Nature et Faune Wildlife and Nature FAO Regional Office for Africa li.WT',il -gy- , ,-,'t„ Bureau Regional de la F.A.O.'pour I'Afrique - Accra (Ghana) Nature et Faune Volume 18. n°2 Juillet - Dec 2002 July - Dec 2002 La revue Nature et Faune est une publication Internationale trimestrielle destinee a permettre un echange conformation et de connaissance scientifiques concernant la gestion de la faune, I'amenagement des aires protegees et la consen/ation des resources naturelles sur le continent africain. "Nature et Faune" is a quarterly international publication dedicated to the exchange of information and scientific data on wildlife and protected areas management and conservation of natural resources on the African continent. Editeur- Editor: RD. Kone Ass. Editeur - Ass. Editor: J. Thompson Conseillers - Advisers: E.H. Sene, P. Lowe, A. Yapi, D. Williamson, Nature et Faune depend de vos contributions benevoles et volontaires sous forme d'articles ou d'annonces dans le domaine de la conservation de la nature et de la faune sauvage dans la Region. Pour la publication d'articles ou tout renseignementcomplementaire, ecrireal'adressesuivante: "Nature et Faune" is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles and announcements in the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region. For publication of articles or any further information, please contact: Revue NATURE ET FAUNE FAO Regional Office for Africa RO. Box 1628 Accra (Ghana) Tel: (233-21 ) 675000/701 0930 Fax: (233-21 ) 668427 Email: Janet.Thompson@fao.org Pape.Kone@fao.org Contents - Sommaire L Behaviour and Food preference of Mazwell's duiker (Cephatophus maxwelli Thunberg 1789) in captivity. 1 2. Immobilizing free-ranging Westem kob antelope (Kobus kob kob) in the Comoe National Park, Cote d' I voire. 25 3. Who pays for Wildlife conservation in Tanzania? 45 Printed by Advent Press, Box 01 02, Osu-Accra. Tel . 233-2 1 -77786 1 , 775327 E-mail: Advent@gh.com BEHAVIOUR AND FOOD PREFERENCE OF MAXWELL'S DUIKER [CEPHALOPHUS MAXWELLI (THUNBERG, 1789)] IN CAPTIVITY Oduro W^*, Ellis W. 0^ Oduro I^ Farouk D. A^ Abstract Six duikers were studied at the Kumasi Zoo to determine their food preferences in captivity on some selected tropical foodstuff , and to observe their behaviour in captivity. Three pairs of male and female were housed in separate cages and tested on six different foodstuffs over a period of twenty days. A Completely Randomized Design was used and means were compared using the T-test. The results showed that there was a highly significant (P<0.01) difference between diets offered to Maxwell's duikers in captivity. Forage and Mangoes were highly preferred, while cassava peels and pawpaw the least preferred. The behaviour of Maxwell's duikers in captivity was studied using a continuous focal observation, to observe, time and record activities. Activities varied significantly (P<0.05) and were influenced by period of day. The results also showed differences in activities between sexes due to period of day. Lying down was the dominant activity, especially in the night followed by walking, standing and eating. Play was observed only in the mornings. Wildlife & Range Manageiucni Dcparinient, Institute Of Renewable Natural Resources, Kwame Nkrumah University Ot Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Biochemistry Department, Kwame Nkrumah University Of Science & Technology, Kumasi, Ghana. Wildlife Division, Ministry Of Lands & Forestry, Accra, Ghana. INTRODUCTION Not until the establishment of the Duiker Research and Breading Centre at the Chipangali Wildlife Trust in Bulawayo, Zimbabwe in 1985, little research had been done on duikers despite the immense contribution of duikers to the bushmeat supply and other uses in many African countries including Ghana. Ntiamoa-Baidu (1998) strongly suggested a study to assess the feasibility of introducing duiker farming in Ghana. The Kumasi Duiker Research and Breeding Centre was established in February 1992, in collaboration with the Duiker Research and Breeding headquarters in Bulawa/o, Zimbabwe under the auspices of the Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985 - 1994). The two centers were established with the objectives of researching into the feeding strategies of different species of duikers in the wild, their adaptation to new feeds in captivity, and their behaviour. This is to facilitate their management in captivity and to promote their growth performance and productivity for possible captive breeding and domestication (Wilson 1987). Maxwell's duikers, the commonest of the true forest duikers, constitute an important source of bushmeat for the majority of meat-eating people in West Africa (Jeffrey 1977; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1985 and Wilson 1987). Over the years, there has been an over- exploitation of duikers by subsistence rural hunters and poachers; and massive destruction of their forest habitat through human activities, which has resulted in the reduction of duiker populations in recent times. This is posing a great threat to their future existence (Wilson 1987). Given this back-drop, a solution must be sought to prevent the declining trend of duiker population in the sub-region, and to provide clean, fresh and relatively cheaper bushmeat to meet the high demand in the bushmeat market. Spinage (1986) noted that rearing disease-free stock in captivity could produce clean game meat. In view of these issues, domestication might be the best way to prevent extinction of the various duiker species. Thorough research into the animals' behaviour and other requirements, both in its wild habitat and captive environment is very important, and should form the basis for such a venture. Disturbing the natural social organisation of wild animals by domestication is stressful (Huntingford, 1984). Thus for an animal to be able to adapt itself to the captive environment, it will have to make certain adjustments in behaviour, since a number of factors such as feeding and space requirements will be limiting. It is therefore prominent to study captive behaviour of duikers so that adequate provision can be made to meet these requirements. A complete knowledge of animal behaviour will help to accurately assess at any one time a deviation from the norm, an indication of abnormality. Shepherdson (1989) reported that measuring behaviour might reveal some quite subtle changes that would not have been observed by casual observation. The specific objectives for this study, which are set within the context of the broad objectives of the Kumasi Duiker Research and breeding Centre Area, are: 1. To determine the food preference of Maxwell's duikers on selected common tropical foodstuff, and 2. To observe their behaviour in captivity. METHODS Experimental design in food preference experiment The test animals were held in captivity for thirteen months (from February 1992 to April 1993) before the initiation of the experiment to allow them become adjusted to the breeding pens. The duikers satisfactorily accepted the captive environment well before the experiment commenced. The duikers were introduced to the diets for a month for them to get used to the diets and to estimate the maximum amount they can consume before the experiment begun. The food preference experiment was conducted from 7 to 26 April on 3 pairs of male and female Maxwell's duikers. Each pair was housed in a separate wire net pen of 20 x 50 feet wide at the Kumasi Duiker Research and Breeding Centre. The experiment was conducted over a period of twenty days in two stages often days each. During the first stage of the experiment the following foodstufifbased on the documentary data on their food and feeding habits in the natural habitat were tested. They were banana, pawpaw, mangoes (all green), a mixture of the three, and forage. At the second stage, green mangoes were replaced with cassava peels. The forage comprised leaves and vines of sweet potato (Ipomea batata), leaves of Ficus exasperata, Aspilia africana, Justica flavaandPuerariaphaseoloides. Food Preparation and Presentation Each fruit was chopped separately into feeding pots and weighed using the weighing scale. Equal weight proportion (i.e. a third of the whole) of the three fruits were chopped into a pot and mixed together to form the mixture diet. The forage diet was made of equal weights of all the plant species. These five diets were supplied ad libitum to the duikers in each cage. Photo 1 : Prepared and weighed diets ready to be served to the duikers in the cages. In the other experiment, cassava peels was substituted for mangoes in the five diets presented. In both experiments, water was made available all the time. The leftover of the feeds were cleared, re-weighed and the pots, together with those served with water cleaned the next morning before service was done. Records of when diets were served, the amount (weight) serv.ed and leftovers re-weighed were taken. Experimental Design in Behaviour Experiment The study was done on each male and female in the same pen over a period of twenty- four days, between the 7th, and 30th of April 1993. A total of seventy-two hours of observation was done on the animals at different periods of the day using a continuous sampling method. Observation Periods The animals were observed at eight different periods of the day and night as follows: Period 1. 