s dull and. formal prelections. In the following year he went with Kastner to Erlangen, where he published his first scientific com- munication. It appears in Buchner’s Repertorium der Pharmacie, xii., 412, with a commendatory notice from Kastner, under the title ‘‘ Einige Bermerk- ungen tuber die Bereitung und Zusammensetzung des Brugnatellischen und Howardschen Knallsilbers. Vom Herrn Liebig, der Chemie Beflissenen aus Darm- stadt.’? With August von Platen as his friend, Liebig was “ein ganzfideler Student,’’ to whom the Erlan- gen “ Karzer’’? was not altogether unknown, as the acts of the university testify. Kastner was not very inspiring, and knew nothing of analysis. From Erlangen Liebig passed to Paris, where, thanks to the interest of Humboldt, he was well re- ceived by Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Dulong, Biot, and tae rest of the remarkable group which made Paris the chief centre of scientific activity of that age. A mew era dawned on Liebig; with Gay-Lussac his relations became especially cordial. They worked together on fulminic acid, and under Gay-Lussac’s inspiration and direction Liebig became an investi- gator. ‘‘ Liebig,’’ says his biographer, ‘‘ bewahrte NO. 2051, VOL. 79] ” NATURE 453 dem vaterlichen Freund die warmste Verehrung. Sein Zusammenarbeiten mit Gay-Lussac bildet den Glanzpunkt seiner Jugend.’’ To the end of his days Liebig always spoke of this association with the warmest feelings of pleasure and gratitude. He was wont to relate how, when some particularly difficult analysis had succeeded, or when some new and sur- prising fact had been elicited, the two investigators sought to relieve their excitement by waltzing together round the laboratory table. It was mainly through the good offices of Gay- Lussac, working through his friend and fellow aca- demician Alexander von Humboldt, that the Grand Duke of Hesse was led to interest himself still further in the fortunes of the young man ‘‘ der Chemie Beflissenen aus Darmstadt,” and in 1824 Liebig, in the twenty-first year of his age, was appointed, with- out previous consultation with the faculty, and some- what to their displeasure, extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Giessen. On the death of Zimmermann in the following year he became ordinary professor and sole teacher of his subject. Liebig’s life during the twenty-eight years he re- mained at Giessen is, of course, the main theme of Dr. Volhard’s book. The principal features of his Giessen career are familiar to everyone who has even the slightest acquaintance with the development of chemistry during the second quarter of the nineteenth century, but these features are now filled in by Dr. Volhard with a degree of detail which is almost Boswellian in its completeness and exactitude. One rises, in fact, from the perusal of the narrative with the conviction that surely the last word on the subject has been said. Liebig’s chief work was, of course, done at Giessen, and the twenty years of his subse- quent life at Munich, whilst it in nowise diminished, hardly added to the world-wide and imperishable reputation which his sojourn at the ‘‘ little university on the banks of the Lahn ”’ had secured for him. Liebig’s life was so full, his services were so re- markable, and his achievements so striking, that not even the most unskilful of biographers could fail to invest his story with interest. Dr. Volhard is very far from being an unskilful biographer, and he has put together his great mass of material with circumspection and judgment. Much of Liebig’s correspondence has already been published, and his relations to his contemporaries and to the scientific movements of his time are already well known, and passing references to these matters, suffi cient to make the story complete, were alone neces- sary. Exception might perhaps be taken to certain features in the construction and plan of the work, and, as a bool for general readers, it suffers from the common fault of biographies of being over-elaborate. But Dr. Volhard may urge that his book was primarily in- tended for those who have a lively and abiding interest in Liebig, viz. the chemists who revere his name and who seek to be inspired by his example, and these will certainly not cavil at the wealth of detail which is manifested in this monumental work. T. E. Tuorrpe. 454 THE CONSTRUCTION OF SHIPS: The Design and Construction of Ships. By Prof. J. H. Biles. Vol. i. Calculations and Strength. Pp. viiit+423; 280 illustrations. (London : G.) Gruting sands Goo elt 1908.) Price 25s. net. HIS is the first. of two volumes dealing with modern methods of procedure used in connection with the design and construction of ships. It em- bodies details of courses of instruction given to students of naval architecture during the seventeen years the author has occupied the chair of naval archi- tecture in the University of Glasgow. That professor- ship was founded about twenty-five years ago by the generosity of Mrs. John Elder, widow of a celebrated marine engineer, and was the first attempt made in any British university to provide instruction in the ' science and practice of shipbuilding. The Admiralty had previously established schools of naval architec- ture, mainly for the purpose of training their own shipbuilding officers, and it is noteworthy that all the men who have held the Glasgow professorship, the late Dr. Elgar, Mr. Jenkins, and Prof. Biles, were originally trained for the Admiralty service, but quitted it for appointments in private establishments. All of them had attained eminence in the practice of their profession before becoming teachers; they continued their practice in the design and construction of ships during the period of their professorships. Students at Glasgow consequently have had the good fortune to be taught by men who themselves received a thorough scientific training at the outset of their careers, had maintained close touch with current practice, and were familiar with the latest advances and improvements in shipbuilding and marine engineering. That fact is apparent throughout the volume under review, and adds much to its value. The,book is described in the preface as primarily intended for young students, and this intention has been admirably fulfilled. The author also ventures to hope that ‘‘ many who have been students and some who in their daily work are interested in the problems dealt with may find assistance from the perusal of its pages. This hope will undoubtedly be realised. The arrangement of the bool: is excellent, its style concise and clear. Detailed explanations are given of processes of calculation and methods of pro- cedure, in a form which should suffice for the guid- ance of those desirous of making work of that nature the principal occupation of their lives. Many of the sections—ineluding those containing illustrations of types of ships, details of tonnage laws, rules for free- board, and other subjects—should prove of interest to all connected with shipping. The plates, diagrams, and other illustrations are numerous, and the book as a whole is well produced. The volume has its own index. ” some persons The author does not lay claim to much originality, although not a little original work done by himself has been embodied. The book is valuable also for its tabulated data, much of which is drawn from profes- sional work done by the author, or placed at his dis- posal by other authorities. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] NATURE [ FEBRUARY 18, 1909 Growing as it has done out of courses of instruc- tion given to students at Glasgow, the book has natur- ally taken a form which adapts it for use as a text- book for students generally.. Consequently it should greatly assist teachers as well as students of naval architecture, and particularly those in Great Britain and the United States. For a long time there has been a need for such a book; and in saying so, no discredit is cast upon smaller and less expensive text- books previously produced, largely with a view to use by less advanced students than those who follow com- plete university courses in naval architecture. This volume is subdivided into three sections. In the first, methods of calculating areas, volumes, and positions of centres of gravity are dealt with. A full account is given of applications of descriptive geometry to the delineation of the forms of ships and of various parts of ship-structures. Descriptions of various types of ships employed for war and com- merce are also given, and abundantly illustrated. The information is claborate and up to date, as is indi- cated by the fact that it includes drawings of the Dreadnought and Invincible classes in the Royal Navy; particulars of the latest ocean-going destroyers and submarines; descriptions of many types of cargo and passenger steamers; and details of steam and sailing yachts. The second section of the volume is devoted to ship calculations, and its scheme is comprehensive. It includes details of numerical methods, as well as in- teresting descriptions of mechanical integrators and integraphs which have been devised in recent years for measuring moments, and moments of inertia of plane curves. Naval architects have been largely assisted by these instruments, and the drudgery of numerical calculation has been greatly reduced. All classes of engineers, as well as many scientific men, vill be interested in the descriptions given of the applications of these mechanical inte- grators to calculations for the displacements, positions of centres of buoyancy and metacentres of ships, and work connected with determining the conditions of stability. The important subject of the strength of ships is one with which Prof. Biles has been much concerned, and it is treated exhaustively in the third section of the book. Investigations and experiments of a special character were carried out by a committee (of which he was a member) appointed by the Admiralty about six years ago after the loss of the torpedo-boat- destroyer Cobra in the North Sea. Prof. Biles and his areas, ‘assistants and students at Glasgow undertook a great mass of calculations for representative vessels on behalf of that committee, and also analysed the results of experiments made on a_ typical torpedo-boat- destroyer in order to determine her behaviour when subjected to exceptional longitudinal bending moments which produced sensible changes of form. Much of the information in regard to these experiments had been published by Prof. Biles in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects, but it is brought together in the volume under review in a form which svill be useful for reference, and which adds to the Fesruary 18, 1909 | interest of his general treatment of the strength of ships. The book will be heartily welcomed by all connected with the design and construction of ships; the appear- ance of the second volume will be awaited with interest. - W. H. Waite. HEREDITY AND EDUCATION. Education and the Heredity Spectre. By Dr. F. H. Hayward. Pp. xv+147. (London: Watts and Co., 1908.) Price rs. net. HAT Mr. Bernard Shaw means when he says that ‘‘ the bubble of heredity has been pricked ” is that the theory that the moral characters acquired by an individual during his lifetime are transmitted to his descendants has been exploded. We are all, including the author of the book before us, pretty well agreed that this is so. It is not supported by the scanty evidence on this point which the biologist has collected. Nor need we grieve that it has gone. For, if it can be maintained that a belief in it was an incentive to virtue, it is equally certain that such a belief was an excuse for vice, as was clearly seen by a little girl who, when told by her nurse that if she was naughty her grandchildren would be naughty too, pointed out that, if that was true, the reason that she was naughty was that her grandmother had been. The conclusion reached by Mr. Shaw as to the bear- ing of the pricking of the bubble on education is that “*the vilest abortionist is he who attempts to mould a child’s character."’ That reached by Mr. Hayward is the diametric opposite of this. Heis a Herbartian. Herbart asked :— “Does a human being bring with him into the world his future shape, or does he not? In respect to his body he doubtless does; but that is not our ques- tion. We speak of the mind, the character, the entire disposition.”’ And Herbart’s and Mr. Hayward’s answer is that he does not; and that, that being so, it is not merely jegitimate, but desirable, to attempt to mould a child’s character. But before we proceed further we must make sure that we keep two questions, which are probably puzzling our mind at the same time, perfectly distinct. One is a question for the biologist, the other for the educationist. The one is, ‘“‘Can a child’s character be moulded? ’’ the other, ‘‘ Is it desirable to do it de- liberately?’’ With regard to the former question, the answer given by Dr. Archdall Reid, who has devoted much thought to this point, is ‘* Yes.’’ According to Dr. Reid, all the attributes which distinguish a civilised man from a barbarian (the two terms are relative, of course) have been acquired by the former during his lifetime. If this is true, an English boy brought up from birth in a Zulu kraal will, when a man, have the morals and ideals of a Zulu. He will only differ from the other inhabitants of the kraal in having a paler skin and the other physical characters which the two races. Such experiments may have been made, but it is highly unlikely that they have been accurately recorded. The presence of anyone capable of doing so would spoil the conditions of the NO. 2051, VOL. 79] distinguish NATURE Gao experiment. But even if this view of the nature of our morality is correct, it does not follow that it is desirable to attempt to mould a child’s character. It rather shows that we cannot help moulding it by everything that we do, and that any little deliberate attempts that we make will count for so little in com- parison with what we have already done, and will go on doing, that they will not make much difference. From the educational side the book is well worth reading, and the subject discussed is of first-rate im- portance; but our author is not a biologist either by sympathy or achievement. Was it worth while to poke fun at Mendel for his researches on green peas (p. 134)? People lay so much too much stress on the material” that is dealt with in an investigation. Personally, we set more value on a man who discovers, not every- thing, as some Mendelians hold, but, say, ‘‘a rough quarter ’’ by experiments ‘‘ with green peas,’’ than on one who discovers practically nothing by an excursus We quote the whole passage :— “(3) Mendelism. “ The question of heredity has entered on a new phase during the past ten years, owing to the unearthing of Mendel’s researches on green peas. The plant again! We are to discover the laws of human nature by the study of heredity in non-conscious, non-moral plants.” Does Mr. Hayward really think that we investigate natural processes for the benefit of those who apply the information which we give them? The reason that Mr. Hayward dislikes the plant so is that, according to him, the non-Herbartian doctrine of education is based on what he calls the ‘‘ plant ’’ metaphor. “ The future form of a plant is admittedly determined in advance. True, there are ‘ variations’ and * muta- tions,’ the laws of which we are likely, sooner or later, to know; true, also, even plants * are plastic in a measure, to environmental influences. Broadly, how- ever, we may say that the fate of a plant is fixed by the nature of the germ from which it springs.”’ We quote this to show that Mr. Hayward’s biology is shaky. For it is now generally recognised that one fundamental difference between animals and plants is the much greater susceptibility of the latter to environ- mental changes. on man. RECENT STUDIES IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY. Die Luftelektrizitat. Methoden und Resultaie der neueren Forschung. By Prof. Albert Gockel. Pp. vit+206. (Leipzig : S. Hirzel, 1908.) Price 6 marks. F late years there has been great activity in this country in investigating electrical phenomena in gases and in advancing and discussing theories as to the nature and properties of ions. But this work has been mainly done in the laboratory or by mathemati- cians. In central Europe, thanks largely to the influ- ence of Exner and of Elster and Geitel, there have been many workers studying the electrical phenomena presented by nature. Amongst them Prof. Gockel takes a distinguished place. In the present volume he gives an exceedingly up-to-date account of our knowledge of atmospheric electricity. The amount that has recently been written on the subject will 1 The italics are ours. . 456 impress itself on anyone who refers to the Physikalische Zeitschrift or the publications of the Vienna Academy. The references in the present volume are evidence of Prof. Gockel’s familiarity, not merely with recent work in German, but also with that in English, whether done here or in America. He makes, for instance, numerous references to Simpson’s observations in Lapland. The book consists of a three-page introduction, five chapters, and a short conclusion, and has a table of contents. Chapter i., pp. 4 to 61, deals with the elec- trical conductivity of the atmosphere. After describing Elster and Geitel’s dispersion apparatus, and the in- struments of Ebert and of Gerdien for measuring ionic charges and conductivity, it gives an account of the results obtained with these instruments by different observers in different places, and deals with the ques- tions of diurnal variation and the influence of various meteorological conditions. Chapter ii., pp. 62 to 120, deals mainly with the potential gradient and its deter- mination by means of water-droppers, flame and radium collectors. This includes the results obtained —especially in recent years—at the ground and those derived from balloon ascents. The diurnal and annual variations in the potential gradient, the relationships of potential gradient and ionisation, and the influence of meteorological conditions are amongst the subjects discussed. Chapter iii., pp. 120 to 149, describes the measurements by Gerdien and others of the vertical current in the atmosphere, deals with the charges brought down by rain and snow, and includes two or three pages on aurora. As evidence of its up-to- date character, it may be mentioned that it describes Mr. C. T. R. Wilson’s apparatus for measuring the earth-air current. Chapter iv. is devoted to earth- currents. Its length, only 93 pages, forbids much detail, but there is an account of several of the more important observations, including those by Weinstein in Germany. Chapter v., pp. 159 to 202, deals with the sources of ionisation in the atmosphere. It discusses the radio-activity of air from the ground, and of rain, and the radio-active emanation in springs, the observa- tions made by Elster and Geitel and others with nega- tively charged wires, and refers to recent work by Gerdien, Rutherford, Strutt, Campbell, Dike, Eve, and others. A few pages at the end relate to various theories. In a book of such modest dimensions it is inevitable that some parts of the subject should not be very fully discussed, but it is unquestionably a which every serious student of atmospheric electricity should possess and study. Very few points call for criticism. There are, however, two historical references which seem to overlook the work of British investigators. Mascart is referred to on p. 8o as the first to introduce photographic registration of potential difference, but in reality the Kelvin water-dropper at Kew has re- corded photographically since 1861. Again, the dis- covery of the resemblance between the diurnal varia- tions of potential gradient and barometric pressure is said on p. 114 to have been made by Hann in 1889. Prof. J. D. Everett, however, detected it in 1867 (Phil. Trans., vol. clviii., p. 358, and plate xxi.). C. CHuREE. work NO. 2051, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY 18, 1909 OUR- BOOK SHELF. The Ethical Aspects of Evolution, regarded as the Parallel Growth of Opposite Tendencies. By W. Benetts. yep. 220. -(@xtord-eethe Glarettcs Press, 1908.) Price 6s. net. Tuts book is full of original opinions vigorously and uncompromisingly expressed. As the title indicates, the author’s main thesis is that the process of evolu- tion does not mean the progressive elimination of evil and pain, or a progressively increasing surplus of good and pleasure. He adduces biological evidence to show that the organism which has attained the finest adjustment to its environment is the organism which can be most easily thrown out of adjustment, and the one to which misadjustment, when it comes, is most disastious. So history teaches us that if civilisation has meant higher forms of virtue, it has also meant lower depths of vice; and that as our knowledge in- creases so does the consciousness of ignorance. From this point of view, Mr. Benett makes an effec- tive destructive criticism on all optimistic evolutionary theories of ethics which have as central principle the possibility of perfect adjustment and the extrusion of all inharmonious factors from experience. He then proceeds to put forward his own theory. Failing the criterion of a net surplus’ result of progress in good or pleasure, Mr. Benett holds that our system of valuations must rest on the conception of progress itself. A teleological basis, he admits, would be more adequate. But we are unable to find any finite end which will give unity to the divergent tendencies of human nature; and the transcendental end, though we are compelled to posit it, is for ever beyond our ken. The essential characteristic of progress is, for Mr. Benett, increase of force; it is this which in the last possible analysis commands man’s esteem and admiration, and affords a criterion of good and evil. There is here an attempt to unite a scientific neutrality with a positive ethicai construction. Pro- gress is no increase in the net value of life; it means the impartial development of good and evil; yet progress must be our criterion of value and good. One need only point to Mr. Benett’s criticism of hedonism, where he points out that just because pleasure is an impartial stimulant of all sorts of action it cannot be the criterion of good, to show the incon- sistency of this position. To avoid the difficulty by making progress represent only the positive aspect of evolution is to fall on the other horn of the perpetual dilemma of ethical construction, and make good the criterion of good. Apart from this defect of funda- mental theory, Mr. Benett’s book shows considerable power of psychological analysis; his treatment in the later chapters of complex moral facts and concrete virtues is often admirable. His argument is always forceful, his style is powerful, and one feels through- out the presence of a straightforward insistence that we must face the facts as we find them of human nature and the world. These are qualities which go far towards a valuable re-handling of moral problems. British By The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our Indian Dominions and how to recognise Them. Major F. Wall. Second edition. Pp. x+69; illus- trated. (Bombay: Natural History Society, 1908.) Price 2 rupees. To those whose travels have never extended beyond western Europe it is a difficult matter to realise how largely poisonous snakes loom in the life of our native fellow-subjects in India, or to appreciate the heavy annual list of casualties due to snake-bite. To mitigate the evil, the European and the native medical staff of the country are now bringing into play the latest remedies of their science, but Sey are frequently — . —— ». Lal th FEBRuaRY 18, 1909 | NATURE 457 hampered in their endeavours by the difficulty of identifying the particular kind of noxious serpent with which they may be called upon to deal. It is largely with the view of supplying a ready method of making such identifications that the unpretentious work before us has been presented to the public. That it has been heartily appreciated is made evident by the fact of its having reached a second edition, after the sale of a first issue of 2500 copies. The author relies on the ' arrangement, size, and number of the scales as afford- ing the easiest clue to the identification of species, and for this purpose gives figures of the scaling of certain parts of the body or head of a considerable number of the thirty-nine species recognised which in his opinion render identification easy and certain. In the present edition the author has ventured to recognise more species than are admitted in Mr. Boulenger’s volume in the ‘‘ Fauna of British India.” He is of opinion, for instance, that under the name of Ancistrodon hypnale, two species—one from Ceylon and the other from the Western Ghats—have been confounded, while a new krait is recognised from Assam, and the Bungarus candidus of Boulenger is split up into several species. In addition, Pseudo- cerastes persicus has recently been identified in British | India. Apart from the special purpose in connection with snake-bite, the book is a useful and handy guide to the Indian ‘*‘ Thanatophidia.”’ Gray’s New Manual of Botany. Re-arranged and ex- tensively revised by B. L. Robinson and M. L. Fernald. Seventh edition. Pp. 926. (New York: American Book Company, n.d.) Tuts well-known flora of the central and north-eastern parts of the United States of America was originally compiled in 1848 by Dr. Asa Gray, who was professor of natural history in Harvard University. It has passed through six editions, and has been revised three times, the last revision having been undertaken by Dr. S. Watson and Prof. J. M. Coulter in 18qo. Another edition had become desirable if only to bring the book into conformity with the pronouncements of | the International Botanical Congress at Vienna, and no more opportune occasion was likely to arise for carry- ing out at the same time the practically inevitable displacement of the arrangement of Bentham and Hooker’s ‘‘ Genera Plantarum ”’ by the more modern system elaborated by Dr. Engler. These sweeping reforms have been effected by the new editors, who are botanical professors at Harvard University, and therefore officially entitled to prepare the flora, of which the copyright is held by the university. The authors have also modified the geographical limits covered by the manual, whereby certain terri- tories in the west are excluded, and considerable areas in Quebec, Ontario, and other Canadian provinces are included. The changes do not by any means end here; practically the arrangement of every important family—to use the word officially recommended for the group, better known as an order—and every large genus has been re-cast, so that the title of the book has been’ advisedly qualified. The assistance of specialists has been obtained for the descriptions of the grasses, orchids, Crataegus, and a few other genera. The flora is confined to Pteridophyta and Spermato- phyta; there is a considerable increase in the total number of species, that now exceeds four thousand. Under the genus Panicum, seventy-three species are distinguished, and under Carex as many as a hundred and eighty-five. The forms of Crategus, a species that is highly variable in America, are brought under sixty-five species by Mr. W. W. Eggleston. Undoubtedly the revision will be cordially welcomed NO. 2051, VOL. 76] | quantities of by botanists, and should prove especially useful to botanical workers in south-eastern Canada. The ad- mirable series of analytical keys that were a feature of the older editions have been maintained, and further help is given for difficult genera in the shape of small illustrations, by the side of the text, of those parts of the plant that furnish diagnostic characters. The New Word. By Allen Upward. New edition. Pp. 317. (London: A. C. Fifield, 1908.) Price 5s. net. Scientific Corroborations of Theosophy: a Vindication of the Secret Doctrine by the Latest Discoveries. By Dr. A. Marques. Revised and greatly enlarged edition. Pp. iv+152. (London: The Theosophical Publishing Society, 1908.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Mr. ALLEN Upwarp describes his book as ‘‘a plea for reason against authority,’’ and proceeds to discuss a number of problems of modern science from a layman’s point of view. Men of science will approve the spirit in which Mr. Upward writes, even if they remain unconvinced by his arguments. Readers will discern from the title to his book the line of thought which characterises the volume of Dr. Marques. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTuRE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Boiling Point of the Radium Emanation. It was shown by Rutherford and Soddy in 1903 that the radium emanation was condensed from the gases with which it was mixed at a temperature of about —150° C. From observations of the range of temperature of condensa- tion and volatilisation it was concluded that the condensed emanation exerted a sensible vapour pressure. This has been confirmed by later experiments, using much larger emanation. Sir William Ramsay and Cameron have pointed out that the emanation, condensed in a glass tube kept at the temperature of liquid air, can be removed by continuous pumping, thus indicating appreciable vapour pressure even at that low temperature. I have found that the rate of removal of the emanation in this way increases rapidly as the temperature of complete volatilisation is approached. In the initial experiments of Rutherford and Soddy only very small quantities of radium were available, and the partial pressure of the emanation in the experiments was exceedingly small. If the emanation behaves like an ordinary gas, it is to be expected that the boiling point of pure emanation at atmospheric pressure should be much higher. I have recently made experiments to test this point. As the volume of pure emanation available in the present experiments was only about 1/20 cubic millimetre it was necessary to employ special methods to investigate the boiling point of the emanation at various pressures. Purified emanation corresponding to the equilibrium amount from about too milligrams of radium was com- pressed into a fine glass capillary of about 1/20 millimetre diameter. The end of the capillary dipped into a pentane bath, which was cooled down to any desired temperature, measured by: means of a thermocouple. The point of initial condensation was marked by the appearance of a brilliant point of phosphorescent light, due to condensed emanation, at the coldest part of the capillary. In this way I have found that the temperature of initial condensation of the emanation rises from about —150° C. at a very. low pressure to about —65° C. at atmospheric pressure. This fixes the boiling point of the emanation at atmospheric pressure at about —65° C., or 208° absolute. 458 NATURE [FEeBRuary 18, 1909 As it is a difficult matter to purify completely the small | been discovered as yet. Only the human species has been volume of emanation and to keep it pure, the observed pressure of the emanation and mixed gases at the tempera- ture of condensation was corrected for by taking the true volume of the emanation from 1 gram of radium in equilibrium as 0-585 cubic milligram. This calculated volume is in excellent agreement with the minimum value which I have found experimentally. As the emanation is apparently an inert gas of atomic weight 222, it is of interest to compare its boiling point with those of the heavier inert gases found in the atmosphere. The boiling points of argon, krypton, xenon, and emanation are, re- spectively, 86-9, 121-3, 163-9, and 208 degrees absolute. It will be noted that as the boiling point of krypton is about intermediate between that of argon and xenon, so the boil- ing point of xenon is nearly the mean between that of krypton and emanation. If the capillary tube containing pure emanation is quickly placed in the pentane bath, cooled well below the tempera- ture of initial condensation, under a microscope small drops of liquid emanation are seen on the walls of the capillary. The position of each globule is marked by a brilliant local phosphorescence of the glass of the capillary. f E. RutTHERFORD. University, Manchester, February 13. \ Crocodiles and Tsetse-flies. My attention has been directed to a paper read before the Royal Society of Arts by Mr. James Cantlie on January 27 called ‘‘The Part played by Vermin in the Spread of Disease,’’ published in the society’s journal (January 29, pp. 202-4). Mr. Cantlie is there reported to have said:—‘‘In sleeping sickness the disease is trans- mitted by the tsetse-fly, and the crocodile is believed to be the alternative host, the fly serving as a carrier only ” (p. 204). I do not know upon what evidence or upon whose observations Mr. Cantlie based his statement concerning the crocodile, but to judge from many similar statements that have appeared from time to time recently in the Press, the idea seems to be generally prevalent that Prof. Koch either observed or believed that the crocodile was a “reservoir ’’ host for the human trypanosome (Try pano- soma gambiense), just as big game is for the trypanosome causing the “‘nagana’’ disease of animals (T. brucei). Prof. Koch, however, has never expressed such a view in his published papers. In his last work on this subject, “Uber = meine — Schlafkrankheits-Expedition ’* (Berlin: Dietrich Reimer; 1908), he wrote:—‘‘ Dem ersten... Krokodil entnahmen wir sofort frisches Blut, um Praparate zu machen und Kulturen anzulegen, und wir hatten in diesem Falle auch insofern Gliick, ‘als die Kulturen gelangen, wodurch wichtige wissenschaftliche Resultate erhalten wurden. Namentlich konnte auch festgestellt werden, dass das Blut des Krokodiles zwar Trypanosomen, aber nicht diejenigen der Schlafkyrankheit enthdlt ” (the italics are mine). All that Prof. Koch showed was that the crocodile in the Victoria Nyanza is infected by a species of trypano- some, and that tsetse-flies (Glossina palpalis) feed on the blood of the crocodile. Both these facts had already been made known by English observers. The bare fact that the crocodile may be infected by trypanosomes is no evidence for connecting this reptile with sleeping sickness. The perch, bream, tench, and other fishes in the Norfolk Broads also commonly harbour trypanosomes in their blood, but are not to be regarded as a danger to mankind on that account. There is, in fact, no evidence whatever that the crocodile serves as an “‘ alternative host ’’ of the human trypanosome. It is inherently improbable that any reptile should play such a part. I hold no brief for the crocodile, and should hear of its extirpation in the Victoria Nyanza without the least regret ; | only desire that our scientific knowledge of the sleeping- sickness trypanosome should be correctly stated. It is possible, and indeed for many reasons probable, that a ‘reservoir ’’ host for T: gambiense exists, but none has NO. 2051, VOL. 79] found so far to be naturally infected with the trypanosome of sleeping sickness, although many other mammals can be inoculated with it as a laboratory experiment. Rovigno, February 10. E. A. MiIncuin. The Production of Prolonged Apncea in Man. It is a matter of common knowledge that the time for which the breath can be held is increased by a preliminary bout of deep breathing, and divers often make use of this fact to increase the time for which they can remain under water. So far as I am aware, it is not usual to perform this forcible respiration for more than a short period, the pearl-divers of Ceylon, for instance, taking only a few deep breaths before descending; but in order to get the maximum effect a prolonged period is necessary. In my own case I found that whilst with no preliminary forced breathing I could hold my breath for only forty-two seconds, I could hold it for 2m. 21s. after one minute’s forced breathing, for 3m. 21s. after three minutes’ breath- ing, and for 4m. 5s. after six minutes’ breathing (c.f Journ. Physiol., vol. xxxviii.). The effect of the forced breathing is to wash out such considerable quantities of carbon dioxide from the blood and body tissues that even at the end of the three or four minutes’ apnoea they con- tain less of the gas than when the breath is held for forty- two seconds without any preliminary forced breathing. In theory, therefore, the deeper, more rapid, and more prolonged the forced respiration the greater its efficacy ; but it is not so in practice. With some people the sensa- tions produced by even a minute or two of forced breath- ing are very unpleasant. The hands and feet tingle and become numb, a dizziness is felt, and there is a strong disinclination to continue the breathing (cf. Haldane and Poulton, Journ. Phystol., vol. xxxvii.). In my own case a period of eight minutes’ breathing caused the muscles of the hands to pass into a condition of tonic rigidity, and they remained completely paralysed for the first 13 minutes of the subsequent apnoea. Doubtless the unpleasant sensa- tions are diminished by practice, but it is probable that for ordinary purposes it would be best not to continue the forced breathing for more than two or three minutes. Alsc there is a distinct element of risk if a diver remains under water almost to his limit after forced respiration. The amount of oxygen left in the lungs and blood then becomes so low that there is danger of fainting. Haldane and Poulton quote a case, of which they were informed by Dr. Collier, in which a diver lost consciousness when at the bottom of a swimming-bath after he had employed forced breathing to prolong his stay under water. Fortu- nately, he was rescued before death occurred, but un- doubtedly the chance of fatality is increased by a_pre- liminary forced respiration. In the absence of forced breathing, the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the blood when the breath is held affords a natural safeguard, for it stimulates the respiratory centre to action with ever-increasing force, and ultimately compels respiration before the oxygen in the system has sunk to danger-level. However, the risk due to oxygen deficiency can be readily overcome. Hill and Flack have shown (Journ. Physiol., vol. xxxvii.) that if a few breaths of oxygen are taken during quiet breathing, the time for which the breath can be held is generally more than doubled. Not only is the oxygen want of the system thereby eliminated, but, in addition, the oxygen renders the respiratory centre considerably less sensitive to carbon dioxide, and so permits it to accumulate to a greater extent than usual in the body. The same thing holds after forced breathing, and I found that if one to four breaths of oxygen were taken at the end of the forced respira- tion, the breath could be held about twice as long as in absence of oxygen. After one minute’s forced breathing I held my breath for 4m. 18s.; after three minutes’ breath- ing for 6m. 34s., and after six minutes’ breathing for no less than 8m. 13s. So far as I can ascertain, the world’s record for a pro- fessional diver remaining under water in a tank was made by Miss E. Wallenda in 1898, when she reached 4m. 454s. Fesruary 18, 1909] i do not know in what way divers prepare themselves for such feats, but presumably it is by a preliminary forced breathing only, without oxygen inhalation. Hence this record is probably comparable with my record of 4m. 5s., and in that case it follows that forced breathing, together with oxygen inhalation, might enable some individuals to stay under water for nine or ten minutes. Moreover, they could achieve such times without any risk of loss of con- sciousness. Even at the end of my eight minutes’ record the air in my lungs still contained 46 per cent. of oxygen, or three times the normal amount. The practical applications of this method of forced breath- ing and oxygen inhalation are obvious. Prof. Herdman states (Report of Ceylon Pearl Oyster Fisheries, part i., p- 63; part ii., p. 13) that the maximum time the best pearl-divers (the Arabs) remain under water is, in his experience, only ninety seconds, whilst the Tamil and other divers vary from thirty-five to fifty seconds. Of course, one would not for a moment expect them to attain the times above mentioned, as they are performing violent muscular work whereby the rate of production of carbon dioxide by the body is greatly increased. Still, there is little doubt that if they performed about two minutes’ forced breathing, and took a single deep breath of oxygen at the end of it, they could, without risk, double or treble their average time under water. This might be of especial value to them when fishing in the deeper waters. Prof. Herdman says that while the usual limit of the divers is about nine fathoms, exceptional divers could go to fifteen fathoms, ‘‘ but they had barely time to secure a single handful of the bottom before having to come up in an exhausted condition.’’ The method might also be of value to sponge-divers, and to some extent also for rescue work in mines and drains poisoned by foul air, when proper rescue apparatus was not available. 22 Norham Road, Oxford. H. M. VERNON. The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere. Tue difference of opinion between Mr. Hughes and myself apparently comes to this; he considers (February 11, p- 429) that radiation plays an important part in the temperature that is recorded by meteorographs sent up with a balloon, and I think that, save in exceptional circum- stances, radiation may be neglected. We are agreed: in stating that the temperature of the metal strip can only be altered by contact with the air and by radiation, and the only question is the relative values of these two causes. Furthermore, I gather that Mr. Hughes thinks that whether the ascent be by night or day, after a certain height the temperature is unduly raised by radiation from what he calls the hot planet. Now, first, the thermograph is made of polished metal, and is protected by a polished metal case, and it is well known that a polished metal surface is not susceptible to radiation. One need only mention the double’ vacuum bottle in which liquid air is kept, the commercial ‘‘ thermos flask.’’ Loss or gain of heat by radiation is practically excluded by silvering the internal surfaces. Secondly, it must surely be admitted that radiation must be very different by night from what it is by day. It is true that the sun subtends but a small solid angle, and the earth an angle of nearly 27, but the power of radiation varies as the fourth power of the absolute temperature. In saying that all radiation was insignificant compared with that of the sun, I was thinking of ordinary experi- ence. In the tropics a man protects himself against the sun; to quote a very ancient writing, ‘‘ there is nothing hid from the heat thereof.’’? There are places in the high valleys of Switzerland where in calm, sunny weather a person may sit out of doors in the sun in perfect comfort, although the country round is deeply covered with snow and the temperature is far below the freezing point. On the other hand, in the Arctic and Antarctic winter it is pro- tection from the wind that is sought; all accounts agree that if there be no wind extremely low temperatures are not unpleasant, and [oss of heat by radiation is not feared. But Mr. Hughes admits that radiation is stronger by day, and says that if it is not apparent on the trace it must be because the traces differ so much inter se. This is a question of fact, and I can only refer him to the pub- NO. 2051, VOL. 79] NATURE 459 lished records and to my previous statement that traces made in the day do not differ from those made at night. There is a striking similarity about the general form of all the traces, excepting those obtained in the daytime from a balloon which did not burst. With regard to the vertical speed, we know that the time occupied in falling is about half that occupied in rising, because we have been able to ascertain by observa- tions with a theodolite that the horizontal distance passed over during the fall is about half that passed over during the rise. We do not now use any parachute, and we used not to use one of more than 1 sq. foot area. The cross-section of the balloon before bursting is probably 25 sq. feet to 30 sq. feet. Inasmuch as at 20 km. height the air density is only one-sixteenth that at the ground- level, the initial rate of fall will be four times the final rate, and must therefore be greatly in excess of the rate of ascent. Notwithstanding this, the temperatures recorded are to all intents and purposes identical. Differences ex- ceeding 3° C. between the up and down trace at the same height are very rare; 6° C. is the maximum recorded, and anything more than 4° is only produced by change of level of an inversion surface in the lower strata occurring during the ascent. W. H. Dines. Barometric Oscillation, In Nature of December 3, 1908 (p. 130), Mr. Dines, in reference to a previous note upon the semi-diurnal baro- metric oscillation, gave as his opinion that the semi- diurnal temperature oscillation is the result of pressure variation. In connection with this question, it seems to me of some value to give here a couple of results derived from the Batavia observations. They are related to pressure oscilla- tions of extra-terrestrial origin, like the semi-diurnal varia- tion, and show a pressure change followed by a change of temperature. At Batavia the well-known barometric oscillation with a period of 33 years is very definite. It is followed by an equally distinct temperature oscillation of the same period. The difference in time is 63 months. The temperature, moreover, shows the remarkable fact that the seven-yearly means from 1871-1905 are increasing regularly from 0°-08 C. to o°-1r0o C. every seven years, so the temperature of the air increases by about 0°-o1 a year. In the second place may be mentioned the influence of the 26-day period of the sun’s rotation on meteorological data. A corresponding pressure oscillation is clearly shown. It is followed after nine days by a variation, of the same kind, of the temperature and the daily range of pressure. There seems to be a close connection between the above- mentioned pressure oscillations and the influence of the sun’s prominences on the earth. Both coincide in relation to time. ; C. Braak. Observatory, Batavia, January 11. Electrons and Atomic Weights. Lotnuar Meyer suggested that the slight divergences between the theoretical and actual atomic weights in the periodic system might be due to the imprisonment of a quantity of the wther within matter; Lord Kelvin ascribed to the zther a weight of one-thousand billionth of a gram per cubic meter. Meyer’s suggestion is hardly acceptable. In the light of present-day theories of the perpetual dis- integration of matter, it seems more likely that the atomic weights vary through loss of electrons; when the loss has reached a certain critical point a re-adjustment may take place, resulting in transmutation to a lower element. If there be any truth in this theory, it may be supposed that the atomic weights of the elements may vary in different worlds of space, the more or less uniform weights found on the earth being due to the fact that the period of formation was identical in all cases. In this connec- tion, it would be interesting to determine the atomic weights of the elements in meteorites, an investigation which I am unable to undertake at this time, but which I hereby suggest. ALFRED SANG. 96 Boulevard de Versailles, St. Cloud, S. et O., January 12. 460 NAT ORE [ FEBRUARY 18, 1909 FURTHER ANTARCTIC RESULTS.* HE Belgian Antarctic Expedition has issued another seven sections of the ten important Antarctic volumes which it is contributing to knowledge. Four of the new parts are technical contributions to systematic zoology. Prof. Jungersen, of Copenhagen, describes the Pennatulids, which are represented in the collection by eight speci- mens; all of them are referred to one species, the Umbellula -carpenteri, first discovered by the Chal- lenger. Herr Bohmig, of Graz, describes the Turbel- larians, a small but interesting fauna containing a new genus of Accela and three species of the characteristic sub-Antarctic genus Procerodes. A detailed account is given of the anatomy of these worms, and the author establishes a new genus and subfamily, the Stum- merinz, for a species that had been collected by the French Antarctic Expedition, and referred by Hallez to Procerodes. Herr L. Plate contributes a note on the Scaphopods, which are represented by one determinable and one indeterminable species of Dentalium, both collected south of latitude 70°. The Cirripedes are described by Herr P. P. C. Hoek, and this group is represented by three species, of which one, Verruca mitra, is new. They all come from the neighbourhood of the Magellan Straits. But that area does not appear to be rich in these crustacea, and the only known Antarctic species is a Scal- pellum collected by the Challenger near the Antarctic Circle. The geographical results include a valuable joint report by M. Arc- towski and Dr..H. R. Mill on the serial temperature observations. Ross had attempted to determine the temperature of the deep sea in the same area, but, as is well known, his results were mislead- ing, as his thermometers were not protected agatnst pressure. The Challenger thermometers were, of course, guarded against this error, but they recorded only the tempera- tures of the coldest and warmest of the layers passed through during the sounding. Bruce, in- the Balaena, was better equipped; but he was only able to determine the temperatures at two localities. The Belgian expedi- tion, however, was able to conduct serial tempera- ture soundings with such precision and in such numbers that the seas which it explored are, as 1 “Résultats du Voyage du S.Y. Belgica en 1897-9." G. Lecointe, Physique du Globe, Mesures pendulaires, 1907. 40 pp., 9 figures; P. P. C. Hoek, Zool gie, Cirripedia, 1907, 9 pp., 4 figures; H. F. E. Jungersen, Zoologie, Pennatuliden, 1907, 12 pp., 1 plate; L. Biéhmig, Zoolozie, Turbel- larien, 1908. 32 pp-, 2 plat-s; L. Plate, Zoologie, Scaphopo ‘en, 1908, 4 pp. } H. Arctowski and H. R. Mill, Océanographie, Ke'ations thermiques, Rapport sur les Observations thermométriques faites aux Stations de Sondage, 1908, 36 pp., 4 plates; H. Arctowski, Géologie, Les Glaciers, Glaciers actuels et Vestiges de leur ancienne Extension, 1908, 74 pp., 18 plates. (Anvers: D. E. Buschmann.) “Deutsche Sudpolar Expedition, r90r-3." Edited by E von Dry- galski. Vol. ii., Kartographie, Geologie ; Part ii., 1908. pp. 91-222, plates ix-xxil., and 3 maps. (1) E. Werth, Aufbau und Gestaltung von Kerguelen, pp. 91-183, plates ix-xiv, 33 figures, 3 maps; (2) E. Philippi, Geologische Beobachtungen auf Kerguelen, pp. 185-207, plates xv—xxil, » figures ; (3) R. Reini-ch, Petrographische Beschreibiing der Kerguelen-Gesteine, pp. 6 figures. (Berlin : G. Reimer, 1908.) . i, Geographie, Heft ii. Pp. 99-280. Edited by E. von Drygalski. it., Geogra hie, Geologie, part iii,, 1908, pp. 223-298. plate xxiii. (2) E. von Drygalski, Geographie von Heard-Filand, 223-239, plate pp- XXllL, 3 figures; (2) E. Philippi, Geologie der Heard-In-el, pp. 24:-2 (3) R. Reinisch, Gesteine der Heard-Insel, pp. 251-263, § figures; (4) E. Vanhoff n. Tiere und Pflanzen der Heard-Insel, pp. -27r; (5) W. Meinardus, Skizze des Klimas der Heard-Insel, pp. 273-298, 2 figures. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] regards temperature distribution, described by Dr- Mill as now one of the best-known parts of the oceans. The observations show that the distribution of tem- perature in the seas between South America and Graham Land is typically sub-Antarctic. There is a zone of warm water between a cold surface layer and the mass of cold water below. South of the Antarctic Circle seasonal variations were found to affect the tem- perature to a depth of only 150 metres. In most localities the coldest water was found at the surface, and the temperatures rose, sometimes regularly, to a maximum in most cases at the depth of about 600: metres. Below that level there is a slow fall in tem- perature to the sea bottom. The bearing of these ob- servations on submarine topography is shown in Ger- lache Strait, where only one serial temperature obser- vation was made; the temperature of the water was. almost uniform throughout, and the water was a little colder at the bottom than at the surface. therefore, conclude that The authors, Gerlache Strait is a closed Fic. 1.—Aiguilles of Cape Renard, seen from the North-east. basin, and that a shallow threshold protects it from the inflow of warmer water. M. Lecointe, the second in command of the Belgian expedition, contributes a memoir on the pendulum ob- servations. The frontispiece is a photograph of Lieutenant E. Danco, who had charge of this work until his death during the expedition. The memoir gives a detailed account of the instrument employed, Sterneck’s half-second pendulum. It was only used during the expedition at one locality, Punta Arenas, in Tierra del Fuego, where the value of g was deter- mined as 9'8108. The new contribution to the reports of the Belgian expedition of widest general interest is M. Arctowski’s valuable report on the glacial observations in the neigh- bourhood of Magellan’s Straits and in the South Shet- land Archipelago ; and the glaciers and icebergs of those regions are illustrated by eighteen excellent photo- graphic plates. M. Arctowski describes the former greater extension of the glaciers, and regards this as part of a world-wide phenomenon, for which he says the explanation has yet to be found. He adopts ex- Ferruary 18, 1909] treme views on some glacial questions, and holds that the progressive advance of civilisation to the temperate regions from the tropical and subtropical zones is one manifestation of the spread of a milder climate across the earth. Of the suggested theories of glaciation he regards Croll’s as the most seductive, but admits that it has fallen with all the rest; nevertheless, he still argues with Croll’s wild estimate that the ice at the South Pole is six miles thick, as if that notion were worth serious consideration. Arrhenius’s view that glaciation is due to variations in the atmosphere Arctowski rejects as being far from a satisfactory is that the in the heat explanation of the facts. His own idea climatic change was due to a variation supply from the sun. The memoir begins with a description of the glacial phenomena of the neighbourhood of the Magellan Straits, supplementing the valuable observations in this area by Dr. Otto Nordenskjéld. The second part of the memoir is a valuable contbasion to the tectonic and glacial geology of Gerlache Strait. He describes that strait as a tectonic valley, but he is doubtful (p 34) whether it was formed as a syncline or a rift Fic, 2.