6 am - 9 am; period 2, 9 am - 12 noon; period 3, 12 noon - 3 pm; period 4, 3 pm - 6 pm; period 5, 6 pm - 9 pm; period 6, 9 pm - 12 mid night; period 7, 12 mid night - 3 am and period 8, 3 am - 6 am. Thus, three hours (180 minutes) of observation was done on the animals at each of the different periods each day. Observation for each period was replicated thrice. Activities Observed Seven different activities performed by the animals were observed, timed and recorded, while others were only observed and recorded as having occurred but were not timed. These other activities, which were not timed, were either performed in combination with those timed or were too brief to be timed. They included self-grooming and the grooming of each other, ruminating, rubbing of cheeks against each other or objects, licking of objects, drinking, yawning, sneezing, mounting, sniffing and coughing. The seven main activities observed were: standing, eating, pacing/walking, lying down, playing, urinating and defecating. Observation, Timing and Recording A vantage point outside the Pen was chosen where all observations were made, timed and recorded. For each of the three-hour (180 minutes) periods, the two animals were focused at, and all activities performed, were timed and recorded separately for the female and the male, on a recording table constructed with columns for dates of observation, time of day, time of activity, duration of activity and sex. Observations in the night were made under moonlight and occasionally where activity could not be seen properly, a three-battery torchlight was used. Data Analysis The data obtained in the two studies were subjected to analysis of variance for the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis for the food preference and behaviour studies (Montgomery 1984). RESULTS Food Preference Table 1, shows the average daily weight of banana, pawpaw, mangoes, mixture and forage consumed and the pattern of food consumption by Maxwell's duikers in captivity. There were significant differences (P<0.05) between diets in the weight of food consumed by Maxwell's duikers. Forage was the most preferred diet with intake between 0.67 and 1.41 kg per day, followed by mangoes with daily intake between 0.48 and 1.21 kg. The overall average weight of mangoes (0.92 ± 0.19 kg) and forage (0.97±0.20 kg) consumed did not differ significantly (P>0.05). However, these differed significantly (P<0.05) when compared to the other diets. The least preferred diet was that of the mixture (mean weight: 0.42 ±0.14 kg). - ♦ Table 1 : Average daily consumption (kg) of Banana, Pawpaw, Mangoes, Mixture and Forage by Maxwell's duikers in captivity Diet (kg) Days Banana Pawpaw Mangoes Mixture Forage 1 0.81±0.10 0.53±0.06 0.70±0.00 0.46±0.04 1.41±0.17 2 0.55±0.12 0.65±0.32 1.00±0.00 0.49±0.11 1.05±0.25 3 0.95±0.08 0.68±0.16 1.09±0.16 0.68±0.20 0.90±0.24 4 077±0.31 0.46±0.12 0.48±0.21 0.49±0.27 1.10±0.08 5 0.56±0.04 0.51 ±0.02 1.21±0.16 0.52±0.14 0.67±0.17 6 073±0.12 0.56±0.15 0.98±0.19 0.40±0.10 1.03±0.12 7 0'.55±0.27 0.57±0.14 1.04±0.14 0.43±0.05 0.77±0.05 8 0.53±0.07 0.31 ±0.22 0.93±0.17 0.16±0.02 1.00±0.16 9 0.63±0.36 0.42±0.13 0.82±0.21 0.25±0.06 0.77±0.22 10 0.98±0.24 0.54±0.17 0.90±0.24 0.36±0.11 1.03±0.48 x±SD 071±0.16b 0.52±0.10<= 0.92±0.193 0.42±0.14c 0.97±0.203 abc means with different super scripts are sign if loan tly (P<.05) different The consumption trend indicates that except for the mixture, which recorded almost the lowest values throughout, there was no defined pattern for the other diets. Although the mean daily intake was highest for mangoes and forage, the daily intake for these diets varied widely, ranging from the highest of 1.14 kg at day 1 to the lowest of 0.67 kg at day 4 for forage. Mangoes recorded the lowest intake on day 4 (0.48 ±0.21 kg) and the highest on day 5 (1.21 ± 0.16 kg). Table 2 shows the average daily weight of banana, pawpaw, cassava peels, mixture and forage consumed and the pattern of food consumption by Maxwell's duikers in captivity. There was a significant difference (P<0.05) between diets in the weight of food consumed by Maxwell's duikers. Forage was still the most preferred diet with daily intake ranging from 0.37 to 1.93 kg. The values for the second preferred diet (banana) ranged from 0.60 to 1.11 kg. Cassava peels was the least preferred diet consumed which ranged from 0.15 to 0.49 kg per day. Forage and banana were consumed with inconsistent increases. The average weight of forage (0.93 ± 0.26 kg) and banana (0.86 ± 0.17 kg) were significantly (P< 0. 05) higher than pawpaw. The average weight of the mixture (0.33 ± 0.07 kg) consumed was not significantly (P>0.05) different from that of cassava peels (0.32 ± 0.9 kg). Table 2: Average daily consumption (kg) of Banana, Pawpaw, Mangoes, Cassava peels, Mixture and Forage by Maxwell's duikers in captivity Diet (kg) Days Banana Pawpaw Cassava peels Mixture Forage 1 0.70±0.6 0.71 ±0.21 0.27±0.15 0.20±0.08 0.90±0.19 2 0.60±0.14 0.70±0.19 0.31 ±0.08 0.41±0.10 0.03±0.05 3 0.81 ±0.06 0.63±0.19 0.33±0.06 0.32±0.04 1.23±0.14 4 0.96±0.19 0.15±0.24 0.35±0.15 0.35±0.05 0.80±0.12 5 0.87±0.04 0.35±0.03 0.29±0.11 0.38±0.02 0.37±0.05 6 0.60±0.14 0.660.05 0.30±0.16 0.37±0.14 1.03±0.12 7 1.03±0.12 0.54±0.06 0.30±0.28 0.35±0.16 0.77±0.17 8 1.04±0.17 0.36±0.24 0.34±0.29 0.40±0.13 0.87±0.38 9 0.85±0.08 0.42±0.26 0.42±0.36 0.28±0.08 0.37±0.05 10 1.11 ±0.27 0.39±0.29 0.49±0.07 0.19±0.08 1.93±0.14 x±SD 0.86±0.17a 0.54±0.14b 0.32±0.09^ 0.33±0.07c 0.93±0.263 abc means with different super scripts are siqnifican tlv (P<.05) different Behaviour Table 3 shows the average time spent on various activities by Maxwell's duikers according to period of day and sex, while Figure 1 shows the activity pattern of Maxwell's duikers in captivity according to period. There were significant (P<0.05) differences between activities in the amount of time spent. The average time spent was highest for lying down (101.8 mins) and lowest for urinating (0.3 mins). There was also no significant variation (P>0.05) in the amount of time spent on activities between periods. However, the interaction between activities and time spent was significant (P<0.05). The best combination was lying down in period seven for both male and female (Figure 1). The value for standing was significantly (P<0.05) higher for the female in period 2 than male in the same period. Similarly, the value for pacing was significantly (P<0.05) higher for female in period 1 than male in the same period, but in period 5, the value for pacing was significantly (P<0.05) lower than that for male. The average time spent by male duiker in lying down in period 1 was significantly (P<0.05) higher than that for the female in the same period. The values of time spent eating by both sexes were highest for period 4 and lowest for period seven. The value of time spent on an activity depended on the period of day. The interaction between sex, activity and period was highly significant (P<0.05) with respect to the amount of time spent. Table 3: Time spent (mins) on various activities by Maxwell's duikers according to period of day and sex in captivity. A c t i V 1 ties ( Mins) Sex Period of day St Et Pa Ld PI U De P1 29.27± 10.3a 25.67±47b 80.83±7xa 32.0±17.8Xe 11.00 ±5.1a 0.33±0.2 0.00 P2 31.00±4.2xa 20.67±9.0 29.50±19.2b 98.00±27.8d 0.00 0.18±0.2 0.67±0.9 P3 26.67±1.9b 20.00±4.1= 38.33±7.7b 94.67±7.6d 0.00 0.33±0.2 0.00+ Male P4 38.00± 15.6a 41.67±8.5= 74.50±12.8a 23.33±6.8f 0.00 0.50±0.0 2.00±1.6 P5 28.67±3.1 10.33±4.5d 38.00±5.8Yb 124.67±3.3c 0.00 0.17±0.2 0.67±0.9 P6 17.00±5.7b 6.67±3.4d 9.67±1.9c 146.67±6.8b 0.00 0.00 0.00 P7 12.33±3.4c 0.67±0.9d 2.33±2.1 c 164.67±4.9a 0.00 0.00 0.00 P8 9.67±3.0c 8.00±2.8d 11.00±2.8c 151.33±1.2b 0.00 0.00 0.00 MeaniSD 24.13±9.18 = 16.71±12.3 35.52±27.3b 104.42±49.9^ 1.38± 3.6 « 0.25±0.35« 0.42±0.7« P1 26.00±6.2c 17.00±10.6b 129.00±3.7xa 4.33±3.3xf 3.00± 1.2 0.67±0.5 1.00+0.0 P2 53.32±8.3xa 13.67±5.4b 24.83±3.1d 86.67±4.5d 0.00 0.17±0.2 0.33±0.5 P3 28.00±14.5c 19.33±9.6b 37.33±12.5e 94.00±9.6d 0.00 0.67±0.2 0.67±0.5 P4 39.00±5.8b 43.00±12.6a 66.67±20.6b 20.00±7.5 0.00 0.67±0.2 0.67±0.5 Female P5 22.67±5.5c 8.00±2.2c 20.67±7.6Yd 128.33±10.8c 0.00 0.00 0.33+0.5 P6 16.33±7.0d 5.33±2.1 c 7.33±2.6e 150.67±4.0b 0.00 0.00 0.33±0.5 P7 16.001 78d 0.00 O.OOe 164.00±7.8a 0.00 0.00 0.00 P8 19.00t13.4d 3.67±2.3 14.50±2.8 144.00t12.7 0.00 0.50±0.00 0.33±0.5 Mean±SD 27.8319.9 = 15.23±12.4<' 36.53±32.7 " 101.77±52.9^ 0.85± 2.3 « 0.29±0.3« 0.44±0.4 8 Grand mean(Period) 25.83±9.9'= 15.23112.4" 36.53±32.7'' 101.77±52.9^ 0.85± 2.3 « 0.29±0.3« 0.44«±0.4« abc Means followed by the same superscript in the same row are not significantly (P>0.05) different abc Means followed by the same subscript in the same vertical column (within sexes) are not significantly (P>0.05) different XYZ Means with the same suffix in the same column (between sexes) are significantly different (P<0.05) - P = period, St = standing, Et = eating, Pa = pacing/walking, Ld = lying down, PI = playing, U = urinating, De = defecating There was no significant difference (P>0.05) between sexes in the amount of time spent on each activity. The pattern and time spent on various activities are similar for both male and female (Figure 2). However, the average time spent on lying down by the male duiker was higher ( 1 04.4 mins) than the female (99. 1 3 mins). 