—View of Royal Sound, Kerguelen. valley. In dealing with the Antarctic lands, he notes the various forms ‘of the name Antarctica, and suggests that the western section should be called ‘‘ Westantar,”’ ‘ Antar ’’ includes all that is common in the various forms of the name Antarctica. In his account of the tabular icebergs, M. Arctowski is emphatic as to their identity with the floebergs of the Arctic, and he quotes with approval Greeley’s ex- cellent statement of the formation of floebergs. He discusses the question of glacial erosion, that his observations show that erosion by glaciers is a mere ‘“‘minime’’; but he remarks that ice has powers of deeper erosion than rivers, as it can erode below sea-level, whereas a river cannot excavate deeper than the level of its mouth. ation of climate indicated, according to the theory he accepts, by the former extension of glaciers. A further instalment of the reports of the German Antarctic Expedition includes three instructive memoirs on Kerguelen. Dr. Werth records his the geography of the island during a year’s residence, in 1g01 and 1902, at a station ereeted on the Gauss NO. 2051, VOL. 79] and says | His report concludes with | an interesting discussion on the extent of the refriger- | 1 additions to | NATURE 461 Peninsula in south-eastern Kerguelen to obtain ob- servations for comparison with those simultaneously made by the Gauss. Emil Philippi, the geologist of the expedition, records the results of his excursions ashore during the stay of the Gauss at Kerguelen, and Dr. Reinisch describes in detail the aga specimens collected there. Since the discovery of the archipelago by Kerguelen in 1772, and the establishment of its insular nature by Cook in 1775, it has been visited by many expeditions, including the Erebus and Terror, the Challenger, the Gazelle and the Valdivia, and by private naturalists, such as Hall, the Australian ornithologist. It has also been the resort of seal and whale fishers. Never- theless, and in spite of the important contributions of the expedition’ under Drygalski, Kerguelen is still im- perfectly known. Dr. Werth made numerous excur- sions from the station, but the main interior and its glaciers and mountains, were inaccessible to him, and the southern and western coasts he describes as still practically unknown. Dr. Werth’s range of work was restricted .by the difficulties of transport. His party had at first to carry all their equipment on their backs, and were therefore limited to excur- sions of about five days’ duration. Later on he used dogs, and as each dog carried a pack of twenty pounds, it could take its own ; rations for ten days, and some ' supplies for the explorers. In the later part of the stay on _ the island exploration was unfortu- nately prevented by illness The chief island of the Kergue- len Archipelago is only 130 square geographical miles, and it is divided into three divisions. The western coast lands are still little known, and may contain some centres of recent volcanic activity. The central highlands, running from north-west to south-east across the island, include two high ice-covered plateaus, and culminate at their southern end in Mount Ross, a volcano with a well-preserved crater and 1990 metres high. The third section includes the country on the east- ern parts of the island; it is déeply indented by the sea, and is mainly lowland, but it includes one inde- pendent mountain complex and some wide plateaus. The solid geology of Kerguelen is disappointing. It consists of nothing but a vast dissected sheet of basalts, with their associated tuffs, and various glacial and alluvial deposits. There are older trachytic and phono- litic lavas, of which the German expedition obtained traces in beds of sanidine sand. There are no known pre-volcanic sedimentary rocks, and whether Kerguelen is a continental or an oceanic island is left undecided. The physical geography of the island is, therefore, its chief interest. For a land in the latitude of only 48°-50°, it has the remarkably low snow-line of 1850 feet, and its central highlands are covered by an ice sheet which Dr. Werth has named after Richthofen. There is abundant evidence that the glaciers were more extensive, at a date that Dr. Werth calls ‘‘ diluvial,”’ which may be more recent than the chief glacier extension in north temperate regions. The glaciers cer- tainly formerly reached the present sea-level, and appear to have continued some distance over what is now the sea floor. It is, therefore, disappointing that there is no certain evidence as to the post-Glacial 462 NAOT [FEBRuARY 18, 1909 uplift of the land. Both Werth and Philippi describe the occurrence of recent shingle and shells at heights up to about one hundred metres; but they recognise the possibility of these having been carried inland by sea- gulls or sea elephants. There is abundant evidence of recent subsidence; the eastern district, according to the chart and many beautiful photographs, presents the typical features of a sunken land. Dr. Werth discusses at length the origin of the valleys and the relations of the two types of drowned valleys known as ‘ fjords’’ and “‘ fjards.’’ The dis- tinction between them was established by Penck in 1882; fiords are complex and usually branched valleys in mountainous districts, and fjards are valleys that are usually parallel to one another, and occur in low- lands. The value of this distinction has been doubted, buc Werth thinks it is useful; and he proposes that valleys of the fjard type should be called “ fohrde,” after the name given them in southern Denmark, as it has the same root as the Norwegian fjord, the Swedish fjard, the Icelandic fjérdur, and the Scottish firth. Denudation in Kerguelen, according to Dr. Werth, is due chiefly to glacial action, for the rivers are in- significant; but Philippi points out that the valleys were pre-Glacial. Consideration of their age necessarily involves that of the lava flows through which they have been cut. In the neighbourhood of the station the eruptions were obviously pre-Glacial ; but the crater of Mount Ross must be much younger than the lava flows of the eastern lowlands. The only paleonto- logical evidence of the age of the eruptions is given by some fragments of the stem of Cupressoxylon ; but as this conifer ranges from the Upper Cretaceous to the Pliocene, its evidence is not very precise, though the Kerguelen species is regarded as pre-Pleistocene. Wind erosion is exceptionally well exhibited, owing to the violence of the storms and the abundance of loose voleanic débris for the sand blast; the effect of the wind is illustrated by photographs of a carved block of basalt and of some potholes bored by sand erosion on the face of a vertical rock. The important contributions of the German expedi- tions to the natural history of Kerguelen show how great are the gaps in our knowledge of that interesting and accessible archipelago, and will, it may be hoped, lead to its fuller investigation. Heard Island, where the German Expedition spent seven profitable hours ashore, is 330 miles south- east of Kerguelen, and is even less known. Both islands rise from the same submarine plateau, and the reports by Philippi and Reinisch show that they are composed of similar volcanic rocks, for Heard island consists of trachytes, felspar basalts and limburgites. The rocks look less weathered than those of Kerguelen, but Philippi suggests, from the greater abundance of trachyte, that the lavas belong to the earlier period of the Kerguelen eruptions. Prof. Drygalski describes the geography of Heard Island and the seven glaciers on the northern coast, Meinardus contributes a sketch of its climate based on all existing records, with the gaps filled by interpolation from the observations on the Gauss and at the station at Kerguelen. In view of the many interesting problems connected with Heard Island, Prof. Drygalski recommends it as a_ suit- able locality for a year’s expedition; and as at the visit of the Challenger there were forty men on the island who were staying there from October to December, an expedition ‘should be easily practicable and profitable. J. W. Grecory. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] at Assouan at the upper end. ’ IRRIGATION IN EGYPT. The Esneh Dam, HE construction of the dam on the Nile near Esneh, which has recently been completed, the last stone being laid by the Khedive, marks another step in the progress of that country since it has been under British control. Less than thirty years ago Egypt was on the verge of financial ruin, the annual expenses exceeding the income, and there not being sufficient revenue to pay the interest on the national debt. The peasantry were in a miserable and poverty-stricken condition, and constantly harassed by the continuous calls under the labour conscription, or corvée, for the repairs of the banks or the cleansing of the irrigation canals. This system has now been entirely done away with; the small farmers are no longer at the mercy of the money-lender, and are in a prosperous and contented condition. The revenue shows a surplus, and the yield of the crops has been enormously increased. The leading. factor in this change has been the better and more effective management, and the extension of the irrigation works, on which the agri- culture of Egypt depends for its existence. The cultivated portion of Egypt consists of a narrow strip of land bordering on the Nile, extend- ing southward from the Mediterranean Sea. Of this the lower, or southern, district consists of the delta of the Nile below Cairo, forming a triangle, the sides of which are about i100 miles in length, with an area of four million acres, the cultivated portion of which covers 2% million acres. At the head of this delta the Nile water is held up by the great barrages of Rosetta and Damietta. Above this is Upper Egypt, a tract 500 miles long, lying princi- pally on the west side of the river, and extending nearly to the first cataract above Assouan. The width of the land that is cultivated varies from eight to fourteen miles, the sand of the desert in many places at the upper end reaching close up to the river. The area of the land under cultivation is about 24 million acres, which is -dependent. entirely on irrigation. Rainfall in Egypt may be said to be conspicuous by its absence, the average fall at the northern end being 14 inches, and above this the country is practically rainless. The Nile is one of the longest rivers in the world, its length from the source to the Mediterranean being more than 3000 miles. Owing to its physical con- ditions, the fact that it has no tributaries for the last 1500 miles of its course, and the great amount of evaporation under the tropical heat of the sun, it presents the peculiar phenomenon that the quantity of water flowing down the river decreases as the lower length of its course is reached. In floods it carries in suspension detritus derived principally from the volcanic plateau in Abyssinia and the swampy regions of the White Nile. The quantity of material thus transported from the middle of Africa and Abyssinia has been estimated at 62 millions of tons a year, raising the level of the cultivated land in Egypt at the rate of 33 inches in a century, and to a depth which in some places extends to 30 feet. The Nile being fed from lands having wet and dry seasons, it has a regular rise and fall, the water through Egypt being at its lowest in June and reaching its maximum in October. The reading of the Nilometer at Rodah is watched with the greatest interest, as the prosperity of the country depends on the height of the flood water. The difference between high and low floods varies about 10} feet, the mean rise varying from 23 feet at Cairo to 26 feet The discharge of this ae Fesruary 18, 1909] NATORE 463 flood water being greater than is required at high floods and deficient in low floods and in summer, a system of dams at different parts of the river has been carried out for storing and regulating the supply. The principal crops grown along the Nile are wheat, sugar, cotton, rice, maize, and other smaller vegetation. Where the supply of water is suffi- cient, two crops can be obtained in one year. The cultivation of cotton is rapidly extending, the value of this crop alone now being nearly as great as the whole revenue of the country. The first great work for improving the irrigation undertaken by the Works Department after the British obtained control in 1883 was the completion of the great barrage, or dam, at the head of the Delta. This had been constructed by the French engineers for the purpose of holding up the Nile water to a height of 15 feet, sufficient to provide the neces- sary head for feeding the irrigation canals. Owing, however, to defects in the construction, it had never been possible to raise the level more than 5 feet. Under the direction of Colonel Scott-Moncrieff, the foundations were strengthened, and other necessary repairs carried out, with the result that the full head of water can now be maintained, and the land can be efficiently irrigated. Also, by the construction of another barrage, at a cost of 230,0001., half-way between Cairo and the sea, the irrigation is rendered still more effective. Owing to these works the value of the cotton crop has been increased from 73 to 15 millions of pounds, and the cultivated area increased by a million acres. For regulating the supply of water in Upper Egypt; about seven years ago the great barrages, or dams, at Assouan and Assiout were built across the river at the head of the cultivated system of Upper Egypt. These works were carried out by the firm of Aird and Co. for the English Irrigation Depart- ment, the contract price being 2,000,0001. These dams act as regulators of the water supply in summer, and have practically doubled the supply available. It was stated by Lord Cromer, in one of his reports soon after they were completed, that the effect of these works was to increase the rental of the land to 31. an acre, in addition to a tax of tos. that is levied to pay the cost. A practical demon- stration of their value was afforded in 1902, when the Nile flood was a very poor one, and the agri- cultural outlook was very critical, for a large area of cropping was in danger of being entirely lost through want of irrigation. This, however, was prevented, owing to the water stored by the dam at Assiout, and cropping estimated of the value of 500,000l. was saved. Thus the whole cost of this dam was paid for in this one season. The dam recently opened by the Khedive is near Esneh, a town of 25,000 inhabitants, situated on the Nile 643 miles from the Mediterranean and 110 miles below the dam at Assouan. It has been constructed for the purpose of storing the flood water and providing perennial irrigation to a tract of land con- taining 250,000 acres, on which at present only one crop of cereals can be grown. When irrigated this land will be capable also of growing a second, or summer, and more profitable crop of sugar or cotton. The dam is somewhat similar in construction to those above described. It consists of a masonry struc- ture containing 119 piers, spaced 163 feet apart, and connected by arches, on which is carried a roadway across the Nile about half a mile long and 19} feet wide. The openings between the piers are fitted with upper and lower doors, or gates, resting in grooves, which can be raised or lowered by machinery so as to regulate the discharge of the water through the dam. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] For the use of the navigation a lock has been provided which is 2624 feet long and 523 feet wide. The dam at Assouan rested on the granite bed of the river, but at Esneh the substratum was sand, which extended to a considerable depth below the bed of the river. To carry the structure, therefore, a continuous floor had to be made 2950 feet long and 98} feet wide. This floor consists of cement concrete 3} feet thick, on which is 63 feet of rubble masonry laid in cement and paved with granite setts. To prevent the water finding its way under this floor, when it is held up, two rows of iron sheet piles were driven to a depth of 13 feet below it, 61} feet apart, across the bed of the river, the space between being filled with clay puddle pitched with limestone. On the down-stream side, to prevent erosion of the river bed by the water pouring through the arches when the doors are open, a floor was laid with a pitching of limestone 131 feet wide. The superstructure was built of sandstone, granite being used for the lock. This sandstone was obtained from a quarry fifty-seven miles distant, the quantity used amounting to 166,000 cubic yards. The granite, of which 80,000 cubic yards was used, was brought down the Nile in barges from Assouan, a distance of 110 miles. The cement, the iron piles, and the machinery all came from England. From 8000 to 10,000 natives were employed, Italians being engaged in preparing the stone. The work was supervised by English foremen and overseers. The preliminary works, including the opening out of the quarries, temporary railways, of which twenty- four miles were used, workshops for the men, and offices, were commenced in the spring of 1906, the permanent work being begun in the following November. Three years were allowed by the contract, and as the work was completed in half the specified time, the district is thus given the benefit of an extra season’s irriga- tion. The works were designed by Mr. Webb, the engineer of the Egyptian Works Department, under the direction of Mr. Macdonald, the director of reser- voirs, and carried out by Messrs. Aird and Co., the same contractors who constructed the Assouan and Assiout dams. The cost was more than 1,000,000l. ELECTROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY. I Mee report referred to below! is based in the main on information obtained during visits to certain countries in Europe and to the United States and Canada, including British Columbia. The Gart- side scholarships were established in 1902 by Mr. J. H. Gartside, and are administered by the University of Manchester. The scholar who obtains the grant must first study in the university, and the remainder of his time must be devoted to an examination of subjects bearing upon commerce or industry in Germany, Switzerland, or the United States of America. It is intended that each scholar shall select some industry or business for examination, and in- vestigate this comparatively in the United Kingdom and abroad. The report is of particular interest because it deals with a subject which is of comparatively recent growth, and which has remarkable potentialities. In fact, as the author says, few chemical processes have escaped being affected in a greater or less degree by the application of electrical methods. 1 *fSome Electrochemical Centres.” By J. N. Pring. Being No. 7 of the Gartside Reports on Industry and Commerce. Pp. xiiit137. (Man- chester: Uniyersity Press, r908,) Price rs. 6d. net. 464 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 18, 1909 But in this country no revolution has been caused in the chemical industry by the introduction-of elec- trochemical methods. Of course, there are various reasons for this; in the first place, cheap power is a sine qua non if an electrochemical process is to be satisfactory. Although we have cheap coal, we have very limited supplies of water power. The heavy chemical industry of this country was also in a very secure and flourishing state, therefore there was not much inducement to try the newer methods. On the contrary, in America the chemical industries were not particularly well established. The water power ob- tainable from the Niagara is immense, although in this connection it should be borne in mind that nearly all the large electrolytic copper refineries are situated near New York, and are worked by steam power ; and the progress in America is due in no small measure to the great enterprise and superior technical training of the people. The first part of the volume discusses the question of cost of power production, comparisons being made between water, steam, oil-engine and gas-engine power. It appears in general that water power is the most economical, and gas engines actuated with blast- furnace gas the next. Chapter ii. deals with the Niagara Falls and the distribution of the power, the chief industries being the Aluminium Co. of America, Carborundum Co., Union Carbide Co., Castner Kellner Electrolytic Alkali Co., Oldbury Elec- trochemical Co., Acheson Graphite Co., and Niagara Electrochemical Co., which take between them about 68,500 h.p. One of the most interesting industries which entirely owes its origin to electrical power is the manufacture of abrasives—carborundum and alundum. There is also the flourishing artificial graphite works. The aluminium works employ about 35,000 h.p., and hold practically the monopoly of the aluminium manufacture in the U.S.A. and Canada. A large part of the power developed from the Niagara is employed for electrochemical purposes on the Cana- dian side of the falls. The descriptions of the power obtained from the various falls and rapids is narrated in a very in- teresting manner. Chapter v. treats of the electric smelting of iron ores and steel production. The elec- trochemical industries in the Alps, France, and Belgium are also dealt with. In the Alps there are a large number of comparatively small falls, and it says a great deal for the skill of the French engineers that so much use has been made of them, rendering France the chief seat of the electric alloy manufacture. The last chapter describes the electrochemical industries in Great Britain, and anyone reading the book will probably find that there is more work being done in this direction than is generally considered to be the case. The origin of the electrolytic refining of copper was in this country, where it was founded in 1869 by J. Elkington, and the works erected at Pembury, in Wales, are still in operation, although, naturally, they have been enlarged. We congratulate the author upon a very readable and painstaking production. Re Mies NOTES. We regret to announce the death, on February 13, of Sir George King, K.C.I.E., F.R.S., late director of the Botanical Survey of India, in his sixty-ninth year; also of Prof. Julius Thomsen, president of the Royal Danish Society of Science, at eighty-two years of age. A Reuter message from Washington states that the Smithsonian Institution has decided to award the first Langley gold medal. to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright. NO. 2051, VOL. 79| Tue Berlin Academy of Sciences has awarded the Helm- holtz medal to Prof. Emil Fischer, for his work on the sugars and albuminoids. It is announced that an international exhibition is to be held at Brescia from August to October next under the patronage of the King of Italy. Tue Prehistoric Society of France has elected Dr. A. Guebhard president for 1909; MM. Marot and Viré become vice-presidents, Dr. Marcel Baudouin general secretary, and M. L. Giraux treasurer. Tue Petit Journal recently asked its readers to select by their votes twelve great Frenchmen worthy of being included in the Pantheon. Pasteur’s name appeared at the top of the poll with 315,203 votes, and was followed by that of Gambetta with 279,443 votes. We wonder whether a man of science would head the list if a similar plebiscite were taken by a popular daily paper in this country. THE proposed amalgamation of the London Institution with the Society of Arts on the lines of a scheme drawn up by a joint committee in 1905 has been approved by a majority of the proprietors of the former institution. A ballot taken on Monday showed as the result :—for amalgamation, 322; against, 218, the majority in favour thus being 104. The board of management has now to consider whether action shall be taken to carry out the scheme for amalgamation. Tue council of the Royal Society of Arts attended at Marlborough House on February 11, when the Prince of Wales, president of the society, presented its Albert medal to Sir James Dewar, F.R.S., ‘‘ for his investigations into the liquefaction of gases and the properties of matter at low temperatures, investigations which have resulted in the production of the lowest temperatures yet reached, the use of vacuum vessels for thermal isolation, and the applica- tion of cooled charcoal to the separation of gaseous mixtures and to the production of high vacua.” At the annual meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society on February 12, the following were elected as the officers and council for the ensuing year :—President, Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S.; vice-presidents, Sir W. H. M. Christie, K.C.B., F.R.S., Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S., Mr. H. F. Newall, F.R.S., Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.; treasurer, Major E. H. Hills, C.M.G.; secretaries, Mr. A. R. Hinks, Mr. S. A. Saunder; foreign secretary, Sir William Huggins, K.C.B., O.M., F.R.S.; council, Mr. Bryan Cookson, Rev. A. L. Cortie, Mr. A. C. D. Crommelin, Mr. A. S. Eddington, Prof. A. Fowler, Mr. J. A. Hardcastle, Mr. H. P. Hollis, Mr. E. B. Knobel, Mr. T. Lewis, Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., Mr. W. H. Maw, Prof. R. A. Sampson, F.R.S. SEVERE earthquake shocks were experienced again at Messina and in Calabria on February 12 and 13. The Daily Chronicle Milan correspondent reports the chief shock as occurring on February 13 at 8 p.m., and lasting for ten seconds, the shock being accompanied by noises like that of cannon during a heavy bombardment. A Reuter’s message from St. Petersburg states that a slight earthquake shock was felt on February 13, at 8 a.m., at Sotchi, in the Government of Suchum. Another message from Mexico City reports that the volcano of Colima, near the town of that name, was erupting with increasing violence on February 13. Loud subterranean detonations were heard, and showers of hot ashes fell. A stream of FEBRUARY 18 1909] - NATURE 465 lava a mile long is said to have been emitted from the crater. On February 16 severe earthquake shocks were felt in southern Bulgaria and parts of Hungary. Tue Prince and Princess of Wales were present at the Royal College of Surgeons on Monday, when Mr. Henry Morris, the president, delivered the Hunterian oration, taking as his subject ‘‘ John Hunter as a Philosopher.” The Prince has accepted the diploma of honorary fellow of the college, and on Monday he signed the roll. The president, in the course of his address, said a study of Hunter’s works shows that he combined in an exceptional degree the two philosophic methods of induction and deduc- tion. He was essentially a thinker rather than a scholar, yet an experimental philosopher rather than a meta- physician. He saw that for a complete scheme of know- ledge induction and deduction are supplementary to each other. His adoption of both inductive and deductive methods was the result of two causes—the natural scope and bent of his mind and the nature of the subjects to which he devoted his life. Induction was largely the method required for the profession he chose. Hunter was a disciple of Bacon in that he employed induction in the pursuit of truth with an ulterior regard to utility and the good of mankind. At the same time he had not the deductive force of Descartes. It was not as a logician, but as an observer and experimenter that Hunter excelled; it was not the beauty of his logic, but the industry with which he collected facts, and the ability and honesty with which he reasoned from them, that made him great. It is announced in Science that Mr. D. C. Sowers, in charge of the special magnetic expedition to China under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, left Peking on January 30. He will be assisted by Prof. Chester G. Fuson, professor of history and geography at the Canton Christian College. The route to be followed by the party will touch at the following places :—Sianfu, Lanchowfu, Suchow, Turfan, Kashgar, Khotan, thence, vid the Karakorum Pass, into India, where connection will be made at Dehra Dun with the magnetic survey of India. Magnetic observations will, therefore, be obtained in parts of China and Chinese Turkestan where no previous data existed. Dr. J. C. Beattie, director of the department of physics, South African College, Cape Town, has been granted a year’s furlough in order to take charge of a magnetic survey party under the auspices of the Carnegie Institution. He left Cape Town on November 25 last. His general route of travel will be through German South- West Africa, thence into Rhodesia, British East Africa, German East Africa, and next through Nubia and Egypt, connecting with the magnetic survey of Egypt at Cairo. He will be assisted by Prof. J. T. Morrison, in charge of the department of physics, Victoria College, Stellenbosch, South Africa, who will confine his work chiefly to points reached by steamer along the east and west coasts of Africa. Mr. J. C. Pearson, who during the past year has been engaged in making magnetic observations in various parts of Persia under the auspices of the Carnegie Institu- tion, will be ready some time in March to undertake similar work in Asia Minor, beginning at Bagdad. Messrs. H. W. Cox anv Co., Lrp., of 47 Gray’s Inn Road, London, W.C., point out in a circular letter that the exaggerated reports which have appeared consequent upon the sufferings of some of the earliest workers with R6ntgen rays (including Mr. Cox himself) have affected not only the English manufacturer and the medical man who were sufficiently enterprising to take up the new treatment, but also to a considerable extent deprived the NO. 2051, VOL. 79] public of the benefit of the discovery which has been of such incalculable value in the relief of suffering and the advancement of medical knowledge. It should now be well known, however, that apparatus has been devised which entirely obviates any danger either to the patient or to the operator, while experiments have determined the maximum exposure which may be given with safety to the human skin. The rays are now used with perfect safety in thousands of hospitals throughout the world in the treatment of various diseases. Mr. Mackenzie Davidson long ago exhibited at the R6éntgen Society the method of protection from the injurious effects of X-rays advised by him. It simply consisted of a wooden box thickly coated with red and white lead mixed into a thick paste—this hardened, and was a non-conductor. A circular opening was left opposite the antikathode. Thus everyone was protected from these rays except the patient who was placed in the path of the rays. Further, the viewing fluorescent screen should be framed and covered with thick and heavy plate glass, which does not interfere with the screen except to protect it (as the glass does a framed picture), and shields the observer from injurious rays. Had these simple precautions been carried out, we should not be grieved by these maimed martyrs. Of course, any material of sufficient atomic weight can be used to enclose the X-ray tube. A copy of the annual report for the year 1908 of the council of the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, N.Z., has been received. During the year arrangements have been under consideration for the publication of the report of the expedition to the subantarctic islands of New Zealand, which took place in 1907 under the auspices of the institute. The expedition was assisted by the Govern- ment, and sool. was received from the same source towards bringing out the report on the expedition. Other important questions which have occupied the attention of the council include experiments in connection with Arthur’s Pass Tunnel, the foundation of a library of Antarctic literature, the dispatch of a scientific party to the Chatham Islands, and the more adequate protection of native fauna. The Government of the Dominion of New Zealand has made a grant of 2001. towards the earth-temperature observa- tions at Arthur’s Pass Tunnel, and we notice the council puts on record its indebtedness to: Prof. Heim, of Ziirich, for the help and advice he has rendered the subcommittee in charge of these experiments. The- council recommends that a party of men of science be sent at the first oppor- tunity to the Chatham Islands to make collections of articles of ethnological interest and of specimens of the subfossil bird remains. In connection with the protection of native fauna, it has been decided to direct the attention of the Minister of the Interior to the fact that neither the kaka nor the tuatara is protected, though the export of specimens of the latter is forbidden. Tue Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute for February (xxx., No. 1) contains a valuable paper by Dr. Rideal on the purification of water by ozone by the De Frise process, which is considered to give extremely satisfactory results. In the Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital for January (xx., No. 214) another paper on the history of medicine is added to the series already published in this journal, the subject being John James Wepfer, a Renais- sance student of apoplexy, contributed by Dr. John Donley. THE Royal Commission on Tuberculosis recently issued a third interim report (Cd. 4483, price 4d.). In their second interim report the commissioners expressed the 466 opinion that a considerable amount of disease and loss of life, especially among infants and children, must be attributed to the consumption of cows’ mill derived from tuberculous udders and containing tubercle bacilli. The present report contains an account of experiments which have been carried on regarding the infectivity of the milk and faeces of cows which have contracted the disease in the ordinary way. None of the cows investigated showed any sign of tuberculosis of the udder during life, and one only post-mortem, yet the milk of these cows contained tubercle bacilli. It was also found that cows affected even with slight tuberculous lesions discharge tubercle bacilli in small numbers in the faces; those with extensive tuber- culous lesions of the lungs or alimentary tract may dis- charge large numbers of bacilli from the mouth or nostrils in coughing or in the faces. Since dirt of various kinds from the cow-sheds is almost constantly present in milk as it reaches the consumer, another possible mode of human infection is indicated. Tue greater part of the January issue of the Museums’ Journal is occupied by papers on the Norwich Museum Association and on a new method of keeping Lepidoptera, both of which were read last year at the Ipswich con- ference. The system of keeping butterflies and moths, which Mr. S. L. Mosley claims to possess great advantages, is based on devoting a separate box—made in book-form— to each species, with all its phases and variations, as well as illustrations of its natural surroundings and maps of its distribution. The boxes can be arranged on shelves like books. Pror. Rina Monti, writing in the Lombardy Rendicontt, xli., 18, discusses the active and passive migrations of the fauna of the Italian Alpine lakes. The author finds that on the south side of the Alps the migrations from valley to mountain should have been less easy at the end of the Glacial epoch than at present, on account of certain geo- hydrographical considerations which he has examined. The passage of boreal types from north to south must neces- sarily have taken place through depressions in the dividing chain, and the author advances arguments against the hypothesis of an active migration. In several lakes of recent origin of the Ruitor, formed by the regression of glaciers, the author finds that the fauna have migrated from neighbouring basins. Tue whole of the first part, comprising 170 pages of text and twenty-four plates, of the fifth volume of the Zoological Publications of the University of California is devoted to the results of a biological survey, by Mr. Joseph Grinnel, of the San Bernadino Mountains of southern California. These mountains, in the restricted sense of the term, form the most extensive high range in the south of California, and include the highest peak to the south of Mount Whitney. As a large portion is clothed with forest, while the range is isolated from any other mountain-group of approximately similar altitude, the area is one which might naturally be expected to yield results of considerable biological interest. The author paid par- ticular attention to the division of the range into vertical life-zones, which include the Upper and Lower Sonoran, the Transitional, and the Boreal. It was found, as might have been expected, that the flora afforded by far the better data for the delimitation of these zones. Among the special features in the habits of the fauna is the fact that the birds which have bred in the spring and early summer at comparatively low levels are compelled in July to move higher up the mountains in order to escape the shortage of food which prevails, owing to the drought, in their breed- NO. 2051, VOL. 79| NATURE [FEepruary 18, 1909 ing haunts from the commencement of that month until the end of October. A remarkable mortality among the Audubon’s warblers was also noticed in December and January; as all these were in an emaciated condition, the lack of proper food would appear to be the cause of the deaths. Does the kidney form an internal secretion? is a ques- tion upon which physiologists are uncertain. It is stated that extracts of kidney tissue produce a rise of blood pressure; but the main experiments relied upon by those who answer the question in the affirmative were performed some years ago by Dr. J. Rose Bradford, in which he showed that, after removal of a large amount of kidney tissue (the whole of one kidney and a considerable piece of the other), dogs exhibit symptoms of malnutrition which cannot be explained by the loss of the external secretion, the urine. Indeed, the volume of the urine, and the amount of urea excreted, are very frequently higher than the normal in such animals. These experiments were re- peated by Bainbridge and Beddard at Guy’s Hospital on cats, and their findings did not confirm the far-reaching conclusions which were drawn from Bradford’s experi- ments. The symptoms of malnutrition, according to these later observers, are simply those ordinarily found in inanition, and this condition was present in the cats owing to their refusal to take food. Very similar experiments have just been performed by two American observers, Drs. Sampson and Pearce (Journal of Experimental Medicine, New York, vol. x., No. 6, November, 1908). They show that in dogs a reduction of the kidney tissue to one-quarter the original amount is not necessarily fatal, and this is a very important discovery in view of the frequency of surgical operations on the kidney. Very extensive removal of pieces of the kidney is followed by rapid healing, and very little effect on the remaining kidney tissue is notice- able. In cases where a fatal termination did take place, there was renal insufficiency, and the animal refused food. The general trend of the results is therefore in favour of the views of Beddard and Bainbridge. In the Contemporary Review for February Dr. Havelock Ellis discusses the evolution of the feeling of love of wild nature, that is to say, scenery from which man is excluded. He finds the germ of it in the conception of mingled love and horror felt by the savage towards mountain and wood- land, the one the natural home of his gods, the other the abode of malevolent spirits. The affection of his votaries for a god of the wild, like Apollo of Delphi, might in process of time extend to his chosen seat. In Europe the love of scenery first appears among the Celts towards the western isles of Scotland. In classical times the charm- ing, luxuriant landscape of Italy was more fitted to win the admiration of men than the terrible and dramatic aspects of Greece. This became more apparent in the days of the Empire, when Nero chose Subiaco as his abode, and Marcus Aurelius retired for meditation to mountain or sea. Early Christian literature shows little sense of this feel- ing, but the hermits, who in a state of religious exalta- tion fled to the desert, fostered at least a tolerance of their barren surroundings. The Christians, again, took over from paganism many sites consecrated to the worship of the gods on account of the remarkable character or beauty of their situation, and religious orders, like the monks of the Grand Chartreuse, were obliged to accept grants of barren lands worthless to their owners. The modern taste for wild scenery was the offspring of the Italian Renais- sance, which only revived the views of earlier writers, like the younger Pliny. Coming to more modern days, Addison Fesruary 18, 1909] NAT ORE 467 shows an. advancing but still incomplete appreciation of Alpine scenery, which was further developed by the solitary, imaginative Gray. It was left to Rousseau, in ‘‘ La Nouvelle Heloise,’’ to popularise that feeling in Europe, the tradition of which passed on to Wordsworth, Byron, and their many successors. While, then, it is incorrect to regard the love of wild nature as an almost universal human instinct, there is evidence that it was felt by the more imaginative minds from the very earliest times. Mr. D. Grirritus contributes to the annual report of the Missouri Botanical Gardens (vol. xix.) a first series of illustrated studies on the genus Opuntia that acquires additional interest because the plants have been studied in their natural localities. Types of several new® species, chiefly Mexican, are described. Witn the present issue, for February, Irish Gardening completes its third year, and may well claim to have fulfilled its purpose of providing a source of information for Irish cultivators. An article of general interest to cultivators of rock gardens, on the subject of suitable dwarf shrubs, is contributed by Mr. J. W. Besant. Attrac- tive colouring of leaves, flowers or fruit, in addition to dwarf habit,-are the qualities recommended. The author presents a selection of species from about ten genera, among which Berberis Wilsonae, a new introduction from China, Cotoneaster adpressa, varieties of Euonymus radicans, Genista tinctoria, Hypericum moserianum, Poten- tilla Friedrichsoni, and Perovskia atriplicifolia receive special commendation. Mr. G. A. Napson contributes to the Bulletin du Jardin impérial botanique, St. Petersburg (vol. viii., parts v. and vi.), a short article on the physiology of luminous bacteria, regarding the action of salt in cultural media. Luminosity is produced quickly by using a strong solution containing about 3 per cent. of salt, but a solution con- taining one-half per cent. eventually produces a more intense light. The following method for obtaining the spores of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is recommended by Mr. A. A. Gorodkowa. Sowings of pure yeast are made on plates of agar prepared from a solution containing 1 per cent. each of agar, peptone, and meat extract, a half per cent. of salt, and a quarter per cent. of glucose. The cultures, placed in a thermostat maintained at a tempera- ture of 28° C., should produce spores in three or four days. On the question of sense-organs in plants, botanists are primarily indebted to Prof. Haberlandt and Dr. Nemec for original conceptions that have met with considerable, but not universal, acceptation. Arising out of a lecture delivered in Berlin, Prof. Haberlandt has published an article on the subject in Himmel und Erde (December, 1908, January, 1909). Three different classes of sense-organs are described, concerned respectively with the perception of mechanical, gravitational, and heliotropic stimuli. The arrangement, in the first case, often consists of a project- ing cell or portion of a cell, as in the stamens of Portulaca grandiflora; more remarkable is the staminal filament of Sparmannia africana, that is notched on the receptive side. The theory that starch grains act as mechanical regulators of gravitational stimulation has aroused much criticism, but has been put to a convincing experimental test by Dr. Francis Darwin. Finally, Prof. Haberlandt submits the arguments in favour of regarding lens-shaped epidermal cells and similar structures in the leaves as apparatus for concentrating the light on the protoplasm, and so regulating the position of the leaf. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] Tue December (1908) number of the Journal of Agri- culture of South Australia contains the official estimate of the probable wheat harvest for 1908-q in South Australia. The total yield is placed at just under 20 million bushels, an average of 11-6 bushels per acre. The corresponding actual figures for last year were a little more than 19 million bushels, with an average of 10-9 bushels per acre. The total area under wheat is estimated at 2,062,000 acres, an increase of 37,000 acres over the previous year, but some of this is grown as a hay crop. The area reaped for grain is placed at 1,727,000 acres, a decrease of 26,000 acres; the area cut for hay is 334,000 acres, an increase of 63,000 acres. Tue report on the Botanic Station, Agricultural School, and Experiment Plots of St. Lucia, recently issued by the Imperial Commissioner of Agriculture for the West Indies, shows satisfactory progress. A large number of economic plants have been raised, and nearly 75,000 were distributed, including lime plants, which were most in request, cacao, rubber, the demand for which fell off, mangoes, oranges,. &c. Experiments are recorded on cultivation and spraying ; it was found that lime trees could be sprayed with an emulsion of kerosene sufficiently strong to destroy the orange snow scale (Chionaspis citri) without themselves suffering any harm. THE varieties of potatoes grown in the Central Provinces of India are described by Mr. G. Evans in a bulletin issued by the Department of Agriculture for the Central Provinces. Until four or five years ago the Moolki variety was the only one grown in certain districts, and there is evidence to show that it had been grown for nearly 100 years without change of seed or climate; it is now, how- ever, said to be ‘‘ worn out,’’ and rapidly succumbing to attacks of disease, &c. Potatoes are not uncommonly dis- placing sugar-canes, and are found to be more profitable. “ In vol. xxiii. of the Queensland Geographical Journat Mr. H. R. Mathews, without any reference to, and appar- ently quite independently of, the papers by Mr. N. W. Thomas in vols. xxxv. and xxxvi. of the Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, discusses the methods of navigation among the aborigines of Australia. He dis- misses the catamarans and dug-outs used in Cape York Peninsula, Port Darwin, and other northern parts of the continent because he refuses to admit that they are of Australian origin, and attributes the introduction of these types to Malays or Papuans, the former race being prob- ably responsible for the more elaborate decoration of bark canoes in the same territory. It is not quite clear whether he intends to found any ethnological speculations on the fact that the custom of men swimming and towing rafts is found at Macquarie Harbour, on the western coast of Tasmania, and at Peterson Bay, in North Australia. It seems obvious, however, that this is a device which, like the materials and forms of the rafts in use at these places, 1800 miles apart, might be independently discovered by natives employing these primitive methods of navigation. Tue extensive literature dealing with American basketry unfortunately seems to be little known among art students and managers of industrial schools in this country, yet both these classes might with advantage consult it in their search for new schemes of decoration and for instruction in the technique of an art which has been brought to such a high degree of perfection by the Indian tribes. The last monograph on the art, as practised by the Pomo tribe in California, is that contributed to the seventh volume | of the Publications of the University of California by Mr. 468 NALORE [ FEBRUAKY 18, 1909 S. A. Barrett. The fibres used, except the bark of the red- bud, are drawn from the roots of plants and trees such as the sedge, carex, and pine. For the foundation material the slender stems of the willow are almost exclusively employed, while for the purposes of decoration the use of feathers and beads is one of its most characteristic features. In technique three different methods are in vogue, coiling, twisting, and wicker-work, of each of which there are numerous varieties. The complexity of the patterns, based on simple geometrical elements such as the line, triangle, rectangle, and rhomboid, is remarkable. To _ these elaborate patterns, each provided with a descriptive title founded upon some real or fancied likeness to some object bearing the same name, this tribe does not, as is the case with many of their neighbours, attach any religious or symbolic meaning. The numerous drawings accompanying this monograph entitle it to rank as an authoritative manual of this interesting form of artistic handicraft. Dr. HeErRGESELL, president of the International Com- mission for Scientific Aéronautics, has sent us a preliminary statement of the participation of the various countries in the work of investigating the upper air, from January to the beginning of July, 1908. Ascents were made in the early part of each of those months, with more or less regularity, from thirty-three stations, including two in the United States and one in Egypt, by means of kites, manned, captive, unmanned (registering), and__ pilot balloons. The latter do not carry instruments, but observa- tions of wind direction at various altitudes are made by watching the balloons with theodolites. The registering balloons at many of the stations reached altitudes exceed- ing 18,000 metres; at Pyrton Hill (Oxfordshire) altitudes of 19,000 metres, and at Uccle several exceeding 20,000 metres, were attained. In compliance with a decision of the mecting of the commission held at Milan in 1906, an extended series of ascents took place, for the second time, at the end of July, 1908. The full results will be pub- lished later; a preliminary notice of some of them was given in our issue of December 31, 1908. WE have received the Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan for the months August to November, 1908 ; abstracts of most of the papers are given in English. The following seem to us to be of especial interest :— (1) Observation of Givre in Hokkaido, by Mr. J. Yamada, in the August number. This is one of the terms left to the International Meteorological Committee to define in a precise manner. In the present paper it relates to the phenomenon sometimes called ‘‘rime,’? and which the author explains is formed after fog of some duration, and most frequently with temperatures below —10° C. (2) The relation of barometric pressure to the pulsation of the earth, by Mr. N. Shimono, in the September number. The seismograph at Osaka showed that: the oscillations became more frequent as barometric depressions approached, and decreased as they passed away. No relation was found between the wind and the pulsatory oscillation. We regret to note the death of the president of the society, Vice- Admiral Viscount T. Enomoto, which occurred in October last. An interesting table showing the efficiency of various kinds of furnaces is ‘given by Mr. J. W. Hall in a paper appearing in the Proceedings of the Birmingham Metal- lurgical Society for 1907-8. The difference shown between different types of furnaces is very marked. The highest efficiency in ordinary work is attained by an English blast-furnace making pig iron, in which 81-7 per cent. of the total heat given by the fuel is utilised and NO. 2051, VOL. 79] only 18-3 per cent. wasted. No less than 65-3 per cent. of the total heat, however, escapes from the furnace, but most of this is recovered outside in various ways. In a puddling furnace not fitted to a boiler, 91 per cent. of the heat is wasted, but the most wasteful furnace of all is the common coke crucible furnace employed in melting steel, in which 1-43 per cent. of the heat is used in the furnace and 98-57 per cent. wasted. Other papers printed in full in the Proceedings deal with the selection and testing of foundry irons, the sampling of pig iron, and the micro- structure of a cartridge case. AN important paper on heat-flow and temperature-distri- bution in the gas engine was read by Prof. B. Hopkinson at the Institution of Civil Engineers on February 2. The author first investigates the probable heat-flow and tempera- ture-distribution and gradients over the cylinder walls, deal- ing specially with those parts which are not water-jacketed, and then describes some experiments made on a 40 B.H.P. Crossley gas engine in his laboratory at the University of Cambridge. The temperatures at different parts of the piston, which was uncooled, and also of the exhaust and inlet valves, were measured by thermocouples. Under normal working conditions these temperatures were found to be in excess of the jacket-water temperature by 370° C. at the centre of the piston, 4oo° C. in the exhaust valve, and 250° C. in the inlet valve. It is very unlikely, as shown by Prof. Hopkinson’s calculations, that the tempera- ture of the inner side of water-cooled walls ever rises above quite a moderate value. There may be a temperature gradient in the piston face from centre to edge of 180° C., producing inequality of expansion which may give hoop stresses amounting to several tons per square inch. The author gives an interesting investigation of this problem. Experiments were made in order to ascertain the effects ‘on the temperature-distribution of changing the strength of mixture, time of ignition, and degree of compression. An important set of experiments was also made on the phenomena of pre-ignition produced by overheating of part of the metal surface. A long iron bolt was introduced having a thermocouple at its end. The end of this bolt was heated from the explosions, when it was found that pre-ignition would not occur so long as the bolt tempera- ture did not exceed 700° C. If the temperature exceeded 730° C. pre-ignitions occurred so frequently as to pull the engine up. It was found that the line of division between the conditions under which safe and continuous running was possible and those under which the engine was bound to pull up was very narrow, and can be represented by an increase in the gas charge of only 1 per cent. We have received from the Société francaise de Physique a circular directing attention to the advantages offered by the society to its members, who already number more than fifteen hundred. The subscription for members in this country is only ten franes, and for this a member receives the fortnightly abstracts of communications made to the society, and the quarterly bulletin containing the complete papers. By paying three francs extra a member may have the Journal de Physique instead of the bulletin, and as the journal contains both the communications made to the society and abstracts of communications made to many other French, British, and German societies, this is a very inexpensive way of being kept up to date in matters physical. There are other advantages of membership which may be learnt from the secretary of the society, 44 rue de Rennes, Paris. Tue only means of measuring very small gas pressures below one-thousandth of a millimetre of mercury has up Fesruary 18, 1909] NATURE 469 to the present been the McLeod gauge, the accuracy of which was called in question by the work of Sir William Ramsay more than a dozen years ago. In the January number of the Verhandlungen der deutschen physikalischen Gesellschafi, Drs. K. Scheel and W. Heuse, of the Reichsanstalt, describe a manometer they have constructed which allows them to measure small differences of pressure to an accuracy of about o-oooo1 millimetre of mercury. The instrument consists of two metal reservoirs of small volume separated from each other by a membrane of copper 26 centimetres diameter and 0-03 millimetre thick, which bends under any difference of pressure in the two reservoirs by an amount proportional to the difference. The move- ment of its centre is measured by the aid of a Fizeau interferometer. By means of this instrument the authors have verified Boyle’s law for air down to a pressure of 0-o001 millimetre of mercury, and have shown that the McLeod gauge will give trustworthy results at these low pressures. Tue Watkins Meter Co., of Hereford, has published a fourth edition of the useful ‘‘ Watkins Manual of Exposure and Development,’’ by Mr. Alfred Watkins. The little book, which contains an abundance of practical informa- tion, is sold at rs. net. Tue fifth issue ” annual of M. Max de Nansouty’s “ Actualités scientifiques has been published by MM. Schleicher Fréres, of Paris. The volume contains a series of essays on Scientific subjects of current interest, which range over the whole field of natural knowledge. It would be difficult to imagine a more interesting way for the student of science to keep up his knowledge of French, and at the same time revise and extend his acquaintance with recent work in his own particular subject of study. The price of the volume is 3.50 francs. : Tue Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian-Field Club offer the ‘‘Cecil’’ silver medal, and prize of the approximate value of 5/., for the best paper on “* The Dis- covery of Radium: its Probable Origin, Present Develop- ment, and Possible Future Use.’’ The competition is open to any person who was between the ages of eighteen and thirty on May 12, 1908, and was either born in Dorset or resided in the county for twelve months previous to that date. Papers should be sent by March 1 to Mr. Nelson M. Richardson, of Montevideo, near Weymouth. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. INTERACTION OF Sun-spots.—In a paper published in No. 1, vol. xxix., of the Astrophysical Journal (p. 40, January), Messrs. P. Fox and G. Abetti discuss a number of observations which lead to the conclusion that in many individual cases, if not in general, there exists a physical connection between different groups of sun-spots. ; A preliminary examination of Carrington’s and of Spoerer’s results showed that the coincidences of longitude in spots of different latitudes were no more numerous than would be called for by the probability of chance coincidence. An examination of the Rumford spectroheliograms, taking into account, not only the coincidences of spots with spots, but also of spots with disturbed, flocculic, areas, showed that the coincidences were rather more numerous than demanded by chance, but the result was still in- definite. However, when individual cases were considered, it at once became evident, from an examination of spectro- heliograms, that separate spots, in about the same longi- tude but in opposite hemispheres, were physically connected. One example, illustrated by reproductions, shows the development of a spot (Greenwich, No. 6185) as a northern companion of a southern spot (Greenwich, No. 6184) between May 6 and May 133, 1907. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] A more striking interaction is shown by a series of Ha spectroheliograms taken on September 10, 1908, on which violent eruptions are shown in connection with two spots in opposite hemispheres, these eruptions culminating in the gap between the spots being bridged over. Visual observa- tions made during the four hours in which the whole of the display took place showed violent eruptions of hydrogen in the neighbourhood of the spots.. Measurements of posi- tion indicated that between September 8 and 12 the northern spot advanced 3°-3 in longitude and 1°-7 in lati- tude towards the southern spot, the latter remaining stationary. DISTRIBUTION OF THE Stars.—A result having an important bearing on questions relating to the distribution of stars is announced by Prof. E. C. Pickering in Circular No. 147 of the Harvard College Observatory. An analysis of the Revised Photometry is now being carried out at Harvard, and among other results already obtained the following is held to be of sufficient importance to call for immediate publication. If the stars were infinite in number and distributed at random throughout space, the number, N, in any given class brighter than magnitude, M, should be given by the formula N=aM+b, where a=o-60, and b is another constant. A previous determination of a, considering 4000 bright stars, gave the value 0-52, and the deficiency was attributed to the absorption of light by some interstellar medium. In the present magnitude 6-50 were divided and then into two divisions. The one division included the spectral classes A and F (Type i.), the second included the classes G, K, and M (Types ii. and iii.), and it was found that whilst for the first a=o-60, for the second its value was only o-51. From this result it is obvious that in any study of stellar distribution it is essential that the stars must first be classified according to their spectra. investigation the stars brighter than into six magnitude-groups, Jupiter’s SEVENTH AND EIGHTH SaTELLITES.—In No. 4300 of the Astronomische Nachrichten (p. 63, February 2) Sir William Christie publishes an ephemeris for J viii. com- puted from the elements previously published by Messrs. Cowell and Crommelin. This ephemeris gives the distance Satellite viii—Jupiter, in R.A. and declination, for every fourth day between January 2 and March 19, the values given for February 19, for example, being —7m. 34-8s. and —4’ 46". Two photographs taken at Greenwich on January 16 gave the correction + 10-3s., ol aol; ja second photograph was secured on January 19. No photograph of J vii. has yet been obtained, every available opportunity having been employed to photograph the more recently discovered satellite. It is understood that an ephemeris for J vii. will appear in the second edition of the American N.A., 1909. Tue ANomauies oF REFRACTION.—In determining time by their circumzenithal apparatus, MM. Fr. Nusl and J. J. Frié found a discordance which they attributed to per- turbations of the atmosphere lasting over an appreciable period. Whilst the small evanescent anomalies of refrac- tion affected their observations to some extent, it was found that there was a superimposed anomaly the period of which would amount to seconds. By an ingenious application of photography to their method, they have now succeeded in demonstrating the existence of this second anomaly, and find its period to be of the order of twenty seconds, whilst the amplitude of the movement it causes is about 1” of arc. The results, and the methods by which they were obtained, are discussed and illustrated in No. 13, 1908, of the Bulletin international de l’Académie des Sciences de Bohéme. Tue Story of tHe TELEscopr.—In view of the tercen- tenary of the telescope, Mr. Mee has issued a very interest- ing little brochure, in which he reviews the more important events in the development of the instrument. He also adds useful lists of observatories, large telescopes, astronomical societies, &c., and tabulates the chief astronomical events since the death of Copernicus in 1543. This work can be obtained from the author, Llanishen, Cardiff, price 6d. 470 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 18, 19¢9 eee eee EEE eee REGIONAL AND STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY. A\ MONG the latest memoirs published by the Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain in 1908 are three dealing with familiar ground. Mr. C. Fox-Strangways writes on ** The Geology of the Country North and East of Harrogate ”’ (price 2s. 6d.), in explanation-of Sheet 62. A geological map of the district round Harrogate is in- serted as a plate in the memoir, and the photographic views, including the famous dropping well of Knares- borough, will interest visitors who may not be specialists. There is a chapter on the history and origin of the Harro- gate springs, which are held to arise from independent sources in the hills west of the town, obtaining their chemical ingredients as they pass through the Lower Carboniferous strata towards the spots where they emerge. These strata are provisionally retained as Yoredale beds. Messrs. A. J. Jukes-Browne and H. J. Osborne White, in explanation of: Sheet 254, write of ‘‘ The Country around Henley-on-Thames and Wallingford ’’ (price 2s.). The colour-printed map (price 1s. 6d.) was issued in 1905, and a slight correction of it, as regards the zones of the chalk north of Henley, is given, on a somewhat reduced scale, in the memoir. The country depicted includes the well-known road that climbs from Henley to the woods of Nettlebed, and drops again over the face of the Chalk to the Thames alluvium at Benson. From Dorchester, one of the pleasantest of Oxford villages, we look back at the fine Chiltern scarp, through which the Thames cuts deeply. A map like this, with the section at its foot, explains a delightfully varied piece of country. The memoir hardly directs sufficient attention to the interest of the various gravels and to the problems of pebble-distribution in con- nection with the present valley, but the facts can, of course, all be found in Mr. White’s chapters on the superficial deposits, where numerous references to other works are given. Mr. White shows how subaérial wasting (p. 79) has been going on here since Oligocene times, so that the pebble gravel of the Chiltern slope can have no definite age assigned to it. He regards the exotic pebbles, such as those of quartzite, that occur in the ‘‘ plateau gravel ”’ (p. 35), as derived from the older ‘‘ pebble gravel,’’ and as “‘ carried into the region of the Upper Thames basin long before the commencement of the Pleistocene ‘ Ice Age. That energetic writer, Mr. A. J. Jukes-Browne, has also prepared the memoir on ‘‘ The Country around Andover ”’ (price 1s. 6d.), accompanying Sheet 283. The map (also price 1s. 6d.) was issued in 1905. In this area we are on the great undulating plateau of chalk, over which men still travel fast—often far too fast—on the way from Basingstoke to Bath. The beautiful little valley of Kings- clere adds variety in the north-east, where a breached anticline exposes Selbornian Upper Greensand. This fold is illustrated by a section on the map itself. The un- initiated, however, must remember that the exaggeration of the vertical scale, harmless enough in the right-hand portion, produces an unfortunate effect where the dip changes rapidly on the left, the Chalk appearing as if compressed to one-third of its thickness at the outcrop. The memoir deals with the Cretaceous zones in a manner that was impossible when the area was first surveyed in 1857-. In conclusion, it touches on springs and water- supply, questions of special importance in such a region. A fourth memoir, on ‘‘ The Country between Newark and Nottingham,’’ by Messrs. Lamplugh, Gibson, Sher- lock, and. Wright (price 2s. 3d.), describes Sheet 126, pub- lished in 1908. There is very little glacial drift in this part of the Trent valley, and the surface is mainly occupied by Triassic strata. The chief point of interest for the dwellers in this agricultural country lies in the fact that the Coat-measures, which crop out west of Nottingham, probably underlie the whole of it. Indications of concealed faults, known already from subterranean workings, are shown by orange lines upon the map. The longitudinal section below it -is properly non-committal as to the con- cealed coalfield; but the Clifton Colliery has already burrowed under the Trent, and the whole land eastward May yet become a “* black country,’’ with the Trent as NO. 2051, VOL. 70] its convenient waterway. The soils of the district are interestingly referred to on pp. 96-7. In the Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, vol. xx. (1908), p. 390, Messrs. C. P. Chatwin and T. H. Withers describe the zones of the Chalk in the Thames valley between Goring and Shiplake, a district bearing on those recently examined by the survey. The work of these authors is, in fact, referred to in the Andover memoir. The united evidence shows that the higher zones of the Senonian were denuded away over a wide area in our Midlands before the deposition of the Eocene strata. A special character was imparted to the later work of Mr. J. Lomas by the broad geographical outlook of the author. This is apparent in his description of the geology of the Berwyn Hills (Proc. Geol. Assoc., vol. xx., 1908, P- 477), Which serves as a useful companion for any visitor to Llangollen. We may mention the account (p. 488) of the walls of the Dee valley, and their relation to former glaciers, as an example of the features here clearly brought before the reader. In the Jahrbuch d. k.k. geol. Reichsanstalt for 1908, pp. 469-526, Dr. H. Reininger furnishes an interesting study of the Tertiary basin of Budweis, near the southern Bohemian border. He concludes that the plant-bearing beds were laid down in a considerable lake in Middle Miocene times between steeply falling walls of crystalline rock. The Alpine movements. (p. 511) gave rise to the hollow in which the water gathered, despite the general resistance of the old Bohemian mass that surrounds the basin. Dr. Reininger points out that numerous fissures were produced in Bohemia by pressures of even later date, and that the basin of Budweis was probably uplifted with the southern Bohmerwald at some time later than the Miocene. Here we approach the edge of controversy, and once more look towards the Alps. It is impossible to do justice, however, either in the study or the field, to the successive memoirs that appear on the tectonics of the Alps. In three numbers of Peter- mann’s Mitteilungen (Bd. liv., 1908, Nos. 10, 11, and 12) Prof. Fritz Frech, of Breslau, has furnished a summary occupying forty-two pages, in which he endeavours to harmonise the views of various writers. Profs. Diener, Kilian, and Schardt have supplied descriptions of special districts, and Prof. Frech shows his fairness by a kindly reference (p. 223) to the gravitational theory of folding urged by Reyer. Emphasis is laid on the great faults that accompanied the folding in the eastern Alps (p. 256), such as the ‘“‘ Gailbruch,’’ which manifested itself as late as 1346 in a terrific earthquake and a landslide, the huge sears of which can still be seen on the precipice of the Dobratsch as one leaves Villach for the south. Close at hand we find the region of the south Alpine Trias, a plateau-country cut up by vertical faulting. In his con- cluding sentences, Prof. Frech shows how the overfolded structure of the western Alps is connected with the dis- similar and broken structure of the east by districts, like the Brenner or the Radstadter Tauern, where both types lie near one another. This gives the Alpine chain an advantage over many other mountain regions; but the author points out (p. 282) that we may be led on from it to connect the folded ridges of Mexico with the faulted plateaus of Arizona and Utah, as manifestations of one and the same mountain-building process. The memoir is illustrated by photographic plates and sections. Dr. Ampferer’s paper on the Sonnwendgebirge, re- ferred to by Prof. Frech in a footnote, appears in the Jahrbuch der k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, Band viii. (1908), p. 281. Wahner has recognised certain ‘‘ hornstone- breccias ’’ intercalated among Jurassic radiolarian marls as evidences of overthrusts. Ampferer regards them as truly and evenly interbedded, and as resulting from the uplift of an eastern part of the sea-floor; the sediments already formed slipped down over the underlying slope of the Kossen beds, wrinkling themselves during this gravita- tional sliding. Denudation of the uplifted part by sub- aérial agencies set in, and the hornstone-breccias are evidences of this decay. The large blocks found in them may record actual lJandslips. Where the breccias are re- peated, elevation and depression must have alternated. The Gosau beds were laid down unconformably on the surface due to this epoch of denudation. Features of this Fesruary 18, 1909 | NATURE 471 kind are, of course, noticeable both in the Carboniferous Limestone and in the Chalk of our own islands. The main interest of Ampferer’s paper from a tectonic point of view lies in its acceptance of Reyer’s doctrine of what -may-be called ‘‘ contemporary gliding.”’ In the Verhandlungen of the same institute (1908, p. 326) Prof. Tornquist, of K6nigsberg, replies to Dr. Ampferer concerning the Flysch-zone in Allgau and the Fic. 1.—Unconformity of Sub-recent Conglomerites on Cretaczous Limestone, Kalhat, Coast of Oman, Arabia. (Photo. by A. v. Krafft.) Vorarlberg, and he very interestingly pictures the forma- tion of a submarine overthrust during the growth of the | Flysch deposits. The Alps had even then begun to rise, and the limestone ‘‘ klippe’’ of Allgau was thrust over the earliest beds of Flysch and became entombed in those that were still forming. Tornquist opposes Ampferer’s comparison of the phenomena with those brought about by landslides, and asks us (p. 331) to consider the effects of earth-movements on unconsolidated sediments still beneath the sea. He would like to explain, on the same prin- ciples, the ‘‘ klippen ’’ studied by Uhlig in the Carpathians. Even in the sub- marine processes described there seems to be a good deal that is akin to land- sliding, but Tornquist makes the fold- ing and the accompanying gliding con- temporaneous with the Flysch itself. From these closely criticised regions it is refreshing to come out with Dr. W. F. Hume into the unknown south- western desert of Egypt (Cairo Scien- tific Journal, vol. ii., 1908, pp. 279 and 314). His paper meant for the general reader, and its style and con- tents would make an admirable lecture. A great southward extension of Eocene strata has been discovered by the author. His remarks on wind-erosion (p. 318) show, as one might not at first sight expect, that sand is absent where the signs of erosion are intense. The cutting agent finds no resting place, but is hurried over the edge of the desert plateau to fall in great sand-slopes towards the plain and to fill up valleys that are there sheltered from the wind. In the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xxxiv., part iv. (1908), we have another of those broad surveys that are still possible in Africa and Asia, and that recall the days of von Buch, Murchison, or Darwin. Mr. G. E. Pilgrim has had the fortune to report on the geology of the Persian Gulf and the adjoining portions of Persia NO. 2051, VOL. 79] is Fic. 2.—Extinct Volcano of Mount Iraya, in Batan Island, Philippines. and Arabia. He too has felt that in science it is good to be a king, And ride in triumph through Persepolis. Mr. Pilgrim provides photographic views of barren land- scapes, and a geological map, in which are correlated his own observations and those of his predecessors. Marine beds occur up to the Messinian and Pontian stage, i.e. into what are generally regarded as Pliocene times (p. 25), and the Persian Gulf is attributed to denudation acting still later on a mass that became upraised in some places € gooo feet above the sea. Then came a Pleistocene submergence, followed by still more recent elevation, of which we have evidence in the modern shore- lines. Mr. H. G. Ferguson describes the small Batanes Islands, the northern outliers of the Philippine group towards Formosa (Philippine Journal of Science, vol. iii., 1908, p. 1). The basal rock is a pre-Miocene volcanic agglomerate, and the islands are thus really volcanic piles. Miocene limestones were formed across them, and became uplifted to 275 metres above the present sea. The frequent earthquakes are correlated (pp. 14 and 24) with a fault that is possibly traceable into Luzon. Volcanic activity continued in the group during the time of uplift, and Mount Iraya, in the north of Batan, has quite a modern aspect. That excellent observer, Mr. A. J. C. Molyneux, of Bulawayo, describes part of the Bechuanaland Protectorate in the Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific | Association, vol. vi. (1906), p. 73- This district links itself interestingly with that reported on by the Survey of Cape Colony near Kimberley, and the author traces its Water- berg and Karroo strata also north into Rhodesia (p. 86). But should he write both ‘‘ Karroo’’ and ‘‘ Karoo” on successive pages? The basalts of the Victoria Falls area are correlated with the Tuli lavas of Bechuanaland and with the volcanic rocks of Stormberg age farther south. orc (Photo. by Worcester.) Passing to America, Mr. E. Otis Hovey has described for the first time the general geology of the western Sierra Madre in the State of Chihuahua, Mexico (Bull. Amer. Museum Nat. Hist., vol. xxiii, 1907, p- 401). The region is likely to be developed from a mining point | of view, but is mainly given over to stock-raising. It 472 NATURE [IEBRuaRY 18, 1909 owes its relief to denudation, acting on a plateau of Cretaceous limestone and -andesite, on which lava-flows of basalt and rhyolite, with additional andesite, have broken out. Important post-Cretaceous intrusions of granite occur. The broad, enclosed basins of the plateau, which are well illustrated, became filled up by débris, largely wind-borne, and sandstones and conglomerates arose which almost obliterated the original relief. The present tendency is still towards the filling of such basins by the crumbling of outstanding relics of the older surface under the action of an arid type of denudation; but rivers have cut modern cafons through the mass, and are pro- ducing a new series of relief-features. It is interesting to note (p. 422) that hanging valleys have been left in the canon of the Aros “‘ by the more rapid cutting done by the great stream.”’ Mr. A. Gibb Maitland chose as the subject of his presi- dential address to the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science in 1907 ‘‘ The Geology of Western Australia.’’ This address forms a convenient summary of recent work, now that it has been published by Mr. Bris- tow, Government printer in Adelaide. Attention is directed {p. 10) to the attractions offered by the Cambrian beds of the Kimberley district, from which Hardman gathered an unlocalised Olenellus in 1883. The glacial boulder-bed east of the Kennedy Range (p. 16) is of early Carbon- iferous age. Laterite, in part pisolitic, occurs throughout Western Australia (p. 24), and is recognised as resulting from the decomposition and re-consolidation of the under- lying rocks in situ. These rocks are commonly granites. Secondary silica converts some types of the laterite into quartzites ; others pass over into bauxite. Here once more we are in face of the most interesting problem of weather- ing presented to us in the tropics. The laterite has been cut through by denuding agents, and some of it may be of early Cainozoic age, while in other places it is still forming. Among papers dealing with special systems rather than with regional geology we may note one by Messrs. W. G. Miller and C. W. Knight on the Grenville Hastings un- conformity (Sixteenth Report, Bureau of Mines, Canada, 1907, p- 221), in which it is urged that the Hastings series in Ontario and Quebec has an independent position, being unconformable to the underlying Grenville series, and not merely an altered portion of that series. The Laurentian gneiss is intrusive in the Keewatin series and in the over- lying Grenville series in south-eastern Ontario. The Hastings series is styled Huronian by the authors. Sir T. H. Holland (Records Geol. Sury. India, vol. XxXvii., 1908, p. 129) shows that the Blaini formation of Simla, in which he now finds well-striated boulders, need no longer be correlated with the Talchir beds, but may be much older, since glacial conglomerates are known from various horizons. The unfossiliferous sediments below it, hitherto regarded as Permian or older, may be actually as old as the pre-Cambrian, and may be classed with the author’s Purana beds of the peninsular area. In the same Records, vol. xxxvi. (1907), p. 23, Mr. H. H. Hayden discusses the age of the Gangamopteris beds of Kashmir, and furnishes good photographs of their occurrence in the field. These beds are ‘‘ not younger than upper Carboniferous,’’ since equivalents of the Fenestella-shales of Spiti overlie them, A very interesting paper on desert conditions and the origin of the British Trias was contributed by the late Mr. J. Lomas to vol. x. of the Proceedings of the Liver- pool Geological Society (1907), p. 172. Personal: observa- tions in Africa were utilised, and the author lost his life, as already recorded in Nature (vol. Ixxix., p. 226), while extending his researches in an area from which he hoped to gather much. Prof. Bonney, who has so long studied the Triassic pebble-beds, has commented on Mr. Lomas’s conclusions in the Geological Magazine for 1908. Our knowledge of the marine Trias of Europe is increased by Dr. F. v. Kerner, who publishes a considerable paper on the southern border of the Svilaia planina in Dalmatia (Verhandl. d. k.k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 1908, pp. 259-289). In the uppermost zone there are reefs formed by calcareous alge, with intervals of ordinary sediments between them, where detritus from earlier volcanic rocks was washed in among the limestone-building organisms. NO. 2051, VOL. 79] Coming to much more recent times, Herr B. Stiirtz, of Bonn, has made a detailed study of the ‘* Rheindiluvium ” from Bingerbruck, near Mainz, downwards to the Nether- lands (Verhandl. d. naturhist. Vereins der preuss. Rhein- lande u. Westfalens for 1907, published 1908, pp. 1-91). He does not seem to take into consideration the older extension of the alluvium of the Rhine to the English coast, which many authors have looked on as a feature of late Pliocene times. He regards the old delta as beginning near the Ahr, midway between Coblenz and Bonn, at a time when the stream-bed was some 150 metres higher than at present. A broad plain dropping seaward to the area of the Netherlands allowed the river to wander in various arms, much as it does now in Holland, and these arms have left their traces in high-level ‘‘ diluvial ’’ gravels. The present valleys of the main stream and of its tributaries must have been deepened by 100 to 200 metres in Pleistocene and recent times. The effects of the damming up of the waters by the Scandinavian ice-front are discussed. The higher deposits of léss are, however, attributed to wind-action, while others were laid down in a glacial lake between the uplands and the ice. GivAQ eG: A REMARKABLE DEVELOPMENT IN X-RAY APPARATUS. HE old induction-coil seems likely to have a serious rival in the new apparatus which Messrs. Newton and Co., of Fleet Street, are showing. This is the ““Snook ’? Rontgen apparatus. The machine consists of a motor converter driven from the continuous current mains, and supplying an alternating current to a step-up trans- former. This transformer is immersed bodily in a galvanised iron tank filled with an insulating oil, the whole being hermetically sealed. The voltage at the secondary terminals of this transformer amounts to as much as 70,000-100,000, and can be regulated as required by means of an adjustable resistance in the primary circuit. The most important adjunct is a mechanical rectifier, consisting of a rotating commutator of special design carried on the axle of the motor converter; thus it cannot get out of step, and, what is perhaps of as great import- ance, it requires no attention. The commutator when once adjusted in proper phase produces a very nearly unidirectional current, although, of course, perfection in this respect is unattainable, as will be realised when it is remembered that the current from the converter cannot be a simple harmonic one. Be this as it may, the rectification is very successfully made, and the simplicity of the device commends it when compared with the very troublesome valve tubes which must so frequently be employed for heavy X-ray work. With regard to the efficiency, a current of 25 amperes at 200 volts in the primary circuit yields 60 milliamperes or more through an X-ray tube of 3 or 4 inches spark. Having inspected the apparatus while in action, we may state that we consider it to be a most efficient addition to the numerous arrangements available to the present-day worker in X-rays. RECENT PAPERS ON MARINE ANIMALS. MONG papers on various groups of marine animals in serial and other publications which have recently reached us, reference may first be made to a fasciculus of ‘‘ Illustrations of the Zoology of the Indian Survey Ship Investigator,’’ containing plates devoted to new and other species of fishes, entomostracous crustaceans, and molluscs. In addition to certain deep-sea forms, the fishes include two species of skate, described by Dr. R. E. Lloyd in 1906, several kinds of stalked barnacles are figured, and the molluses include seven species, described by Mr, E. A. Smith in the year already mentioned, of which the shells are for the first time depicted. Reverting to fishes, we find Messrs. Gilchrist and Ward- law Thompson contributing to the second part of vol. vi. of the Annals of the South African Museum one paper on the local Blenniidze and another on various species from the Natal coast. The blennies have hitherto been very ¢ Fesruary 18, 1909] NATURE 473 imperfectly known, in spite of their comparative abund- ance, and some of the species are extremely difhcult to identify. Out of a total of thirty-eight South African re- presentatives of the family, no less than twenty-two belong to the genus Clinus, of which twelve are described by the authors as new. In the second paper a very large number of species belonging to sundry genera and families are named and described; one of these—referable to Chryso- phrys—is locally known as the ‘* Englishman,’’ and the authors have accordingly named it Ch. anglicus, which scarcely seems a satisfactory designation for a South African species. To the issue of the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for December, 1908, Mr. H. W. Fowler contributes a paper on the Pennsylvanian fresh-water fishes of the family Cyprinidz, in the course of which a new species of Notropis is described. Owing to pollution of the streams, some species of these fishes are in danger of extermination. Much has of late years been written on the develop- ment and life-history of the eel, a further addition to the subject being a paper, illustrated with figures and a map, by Mr. Knut Dahl, which appears in the January number ot Naturen. From fishes we pass to whales, the Arctic fishery for which during the past season receives a brief notice by Mr. T. Southwell in the Zoologist for January. Six vessels were dispatched for whaling purposes in 1908, two of which yisited the Greenland seas, while three proceeded to Davis Strait and one to Hudson Bay. The Greenland fishery proved the most productive, yielding ten out of the fifteen right-whales constituting the season’s catch. In addition to these, the season’s expedition vielded 540 white whales, 899 walruses, 3084 seals, and 241 bears. With whalebone at about 2000/1. per ton, the total value of the produce (inclusive of a cargo brought from Pond’s Bay station by the Eclipse) may be estimated at between 29,0001. and 30,000l. Turning to invertebrates, the first paper for notice is one by Dr. J. Stafford, of Montreal, published in the January issue of the American Naturalist, on the larva and spat of the Canadian oyster. The fact that American oysters are unisexual renders possible artificial fertilisation of the eggs and rearing of the larva, and these young stages have been long familiar to the naturalist, but there was a big gap in our knowledge between these stages and the fixed condition. Accordingly, the author set himself the difficult task of learning to identify oyster-fry amid the hundred forms of life to be met with in the pelagic plankton. In this he was eventually successful, having observed what he took to be the larva settle themselves on glass plates and develop into undoubted oyster-spat. Further study of the plankton will probably enable the height of the breeding-season to be definitely determined. At present it seems that oyster-larvae occur in the water from July 11 to September 1, and that spat make their appearance from August 16, thus suggesting that during the second half of August there occur the last stages of growth of late larva, and that the period of growth of the masses dates from between July 11 and August 16. The eggs are therefore probably deposited about the first of July. The paper concludes with a summary of the results of the author’s investigations, and also contains remarks upon the important bearing of these and earlier observations on the problems and methods of artificial oyster-culture. The last two papers for notice are by Dr. Gilchrist, the one, in the above-mentioned issue of the Annals of the South African Museum, on two new species of Ptychodera, and the other, in vol. xvii., part ii., of the Transactions of the South African Philosophical Society, on new forms of Hemichordata from South Africa. In the former paper Dr. Gilchrist observes that, in addition to the under- mentioned Ptychodera capensis, another representative of the same genus is found in the same localities in fair abundance under stones, but usually somewhat nearer ‘0 high-water mark. Among the adult forms were found a number of smaller ones, in which the proboscis and collar were in all stages of development, this apparently indicating a process of natural fragmentation or proliferation from the tail end of this species, for which the name Pt. pro- NO. 2051, VOL. 79] liferans was accordingly suggested. The second, Pt. natalensis, is from the Natal coast, and is characterised, among oiher features, by the extremely short proboscis. Pt. capensis is described in the second paper. In the latter paper it is mentioned that the three orders of the Enteropneusta are now known to be represented in South African waters, the Enteropneusta by the above- mentioned species of Ptychodera, the Pterobranchia by a species of Cephalodiscus, and the Phoronidea by a new species of the type-genus (Phoronis capensis), and by the new genus and species Phoronopsis albomaculata. The last-named, which is figured in its fully expanded form alongside Phoronis capensis, is an exceedingly beautiful organism, differing from the type-genus mainly in having an involution of the epidermis with definitely differentiated (cubical) cells. The involution occurs below the nerve- ring, which it partially covers, and passes round the body so as to encircle the mouth, vent, and nephrideal apertures. MEANING AND METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. [NX this day of encyclopedias numerous and ponderous, one is often struck with the fact that in spite of the manifest care and conscientious thought bestowed by the responsible editors, the omissions and evidences of dis- continuity of treatment, and lack of recognition of the prime purposes of the compilation, are as noteworthy as the imposing array of the results of our steadily advancing knowledge is startling. For a philosophic treatment—one fully appreciative of that which the student really requires, not only to enlighten him with regard to a particular subject, but also to stimulate him to research where it is most needed—I frequently get more satisfaction out of the older encyclopedias than from our modern ones, even though they can but present the status of the subject up to the time they were written. As an illustration, take the word ce research,’’ or any of the associated terms—‘‘ discovery,’’ ‘‘ experiment,” ““investigation,’? and ‘‘ observation.’’ Turning to the index volumes of the ninth and tenth editions of the “ Encyclopaedia Britannica,’ I find but two references in which the word ‘‘ research ’’ appears—one to the exploring vessel, the Research, and the other to ‘‘ research degrees.”’ Turning to the page on which the latter occurs, we find this interesting statement referring to Oxford Uni- versity :— ‘“ New degrees for the encouragement of research, the B.Lit. and B.Sc. (founded in 1895, and completed in 1900 by the institution of research doctorates), have attracted graduates from the universities of other countries. In 1899 a geographical department was opened, which is jointly supported by the University and by the Royal Geo- graphical Society.’’ Now comes the interesting statement which I beg to emphasise :—‘‘ Of more bearing on prac- tical life are the Day Training College Delegacy (1892) and the diploma in education (1896). Under the former elementary school teachers are enabled to take their train- ing course at Oxford, and do so in growing numbers,” &e. We thus see what the writer of this article thinks of the relative value in practical life of research foundations and normal school foundations! Sir Norman Lockyer, in his luminous inaugural address before the British Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science in 1903, on the “Influence of Brain-power on History,’’ says:—‘A country’s research is as important in the long run as its battleships.’? Why, then, does not the standard encyclo- padia of that country make space for a representative article on ‘‘ research ’’? Under ‘‘ investigation there also appears absolutely nothing. However, we have the Investigator ship, In- vestigator Shoal, Investigator Group, &c., but not a word about the general methods employed by “‘ scientific in- vestigators ’; and so it is with the word ‘‘ discovery ’’— there is no reference whatsoever to an article on the ” 1 Abridged from an address by Dr. L. A. Bauer as retiring president the Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered before the Society on December 5, 1903. 474 general principles leading up to discoveries. Likewise with the word *‘ observation.’’ Though there are many refer- ences to observations of various kinds, there is no one article for setting forth the general principles of ‘‘ observa- tions’ or the part they play in the discovery of funda- mental facts. The same experience is had with regard to _the word ‘* experiment.’’ Now let us turn to an encyclopaedia I* invariably read with pleasure and profit; it frequently has supplied me with references to earlier work not to be obtained else- where. We shall find it instructive, though the articles to which I beg to invite your kind attention were written three-fourths of a century ago. I refer to the classic Gehler’s ** Physikalisches Wé6rterbuch*’—the revised edition by the noted investigators Brandes, Gmelin, Horner, Littrow, Muncke, and Pfaff, in twenty volumes, and published in Leipzig, 1825-45. A veritable fund of information is found under the headings ‘‘ Beobachtung ”’ (observation) and ‘* Versuch’ (experiment). The article on “‘ Beobachtung,’’ by the physicist Muncke, embraces twenty-eight octavo pages. He shows the distinction between ‘* Beobachtungen *’ (observations) and ‘‘ Versuche ”’ (experiments) to be that the former pertain to the percep- tions of phenomena presented to us by nature in her un- modified course, whereas in the latter—in the experiments —we are seeking to produce certain results or phenomena, more or less looked for, in order either to verify a law already known or to disprove one suspected of being wrong, or even to discover a new one. Both classes of experiences are necessary for a piece of investigation or research work. Thus we may behold, either visually or in some other way, certain striking solar phenomena; these belong to the class of observations which we ourselves are unable to modify in any manner whatsoever. Continued observation may, however, reveal a certain law which by experiment in the laboratory, conducted along more or less definite lines, we may seek to imitate in the hope of getting some clue to the modus operandi of the observed phenomena. In this article on ‘‘ observations’’ the author treats in detail the various elements entering into correct methods of investigation, condition of the observer and of his senses, his being unbiased, character and errors of the instru- ments, errors of results, methods of increasing accuracy, representations of observations by graphs and formula, method of least squares, &c. He points out. the mistake sometimes made that an established formula satisfying the observed phenomenon within certain limits represents an actual law of nature. The article *‘ Versuch ’’ (experiment) consists of forty- four pages, and is contributed by the astronomer. Littrow. He shows that the most rapid development takes place in those sciences which afford the greatest opportunity for experimentation, referring, e.g., to the slow and painful progress of the astronomer so long as he had to confine himself to mere celestial observations, and the compara- tively rapid strides which occurred so soon as some of the observed phenomena could be either imitated by, or be compared with, those derived by laboratory experiment. The investigator, he says, must be absolutely free from preconceptions, and be careful, cautious, and unbiased in his interpretation of what his senses may reveal to him. He illustrates how man, called jokingly ‘‘das Ursach- enthier ’’ (the animal ever bent on ascertaining the cause of things), proceeds in ferreting out the why and where- fore of observed phenomena, and how his methods of cireumspection develop with the advance of knowledge. Though man cannot determine the ‘‘ Endursachen,’’ or ultimate causes of things, the field open to him to discover the laws governing phenomena or vice versd, classifying and enumerating those which follow a certain revealed law, is, nevertheless, still very large and sufficient to tax his energies. Witness, for example, the host of observed phenomena obeying the law of inverse squares ! These two articles will show sufficiently the character and scope of similar ones we should like to see in our standard English and American encyclopzdias.! Such in- formation is contained in some measure, at least, though 1 Chambers's Encyclopedia _is found to contain a short article on “Experiment ; also one on ‘‘ Observation." NO. 2051, VOL. 79] NATURE [Frsruary 18, 1g09 not as comprehensively, in the modern German book of reference, Brockhaus’s *‘ Conversations-Lexikon,’’ as also in the ‘t Grande Encyclopédie ’’ of the French. Our foremost English dictionaries are in general not any more satisfying or edifying regarding the precise meaning of ‘‘ research ’’ in the scientific sense than are _ the standard encyclopedias. ‘Their illustrations of the use — of the word are usually neither apt nor sufficiently com- prehensive. j A good-sized chapter might be written on the *‘ mathe- — matical ‘instruments or tools of research.’ The predomin- ating tendency of resolving or expressing every natural phenomenon—periodic or otherwise—by a Bessel or a Fourier series or by spherical harmonic functions has brought about at times, especially in geophysical and cosmical phenomena, if not direct misapplications, at least se misinterpretations of the meaning and value of the coefficients derived. ' et Frequently by the purely mathematical process there have been eliminated, in the attempt to represent a more or less irregularly occurring natural phenomenon by a smoothly flowing function, the very things of chief and permanent interest. The normal or average diurnal temperature curye, for example, or a uniform magnetic distribution over land, so as to yield perfectly regular lines of equal magnetic declination, never occur in nature. There is thus being impressed upon us more and more forcibly the fact that what we have been regarding as ‘abnormal features ’—the outstanding residuals between observations and the results derived from the mathematical formula—are in truth not ‘‘ abnormal ’’ from the stand- point of nature, but are rather to be taken as indicative of the ‘‘ abnormality’? or ‘* narrow-mindedness,’’ which means the same thing, of ourselves in trying to dictate to nature the artificial and regular channels she should pursue in her operations. ; Louis Agassiz said :-— ? “The temptation to impose one’s own ideas upon Nature, to explain her mysteries by brilliant theories rather than by patient study of the facts as we find them, still leads us away.”’ The fundamental law of nature is to follow invariably the paths of least resistance, and by examining these lines of structural weakness of the opposing systems we may have opened to us the very facts which are to be of real value and of sure benefit to mankind. The irregularity of the banks bordering a natural watercourse serves to differentiate the work of nature from that of the builder of the artificial and regular channel. ; No, instead of rejecting, we must learn to retain the outstanding residuals and study them most carefully and regard them as the true facts of nature, and not those which we so egotistically and presumptuously try to force on her. What great discoveries may lie open to us when we once have grasped the true significance of the facts we have been so fond of measuring by our own standard and have been terming as ‘‘ abnormal ”’ or “ irregular 2a! An interesting example of not wholly successful applica- tion of the continuous and ever-recurring functions of spherical harmonics to a typical geophysical phenomenon —the distribution of magnetism over the earth’s surface has been discussed by me elsewhere. Though the number of unknowns has been increased in recent com- putations from the original twenty-four of Gauss to forty- eight, nevertheless the difference between theory and observation is of such an order of magnitude as to pre- clude the use of the formula for even the purely practical demands of the navigator and surveyor. Nor has anyone succeeded in giving any physical interpretation of the laboriously derived coefficients beyond the first three. And what do these three stand for? The simplest possible case of a first approximation to the actual state of the earth’s magnetism, viz. that of a uniform magnetisation about a diameter inclined to the axis of rotation ! The prime difficulty here may be summed up in a word. The very surface over which the spherical harmonic func- tions are spread is itself such a prolific source of disturb- ance as to cause effects embracing a continent, a State, or a locality. Such a large number of terms would he requisite for an adequate representation as to make their ‘Fepruary 18, 1¢09] computation prohibitive. We are dealing here with more or less discontinuous effects that cannot be imitated by continuous functions without leaving behind a train of residuals, precisely as though we were to try to fit to the actual configuration of the earth some standard pattern of our own. Let me ask what phenomenon have we, in fact, which will admit of the determination of forty-eight, or even of twenty-four, physical constants ? It had been my intention to say a few words on the value and limitation of that much-used as well as abused mathematical instrument of research, the method of least squares. Properly employed, it is a most useful adjunct to investigation; but, as intimated, the true significance of formule established by this method is at times pushed way beyond the limitations. What the tenor of my re- marks might be will be sufficiently evident to you if I submit this query for your consideration, What actual laws of nature have been discovered by the method of least squares ? It is an extremely interesting and suggestive fact that the greatest experimental discoveries to-day are not made in the older, well-recognised sciences, but on their border- lands—in the ‘‘ twilight zone’’ of more or less related sciences. I have but to mention the words ‘“ physical chemistry,’’ ‘‘ physical geology,’’ ‘‘ astrophysics,’’ ** bio- chemistry,’’ &c., and you will readily grant the assertion made. In the overlapping regions there seem to be the greatest opportunities afforded for solid, thorough, and at the same time remarkably rapid, experimental achieve- ments; and so we are having produced almost daily new specialities or new subspecialities. What is the effect on the general broad-mindedness of man of this extreme specialisation, so necessary for the production of the best and most far-reaching results? Is the modern specialist more narrow-minded than _ the generalist of a century or two ago? In view of the fact that the prime instrument of research is, after all, the mind, the question is not an irrelevant one. We find state- ments occasionally made which would imply an affirmative answer to our question; but I, for one, would most emphatically protest against such an inference. I should maintain that the specialist, other things being equal, is likely to be a broader man than he who has no speciality, but simply a general knowledge of some particular science. The reason for my positive statement would be found in the fact mentioned, that the greatest part of the research work to-day is being done on the border-lands of the general sciences, for he who wishes to take part in this very active competition must needs be far better equipped than the mere generalist. The physical chemist, to be most successful, must have a very intimate knowledge of both physics and chemistry, and the more mathematical skill he possesses the better. The astrophysicist must be a physicist, a chemist, a mathematician, besides being an astronomer. And so with regard to the geophysicist. Only a few names need be cited—like those, for example, of Faraday, Maxwell, Kelvin, von Helmholtz, Mascart— to support the contention that the broadest physicists are, as a rule, those who have regarded their laboratory ex- periments and deductions therefrom merely as a means to an end, not an end in themselves, and who have accord- ingly sought to apply the knowledge gained to the solution of some of the great problems affecting the general welfare of man. There is the greatest need in America of well- trained and well-equipped physicists in the solution of the many perplexing problems of the earth’s physics with re- gard to the phenomena of seismology, vulcanology, meteor- ology, atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, Xc. When the investigator makes the attempt to apply some of his laboratory facts to geophysical and cosmical pheno- mena, he has opened to himself a world of which he never dreamed; he finds zest in familiarising himself with the fundamental facts of other sciences in which until now he could take no interest. It is always interesting to know what was the precise course followed in the discovery of a great law. How- ever, no two investigators have ever pursued, or at least but rarely, precisely the same paths, and we must there- fore be content with the statement of the general prin- ciples of research such as has already been given. A prevalent fault is observed in scientific publications NO. 2051, VOL. 79] NATURE 475 whenever the investigator has had good training only on the observational side, and but very little experience in scientific computing. He is very apt to violate one of the first and fundamental principles of good observing, viz. to employ such a method or scheme of observing as will yield but one definite result, and that with the highest possible accuracy and with the least amount of computation. Oftener than may be thought, schemes of observation are used which leave an arbitrary element to the computer, and in consequence a different result is forthcoming, accord- ing to who makes the computation. Had we time, apt illustrations could readily be given from published works. The point made, that the observer must also bear in mind the computation side, and work up his results as soon as possible, is of fundamental importance in research work. It may be worth while to consider briefly the insatiable desire of the analyst to ring in a series of sines and cosines to resemble the course of some natural phenomenon of which he does not know the exact law. Is this the old story over again, though in somewhat altered garb, of the epicycles and deferents of ancient astronomical mechanics, which received its highest development in the Ptolemaic system of the universe? You will recall that Ptolemy, building on the suggestions of Apollonius and of Hippar- chus, supposed a planet to describe an epicycle by a uniform revolution in a circle the centre of which was carried uniformly in an eccentric round the earth. By suitable assumptions as to his variable factors he was thus able to represent with considerable accuracy the apparent motions of the planets and to reproduce quite satisfactorily other astronomical facts. This was the artifice employed by the astronomer of the period before the modern and more subtle art of simulating nature, by the sine-cosine method, had become known. What seemed so intricate and complex in Ptolemy’s time could be expressed in very simple language indeed, when a Kepler discovered the true functions as embodied in his three fundamental laws. The present method of hiding our ignorance of the real law seems at times to exert such a mesmerising influence as to make us mistake the fictitious for the real. . Of course I do not mean to discard this useful and, in fact, indispensable tool of research, but simply wish to direct attention to its limitations and to the importance of not overlooking the fertile by-products, the residuals, which, because of our neglect of them, may some day rise and smite us in their wrath. Each one of us at one time or another has doubtless established, by least squares, an empirical formula of some kind which so beautifully fits the observations as to make us bold and venturesome. Now comes a new observation, somewhat outside of the range for which the expression was established. Eagerly the test is applied, and we find to our chagrin that the formula on which so much work had been spent will not fit the new result, and that we have a ‘‘ counterfeit ’’ and not the real law. Let us suppose, for illustration, we are dealing with a phenomenon which almost entirely unfolds itself during the time between sunrise and sunset—the well-known diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism is a striking case of the kind. Following the usual method, the pheno- menon is resolved into component parts with the aid of a Fourier series. The formula as generally adopted includes the four terms having, respectively, periodicities of 24, 12, 8, and 6 hours. For ordinary magnetic latitudes the striking result is obtained that the second term—the 12-hour one—is as important as the first, or 24-hour, one; so we might equally as well say ‘‘ the semi-diurnal’’ as ‘“ the diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism.’’- In fact, as the semi-diurnal term unfolds itself twice in twenty-four hours, it is in reality more important than the purely diurnal one. Does the resolution into Fourier terms of a phenomenon of the kind given really prove their existence in nature? Can we conclude, without question, e.g., that in addition to the diurnal term we also have a semi-diurnal one? Even with four terms the series does not represent each hourly observation of the twenty-four with the same degree of precision. In fact, the residuals for the night hours are nearly of the same order of magnitude as the observed quantities. If the physical existence of the 12-hour term 476 NATURE [Fesruary 18; 19¢9 is not proved, then there is no need of racking our brains as to its physical origin. ‘The dithiculty disclosed by this example is of the same kind as the one treated in spherical harmonics, viz. that we are attempting to represent a discontinuous function having a duration commensurate with that of the daylight hours by functions running smoothly through their in- dividual courses for twenty-four hours. I cannot close this section better than by quoting the following passage from the address of the first president of this society, Joseph Henry, given on November 24, 1877 :— “The general mental qualification necessary for scien- tific advancement is that which is usually denominated “common sense,’ though, added to this, imagination, in- duction, and trained logic, either of common language or of mathematics, are important adjuncts. Nor are the objects of scientific culture difficult of attainment. It has been truly said that the ‘seeds of great discoveries are constantly floating around us, but they only take root in minds well prepared to receive them.’ ’’ Henry’s insistence on the application in our scientific work of ‘common sense ’’ reminds one of Clifford’s apt definition of science as being ‘* organised common sense.”’ It may be taken as almost axiomatic that whatever is worthy of investigation should be made known in some effective manner, so as to reach without question those concerned. ‘The multiplicity of literature on any one sub- ject, or even on any small portion thereof, is nowadays such that the worker finds it utterly impossible to keep abreast of publications, even those in his own field, to say nothing of kindred ones. He is forced more and more to rely on abstracts—at least in so far as to direct him to that which he un- questionably must consult in the original, if possible. As the investigator ‘usually finds it necessary to consult the original publications, the next conclusion to be drawn is that the publication of any research work should, in general, be of such form and size as to permit the widest distribution possible, not only among the libraries and the principal seats of learning, but also among the workers and institutions immediately interested. The scientific worker generally does not possess the means to purchase or to construct the instruments he re- quires for the prosecution of his work, and a book bearing in any way on the line of work to be pursued is as much to be considered part of his equipment as the purely mechanical tools. Indeed, I was told by the late von Bezold that Wilhelm Weber set his laboratory students to work by telling them, ‘‘ Here are the instruments, and there are the Annalen der Physik ; now go to work.’’ The man of science usually wants his tools close by and within ready reach. He cannot afford to go to a distant library and then possibly find the book out. Private possession permits him, furthermore, to make marginal notes and references to enable him quickly to put his finger on the very thing needed. Owing to these well-recognised needs, there has grown up a courteous and friendly interchange of publications among co-workers and sympathisers in the same field that to my mind deserves the highest encouragement. The time has unfortunately gone when scientific investigators can write such delightful and voluminous letters as passed between the research workers of half a century and more ago. ‘The present system of interchange of publications has necessarily taken the place, to a very large extent, of the early letter-writing. It is.as important to make research work known as to do it. To get our friends to read the contributions we may make to science requirés nowadays no little skill and diplomacy and an attractiveness of literary style on the part of the author not so essential in the days of less fre- quent printed works. The original purposes of important and costly expeditions are sometimes well-nigh defeated or superseded, because of the delay in publication, ‘ensuing from the. elaborateness of the plan adopted for the reduc- tion of the field results and the form of publication decided upon. Reduction in the pretentiousness, size, and cost of scientific publications appears to me to be one of the greatest needs of research to-day. Some time could profitably be spent on a consideration of the general agencies engaged in furthering research NO. 2051, VOL. 79| work and the methods employed for doing so. , Being con- nected with a ‘* research institution,’? | should. consider myself incompetent to enter upon a free and unbiased dis- cussion of the methods of such organisations for the furthering of research work. I will, however, take as an example the general magnetic survey of the earth as re- presentative of the kind of world-embracing research enterprises I have in mind. ; Alexander von Humboldt, whose mental grasp was extraordinary in more than one science, set forth the followin lan in his ‘‘ Cosmos’ for a general magnetic p & P 8 survey of the globe.* “Four times in every century an expedition of three ships should be sent out to examine as nearly-as possible at the same time the state of, the magnetism of the earth, so far as it can be investigated in those parts which are covered by the ocean. . . . Land expeditions should be com- bined with these voyages.”’... ; ““ May the year 1850 be marked as the first normal epoch in which the materials for a magnetic chart shall . be collected, and may permanent scientific . institutions (academies) impose upon themselves the practice of re- minding, every twenty-five or thirty years, Governments, favourable to the advance of navigation, of the importance of an undertaking whose great cosmical importance depends on its long-continued repetition.”’ Here was a noble project, universally conceded to be not only of the greatest scientific interest, but also of the greatest practical importance. _ Yet why is it. that this grand plan has never been carried out by the foremost nations in friendly concert? Have our academies, as Humboldt suggested, never ‘‘ imposed upon themselves the practice of reminding every twenty-five. or thirty, years Governments, favourable to the advance of navigation, of the importance of an undertaking ’’ of this character ? Instead of working along a common and definite plan, the magnetic operations hitherto have consisted of. more or less isolated and incomplete surveys, independently under- taken by various nations and distributed over a great number of years. Not even for a single epoch has it been possible to construct the magnetic charts on the basis of homogeneous material, distributed over the greater part of the earth, with some attempt, at least, at uniformity. As to the possibility of constructing the charts, with the aid of similar data, for epochs twenty-five to thirty years apart, as Humboldt had dreamed, this, in spite of the enlightened interest of many countries, is even more remote. ; Why should it have remained for a_ purely research organisation to undertake a problem touching so keenly as this on even the so-called sordid, purely — practical interests of man? Is it a fortunate fact that Humboldt’s fascinating international scheme failed of execution, and that the chief brunt of the work is now being borne by a single organisation? The magnetic work of the Carnegie Institution of Washington has embraced, since 1904, a general magnetic survey of the Pacific Ocean, and- land observations have been made in more or less unexplored regions in different parts of the world. The ocean mag- netic work is to be undertaken next in the Atlantic Ocean, in 1909, On a specially built vessel, the first of its kind. It is believed that -an effective scheme of operation has been evolved, with the aid of the valuable advice received from eminent investigators. Without danger of giving offence to anyone, it is possible to deal directly with the officials concerned, submitting to them our plans and ascertaining whether they contemplate doing anything similar, and, if so, whether, in case their funds are in- sufficient, they could suggest some friendly basis of co- operation between their organisation and ours. This plan of action has met with entire success thus far. Duplica- tion, overlappings, and possible jealousies are all avoided ; and in countries where no organisation whatever exists to do the work, we are free to go ahead and finish the task in less time than it would necessarily take to get an official action or official consensus of opinion from a large scientific body. Slow deliberation in terrestrial magnetic work would be disastrous, for the prime reason that the phenomena of investigation in this field of research are continuously 1 The quotation is from E. C. Otté's translation of the ‘*Cosmos,” vol. li., pp- 719-20. FEBRUARY 18, 1909} NATURE 477 undergoing change. The time-element in the earth’s magnetism, even for a period of a few years, is of such moment as completely to mask the fine, hair-splitting points which would necessarily and rightly have to be raised on some international mode of action, to say nothing of the painful and cumbersome method which would have to be employed to conform with the rules of official correspondence between nations. Many a well and carefully executed magnetic survey in the past has had its full importance for world-wide investigation destroyed because of the possiblity of error in the secular variation corrections which must be applied to bring its results up to the date of the later data. The course pursued by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in conducting the general magnetic survey of the globe is the only way in which this particular project, and similar ones to it, could not only be expeditiously conducted, but also realise the chief objects of the work. This policy, briefly stated, is to make, with the aid of the friendly and harmonious cooperation of all concerned, a rapidly executed magnetic survey of the greater part of the globe, so that a general survey, all-sufficient for the solution of some of the great and world-wide problems of the earth’s magnetism, will be completed within a period of ten to fifteen years. At a smaller number of points, selected in consideration of the prime questions at issue, the observations are to be repeated at intervals of five years or less, in order to supplement the rather sparsely distributed magnetic observatory data. Thus the deter- mination of the corrections for reduction of the general work to any specific date is continuously provided for. The most evident result of all magnetic work in the past is that, for the purposes of a general survey, it is far better to make some sacrifice in accuracy if thereby it is made possible to secure observations at another point. In other words, the errors due to local disturbing conditions are far greater than the purely observational ones. Hence multiplicity of stations rather than extreme accuracy and laborious methods of observation and reduction is the prime requisite. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CampripGe.—The general board of studies has approved Prof. E. C. Stirling, F.R.S., and Prof. W. Ridgeway, Disney professor of archzology, for the degree of Doctor in Science. The council of the Senate has appointed Prof. Biffen as a representative member of the John Innes Horticultural Institution for four years from February 8. Oxrorp.—The vacancy in the Waynflete professorship of mineralogy at Oxford has been filled by the appointment of Mr. H. L. Bowman, of New College, who for many years acted as demonstrator under Prof. H. A. Miers. j On Friday, February 12, the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin was celebrated at Oxford by a reception given in the examination schools by Profs. Vines, Poulton, and Bourne. The proceedings were, opened by the Dean of Christ Church, acting for the Vice- Chancellor, who was unavoidably absent. In the course of an interesting address on fifty years of Darwinism, Prof. Poulton spoke of the various influences which had moulded Darwin’s career, dwelling especially on his early friend- ship with Henslow, to whom was due what proved to be the turning point in Darwin’s life—his appointment as naturalist to the Beagle. The support and encouragement given to Darwin by Lyell, Hooker, and Asa Gray, and the vigorous championship of Huxley, were passed in review, special mention being also made of the chivalrous conduct of Wallace in seeking to minimise his own claims as joint discoverer of the principle of natural selection. The famous contest at the meeting of the British Associa- tion at Oxford in 1860 was touched upon, and the lecturer took occasion to contrast the matured views which, after being tested during twenty years of reflection and investiga- tion, at last found expression in the publication of the “Origin of Species,’’? with the hasty and _ ill-informed NO. 2051, VOL. 79] impressions of Darwin’s early critics. Much of the rapid success of Darwin's theory in gaining acceptance at the hands of the scientific world was due to the personality of its author, whose noble qualities of mind and characte: were shown alike in his dealings with opponents, with friends, and with younger workers in his own subjects. All this work was accomplished in spite of constant bodily exhaustion from ill-health, to which cause the lecturer was inclined to attribute the lack of appreciation of literature and music in later life, which Darwin himself recognised and deplored. No upheaval in the realms of human | thought had carried with it more of immediate pathos and of ultimate triumph than the doctrine of organic evolution, now and always to be associated, first and foremost, with the name of Charles Darwin. Among the assembly on Friday were four of Darwin’s sons, Mr. William Darwin, Sir George Darwin, Mr. Francis Darwin, and Major Leonard Darwin. Sir George and Mr. F. Darwin briefly addressed the meeting, confirming the account given by Prof. Poulton of their father’s genius and character. In the course of the evening a telegram was received convey- ing ‘‘ the greetings of Cambridge zoologists, assembled in Darwin’s old rooms, to their Oxford colleagues.” Dr. O. V. DarpisuiRe has resigned his lectureship in botany at the University of Manchester. Pror. Henry A. Miers, F.R.S., principal of the Uni- versity of London, will present prizes and certificates to students at the South-Western Polytechnic Institute, Chelsea, S.W., on March 12. Tue eleventh annual dinner of the Central Technical College Old Students’ Association will be held on Satur- day, February 20, at the Trocadero. Dr. H. T. Bovey, F.R.S., Rector of the Imperial College of Science and Technology, will be one of the chief guests. Bowporn Co.tece, at Brunswick, Maine, U.S., has recently received funds amounting to something more than 100,0001., given by a former student at the college, Mr. Joseph Edward Merrill, a business man of Boston. A few weeks before his death in January Mr. Merrill transferred a large part of his property to the college, and bequeathed practically all the rest of his estate to the same institution by his will. Bowdoin College, it may be remembered, was the alma mater of Nathaniel Hawthorne, of Henry W. Longfellow, of President Franklin Pierce, of the late Speaker Thomas B. Reed, and of the present Chief Justice of the United States, Melville W. Fuller. A Bit has been introduced in the Wisconsin Legislature, says Science, which proposes to increase the building fund of the University of Wisconsin from 40,0001. to 60,000l. annually, and to lengthen the period of this appropriation from five to seven years. From the same source we learn that a new industrial fellowship has been presented to the University of Kansas by the Holophane Glass Co. It yields 300/. a year for two years, together with ro per cent. of the profits that may arise from any discoveries made by the student who pursues special study. The fellowship is open to students of any university, but the work will be done in the laboratories of the University of Kansas. A REPRESENTATIVE selection from the exhibits in the British Education Section of the Franco-British Exhibition held last year at Shepherd’s Bush, London, has been on view at the Belfast Municipal Technical Institute during the past three weeks. Admission was free, and to explain the purport of the exhibition a series of explanatory addresses by educational experts was arranged. The Belfast Library and Technical Instruction Committee is to be congratulated upon securing the loan of these instructive exhibits from the various education authorities concerned, and it is satisfactory to know that the illustrative speci- mens, collected at the expenditure of much time and trouble by the authorities of the Franco-British Exhibition, are being placed at the disposal of the great educational institutions in our chief centres of population. 478 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Lonpon. Royal Society, December 10, 1908.—‘‘The Extension of Cracks in an Isotropic Material.’”” By A. Mallock, F.R.S. Any specified strain in a solid can be represented as a combination of shear and volume extension or compression, and both for volume extension and shear there are limits which if exceeded either cause rupture or leave the material in an altered condition when the stress is removed. There is, however, no known limit of rupture for the volume compression of solids.* It would be a matter of interest and importance to determine for solids whether, and how far, the existence of one form of strain influenced the limits of the other, whether, for instance, a body subjected to volume extension would require more or less shear to rupture it than when the volume was normal. This point has not, so far as the author knows, been made the subject of experiment, but for the purpose of this note it is assumed that if a strain which exceeds either of the limits is applied to a solid, rupture will be due to that property of the substance for which the limit is least, and that if the distortion limit is the smaller of the two, breakage will occur at right angles to the lines of greatest extension, whereas if the volume limit is the least the direction of the break will be indeterminate. If the conditions of strain at the end of the crack are such that material gives way from over-distortion, the fracture will occur in the plane of the existing crack, which will therefore spread continuously, while if the over- dilatation is the origin the breakage may take place in any direction. If at any place the plane of the new fracture cuts the plane of the crack there will be a re-arrangement of stresses, and a relatively considerable length of material will have to be strained before further, rupture is possible, and thus the cross-fractures will act as a bar to the further extension of the crack. It is concluded, therefore, that in materials such as glass or other substances in which cracks spread in nearly constant directions rupture is due to the distortion limit, and that where a crack extends with difficulty in a wandering manner the dilatation limit is the one which has been exceeded. The rapid alteration of the direction in which fracture takes place may give rise to the fibrous appearance which often shows itself on broken surfaces in such cases. When the limits for both « and « are reached at nearly the same time, a very small change in either, such as might occur in a body nearly, but not quite, homogeneous, would alter altogether the appearance of a fracture. In this note only isotropic materials are considered, but it seems probable that the same principles might be used to explain the cleavage of crystals. Challenger Society. January 27.—Sir John Murray in the chair.—Notes on the breeding habits and development of Littorina littorea: W. M. Tattersall. On changing the water in the aquarium for fresh sea-water, copulation of the periwinkles was readily induced. The eggs are de- posited in small capsules shaped like a panama hat, and are not attached, which accounts for their not having been recorded hitherto. Of the four British species of Littorina, littorea is exposed only at low spring tides, and is freed as a trochosphere, later becoming a veliger; obtusata is generally exposed at ordinary low water, and is freed as a veliger: rudis is exposed during the greater part of the day, and is viviparous; neritoides lives between the high water of springs and neaps, and is also viviparous. Both in habitat and life-history these four seem to re- present stages in adaptation to a land existence.—British Oithone: G. P. Farran. It was pointed out that they are four in number, and inhabit, respectively, waters of low salinity, ordinary coastal waters, oceanic waters bordering on the coastal area, and purely oceanic waters. Structural modifications accompany the increase in salinity 1 This may give an explanation of the difference between malleability and | ductility. Under the hammer the strain is a shear combined with volume compression, while in ‘‘drawing” the material undergoes shear combined NATOLEE, with volume dilatation. In general. a body which is ductile will also be | malleable, but the converse need not hold. | NO. 2051, VOL. 79] [ FeBRuARY 18, 1909 of the different habitats.—The four species of Polycheles from the N.E. Atlantic: S. W. Kemp. Notes on their habits and on the structure of the vestigial eye. Zoological Society, February 2.—Mr. F. Gillett, vice- president, in the chair.—Christmas Island: Dr. C. W. Andrews. Attention was directed to the differences in the fauna associated with influx of population.—Preliminary account of the life-history of the leaf-insect, Phyllium crurifolium, Serville: H. S. Leigh. The leaf-insects occur in the tropical regions of the Old World, and seem partial to insular life. The eggs, which resemble the seeds of certain plants to a remarkable degree, require to be kept in a constantly warm and moist atmosphere to enable them to hatch; they hatch very irregularly, and the period of incubation often extends over three or four months. When young the larvae are active as compared with older individuals. The metamorphosis is incomplete, and the adult form is attained by a gradual increase in size; fully developed tegmina and wings only appear in the adult con- dition. The adult females are large and leaf-like in appearance, but the males are much smaller, and not foliaceous.—The mammals of Matabeleland: E. C. Chubb. —Pathological observations at the society’s gardens during 1908: Dr. H. G. Plimmer. Linnean Society. Februrry 4.—Dr. A. Sat h Wrodward, F.R.S., vice-president, in the chair.—Fucus spiralis, Linné, or Fucus platycarpus, Thuret; a question of nomenclature : Dr. Bérgesen. The purport of the paper was to show that recent statements by Prof. Sauvageau as to the validity of the name Fucus spiralis, Linn., are not sup- ported by the history of the plant, nor by specimens in the Linnean herbarium.—Observations on the ceconomy of the Ichneumon manifestator, Marsham (nec Linn.): an historical note: C. Morley. The writer referred to the account given in 1794 by a former secretary of the society, Thomas Marsham, of an insect observed in Hyde Park. Mr. Cockayne found recently in the same place a specimen of Ephialtes extensor, Tasch., a Continental species not hitherto noticed in Britain; the paper concludes by pointing out the similarity of the two occurrences, and the difficulty of clearing up the synonymy.—The Polyzoa of Madeira: Rey. Canon Norman. For more than forty years the late Mr. J. Yate Johnson was residing at Madeira, and diligently studied both its flora and fauna. He especially devoted himself to the marine fauna, and the Polyzoa did not escape him. From time to time he submitted the species which he found for determination by naturalists who specially worked at this class—first to Prof. Busk after his death to Rev. Thomas Hincks, and subsequentiv to Mr. Waters. The total number of species found kv him was 52; the present paper contains 139. Previous writers on the Polyzoa of Madeira have been unable te give particulars as to the circumstances (habitat, depth, &c.) at which the various species lived. These particulars the author supplies as regards most of the species previously known as Madeiran. With respect to the additions now made, there are some species new to science; others previously known in the Mediterranean ; others which have been recently described from the Prince of Monaco’s dredg- ings, and two species the occurrence of which is certainly interesting. Royal Anthropological Institute, February 9 — Prof. W. Ridgeway, president, in the chair.—Dene-holes: Rev. J. W. Hayes. It was held that these excavations were merely chalk wells or chambers from which challk was taken for builders’ mortar or for manure for the fields. The author did not contest that all the dene-holes were modern; some may well have been dug in Saxon or even in Roman times, but others were certainly not more than too years old, and some were dug within the last quarter of a century. Evidence was adduced to show that even at the present day the farmers in some parts of the country, Hertfordshire, for example, still get chalk for the !and from similar pits. The use of chalk for building was | enlarged upon, and the author was able to show that the Chislehurst caves were nothing more than an old chalk mine, the so-called altars, or steps, being merely platforms left purposely to enable the workmen to reach the roof of the cavern. The author was also able to show that where | | Fesruary 18, 1909] NATALIE: 479 a firm stratum of chalk, suitable for builders’ lime, was found under the Thanet sand, it would pay the excavators better to make fresh shafts through the sand than to tunnel in the ordinary way and hoist the material excavated through a single shaft. The cones of sand usually found at the bottom of a dene-hole were explained as the result of the refuse of a new shaft being deliberately thrown down an old one. Mathematical Society, February 11.—Sir W. D. Niven, president, in the chair.—The conformal transformations of a space of four dimensions and the generalisation of the Lorentz-Einstein principle: H. Bateman and E. Cunningham.—A certain family of cubic surfaces: W. 81), Salmon.—Some fundamental properties of a Lebesgue integral in a two-dimensional domain: Dr. E. W. Hobson.—The relation between Pfaff's problem and the calculus of variations: Prof. A. C. Dixon.—(1) Implicit functions and their differentials; (2) indeterminate forms : Dr. W. H. Young.—Modular invariants of a general system of linear forms: Prof. L. E. Dickson. DuBLin. Royal Dublin Society, January 26.—Prof. H. H. Dixon, F.R.S., in the chair.—The colours of Highland cattle: Prof. James Wilson. Four colours go to the making of Highland cattle. These are:—(1) the original black colour; (2) a brownish-black or blackish-brown, called donn in Gaelic; (3) red, introduced by Anglo-Saxon cattle ; and (4) light dun, a lighter or silvery-grey, probably intro- duced from Scandinavia. These four colours by intercross- ing produce five others. Black is dominant over red, and so no new colour is produced; but light dun crossed with red produces the hybrid yellow, and crossed with black the hybrid dun (registered as dun and dark dun), while brownish-black or donn produces hybrid brindles with black, red, and light dun.—Note on the tensile strength of water: Prof. H. H. Dixon. By using Berthelot’s method tensions in water were obtained amounting to more than 160 atmospheres. The range of temperature over which these tensions were observed lay between 25° C. and 80° C. The water used contained large quantities of air dissolved in it. From the nature of the experiments the tensions obtained form a minor limit for the cohesion of air-contain- ing water, its adhesion to the conducting tubes of plants, and its adhesion to glass and copper.—A new process of contact photography: E. E. Fournier d’Albe. Photo- graphs are obtained by this process of any full-toned pic- ture, letter-press, or diagram without the use of a camera. The picture is laid on a table with its face upwards, and a sensitive plate, film, or paper is placed upon it, with the film in contact with the picture. Exposure is made by means of light from above through the back of the plate or paper. The result is a faint negative, much fogged. The negative is developed with a view to the utmost ‘‘ hard- ness,’’ so as to minimise the fog and bring out the design. This principle is also applied to the positive printed from the negative, and the result is a good reproduction of the original. If necessary, the remaining fog can be cleared by two more reversals, preferably with ‘‘ photomechanical ”’ plates. The final result is a reproduction in bold black and white, perfectly free from fog and free from defects in- separable from all work done with a lens. It is proposed to call the process ‘‘ anastatic ’’ photography, by analogy with a disused lithographic process of the same name. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, February 1.—Prof. A. Crum Brown, vice- president, in the chair.—Magnetic quality in the homo- geneous hexagonal arrangement of molecular magnets : Prof. W. Peddie. This was a continuation along the same lines of results already given for cubical arrangements of magnetic molecules—An improved form of mag- netometer for the testing of magnetic materials: J. G. Gray and A. D. Ross. When the usual east-west arrangement of a magnetising coil with auxiliary coil is used for compensating the direct action of the solenoid on the magnetometer needle, it is very difficult to ensure the accurate alignment of the axes of the two coils so as to be absolutely certain that there is no transverse resultant magnetic force in the north-south direction. In delicate work it is important to get rid of this possible inexact com- NO. 2051, VOL. 79] pensation, and at the same time to be sure that when the compensating coil is clamped in position the clamping does not bring in any change. The latter desideratum was attained by using two compensating coils at different dis- tances from the magnetometer, the nearer one being set for rough adjustment, and the more distant one being then used for the fine and exact adjustment for balancing of the east- west fields at the position occupied by the magnetometer needle. “The second adjustment was made after the nearer coil was clamped, and the sensitiveness was such that the second coil could be shifted through an appreciable distance without affecting the adjustment. The next step was to test for the existence of a north-south residual force. This was effected by first deflecting the magnetometer needle by means of a small permanent magnet suitably placed. On reversal of a powerful current through the magnetising and compensating coils, which had already been adjusted for east-west balancing, there was in general a change in the deflection, indicating the presence of a north-south com- ponent. A third coil was then suitably introduced either north or south of the magnetometer needle, and set in circuit with the other coils. By adjustment of the position of this third coil the change of deflection of the deflected needle, due to reversal of the current, could be wiped out. The small permanent magnet was then removed, and the magnetometer was in accurate adjustment for the purposes of testing magnetic quality. All the essential parts of the apparatus were mounted on a cross-shaped mahogany board, analogous in its broad features to an optical bench. Details were also given for facilitating testing from the temperature of liquid air up to high temperatures.—On the conditions for the reversibility of the order of partial dif- ferentiation: Dr. W. H. Young. Paris. : Academy of Scienccs, Fetwuary 8.—M. Emile Picard in the chair.—Observations of the sun, made at the Lyons Observatory, during the fourth quarter of 1908: J. Guillaume. The observations are summarised in_ three tables, giving the number of spots, their distribution in latitude, and the distribution of the facule in latitude. There was a much smaller total area of sun-spots visible compared with the previous quarter (3401 against 7893). Two spots were large enough to be visible to the eye un- assisted.—Observations of the conjunction of Jupiter with x Leo (4-8), made with the Brunner equatorial of the Lyons Observatory: J. Guillaume.—The integration of linear systems with a skew determinant : E. Vessiot.— The representation of a function with a real variable by a figuring in successive series formed with polynomials differential coefficients of the function e-a* : M. Galbrun. —A new radio-active product of the uranium series: Jacques Danne. In the separation of uranium X from >0 kilos. of uranium nitrate, a new radio-active substance was found, apparently the immediate parent of uranium X, for which the name radio-uranium is proposed.—The striae of oscillating sparks: André Léaute. If a condenser is discharged through a coil carrying two layers of wire, the current passing through the coil has been shown by the author in a previous paper to be the sum of two sinusoidal currents. The frequency of the first is practically identical with that resulting from the application of Thomson’s formula; the second has a greater frequency, and its exist- ence furnishes a complete explanation of all the facts observed relating to striae in induction sparks.—The mass of the negative ion of a flame: Georges Moreau. In a flame at a temperature of 2000° C. absolute, the mobility of the negative ion was found to be 1170 cm./volt : sec., and the velocity 2-5x10°cm.:sec., the numbers being probably accurate to about 10 per cent. This leads to a value (1-1X10-7°) gr. as the mass of the negative ion, intermediate between the atom of hydrogen, (1-4 10-*") gr., and a corpuscle, (0-75x10-*"), according to Perrin.— The réle of the dissociation of the carbonophosphates in nature: A. Barillé. It has been shown in an_ earlier paper that carbonic acid combines with the phosphates of metals that are capable of forming bicarbonates, giving rise to easily dissociable compounds, the carbonophosphates. The intervention of these compounds is discussed as regards the formation of certain calculi, the absorption of carbon dioxide by the blood, sediments in urine, and as affecting 480 NATURE [FEsRuaRyY 18, 1909 the nutrition of plants.—The combinations of gold with bromine: Fernand Meyer. The final product of the action of excess of bromine on gold.is pure AuBr,. This is soluble in bromine and volatile in an atmosphere of bromine at about 300° C, At temperatures at which AuBr, dis- sociates, two bromides only appear to exist, AuBr, and AuBr, the dissociation curves of which have been studied. There is no evidence of the existence of AuBr,.—The coking power of coals: O, Boudouard. Coal was extracted with various organic solvents, of which only one, pyridine, dissolved an appreciable amount. The coking power of the extracted coal was unaffected.—Indigoid colouring matters derived from phenyl-isoxazolone: A. Wahl.—The chemical composition of colloidal silver: G. Rebiere. A study of the electrical conductivity of solu- tions of colloidal silver prepared by Bredig’s method leads to the conclusion that a part of the silver is in solution as oxide, or possibly carbonate.—The fertilisation of the poppy flower: Paul Becquerel.—The presence of amylase in old seeds: MM. Brocq-Rousseu and Edmond Gain. Wheat, fifty years old and incapable of germination, still contains diastases capable of transforming starch into sugar.—The gastric digestion of human milk and asses’ milk: Louis Gaucher. The casein of these milks resembles that of cows’ milk in not being peptonised in the stomach. Their great digestibility is due to the casein forming very small clots in the case of human milk, or a clot very easily broken up in the milk of the ass.—Parasitic protozoa of the intestine of the lobster: L. Léger and O. Duboseq.—The regeneration of the anterior part of the body in the Chetoptera: Ch. Gravier.—Some Plumulariida of the British Museum collection: Armand Billard.—A new protozoa from. Ctenodactylus gondi: C. Nicolle and L. Manceaux.—The chemical treatment of bile. The separation of the biliary acids: M. Piettre. —The hypotensive action of d’Arsonvalisation in per- manent arterial hypertension: M. tLetulle and A. Moutier. The arterial pressure in these experiments was measured for each case with two independent instruments of different construction; the figures obtained were prac- tically identical. The treatment with high-frequency current always caused a reduction in the arterial pressure. —Antimony in syphilis : Paul Salmon. Antimony in the form of tartar emetic is of service in the cure of syphilis, but in certain cases there is a rapid relapse.—The geology of Agéoué: M. Arsandaux. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, Fepruary 18. Roya Society, at 4.30.—On the Osmotic Pressures of Calcium Ferro- cyanide Solutions, Part II., Weak Solutions: Earl of Berkeley, F.R.S., E. G. J. Hartley and J. Stephenson. —On the Spontaneous Crystallisation of Monochloracetic Acid and its Mixtures with Naphthalene: Prof. H. A. Miers, F.R.S., and Miss F. Isaac.—An Apparatus for Measurements of the Defining Power of Objectives: J. de G. Hunter.—On Best Conditions for Photographic Enlargement of Small Solid Objects : A. Mallock, F.R.S. Roya InstiTuTION, at 3.—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Mexico: Dr. Hans Gadow, F.R.S. Linnean Society, at 8.—Discussion opened by Dr. W. H. Lang. FRIDAY, Fesrvuary 19. Royat InstiTuTION, at 9. —Recent Advances in Means of Saving Life in Coal Mines: Sir Henry Cunynghame, K.C.B. INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Annual General Meeting. —Further discussion : The Filtration and Purification of Water for Public Supply: John Don. {nsTiTUTION oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Standardisation in Engineering Practice : Dr. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. MONDAY, FesRuaARY 22. Roya Society oF Arts, at 8.—Modern Methods cf Artificial Ilumina- tion: Leon Gaster. Royat GEOGRAPHICAL Northern Arabia: Captain S. S. Butler. INSTITUTE oF AcTUARIES, at 5.—Some Financial and Statistical Con- siderations of the Old Age Pension Scheme: Vyvyan Marr. TUESDAY, FEBRUARY 23. Roya Institution, at 3.—The Evolution of the Brainas an Organ of Mind : Prof. F. W. Mott, F.R.S. ' Roya PRED OROLOG ICAL INSTITUTE, at 8.1 Period: W. Allen Sturge. INsTITUTION OF Civit. ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further discussion : ie Design of Marine Steam-Turbines Reed.—Probable Paper: Some recent te ain-handling and Storing Appliances at the Millwall Docks: M. Mowat. on Alternation of Generations: Society, at 8.30.—A Recent Journey Across —Man and the Glacial P WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 24. Royav Socirty or Arts, at 8.—Hand-made Papers of Different Periods : Clayton Beadle and Henry P. Stevens. NO. 2051, VOL. 79| Geotoaical. Socrery, at 8.—Paleolithic Implements, &c., from Hackpen Hill, Winterbourne Bassett, and Knowle Farm Pit (Wiltshire): Rev. H. G. O. Kendall.—On the Karroo System in Northern Rhodesia, and its Relation to the General Geology : A. J. C. Molyneux.—On Coal-Balls from Japan: Dr. Marie C. Stopes. British ASTRONOMICAL ASSOCIATION, at 5. A Society or Dyers AND CoLouristTs, at 8.—A Series of Azo-dyes derived from the Aminosulphonamides: Dr. G. T. Morgan and Frances M. G. Micklethwaite. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 25. Roya Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: The Statistical Form of the Curve of Oscillation for the Radiation emitted by a Black Body: Prof. H. A. Wilson, F.R.S —The Flight of a Rifled Projectile in Air: Prof. J. B. Henderson.—On the Cross breeding of Two Races of the Moth Acidalia virgulavia: VL. B. Prout and A. Bacot. Roya INSTITUTION, at 3.—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Mexico: Dr. Hans Gadow, F.R.S. Roya Society oF ARTS. at 4.30.-—The Bhuddist and Hindu Architecture of India: Prof. A. A. Macdonell. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—/urther discussion: The Use of Large Gas Engines for Generating Power: L. Andrews and R. Porter. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 26. Roya INstituTion, at 9.—Osmotic Phenomena, and their Physical Interpretation : Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S. Puysicat Society (at Finsbury Technical College, Leonard Street, City Road, E.C.), at 5.—A Laboratory Machine for applying Bending and Twisting Moments simultaneously: Prof. Coker.—QOn the Self-demagnet- ising Factor of Bar Magnets: Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S., and E. W. Moss. —Exhibition of Optical Properties of Combinations of Mica and Selenite Films (after Reusch and others) in Convergent Polarised Light : Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, ¥.R.S.—Exhibition of Apparatus: C. R. Darling. a : InstituTION oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Standardisation in Engineering Practice: Dr. W. C. Unwin, F.R.S. SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 27. at 3.—Properties of Matter: Modern Roya INstTITUTION, Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. CONTENTS. PAGE Applied Physiology of the Circulation . ase Justus von Liebig. By Dr. T. E. Thorpe, c B., F.R.S. 452 The Construction of Ships. By Sir W. H. White, KACIBY FOR.S. . cs e oe ae 454 Heredity and Education : Rom bo Cys) Recent Studies in Atmospheric Electricity, By Dr. © Chree, F.R.S. . : Roo store Fe aoe CNS Our Book Shelf :— Benett : ‘‘ The Ethical Aspects of Evolution, regarded as the Parallel Growth of Opposite Tendencies ” 456 Wall: ‘‘The Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our British Indian Dominions and how to recognise Them.”—R. L. . be oro ceeicnts 456 **Gray’s New Manual of Botany” 2 457 Upward: ‘‘ The New Word” ; Marques : : “ Scientific Corroborations of Theosophy : a Vindication of the Secret Doctrine by the Latest Discoveries ” 457 Letters to the Editor :— The Boiling Point of the Radium Emanation.—Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S. 457 Crocodiles and Tsetse-flies. Prof. E. A. “Minchin . 458 The Production of Prolonged Apnoea in Man.—Dr. H.M. Vernon . . 458 The Isothermal Layer of the Atmosphere. _w. H. Dines, F.R.S, : Heo, . 459 Barometric Oscillation.— om ‘Braak eee 459 Electrons and Atomic Weights.—Alfred Sang . AY 459 Further Antarctic Results. (///ustvated.) By Prof. JrpwenGarezory, ROS: pect eames . 460 Irrigationin Egypt .. . . 462 Electrochemical Industry. By F, M. P. é 463 Notes . a1 koh eee Be 464 Our Astronomical Column: i— Interaction of Sun-spots 7) ere 1 eile lenient Menem OD) Distribution of the Stars . . Sethe 469 Jupiter’s Seventh and Eighth Satellites. . . . . . . 469 The Anomalies of Refraction. . .... =... 469 The Story of the Telescope. 469 Regional and Stratigraphical Geology. (Ullusts ated.) ByiGrAtainC.. : 470 A Remarkable Development in X- ray Apparatus . 472 Recent Papers on Marine Animals 3 472 Meaning and Method of Scientific Research. By DrwkwAS Bauer . . tee 473 University and Educational Intelligence . ae BO ow VH/ Societies and Academies Mean oa orp iD Cyt Diarysofasocieties *. ..5... lcs seat ee ee 480 NATO RE 481 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY THE NATURAL HISTORY OF CONDUCT. The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. By E. Westermarck. In 2 vols. Vol. ii. Pp. xv+ 25; 852. (London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 14s. net. HE present volume completes Prof. Wester- marck’s work, which is likely to remain for a long time a standard repertory of facts, which the moralists of every school will, no doubt, set them- selves to interpret, each after his own fashion. Hic liber est in quo quaeret sua dogmata quisque, and it is as a tribute to the author’s erudition and fulness of matter that I hasten to add that the second half of the distich is also lilely to be fulfilled; there are few schools of moralists who will not find something to their taste in this vast repertory of information about the moral codes and practices of mankind. The prac- tices and beliefs of different races and ages with respect to the rights and duties of property, regard for the truth, concern for the general happiness, suicide, sexual relations, religion, and the supernatural generally, such are only a few of the topics with which Prof. Westermarck deals, and he deals with none of them without producing masses of significant fact for which, apart from his aid, the student of moral ideas and institutions would have to search hopelessly through the whole literature of anthropology. Merely to have done so much, even if Prof. Westermarck had gone no further, would have been to establish an inextinguishable claim on the gratitude of his readers, but it need not be said of the author of the ‘‘ History of Human Marriage ”’ that he has attempted to do much more. His aim, at least, is not merely to record the facts and classify them, but to offer a philosophical interpretation of them, to put forward a definite theory of the ‘‘ origin’’ and ‘‘ development ” of the ethical side of human thought. It is quite out of the question for a single reviewer, who is not even an anthropo- logist, to presume to pronounce a summary judgment upon the success with which the task has been exe- cuted, and the present writer would therefore be understood to be attempting nothing more than the utterance of one or two of the reflections suggested to one interested reader by Prof. Westermarck’s book. In one respect, the work before us, even if attention were confined to the present volume alone, is less fortunate than the book by which the author made his great reputation as an anthropologist years ago. The “History of Human Marriage’’ was not merely a great collection of interesting facts; it had a very definite thesis, which was kept in view from the very first, and of which the reader was never allowed to lose sight for long, and that thesis had the further attraction of being, in the then state of anthropological speculation, a novel one. The present work has also, of course, its thesis, but it is one which is, for the greater part of the time, obscured by the very masses of detailed fact which are marshalled in support of it. Perhaps there never was a book in which it was harder to see the wood for the trees, or from which NO. 2052, VOL. 79] it would be easier to carve out whole monographs on connected groups of moral practices which seem to have no special bearing on the author’s or any other man’s theory of the fundamental character of moral action and the moral judgment. The main thesis, when one reaches it, is, perhaps, also a little disappointing. In essentials, it seems to contain nothing which is not already familiar to the student of so old-established a moralist as Hume, except, perhaps, the employment of the expression “ altru- istic’? sentiment, in the sense of pleasure or pain awakened by our consciousness of the pleasure or pain of others, and this, again, is familiar to us from Comtism. Briefly put, the author’s position is that the moral concepts (good, bad, right, wrong, and the rest) are based on ‘‘ moral emotions,’’ and that moral emotions (the sense of approval and censure) are retri- butive in character, censure being akin to revenge, approval to gratitude. These emotions themselves are things which ‘‘ have been acquired by means of natural selection in the struggle for existence.’’ A censorious critic would probably remark that, so far as regards the ‘“‘origin’’ of the moral judgment, this theory leaves us just where it found us. ‘‘ Natural selection,’’ even if we allow it all the significance which has been claimed for it by the ultra-Darwinians, can, at best, account for the preservation of a favourable variation when it presents itself. Prof. Westermarck almost seems to invoke it to account for the variations it preserves. It is more to my purpose, however, to urge that the reduction of all moral judgments to the expression of ‘“‘retributive’’ emotion seems only possible if we confine morality to the class of acts which are directly approved or blamed on account of their effect on some being other than the agent. If we do this, we are led at once into a breach with unsophisticated moral opinion. £.g. such opinion would pronounce it absurd to hold that a prudential regard for one’s own future, a devotion to one’s own physical and mental improvement, are not valuable moral qualities. I note that Prof. Westermarck seems at times inclined to admit these, and even more startling, paradoxes. He habitually distinguishes between ‘prudential’? and moral considerations, as if the same set of reasons for choosing a line of conduct . might not fall under both heads at once, and, in one place, he even seems to suggest that we have no right to condemn two adults who choose to commit sodomy, on the ground that their behaviour hurts no one but themselves. (At least, he writes sympathetically of this doctrine, p. 483.) The example suggests a further criticism on the author’s general philosophical stand- point. As it sufficiently shows, he really leaves no place in his system for a reasoned desire to promote the gcod of others, as distinct from an amiable tendency to enjoy witnessing their pleasure. Now it seems undeniable th t the actual production of pleasure in others is only a very subordinate element in the kind of good which persons of ardent philanthropic zeal, without any preconceived theory of ethics, believe it their duty to promote. Just as I am con- scious that pleasure, as such, is only a minor element Ss 482 NA TORT | FEBRUARY 25, 1909 in the good I desire for myself, so I am conscious that it is only a minor element in the good I believe it my duty, say, as a father to promote for my child; and, as I say, I believe this conviction to be shared by the generality of high-minded men who are not pre-committed to any particular scheme of moral philosophy. It may, no doubt, be said that the view is a mis- taken one, but at least it is there, and it is a serious defect in a proposed analysis of actual morality that it leaves no way of accounting for the fact. Where Prof. Westermarck, if I may say so without presump- tion, goes wrong is in directing his attention primarily to the kinds of emotion which accompany moral judg- ments instead of attempting to study just the general character of the conduct upon which the judgments are passed. As Mr. Bradley put it long ago, with reference to J. S. Mill’s account of poetry, ‘ Anything in the way of shallow reflection on the psychological form rather than an attempt to grasp the content.” It is the same undue preoccupation with psychological form as opposed to ethical content, as it seems to me, which makes Prof. Westermarck’s attempts to trace and forecast the development of moral belief and practice disappointing. He has little that is suggestive to say about the actual development of the moral ideal within the history of civilisation; indeed, about the oldest and perhaps the most influential of still existing moral institutions, the Christian Church, he always writes with a lack of appreciation which might fairly have been blamed in an eighteenth-century illuminé, though one would have expected that, in its Catholic form, it would have appealed to him in virtue of its ‘‘cosmopolitanism.’’ The chief prophecy he makes as to the future is that “‘ the altruistic senti- ment will continue to expand.’? Whether this is a prophecy of good I am not sure. No doubt it is, if it means that devotion to a common good is to become a more prominent factor in all our action. If it means that devotion to definite organisations for social life is to be replaced by aimless amiability towards the human race in general, there may be reason to doubt whether the substitution would be in the direction of genuine progress. A. E. Taytor. POPULAR ELECTRICITY. Electricity Present and Future, By Lucien Poincaré. Translated by Jasper Kemmis. Pp. Vili+315.- (London: Sisley’s, Ltd., n.d.) Price 7s. 6d. net. HIE title of this book is certainly a misnomer, and any reader expecting therefrom to find the volume largely occupied with a prophecy of the future development of electricity is destined to be disap- pointed. Had the book been called ‘ Electricity Past and Present,’’ the subject-matter would have been much more correctly indicated, as a fair amount of historical matter is combined with the description of the present state of applied electricity. Regarded simply as a popular exposition of this state, the work has much to recommend it, but it is, perhaps, hardly fair to the author’s intentions to lool on it simply in this light. From the preface one gathers that the NO. 2052, VOL. 79] intention has been to trace the tendencies observable in recent developments in electrical engineering, and to produce a work, to use the author’s own words, ““not unworthy a place in a collection of studies in scientific philosophy.’’ Candidly, we must admit that we are not impressed with the ‘ scientific philosophy ’? of the book, unless, indeed, it is philosophy to show how the simpler forms of machines and apparatus have been modified to suit the varied requirements of modern industry. The first part of the book is occupied with theor- etical matters, the main outlines of the theory of mag- netism and of induction being clearly expounded. Then follow two chapters on generating machines and motors, a fairly long chapter on the transmission of energy, and finally two short chapters on electro- chemistry and electric lighting. These chapters form the main portion of the book; they are clearly written, and give a clear and interesting account of the sub- jects with which they deal. We cannot help thinking that the addition of a few simple diagrams and illus- trations would greatly assist the explanations of some of the more complicated points; the reader whose knowledge of electrical technology is not very exten- sive is likely to find some of the passages difficult to follow. Indeed, we think the whole book, excellent though it is in many respects, would be greatly improved by simplification and a frank abandonment of the philosophic aims which have helped to inspire it, and which have given rise, we think, to such defects as it possesses. Amongst such defects may be noted certain peculiarities of style which are appar- ently attempts to give the book a literary value, but which, in our opinion, have just the reverse effect. To quote one or two examples, we read, on p. 38, ““M. Warburg justly claims the distinction of having been the first, in 1880. . . ’? when we suppose all that is meant is that M. Warburg has the distinction, &c. On the same page a sentence referring to Ewing’s work on hysteresis is immediately followed by a para- graph opening, ‘‘ This same Ewing studied in all their complex details these phenomena.’’ Why not say Ewing studied these phenomena in all their complex details? Instances could be multiplied almost inde- finitely, but we will content ourselves with one other quotation. On p. 27 we read :— ‘* However, notwithstanding the high respect enter- tained for the ventures of this great scientist (Fara- day), whose experiments were the most original and productive that science had seen in the nineteenth century, and notwithstanding the lucidity of his ‘ Experimental Researches in Electricity,’ one cannot but feel surprised, even shocked, at the methods he employed in describing matters which are not in con- sonance with the conventional forms of mathematical symbols. ”’ We are not quite sure what is the meaning, if any, of the last sentence, and whether it is the ‘““methods ’’ or the ‘‘ matters’’ which offend; but assuredly the criticism is most unjust, and the author (or is it the translator?) could not do better than study that simplicity of language which enabled Faraday to confer such ‘‘ lucidity ’’ on his writings. After all, M. Poincaré is attempting a similar task in FEeRRuUARY 25, 1909] this book in endeavouring to present the position of electrical theory and practice by methods ‘‘ not in consonance with the conventional forms of mathe- matical symbols.”’ _ There is one matter to which we feel we must refer in conclusion, though it does not affect the general merits of the book. Surely never was an index more curiously compiled since someone wrote, ** Mill, on Liberty: do., on the Floss ’’ in a book cata- logue. What can be said of such entries as these? “* Both fields interdependent,’’ as a reference to the interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields ; ** First Consul’s opinion ’’; ‘‘ Electricity, mystery of, 4; physicists cannot explain, 5; contingencies increase, 6; reason obvious, “Whence mechanical work?’ If the rest of the index were comprehensive and well-arranged, such peculiarities might be excused as, possibly, intentionally humorous; but unfortun- ately such is not the case. Thus are lamps are indexed under ‘*‘ Lamps, arc,’’ but incandescent lamps under “* Incandescent,’’ and there are no cross-references. Also, in the preface a full list of the names referred to in the book is promised in the index, but the Majority are not to be found there. MauricE SOLOMON. ay D6 / ’ THE CAUSES OF MUTATION. Mutation et Traumatismes, Etude sur l’Evolution des Formes végétales. By L. Blaringhem. Pp. 239; 8 plates. (Paris: Félix Alcan, 1908.) Price 10 francs. CCORDING to the mutational view of evolution, the kind of variations to the survival of which specific differentiation is due are not such differences between individuals as are always afforded, in any large collection, by fluctuating variability; but varia- tions of an entirely different mature, which de Vries has called mutations. These mutations are not, as repeatedly stated, larger differences than those which are due to fluctuating variability. On the con- trary, the differences between the extreme variants of fluctuating variations are often so large that they cannot escape the notice of the most unobservant ; whereas the difference between the new types (espe- cially when these are elementary species, and not varieties) which arise by mutation are often so subtle that they can often only be detected by an observer with an intimate familiarity with the species in ques- tion. The great difference, according to de Vries, between these two types of variation is that the maintenance of any new stage. which has been reached by the selection of the extreme variants of fluctuating vari- ability is dependent on the continuation of the selec- tion which produced it, whereas the new types which arise by mutation are independent of selection. Of course, if the new types are sickly or are characterised by the acquisition of mew characters which interfere with their attainment of maturity they very soon cease to exist. The point is that the origin of the new type on the latter view is independent of selec- tion, whilst on the former it is due to it; and this holds good for the origin of new types in a state NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE 483 of domestication as well as in wild nature. The new form ‘‘is seen to be very good after, not before its creation.” But perhaps the most striking difference between the two kinds of variation is that fluctuating vari- ability is exhibited by all animals and plants at all times, whereas mutability appears to be exhibited only very rarely. Indeed, de Vries only found one plant which appeared to be in this state ((#nothera), although he tested a large variety of plants for the purpose. Now, if it is true that evolution is due to the differences presented by mutability, we naturally want to know to what these mutable phases are due; and it is a paradoxical fact that de Vries should have discovered a great deal about the causes of fluctuating variability and next to nothing about those of muta- bility. A great many of the differences which are classed as fluctuating can be attributed with great cer- tainty to differences of nutrition, and there is a long series of facts (in connection with the limit attainable by the selection of such variations) which go to support this explanation. Of the causes of mutation little is certainly known, though it is generally held that the inception of a mutable phase is caused by some disturbance of that equilibrium in the germ-plasm which expresses itself in the stability of a species which is not in a mutable state. Indeed, the generality of a belief in that form of variation which has since been called mutation, and of this view, as to the cause of it, is witnessed by the existence of a special French word, “ affoler,” to express the process by which this disturbance of the equilibrium may be effected. The term “ affole- ment’? is also used by gardeners to signify the state which this brings about, in other words, the mutable phase itself. The book before us is an account of a long series of experiments which M. Blaringhem has conducted on the effect of mutilations on the maize and other plants. He finds that the buds which are produced after such mutilation (such as severing the stem) bear a far larger number of abnormal organs —stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits—than do normal unmolested plants; and, moreover, that amongst the offspring of mutilated plants there occur (1) con- siderable monstrosities; (2) plants which have re- covered the ancestral equilibrium; and (3) very occasional slight anomalies which constitute varieties and are perfectly new and constant. M. Blaringhem has come in touch with the out- skirts of an extremely interesting problem, namely, the effect of the rate, at which vital processes take place, on their normality. It may be that the luxuri- ance of life in the tropics is due to the speed at which ontogenetic processes take place there ; if heat increases the rate at which growth takes place (as it is known to), and increased speed leads to increased variability, the luxuriance of tropical life may be simply due to wide range of variations placed at the disposal of natural selection to operate upon. Similarly the enormous speed at which growth proceeds in buds produced on plants which have been cut down to the ground may be the sole cause of the increase in the number of monstrosities produced by them. Here is matter for investigation, the results of which ought 484 to be of the greatest interest and value. M. Blaring- | hem’s account of his experiments forms a stimulating starting-point to such an inquiry, and should be read by everyone engaged in the experimental study of vital processes. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF ANTHROPOLOGY. The Scope and Content of the Science of Anthropology. By Juul Dieserud. Pp. 200. (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co.; London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ltd., 1908.) Price 8s. 6d. net. PERUSAL of this book will convince most people that the terminology and classification of the subject-matter of anthropology is at present in a state of almost hopeless confusion. In England, early authorities like Hunt defined anthropology as the science of the whole nature of man, including the study of his anatomical, physiological and psycho- logical characters, and this logical view has for- tunately been maintained among the majority of anthropologists in this country up to the present day. In France also the original view, as expressed by Pruner Bey, was that anthropology embraces the study of man in time and space, and the great Broca took a very similar view of the scope of the science. In Germany, however, a beginning of the descent from this clear and reasonable definition of the science appears to have been made in 1879 by Miller, who divided anthropology into (1) physical anthropology and (2) psychic anthropology, and this cleavage was made wider by Grosse, who in 1894 completely separated the second of Miiller’s subdivisions from anthropology and gave it a new designation, namely, ethnology, or the culture of races. Ethnology and its related term ethnography were henceforth widely applied, chiefly in Germany and America, to a new science dealing with the culture of races. It was excluded from the science of anthropology, chiefly, no doubt, because this study had increased more rapidly than other departments of anthropology, its material data being represented by large collections of tools, weapons, dress and pottery in museums, and its psychic data by numerous memoirs On manners and customs, religion and follx- lore. From a logical point of view it is difficult to see why the study of the psychological evolution of man, as expressed by the various products of his activity, should be excluded from anthropology—the science of the whole nature of man—and it is still more difficult to see why the term ethnology, which etymologically means the science of peoples or races, should be applied to this new science, for which the proper designation would appear to be that given to it by Achelis, namely, psychical anthropology. This confusion in the terminology of anthropology is, however, now so widespread that it will take a long time to set it right, and Mr. Dieserud’s book will, we fear, only tend to perpetuate the confusion. He shows himself throughout strongly in favour of the misuse of the term ethnology by excluding from its scope all somatic or physical anthropology, though NO. 2052, VOL. 79] 4 NATURE [FERRUARY 25, 19C9 he very illogically compromises between reason and use, or rather abuse, by admitting physical subject- matter under the allied term ethnography. The second part of Mr. Dieserud’s bool consists of a scheme of library classification for works on anthropology. THe divides the subject into three main classes, namely, (1) general, (2) somatology or physical anthropology, and (3) ethnical anthropology. The second and third classes are further subdivided, and a comparison of some of these subdivisions will give some idea of the consequences of the irrational classification of anthropology which the author has adopted. For example, under class (2) we have a subdivision ‘‘ racial psychology.’’ and under class (3) a subdivision ‘‘ ethnical or folk-psychology.” The plain man will find it very difficult from the names to discover any difference between the two subclasses. There appears to be a great amount of apparent over- lapping in other subclasses; for example, it is difficult: to distinguish between palazoanthropology and palzo- ethnology or archeology, and yet these are separate and distinct subdivisions. In the details of the physical anthropology section of his classification, the author evidently owes a great deal to the excellent scheme of Prof. Martin, of Ziirich, and where he departs from this it is not often by way of improvement. The subdivision of his third class, ‘‘ ethnical anthropology (or psycho-socio-cultural anthropology),’’ is very minute, but apparently here also we have re- dundancy; for example, ‘‘ gambling and its imple- ments ’’ and ‘‘ gambling implements ’’ are two dif- ferent subdivisions, one of which appears to be unnecessary. Part iii. of this work consists of a bibliography containing a list of a few important works on anthropology, with notes of their contents, and a list of the chief publications of leading anthropological societies and museums. Though we cannot recommend Mr. Dieserud’s scheme of classification either to librarians or anthro- pologists, his book is well worth reading, and con- tains much material that is of great value to the anthropologist who is interested in the question of the scope and content of his science. Ile Ee REFRIGERATION. The Mechanical Production of Cold. By J. A. Ewing. Pp. x+204; illustrated. (Cambridge: University Press, 1908.) Price tos. OW temperatures are rapidly becoming of great industrial and scientific importance, so that the general principles of their application aré necessary or useful to continually increasing numbers of people. In this book Prof. Ewing has brought the Howard lectures, which he gave to the Society of Arts in 1897, up to date in various directions by the addition of sections on the more important developments in the last ten years. In these attention is paid to such questions as the production of oxygen by the recti- fication of liquid air and the theoretical investigations FEBRUARY 25, 1909] which lead to the calculation of the efficiency of re- frigerating engines. Starting with the conception of a refrigerating engine as a heat pump which requires the expenditure of mechanical energy to bring heat from a lower to a higher level of temperature working on a reversed Carnot’s cycle, the significance of indicator and entropy diagrams is explained in non-mathematical language. The thermodynamical details are worked out more completely in various appendices. These include discussions of entropy (¢) diagrams, with either temperature or thermodynamic potential (i) as the other coordinate. A reproduction on a large scale of Dr. R. Mollier’s ¢-i diagram for carbon dioxide is given at the end of the book, and its usefulness in tracing the exact behaviour of an engine using this as working substance is shown. There are also tables of the properties of ammonia, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and water vapour which would be necessary in such calculations. All these data are given in C.G.S. units, and it is to be regretted that these have not been used throughout the book so as to make it more uniform, and also because there is a_ strong opinion now that either C.G.S. or some derived units founded on them would be used internationally in applied thermodynamics with the same advantage as they have been in applied electricity. Absorption and air-compression machines are now only employed in special cases, but they are interesting, and are considered in the second and third chapters. At the present time, nearly all new installations use the vapour-compression system to which the fourth chapter is devoted. The substances which are used are water vapour, which is clearly only applicable in very special cases, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, ammonia, and methyl chloride. Each of these has special applications, determined by size or danger of explosion, or the unwholesome nature of the gas, in addition to their efficiencies as working substances. It is shown that the theoretical efficiencies increase in the order given with the exception of the last, which is only just mentioned, although it is employed in well-known cascade installations, and is coming into use largely as a convenient substance for small portable machines on rail-road cars and similar places. This chapter, in connection with the following sections devoted to the testing of refrigerating machines, es- pecially by the Munich method, should be of consider- able use to students and other workers in this field. Short accounts follow of the principal applications of moderate cold in industries such as brewing and others depending on fermentation processes, also in ice-making, and in the preservation and transport of food and other perishable articles. A section is devoted to the cooling of magazines in ships of war, about which the author writes with special authority. The remainder of the book discusses the production and application of very low temperatures, such as those obtained by liquid air, liquid hydrogen, and now quite recently by liquid helium. There are three principal methods of reaching these low temperatures, which are all described: the cascade of Cailletet and Pictet, the expansion method of Siemens and others, NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE 485 and the combination of the cooling due to throttling and the regenerative principle by Linde. The main industrial application is for the production of oxygen from liquid air, which is obtained by the Linde process or by the modification of this introduced by Claude, in which the Siemens principle is combined with it. There are considered in detail, and it is shown how the rectification is carried out so that nearly pure nitrogen, as well as nearly pure oxygen, is obtained by the same process. Dewar’s work on hydrogen follows, with a résumé of its properties and a mention of those of liquid helium. The book is well illustrated with diagrams and drawings, and has a good index. FE. Hs OUR? BOOK “SHEER. Principles and Methods of Physical Education and Hygiene. By W. P. Welpton. Pp. xix+ or. (Cambridge : University Tutorial Press, Ltd., 1908.) Price 4s. 6d. Tus book is addressed to the teachers of elementary schools, and to such of them as enjoy the study of physiology much pleasure will be derived from the perusal of every chapter. The author, we see, is master of method in the University of Leeds; he describes methods as well as theory of cleanliness, ventilation, care of the eye, and such ‘first aid’’ as is likely to be called for. More theory than method, however, is set down to advance the practising of the physical exercise part of physical education. We have no idea how the author would arrange to get the best use out of the school playground; how he would attain some organisation of games among scholars without encroaching upon the teacher’s time. ‘“Glycogen ’’ is referred to seven times in the index, ‘but. one can find no list of games or activities that suit the different periods of school life, such as would be helpful to the organiser of physical educa- tion; accordingly one regrets that theory dominates this work. We are apt to forget that our professional trainers of athletes have been ' very successful in their way, and with them athletics called the trainers into being; a development of play is the first step towards bettering physical education. Everyone interested either in games or physical education in its fuller aspect will be delighted with the chapter on the history of physical education, con- tributed by Prof. J. Welton, with quotations such as that from Lucian on the Athenian boy. ‘‘ When he has laboured diligently at intellectual studies and his mind is sated with the benefits of the school curri- culum, he exercises his body in liberal pursuits, riding or hurling the javelin or spear. Then the wrestling school with its sleek oiled pupils labours under the midday sun, and sweats in the regular athletic con- tests. Then a bath, not too prolonged; then a meal, not too large, in view of afternoon school. For the schoolmasters are waiting for him again, and the books which openly or by allegory teach him who who was a lover of justice and was a great hero, purity. With the contemplation of such virtues he waters the garden of his young soul. When evening sets a limit to his work, he pays the necessary tribute to his stomach and retires to rest to sleep sweetly after his busy day.’’ Education in this breadth and spirit, lost in the dark ages—for the exercises of chivalry do not represent it—was revived in Italy at the Renaissance, and the first English exponents of this revival—Mulcaster, 1581, and Sir Thos. Elyot, 1531—had their influence dominated by the Puritanism 486 NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 of those and later times. Perhaps the latter spirit is still effective, as cricket is apparently never played on Sunday. The neglect of physical education up to the time of Rousseau is sketched by Prof. Welton, and its advance since then in secondary schools. He tells us with regard to elementary schools that the conception of education that guided the Education Act of 1870 was essentially the scholastic tradition, that education and instruction are synonymous, and he affirms the most crying need in English education of to-day to be adequate provision for physical training. H.R. B. Bathy-orographical Map of the British Isles. Natural Scale 1: 875,300, or 14 miles to an inch. Line orographical Map of South America. | Natural Con- and A. K. Johnston, Scale 1: 6,150,000, or g7 miles to an inch. structed and engraved by W. Ltd. Prices not stated. Handbook to accompany the Map of the British Isles. Pp. 32. Price 6d. net. No more convincing indication could- be found of the improvement which has taken place in recent years in the methods of geographical instruc- tion in schools than the enterprise shown by publishers in the production of good orographical maps, both in atlases and on a large scale for class- teaching purposes. The present wiz all- -maps are good examples of the excellent aids which are available to assist teachers in demonstrating the fundamental importance of the distribution of the highlands and lowlands of the areas being studied. In the map of the British Isles six shades of brown are employed to show graphically the course of important contours on the land, and two shades of blue indicate the 20- and 50-fathom lines in the surrounding seas. In the case of South America the varying heights of the land above sea level are depicted by five shades of brown and two of green, while the 100-, 1000-, and 2000- fathom lines are shown on the oceans. Care has been taken to avoid crowding, and the maps. are models of clearness. The ‘*‘ Handbook *’ should prove a great help to those teachers of geography who have had little experience in teaching their subject by modern practical methods. Invariants of Quadratic Differential Forms. By J. E. Wright. Pp. vitgo. Cambridge Tracts in Mathe- matics and Mathematical Physics, No. 9. (Cam- bridge : University Press, 1908.) Price 2s. 6d. net. Tuis number of the Cambridge Tracts deals with a clear and definite problem, the simplest case of which may be stated as follows. Let a, b, c be given func- tions of the independent variables, x, y, and let adx® + baxdy + cdy” beccme adt? + Bydtdn + an? by a change of variables from (x, y) to (& 7); what functions of a, b, c and their differential coefficients transform into the same functions of a, 8, y and their differential coefficients? The importance of this inquiry begins to appear in Gauss’s celebrated memoir on the deformation of surfaces; and a very large part of what is called the differential geometry of surfaces is, from another point of view, the invariant theory of a quadratic differential form in two variables. In the general theory there are n variables, and the first great step in this direction was taken by Riemann; references to his principal successors are given by Prof. Wright (pp. 5-8). The methods explained in the tract are those of Christoffel, Lie, and Maschke; NO. 2052, VOL. 79] the last, which is symbolical, and quite recent, is only very briefly summarised, but enough is done to show its interesting character. Another special calculus applied to the subject is that of Levi-Civita and Ricci (pp. 20-8); and other manipulative devices may doubtless be discovered. So far as one can see at present, the essential elements of the theory are the Riemann-Christoffel four-figure symbols; while the broadest aspect of it is presented by Lie. .Pp. 51-90 give various geometrical and dynamical applications, concluding with the representation of one manifold on another with correspondence of geodesics. Besides being a useful guide to the analytical theory, this tract will be of service to readers of Darboux’s and Bianchi’s works on the theory of surfaces. > Bye A Course of Plane Geometry for Advanced Students. - Rartl. By €. V. Durell) Pp exit 2193 (eondonts Maemillan and Co., Ltd., 1909.) Price 5s. net. Tuts is a really capital book for students of what may be called scholarship standard. It contains, among other things, sections on similarity, transversals, vector geometry, inversion, and coaxal circles. As. examples of the author’s choice of elegant methods, and his clearness of exposition, may be taken the proof (due to Mr. Hillyer) that the centres of the diagonals of a complete quadrilateral are collinear’ (p. 118), and the proof of Feuerbach’s theorem by inversion (p. 149). In the latter example, as in many others, teachers will notice the excellence of the diagrams, which give, without confusion, all that is required and no more. There is a_ practically inexhaustible stock of examples, with a very wide range of difficulty. Mr. Durell is a master at Winchester College, and those who remember the late Mr. Richardson’s success in making his boys like and learn geometry will be glad to see that there is no risk of the subject being neglected now that he is gone. The Contents of the Fifth and Sixth Books of Euclid. By M. J: M. Hill. Second edition. Pp. xx+167. (Cambridge: University Press, 1908.) Price 6s. net. Tuis is a new work rather than a new edition. Prof. Hill has now completely abandoned. Euclid’s treatment of proportion as given in his fifth and sixth books, and replaced it by an arithmetical theory. Two commensurable quantities, pA, gA, are defined as having the ratio p/q. Equal ratios are defined as those between which no rational fraction lies. The theory is now made rigorous by means of Dedelsind’s treatment of irrational numbers, the Cantor-Dedekind axiom, and the axiom of Archimedes. It is a foolish man that never changes his mind; and Prof. Hill’s deliberate change of method after eight more years of teaching is a fact to which special attention should be directed. The Elementary Dynamics of Solids and Fluids. By Prof. W. Peddie, With Sectional and General Examples by J. D. Fulton. Pp. xii+188. (Edin- burgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1909.) Price ass 6d. Tuis little book is intended for use by junior students in university classes, and for boys in the higher forms of secondary schools. The treatment is very elementary, and fluids are disposed of in the conclud- ing three of the thirteen chapters. The wisdom of printing answers immediately after the exercises throughout the book may be doubted. As an intro- duction to dynamics, the book should prove useful. FEeRUARY 25, 1909] INCAL OLE 487 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NaTurE. No-notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The Brilliancy and Intensity of the Cupric Chloride Flame Spectrum. In the account of an interesting investigation of the flame spectrum of cupric chloride communicated by Peter Kien (Zeits. f. wissensch. Photographie, 1908, vol. vi., 537) there occurs a sentence to the following effect :— ‘“ How difficult it is to decide upon the brilliancy and intensity of a spectrum by means of photography may be shown by the following example :— ““ Prof. Hartley has published a very beautiful small photograph of the cupric chloride spectrum, the only one, moreover, which up to the present has been published. It is not in the least over-exposed, notwithstanding that Hartley gave it an exposure of two hours. My photo- graphs were over-exposed in ten minutes—even if, as Hartley did, I brought cupric oxide into the oxygen and coal-gas flame saturated with chloroform vapour.”’ I think it is due to the author and others to point out that he writes under a misapprehension, inasmuch as his spectra and mine were taken each in a different manner and with a different object in view. He desired to photo- graph the best spectrum obtainable from the chloride for the purpose of measuring the bands, and therefore burnt the usual rolls (‘‘ cigarettes ’’) of filter paper containing either cupric chloride or the oxide. The ‘‘ cigarettes ”’ were pushed by a spring through a tube into the flame at a speed regulated by a clock-work arrangement. When communicating a paper on some devices facili- tating the study of spectra (Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., vol. xi., p. 237, 1907), I demonstrated the extreme delicacy of the cupric chloride reaction in explanation of the reason that, although there may be no green coloration of the flame by copper, nevertheless the blue flame and cupric chloride bands are seen when salt is thrown into a fire of glowing coals. The experiment was made in the following manner :— a quartz fibre about a millimetre thick was placed in a solution of a copper salt and heated in the flame of the Meker (or Mecke) burner supplied with coal-gas, which was burnt with a blast of air at a pressure of about 7oo mm. of mercury. The fibre was heated until all the copper salt had been decomposed, as shown by scarcely any evidence of a trace of copper being visible in the flame when looked at in a darkened room. On diverting about one-third of the coal-gas through the flask contain- ing sponge soaked in chloroform, the hydrochloric acid produced by the combustion of its vapour yielded a large and brilliant blue flame due to the cupric chloride, which swas steady and continuous for a long period. For the illustration of the text of the paper the first exposure of the copper oxide was limited to two hours, then, without removing the fibre from the flame, the chloroform tap was turned on, and a similar exposure made. An excess of hydrochloric acid prevents the spectrum being visible at all, so that with the large volume of nitrogen in the air, and the consequent reduction of temperature arising from the hydrochloric acid in the coal- gas flame, the proportion of chloroform vapour must be limited, and the resulting quantity of cupric chloride vaporised is correspondingly small. In the experiments made by Kien, the greater intensity of photographic action is caused by the use of oxygen under pressure along with coal-gas, whereby, in conse- quence of the much higher temperature and greater quantity of heat, he is able to feed the flame with a much larger proportion of chloroform vapour, and consequently to volatilise a very much larger quantity of cupric chloride in the same period of time than is possible with the air blast. Furthermore, by the use of the ‘‘ cigarette,’”’ he has a larger quantity of copper in the flame at any given moment. As a rule, my flame spectra are obtained by using the NO. 2052, VOL. 79] oxy-hydrogen blow-pipe, and when the hydrogen is mixed with chloroform the photographic period of exposure, according to circumstances, varies from thirty seconds to five minutes. That salt is decomposed and hydrochloric acid formed by the action of water vapour when salt is thrown into a coal fire is certain. It is proved by the fact, which [ found out when studying this spectrum in 1887, that the characteristic blue flame is not obtainable when salt is thrown into a fire of charcoal. In 1890 Salet proved the origin of the blue flame to be cupric chloride (Comptes rendus, CX., p. 282), and not in any way connected, as had been suggested, with the spectrum of carbon, carbon monoxide, or hydrocarbon flames, nor due to the element chlorine or to hydrochloric acid. My interest in the matter thus came temporarily to an abrupt termination, because, having by this time become aware that minute quantities of copper are to be found in most metalliferous and many other minerals, also in acids, it was easy to account for the blue flame being frequently seen by reason of the extraordinary delicacy of the cupric chloride flame reaction. Coal ashes always contain copper, the origin of which is commonly pyrites, and in the fire this is speedily burnt to oxide. Sulphur dioxide, steam, and air, even below a very dull red heat, convert salt into sodium sulphate and hydro- chloric acid, and hence the formation of cupric chloride in presence of an excess of hydrochloric acid. Kien’s paper gives an admirable historical account of the subject, which is particularly interesting owing to the extraordinarily illusive and elusive character of this spectrum. Much of this may be read in the Phil. Mag. (4), vol. xxiv., 417-9, and the pages of Nature during 1876 and 1879. A very beautiful engraving of the cupric chloride bands is given in Lecoq de Boisbaudran’s ‘* Spectres lumineux,’’ published in 1874. W. N. Hartey. Royal College of Science, Dublin, February 11. On the Radio-active Deposits from Actinium, In the course of some experiments which Mr. W. T. Kennedy has been making at Toronto during the past few months, he has found a marked similarity in the active deposits obtained on positively and negatively charged electrodes placed within an air-tight vessel and subjected to the influence of the active emanation issuing from a sample of actinium. In his experiments the electrodes consisted of two small circular brass discs provided with guard rings of the same metal, and placed parallel to each other at a distance of 2 mm. apart. The discs during an exposure were placed with their planes vertical and directly over an open metal tube 1-5 mm. in diameter, with the edges of the guard rings almost in contact with the edges of the upper end of the tube. The salt used was carried in a small tray which could slide freely up and down the tube, and by means of a clamp be supported at any required distance from the discs. In carrying out a set of experiments on the effect of varying the pressure of the air in the vessel containing the discs and the salt, it was found at high pressures that the active deposit appeared almost entirely on the negative electrode. As the pressure was decreased, however, the active deposits on both electrodes increased, and ultimately at certain definite pressures, which were different for the two electrodes, reached maximum values. When the pressures were still further lowered, the amounts of the deposit received on both electrodes rapidly decreased, and finally approached equality. Up to the present the lowest pressure used is 4 mm. of mercury, and at this pressure the deposit on the negative electrode was found to be only about 3 per cent. greater than that obtained on the positive. From the rapid character of the decrease in the amounts of the deposit obtained at the lower pressures, it seems highly probable that, with the arrangement of apparatus used, and the relative distances between the parts adopted, both electrodes would fail to show any activity, or at greatest a very small one, if the air were entirely removed from the exposing vessel. In a particular experiment with the salt at a distance of x cm. from the disc electrodes, a maximum activity was 488 obtained on the negative electrode at a pressure of 6.5 cm. of mercury, while for the same distance between the salt and the electrodes the maximum deposit on the positive electrode was not obtained until a pressure of 1 cm. of mercury was reached. In this experiment the maximum activity obtained on the negative electrode was about 2-75 times the maximum activity obtained on the positive terminal. In all the experiments at the various pressures the discs were exposed for two hours to the action of the emanation from the actinium before being removed from the exposing vessel for measurement. The salt used was obtained from the Chinin Fabrik at Brunswick, Germany, and the active deposits on both the electrodes were found to have a decay period of approximately thirty-nine minutes. The experiments as a whole point to the ions produced by the radiation from the active salt and its products in the gas in which the salt is placed as the carriers of the active deposit. They seem to indicate, moreover, that the known differences in the rates of diffusion of positive and negative gaseous ions will suffice to explain the differences obtained in the amounts of the active deposit on the two electrodes. J. C. McLennan. Physical Laboratory, University of Toronto, February 6. Germination of the Broad Bean Seed. Mr. Heser Smitn’s observations on the relation of the micropyle to the radicle in the seed of Vicia faba (NaTURE, February 4, p- 400) are quite correct. It is surprising that the structure and germination of this seed, so extensively used in elementary botanical teaching, should be so fre- quently misunderstood by teachers and wrongly described in text-books. The curious minute sfructure of the coat of leguminous seeds has been thoroughly investigated by Haberlandt, Beck, Pammel, and others, but has never, to my knowledge, found mention in any student’s text-book. There is, however, no excuse for the inaccurate statement, made in many an elementary work on botany and on nature-study, that the radicle always grows out through the micropyle when germination begins. Beyond admitting water into the seed, the micropyle, as a rule, merely forms a weak spot in the testa and enables the radicle to split the latter, while in leguminous seeds the splitting occurs quite independently of this aperture. In the broad-bean seed, with its well-developed ‘* radicie- pocket,’? the swelling radicle, aided by the elongating cotyledon-stalks, pushes out a V-shaped flap, the micropyle being (as Mr. Heber Smith states) left intact. The two ‘lines of weakness,’’ which form the edge of the flap, answer to the junction of the radicle-pocket with the inner surface of the testa. The partition which constitutes the inner wall of the pocket can be seen in sections of young seeds as a ridge projecting into the seed cavity between the micropyle and the radicle. In the seeds of French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and scarlet runners (P. multiflorus, &c.) the pocket is less highly developed, and at an early stage the coat splits transversely, starting from the tip of the radicle. As in the broad bean, the micropyle remains intact at the end of the hilum. The early stages in the germination of broad bean are, I believe, accurately shown in my “ Life-histories of Common Plants,”’ Fig. 10. FRANK CAVERS. Hartley University College, Southampton, February 13. Scientific Societies and the Admission of Women Fellows. Nature of February 11 contains an able article on the Chemical Society and the admission of women fellows. Much of what is said in that article would apply equally well to the Geological Society. On May 15, 1907, the council proposed a new _bye-law for the admission of women as ‘‘ associates.’’? There is no authority in the charter for the admission of associates, whether women or men; and the proposition was rejected by a majority of two. The council having apparently dropped the subject, a special meeting was, on the requisi- tion of certain fellows, held on April 1, 1908, when a NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 resolution was proposed by Mr. E. A. Martin for the admission of women as fellows. This was defeated in favour of a motion by a member of the council that a poll be taken of all the fellows resident in the United Kingdom. The validity of such a poll having been ques- tioned, the president (Prof. Sollas) admitted that there would be no validity in it; but said that, whatever the result might be, the council would loyally abide by it. The result of this poll was in favour of the admission of women as fellows. Subsequently. some non-resident fellows having objected to being excluded from voting, a further poll was taken of non-resident fellows, with a similar result. The votes recorded in the two polls were :—in favour of the admission of women, 439; against, 160. Of the 439, 318 were in favour of admitting women as fellows, 109 as ** associates,’’ while 12 expressed no preference. It is thus shown that there is a decided preference for the admission of women as fellows. : Notwithstanding these votes, and the statement that the council would abide by the result, the council has apparently done nothing to carry them into effect; but on February 10 a special meeting (convened by the council) was held to consider the result of the vote, but no intimation was given that any resolution would be proposed. The council put forward certain objections to the admission of women, and a motion by Dr. A. Smith Woodward, “That it is ‘desirable, under the existing charter, to admit women to candidature for the fellowship of the society, on the same terms as men,”’ was rejected by a majority of ten votes. Whatever objections the council may have to the admission of women as fellows, it seems only reasonable that the fellows should have been informed before being called upon to express their wishes. By inviting them to vote, it was certainly implied that the decision of the fellows would be respected. During the past twenty years there have been many able papers contributed by lady geologists, and the fellows have expressed a wish that women should now be admitted to the society on the same terms as men. By rejecting the wishes of the fellows, the council is acting, not only unjustly to lady geologists, but is ignoring the expression of opinion which the council itself invited. Hythe, February 20. W. J. ATKINSON. Stone Circles in Ireland. Ix his paper, ‘‘ Who built the British Stone Circles? ”’ read at the Dublin meeting of the British Association (NaturE, December 24, 1908, vol. Ixxix., p. 236), Mr. J. Gray says he believes there are few, if any, such stone circles in Ireland. The accompanying photograph shows Stone Circle, Culdaff, Co. Donegal. one at Culdaff (river, bay, and village of the same name), on the north coast of County Donegal. Only a few of the stones are now standing. Some have fallen down, others have been taken for building or other purposes; enough, however, still remain to show the form of the circle. Beyond it, on the eastern side, lie several blocks in two diverging rows. A short distance away there is a double-chambered structure of upright slabs, once covered by a mound, which, many years ago, was carted away and spread over the farm by a former tenant. W. E. Hart. Kilderry, Londonderry, February 15- FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 489 ULTRA-MICROSCOPIC VISION. | fies Nature, November 5, 1908, a short paragraph appeared in reference to a letter received from Mr. G. V. Raman, of the Science Association Labora- tory, Calcutta, referring to a method of dark ground illumination for the microscope. From it, and from a subsequent communication on the same subject, it would appear that the subject of dark ground illumin- ation and ultra-microscopic illumination may in certain directions give rise to controversy, and result in some confusion of thought. It is unquestioned that any method of microscopic illumination in which the direct axial beam of light is cut out, and where, therefore, a grazing or oblique illumination is obtained, may result in making visible some particles that are beyond the limits of a microscope illuminated by ordinary methods. It must at once be admitted that it is difficult tu define the exact boundary beyond which objects may be said to be ultra-microscopic. To appreciate this point, it is necessary to refer very briefly—owing to the limits imposed in such a short article as this— to the wide difference between the limits of micro- scopic resolution and microscopic visibility. To define the limits of resolution of the microscope is not difficult, as this is purely a function of the numerical aperture of the objective. The limits in this direction have been accurately determined, and practically agree in theory and practice. In the case of periodic structure, such as in diatoms, or in mechanically-ruled plates such as Grayson’s rulings, this resolving limit can be found by multiplying the numerical aperture of the objective by 80,000 when monochromatic green light is used, and illumination is by a solid axial cone of light. This means approxi- mately that lines of more than 120,000 to the inch would be beyond the limit of resolution when using an objective with N.A. 140, the largest aperture generally available at present; or that two points lying closer together than the distance between these would be evident, not as two separate images, but would so overlap as to appear as one. This, however, is by no means the limit of visi- bility, and Lord Rayleigh states that isolated objects, or two bright areas separated by a dark line, may be seen if the dark line is as narrow as 1/16, and under certain conditions 1/32, of a wave-length of light, although the resulting image does not of neces- sity represent the actual appearance of the object. The flagellum of a bacterium, for instance, may be much beyond the limit of resolution, but is visible because it is an isolated object. Another factor is the intensity of the incident light, and there is some reason to conclude that any rela- tively isolated object may be visible if it is illuminated with sufficient intensity, and can reflect light enough for the eye to appreciate. A keen observer will see in a micrescopic image all structure that the best objectives can reproduce with a magnification of little more than 750 diameters, although it may be con- venient to amplify the image beyond this to facilitate observation. Objects that are smaller than this limit of resolution are generally referred to as _ ultra- microscopic, although it is obvious that the term is not always justified. It is clear, therefore, that to define the meaning of the term ‘‘ ultra-microscopic ”’ is by no means simple, and especially in view of the fact that most methods of dark ground illumination do result in the formation of images that are not seen in other ways. Illumination in the microscope by means of light projected at various angles to the optical axis has been common for very many years. The writer has used, for example, an oil immersion paraboloid made NO. 2052, VOL. 79] by Messrs. Swift and Son, probably very soon after the introduction of oil-immersion objectives, say about 1875, and the results to be obtained with it compare favourably with those of more recent intro- ductions. At various times, other methods have been introduced. The simplest, and one of the earliest, was what is known as a ‘‘ spot lens,’’ also a dry para- boloid, and the arrangement by which the ordinary substage condenser may be utilised. In each of these a blackened stop of suitable size is placed beneath the optical portion of the illuminating system in such a position that the central axial rays are obstructed, and no light directly enters the objective. Only light refracted or reflected by the object reaches the objec- tive, and the former, therefore, shows up brightly illuminated on a more or less dark background. With each of these arrangements only objectives of rela- tively low aperture can be used. Other methods are those in which a stop is placed above the posterior combination of the objective, or the very ingenious arrangement suggested by Mr. J. W. Gordon, in which the stop, in this case a small globule of mercury, is placed above the eye-piece in the position occupied by the Ramsden disc. The closest approximation to the modern ultra-microscope of Siedentopf is the type of dark ground illumination in which the light is reflected so that it impinges upon the object at right angles to the optical axis of the microscope, but in none of these is any attempt made to confine the illuminating beam to the area under observation. , In 1903 an entirely new method of rendering visible ultra-microscopic particles was brought out by Sieden- topf, and arose out of some investigations being made on various shades of ruby glass. As is probably well known, the colouring of ruby glass is dependent on small particles of gold, the dimensions of which approach in size to that of a molecule. If examined under an ordinary microscope and by ordinary methods of illumination, or by any method of dark ground illumination, even with the very best objectives there is no indication of the presence of any isolated particles. But, by a method of projecting a very thin cone of light at right angles to the optical axis of the microscope, and exactly on the spot under observation only, they were able clearly to observe diffraction discs which became visible, and arose from each individual particle of gold in the ruby glass.’ The method is therefore one entirely depending on the arrangement and exact control of the illumin- ation. The initial intensity of the illuminant must be high, so that only the electric arc or sunlight is suitable. In general, the illumination of the object is accom- plished by projecting the image of a very narrow precision slit, which is constructed in a_ similar manner to those used on fine spectroscopes so that both the length and breadth of the slit can be varied and exactly determined on to the object. The apparatus is arranged so that a very powerful beam of light is projected through the slit and focussed by a suitable optical arrangement so that the apex of the cone of rays falls exactly on the spot in the object where the objective is focussed, and so that no particles lying above or below this spot are illuminated. Consequently, only the particles in the field of view are sufficiently luminous to form an image in the microscope, and no particles lying outside this field can diffuse light and interfere with the formation of the image. This latter disadvantage is common to all other methods of dark ground illumination, and it is in this respect chiefly, if not entirely, that the Siedentopf 1 See Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 1903, p. 573+ 490: method differs from all others. It would happen with a powerful source of light, unless the apparatus were thus arranged, that so many small particles would be illuminated that the diffraction discs would overlap and simply produce a general diffusion of light, and but very few individual particles, and of these only the more isolated ones, would therefore be visible. This is exactly what happens with any ordinary method of dark ground illumination where the particles are numerous or where they are distributed throughout a considerable area. In the Siedentopf method, where the light is simply concentrated on one spot in the field alone, little or no interference between the dif- fraction discs results, internal reflections between the components of the optical system are reduced to a minimum, and consequently an image is obtained which under other conditions would be impossible. Considerable developments have taken place recently in methods of dark ground illumination. It is now possible to view such objects as bacteria with ease, without resorting to the excessive staining that is unfortunately so prevalent, enabling them also to be observed while in the living condition. The most satisfactory of these is the parabolic illuminator recently introduced by Messrs. Zeiss (Fig. 1). It may easily be said, and Renter, it is perfectly veut 1 es, true, that the Pee e A 9 1 3 SHE parabolic — illum- inator, either dry or oil immersion, is no novelty, but the one made by Messrs. Zeiss has been developed along scientific lines, and is the result of careful 15° computation, whereas those made in the earlier days of microscopy were largely the result of chance, or at least trial and error, and it was a fortunate cir- cumstance if they gave a result which was entirely satisfactory. In the case of the Zeiss parabolic illuminator, the light is so reflected from the internal surface of the paraboloid that the annular cone of rays is projected, and has its focal point exactly where the objective is focussed. It would not, of course, give the same results as Siedentopf’s method with such objects as ruby glass or colloidal solutions, but for observing minute living bacteria or similar transparent objects it leaves little to be desired. The illuminating rays, too, are exactly confined within the limits of a numer- ical aperture of 11 to 14, so that, if using, say, a 4-millimetre apochromatic objective with an aperture of 095, no rays would enter directly, and it would only be those reflected or refracted by the object that would pass into the objective at all, the objects, in fact, behaving as self-luminous bodies. This is a definite improvement on the method of introducing a stop into the substage condenser, so that the central rays are blocked out, and only the peripheral rays are allowed to pass, as there is much less spherical and chromatic aberration, the image being to a large extent dependent on reflected light. This appliance will render particles visible that might be termed ultra- microscopic, and in any solution or preparation of bacteria in water a great number of diffraction discs will be visible that by ordinary direct light could not be seen. NO. 2052, VOL. 79] Fic. 1. NATURE. | FEBRUARY 25, 1909. Another method that fulfils its purpose is the-reflect- ing condenser made by Messrs. Leitz, of Wetzlar. In this, two reflecting surfaces, the one internal and the other external, as shown in Fig. 2, are so shaped as almost completely to unite the rays at a point P. The light enters from below, and takes the direction as shown by the dotted lines, ultimately converging on the point P, which is the position of the object, and is the focal point of the objective. It is obvious, therefore, that there is no chromatic or spherical aberration. The adjustments for centring are exactly the same as for an ordinary substage condenser, and the optical portion is contained in the mount that slides into the ordinary substage carrier. This ap- paratus, as well as the Zeiss, requires that the object- slide and the cover-glass shall be of a certain thickness, and cedarwood oil is used between the top surface of the condenser and the slide. It may be used as shown with any dry lens, but the best results are obtained with an apochromat, especially with the 4-millimetre o'95 N.A. The cone of the illuminating rays is confined within the same limits as the Zeiss apparatus. It is necessary to remember, however, that because is invisible by a particle that axial illumination becomes visible by ob- lique light, it does not, therefore, fol- low that it is ultra - micro- siciojpaic, Its transparency may be too great, or its refractive — in- dex may too nearly coincide with the me- dium in which it lies for it to be visible by direct light. Fic. 2. By oblique illumination a much smaller difference in refractive index between the object and its medium will be sufficient to form an image. It is very difficult within the limits of a short article such as this to go into the matter sufficiently thoroughly to deal with all the points at issue. It may easily be urged that particles that are ultra- microscopic can be made visible by methods other than those described. It is well known that even passing a very powerful beam of light through a darkened room will render visible a large number of particles that cannot be seen by ordinary methods of illumination, and it is more than probable that many of the particles so observed are, in fact, ultra-micro- scopic. Faraday was able, by projecting a powerful beam of sunlight through a piece of ruby glass, to view the diffraction discs arising from the gold particles in the glass without any microscope at all. The whole question resolves itself really into the necessity of having primarily a sufficiently strong source of light, and so to arrange the incidence of the light that only those particles in the field of view are illuminated. In many arrangements that have been described for microscopic illumination, these two con- ditions have not been combined, and it is only recently that it has been thoroughly realised that either one without the other will not give the looked-for result. J. E. Barnarp. FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 49l A PURE MILK SUPPLY. HE importance of a supply of pure and whole- some milk can hardly be exaggerated, and during the last few years much has been done to ensure this by the education of the producer, and by the formulation of regulations by the health authori- ties. Contamination may take place at four stages :— (1) the cow may be unhealthy, e.g. tuberculous; (2) the condition of the farm and millers and the methods employed may be unsatisfactory; (3) con- | tamination may take place in transit; or (4) during or after sale to the consumer. In dealing with some phases of this subject, a practical acquaintance with trade conditions is neces- sary, Or impracticable regulations may be imposed. Thus, in a paper read by Mr. Primrose McConnell before the Royal Society of Arts,! reference was made to the exaggerated ideas of some sanitarians as to the cubic and floor spaces required in the byres, and, as the author remarked, if the ventilation is properly arranged for, the mere air-space in a shed is a sub- ordinate matter. The arm-chair sanitarian is apt to forget that one milking has to be done in the early hours of the morning—in winter in dark and cold—that disinfec- tants, clean smocks, and hot water may be unat- tainable luxuries, that in many cases all that can be hoped for is the promulgation of the doctrine of general cleanliness, and that to insist on liberal air- space and various structural conditions in the cow- sheds may mean an outlay which will render the production of the milk too costly to give an adequate return to the farmer. Far be it from the writer to suggest that ideal conditions. should not be formu- lated and put into practice whenever possible, but in all cases the regulations should be drawn up with the help of trade experts, and with a due regard to the conditions of the district. No doubt the conditions of supply which formerly obtained, and perhaps: to some extent still exist, in some of the smaller farms are much to be deprecated, but a great deal has been done, particularly by the large dairy companies of the metropolis, to remedy this. The problem of transit is still one that requires much attention; the ordinary milk churn is a dirt and dust trap by which much contamination may be introduced into the milk, and refrigerator vans need to be provided by the railway companies. The ordinary method of serving millk with a dipper, and the manner in which milk in bowls is allowed to stand on the counter by the smaller vendors amid a hetero- geneous collection of other goods, are in urgent need of alteration. To some statements made by Mr. McConnell in the paper referred to the writer would take excep- tion. Thus, the existence of large mumbers of microbes in milk, provided none was definitely patho- genic, was considered to be of no importance. But large numbers of microbes generally indicate dirty production, which in its turn facilitates the entrance of harmful bacteria. Moreover, milk swarming with microbes may in some cases produce gastro-intestinal disturbance. value, but veterinary authorities in all countries are unanimous in regarding it as of the greatest value in the detection of tuberculosis. The careful work of the commissioners of the Royal Commission on Tuber- culosis on the transmission of bovine tuberculosis to man cannot be summarily dismissed by the statement that ‘‘ their far-fetched experiments and tests have not proved it to the satisfaction of many people who understand the matter just as well as they do.”’ 1s De se 1 **London Milk Supply from a Farmer's Point of View” (Journ. Roy. Soc. of Arts, December 18, 1908, p. &3). NO. 2052, VOL. 79] Tuberculin was considered to be of no | | | THE DENSITY OF GASES IN RELATION TO THE ATOMIC WEIGHT OF NITROGEN. HE fourth and last instalment of the current volume of the well-known Geneva Society’s Transactions, referred to below,! has a special interest for the chemist and physicist from the fact that it is wholly made up of a series of communications from the laboratory of chemical physies of the University of Geneva under the direction of Prof. Ph. A. Guye. The memoirs, five in number, deal with experimental researches on the physicochemical properties of certain gases in relation to the revision of the atomic weight of nitrogen, a problem which has occupied Prof. Guye and his collaborators for some years past. The greater number of the main results have already been seen in abstract in many serial publications. The work before us contains the full memoirs, which are illustrated by carefully executed drawings of the apparatus employed. The respective titles are :— I. ** Détermination des Densités des Gaz anhydride carbonique, Ammoniac et Protoxide d’Azote par la Méthode du Volumétre.’’ Ph. A. Guye et Al. Pintza. Annexe I.: ‘‘ Contréle des Densités de 1’Oxygéne et de l’Anhydride sulfureux.’’ A. Jaquerod et Al. Pintza. Annexe II.: ‘‘ Essai sur la Détermination du Poids atomique de 1l’Azote par 1|’Analyse en Volume du Gaz ammoniac.’’ Ph. A. Guye et Al. Pintza. II. ‘‘ Détermination de la Densité de l’Oxyde Azotique par la Méthode des Ballons.’? Ph. A. Guye et Ch. Davila. Annexe: ‘‘ Densité du Gaz acide chlorhydrique.’’ Ph. A. Guye et G. Ter Gazarian. III. ‘‘ Sur la Compressibilité de quelques Gaz 4 O au- dessous de 1’Atmosphére.’’ A. Jaquerod et O. Scheuer. IV. ‘‘ Détermination des Pressions et Températures critiques de quelques Gaz.’’ E.. Briner. V. ‘‘ Résumé général.’? Ph. A. Guye. The main results may be thus stated :— The weights of the normal litre, that is, the weights of a litre of the respective gases at 0°, under a pressure of r atmosphere at sea level, under the latitude of 45°, are as follows :— Grams Carbon dioxide ... 1°9768 Ammonia 0°7708 Nitrous oxide 1°9777 Oxygen ... oe 1°4292 Sulphur dioxide... 2 9266 Nitric oxide : sb0 ae 1°3402 Hydrogen chloride 06d ¢ 176398 For the values of compressibility and critical con- stants of these gases, as well as of those of certain methyl derivatives, we must refer to the original memoirs. The bearing of the observations so far as they are applicable to the question of the atomic weight of nitrogen is discussed by Prof. Guye in an introductory communication. The result is to show that Stas’s value of 14°04 is probably too high, as has been shown. independently by Gray. The most probable value is 1401, a number already adopted by the International Committee on Atomic Weights in its last report. EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT. \WWE are glad to see that attention is being again directed to problems of the relation between education and national welfare. In his address as | president of the Association of Technical Institutions, | last year, Sir Norman Lockyer referred to the deplorable national wastage that goes on after children leave the primary school, and pointed out that by permitting the half-time system the State is 1 ** Mémoires dela Société de Physique et d’ Histoire naturelle de Genéve,” vel. xxxv., Fascicule 4, December. (Genéve: Georg et Cie., 1908.) 492 a consenting party to a cause of mental and physical weakness. This, as he remarked, is not a question of party politics—it is simply a question as to whether the nation is content to see the standard of height and the standard of weight of many children being reduced in order that employment of half-timers should be con- tinued. As to the school-leaving age and the need for further educatidn in continuation schools, Sir Norman Lockyer urged that something should be done to show that the real interests of the employers lie in the fact that if the children can be taught how to learn for a little longer time, all those in their employ, at whatever age, will be more useful to them. It was suggested that the Government should be brought into operation in the same way—the same very definite and perhaps rather drastic way—as has been done in Germany. In Germany, as Prof. Sadler shows in the valuable work on ‘ Continuation Schools ’’ edited by him, employers of labour are obliged to grant to all their employees under eighteen years of age attending continuation schools arranged by the Government or the local authority, che necessary time for school attendance as prescribed by the authority in question. Attendances at continua- tion schools can be made compulsory for male persons under eighteen years of age by the bye-law of a district or town council. Only in five States, repre- senting about one-forty-sixth of the population of the German Empire, is attendance at continuation schools wholly voluntary. Dealing with the main causes of unemployment and various proposed remedies, the recently published report of the Poor Law Commission provides useful guidance as to a desirable direction for future educa- tional enterprise. The development of continuation schools for boys who have left the elementary school and a modification of the prevailing type of curri- culum in primary schools are urged. The report con- demns emphatically the widespread evil of employing boys who have just left school in immediately re- munerative but uneducative occupations which lead nowhere and provide them with no special knowledge to ensure their employment later in life. The Com- missioners ; regard with favour the suggestions that boys should be kept at school until the age of fifteen instead of fourteen ; that exemption below this age should be granted only for boys leaving to learn a skilled trade; and that there should be school supervision until sixteen, and replacing in school of boys not properly employed. Experience has shown that a long time may elapse before the recommendations of a Royal Commission are translated into Acts of Parliament, but, in view of the powers given to Scottish school boards by the recent Education Act for Scotland, it may be hoped that it will not be long before something is done to give the English boy from the elementary school an education and training in his teens which will ensure his becoming a_ skilled worker when manhood is reached. The Commissioners, we are glad to note, have not ignored the necessity for providing during the years of adolescence suitable technical instruction for the boys upon whose ability as skilled artisans our indus- trial efficiency as a nation will in the future depend. The report insists that There is urgent need of improved facilities for technical education after the present age for leaving school. With a view to the improvement of physique, a continuous system of physical drill should be instituted, which might be com- menced during school life, and be continued afterwards ; and, in order to discourage boys from entering uneducative occupations which offer no prospect of permanent employ- ment, there should be established, in connection with the NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 Labour Exchange, a special organisation for giving boys, parents, teachers, and school managers information and guidance as to suitable occupations for children leaving school. We can imagine no more effective method of re- ducing in future years the ranks of the unemployed than that recommended in the report. The problem is first to educate the parents to forego the advantage of their boys’ immediate earnings—providing them with some solatium, if necessary—and then to pro- vide the boy with suitable employment which will enable him to learn a trade, and to be a skilled worker in his manhood. Yo convert him into a competent artificer it is necessary to see that the boy attends the technical school during his apprenticeship, or corre- sponding years, for a certain number of hours which form part of his working day. But, as has been pointed out in these columns again and again, the full advantages of a scheme of technical instruction cannot be secured unless the boys attending the classes of the technical institute have received an adequate and suitable education in the elementary school during the years up to fifteen. In the past, the type of curriculum and the general character of the education have been unsuitable for boys who will later become manual workers. The Commissioners have recognised these facts, and they recommend the Board of Education earnestly to con- sider the necessity for re-modelling the practice and ideals of our elementary schools. To quote the report :-— A considerable amount of evidence has been submitted to us to the effect that the present system of elementary education is not adapted to the wants of an industrial com- munity. There is a consensus of feeling, in which we ourselves concur, that the present education is too literary and diff ise in its character, and should be more practical. It should be more combined than at present with manual training. It is not in the interests of the country to pro duce by our system of education a dislike of manual work and a taste for clerical and for intermittent work, when the vast majority of those so educated must maintain themselves by manual labour. If school training is to be an adaptation of the child to its future life and occupation, some revision of the present curriculum of public elementary schools seems necessary. Men of science will welcome this full and generous recognition of the claims of ‘practical? subjects to take a large part in the education of children who will later constitute our industrial community—a necessity which was urged in the report of the British Science Guild Committee, published in Nature of January 28 (p. 283). Manual work must be treated with respect, and every effort made to explode the prevalent fallacy that ill-paid and precarious clerical work is more ‘respectable’? than honest, skilled constructive labour. Since the publication of the report of the Commis- sion an influential and representative deputation has waited upon the Prime Minister on the subject of boy labour, and many of the considerations here passed in review were urged upon the Government. In replying, Mr. Asquith dealt in an illuminating and sympathetic manner with the years between leaving school and reaching manhood—the unbridged gap, as he called it. After endorsing to a large ex- tent the recommendations of the recent report, Mr. Asquith dealt with some of the education difficulties. He said :— I think the most interesting and suggestive part of the discussion to which we have listened this afternoon has been upon the subject of the exemption, the raising of the age of exemption, and of enlarging the use, perhaps by compulsion, of continuation schools. I am entirely with you, I think, in the most advanced views that have been FEBRUARY 25, 1909| WATORE 493 offered to-day upon both these matters; but being com- pelled by the exigencies of the life I lead to deal with these matters in a practical spirit—in other words, to cafculate the length, the breadth, and the weight of the obstacles which have to be encountered—the remedy is not quite so easy to discover and to apply as to the more sanguine among us it may, at first sight, appear. For instance, there is this question of raising the age of exemption. There you are confronted with these discouraging figures from the Langashire operatives, where, upon a poll on the question of raising the half-time age to thirteen, barely 34,000 voted in the affirmative and no less than 150,000 voted in the negative. I agree that a few years ago the figures would have been much more discouraging than they are now. But one hopes that with the advance of information and the efforts of the enlightened leaders like my friend Mr. Shackleton there may be a considerable movement in a better direction. But it is obvious that at the moment it would be extremely difficult to apply by any statutory form of compulsion a measure which, so far as regards the great bulk of the operatives are concerned, a large majority are not prepared voluntarily and spon- taneously to accept. That is a case for what is called spade-work, which I hope may produce its results before long. When we come to the question of continuation schools, I think the prospect is more satisfactory and hopeful. We did something for Scottish education in the Scottish Act last year, and I hope it is not too sanguine a view to take if one expresses the hope that England will soon level itself up to the standard of Scotland in that matter. Again there is a difficulty. As one of the speakers pointed out, if the boys or the girls are kept hard at work in a monotonous way at unintellectual occupations during a great many hours of the day, you cannot expect them to bring to the continuation school, or evening school, any- thing like a fresh intelligence or that power of receptivity which is essential to the efficient working of such institu- tions. There comes in that question of the half-timer again. I cannot help thinking that if employers of labour would more generally take the course which Sir Albert Spicer has taken, and which Mr. Cadbury has taken, of making it a condition when they employ these young boys and girls in their works that they should spend one or two evenings in a continuation school, their regular hours of labour being so adjusted that it is not an excessive strain either upon their intellectual or physical capacity, we should find, if not a solution, the way of going very near to the solution of that part of the problem. A report upon the problem of education in relation to apprenticeship, especially as it concerns the children of London, is to be presented by the Higher Education Sub-committee of the London County Council Education Committee at a meeting to be held as we go to press. In this report the committee urges that, inasmuch as industrial training is a national and not a local question, technical institu- tions and technical scholarships should be supported to a much larger extent than at present out of funds provided by the National Exchequer. As remedies for what are pronounced defects in our educational methods, leading to waste of effort and the sacrifice of future prospects to immediate needs, the committee makes a number of proposals which are identical in principle with suggestions for an organised educational system contained in the report of the British Science Guild Education Com- mittee already published in these columns. The proposals put forward by the London County Council Committee may be summarised as follows :— (1) The age of compulsory attendance at elementary schools should be raised to fifteen. (2) Certain children should be transferred at the age of thirteen to trade or craft schools. (3) The elementary-school curriculum should be made more practical by a considerable increase in the time devoted to various kinds of manual training. (4) Local education authorities should be empowered to compel employers to allow their apprentices and learners NO. 2052, VOL. 79] the necessary time during the day to attend classes, and to enforce such attendance on the apprentices and learners. (5) At least half the working day should be spent in school. (6) All boys and girls not on the rolls of trade or secondary schools should be required to pass through a three years’ course of ‘“‘ half-time’’ instruction at con- tinuation schools. It is to be hoped that statesmen will not wait until a mandate is received from those who benefit by child-labour before attempting to make our educa- tional demands comparable with those of Scotland and Germany. Their duty is to safeguard the mental and physical welfare of the coming generation if our nation is to be kept in the van of progress. The continuation of the present system involves grave injustice to a not inconsiderable part of the child population of England, for the mental, moral, and physical training received during school life is soon lost after a boy drifts into one of the occupations of unslxilled trades. As to further education, whether in day or evening continuation schools, or in secondary schools, there is much to be done before we can approach the conditions existing in Germany. While Germany is fast extending the age of compulsory attendance through the critical years of youth, in England and Wales not more than one in three of the children who leave the public elementary schools at thirteen or fourteen years of age receives any further systematic care as regards education of any kind. When our statesmen realise what a study in contrasts is afforded by the German and English systems of education, and what an inferior position we occupy, judged by any standard of educational measurement, they will per- haps do something to prevent the waste of body and mind which is a source of individual poverty and of national wealxness. SIR GEORGE IKING, K-G@iIlE., ERS. IR GEORGE KING, K.C.I.E., F.R.S.,. whose death at San Remo was announced in NaTURE of February 18, was born at Peterhead on April 12, 1840. He was educated at the Grammar School and the University, Aberdeen, graduating in medicine in 1865. In the same year he entered the Indian Medical Service, and was posted to the Bengal Presidency. Soon after reaching India, King was detailed for military medical duty in Central India and Rajpu- tana, where his leisure was devoted to work of high quality as a field naturalist. From military duty he was transferred to act temporarily as superintendent of the Botanic Gardens at Saharanpur, in Upper India; shortly thereafter he was induced to join the Indian Forest Service, and was placed in charge of the Kumaon forests. While so employed he was selected by the Secretary of State for India as suc- cessor to Dr. Thomas Anderson, whose death in October, 1870, had left vacant the superintendentship of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Calcutta and of Cinchona Cultivation in Bengal. When, in 1871, King assumed charge of the Cal- cutta gardens these were in the ruined condition to which they had been reduced by severe cyclones in 1864 and again in 1867. They had practically to be renovated, and the charm and beauty for which they are famed constitute an adequate memorial to King’s energy, patience, and skill as a landscape gardener. The prolonged task involved considerable expendi- ture, and the readiness with which the necessary funds were supplied bears witness to the traditional enlightenment of the Government of Bengal and to 494 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 25, 1909 the confidence which King’s organising powers inspired. The cinchona department was just passing beyond the experimental stage when King was given control. Natural causes render the cultivation of cinchona in northern India unprofitable to private enterprise. Notwithstanding this fact, King so administered the Government plantations and factory that the Govern- ment was able, without incurring pecuniary loss, to place the remedies against malaria which cinchona bark yields within the reach of the poorest peasant in India. The extent and gravity of King’s administrative duties did not prevent him from prosecuting the botanical studies which made him one of the leading systematic botanists of the last quarter of the nine- teenth century; but with rare self-denial he forbore the publication of his results until the tasks of restor- ing the gardens and organising the plantations and factory under his charge had progressed so far as to justify his giving the time that was needed to the pre- paration of ordered statements. But the fact that his scientific attainments were on a_ level with his administrative powers could not remain concealed from those with whom he corresponded on botanical subjects, and in 1884 he was promoted to the degree of LL.D. by his own university, while in 1887 he was elected into the Royal Society. In the last-mentioned year the enlightened policy of the Government of Bengal enabled King to found the *“‘ Annals ’’ of the Calcutta gardens, a series of sumptuous volumes in which he proceeded to enrich systematic study by providing monographs of diffi- cult and important genera like Ficus, Quercus, Cas- tanopsis, Artocarpus, Myristica, and families like Magnoliacee, Anonaceew, and Orchidaceee. These contributions to natural knowledge are characterised by the accuracy, lucidity, and completeness which marked everything he did. But as regards the branch of botany of which he thus became so distinguished an exponent, King was influenced by the sense of duty that had so long delayed the publication of his results. His personal predilections were towards problems other than systematic, and, as might be expected in one who had been a favourite pupil of the late Prof. Dickie, F.R.S., these were problems associated with cryptogamic studies. But King’s practical mind realised that, important and enticing as such studies are, the path of duty for him led else- where. The greatest immediate service he could render to the official and commercial interests of India lay in the provision of recognisable descriptions of hitherto unknown or imperfectly understood phanerogamic plants of economic importance, and especially, as his experience as a forest official had | taught him, recognisable descriptions of trees, too frequently neglected by workers whose study of herbaceous plants and shrubs may leave nothing to be desired. To this task King devoted himself in the most single-minded fashion, and in furthering it he commenced in 1889 the publication of the results of a sustained floristic study of the Malayan peninsula, issued. from time to time in fascicles that were professedly intended to serve as precursors to a flora of that region, but are so admir- ably executed that they serve as an efficient substitute for such a work. In 1891, when the various botanical officers in India were linked together in one depart- ment, King became the first director of the Botanical Survey of India. During his Indian career King was able to render much additional service to the country and_ its Government. He was long a trusted member of the Senate, and served for a term on the syndicate of the NO. 2052, VOL. 79] vegetation of the | University of Calcutta. He was a member of the board of visitors of the Bengal Engineering College, an institution in which he took a warm and effective interest. He was an original member of the com- mittee of management of the Zoological Gardens at Calcutta, the site of which he found occupied by a collection of hovels, and converted into a singularly attractive place of public resort. He was for many years a trustee of the Indian Museum, and for a time was chairman of the trust. He was president of the entral committee appointed by Government to in- vestigate the indigenous drugs of India, from its in- ception in 1894 until his retirement in 1898 after thirty-three years of devoted service to the people and the Government of India. After his retirement King gave all his energies to the continuation of his ‘‘ Materials for a Flora of the Malayan Peninsula.’’ But his health, severely tried by his long residence in the East, became gradually more and more impaired, and he realised that he might never see the completion of the work he had allotted himself. His friend Mr. H. N. Ridley, F.R.S., director of the Botanic Gardens, Singapore, stepped into the breach and undertook the elaboration of the monocotyledonous families while King was engaged on the remainder of the dicoty- ledonous ones, and after 1902, when the thirteenth fasciculus, completing the Calycifloree, was issued, another friend, Mr. J. S. Gamble, F.R.S., became associated with him in working out the Corolliflore. Increasing infirmity gradually led to King taking less and less of an active share in the worl, and the later families have been elaborated by Mr. Gamble alone. King’s skill as a landscape gardener led to the award of its Victoria medal by the Royal Horticul- tural Society. His services to humanity in connection with the manufacture and distribution of the allxaloids of cinchona bark were recognised by honorary mem- bership of the Pharmaceutical Society, by the grade of ** Officier d’Instruction publique,’’ and by the gift of a ring of honour by H.I.M. Alexander III. of Russia. His invaluable contributions to natural knowledge brought him honorary association with a number of learned societies, and the award of medals by the University of Upsala and the Linnean Society of London, while his administrative qualities were recognised, on the eve of his retirement, by the Government of India. King was keenly interested in art, in literature, and in many branches of science other than that in the promotion of which he took so active a part. With wide and accurate knowledge he combined a kindly sense of humour and a magnetic charm of manner which rendered intercourse with him a privilege never to be forgotten, and to his many friends his death leaves a blank that cannot be filled. NOTES. At the meeting of the Royal Society on Thursday, February 18, telegrams of congratulation on the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Charles Darwin were read from | the University of Christiania, the University, Kharkoff, the Naturalists’ Students’ Association, Kharkoff, the Society of Naturalists, Kharkoff, the council of lecturers, Moscow Women’s University, and the Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. The president reported that telegraphic acknowledgments and thanks had been trans- mitted to the senders on behalf of the Royal Society. M. H. Porncar®é has been elected president of the French Bureau des Longitudes; M. Bigourdan becomes vice-presi- dent, and M. Deslandres secretary. ae FEBRUARY 25, 1909] Pror. W. M. Davis was elected president of the Associa- tion of American Geographers ut the recent annual mcct- ing held in affiliation with the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Tue death is announced of Prof. Victor Egger, professor of philosophy and psychology at the Sorbonne, and dis- tinguished chiefly by his work in psychology. We also notice with regret the announcement of the death of Prof. Carroll D. Wright, professor of statistics and social economics at Clark University, Worcester, Mass., and distinguished among American statisticians and eccnomists. WE notice with regret the announcement that Dr. D. J. Hamilton, formerly professor of pathology at Aberdeen University, died on February 19 at sixty years of age. Prof. Hamilton was for several years demonstrator of pathology at Edinburgh University, and was appointed in 1882 to the chair of pathology at Aberdeen University, which he resigned last year owing to ill-health. A CORRESPONDENT writes asking for information concern- ing ‘‘ arboreal tumours ’’ which are to be observed attack- ing trees in certain damp, low-lying districts, and eventually leading to the destruction of the trees. A reference to Kew enables us to state that the subject is dealt with in the late Prof. H. Marshall Ward’s ‘‘ Diseases of Plants,’’ published in the Nature Series of Messrs. Macmillan and Co., Ltd. ‘The matter is lucidly discussed in chapter xxiv. of this work at pp. 222 et seq. WE learn from the Times that a fresh attempt is being made to introduce the salmon into New Zealand. Similar attempts have been made previously on more than’ one occasion, but without success, which is the more remark- able as the acclimatisation of the trout was effected many years ago with the most satisfactory results, many of the New Zealand rivers being now well stocked, and the fish growing to a very large size. The difficulty seems to consist, not so much in getting the eggs to New Zealand in a healthy condition, as in preserving the young fish after hatching. About a million ova have lately been dispatched from London under the direction of Mr..Luke Ayson, the Chief Inspector of Fisheries of New Zealand, and it is hoped that success will attend the new venture. THE anniversary meeting of the Geological Society of London was held on Friday, February 19, when the officers for the ensuing year were elected as follows :—President, Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; vice-presidents, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, F.R.S., Mr. H.W. Monckton, Dr. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.,° and Prof.--W. W,. Watts, F.R-.S.; secre- taries, Prof..E. J. Garwood and Dr. A. Smith Woodward, F.R.S.; foreign secretary, Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., Pres.R.S.; treasurer, Dr. Aubrey Strahan, F.R.S. The medals and funds awarded, as announced in Nature of January 21 (p. 347), were then presented. The ° president delivered his anniversary address, which dealt with time, considered in its relation to geological events, and to the development of the organic world. By the will of the late Dr. Francis Elgar, F.R.S., the sum of 1600l. is left to the Institution of Naval Architects for the endowment of a scholarship to be awarded as the council may decide, but the hope is expressed that the scholarship will be similar to that given by him during his life. After making other bequests, one-half of the residue (which will apparently amount to between 32,000l. and 34,0001.) is eventually to be divided equally between the Institution of Naval Architects for the encouragement of the science and art of naval architecture, and the Uni- NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE 495 versity of Glasgow, to be held upon trust for the further- ance of the objects of the John Elder chair of naval archi- tecture in that University. ; At the annual general meeting of the Physical Society on January 12 the following officers and council were elected for the ensuing year :—President, Dr. C. Chree, T.R.S.; vic-presidents, those who have filled the office of president, together with Mr. W. Duddell, F.R.S., Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S., Mr. S. Skinner, and Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S.; secretaries, Mr. W. R. Cooper and Dr. S. W. J. Smith; foreign secretary, Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S. ; treasurer, Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S.; librarian, Dr. W. Watson, F.R.S.; other members of council, Mr. A. Campbell, Dr. W. H. Eccles, Dr. A. Griffiths, Dr. J. A. Harker, Prof. C. H.; Lees, F.R.S., Mr..T. Mather, F.R.S:, Dr. A. Russell, Prof. E. Rutherford, F.R.S., Mr. F. E. Smith, and Mr. R. S. Whipple. Tur Washington correspondent of the Times announces that the State Department is preparing invitations, which will be sent out as soon as possible, for an international world conference at The Hague next September to consider the conservation of natural resources. In making this announcement, President Roosevelt said that, even though no great and important immediate results were derived from the conference in the direction of conservation, he hoped that all nations would be represented. The first immediate result of the conference is expected to be a general inventory of the natural resources of the world. An effort will be made to ascertain how the world stands regarding such resources, with discussion on what has been done by different nations towards conservation, what is best to do, and what may be reasonably expected. MatertaL for a series of illustrated lectures on the results which have been obtained by recent discoveries in the prevention or treatment of disease has been prepared by the Research Defence Society. A number of lantern- slides illustrative of progress and discovery in respect of malaria, yellow fever, sleeping sickness, Malta fever, diphtheria, &c., have been made, and the slides are accom- panied by full descriptive catalogues, with notes and refer- ences, and a print of each slide, for the use of lecturers. The society is willing to lend these materials for lectures to accredited persons who are in sympathy with the excel- lent object of disseminating sound and trustworthy in- formation on the aims and achievements of research in medicine and physiology. In certain cases the society is prepared to send a lecturer, and at all times will -lend every assistance to ensure the success of a lecture to a good audience. Communications and inquiries on this subject should be addressed to Mr. Stephen Paget, hon. sec., 70 Harley Street, W. AN interesting gathering of the Leeds Naturalists’ Club was held on February 15 to celebrate the Darwin centenary. Mr. Harold Wager, F.R.S.,. delivered an address on Charles Darwin, in which he reviewed the life of the great naturalist, the unselfishness of both Darwin and Wallace in respect of their simultaneous discovery, the development of the hypotheses by Darwin himself and by Haeckel, Weismann, and Mendel. There was an interesting exhibit by the president of the club (Mr. W. Denison Roebuck) in the form of a lithographic facsimile of the illuminated address which a deputation, representing the naturalists of Yorkshire, headed by the late Prof. W. C. Williamson, F.R.S., presented. to ,Darwin in - November, 1880, — in celebration of the coming of age of the ‘‘ Origin of Species,’ and the autograph letter in which Darwin 490 NATORE, [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 acknowledged the compliment. Subsequently a resolution was adopted congratulating Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, 'O.M., on the completion last year of fifty years from the simultaneous publication by the Linnean Society of the papers by Darwin and himself, in which the influence of variation and natural selection in the development of species was described. In Nature of January 28 reference was made to the earthquake which was recorded by seismographs in India, Europe, and South Africa on January 23. Its origin was provisionally placed in western central Asia, but now proves to have been further south, in the Luristan district of Persia, about two days’ journey from Burujird, where fifty villages are said to have suffered and 5000 lives to have been lost. This earthquake illustrates the difficulty which sometimes arises in fixing an origin from distant records ; the European and Indian records gave a locus in the form of a band running about north-north-eastwards through the country east of the Caspian Sea, but did not permit of fixing it more closely. The Cape of Good Hope record should have supplied the data for doing this, as the observa- tory lies almost on the continuation of this locus, but that the earthquake, being no greater than that of Messina, the first tremors failed to impress themselves on the seismo- graph; this loss of the commencement of the disturbance made it impossible to determine the exact situation of the origin, and suggested that it was not, as has actually proved to be the case, at the nearest end of the strip of country indicated by the Indian and European records. Tue Nineteenth Century for February contains a paper by Dr. C. Davison on the Messina earthquake, illustrated by two sketch-maps, one showing the principal isoseismal lines of the earthquake, the other the seismic zones of southern Calabria, as delineated by Dr. M. Baratta. The places that were partly or entirely destroyed lie within three nearly circular curves, the most important including Messina, Reggio, and Pellaro, and having its centre beneath the Straits of Messina, the others in the neigh- bourhoods of Palmi and Monteleone respectively. The total area of these curves is estimated at about 500 square miles, and the disturbed area, including the portion covered by the sea, at about 150,000 square miles. The recent earthquake, like those of 1783 and 1905, was thus poly- centric. In 1905, as in 1908, the different centres (namely, those near Palmi, Monteleone, Nicastro, Cosenza, and Bisignano) were in action simultaneously, or nearly so. In 1783 they came into action successively, the first great shock taking place in the Palmi zone, the second in that of Scylla, the third in the Monteleone zone, the fourth, as recently, in the Messina zone, the fifth in the Monteleone zone, and the sixth in the Girifalco zone. In other earth- quakes single centres appear to have been in action, the Palmi zone in 1894, the Monteleone zone in 1659, the Nicastro zone in 1638, the Cosenza zone in 1854, and the Bisignano zone in 1836. Thus there appear to be several more or. less detached centres of maximum disturbance, though their simultaneous activity in 1905 and 1908 in- ‘dicates that there must be some deep-seated connection between them. SEVERAL reports of scientific interest were referred to in ‘the report of the council of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, presented at the annual general meeting on Friday, February 19. Since October, 1907, an investiga- tion for the Alloys Research Committee has been in pro- gress in the metallurgical department of the National Phy Laboratory on the ternary alloys of copper- ‘aluminium, and a report dealing with copper-aluminium- NO. 2052, VOL. 79] sical manganese is expected shortly. The results of the pro- longed sea-water corrosion tests, which have been carried on at Portsmouth Dockyard on the specimens of copper- aluminium alloys, referred to in the eighth report, will be published with the next report of the committee. The research in connection with gas-tightness and steam-tight- ness of metal castings is being continued at the University of Manchester. The three new subjects selected for in- vestigation in accordance with the vote of the members, referred to in the last annual report, have received atten- tion during the year. A comprehensive report upon the transfer of heat across metallic surfaces in contact with water and with gases will shortly be brought before the institution for reading and discussion. Reports are also being prepared upon the features of refrigerating machinery in which further investigation is needed, and the action of steam passing through nozzles and steam turbines. We have received a newspaper cutting containing the report of the Port Elizabeth Museum for 1908, from which we learn that great efforts are being made by the president to develop that institution, especially from the point of view of local education. These endeavours are, however, considerably hampered by lack of sufficient financial re- sources. Several important additions were made to the collections during the year. The number of visitors who passed the turnstiles was considerably less than in 1907. In the February number of Naturen Dr. L. Stejneger adduces further evidence in favour of the theory of the existence, at a comparatively recent date, of a land-bridge between Scotland and Scandinavia. This evidence is mainly based on the distribution of the species, or races, of charr (Salvelinus), which is illustrated by a map. Salvelinus alpinus is considered to be common to western Scandinavia and Scotland, while in eastern Scandinavia we have the typical S. salvelinus of the Alps. Iceland is the home of S. nivalis, while further north occur S. insularis and S. stagnalis. Lapland is the home of an intermediate forrfh known as S._ salvelino-stagnalis, while another annectant type, S. alpino-stagnalis, occurs in Greenland. Havinc completed the investigation of the degenerate eyes of the Australian marsupial mole (Notoryctes), Miss G. Sweet has directed her attention to those of the African golden moles (Chrysochloris), the results of this later study being published in vol. liii., part ii., of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science. In the Chrysochloridz the eye has sunk only into the dermis, where it is sur- rounded by the hair-roots; but-the eye-muscles have dis- appeared, as has the vitreous humour, while the lens and iris are very degenerate. The optic nerve is retained in some instances and lost in others. Despite its compara- tively superficial position, the eye is not visible externally ; the loss of the eye-muscles is an unusnal feature. That the eye, even were the cleft at the proper angle for admitting light-rays, is quite useless for vision is certain, and it is improbable that it is capable of detecting even degrees of lignt. GREAT interest attaches to a paper by Mr. G. R. Wieland in the February number of the American Journal of Science on the structure of the Cretaceous marine turtles of the Protostegide, since the facts therein adduced go a long way, at any rate in the author’s opinion, to solve the problem of the relationship of the leathery turtle (Dermo- chelys) to ordinary turtles (Chelone). These turtles, as represented by Protostega and Archelon, attained gigantic dimensions, and, in accordance with the needs of a pelagic FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 497 existence, lightened the carapace by a great reduction in the size of the costal plates, which are more aborted in the type-genus than in the modern Chelone, thus leaving very large intercostal vacuities. The reduction is carried to a still greater degree in Archelon, the absorption process being also extended to the neural bones, many of which, so far as can be seen, appear to be reduced to thin films. Upon the neurals in this genus are, however, superimposed a series of digitate epineural dermal bones, which correspond to the neural keel of Dermochelys, and discharge the function of the aborted neurals. It is added that in life Archelon must have possessed a leathery hide, with a system of keels similar to those of the leathery turtle. In conclusion, the author observes “‘ that of the two camps which have attacked the difficult and highly attractive problem of the origin of Dermochelys, those favouring the view of a close relationship to ordinary turtles and a com- paratively recent origin have rather the best of the argu- ment.’’ It seems, in fact, that Dermochelys and its allies, having become less pelagic in habits than ordinary turtles, found the reduction in the bony framework of their carapace a disadvantage, and they accordingly developed a secondary structure of overlying dermal bones to take the place of the proper carapace, which then underwent a still further reduction, and finally vanished. THE January number of the Psychological Review (Baltimore) contains a further contribution to the study of galvanometric deflections which they ascribe to psycho- logical processes in man. This branch of work, which was started by Dr. Petersen, has led the authors to the conclusion that active emotional processes in man bring about electromotive forces, and consequent galvano- metric deflections. These results have been the sub- ject of somewhat sensational articles in the lay Press, but it is wise at present to withhold judgment on their inter- pretation. Voluntary muscular movements, secretion. of the glands in the skin and other parts, the cardiac activity, and the action of other internal organs are all accompanied with electrical changes, and. although the authors claim to have eliminated currents due to these causes, we do not think that physiologists accustomed to the study of electro- physiology by the use of the galvanometer or electrometer will be convinced that such is the case. The very erratic galvanometric movements described are just what we would anticipate in the bewildering intermixture of physiological activities which the intact human body presents. To con- clude that they are produced in the anatomical correlate of various psychical phenomena is, to say the least of it, extremely premature. FOLLOWING upon a study of the genus Pentstemon in the Western States, Dr. L. Krautter has compiled a list, with diagnoses, of American species, that is published as vol. iii., No. 2, of the Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania. The arrangement of the sections as drawn up by Asa Gray has been followed, but whereas Gray’s last contribution recog- nised eighty species, the present collation includes nearly a hundred and fifty species. WuiLeE afforestation is providing a topic of general dis- cussion, it is opportune to refer to the Chopwell Woods, an area of 930 acres near Newcastle, that was made over by the Commissioners of Woods in 1904 to Armstrong College. The working plan, by Mr. J. F. Annand, is briefly noted in the Transactions of the Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society (vol. xxii., part i.). The soil varies from stiff clay through loams to sand and pebbly gravels ; the old plantations, chiefly of oak, larch, or Scots pine, are NO. 2052, VOL. 79] none of them productive. It is proposed now to grow various coniferous trees. Larch will be planted on the best-drained loamy soil, Scots pine on the poorest, and spruce will be tried on moist soil. Corsican pine, Sitka spruce, and Douglas fir will also receive a trial. A Book on trees and shrubs, native or introduced, to be published in sixteen parts, at the price of one shilling the part, is announced by Messrs. J. M. Dent and Co. The main object of the book is to provide descriptions for identifications of the plants, while short details regarding cultivation and origin have been given. Beginning with the Ranunculacez, the genera Clematis, Magnolia, and Calycanthus are treated in the first part. The authors, Messrs. C. S. Cooper and W. P. Westell, have perforce: limited the species of Clematis to three, but ten of the Magnolias are described. The general plan is well con- ceived, and the text bears evidence of careful compilation, but a striking omission occurs in the absence of the names of the authorities for the specific binomials. The black- and-white artistic drawings by Mr. C. F. Newall are chiefly intended for diagnostic purposes, and sixteen coloured illustrations will serve to delineate general habit. CoLoneL Pease, Inspector-General of the Indian Civil Veterinary Department, in the October (1908) number of the Agricultural Journal of India, records a discovery of much importance to poultry fanciers in the East. No more fatal disease than that hitherto known as ‘‘ fowl cholera ’” is found in India. Quite accidentally, Conductor Dare at Mian Mir, while studying the surra disease in camels, ascertained by the use of the microscope that the death of some ducks from ‘‘ cholera’’ was really due to a specific organism of the Spirochetes type. It is spread by the agency of the Argas persicus, or common fowl-tick, which it is difficult to destroy. The best method of dealing with it is to burn the old roosts and nests; but scraping the walls of the fowl-houses, painting them with hot coal tar, and brushing the feathers of the birds with paraffin have been found efficacious. Now that the disease has been traced to this parasite, a suitable form of treatment will doubtless soon be discovered. Tue Weather Bureau of the Philippine Islands has issued an advance chart showing the approximate tracks of four typhoons that crossed the archipelago from September 23 to October 13, 1908. The first and fourth of these were remarkable for the terrific violence of the winds; the latter, also, for the great floods which swept the Cagayan Valley during the passage of the cyclonic centre. These typhoons will be discussed, in due course, in the bulletins for the respective months; the last number received is for February, 1908, and contains a catalogue of Philippine earthquakes for February, 1890-1907. The Manila Observatory, like those of Hong Kong and Zikawei, has published a typhoon-warning code; it is intended prin- cipally to lighten the burden generously borne by several telegraphic companies by the free transmission of reports between the chief meteorological’ services in the Far East. To the Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Associa- tion, vol. vii., part ii., Messrs. F. White and E. C.. Chubb contribute a paper on a cave containing fossilised bones, worked pieces of bone, stone-implements, and quartzite pebbles. The cave is situated in a small hill of zine and lead ores in north-western Rhodesia, and an account of its contents was given in the Geological Magazine for October, 1907. With the exception of a humerus and tibia of a rhinoceros, all the mammalian bones specifically identified are referred to existing forms. The rhinoceros 498 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 25, 1909 ‘bones are, however, considered. to indicate: an animal of slighter build than either of the living species, and are ‘therefore regarded as belonging to an extinct form, for which the name Diceros whitei is suggested. Tue Austrian Meteorological Office has issued, as part ii. of the ‘‘ Climatology of Austria,’’? a discussion of the observations at Trieste for the sixty years 1841-1900, by Mr. E. Mazelle, director of the maritime observatory at that place. In addition to its importance as a contribu- tion to climatology, the discussion of this long series is intended to serve as a basis for the ‘‘ reduction ’’ of mean values in neighbouring localities for shorter periods to one of similar length. The tables contain, inter alia, mean and extreme values for yearly, five-yearly, and _ ten-yearly periods. The mean annual temperature of Trieste for the sixty years was 57°-4; July, 75°-6; January, 40°-1. The absolute maximum for thirty-two years (1869-1900) was 99°:5 (July, 1873); the minimum, 14°-o (February, 1870); but in January, 1907, a reading of 9°-o was recorded. The annual rainfall is approximately 43 inches; the wettest month is October, and the driest February; rain falls on an average on 109 days in the year. THE past week was exceptionally fine and dry over the whole of Great Britain, and the weather was practically rainless in all parts of England. The aggregate measure- ment of rain for February is likely to prove very much below the average over the entire area of the British Isles. At Greenwich the rainfall to February 24 was 0-32 inch. In February, 1891, the total measurement of rain at Greenwich was 0-04 inch, so that the present month is far from establishing a record in this respect. The duration of bright sunshine was everywhere large, and in England the weather was exceptionally brilliant. For the five days from February 18-22 inclusive, the sun shone for forty- two hours at Greenwich, where the average duration for the month is fifty-seven hours. Sharp frosts have occurred at night over England. At Greenwich the exposed thermo- meter on the grass fell below 20° on each night during the last week, and on three nights it fell to 11°. Frost also occurred each night in the shade, and on the morn- ing of Tuesday, February 23, the thermometer in the screen fell to 19°, which is lower than-any reading so late in February during the last sixty years. The day temperatures have been fairly high for the time of year, due to the bright weather, and on the four consecutive days from February 19-22 the thermometer in. the sun’s rays exceeded go°, and. on Monday, February 22, it rose to 97°. The fine and dry spell of weather over England was due to the prevalence of anticyclonic conditions, a region of high barometer readings being situated over the United Kingdom. NaTuRAL science and the healing art formed the subject of Prof. Tschirch’s rectorial address at the anniversary festival in the University of Bern in November last (‘ Naturforschung und Heilkunde,’’ by Prof. A. Tschirch. Pp. 30.. Leipzig: C. H. Tauchnitz, 1909. Price 1 mark). This ancient seat of learning can boast many great names in the past, and the new rector was able to point to Haller, among others, who recognised the importance of natural science in the progress of medicine. Growth in the know- ledge of science has been accompanied by an increase in the means the physician and surgeon possess in grappling with disease. Chemistry is no longer a mere handmaid of medicine, though biochemistry may be regarded as one of the most important factors in the future progress of medicine. The subject is throughout treated in a philo- sophical manner, and the address will well bear careful perusal. NO. 2052, VOL. 79] “ACCORDING to a note in the January number of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, the Forest Service at Washington is watching with interest the substitution of cement for wood as a building material. While the demand for timber has remained almost stationary, the production of cement has increased in the last five years from 25 to 50 million barrels. Le Radium for January contains a table of radio-active constants compiled by eleven well-known workers in the field of radio-activity. The constants tabulated for each substance are :—the atomic weight, the time constant, the half-decay time, the mean life, the nature of the radiation, the mean path in air of the emitted a rays, the thickness of aluminium which will stop those rays, and the thick- ness necessary to reduce the 8 and y rays to half intensity. The table will be very useful, not only as a record of what is already known, but as an indication of the lacune which remain to be filled. THE report of the International Committee on Atomic Weights for 1909 contains a discussion of researches deal- ing with the atomic weights of hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur, lead, cadmium, tellurium, rhodium, palladium, europium, erbium, ytterbium, columbium, and radium. The changes proposed are :—chlorine, from 35-45 to 35-46; sulphur, 32:06 to 32-07; lead, from 206-9 to 207-1; tellurium, 127-6 to 127-5; palladium, from 106-5 to 106-7; columbium, from 94 to 93-5; radium, from 225 to 226-4. A general revision of the whole table of atomic weights has been made on the basis of the following fundamental data:—when O=16, H=1-008, C=12-000, N=14-007, Cl=35-460, Br=79-916, Ag=107-880, K=39-095, S=32:070. The changes intro- duced by this re-calculation are small and comparatively unimportant. Since the time of Prout, the calculation of the atomic weights of the elements by means of a formula has been a favourite speculation. Some of the earlier attempts were considered satisfactory by their proposers if the calculated and experimental values agreed within a unit or two, and were, moreover, usually based on an empirical formula. Two recent attempts in this direction (A. L. Bernouilli, ““An Atomic-weight Formula on the Basis of the Law of Mass Action and Avogadro’s Law,” Zeitschrift fiir phystkalische Chemie, January 26, and A. C. G. Egerton, ‘*‘ The Divergence of the Atomic Weights of the Lighter Elements from Whole Numbers,’’ read before the Chemical Society on February 4) fall in a different cate- gory. The formule are proposed on a definite physical basis, and the values for the atomic weights deduced are very close to the best experimental numbers. Tue elastic breakdown of materials submitted to com- pound stresses forms the subject of articles in Engineering of February 5 and 12, contributed by Mr. L. B. Turner. The author discusses the various theories and investigations which have been advanced for ductile materials, the three principal being Rankine’s, based on breakdown taking place when a certain maximum tension occurs; Euler’s, based on a certain maximum stretch being obtained; and Guest’s, based on occurrence of a certain maximum shear- ing stress. Of these, the first two will not bear the test of experimental investigation; the latter was first enunciated by Guest in the Philosophical Magazine, 1900, and was supported by a large number of his experimental results. Mr. Turner has repeated some of Guest’s experi- ments, using weldless steel tubes, which were all annealed under similar conditions in an electric furnace. Nineteen results for combined pull and torque are given, of which two may be disregarded as being abnormal. The remain- FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 499 ing seventeen results show a mean difference of 485 Ib. per square inch in the maximum shearing stress at break- down, giving a discrepancy of 3 per cent. only. By calculation from the results of these tests, it is shown that the maximum tension hypothesis is wrong by 50 per cent., and the stretch hypothesis by 35 per cent., taking Poisson’s ratio as 0-3. Mr. Turner’s experiments may therefore be regarded as giving strong support to Guest’s theory. The author proposes to investigate stress of three dimensions, and also to find how far the results obtained for static stress may be applied to the case of stress the magnitude of which is subject to constant variation. Tue twentieth annual issue—that for 1909—of the “Public Schools Year-book and Preparatory Schools Year- book *’ is now available. Among new features character- ising the present volume may be mentioned articles on the universities, giving full details of universities other than Oxford and Cambridge ; additional information on qualify- ing for the Scots Bar and the profession of Writer to the Signet; an article dealing with chemistry as a_pro- fession; and a list of lecturers who attend public and preparatory schools. To parents and others selecting either a school or a profession for their boys this enter- prising annual should prove invaluable; it is published by Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., and its price is 3s. 6d. net. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. ASTRONOMICAL OCCURRENCES IN MARCH :— March 1. rth. 32m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (Nep une 2° 37’S.). 12h. 37m, Vartable star A’gol at minimum. 2th. 509m. Jupiver in conjunction with the Moon 4 5 2 (Jupiter 3° 42’ S.) 7. 9h. 26m. Variable star Algol at minimum. 16. 3h. 3m. Mars in conjinction with the Moon (Mars 1 26) Nz): »» I4h 19m. Uranus in conjunction with the Moon (Uranus 2° 4’ N.). 20. 13h.om. Venus in conjunction with the Moon (Venus 3° 52’ N.). 21. 23h. 46m. Saturn in conjunction with the Moon (Saturn 2° 41’ N.). 26. 8h. 54m. Mais and Uranu; in conjunction (Mars o 18'S.). 27. Ith. $m. Algol at minimum. 28. 17h. 30m. Neptune in conjunction with the Moon (N.p une 2° 51’ S.). e 30.. 8h. gom. Red spot central on dise of Jupiter. A Brittiant METEOR AND 1TS TRatn.—A brilliant meteor was seen over a large part of the south of England about 7-30 on Monday evening, February 22. A luminous cloud or streak* was visible for a long time after the meteor itself had disappeared. The Rev. F. J. Jervis-Smith, F.R.S., writing from Battramsley House, near Lyming- ton (long. 1° 32’ W., lat. 50° 48’ N.), says :—‘‘ At 7.30 p.m. on February 22 my attention was directed by my gardener to a luminous streak or band left by a meteor, which he had seen about twenty minutes before while cycling near Brockenhurst. The streak was not straight, but slightly curved, first towards the north, then to the south, then again to the north, then, turning through about 110° to its mean path, towards the south, it was lost to sight. The streak passed through e Urse Majoris and y Cassio- pei. The streak was clearly visible up to 8 p.m. The width of the luminous band covered, roughly, one-eighth of the distance between 6 and € Ursze Majoris. The gardener described the luminous head of the meteor as being like the head and shoulders of a whale in shape. While I watched the streak a small meteor crossed the heavens, starting near Polaris, the path being south to north.’’ Miss Annie L. Waud, Farnham, NO. 2052, VOL. 79] observing at observed the luminous appearance at 7.50 p.m. ‘“‘ It was then in Eridanus, and was a glowing streak of light, with two short branches or tails; the streak rapidly moved towards the north-west, the tails growing longer, the upper one gradually spreading through Orion, first through Rigel and then through the belt, finally stretching far beyond and above that constellation. The mass - grew fainter as it sank at 8.30 p.m. towards the west, but ,the upper tail, which was now forked, was distinct until 9.30 p.m.’ Dr. T. K. Rose saw this luminous train between Orion and the horizon, at Northwood, ‘‘ from about 7.45. to between g and 10 o'clock, when it was lost in mist near the horizon. It was faint, and could not have been seen but for the brilliance of the night.’’ The apparent shape of the luminous mass changed greatly during this interval, but no nucleus was seen by Dr. Rose at any time. With an opera-glass stars could be seen through the cloud. QuanTiITaTIVE MEASURES OF THE WATER-VAPOUR IN THE Martian AtMospHerE.—From measures of the relative intensities of the a, water-vapour, band in the spectra of Mars and the moon recently obtained by Mr. Slipher at the Lowell Observatory, Prof. Very has derived quantitative results showing the probable ratio between the amount of water-vapour in the Martian atmosphere and the amount of water-vapour in the Flagstaff atmosphere at the time the spectrograms were taken. The measurements were made with a spectral-band comparator ’’ devised by Prof. Very, the narrower com- ponent of the a band, A 7160-7200, being measured in every case; the relative intensity of the C band was also measured, on each set of spectra, as a check. The readings given by the comparator were found to be very consistent, but were merely conventional. Reducing these measures so that they represent absolute intensities, Prof. Very finds that the a band in the spectrum of Mars is about 4-5 times as strong as in the lunar spectrum, and a further reduction brings out the fact that at the time of exposure the Martian atmosphere must have held in suspension about 1-75 times as much water-vapour as existed in the earth’s atmosphere above Flagstaff. Finally, Prof. Very arrives at the conclusion that whilst the atmosphere above Flagstaff contained sufficient pre- cipitable water to give an average layer of about 8 mm. in depth, the average layer of precipitable water on Mars was about 14 mm.; the mean value for the earth would probably be three or four times as great (Lowell Observa- tory Bulletin, No. 36). ApsorpTioN OF Licnt IN Space.—In a paper appearing in No. 1, vol. xxix., of the Astrophysical Journal (p. 46, January), Prof. Kapteyn discusses one or two phenomena which point to the absorption of star-light during its passage through interstellar space. That the stars appear gradually to thin out as we recede farther and farther from the solar system is a_ priort evidence that some such absorption exists, otherwise we must assign to the sun a unique position in the universe, that is, the place of maximum density. In a previous discussion Prof. Kapteyn found a_pro- visional value for the absorption amounting to 0-016 of a magnitude for the distance of thirty-three light-years, as an average for the whole of the sky. Recently obtained results of spectral classification, from Harvard, permitted him to make another attack on the problem by investigating the probable average distances of Miss Maury’s two classes of stars of which a Boétis and a Cassiopeie are typical. The spectra of the former of these two classes exhibit less general absorption than do those of the latter, and from an analysis of the proper motions given in Newcomb’s “Fundamental Catalogue ’’ Prof. Kapteyn finds that, as a rule, the proper motions in the a Bodtis division greatly exceed those in the a Cassiopeiz division. This is evidence that they are, as a class, nearer to us, and would, there- fore, exhibit less general absorption, if it were due to an absorbing medium, than would the a Cassiopeize ‘stars. Thus the present investigation strengthens the probability of the existence of such an absorbing medium. “cc Tue Oreit or 6 Aoutta.—From radial-velocity observa- first , tions made at the Allegheny Observatory during 1907, Mr. 500 NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 Baker has derived new elements for the orbit of 6 Aquilz, which he gives and discusses in No. 7, vol. i., of the Publications of the Allegheny Observatory. These elements show the eccentricity of the orbit to be 0-685+0-011, and ‘the period of the binary to be 17-117+0-0042 days. From observations made in 1901-2, M. Deslandres found a period of 16-7 days, and Mr. Baker ascribes the difference to an actual change of the period; the eccentricity is also probably variable. THE PLANTING OF FRUIT TREES. M R. PICKERING is playing no new part when, in the recently issued report of the Woburn Fruit Farm, he appears as the demolisher of cherished convictions concerning so fundamental and practical a matter as tree planting. It is an article of faith among fruit-growers that fruit trees must be planted in a certain special way if success is to be obtained. The soil is properly prepared, a large hole is made, wide, but not deep, the roots are carefully spread out in all direc- tions and arranged near the surface, with a slight upward bearing at the ends. The soil is filled in with many precautions. Small quantities of the finer soil are first worked in among the roots, hollow places caused by archings in the stouter roots are filled up, and then the rest of the soil is put in, trodden carefully down, and the whole left to the | ‘compacting influence of the rain. The tree is supported by stakes until it is sufficiently firmly established. All this, according to the report before us, is precisely wrong; it is all exactly the opposite of what it should be. The proper way to plant a tree is to make a small hole, ito double the roots up anyhow and stick the tree in, throw ‘in the soil, and ram it down as hard as if one were fixing | a gate-post. The experiments seem convincing enough. Not ammed. Rammed. Fic. 1.—Gascoyne They have been made at Woburn, Harpenden, Bedford, | various places in Cambridgeshire, and in Devonshire ; | 59 per cent. of the sets showed in favour of ramming, | 25 of t It Ninth report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm, by the Duke of Bedford, K.G., F.R.S., and Spencer U. Pickering, F.R.S. ), and only 14 per cent. were against ramming. NO, 2052, VOL. 79] Not rammed, 7 per cent. showed no difference (i.e. all the elaborate | detail of the ordinary way of planting was simply a waste | | makes no difference by what criterion the trees are judged ; planting in this new way gives better results than plant- ing in the orthodox fashion. When a new fact is established by scientific experiment that no longer fits in with the old practical formula which has hitherto sufficed to cover all cases, there is invariably a cry raised about the antagonism of theory (or science) Ram ned. Fic. 2.—Marie Louise. and practice. This has duly happened in the present case. But no practical man has been able to give any reason for the faith that is in him beyond the fact that it is sanctioned by established custom; these appear to be the first serious experiments on the subject, and they do not seem to be vitiated by any constant error. Examination of the trees shows that ramming has led to a copious development of fibrous roots; the photographs here reproduced give an idea, though not an adequate one, of this effect. Direct experiments showed that the fibrous and small roots produced in the nursery before lifting play no great part as roots during the subsequent life of the tree; the important point to induce fresh root formation, and ramming does this more rapidly than the orthodox method of plant- ing. No harm was done, and some- times even good resulted, when the old roots were deliberately damaged before planting. It is to be hoped that these ex- periments may be continued on fruit of various types. Both the Harpenden and Ridgemont soils are heavier than the typical fruit soils of Kent; it would be interesting to sce how ramming works on the brick. earths, Thanet and Lower Greensand formations, where so much of our fruit is grown. The. reports issued from the Woburn Fruit Farm are always interesting, because they deal with fundamental problems of universal importance, and not merely with local matters. No fruit-grower could afford to make experiments himself on anything like the scale on which they are carried out at Woburn; and fruit-growers everywhere are under an obligation to the Duke of Bedford and Mr. Pickering for investigating their problems for them and publishing the results in so accessible a form. is soils E. J. Russet. FEBRUARY 25, 1909 | POSITION. OF THE ‘METRIC SYSTEM. I? may now be said that the metric system of weights and measures is preferred by every Government in the world outside the British Empire, and that in this advance there has been no retreat. Its opponents say that though foreign Governments may prefer the reform, it is fairly practised only in a few countries. The truth about this alleged discrepancy between law and popular usage is to be found in two parliamentary papers (Cd. 258 of 1900 and Cd. 435 of 1g01), also partly in the records (Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1907) of the last International Metric Conference, where England had two representatives. Let us consider, first, the nations which have made least progress. The United States of America have not gone far—far enough, nevertheless, to decide their future, for there is no record of a reverse either in public opinion or practice, except, perhaps, in Turkey, where the Govern- ment applied violent coercion to an ignorant populace. Many public Acts of the United States show that their method of progress is to accustom, first their officers and then the public, to the new system before applying it to commerce. Accordingly, it has been introduced with great ease and success into the medical services of the army, navy and public health. There was no trouble, even in the difficulties of war with Spain, when civilian physicians, accustomed only to the old system, were enrolled for service. In some American cities medical prescriptions are by choice almost all metric. Electrical quantities, and to some extent electrical machinery, are metrically described, and metric standards, furnished by the International Bureau at Paris, are alone legal as the ultimate tests of American units. The United States have maintained the metric system in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. Russia established it with complete success for all purposes in Finland sixteen years ago, and for the medical services of the Imperial Army and Navy last year. In 1907 it was reported at the International Conference to be spreading ‘‘rapidly and without opposition ’’ throughout the Empire under the special direction of Privy Councillor’ M. Egoroff. The Chinese Empire may be quoted, like other Govern- ments, as co.nmitted to the metric system. After con- sideration, it has during the past year decided to alter the chief linear unit (chih) to 32 centimetres, as a step towards metric reform, and this was done in face of a petition from 100 British merchants in favour of a British unit. Japan, also, has recently given effective approval to the metric system by legalising it, teaching it in the primary schools, and using it for the medical services of the army and navy, also for scientific work. At the Paris conference of 1907 ‘‘ legislation for its definite adoption ”’ was announced to be in preparation. Meanwhile, tens of thousands of metric standards were being issued by the Government. British units are also used for engineering and for imported machinery. On and after April 1 of next year taxes and customs dues in Denmark will be based on the metric system. The system will become general and obligatory on April 1, 1912. It is thus seen that these five Powers, the slowest to move, have approved, but do not yet largely practise, the metric system. The rest of the world, outside the British Empire, both approves and practises, excepting Turkey, Greece, some of the smaller South American republics, and various savage regions. Notwithstanding what has been said above, some anti- metricists declare that even in France the system is largely discarded. The answer to this is that old names are some- times applied to metric units, e.g. the half-kilo. is some- times called the livre, just as we call twenty-one shillings a guinea, and, secondly, textile goods of English sizes and marks go largely into foreign countries, and are even made there, just as motor-cars and electric machinery of metric size are found in England. There is no sign of metric failure in this, because in a metric country every- thing is sold metrically. Even within the British Empire the self-governing colonies are eager for the reform. Australasia and New Zealand have twice urged it upon England, and New Zealand has recently legislated for the purpose. South NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATUORE 501 Africa has suggested it, and the Canadian Government. has. employed a lecturer to popularise it. In presence of the above-stated facts, there is obvious danger that England may soon be isolated even from her English-speaking kinsfolk in the matter of weights and measures, notwithstanding the vain suggestion of an Anglo-Saxon conference to improve the British system and retain it in concert with America. There is India, of course, on which we could force any system, wise or foolish, for chaos rules there, and the situation is tolerated partly because full-weight silver coins serve as standard. weights, and liquids are generally weighed. The kilogram was legalised for official use and railways on the advice of General Sir R. Strachey in 1871, and the death of Lord. Mayo alone prevented its introduction. India deserves better treatment, for it is to her that we owe, through the Arabs, not only the ten numeral figures, but probably also the device whereby both the form and position of each fix its meaning. : The cost and trouble of change are the chief real objec- tions, so it is of the highest importance to remember that metricists do not propose to force the reform into factories, industries, or private life, but only into buying and sell- ing. Cloth, yarn, ironwork, and everything could be made of any size or weight, but in the market such size or weight, if stated, would have to be in metric figures. There would be no alteration of count, number, pattern, or mark under which cloth, yarn, screws, &c., are often sold. In private life the glass of beer, the teaspoonful of medicine, &c.. would remain. Shopkeepers and merchants, probably also railways, would be compelled to use new weights and yard sticks, and their example would quickly educate the whole country. No more than this limited compulsion was pro- _ posed to Parliament in 1907, but objectors presented estimates of cost based on universal compulsion, and the result was an adverse vote of 150 against 118. The House of Commons had not then before it the evidence after- wards given at the Paris International Conference, that commerce can be metric without impeding industry. There is, however, a considerable class of people who: can never be converted except perhaps by fear of inter- national isolation. Therefore, pending another attempt at legislation, the converted should practise their faith rather than preach it to the deaf. Scientific societies and scientific departments of State could favour metric usage, as the British Medical Association is now doing, and as the: Government might do in the medical services of its army, navy, and public health, unless it distrusts the American experience above stated. In meteorology, geology, and cartography there is much room for advance, excepting the excellent maps with scales of 1/2500 and 1/5000. There is not space here for the long array of great names which support this reform, and it ought to be need- less to state that the system does not embrace angles, time, navigation, thermometry, money, or anything but measures of length, surface, volume, and weight. Never- theless, it may be mentioned that one of its principles, the counting by tens, which abolishes compound arithmetic, would save here, as in all foreign countries, a vast total’ of human energy, especially in application to money. It is estimated that in the Custom House alone decimalised money would save 20,0001. a year. BIRD-LIFE. HE feeding-habits of the dunlin form the subject of «a paper—based on close personal observation—con- tributed by Mr. J. M. Dewar to the January number of the Zoologist. In surface-fecding these attractive birds search for small organisms floating in the wash of the sea or carried seawards by the shore-streams, as well as for minute insects and spiders on the sand or mud, although the main objects of their quest are tiny univalve molluscs, with the shells of which their gizzards. are always crammed. Dead shells, which form a large proportion of those on most shores, are left alone. Dunlins also probe the sand or mud for bivalve molluscs and worms. Botlr in the act of tapping and probing the two halves of the 502 NATORE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 beak-appear to be slightly separated; it is also probable that the separation increases with the depth of the probing, although the upper and lower portions remain nearly parallel until they are thrust. in to their extreme limit, when the terminal part of the upper one becomes expanded at the moment of contact with the “ find.”’ The already overcrowded list of so-called British birds has been increased. by the capture, on Fair Isle in Sep- tember, 1908, of a specimen of Eversmann’s warbler (Phylloscopus borealis). his bird, which is really a dark- coloured willow-wren, has been recorded once in Heligo- land, in 1854, but its normal summer haunts are Finmark, northern Russia, and Siberia, while in winter it wanders to Burma, Malaya, and China. Fuller details of the cap- ture will be found in the January number of Witherby’s British Birds. Captain Stanley Flower and his assistant, Mr. M. J. Nicoll, have drawn up a list of the species of wild birds which have been observed to visit the zoological gardens at Giza during the-period between October, 1898, and October, 1908. This list, which has been published by the Egyptian Government, comprises no less than 166 species, eleven of which are, however, not indigenous to the country, and were accordingly, in all probability, re- presented by imported individuals. The very large number, both as regards species and individuals, which visit the establishment adds considerably to the attractions of the Giza Gardens, and the list has been published in response to inquiries from visitors as to their names. It is a prevalent idea that song-birds are lacking in Egypt, but a visit to the gardens when the nightingale and the rufous and olive warblers are singing will at once dispel this illusion. In the report of the vertebrate section of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union for 1908 reference is made to the appearance of a flock of Pallas’s sandgrouse on the northern slope of the wolds during the autumn of that vear. The great grebes on Hornsea Mere have been re- duced to three, and it is believed that the diminution is mainly to be attributed to egg-collectors and other visitors. The peregrine falcons again built on Bempton Cliffs, where they reared a single young one. The birds of the Barotsi district of the Zambesi form the subject of a paper by Mr. A. Sandberg in vol. vii., part ii., of the Proceedings of the Rhodesia Scientific Association. As an illustration of the teeming bird-life of the great valley, the author writes that ‘‘ the traveller encounters enormous numbers of geese, ducks, and wading birds in wonderful variety of species, size, and coloration, and the sand-banks of the river, upon which they find a refuge, present an appearance at times which can best be described as kaleidoscopic. Above the almost deafening din of their shrill voices can be distinguished the incessant cry of the fish-eagle, for ever on the alert for prey.’ PREHISTORIC ARGENTINA.) “THE pottery described in the first of the papers men- tioned below was mainly obtained in the province of Catamarca. The specimens. are illustrated by handsome coloured plates drawn from photographs. The earliest type includes bowls and jars, ornamented in white, red, and black in imitation of the woven patterns of basket- work. Similar ornamentation is found in the baskets, cloth, and pottery of New Mexico and California. Another type, with red and black colouring, shows either geo- metrical designs or outlines of animals, especially frogs and snakes, usually conventional in character. Among the objects depicted are the anura, Ceratophys ornata and Leptodactylus ocellatus, and the ophidia Elaps frontalis and Lachesis alternatus, as well as the rhea and puma and a fern, a species of Hymenophyllum. There are also crude representations of human beings. The second article describes two human faces in terra- 1 (1) Alfarerias del Noroeste Argentinto (Anales del Museo de La Plata, series ii., vol. i.). Pp. 5 to qo. (2) Sobre el Hallazgo de Alfarerias Mexicanas en la Provincia de Buenos Aires (Revista del Museo de La Plata, vil. xv., series ii., vol. ii.). Pp. 284 to 293. (3) Arqueologia de San Blas (Anales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, vol. xvi. (series iii., vol. ix.). Pp.249 to 275. All by Senior F. Outes. NO. 2052, VOL. 79] cotta, and part of the head of an animal supposed to be the coyote (Canis cagottis), in the same material. These were found in a high bank in the Laguna de Lobos, in the province of Buenos Aires. They are so closely similar to the earthenware’ ‘‘ masks ’’ found in such numbers in the ancient ruins at San Juan de Teotihuacan, in Mexico, that the author believes that they were manufactured there, but he declines to advance any theory to explain their presence in the Argentine. The third paper deals with implements and fragments of pottery collected by Sefor Carlos Ameghino on the site of a prehistoric settlement in the extreme south of the province of Buenos Aires, and distant 5 kilometres from the sea-shore. They were found on the surface at the foot of unconsolidated sand-dunes, and include flakes, scrapers, chisels, knives, arrow-heads, and grinding stones, all primitive in character. These appear to haye been manu- factured from ellipsoidal beach-stones, mainly jasper, though phonolite, chert, porphyritic breccia, and other materials were also employed. The grinding stones are of hard grit (‘‘ asperén ”’). The pottery was moulded of a sandy clay, and imper- fectly baked. It was ornamented with grooves and pits made with the nail or a fragment of wood. The collection indicates, we are told, a culture similar to that which still characterises the middle and lower parts of the basin of the Rio Negro, certain localities in the government of the Pampa, and the southern plains of the province of Mendoza. It presents many points of re- semblance to that met with in the southern part of the government of the Rio Negro and in the governments of the Chubut and Santa Cruz, but differs completely from that of the rivers Salado, San Borombén and Lujan, and generally the eastern portion of the province of Buenos Aires. J. W. E. THE INCREASED EXPANSION OF STEAM ATTAINABLE IN STEAM TURBINES I FIND it difficult to add anything to the words of the many illustrious men who have addressed this society on previous anniversaries of the birth of James Watt, to the words of Sir Humphry Davy, Lord Aberdeen, and Lord Jeffrey, and in later years to those of Joule, Scott- Russell, Preece, and Kelvin. This evening I should prefer to recall to your memories the fundamental principles of steam discovered by James Watt, and to endeavour to trace their application in the engines constructed by him and by the firm of Bolton and Watt, then in the more highly developed forms of compound, triple, and quadruple reciprocating engines, and, lastly, in steam turbines on land and sea. The laws of steam which James Watt discovered are simply these, that the latent heat is nearly constant for different pressures within the ranges used in steam engines, and that, consequently, the greater the steam pressure and the greater tho range of expansion the greater will be the work obtained from a given amount of steam, and, secondly, as may be seen to us now as obvious, that steam from its expansive force will rush into a vacuum. Having regard to the state of knowledge at the time, his conclusions appear to have been the result of close and patient reasoning by a mind endowed with extraordinary powers of insight into physical questions, and with the faculty of drawing sound practical conclusions from numerous experiments devised to throw light on the sub- ject under investigation. His resource, courage, and devo- tion were extraordinary, and drew to his side a coterie of kindred spirits, with whom he discussed freely his theories and his hopes, and the results of his experiments. In commencing his investigations on the steam engine, he soon discovered that there was a tremendous loss in the Newcomen engine which he thought might be remedied— the loss caused by condensation of the steam on the cold metal walls of the cylinder. He first commenced by lining the walls with wood, a material of low thermal conductivity. Though this improved matters, he was not satisfied ; his intuition doubtless told him that there should 1 The James Watt lecture’ delivered at Greenoc by the Hon. C, A. Par- sons, F.R.S. FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 593 be some better solution of the problem, and doubtless he made many experiments before he realised the true solu- tion in a condenser separate from the cylinder of the engine. It is easy after discovery to say how obvious and how simple, but many of us here know how difficult is any step of advance when shrouded by unknown surroundings, and I can well appreciate the courage and the amount of investigation necessary before James Watt thought himself justified in trying the separate condenser. But to us now, and to the youngest student who knows the laws of steam as formulated by Carnot, Joule, and Kelvin, the separate condenser is the obvious means of constructing an economical condensing engine. Watt’s experiments led him to a clear view of the great importance of securing as much expansion as possible in his engines. The materials and appliances for boiler con- struction were at that time so undeveloped that steam pressures were practically limited to a few pounds above atmospheric pressure. The cylinders and pistons of his engines were not constructed with the facility and accuracy with which we are now accustomed, and chiefly for these reasons expansion ratios of from two- to three-fold were the usual practice. Watt had given to the world an engine which consumed from five to seven pounds of coal per horse-power hour, or one-quarter of the fuel previously used by any engine. With this consumption of fuel its field under the conditions prevailing at the time was prac- tically unlimited. What need was there, therefore, for commercial reasons, to endeavour still further to improve the engine at the risk of encountering fresh difficulties and greater commercial embarrassments? The course was rather for him and his partners to devote all their energy to extend the adoption of the engine as it stood, and this they did; and to the Watt engine consuming from five to seven pounds of coal per horse-power mankind owes the greatest permanent advances in material welfare recorded in history. The Watt engine, with secondary modifications, was the prime mover in most general use for eighty years until the middle of the last century, when the compound engine began to be introduced. Why, we may inquire, was it that the compound engine was so long in coming into use, for it had been patented by Hornblower in 1781, or seventy years before? and why does John Bourne in his large book, ‘* Practical Instructions for the Manufacture and Management of every Species of Engine,’’ published 1872, make no mention in the index of the compound or triple expansions, and when he speaks of Hornblower’s double-cylinder engine (really a compound engine) does he do so in disparaging terms, mentioning that there was no increased economy in steam over the single cylinder? This last statement provides an answer to our inquiry, for it is correct in view of the very low steam pressure in general use before that time, or until somewhat before the middle of the last century, when the introduction of the loco- motive led to a general rise in pressures on land, and the surface condenser some years later to increased steam pressure at sea. Also, we must remember that many experiments have shown that unless the mean difference of pressure on a piston exceeds about 7 Ib. per sq. inch, the friction, the bulk, the momentum of the moving parts, and the cost make such a cylinder not worth having. The case, however, with the turbine is entirely different, and it is chiefly owing to this difference and to its power of usefully expanding the steam down to the very lowest vapour pressure attainable in the best condenser that it has surpassed the best reciprocating engines in economy of steam. To return to our subject. The introduction of the compound, triple, and quadruple expansion engines was therefore concurrent with the improvements in boiler con- struction, the introduction of the surface condenser, and the general rise in steam pressure, and by the quadruple engine the expansion ratio has been extended up to about sixteen-fold, and the consumption of coal per horse-power reduced to from 11 Ib. to 13 Ib. per horse-power hour, or to from one-fourth to one-third the fuel consumed in the time of James Watt. Let us now direct our attention to the turbine engine, which derives its power, not from the pressure of the steam on a piston, but from the momentum of the steam at high velocity curving around and blowing forward the vanes or paddles attached to the shaft. NO. 2052, VOL. 79] It is unnecessary here to recapitulate the many attempts to construct a successful steam turbine from the days of Hero until a quarter of a century ago, as several excellent books are now published on the subject. It is true that the difficulties of construction and inferior workmanship available during this early period were a serious bar to progress, but the chief bar to progress lay in the fact that the turbine, to be economical in steam, must (at least in its primitive form) rotate at a very high. speed, and that before 1880 there was no commercial use for such a high-speed engine excepting through the intermediary of belts or friction gearing, or for such exceptional purposes as the direct driving of circular saws. The chief purpose for which turbines are now extensively used on land did not then exist, namely, for the driving of dynamos. ‘Then, again, belts for high speeds are a very unsatisfactory appliance, and accurately cut spiral gearing as recently introduced by Dr. de Laval had not been devised; and, again, the problem of applying a turbine to the propulsion of vessels being surrounded, as it was, with great con- sequential difficulties would naturally only be attacked after the successful application of the prime mover to some easier and simpler purpose on land, so that I think, on the whole, we may safely say that under the conditions prevailing the commercial introduction of the turbine before 1880 was a practical impossibility. It is a matter of history that the turbine principle had been used for obtaining power from waterfalls before the days of James Watt, but I am not clear that he had in mind any concrete form of steam turbine; yet in 1770 he suggested ‘‘a circular engine consisting of a right-handed and left-handed bottle-screw spiral involved in one another,” and he also appears to have had a leaning towards some form of directly rotary engine, for in 1769 he took a patent for a Barker’s reaction water-wheel, the water pressure being derived from the action of steam on water, as in Savery’s fire-engine or a modern pulsometer. He also designed a rotary abutment engine in 1782, but in none of these machines is there any indication’ of an attempt to gain greater expansion ratios for the steam. It is peculiarly interesting to recall on this occasion that one of the earliest steam turbines to be put to prac- tical work was in this town; it was about the middle of the last century, and was a turbine like that described by Branca in 1629. It consisted of a steam jet playing upon a paddle-wheel, coupled to a circular saw, which it drove for some years. The principle of the expansive working of steam was, however, only to a small extent utilised in this engine, for I believe that the steam jet was non- divergent, which implies a useful expansion ratio of only about 13-fold. One of the most conspicuous workers in the design of the compound turbine was Robert Wilson, of Greenock, Master of Arts of Edinburgh, who lodged a patent in 1848. This patent was of unusual length and wealth of detail, and describes radial-flow and parallel- flow compound turbines, designed for moderate ratios of expansion. The blades and guides were proposed to be fastened by casting them into the hub and case, a method occasionally used at the present time. The principles of Wilson’s design are generally correct, but the proportions of his turbines are extravagantly in- correct, the blades being too large and too few for success. I had a model made of Wilson’s turbine eighteen years ago, and under steam all that could be said was that it went round the right way. I do not think that Wilson can have made a model and tested it before he applied for his patent, the course followed by James Watt, and one which is to be strongly recommended to the attention of inventors generally in almost all circumstances, as saving time, money, and disappointment. There have been many workers on steam turbines of English nationality before and since the time of Wilson, but within the last twenty years other countries have taken up the subject with zest. Prior to 1880 the uses for a very high-speed motor were few, as we have seen; the speed of revolution of steam wheels, as Bourne described them in 1872, ‘ was incon- veniently high for most purposes,’? but after 1880 con- ditions were changed: the beautiful machine, the milk separator, of Dr. de Laval, of Stockholm, and the great invention of the dynamo electric machine had come, and 504 NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909. required a high-speed prime mover to drive them, and | velocity is insufficient to obtain a very good coefficient of these provided encouragement to the workers on steam turbines; thus between 1884 and 1888 we find the practical and successful realisation in altered and correct propor- tions of ideas and suggestions of previous workers, the compound steam turbine in 1884 applied to the direct driving of dynamos, and the single-stage impulse wheel in 1888, of very high velocity, played upon by the expand- ing steam jet, both types possessing great ratios of ex- pansion. All steam turbines now in practical use expand the steam usefully over nearly the whole range from the boiler pressure to the pressure in the condenser, and their designs are based on the principles involved in the construction of their prototypes of 1884 and 1888. There is, first, the compound turbine, the character- istic feature of which is the gradual expansion of the steam by small drops of pressure at each turbine of a long series of turbines of gradually increasing volumetric capacity, as in the Parsons, or a somewhat less gradual expansion with greater drops of pressure at each stage, as in the Rateau, Zoelly, and others. Then there is the expansion by the divergent jet in one stage, as in the de Laval, or an expansion in a relatively small number of stages by expanding jets playing upon rows of buckets with intermediate rows of reaction guides, as in the Curtis and Reidler-Stumpf. Then there are combinations of the first and second, where the first stage of the expansion is affected by, say, a Curtis element, and the rest by a Parsons, and many other combinations have also been proposed, too numerous to mention here. Let us consider these principal examples of the turbine principle more closely. In the compound turbine the veloci- ties of the steam are low; at each passage through the blades it expands a little, yet it obeys, as regards the velocity of efflux, approximately the laws of flow of fluids; but the aggregate of the small expansions soon becomes apparent, and has to be taken into account when reckoned over a considerable number of the series of elemental turbines. For instance, if the expansion ratio for a single turbine of the series be as 1 to 1-03 in volume, a 3 per cent. expansion, then after passing through twenty-three turbines its volume will be doubled, and the velocity of flow through the guide blades and moving blades (pre- suming they are of equal area of passage way) will be about 230 feet per second. The velocity of the blades is, generally speaking, about half the velocity of the steam at issue, and will therefore, in this case (which I have taken as common in marine practice), be about 115 feet per second. The difference in velocity of the steam and the blades is smoothed over largely by the curvature of the blade, which somewhat resembles a shallow hook around which the stream lines in the steam arrange themselves with very little shock or eddying in the steam, so that the coefficient of efficiency is high. In turbines for driving dynamos and other purposes where higher speeds of revolution are permissible, steam velocities up to 600 feet and blade velocities up to 300 feet per second at the exhaust ends are general. In turbines of the Rateau, Zoelly, and other types with multiple discs, each disc carries one row of blades only, and works in a cell, through the walls of which the shaft Passes in a steam-packed gland; nearly the whole drop in pressure takes place at the guide vanes, and very little at the moving vanes, which are of cup form; the velocities of the steam generally range from goo feet to 1100 feet per second, and the velocities of the blades from 350 fect to 450 feet per second. In turbines, however, of the de Laval single-wheel and of the Curtis and other types with a relatively small number of pressure stages, higher steam velocities are used, ranging from 4200 feet per second in the single-wheel down to 1500 feet in a seven- stage Curtis turbine. The jets used in the single-stage turbine are of very divergent form, but when the expansion is divided over seven stages very little divergence is necessary. In the single-stage turbine, blade velocities so high «as 1200 feet per second are adopted, the discs being of taper form and of the strongest nickel-steel; but even this high NO. 2052, VOL. 79] efficiency from the steam, and when the disc is made large, so as to reduce the immense angular velocity incidental to the high peripheral speed, the skin friction of the disc and the prime cost and weight increase rapidly. In the Curtis five-stage the blade velocities are about 460 feet per second, and the steam velocity about 2000 feet per second, and by the passage of the steam through two. rows of moving and one row of guide blades between them at each wheel the steam is brought nearly to rest before passing on to the next succeeding chamber, and by this sinuous treatment of the steam efficiencies are obtained. comparable to those of