0) E 3? > '■Si u < P4 P5 Period Of Day P6 P7 P8 Fig 3. Activity Of IVIaxwell's Duikers In Captivity ♦ Standing 9 Eating — .. Pacing/Walking — X — Lying down —9i — Playing —♦—Urinating •i Defecating P1= 6am-9am, P2=pann-12noon, P3=12noon-3pm, P4=3pm-6pm, P5=6pm-9pm, P6=(pm-12midnight, P7=12midnight-3am, P8=3am-6am 60.00 CO m "0 Q. (Q m Q) O 3 (Q (Q 0) 3^ 0) 3' (Q (Q Male Female c 0 — « CD Z3 cT p 3 Q) CO 3 (Q Activity Fig 4 Activity Patterns Of Maxwell's Duikers In Captivity According To Sex DISCUSSIONS The average daily consumption of food showed that duikers consumed more forage and mangoes than any other food presented to them. Despite the difference in intake of the diets, the result showed that the feeding habits of Maxwell's duikers is not restricted, thus they are both herbivorous and frugivorous, as observed by Farst et al. (1980). All the diets tested were reasonably consumed. The higher preference for forage conforms to the observation made by Jonathan (1982), who also noted in his study on East African mammals, the preference of Maxwell's duikers for sweet potato tops, which was included in the forage composition in the experiment. Though test was not conducted on the feed to determine their nutrient constituents, it is suggested that this differential intake of the food may be due to differences in their nutrient content as well as taste mouth-feel and appeal as required by the animals. Karachie and Dzomeal (1990) observed that there was an improved feed intake and in vitro dry matter digestibility when sweet potato tops were added to hay. They also observed that there was marked increase in protein and ash contents when sweet potato vines were added to hay. It is believed that the nutritional value was higher and thus palatable to the animals. Ellis et al (2001) have reported that the vines of sweet potato have higher protein, ash and mineral contents and this supports the observation made by Karachie and Dzomeal (1990). It may also have been the contributory factor to the high preference of the Maxwell's duiker to the forage. Cassava peels was the least preferred when replaced with mangoes in the second experiment. Tua (1990) and Adegbola et al. (1990) observed a lower intake of cassava peels by sheep, and attributed this to probably the cyanide content of the feed. The higher intake of mangoes compared to that for banana and cassava peels is rather a deviation from the observation of Farst et al. (1980). They reported that duikers seem to prefer higher calorific diets. The carbohydrate content and hence the calorific value of mangoes has been shown by Tindal (1965) to be far less than banana. The quality that might have influenced the preference for mangoes is the higher mineral constituent and perhaps its taste. The lower intake of pawpaw, however, cannot be explained, and is probably a matter of taste. Behaviour The study result shows that Maxwell's duikers in captivity spent more time (56.4%) lying down as compared to a cumulative percentage of 43% contributed by six activities. This result shows that Maxwell's duikers when conditioned to captive environment are very calm animals, spending a significant part of their time lying down with occasional eating. Abayomi (1991) noted that the period of the day has a significant effect on the types of activities performed by an animal. This observation agrees to some extent with the result obtained in this study (Figure 1). Pacing was the most dominant activity at early mornings and this was the only period of the day when they were seen playing (Table 3). They spent much of their time lying down between the hours of 9am and 12noon. In the evening, they paced and ate most, with little lying down. After 9pm, the animals spent almost all their time lying down, interrupted with short walking and eating, all of which ceased after 3 am except very little standing when they were tired of lying down. This pattern of activities by Maxwell's duikers suggests an exclusive diurnal behaviour of the animals. This observation is similar to that reported by Jonathan (1982) for the Grimms duiker (C monticola). Eating and walking were highest in the morning and in the evening (Table 3). This proves Jonathan's (1982) observation that most movements and feeding of Maxwell's duikers occur during the evenings and early mornings. After each eating, they went lying down, this, Abayomi (1991) suggest is to enable them rest and facilitate rumination and digestion, a characteristic of ungulates. The study has also shown that period of day did not only influence general activity pattern but also caused some variations in activities between the male and the female in their captive environment. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The results showed that the duikers had higher preference for forage followed by mangoes, banana, pawpaw, and cassava peels. Since food preference by animals is more often than not directly related to its palatability and mouth-feel, it can be suggested that forage and mangoes are more palatable than pawpaw and cassava peels, hence the higher intake. The study has also shown that the mean daily feed intake of more preferred diet by a pair of Maxwell's duikers (male and female) in captivity is about 3.54 kg and this can drop by about 15.8% when lesser preferred components are added to their diet. Significant variations existed in the activity patterns of the Maxwell's duiker in captivity. Activity was influenced by period of day and, for some activities such as lying down, by sex of organism. The animals were more active during the day; eating and walking more in the morning and evening, and lying down throughout the night. Recommendation It is recommended that: The nutrient constituents of all the feed stuff tested in this experiment should be determined so that scientific and objective proves would form the basis for any recommendation of the feeds for optimum growth performance. Another study should be done to include more feedstuff, such as plantain peels, yam peels, cocoyam peels, rice bran and many of the by-products from foodcrops which have reasonably high protein content and in vitro dry matter digestibility values, with the potential to serve as low-cost feed for duiker production. It is recommended that since the purpose of this study aims at domesticating the Maxwell's duiker, further studies should be done on the animals to yield information on their reproductive biology - length of oestrus cycle, gestation period, lactation, post natal development and to study their housing requirement, so that they are not kept under stress. 10 LITTERATURE CITED 1. Abayomi, E. A. 1991. Variation in activities of Senegal Kob (Kobus Kob kob Exleben 1777) during daylight period in an enclosure at Kainji Lake Research Inst. Range Farm, New Busa. African Journal of Ecology, Vol. 29 (4): 353-355. 2. Adegbola, A. A.; O.B. Smith and N. J. Okeudo. 1990. Response of West African dwarf sheep fed cassava peels and poultry manure based diet. PENESA/ARNAB, International Livestock Centre of Africa, pp.357-366 3. Asibey, E.O.A. and G.S. Child. 1991. Wildlife and protected area management and natural resource conservation. Nature et Faune. FAO. Vol.7 (1): 36-47 4. Ellis, W. O. 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International Livestock Centre for Africa, pp. 57-69 18. Walker, P. E. 1964. Mammals of the World, Johns Hopkins press, Baltimore, Vol II: 647- 1500. 19. Walter, F. 1964. GRZIMEK'S Animal Life encyclopedia (13) Mammals iv. Bemhard Grzimek (edited). Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd. pp. 308-330 20. Wilson, V. J. and B. L. P. Wilson, 1991. Wildlife and Protected Area Management and Natural Resources Conservation. Nature et Faune, FAO. Vol. 7 (1): 24-35 21. Wilson V. J. 1987. Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1944) and the Chipangali Wildlife Trust, Bulawayo Zimbabwe 27pp. 22. Wildlife Development Plan (1998-2003). Sustainable Use Of Bushmeat. Vol. 6. 5 Department, Accra. May 1998. pp 35. 12 a Comportement et preferences alimentaires du Cephalophe de Maxwell {Cephalophus Maxwell (Thunberg, 1789) en captivite. Oduro W\ Ellis W. 0^ Oduro I^ Farouk D. A/ Resume Six Cephalophes de Maxwell ont ete etudies au zoo de Kumasi pour determiner leurs preferences alimentaires en captivite, en utilisant des produits alimentaires tropicaux selectionnes, et pour observer leur comportement en captivite. Trois paires de males et femelles ont ete mis dans des cages separees et six produits alimentaires differents ont ete experimentes sur eux sur une periode de 20 jours. L'on a procede a une etude entierement randomisee et les moyennes ont ete comparees a I'aide du Test T. Les resultats ont montre qu'il y avait une difference largement significative (P<0,01) entre les regimes alimentaires proposes aux Cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite. Le fourrage et les mangues etaient les aliments preferes tandis que les epluchures de manioc et les papayes etaient moins preferes. Pour etudier le comportement des Cephalophes de Maxwell, on a utilise 1' observation continue focale pour les observer, chronometrer et enregistrer les activites. Les activites etaient assez varices (P< 0,05) et dependaient du moment de la joumee. Les resultats ont aussi montre que dependant du moment de la joumee, il y avait des differences entre les sexes en matiere d'activite. Le coucher etait I'activite principale, particulierement au cours de la nuit, suivi par la marche, la position debout et le manger. lis ne jouaient que les matins. L Ddpartement de la Gestion de la Faune, la Flore et I'Habitat, Institut des Ressources Naturelles Renouvelables, Universite des Sciences et de la Technologie de Kwame Nkrumah, Kumasi, Ghana 2. Ddpartement de la Biochiniie,Universite des Sciences et de la Technologie de Kwame Nkrumah, Kumasi, Ghana 3. Departement de la Faune et la Flore, Ministere des Terres et des forets, Accra, Ghana 13 Introduction Avant la creation du Centre de Recherche et d'Elevage du cephalophe a la Societe de Conservation de la Faune sauvage de Chipangali a Bulawayo au Zimbabwe en 1985, tres peu de recherches avaient ete menees sur les cephalophes ; Ceci, en depit de 1' immense contribution des cephalophes dans 1' alimentation comme viande de brousse et dans bien d'autres usages dans plusieurs pays africains y compris le Ghana. Ntiamoa-Baidu (1998) a fortement suggere une etude pour evaluer la faisabilite d'introduire I'elevage des cephalophes au Ghana. Le Centre de Recherche et d'Elevage du cephalophe de Kumasi a ete fonde en 1992 en collaboration avec le siege de la Recherche et de I'Elevage du cephalophe situe a Bulawayo au Zimbabwe et sous les auspices de la Decennie Panafricaine de la Recherche sur le Cephalophe (1985-1994). Les deux centres ont ete fondes dans le but de faire des recherches sur les strategies d' alimentation de di verses especes de cephalophes en liberte, sur leur adaptation a de nouveaux aliments en captivite ainsi que sur leur comportement. Cette recherche a pour objectif de faciliter leur amenagement en captivite et de promouvoir la performance de leur croissance et productivite pour un elevage et une domestication eventuels (Wilson 1987). Les cephalophes de Maxwell, plus connus des vrais cephalophes de foret, repfesentent une source importante de viande de gibier pour la majorite des consommateurs de viande en Afrique de I'Ouest (Jeffrey 1977; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1985 et Wilson 1987). Pendant des annees, il y a eu une surexploitation des cephalophes par les chasseurs pratiquant une chasse de subsistance dans les villages et les braconniers. D y a aussi eu une destruction massive de leur habitat forestier en raison d'activites humaines, ce qui a entraine une reduction de la population des cephalophes au cours de ces demieres annees. Ceci represente une grande menace pour leur avenir (Wilson 1987). Devant cette menace, il faudrait trouver une solution pour renverser la tendance a la reduction de la population des cephalophes dans la sous-region et pour foumir une viande de gibier saine, fraiche et relativement moins chere pour satisfaire la forte demande sur le marche de la viande de gibier. Spinage (1986) a constate que I'elevage en captivite d'un betail sans maladies pourrait permettre d'obtenir une viande de gibier saine. Vu ces problemes, la domestication pourrait etre la meilleure faqon d'empecher I'extinction des diverses especes de Cephalophes. Une recherche approfondie sur le comportement et autres exigences de 1' animal a la fois dans son habitat sauvage qu'en captivite est tres important et devrait constituer la base d'une telle entreprise de domestication. E est stressant de perturber 1' organisation sociale naturelle des animaux sauvages par la domestication (Huntingford, 1984). Ainsi, pour qu'un animal s'adapte a son milieu de captivite il aura a modifier son comportement, etant donne qu'il sera limite pour un certain nombre de choses telles que ses besoins en nourriture et en espace. II est done important d'etudier le comportement des cephalophes en captivite pour que les dispositions necessaires soient prises pour satisfaire ces exigences. Une connaissance 14 approfondie du comportement de 1' animal permettra d'evaluer a tout moment un ecart par rapport a la norme, un indice d'anomalie. Shepherdson (1989) a rapporte que relever ces mesures sur le comportement de 1' animal pourrait reveler des changements imperceptibles qui n'auraient pas ete remarques au cours d'une observation superficielle. Les objectifs specifiques de cette etude, qui s'inscrivent dans le cadre des objectifs generaux du Centre de Recherche et d'Elevage du cephalophe de Kumasi sont les suivants: 1 . Determiner les preferences alimentaires des Cephalophes de Maxwell par rapport a des produits alimentaires tropicaux ordinaires, et 2. Observer leur comportement en captivite. Methodes Conception experimentale de Inexperience sur les preferences alimentaires Les animaux a experimenter ont ete gardes en captivite pendant treize mois (de fevrier 1992 a avril 1993) avant le debut de I'experience pour leur permettre de s'adapter aux enclos oij ils allaient etre eleves. Les cephalophes ont accepte, de maniere satisfaisante, leur milieu de captivite bien avant que I'experience ne commence. Pendant un mois bien avant I'experience, les cephalophes ont ete nourris aux aliments pour leur permettre de s'y adapter et pour evaluer la quantite maximale de nourriture qu'ils pouvaient consommer. L' experience par rapport aux preferences alimentaires a ete menee du 7 au 26 avril sur 3 paires de Cephalophes de Maxwell males et femelles. Chaque paire a ete mise dans un different enclos metallique de 20 x 50 pieds de large au Centre de Recherche et d'Elevage du cephalophe de Kumasi. L' experience a dure 20 jours et a ete menee en deux phases de 10 jours chacune. Au cous de la premiere phase de I'experience certains aliments ont ete testes sur la base de donnees historiques sur leur nourriture et habitudes d'affourrages dans leur habitat naturel. Les aliments etaient les suivants: bananes, papayes, mangues (toutes vertes), melange des trois et fourrage. Au cours de la seconde phase, les mangues vertes ont ete remplacees par des epluchures de manioc. Le fourrage etait compose des feuilles et des tiges de patate douce (Ipomea batata), des feuilles de Ficus exasperata, d'Aspilia Africana, de Justicaflava et de Pueraria phaseoloides. Preparation et presentation de la nourriture Chaque fruit a ete hache separement, mis dans un mangeoire et pese a I'aide d'une balance. Pour la nourriture mixte. Ton a hache et melange le meme poids des trois fruits. Pour la nourriture a base de fourrage. Ton a pris les memes poids des differentes especes de plantes. Ces cinq nourritures ont ete foumis ad libitum aux cephalophes dans chaque cage. 15 Photo 1 : Nourriture preparee et pesee prete a servir aux cephalophes dans les cages. Au cours d'une autre experience, Ton a remplace les epluchures de manioc avec des mangues dans les cinq nourritures proposees aux cephalophes. L'eau etait constamment disponible dans les deux experiences. Les restes de nourriture etaient enleves, peses de nouveau et les mangeoires ainsi que les pots qui avaient ete utilises pour l'eau etaient nettoyes le lendemain avant de servir les cephalophes. L'on notait I'heure a laquelle la nourriture etait servie, la quantite (poids) de la nourriture servie et le poids des restes. Conception experimentale de I'experience sur le comportement L'etude a ete menee sur chaque male et femelle dans la meme cage sur une periode de vingt quatre jours, du 7 au 30 avril 1 993 . L'on a observe les animaux pendant un total de soixante douze heures au cours de differentes periodes de la joumee en utilisant une methode d'echantillonnage continue. Periodes d'observation Les animaux ont ete observes a huit differentes periodes du jour et de la nuit comme suit: Periode 1, de 6 heures a 9 heures; Periode 2, de 9 heures a 12 heures; Periode 3, de 12 heures a 15 heures; Periode 4, de 15 heures a 18 heures, Periode 5, de 18 heures a 21 heures; Periode 6, de 21 heures a minuit; Periode 7, de minuit a 3 heures; Periode 8, de 3 heures a 6 heures. Ainsi 3 heures (180 minutes) d'observation ont ete effectues sur les animaux chaque jour au cours des differentes periodes. L'observation pour chaque periode a ete renouvelee trois fois. 16 Activites observees Sept activites differentes effectuees par les animaux ont ete observees, chronometrees et enregistrees tandis que d'autres activites ont ete seulement observees et enregistrees comme etant effectuees mais n'ayant pas ete chronometrees. Ces autres activites qui n'ont pas ete chronometrees ont ete soit effectuees en association avec les autres activites chronometrees ou etaient trop breves pour pouvoir etre chronometrees. Ces activites consistaient a faire sa toilette et a faire la toilette I'un de I'autre, a ruminer, a frotter sa joue contre la joue de I'autre ou contre des objets, a lecher des objets, a boire, a bailler, a etemuer, a monter, a flairer et a tousser. Les sept activites principales observees etaient les suivantes: se tenir debout, manger, arpenter la cage/marcher, se coucher, jouer, uriner et defequer. Observation, chronometrage et enregistrement Toutes les observations ont eu lieu, et ont ete chronometrees et enregistrees a partir d'une position avantageuse en dehors de la cage. Pour chacune des periodes de 3 heures (180 minutes) les deux animaux etaient le point de mire et toutes les activites effectuees etaient chronometrees et enregistrees separement pour la femelle et le male sur un tableau ayant des colonnes pour les dates d' observation, le moment de la joumee, le moment de I'activite, la duree de I'activite et le sexe. Au cours de la nuit les animaux etaient observes au clair de lune et de temps a autre on utilisait une lampe de poche a trois piles quand Ton ne pouvait observer correctement leurs activites. Analyse des donnees Les donnees obtenues au cours de ces deux etudes ont ete soumises a des analyses de variances pour I'acceptation ou le rejet de I'hypothese des etudes sur les preferences alimentaires et le comportement (Montgomery 1984). Resultats Preferences alimentaires Le tableau 1 montre le poids moyen joumalier de bananes, papayes, mangues, melange des trois et fourrage consommes et les tendances de consommation de nourriture des cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite. II y avait de grandes differences (P<0,05) entre les poids de nourriture consommee par les cephalophes de Maxwell selon les aliments. Le fourrage etait 1' aliment prefere avec une consommation de 0,67 a 1,41 kg par jour, suivi par les mangues avec une consommation joumaliere de 0,48 a 1,21 kg. D n'y avait pas de grande difference (P>0,05) entre le poids moyen total des mangues (0,92+-0,19kg) et de fourrage (0,97+-0,20 kg) consommes. Toutefois compares aux autres aliments ces poids etaient sensiblement differents (P<0,05). L' aliment le moins prefere etait le melange des trois fruits (poids moyen: 0,42+-0,14 kg). 