the compound turbine. From the commencement of turbine design in 1884 I have avoided the adoption of high steam velocities on account of their cutting action on metals when any water is present. The cutting has been found to be due, not to. the impact of gaseous steam, but to that of minute drops” of water entrained by the steam, and hurled by it against the surfaces. The drops, formed like fog, consequent on ~ the expansion of saturated steam, are sufficiently large to. cause the erosion. To test the effect in an extreme case, a hard file was placed opposite to a jet of steam issuing at 1oo-lb. pressure into a vacuum of 1 Ib. absolute pressure; in 145 hours it was found to be eroded to the extent of about 1/32 inch, as if it had been sand-blasted. The calculated velocity of the issuing steam in this case is about 3800 feet per second, and the striking fluid pressure of a drop of pure water at this velocity about ninety tons per square inch. Owing, however, to the receding velocity of the blades from the blast in all turbines, the erosive effect is much reduced. In multicellular turbines of few stages, though the erosion is slow, yet provision is neces- sary for renewal of blades at intervals. In turbines of many stages it is still slower, and in the compound turbine erosion is, practically speaking, absent, and renewal of blades unnecessary. This absence of the tendency to erosion in compound turbines permits the use of brass or copper blades, which are found to preserve their polish and are not liable to corrosion or rusting, and preserve their smoothness of surface and the initial economy of the engine unimpaired for many years. It is now just fifteen years ago, and exactly ten years from the commencement of work on the compound steam turbine, that the results obtained on land were thought to justify an attempt to apply the turbine principle to the propulsion of vessels. These results lay in the fact that a condensing turbine engine of 200 horse-power, with an ex- pansion ratio of 90 volumes, had been found to have equal’ economy to a good compound piston engine, and that, besides, there were within sight reasons to hope for still better results. A commencement was made, and by the end of 1897, after three years of hard work and experi- ment, the Turbinia was completed. Her trials were usually made on the measured mile in the North Sea, but occasionally, when the sea was too rough, runs at speeds up to 31 knots were made on the Tyne, where the legal’ limit of speed of steamships was 7 knots, and by the magnanimity of the Tyne Improvement Commissioners the completion of the Turbinia was greatly facilitated, though it is fair to say great care was exercised and no harm done to the public. In her the problem of adapting the turbine to the screw propeller was worked out. The result was a compromise between the two. The turbine had to be made short and broad, so as to revolve as slowly as possible, and the screw had to be made with finer pitch and wider blades. The result in propulsive efficiency was found to be good, and the problem satisfactorily solved’ for fast vessels of 16 knots and upwards, and it was also seen that the faster the vessel the more favourable would’ be the economy of the turbine as compared with the re- ciprocating engine. The destrayers Viper and Cobra followed. The next step was the application of the turbine to vessels of com- merce. Dumbarton was the scene of many conferences. Mr. Archibald Denny was deeply interested in the problem, and’ so was Captain John Williamson, with the result that the first passenger vessel, the King Edward, was built in 1901 at Dumbarton to the joint ownership of Captain John Williamson, Messrs. Denny, and the Parsons Marine FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NALURE 595 Steam Turbine Co., Ltd. The success of this vessel soon led to the adoption of turbines in cross-Channel steamers, and also led, aided by the success of the destroyers Viper and Velox, to the specification of turbines in H.M.S. third- class cruiser Amethyst, and from that time turbines began to be rapidly adopted for fast vessels, including the largest and fastest mercantile and war vessels afloat. The success of the King Edward in 1901 was a red- detter day for the marine turbine. Let us inquire in what this success consisted. In the first place, a factor of rimary importance is the coal bill, and it was soon proved »y Messrs. Denny that this was less to the extent of from 5 per cent. to 25 per cent. than with vessels propelled by reiprocating engines of equal displacement and carrying apavity. Also the cost of oil, which with reciprocating engines amounts to about 5 per cent. of the coal bill, was nearly eliminated; the vibration was also less. Then the upkeep of machinery was found to be favourable, and as the crew became accustomed to her the coal consumption still further diminished, and I am informed by Captain Williamson that this further decrease has been well main- tained up to the present time. The exceptional trust- worthiness of the machinery also became more and more assured. There are now about 120 vessels actually on service fitted with turbines, and seventy more under construction, representing a total horse-power of marine turbine engines of about 2,250,000, of which 1,250,000 horse-power is ‘completed. There were two other great steps in the adoption of the ‘turbine, which occurred almost simultaneously in 1905, namely, the decision of the Admiralty to adopt turbines for all new construction in fighting ships, and the adoption ‘of turbine machinery ‘for the great Cunarders. The steps from the second-class cruiser Amethyst, of 15,000 horse- ‘power, to the Dreadnought, of 22,000 horse-power, and to the Indomitable, of 41,000 horse-power, were, it is true, gradual, but the number of vessels involved was great. In ‘the mercantile marine the step from the Queen, the first -cross-Channel vessel, of 8000 horse-power, directly to the Lusitania and Mauretania, of 70,000 horse-power, required great courage on the part of the late Lord Inverclyde and ‘his co-directors and engineers. Such steps as these are not taken without thorough investigation based on ascer- tained results. When it is considered that the low-pressure turbine in the Queen was 6 feet in diameter, 20 feet in Yength, and 25 tons in weight, as compared with the Cunarders’ low-pressure turbines of about 17 feet 6 inches diameter, 50 feet in length, and 300 tons weight, it is realised what a great departure was involved; forces and ‘conditions were altered; differential expansions and deflec- tions of the structure had all to be re-considered in detail, for though they had been successfully dealt with and con- trolled in the smaller engine, the magnitude of the larger structure rendered re-calculations and thorough investiga- tion necessary; thus no room was left for the possibility of any adverse conditions arising, due to the very great increase in the size of structure, and everything that care, thought, and experience could accomplish was done, and the results have satisfactorily agreed with the hopes and estimates of all concerned. In the King Edward there was a great increase in the ratio of expansion beyond that hitherto realised in any reciprocating engine. Her boiler pressure is 150 Ib., and the pressure at the inlet to the turbines at normal full speed 130 Ib.; the pressure in the condenser is 1} lb. abso- lute, a ratio of 87 by pressure or about 66 by volume, as compared with fhe volumetric ratio of about 10 in triple- expansion reciprocating engines for a similar class of vessel. In some later turbine vessels higher steam pressures have been adopted, resulting in a small gain in efficiency, partly counterbalanced by the greater weight of the turbine cases, and if the vessel has Scotch boilers, then also by the ‘greater weight of fhe boilers to carry the greater pressure ; and on the whole the net gain, if any, is but small. A substantial increase in efficiency has, however, been realised by improvements in condensers and pumps, in order to take full advantage of the property of the turbine of expanding steam usefully to the lowest pressure attainable in the condenser. Before the turbine came into use a very NO. 2052, VOL. 79] high vacuum was not found desirable, for the simple reason that the reciprocating engine is unable to utilise it. For instance, a triple-expansion engine does not gain in economy of coal if the absolute pressure in the condenser be diminished below 2} lb. ‘he turbine, however, derives a net gain in efficiency of 13 per cent. from a diminution of pressure in the condenser from 2} lb. absolute to 1 Ib. absolute. The improvements that have been introduced of late years in condensing plants consist primarily in improved design of the condenser and in improvements in air pumps to increase their volumetric capacity. In the condenser the tubes are so spaced and grouped that the steam, attenuated into relatively an enormous volume, shall pass freely without much resistance and drop of pressure throughout the whole surface, and provision is made by the form of the condenser shell, with or without a single baffle plate, so that the suction of the air pump shall remove the air uniformly from all parts. The vacuum now usually obtained in well-equipped turbine vessels is very close to that corresponding to the temperature of the circulating water leaving the condenser. The difference is sometimes so small as two degrees, so that there is no room for much further improvement in this direction. To increase the volumetric capacity of the air pumps, dry air pumps run at a high speed may be used, separate pumps being employed to remove the water of condensa- tion. An alternative, and perhaps a preferable method, is the vacuum augmenter, a simple apparatus without moving machinery, which consists of a very small steam jet placed in a narrowed portion of the ordinary air-pump suction, which sucks the air out of the condenser and compresses it through a small intermediate cooler into the suction of the air pump, the water of condensation draining by~ gravity through a water seal into the same air-pump suction. Further possible improvements would therefore seem to tend in the direction of an increase in the efficiency of the turbine itself. In large turbine vessels the ratio of the shaft horse-power to the total available energy in the steam from boiler to condenser reaches 70 per cent., and the question is whether there is a probability of somewhat reducing this loss of 30 per cent. During the last eleven years a small reduction in steam per horse-power -delivered to the shaft has been brought about by minor improvements in design, better finish and proportion of the blading, and by the increased size of the engine constructed. In 1897 the Turbinia consumed 16 lb. per shaft horse- power for all purposes; in 1go01 the King Edward consumed 16 lb. per shaft horse-power for all purposes; in 1907 the Lusitania consumed 12 Ib. per shaft horse-power for all purposes; and the Mauretania consumed 11-5 lb. per shaft horse-power for all purposes. In the case of slow vessels, where the exigencies of the screw propeller limit the revolutions to a low rate, I have for many years advocated a combination or partnership between the reciprocating engine and the turbine which seemed to promise a high degree of efficiency and to suit all the requirements of the case. In~ this combination each engine deals with that part of the expansion for which it is best suited, the reciprocating engine taking the high-pressure portion from the boiler pressure down to about atmospheric pressure, and the turbine carrying on the expansion from about atmospheric pressure right down to the condenser pressure. The reciprocating engine is thus relieved of the low- pressure part of the expansion, which at best it carries out in a very inefficient manner, losing as it does all the last part, and the turbine is relieved from the high-pressure part, which when constructed for slow revolutions it per- forms unsatisfactorily; but the turbine designed for low pressures and slow revolutions is an engine which converts a very high percentage of the power in the steam into shaft horse-power. Messrs. Denny have fitted the Otaki, of 8000 tons, 5000 horse-power, and 13 knots sea speed, with this system, the boiler pressure being 200 lb., no superheaters being’ fitted,- and the very low consumption of 12-3 lb. of steam for all purposes was registered on trial. Messrs. Harland and Wolff are also fitting a vessel for the Dominion Line on this system. 506 James Watt, we are told, suggested the screw propeller in 1770; half a century later it commenced to come into use, and now it is almost universally adopted in all new construction. ¢ It is a very interesting and curious fact to note that in the first instance, and for many years, the screw was driven by spur gearing from a very slow-speed engine, presumably because the builders of engines were afraid to design the engines to run so fast as the screw required to be driven. Now for forty years or more gearing has been entirely abandoned, and the high-speed reciprocating engine has worked well. The turbine has now come on the scene, and its best speed of revolutions.is faster than that of the screw, except- ing in fast vessels; for the larger portion of the tonnage of the world it is at present unsuited, except to take a secondary but excellent part in the combination system. We may naturally speculate as to. the future, and inquire if there is a possibility. of the turbine being constructed to run more slowly and without loss of economy, or whether the propeller can be modified to allow of higher speed of revolution. ; Or, again, may a solution be found in reverting to some description of gearing, not to the primitive wooden spur gearing of half a century ago, but to steel gearing cut by modern machinery with extreme accuracy: and running in an oil bath, helical tooth gearing or chain gearing, or, again, some form of electrical or hydraulic gearing ? These are questions which are receiving attention in some quarters at the present time, and if a satisfactory solution can be found, then the field of the turbine at sea will be further extended. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CaMBRIDGE.—It is proposed to confer the degree of Sc.D. on Dr. Sven Hedin on Thursday, March 4. Dr. Sven Hedin will lecture before the Senate on that date in the Senate House. Before the ceremony he will be entertained at lunch by the master and fellows of Gonville and Caius College. honorary The Isaac - Newton studentship, tenable from opal 15, 1909,, to April 15, 1812, has been awarded to Mr. W. J. Harrison, of Clare College. The Lowndean professor, Sir Robert Ball, F.R.S., will lecture on ‘‘ Ancient and Modern Views of the tion of the Milky Way ”’ before the Cambridge Society on Monday, March I, at 4.30 p.m. In July of last year letters signed by the Chancellor were sent to more than . 300 - universities, . colleges, academies, and other corporate bodies, inviting them to appoint delegates to attend the Darwin celebration from Constitu- Antiquarian June .22-24 next.’ In answer to .these invitations more than. 200 delegates have been appointed.- The expense likely to be incurred in carrying out ‘the programme amounts to considerably more than: 50ol., that sum fore than but it is hoped it may be possible to provide the excess above that by private subscriptions, and the. Senate will there- not be asked to authorise the expenditure of more 5001. from the University chest. Mr. E. C. Witts has given 10,0001. to the Bristol Uni- versity Fund, thus raising the fund to practically 200,000. WE learn from a recent number of Science that Mrs. E. G. Hood has given the “University of Pennsylvania 20,0001. to establish “graduate fellowships in the law depart- ment. Mr. Adolphus Busch, who last August promised to contribute 10,0001. towards ‘the 60,0001. necessary for the erection of the new building for the Germanic Museum at Harvard University, has increased his gift to 20,0001. The General Education Board has offered to give Bryn Mawr College 50,000]. on condition that friends of the college subscribe 56,0001. by June, 1910. This is in addition to the 20,0001. recently given by the alumna. Of this sum, 26,0001. is to be used to pay the debt of the college, and the balance is to be reserved as an endowment fund. NO: 2052, VOL. 70] NA TORE [ FEBRUARY 25, 19C9 A Royat Commission has been appointed to consider the position . and . organisation. of. university education in London. The terms of the reference to the commission are :—to inquire into the working of the present organisa- tion of the University of .London,. and into other facilities for advanced education (general, professional, and technical) existing in London. for~ persons. of either sex above secondary-school. age; to consider what provision should exist in the metropolis .for university teaching and re- search ; to make recommendations as to the relations which should in consequence subsist between the University . of London, its incorporated colleges, the Imperial College of Science and Technology, the other schools of the University, and the various public institutions and bodies concerned ; and further to recommend as to any changes of constitution and organisation which appear desirable. In considering these matters, regard should also be had to the facilities for education and research which the metropolis should afford for specialist and advanced students in connection with the provision existing in other parts of the United Kingdom and of; His Majesty’s dominions beyond the seas. The chairman of . the. commission is Mr. R. B. Haldane,;K.C.,; M.P., and the other members are Viscount Milner, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., Sir Robert Romer, G.C.B., Sir R. -L. -Morant, -K.C.B., -Mr. Laurence Currie, Dr. W. S. M’Cormick,: Mr. E. B. Sargant, and Mrs. Creighton. The joint secretaries are Mr. J. Kemp and Dr. H. F. Heath. ’ SOCIETIES AND ESD ONIES, * Lonpon. Royal Society, January 28.—Mr. A P. Kempe, treasurer, in the chair.—The action of the venom of Sepedon haemachates of South Africa: Sir T. R. Fraser and Dr. J. A. Gunn. —The colours and pigments of flowers, with special reference to genetics: Miss M. Wheldale. The com- munication gives an account of investigations made upon plant pigments, with a view to the elucidation of pheno- mena observed in the genetics of flower-colour. . A primary classification is made into plastid pigments and pigments soluble in the cell-sap. Of the former, several kinds are shown to exist, in addition to carotin and xanthin.. When the type of a species contains more than one plastid pigment, the power to produce each pigment. is expressible as a Mendelian factor. Loss of the factors in turn gives rise to varieties of the type. Soluble pigments are classified as red-purple-blue (anthocyanin) and yellow (xanthein) and of both; various kinds can be differentiated by means of chemical reagents. There is evidence, moreover, of a relationship - between the behaviour -of the pigments in genetics and their chemical reactions. -Colourless tannin or glucoside-like substances are found to be widely dis- tributed in plants, and such substances appear to take part in the formation of some kinds of anthocyanin. ‘This con- clusion is based upon examination of pigments of varieties of Antirrhinum majus, of which the inheritance of flower- colour has been worked out by the author (previous com~ munication to Roy. Soc.); the results of the present paper show .that inthis genus both a glucoside-like substance and a reddening factor are essential to the production of anthocyanin of the type. Loss of glucoside gives rise to an ‘albino variety still capable of carrying the reddening factor; loss of the reddening factor gives a. variety bear- ing ivory-white flowers, distinguishable from the albino, and containing the glucoside. Experiments on the same genus further indicate that the xantheic pigment of a yellow variety is a derivative of the glucoside of the ivory-white, to which it is also hypostatic. Examples are given of genera resembling. Antirrhinum in their- series of varieties derived from the -anthocyanic type, and also of genera forming another series, from which the xantheic variety is absent. In this connection, stress is laid upon the con- ception of two forms of albinism, one due to loss of antho- cyanin only, the other to loss of both anthocyanin and xanthein.—The variations in the pressure and composition of the blood in. cholera, and their bearing on the success of hypertonic saline transfusion in its treatment: Prof. L. Rogers. This communication contains some points of FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 597 interest in physiology, pathology, and therapeutics. The blood of Bengalis has been found by Captain Mackay to contain a higher proportion of salts and a less proportion of red blood corpuscles than the blood of Europeans. The author has found that the blood pressure in the natives is lower than in Europeans, averaging about 100 milli- metres of mercury. The pathological observations are that in cholera the enormous secretion of fluid into the bowel drains away the fluid part of the blood. There is a very definite relationship between the amount of fluid thus lost from the blood and the severity and mortality of the disease. Injections of normal saline solution (0-65 per cent. of NaCl) into the veins have an almost miraculous effect in relieving the symptoms and restoring the patient to apparent health. This improvement is, however, only transient, and in the course of a few hours the symptoms recur and the patients die. It occurred to the author that if, instead of using a normal saline solution, he were to inject a hypertonic solution of 1-35 per cent. NaCl into the veins, there would be less likelihood of the diarrhcea recurring, and the blood being again drained of its fluid parts. The result of this treatment was extra- ordinary. It has simply revolutionised the results, so that, whereas formerly the recovery of a collapsed case was a Surprise, its non-recovery is now a disappointment. In severe cases the proportion of chlorides in the blood falls below the normal, notwithstanding the great concentration of the blood from loss of water. He therefore sometimes uses a saline solution of 1-65 per cent., but usually 1-35 per cent. is sufficient. In bad cases the coagulability of the blood is very greatly reduced, so that the «author now generally adds 3 gr. of calcium chloride to a pint of saline solution. of cholera is associated with a comparatively low blood- pressure; measures to raise it, such as the hypodermic administration of adrenalin and digitalis, are indicated for the prevention and treatment of this very serious com- | plication.—The British fresh-water phytoplankton, with special reference to the desmid-plankton and the distribu- tion of British desmids: W. West and G. S. West. The paper is in part a comprehensive summary of the known facts concerning the phytoplankton of British fresh waters. It has been possible to institute a close comparison between the British phytoplankton and that of continental Europe, proving that the British lakes are relatively richer in green algze and poorer in blue-green forms than the generality of continental lakes. The large percentage of green species in the British lakes is due, in most instances, to the domin- ance of desmids. Certain diatoms also stand out con- spicuously, especially some of the large species of the Surirellacee. As the plankton investigations were not commenced until the authors had acquired a very extensive knowledge of the general British alga-flora, it has been a comparatively easy matter to see wherein the phytoplankton differs from the algz of the littoral region and of the bogs, &c. An extended study of the distribution of British desmids has shown that the rich desmid areas correspond (1) to a considerable extent with the areas of greatest rain- fall, and (2) to a much closer extent with the outcrops of the older Palaeozoic and pre-Cambrian strata. The really rich desmid-floras only occur in those western and north- western districts in which the geological formations are older than the Carboniferous, and these are likewise the districts in which the British lakes are situated. There- fore, the dominance of desmids in the phytoplankton is not so remarkable as might at first be supposed. Numerous desmids are continually washed from the drainage-areas into the limnetic region of the lakes, and some of them have become leading constituents of the phytoplankton, either with or without change of morphological characters. Many of them form a well-marked assemblage, the in- dividual constituents of which are limited in their British distribution to the western lake-areas, although most of them occur in the lakes and bogs of Scandinavia on pre- cisely similar outcrops of old rocks. It is suggested that perhaps the most important factor in this relationship is a chemical one, but, so far as observations have been made, ordinary chemical analysis of the drainage-waters has offered no clue to the solution of the problem.—The selective permeability of the coverings of the seeds of Hordeum vulgare: Prof. Adrian J. Brown. It has been NO. 2052, VOL. 79] The development of urzemia in the reaction stage | | cannot fall through the ascending air. > pointed out previously (‘‘ Annals of Botany,’’ 1907, vol. Xxi., p. 79) that the coverings of the seeds of barley act as an exceptionally perfect semi-permeable membrane, resisting the passage of acids, of alkalies, and of salts, but not of iodine. Experiments are now described from which it appears that not only strong electrolytes, but also dex- trose, cane sugar, and other non-electrolytes are unable to penetrate the membrane. On the other hand, mercuric chloride and cyanide, but neither the nitrate nor sulphate, cadmium iodide, but not the chloride nor the sulphate, ammonia, acetic acid and several of its homologues, alcohol and ethylic acetate, are all capable of passing into the corns. Glycollic and lactic: acids also pass in, but far less rapidly than acetic. The water-absorbing capacity of the seeds when immersed in various solutions has been con- trasted with that of the seeds when placed in water alone. Far less water is absorbed from solutions of substances which do not penetrate the seed covering than from those containing substances which do. In the case of substances which diffuse readily into the corn, such as ammonia and ethylic acetate, the rate at which water passes in is much more rapid than from solutions of substances which do not penetrate the covering, or from water alone.—The origin of osmotic effects, ii., differential septa: Prof. H. E. Armstrong. It is shown that the effects described by Prof. Brown may be explained in terms of the theory of the conditions of substances in solution recently communi- cated to the society by the author. Substances such as ammonia, acetic acid, &c., which exist in solution in a slightly hydrolated state, would pass the hydrolated surfaces of the intramolecular passages in the colloid membrane, whilst hydrolated solutes would be held back. The in- creased rapidity with which water enters in some cases is traceable to the effect which the diffusing substance has in raising the osmotic stress in the water within the corn. February 4.—Sir Archibald Geikie, K.C.B., president, in the chair.—The electricity of rain and its origin in thunderstorms: Dr. G. C. Simpson. During 1907-8, an investigation was undertaken at the Meteorological Office of the Government of India, Simla, into the electrical phenomena which accompany rain and thunderstorms, with results which have led to the following theory. It is exceedingly probable that in all thunderstorms ascending currents greater than 8 metres a second occur. Such currents are the source of large amounts of water, which Hence, at the top of the current, where the vertical velocity is reduced on account of the lateral motion of the air, there will be an accumulation of water. This water will be in the form of drops, which are continually going through the process of growing from small drops into drops large enough to be broken. Every time a drop breaks, a separation of elec- tricity takes place, the water receives a positive charge, and the air a corresponding amount of negative ions. The air carries away the negative ions, but leaves the positively charged water behind. A given mass of water may be broken up many times before it falls, and, in consequence, may obtain a high positive charge. When this water finally reaches the ground, it is recognised as positively charged rain. The ions which travel along with the air are rapidly | absorbed by the cloud particles, and in time the cloud itself may become highly charged with negative electricity. Now within a highly electrified cloud there must be rapid com- bination of the water drops, and from it considerable rain will fall; this rain will be negatively charged. A rough quantitative analysis shows that the order of magnitude of the electrical separation which accompanies the breaking of a drop is sufficient to account for the electrical effects observed in the most violent thunderstorms. All the results of the observations of the electricity of rain described in the paper are capable of explanation by the theory, which also agrees well with the actual meteorological phenomena observed during thunderstorms.—The effect of pressure upon arc spectra, No. 3, silver, A 4ooo-A 4600: Dr. W. G. Duffield. This paper is the third that the author has presented to the Royal Society upon the effect of pressure upon arc spectra. The behaviour of the iron, copper, and silver arc spectra (region AA 4000-4600) has now been described, the former under pressures up to 1oo and the last two up to 200 atmospheres. In course of time the 508 ' author hopes to publish the results of investigations upon the spectrum of gold, iron, and nickel under pressures up to 200 atmospheres, and of other regions of the copper and silver spectrum up to the same pressure. Photographs of all these have been obtained.—The tension of metallic films deposited by electrolysis: G. G. Stoney. It is well known that metallic films deposited electrolytically are in many cases liable to peel off if deposited to any considerable thickness, especially in the case of nickel, which, if de- posited above a certain thickness, curls up into beautiful close rolls in cases where the film does not adhere closely to the body on which it is deposited. The late Earl of Rosse, F.R.S., also found it impossible to produce flat mirrors electrolytically on account of the ‘‘ contraction ’’ of the coat of copper, and the author has observed similar pheno- mena in protecting the silver film of searchlight reflectors when the thickness of the copper coat was above o-o1 mm. Dr. Gore, F.R.S., and others have observed similar pheno- mena. These phenomena would be explained if the metal were deposited from the solution under tension, and it was found that when a thin steel rule was coated on one side with nickel it became bent, even to the extent of 3 mm. or 4 mm. in roo mm. This bending could not be caused by any difference of expansion between nickel and steel, as the whole was immersed in the depositing solution, and this was at a constant temperature. From the thickness of the rule, the amount of nickel deposited, and the bend- ing, the tension under which the film was deposited was calculated, and found to amount to 2840 kilos. per square cm., or 18-1 tons per square inch. It was also found that this ‘tension was independent of the temperature and strength of the solution, as well as the current density, so long as the deposit was a good dense one. When the rules were heated to a red heat to anneal them, the deflection was reduced to from one-third to one-half the original. —A further note on the conversion of diamond into coke in high vacuum by kathode rays: A. A. Campbell Swinton. In a previous paper on this subject by the Hon. Charles A. Parsons and the writer (Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. Ixxx., pp. 184-5), experiments were described designed to ascertain whether any gas was emitted by diamond during its conversion into coke. The present note has reference to further and more detailed investigation, made on the suggestion of Mr. Parsons by the writer, with special regard to the possibility of diamonds containing neon, krypton, or other rare gas which would be emitted on the diamond being converted into coke. As _ before, spectrum tubes connected with the kathode-ray furnace were sealed off sO as to contain samples of the residual gas before and after the conversion. The spectra of these were compared both photographically and also by direct visual examination in the spectroscope, with the result that, though differences were observed in regard to the relative brightness of various individual lines in the two spectra, careful observation showed that in no single instance was there any line in one spectrum that could not be obtained in the other by suitably adjusting the strength of the electric discharge through the spectrum tube. From this it would appear that ihe: conversion of diamond into coke, if it sets free any gas at all, at any rate does not liberate any other than one or more of the comparatively common gases that are generally found as residuals in kathode-ray tubes exhausted from air in the ordinary way. Though this is a negative result, it has been thought well to put it on record. ; Geological Society. February 10.—Pro% W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Note on some geological features observable at the Carpalla china-clay pit in the parish of St. Stephen’s (Cornwall): J. H. Collins. An east-and-west fault traverses this pit near its southern wall, with a downthrow to the south of more than 50 feet. North of the fault there is china-clay rock or “‘ carclazyte,”’ at one point underlying granite not sufficiently altered to yield china-clay, and sometimes containing embedded lenticles or irregular masses of partly kaolinised granite. South of the fault there is nearly horizontal tourmaline- schist. Underlying the schist there occurs also china- clay rock to a distance of many fathoms from the fault. This occurrence of china-clay under a thick schistose overburden is unique in Cornwall. Jt is maintained that this example NO. 2052, VOL. 79] NATURE [FEBRUARY 25, 1909 is in favour of the pneumatolytic origin of carclazyte, the gases producing the change being possibly in part carbonic acid, but probably to a more important degree chlorine, fluorine, and boron.—Some recent observations on the Brighton cliff-formation: E. A, Martin. Features pre- sented by the face of the cliffs between successive falls at Black Rock, Brighton, during the past eighteen years are recorded. As the cliffs have worn back, the base- platform of Chalk grows in height, and the layer of sand above the Chalk grows thinner and thinner, until it dis- uppears. The raised beach has grown in thickness from 13 feet to 12 feet. In 1890 there were 6 feet of sand, with a foot and a half of beach above it. In 1892 the sand had decreased to between 3 feet and 4 feet, but the beach re- mained as in 1890. Many falls of cliff took place between 1892 and 1895, and at the latter date the beach had in- creased to between 4 feet and 5 feet. The eastern limit of the beds had become more clearly defined. In 1897 10 feet of chalk formed the lower portion of the cliff, with 8 feet of raised beach above it in places, but there was a mere trace of sand left. In 1899 the raised beach had reached a thickness of 10 feet. Great masses of moved and reconstructed chalk were observed on the eastern boundary embedded in the beach. In 1903 the beach was but a little more than 8 feet thick in the exposed parts, but the platform of Chalk was 14 feet thick. In 1906 the raised beach had increased from 15 feet to 20 feet; farther west, however, the thickness was not so great. In 1908 there were 17 feet of Chalk, 12 feet of beach. If the material is to be prevented from disappearing into deep water, some Such contrivance as chain-cable groynes seems to be demanded, fixed somewhere between low and high tide-marks. Physical Societv, Febmary 12.—Dr. C. Chree, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Annual general meeting.—Presi- dential address: Dr. Chree. An account was given of some work the president had recently been engaged in, in connection with the reduction of the magnetic observations of the National Antarctic Expedition of 1902-4. This referred to an inter-comparison of simultaneous records of magnetic disturbances obtained in the Antarctic and at the observatories of Kew, Falmouth, Colaba (Bombay), Mauritius, and Christchurch (New Zealand). He exhibited a number of lantern-slides showing the sudden commence- ment of some magnetic storms, and the forms of some special types of disturbance observed in the Antarctic. Some results were given as to the directions and intensi- ties of the disturbing forces to which the disturbances recorded at the different stations might be attributed. Royal Meteor logical Society, February 17.—Mr. H. Mellish, president, in the chair.—Report on the pheno- logical observations for 1908: E. Mawley. ‘The most noteworthy features of the weather of the phenological year ending November, 1908, were the severe frosts early in January, the exceptionally heavy fall of snow and re- markably low temperatures in the latter part of April, and the inarked periods of unusually wet and dry weather during the summer. In February and March wild plants came into blossom in advance of their usual time, but throughout the rest of the flowering season were more or less behind their average dates. Such early spring migrants as the swallow, cuckoo, and: nightingale made their appearance very late. The only deficient farm crop was that of barley. The yield of wheat, oats, and beans was rather above the average, that of peas and hay very good, while the crops of turnips, mangolds, and potatoes, taken together, were the most abundant for many years.— The cold spell at the end of December, 1908: W. Marriott. The most remarkable feature was the intense cold which prevailed over the central and south-eastern portion of England on December 28-31. At several places the lowest temperature recorded was about zero. For the month of December the cold was very exceptional, as the only instances in the neighbourhood of London or at Greenwich in which the maximum temperature was below 25°-5 for the day were the following :—1796, 25, 19°-5; 1798, 28, 19°-5; 1816, 22, 24°%0; 1830, 24, 22°-0; 1855, 21, 23°-23 1874, 31, 24°-5; 1890, 22, 23°-7; and 1908, 29, 25°-4, and 30, 23°-3. FEBRUARY 25, 1909] NATURE 599 CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, January 25.—Sir J. J. Thomson, vice-president, in the chair.—A_ string electrometer : T. H. Laby. An electrometer consisting of a stretched silvered quartz-fibre between two charged plates was shown. Tested on steady potentials it had the following proper- ties :—(1) The sensitiveness for a constant fibre tension in- creased rapidly with increasing potential difference between the plates. (2) With the plates at 67 mm. apart and charged to +10 volts and —10 volts the sensitiveness was more than 70 eye-piece divisions per volt. (3) The deflection of the fibre is proportional to its potential. (4) When not very sensitive it may be used as an oscillograph. Further work is being done on this application of it—The secondary R6ntgen radiation from air and ethyl bromide: J. A. Crowther. The amounts of secondary Roéntgen radiation from air and ethyl bromide have been compared, using ethyl bromide as the absorbing gas. The results in the main confirm those previously obtained with air as the absorbing medium. Corrected results for the relative amounts of secondary radiation from these gases are given.—Interference fringes with feeble light: G. I. Taylor. Interference photographs were taken with light of such small intensity that single exposures extended over several months. The fact that they were well defined was taken to indicate an upper limit to the magnitude of the indivisible unit of energy occurring in the non-homogeneous wave-front theory of light.—The solution of linear dif- ferential equations by means of definite integrals: H. Bateman. February 8.—Mr. S. the chair.—Further studies on Dr. Fenton and W. A. R. Wilks. The authors are continuing the investigation of the properties and transformations of dihydroxymaleic and dihydroxy- tartaric acids, and in the present communication a_ brief account is given of some recent results.—Homologues of furfural: Dr. Fenton and F. Robinson. New syntheses have been effected by the application of the Friedel and Crafts reaction to the halogen derivatives of methylfurfural with various hydrocarbons, and the results promise a wide field for further investigation.—Action of urethane on esters of organic acids and mustard oils: S. Ruhemann and J. G. Priestley. The sodium-derivative of ethyl carbamate reacts with ethyl phenylpropiolate, not by addition, but with formation of ethyl phenylpropiolylcarbamate. Similarly, the esters of fatty saturated acids furnish acid derivatives of ethyl carbamate. Phenyl mustard oil reacts with ethyl sodiocarbamate, and yields the anhydride of diphenylthio- biuretcarboxylic acid. Besides this compound, a small quantity of carboxyethylphenylthiocarbamide is formed. Analogous is the action of ethyl sodiocarbamate on other mustard oils.—The absorption spectra of solid tetramethyl picene and of its solutions: Annie Homer and J. E. Purvis. The absorption bands of a very thin film of the hydrocarbon were compared with those when the substance was in solution in benzene and in alcohol. The results showed that the three bands were identical in each case, but that there was a shift of both the bands and the general absorption towards the red end of the spectrum, according to the density of the medium. The bands of the solid were shifted towards the red end of the spectrum more than those of the benzene solution, and those of the benzene solution more than in the alcoholic solution. The vapour of the substance was also examined, and it showed a beautiful blue fluorescence, but it decomposed so rapidly that no observations could be made as to its fluorescent spectrum.—The absorption spectra of mesitylene and tri- chloromesitylene : J. E. Purvis. The absorption spectra of N/1000 alcoholic solutions were compared, and the absorp- tion curves were drawn from the numbers obtained. It was found that there was a shift of the bands of the tri- chloromesitylene towards the red end of the spectrum when compared with those of mesitylene. The strong band of mesitylene, A 275-A 245, was shifted in the trichloro- mesitylene to A 287—-A 263, and, besides that, the persistence of the absorption curve of the latter was considerably increased.—The absorption spectra of concentrated and diluted solutions of chlorophyll: J. E. Purvis. The ratio of the dilutions was 1/719, and the diluted solution was NO. 2052, VOL. 79] Ruhemann, vice-president, in dihydroxymaleic acid: placed in a tube 719 times larger than that containing the strong solution. The light, therefore, passed through the same amount of chlorophyll. The two solutions showed exactly the same phenomena at the commencement of the observations. The bands at A 538 and A 565 were equally well marked, and the general absorption was the same. After standing some hours, the diluted solutions showed changes in the appearance of the bands; A 538 became more diffuse, and A 538 and A 565 appeared to diffuse into each other, whilst a band at A 508 appeared, and the general absorption was almost the same as at the com- mencement. The change continued very slowly for several days. The final result showed that in the strong solution the band A 538 was as well marked as at the beginning, and that the band A so8, which appeared after some hours, remained the same, and the band A 565 appeared to be the same as at the beginning. On the other hand, the general absorption had lessened very considerably as com- pared with the dilute solution. These changes are ascribed to the action of enzymes, probably oxydases.—A coloured thio-oxalate: H. O. Jones and H. S. Tasker. Diphenyl- dithio-oxalate is readily prepared by the action of oxalyl chloride on thiophenol, and crystallises in beautiful bright yellow prisms melting at 119°-120°. The compound is the first dithio-oxalate known, and it is interesting in that it is coloured, while oxalates are colourless. It appears to distil unchanged, decomposes into thiophenol and potassium oxalate when boiled with caustic potash, and gives off carbon monoxide when treated with sodium or sulphuric acid.—Note on some double fluorides of sodium: W. A. R. Wilks. Cryolite, a double fluoride of sodium anc aluminium, has alteady been prepared synthetically. The author shows that by carrying out the precipitation in a different way another double fluoride is obtained, which is so insoluble that it may be used as a test for sodium. Paris. . Academy of Sciences, february 15.—M. Emile Picard in the chair.—The construction of orthogonal systems which comprise a family of Dupin cyclids: Gaston Darboux.— The tectonic of the Paleozoic strata at the north-west and north of Sablé (Sarthe): D. P. Ghlert.—M. Jungfleisch was elected a member in the section of chemistry in the place of the late A. Ditte——Observations of the comet 1908c (Morehouse), made at the Observatory of Athens with the Gautier 4o-cm. equatorial: D. Eginitis. Four sets of observations, made on November 28, December 1, 3, and 4, 1908, are given for this comet, together with the apparent positions of the comet and mean positions of the comparison stars.—Selective effect in the ionisation of a gas by an alternating field: Henry A. Perkins.—The melting point of platinum: C. Féry and C. Chéneveau. The Féry absorption pyrometer used in these experiments, the indications of which, based on Wien’s law, are only accurate for a black body, was calibrated against a Le Chatelier couple. The platinum was fused in two ways, by passing an electric current through a wire placed in a horizontal and a vertical position, and by heating in a suitable gas burner. The melting points obtained varied from 1690° C. to 1750° C. The variations in the melting point appear to be related to the nature of the gas in which the fusion is produced.—The reversal of the green radiation produced by the mercury arc in a vacuum: A. Perot.—The influence of the extreme regions of the spec- trum in phenomena of solarisation: A. Gargam de Moncetz.—The compressibility of gases between o and 3 atmospheres and at all temperatures: A. Leduc. — A re-calculation for twenty gases of the constants required for determining their molecular volumes at o° C. and 100° C.—The thermal phenomena accompanying the action of water on aluminium powder: E. Kohn-Abrest and J. Carvallo. Water acts on aluminium with evolution of heat (about 1700 calories per gram) at a temperature of about 83° C.—The magnetic properties of some easily liquefiable gases: P. Pascal. The values of the specific magnetic susceptibility are given for eight gases in the liquid state, and, on the assumption that the specific susceptibility is independent of its physical state, the values for this constant for the same gases at 0° and 760 mm. pressure are calculated.—The catalytic oxidation of hypo- phosphorous acid by copper: J. Bougault. Precipitated 510 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 25, 1909 copper exerts a catalytic action on hypophosphites, hydrogen being given off; one gram-molecule of copper was found to produce 30 gram-molecules of hydrogen in this way.— An exception to the general method of preparation of aldehydes by means of the glycidic acids: René Pointet. The general method indicated by Darzens does not give the expected diphenylacetic aldehyde, the glycidic ester splitting up into diphenylacetic acid and carbon monoxide instead of into carbon dioxide and the corresponding alde- hyde.—Some halogen derivatives of ‘y-oxycrotonic acid: MM. Lespieau and Viguier.—Theory of the colour re- actions of dioxyacetone in sulphuric acid solution: G. Deniges. Methylglyoxal, in sulphuric acid solution, gives the same colour reactions with alkaloids as dioxyacetone, and it is probable that the latter is converted into methyl- glyoxal in these reactions by the acid.—The oxidation of alcohols by the simultaneous action of tannate of iron and solution of hydrogen peroxide: E. de Stoecklin. Methyl, ethyl, normal propyl, and normal butyl alcohols are oxidised to aldehydes by hydrogen peroxide in presence of tannate of iron, as also are the alcohols glycol, glycerol, and sorbitol. Capryl, isopropyl, and isobutyl alcohols resist this oxidation.—Castration in Zea mays, var. tunicata, produced by Ustilago maydis: M. Chifflot. Variations in grafted vines: F. Baco.—The influence of grafting on some annual plants, and plants living by their rhizomes: Lucien Daniel. Details of experiments, spread- ing over thirteen years, on the grafting of the potato on the tomato, and of Helianthus provided with rhizomes (H. tuberosus, lactiflorus, and multiflorus) on an annual (H. annuus).—The phytogeographical divisions of Algeria : G, Lapil.—The anatomical distinction of the genera Litho- thamnion and Lithophyllum: Mme. Paul Lemoine.—A case of abnormal multiple cephalisation in Syllidians in stolonisation : Aug. Michel. diagnosis: M. Guyenot. taneous discharge of a condenser through an induction coil without an iron core to the quantitative study of the elec- trical stimulation of nerves. It has proved of practical service in the detection of cases of feigned paralysis.— An application of the instan- | Prehistoric rock engraving discovered at Tle-d’Yeu (Vendée): Marcel Baudouin.—Seismic movements of February 9, 1909: Alfred Angot.—The solution of ferru- ginous dust of cosmic origin in the sea: M. Thoulet. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 25. Roya Society, at 4.30.—The Statistical Form of the Curve of Oscillation for the Radiation emitted by a Black Body: Prof H A. Wilson, F.R.S. —The Flight of a Rifled Projectile in Air: Prof. J. B. Henderson.—On the Cross-breeding of Two Races of the Moth Acidalia virgularia: L. B. Prout and A. Bacot | Roya. Institution, at 3.—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Mexico: Dr. Hans Gadow, F R.S Roya Society oF ARTS at «.30.—The Bhuddist and Hindu Architecture of India: Prof. A. A. Macdonell INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Further discussion: The ye of Large Gas Engines for Generating Power: L. Andrews and R. orter. FRIDAY, FEBRUARY 26. Royat INstTiTruTION, at 9.—Osmotic Phenomena, and Physical Interpretation: Prof. H. L. Callendar, F.R.S. Puysicat Society (at Finsbury Technical College, Leonard Street, City Road, E.C.), at 5.—A Laboratory Machine for applying Bending and Twisting Moments simultaneously: Prof. Coker.—On the Self-demagnet- ising Factor of Bar Magnets: Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S., and E. WV. Moss.—Exhibition of Optical Properties of Combinations of Mica their Modern A special method of electro- | and Selenite Films (after Reusch and others) in Convergent Polarised Light : Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S.—Exhibition of Apparatus: C. R. Darling. InsTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Standardisation in Engineering | Practice: Dr, W. C. Unwin, F.R.S, SATURDAY, FEBRUARY 27. Sa INSTITUTION, at 3.—Properties of Matter: Sir J. J. Thomson, | F.R.S. : MONDAY, Marcu 1. JocieTy OF CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, at 8.—On some Requirements of a Colour Standard: J. W. Lovibond.—Sulphur as a Cause of Corrosion in Steel: G. N. Huntly. Roya Society oF Arts, tion ; Leon Gaster. at 8.—Modern Methods of Artificial Illumina- TUESDAY, Marcu 2. Roya InstiruTion, at 3.—The Evolution of the Brain as an Organ of the Mind: Prof. F. W. Mott, F.R.S. ZooLocicaL Society, at 8.30. The Development of the Sub-divisions of the Pleuro-peritoneal Cavity in Birds, illustrated by Lantern-slides : Miss Margaret Poole.—The Growth of the Shell of Patella vulgata, L.: E. S. Russell.—The Life history of the Agrionid Dragon-fly: F. Balfour- Rrowne.—Growth-stages in the British Species of the C ral Parasmilia: W. D. Lang. NO. 2052, VOL. 79| | | | | Genus InstiTUTION oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Some recent Grain-handling and Storing Appliances at the Millwall Docks : M. Mowat. Farapay Society, at 8.—On the Rate of Evolution of Gases from Homo- geneous Liquids: V. H. Veley, F.R.S., and Dr. J. C. Cain.—The Electro-analysis of Mercury Compounds with a Gold Kathode: Dr. F. Mollwo Perkin —The Relation between Composition and Conductivity in Solutions of szefa- and ortho-Phosphoric Acids: Dr. E. B. R. Prideaux. » WEDNESDAY, Marcu 3. Society oF Pupiic ANALYSTS, at 8.—The Composition of Cider: B. T. P. Barker and E. Russell.—The Composition and Analysis of Chocolate : N. P. Booth, C. H. Cribb, and P. A. Ellis Richards.—Note on the Determination of Petroleum in Turpentine : J. H. Coste. En romo.ocicat Society, at 8.—Birds as a Factor in the Production of Mimicry among Butterflies : Guy A. K. Marshall. THURSDAY, Marcu 4. Royat Society, at 4.30.—Probable Papers: On the Presence of Ham- agglutinins, Hzm-opsonins, and Hamolysins in the Blood obtained from Infectious and Non-infectious Diseases in Man (Second Report): L. S. Dudgeon.—The Action on Glucoside by Bacteria of the Acid-fast Group. with a New Method of isolating Human Tubercle Bacilli directly from Tuberculous Material contaminated with other Micro-organisms (Preliminary Note): F. W. Twort.—The Effect of Heat upon the Electrical State of Living Tissues: Dr. A. D. Waller, F.R.S. Roya InstiTuTION, at 3-—Problems of Geographical Distribution in Mexico : Dr. Hans Gadow, F.R.S. RGNTGEN Society, at 8.15,—Some Vacuum Tube Phenomena: A. A. Campbell Swinton. CONTENTS. PAGE The Natural peter of Conduct. By Prof. A. E. (ayloms.. . : . 481 Popular Electricity. By Maurice Solomon . . 482 The Causes of Mutation : Be ona! CSR The Subject-matter of Anthropology. By Jo'Gix ease Refrigeration. By F. H. . .