17 Banane Papaye Mangue Melange Fourrage 0.81 ±0.10 0.53±0.06 0.70±0.00 0.46±0.04 1.41±0.17 0.55±0.12 0.65±0.32 1.00±0.00 0.49±0.11 1.05±0.25 0.95±0.08 0.68±0.16 1.09±0.16 0.68±0.20 0.90±0.24 0.77±0.31 0.46±0.12 0.48±0.21 0.49±0.27 1.10±0.08 0.56±0.04 0.51 ±0.02 1.21±0.16 0.52±0.14 0.67±0.17 0.73±0.12 0.56±0.15 0.98±0.19 0.40±0.10 1.03±0.12 0.55±0.27 0.57±0.14 1.04±0.14 0.43±0.05 0.77±0.05 0.53±0.07 0.31 ±0.22 0.93±0.17 0.16±0.02 1.00±0.16 0.63±0.36 0.42±0.13 0.82±0.21 0.25±0.06 0.77±0.22 0.98±0.24 0.54±0.17 0.90±0.24 0.36±0.11 1.03±0.48 0.71±0.16»' 0.52±0.10'= 0.92±0.19« 0.42±0.14'= 0.97±0.20 Tableau 1 : Consommation quotidienne moyenne (en kg) de bananes, papayes, mangues, melange des trois fruits et fourrage des cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite. Nourriture (kg) Jours 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x±SD abc signifie qu'avec des exposants differents, les quantites sont significativement (P<0,5) differentes La tendance en matiere de consommation de nourriture montre qu'a 1' exception du melange de fruits qui a enregistre les valeurs les plus faibles tout au long de I'experience, il n'y avait pas de mode defini pour les autres aliments. Bien que la consommation moyenne joumaliere soit plus elevee pour les mangues et le fourrage, la consommation joumaliere de ces aliments variaient beaucoup. Pour le fourrage, la consommation la plus elevee etait de 1,14 kg au jour 1 et la plus basse de 0,67 kg au jour 4. Les mangues ont enregistre la consommation la plus basse au jour 4 (0,48+-0,21kg) et la plus elevee au jour5(l,21+-0,16kg). Le tableau 2 montre le poids moyen joumalier de bananes, papayes, epluchures de manioc, melange des trois fruits et fourrage consommes et le mode de consommation de nourriture des cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite. Le poids de la nourriture consommee par les cephalophes de Maxwell montre une difference sensible (P<0,05) entre les aliments. Le fourrage reste 1' aliment prefere avec une consommation joumaliere variant de 0,37 kg a 1,93 kg. Les chiffres pour 1' aliment qui se classe second en matiere de preference (banane) varient de 0,60 a 1,11 kg. Les epluchures de manioc constituaient I'aliment le moins prefere avec des chiffres variant de 0,15 a 0,49 kg par jour. Les augmentations dans la consommation de fourrage et de bananes etaient imprevisibles. Les poids moyens de fourrage (0,93+-0,26kg) et de bananes (0,86+-0,17 kg) etaient sensiblement (P<0,05) plus eleves que celui de la papaye. Le poids moyen du melange des trois fruits (0,33+-0,07kg) consomme n'etait pas vraiment different (P>0,05) de celui des epluchures de manioc (0,32+-0,9kg). 18 Tableau 2: Consommation quotidienne moyenne (en kg) de bananes, papayes, mangues, melange des trois fruits et fourrage des cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite. Nourriture (kg) Jour Banane Papaye Epulchures manioc de Melange Fourrage 1 0.70±0.6 0.71 ±0.21 0.27±0.15 0.20±0.08 0.90±0.19 2 0.60±0.14 0.70±0.19 0.31 ±0.08 0.41±0.10 0.03±0.05 3 0.81 ±0.06 0.63±0.19 0.33±0.06 0.32±0.04 1.23±0.14 4 0.96±0.19 0.15±0.24 0.35±0.15 0.35±0.05 0.80±0.12 5 0.87±0.04 0.35±0.03 0.29±0.11 0.38±0.02 0.37±0.05 6 0.60±0.14 0.660.05 0.30±0.16 0.37±0.14 1.03±0.12 7 1.03±0.12 0.54±0.06 0.30±0.28 0.35±0.16 0.77±0.17 8 1.04±0.17 0.36±0.24 0.34±0.29 0.40±0.13 0.87±0.38 9 0.85±0.08 0.42±0.26 0.42±0.36 0.28±0.08 0.37±0.05 10 1.11 ±0.27 0.39±0.29 0.49±0.07 0.19±0.08 1.93±0.14 x±SD 0.86±0.17a 0.54±0.14b 0.32±0.09^ 0.33±0.07<= 0.93±0.263 abc ... .. signifie qu'avec des <■ exposants differents, les quantites sont significativement (P<0,5) diff^rentes Comportement Le tableau 3 montre le temps moyen que les cephalophes de Maxwell consacrent a diverses activites selon le moment de la joumee et le sexe alors que la Figure 2 montre le mode d'activite des cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite selon la peri ode. II y avait des differences significatives (P<0,05) dans les activites pour ce qui est du temps consacre a I'activite. Le temps moyen le plus eleve consacre a une activite etait pour le coucher (101,8 minutes) et le plus court etait pour uriner (0,3 minutes). II n'y avait pas de grandes differences (P>0,05) entre les temps consacres aux activites entre les differentes periodes. Cependant il y a une forte (P<0,05) interaction entre les activites et le temps consacre a ces activites. La meilleure conjonction etant le coucher durant la periode 7 a la fois pour le male et la femelle (Figure 1). Le temps d' observation de r animal debout etait significativement (P<0,05) plus eleve pour la femelle en periode 2 que pour le male au cours de la meme periode. De la meme fa9on, le temps que la femelle a consacre a arpenter la cage etait significativement (P<0,05) plus eleve pour la femelle en periode 1 que pour le male durant la meme periode ; mais au cours de la periode 5 le temps pour cette activite etait sensiblement (P<0,05) plus bas pour la femelle que pour le male. Le temps moyen consacre par le cephalophe male a se coucher durant la periode 1 etait sensiblement (P<0,05) plus eleve que celui de la femelle durant la meme periode. Pour ce qui est du temps consacre a manger par les deux sexes a la fois le chiffre 19 le plus eleve se retrouve pour la periode 4 et le plus bas pour la periode 7. La periode de temps consacree a une activite dependait du moment de la journee. L' interaction entre le sexe, I'activite et la periode etait tres (P<0,05) importante par rapport au temps consacre. Tableau 3 : Temps consacre (minutes) a diverses activites par les cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite selon le moment de la journee et le sexe A c t i V i t e s ( M i n u t e s ) Sexe Moment de la St Et Pa Ld E! y De journeee P1 29.27±10.3a 25.67±47b 80.83±7xa 32.0±17.8Xe 11.00±5.1a 0.33±0.2 0.00 P2 31.00±4.2xa 20.67±9.0 29.50±19.2b 98.00±27.8d 0.00 0.18±0.2 0.67±0.9 P3 26.67±1.9b 20.00±4.1'= 38.33±7.7b 94.67±7.6d 0.00 0.33±0.2 0.00+ Male P4 38.00±15.6a 41.67+8.5= 74.50± 12.8a 23.33±6.8f 0.00 0.50±0.0 2.00±1.6 P5 28.67±3.1 10.33±4.5d 38.00±5.8Yb 124.67±3.3c 0.00 0.17±0.2 0.67±0.9 P6 17.00±5.7b 6.67±3.4d 9.67±1.9c 146.67±6.8b 0.00 0.00 0.00 P7 12.33±3.4c 0.67±0.9d 2.33±2.1 c 164.67±4.9a 0.00 0.00 0.00 P8 9.67±3.0c 8.00±2.8d 11.00±2.8c 151.33±1.2b 0.00 0.00 0.00 MoyentSD 24.13±9.18<= 16.71±12.3 35.52127.3" 104.42±49.9^ 1.38± 3.6 « 0.25±0.35« 0.42±0.7« P1 26.00±6.2c 17.00±10.6b 129.00±3.7xa 4.33±3.3xf 3.00± 1.2 0.67±0.5 I.OOiO.O P2 53.32±8.3xa 13.67±5.4b 24.83±3.1d 86.67±4.5d 0.00 0.17+0.2 0.33±0.5 P3 28.00±14.5c 19.33±9.6b 37.33±12.5c 94.00±9.6d 0.00 0.67±0.2 0.67±0.5 P4 39.00±5.8b 43.00±12.6a 66.67±20.6b 20.00±7.5 0.00 0.67±0.2 0.67±0.5 Female P5 22.67±5.5c 8.00±2.2c 20.67±7.6Yd 128.33±10.8c 0.00 0.00 0.33±0.5 P6 16.33±7.0d 5.33±2.1 c 7.33±2.6e 150.67±4.0b 0.00 0.00 0.33±0.5 P7 16.00t78d 0.00 O.OOe 164.00±7.8a 0.00 0.00 0.00 P8 19.0Gt 13.4d 3.67±2.3 14.50±2.8 144.00112.7 0.00 0.50±0.00 0.33±0.5 Moyenn±SD 27.83±9.9 = 15.23±12.4<' 36.53±32.7 " 101.77±52.9« 0.85± 2.3 « 0.29±0.3« 0.44±0.4« Grand moyen (Moment) 25.83±9.9'= 15.23112.4" 36.53132.7" 101.77±52.9« 0.85± 2.3« 0.29±0.3« 0.44«±0.4« abc signifie qu'avec le meme exposant, dans la meme rangee les chiffres ne sont pas tres (P>0,05) differents abc signifie qu'avec le meme exposant, dans la meme colonne (pour le meme sexe) les chiffres ne sont pas significativement (P>0,05) differents XYZ signifie qu'avec le meme suffixe, dans la meme colonne (entre les sexes) les chiffres sont significativement (P<0,05) differents P= periode, St= station debout, Et= manger, Pa= arpenter/marcher, Ld: position couchee, Pl= jouer, U=uriner, D= defequer 20 > u < P4 P5 Period Of Day Fig 3. Activity Of Maxwell's Duikers In Captivity P8 ♦—Standing ■—Eating A- PacingAA/alking ¥— Lying down Playing -♦—Urinating H — Defecating P1= 6am-9am, P2=pam-12noon, P3=12noon-3pm, P4=3pm-6pm, P5=6pm-9pm, P6=(pm-12midnight, P7=12midnight-3am, P8=3am-6am 60.00 Q) Q. 3 (Q ID Q) O 3' CO 5- (O (a "0 c D 0) 3. (D 3' 3 CD oJ' P (Q 3 Q) (O (Q DMale ■ Female Activity Fig 4 Activity Patterns Of fVlaxwell's Duikers In Captivity According To Sex n n'y avait pas de differences significatives (P>0,05) entre les sexes par rapport au temps consacre a chaque activite. Le mode et le temps consacre a diverses activites sont similaires a la fois pour le male et la femelle (Figure 2). Cependant le temps moyen que le cephalophe male consacre a se coucher est plus eleve (104,4 minutes) que celui de la femelle (99, 1 3 minutes). Discussions La consommation moyenne joumaliere de nourriture a montre que les cephalophes consomment plus de fourrage et de mangues que n'importe quelle autre nourriture qui leur est proposee. Malgre les differences dans la consommation des differents aliments, le resultat a montre que les habitudes alimentaires des cephalophes de Maxwell ne sont pas limites. Ds sont done a la fois herbivores et frugivores comme le faisaient remarquer Farst et al. (1980). Tous les aliments testes ont ete consommes de fa9on raisonnable. La grande preference pour le fourrage est conforme a 1' observation faite par Jonathan (1982) qui a aussi constate dans son etude sur les mammiferes de I'Afrique de Test que les cephalophes de Maxwell preferaient les fanes de patates douces que Ton avait ajoutees a la composition fourragere de 1' experience. Bien que les aliments ne soient pas testes pour determiner leurs valeurs nutritive, Ton a suggere que les differences en matiere de consommation de nourriture devraient etre dues aussi bien aux differences du contenu nutritif des aliments que de leur gout et de I'attrait que la nourriture exer9ait sur les animaux. Karachie et Dzomeal (1990) ont remarque que lorsque Ton ajoutait des fanes de patate douce au foin, les animaux consommaient plus de nourriture et la digestion m vitro des matieres seches etait amelioree. lis ont aussi remarque qu'il y avait une augmentation remarquable de la teneur en proteines et en cendre lorsque Ton ajoutait des tiges de patate douce au foin. On croit que la valeur nutritive etait alors plus grande et done du gout des animaux. Ellis et al. (2001) ont indique que les tiges de patate douce avaient une plus grande teneur en proteines, cendre et mineraux et ceci supporte I'observation faite par Karachie et Dzomeal (1990). Cela pourrait aussi expliquer la grande preference du Cephalophe de Maxwell pour le fourrage. Quand on a remplace les epluchures de manioc par des mangues dans la seconde experience, on a remarque que les epluchures de manioc etaient la nourriture la moins preferee. Tua (1990) et Adegbola et al (1990) ont remarque que les moutons consommaient tres peu d'epluchures de manioc et selon eux cela etait probablement du a la teneur en cyanure du manioc. Ceci pourrait egalement expliquer le fait que dans 1' etude presente, I'epulchure de manioc etaient 1' aliment le moins prefere des cephalophes dans la deuxieme experience. La consommation plus importante de mangues par rapport a la banane et aux epluchures de manioc est plutot un ecart par rapport a I'observation faite par Farst et al. (1980). lis ont rapporte que les cephalophes semblent preferer les aliments riches en calories. Tidal (1965) a montre que la teneur en hydrate de carbone done la valeur calorifique des mangues est de loin inferieure a celle des bananes. La preference pour les mangues pourrait etre du au contenu mineral beaucoup plus eleve et peut etre a son gout. 22 Cependant on ne peut expliquer la consommation peu elevee de papayes et c'est probablement une question de gout. Comportement Les resultats de 1' etude montrent que les cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite passent beaucoup plus de temps (56,4%) couches si Ton compare ce chiffre au pourcentage cumulatif des six autres activites qui est de 43%. Ces resultats montrent que lorsque les cephalophes de Maxwell sont conditionnes a vivre en captivite, ils sont des animaux tres calmes qui consacrent une partie importante de leur temps couches, mangeant de temps a autre. Abayomi (1991) a constate que le moment de la joumee avait un effet important sur le genre d' activites effectuees par 1' animal. Cette remarque concorde dans une certaine mesure avec le resultat obtenu au cours de cette etude (Figure 1). Arpenter la cage etait I'activite dominante tot le matin et c'est le seul moment de la joumee ou on les a vus jouer (Tableau 3). lis consacraient beaucoup de temps couches entre 9 heures et 12 heures. Le soir, ils consacraient beaucoup plus de temps a arpenter la cage et a manger et se couchaient tres peu. Apres 21 heures les animaux consacraient presque tout le temps couches, avec de brefs moments consacres a marcher et a manger. Toutefois apres 3 heures les animaux restaient constamment couches et ne restaient debout que tres peu de temps lorsqu'ils etaient fatigues de rester couches. Ce mode d' activites des cephalophes de Maxwell semble indiquer que ces animaux ont un comportement diume exclusif. Cette remarque est semblable a celle faite par Jonathan (1982) sur les cephalophes de Grimm (C. monticola). Les animaux mangeaient et marchaient beaucoup plus le matin et le soir (Tableau 3). Cela donne raison a Jonathan (1982) qui a remarque que les mouvements et 1' alimentation des cephalophes de Maxwell se faisaient le soir et tot le matin. Apres chaque repas, ils allaient se coucher et Abayomi (1991) a suggere que c' etait pour leur permettre de se reposer et faciliter la rumination et la digestion, une caracteristique des ongules. L' etude a aussi montre que le moment de la joumee n'influait pas seulement sur le mode d'activite generale, mais entrainait aussi quelques differences d'activites entre le male et la femelle en captivite. Conclusions et jc^commandations Les resultats ont montre que les cephalophes ont une plus grande preference pour le fourrage suivi par les mangues, les bananes, les papayes et les epluchures de manioc. Etant donne que les preferences alimentaires des animaux sont tres souvent lies de fa9on directe a la saveur et au gout de la nourriture, on peut suggerer que le fourrage et les mangues sont plus savoureux que les papayes et les epluchures de manioc, raison pour laquelle ils consomment plus de fourrage et de mangues. L'etude a aussi montre que la consonmiation moyenne joumaliere de la nourriture preferee par une paire de 23 cephalophes de Maxwell en captivite est d'environ 3,54 kg et ceci peut baisser d'environ 15,8% quand des composantes moins preferes sont ajoutes a leur nourriture. n y avait des differences importantes dans les modes d'activites du cephalophe de Maxwell en captivite. L'activite dependait du moment de la joumee et certaines activites telles que le coucher, dependait du sexe de 1' animal. Les animaux etaient plus actifs durant la joumee, ils mangeaient et marchaient plus le matin et le soir et se couchaient tout au long de la nuit. Recommandations D est conseille de: Determiner les composantes nutritives de toutes les denrees alimentaires testees dans cette experience pour que des preuves scientifiques et objectives soient a la base de toute recommandation d' aliments pour une croissance optimale. Une autre etude devra etre menee sur la base d'une plus grande gamme de denrees alimentaires telles que les epluchures de bananes plantains, d'ignames, de taros, du son de riz et beaucoup de derives des cultures vivrieres qui ont une teneur en proteines assez elevee et des valeurs en matiere de digestion de matiere seche in vitro et qui pourraient servir d' aliments a bon marche pour I'elevage des cephalophes. Etant donne que cette etude vise a permettre la domestication du cephalophe de Maxwell, des etudes supplementaires devraient etre menees sur 1' animal pour foumir des informations sur leur biologic— duree de leur cycle oestral, periode de gestation, de lactation, developpement post-natal. On devrait aussi etudier leurs besoins en habitat pour ne pas les stresser. 24 IMMOBILIZING FREE-RANGING WESTERN KOB ANTELOPE {KOBUS KOB KOB) IN THE COMO6 NATIONAL PARK, COTE D'lVOIRE Frauke Fischer*, K. E. Linsenmair*, Julia Hector** and H. Wiesner** Summary In the Comoe National Park, Cote d'lvoire, 14 western kob antelopes (Kobus kob kob, Erxleben 1777) were immobilized using 3 different anesthetic regimes. One adult female was anaesthetized with tiletamine/zolazepam/xylazine and one adult male with xylazine/ketamine. A mixture of etorphine/acepromazine and xylazine was used for the other 12 individuals. The combination of etorphine/acepromazine and xylazine proofed to be a reliable medication for the immobilization of free-ranging kob antelopes. For immobilization of antelopes of the genus Kobus we recommend a dose of 1.35 mg etorphine, 4.4 mg acepromazine and 10 mg xylazine for both sexes and animals aged one year and older, weighing from 30 kg to up to 70 kg. Introduction In order to perform a study on the ecology and ethology of the kob antelope to evaluate the possibilities of their future sustainable use in the Comoe National Park, Cote d'lvoire in West-Africa (Fischer 1995, Fischer 1996, Fischer 1998), it was necessary to capture some of these kobs and take morphometric measurements. After this was done the animals were marked with ear tags and radio collars so as to keep track of their whereabouts. In capturing these animals however, the use of nets was soon discarded for two important reasons. One, it became obvious that this method was dangerous for both man and animal. Two, the use of nets was neither selective in terms of species nor individual. Therefore, chemical immobilization was chosen as the most practical and most ethical way of capture. Unfortunately, few data is available on immobilizing Kobus kob in the wild or in captivity, therefore we were forced to take that which is available and find the best combination of drug and weapon for' achieving a quick, effective, and ethical immobilization. * Theodor Boveri Institut fiir Biowissenschaften, Biozentrum, Am Hubland Universitat Wiirzburg, 97074 Wiirzburg, Germany Corresponding author Dr. Frauke Fischer ** MUnchener Tierpark Hellabrunn, Tierparkstr. 30, 81543 Miinchen, Germany 25 Independent of the used narcotic, several immobilizations of kob antelope in the past did not show satisfying results, as shown in tab. 1 (GTZ / FGU 1979, Wanzie 1986, Okaeme et al 1988, Merlot et al. 1990). Buechner (1960) immobilized 46 adult male Uganda kobs {Kobus kob thomasi) with succinylcholine hydrochloride. Okaeme et al. (1987) tested overdose effects of succinylcholine hydrochloride on two juvenile male Uganda kobs. This narcotic has heavy side effects and leaves the immobilized animal fully conscious (Wiesner and Hatlapa, 1982) causing it extreme stress. Hence, the use of succinylcholine hydrochloride is obsolete today. In 1963, etorphine was introduced which showed good results in the immobilization of Bovidae, Equidae and Suidae (Wiesner and Hatlapa, 1982). This narcotic was first used for the immobilization of kob antelope in 1979 in the Comoe National Park (GTZ / FGU 1979). In addition to looking at dosage and narcotic type, careful thoughts should be spent on the remote injection system to be used when immobilizing kob antelopes. Such weapons available are compressed air/C02 systems, blow pipes or bow and arrow are available (Hector 1996, SimdQv et al 1996). The previously mentioned authors (Buechner, Okaeme, Merlot, Wanzie) for example, used powder blank projectors with alloy darts to shoot free-range antelopes. However, because this technique is likely to cause severe lesions of skin or muscle, it is not recommended anymore today. The only exception to this specific outcome would be a projector equipped with a velocity control (Hector 1996). Therefore, to maximize best results, proposed alternatives to the above weapons are compressed air/C02 projectors with plastic projectiles, which due to their lower impact-energy cause less harm to the animal. In summary, the aim of the study was not only to test a compressed air/C02 system in the field, but also to find a rapid acting narcotic that could be applied under the difficult conditions of the dense bush/tree savanna in the study area. The narcotic should have very minimal side effects and should be effective in small volume in order to reduce the weight of the projectile. Further, the narcotic should under no circumstances have long lasting effects on the animals' physiology or behavior. Additionally, its effects should be reversible in short time by injecting an antidote. It should also apply to a wide range of different body weights of the target species. MATERIALS AND METHODS Animals Kob antelope occur in three subspecies in sub-Saharan Africa (Kingdon 1997). The resident species of the Comoe National Park is the western subspecies or Buff on 's Kob {Kobus kob kob). These animals show a large sexual dimorphism with adult males ranging from 60 to almost 70 kg and females from 40 to slightly more than 50 kg (Happold 1987). 26 Fig. 1: The study site in the Comoe National Park in the north of Cote d'lvoire \frica 10^ 4 N ■ Capital • Towns National Parks omoe National Park i?i^^ ^^-v^T6hini y^ , KT) :::Z^»^9^ Bania* btervatlon-^ r«a { ) \ 0 20 f/Gar^^^ ^^ -< Km (f^ River Comoe Gallery forest n Forest pockets /Dirt roads/tracks 27 Habitat The study area is located in tlie southern part of the Comoe National Park, West Africa's largest national park, at the border of the Comoe river (Fig.l). The habitat is referred to as a bush/tree savanna of the sub-Sudan/Guinea type with tree densities of 0.2 - 10 per 100 m^, and has been described in detail by Porembski (1991) and Poilecot (1991). Open grassland that scatters into the savanna is the preferred habitat of kob antelope. During the rainy season, some of these grasses reach heights of up to 3m, which results in reduced visibility for the antelopes from April onward until grass is burned in November and December. The Comoe River is bordered by a 50 - 200 m wide forest gallery, that is rarely entered by kob antelopes. Immobilization In May 1995 and from January to June 1996, 14 kob antelopes of both sexes, aged between 6 months and older than three years were immobilized. The immobilized individuals ranged in body weight from 30 to 67 kg. The following drugs and combinations of drugs were used to immobilize the animals: - Tilest 500® (100 mg tiletamine and 100 mg zolazepam per ml, Parke-Davis) - Rompun® (100 mg xylazine per ml, Bayer) - Large Animal Immobilon® (2.25 mg etorphine, 7.38 mg acepromazine per ml, C-Vet) - Ketalar® (100 mg ketamine per ml, Sanofi-Ceva) The following antidotes were used: - Yohimbin® (20 mg anyohimbine per ml, Kyron) - Revivon® (3 mg diprenorphine per ml, C-Vet) In 1995, we used 3 ml Telinject® plastic projectiles. Animals were immobilized using either a combination of 85 mg tiletamine, 85 mg zolazepam and 60 mg xylazine or a combination of 50 mg xylazine and 100 mg ketamine. 2 ml Telinject® projectiles were used in 1996 filled with 1.35 mg etorphine, 4.43 mg acepromacine and 10 mg xylazine. All projectiles were equipped with a 3.8 cm needle. Three of the animals immobilized in 1 996 were captured with a 2m blow pipe (B22T, Teleinject®, Germany), 1 1 others with a compressed CO2 rifle (G.U.T. 50, Telinject®, Germany). Animals were approached by car as close as possible either at night (2 cases) or during the day (all other cases) and shot in the shoulder or back preferably. In 1995, different CO2 pressures were used according to shooting distance, as recommended by the manufacturer. This recommended CO2 pressure for shooting distances between 40 and 60 m (5 - 7 bar) however, was accompanied by a noise that led to instantaneous and rapid flight to the animals enabling them to cover distances of about 500 m. In addition, the alerted animals were able to outran or outmaneuver the approaching projectile. Therefore, in 1996, to reduce the impact energy and even more important the noise of the muzzle, the CO2 pressure of the rifle was adjusted to 10 m (1 bar) for all distances regardless of the actual shooting distance. As a result the noise was largely eliminated and animals now reacted only when hit by the dart. 28 As soon as the antelope fell to the ground it was approached by foot, its eyes were covered with a towel and the tongue was placed to one side of the mouth. Heart beat and breath rate were then measured. Morphometric measurements were taken and the animal was marked with a numbered ear tag (40 x 50 mm, Losenbeck, Germany) and a radio collar (Biotrack, GB). After this procedure was completed, 3 ml diprenorphine was injected into either the jugular or the saphena vein. The animal was then rolled on its belly with its head lying in front of it and its neck stretched out. Close observations were taken until it got up and walked away. When necessary, time was taken to the nearest minute with a wrist watch. RESULTS Application of projectiles Distance to the target animal ranged from 5 to 40 meters. Except for animal No. 1 and No. 2 (see tab. 2) only one dart per animal was used. No injuries of animals occurred using the CO2 projector or the blow pipe. Heart and breathing rates Heart rates and breathing rates were measured right after the animal went completely down. Heart rates ranged from 57 to 116 beats per minute. Breath rates ranged from 4 to 1 8 breaths per minute. Immobilizations with Tilest® / Rompun® and Rompun® / Ketalar® The kob female (No. 1 in tab. 2) that was immobilized with 85 mg tiletamine, 85 zolazepam and 60 mg xylazine (Tilest® / Rompun®) reacted to the noise emitted by the projector with rapid flight before even being hit by the dart. After the injection, she covered a distance of about 500 m dropped four times but got up again whenever she was approached. The total time that elapsed before the female could be approached was 20 minutes. A second injection of 30 mg tiletamine, 30 mg zolazepam and 20 mg xylazine (injected with the blow pipe) was necessary to achieve immobilization of the animal. The female got up for the first time 55 min after the treatment showing ataxic movements. She then laid down for another 65 min before she retreated to denser vegetation where she spent five more hours. The female was seen subsequently several times and showed the largest flight distance of all females encountered (> 200 m). Immobilization of one male (No. 2 in tab. 2) with a combination of 250 mg xylazine and 200 mg ketamine (Rompun® / Ketalar®) did not lead to satisfying results. Since the buck responded to the noise of the projector with rapid flight in dense vegetation, his first reactions to the medication could not be determined. When he was found 15 minutes later, 500 m away, he was still conscious. Although he walked ataxically for a couple of meters he continued to show strong flight reflexes. In order to handle the animal without danger, a second injection of 75 mg xylazine and 60 mg ketamine was necessary. Even after this second injection the animal opposed heavily and could only be captured with the help of four people. Due to its strong resistance, the animal could not be weighed. Although 20 mg anyohimbine were given intramuscularly as an antidote to xylazine, it took six hours until this buck got up. The flight distance of this individual male rose from about 50 m before to 150 m after the immobilization. 29 Immobilizations with Immobilon® / Rompun® All animals immobilized with 1.35 mg etorphine, 4.43 mg acepromazine and 10 mg xylazine (Immobilon® / Rompun®) went down within five minutes after they were hit, independent of the body part that was met by the projectile. Although the animals did not react to the noise of the projector, since the shooting pressure had been reduced, they always fled as soon as they had been struck by the dart. Distances covered during such flights ranged from 50 - 300 m regardless of the body part hit by the syringe. In all cases observed, flight was rapid when hit by the dart, but slowed down after shortly afterwards. The first reactions to the medication became apparent after one of two minutes. These were ataxia accompanied by a stiff leg walk and the head held up high. After two to three minutes following, the animals dropped down on their hind legs but still tried to get up, which they sometimes managed to do once or twice. Once completely down they would continue to roll on their side struggling to get up, but were unable to. However, as soon as they were approached and their eyes covered, they calmed down and could easily be handled from this point on. The marking procedure always took less than ten minutes so that total immobilization time never exceeded 20 minutes. After the injection of 3 mg diprenorphine the animals got up without problems and walked away ignoring the operators nearby. Individuals ranging in body weight from 30 to 67 kg were immobilized following this procedure. In none of these cases did we observe differences in flight distance between, before, or after treatment when approaching the animals by car. DISCUSSION The G.U.T. 50 projector with the modified shooting pressure and the blowpipe were successfully used to apply immobilizing drugs on free-range kob antelopes. Whereas the blow pipe can be used only for animals closer than 20 m, the G.U.T. projector with a pressure of 1 bar may be utilized for distances of up to 60 m. Since shooting pressure was low, no injuries of skin or muscles occurred. However, the disadvantage of the reduced pressure is the difllculty one encounters to actually hit the target. Concerning the medication, neither Tilest 500® / Rompun® nor Ketalar® / Rompun® led to satisfying results when immobilizing Kobus kob kob. The animals took up to 20 minutes to go down, were partly conscious or showed at least strong flight reflexes. Therefore, handling the antelopes was not only difficult but also dangerous for people as well as animals. In addition, the measuring procedures either lasted longer or could not be performed at all. Furthermore, the animals showed far greater flight distances after they had been captured which in turn interfered with the ongoing research. In spite of the fact that only one animal was immobilized with each of these mixtures, we do not recommend the further use of these drugs in immobilizing kob antelopes, since our results were less promising. The immobilization of kob antelopes with a mixture of Immobilon® and Rompun® fulfilled all criteria asked for, as did the application of the antidote Revivon®. The kobs went down within five minutes and could easily be handled thereafter. Their behavior towards the researchers or the car did not change after the capturing procedure. Due to the low dose of xylazine no negative effects were observed in our study as have been described in other bovids (Wiesner and Hatlapa 1982). Moreover, we are lead to believe that the applied mixture of Immobilon® / Rompun® has a wide security margin because we successfully and without problems immobilized animals in the weight range of 30 to 67 kg. This adds to the great advantage of this combination, since estimating the actual weight of free-ranging animals is difficult. Trials in captivity showed that both the dose of narcotics needed, and the time it takes for the medication to be effective, can be reduced by applying hyaluronidase (Kinetin®) (Hector 1997). Since this enzyme must be stored refrigerated and decomposes rapidly, we were not able to use it in the field. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The study was made possible by financial aid of the Thyssen Foundation and the Volkswagen Foundation (Az 1/64 102). Frauke Fischer was supported by a grant of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD No. 563 706 500). We would also like to thank the University of Wiirzburg for financial support. We thank Koffi Kouadio and Matthias Gross for help in the field, Michelle Ihrig for critical comments on an earlier draft of the paper and Ira Olaleye for drawing the map. We thank the "Ministere de I'agriculture et des ressources animales" in Abidjan for the permit (1223/Minagra/CAB-l) to undertake research in the Comoe National Park. 31 Bibliography 1. Buechner, H. K., Harthom; A. M. and Lock, J. A., 1960. Recent advances in field immobilization of large mammals with drugs. Trans. 25^*^ N. Am. Wildl. Congr., 415-422. 2. Fischer, F., 1995. Untersuchung der Kob-Antilope im Comoe-Nationalpark in West-Afrika. Natur und Museum 125(5): 55-166. 3. Fischer, F., 1996. Cote d'lvoire: Comoe National Park. Pp. 9-12 in: Antelope Survey Update No.2. Compiler R. East, lUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group Publication. 4. Fischer, F., 1998. Okoethologische Grundlagen der nachhaltigen Nutzung von Kobantilopen. Dissertation Biologische Fakultat der Bayerischen Julius Maximilians Universitat WUrzburg. 5. GTZ/FGU, 1979. Gegenwartiger Status der Comoe- und Tai-Nationalparks sowie des Azagny-Reservats und Vorschlage zu deren Erhaltung und Entwicklung zur Forderung des Tourismus. PN 73.2085.6 Band n Teil 1 + 2. 6. Hector, J., 1996. Zur Ballistik von Distanzinjektionsgeraten. Dissertation Tiermedizinische Fakultat der Universitat Munchen. 7. Kingdon, J., 1997. African Mammals. Academic Press, London. 8. Merlot, L., van Hemelen, G., Guedegbe, B. and Heymans, J. C. 1990. Sur une experience d'anesthesie a distance au Pare National de la Pendjari (Republique Populaire du Benin). Cahiers d'Ethologie applique 10(1): 111-120. 9. Okaeme, A. N., Agbelusi, E. A., Mshelbwala, J., Wari, M., Ngulge, A. and Halim, M. 1988. Effects of Immobilon and Revivon in the immobilization of Western Kob (Kobus kob kob). Afr. J. Ecol. 26: 63-67. 10. Okaeme, A. N., Ngulge, A., Wari, M. A. and Mshelbwala, J. 1987. Succinylcholine chloride overdose in western kob {Kobus kob kob). Afr. J. Ecol. 25: 295-296. 11. Poilecot, P. 1991. Un ecosysteme de savanne soudanienne: Le Pare National de la Comoe (Ivory Coast). UNESCO IVC/87/007, Washington. 12. Porembski, S. 1991. Beitrage zur Pflanzenwelt des Comoe-Nationalparks (Elfenbeinkuste). Natur und Museum 121(3): 61-83. 13. Stander, P., Ghau, X., Tsisaba, D. and Txoma, X. 1996. A new method of darting: stepping back in time. Afr. J. Ecol. 34: 48-53. 14. Wanzie, C. S. 1986. Buffon's Kob {Kobus kob kob, Erxleben) immobilization in Waza National Park, Cameroon. Mammalia 50 (2): 253-262. 15. Wiesner, H. and Hatlapa, H.-H. 1982. Die Praxis der Wildtierimmobilisation. Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg and Berlin. 16. Wiesner, H. 1990. Zum aktuellen Stand der Distanzimmobilisation. Pp. 27-43 in: Immobilisation yon Zoo-, Gatter- und Wildtieren, Deutsche Veterinarmedizinische Gesellschaft e. V., Munchen. 32 Table 1: Immobilization of Kobus kob by different austhors using various medications species age / sex dose author remarks K. kob 46 adult males 0.35 mg / kg succinylcholine chloride Buechner e/ a/. 1960 no further information given thomasi K. kob kob adult male 0.735 mg etorphine 3 mg acepromazine 80 mg xylazine GTZ/FGU1979 risk of shock K. kob kob adult male 0.5 mg etorphine 60 mg xylazine GTZ/FGU1979 risk of shock K. kob kob adult male, 4 adult females 40 mg fentanyl 80 mg azaparone Wanzie 1986 adult male died K. kob kob adult female 20 mg fentanyl 80 mg azaparone 25 mg phenergan Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob adult male 20 mg fentanyl 80 mg azaparone Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob 2 adult males 40 mg fentanyl 40 mg azaparone Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob adult male 40 mg + 20 mg fentanyl 40 mg + 20 mg azerparone Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob adult male 0.5 mg etorphine 20 mg acepromazine Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob adult male 1 mg etorphine 20 mg acepromazine Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob 2 adult males 1 subadult male 0.8 mg etorphine 80 mg xylazine Wanzie 1986 no further information given K. kob kob juvenile male 60 mg succinylcholine chloride Okaeme etal. 1986 animal died K. kob kob juvenile male 30 mg succinylcholine chloride Okaemee/a/. 1986 animal died K. kob kob 4 adult males 7 adult females 8- 12mgetorphme Okaemeeffl/. 1988 K. kob kob adult male 300 mg xylazine 300 mg ketamine Meilot etal. 1990 animal could still move ?-3 33 V « CO g i 1 o. c 3 CQ -6 ^ O — c *- o 00 ^ c s ^ o •52 o JS =5 o o in ^ o o ■^ so ^ 60 .M 60 Ja .S 00 II •§. 60 IIS 60 u C U g iS 60 60 is ^ t3 >n ^ 60 CO VO ^ 60 •S o f O in O -S 2 « .1 « .S N ' (J o s 2 « -S » S E X 2 ^ Vs 8*1 ' O O CO ^ 34 kM 1> « M e ,o O 4> a c 3 01 1^ ^'S S| q rj rj 'S g M 1 1 "^ 1 1 ^^ m *"■ ^^ ""^ T3 60 c a CO g d T3 /—S ,^— s. ^^ ^— ' w' u c c •u 2 X .s .9 .s heart ra breathing 1 ■| 1 « 1 a 1 « 1 « 1 1 ^ r- "* VO ^ O VO VO ^ c On ^ -H t^ m ^ »— 1 »— 1 ^ Tf i i^ ^£ ^^ ^^ MJS u a c -0 ^ „ 00 Is "O c C /S>6| 6 .S o S a d S.| s.a <=> a •S3 o ^ ^ <=> o ^ o « o o " 73 O 13 •X3 VO in (^ ^ .^ s >^ .^ c ^ "to 00 5 •t5 X> M B* j> u .s N .g « .S N O (U 43 .S N c 1 o (u S O S N N J2 O (U g « S N N M 00 2 '>, 00 2 ">. ">% 00 2 >> a i ^ 61^ O ^1 X X X o 00 B 00 B f 2 «> u-> a, a 2 ^ k. ^ ?i o n S o n 8 o ^ 8 o c ^ w -^ rt ^^ — CO '^ ^^ M — ^ea- l-l u ^ d 1—1 rs oo On ■— ; ""; ""I c ci r ** Munchener Tierpark Hellabrunn, Tierparkstr. 30, 81543 Miinchen, Germany 37 L'utilisation de filets pour capturer ces animaux a 6t6 vite abandonnee pour deux raisons importantes ; d'un, parce qu'il etait devenu evident que cette methode etait dangereuse aussi bien pour 1' animal que pour rhomme. De deux, parce que l'utilisation des filets ne permettait pas de selectionner I'espece ou I'individu particulierement cible. La methode chimique a done ete choisie comme etant le moyen le plus pratique et le plus moralement acceptable de capture des animaux. Malheureusement, il existe tres peu de donnees sur I'anesthesie du cobe de buffon a I'etat sauvage ou en captivite ; nous avons done ete obliges d'utiliser ce qui etait disponible et de trouver la meilleure combinaison de medicaments et d'outils pour arriver a immobiliser les animaux de fa9on rapide, efficace et moralement acceptable. Hormis l'utilisation des narcotiques, plusieurs methodes d'anesthesie du cobe de buffon dans le passe n'ont pas produit des resultats satisfaisants, comme le montre le tableau 1 (GTZ /FGU 1979, Wanzie 1986, Okaeme et al. 1988, Merlot et al. 1990). Buechner (1960) a immobilise 46 cobes d'Ouganda males adultes (Kobus kob thomasi) avec de 1' hydrochloride succinylcholine. Okaeme et al. a etudie les effets du surdosage de 1' hydrochloride succinylcholine chez deux jeunes cobes d'Ouganda males. Le produit entraine de graves effets secondaires et laisse r animal anesthesie completement conscient (Wiesner et Hatlapa, 1982) et dans un etat de stress extreme. C'est ce qui fait que 1' hydrochloride de succinylcholine n'est plus utilise aujourd'hui. En 1963, 1'etorphine a ete introduite et a produit de bons resultats dans I'anesthesie des Bovides, des Equides et des Suides (Wiesner et Hatlapa, 1982). Ce stupefiant a ete pour la premiere fois utilise en 1979 pour anesthesier le cobe de buffon dans le Pare National de la Comoe (GTZ/FGU 1979). Outre le dosage et le type de medicament a utiliser, il faudra egalement faire attention au type de systeme d'anesthesie a distance a utiliser pour le cobe de buffon. II existe des outils comme les systemes a compression d'air/C02, des sarbacanes, ou des arcs et des fleches; (Hector 1996, Standere/a/. 1996). Les experts mentionnes plus haut, (Buechner, Okaeme, Merlot, Wanzie) par exemple, ont utilise des projecteurs blancs a poudre munis de flechettes en alliage pour piquer des antilopes sauvages. Toutefois, en raison du fait que cette methode risque de causer de graves lesions cutanees ou musculaires, elle n'est plus recommandee aujourd'hui. La seule solution possible dans ce cas particulier serait un projecteur muni d'un mecanisme de controle de la vitesse (Hector 1996). Done pour avoir les meilleurs resultats possibles, les autres methodes proposees sont done les projecteurs a compression d'air/C02 munis de projectiles en plastic, qui en raison de leur charge energique reduite, nuisent moins a 1' animal. En resume, I'etude avait pour objectif, non seulement de verifier I'efficacite du systeme a compression d'air/C02 sur le terrain mais aussi de trouver un medicament susceptible d'agir rapidement et qui pourrait etre utilise dans les conditions difficiles de la savane dense boisee de la zone d' etude. Le medicament devra comporter le minimum d' effets negatifs et etre efficace avec une dose minimale en vue de reduire le poids du projectile. II ne devra en aucun cas avoir des effets de longue duree sur la physiologic ou le comportement de 1' animal. En outre, ses effets doivent pouvoir etre aneantis apres un laps de temps assez court en administrant un 38 antidote. Le medicament devra par ailleurs pouvoir etre administre a toute une gamme d'individus de I'espece visee ayant poids corporels differents. Materiels et Methodes Les animaux Le cobe de buffon se presente sous forme de trois especes en Afrique sub-saharienne (Kingdom 1997). L'espece endemique du Pare National de la Comoe est la sous- espece appelee cobe de buffon (Kobus kob kob). Ces animaux presentent un dimorphisme sexuel avec les males adultes pesant entre 60 a presque 70 kg alors que les femelles vont de 40 a un peu plus de 50 kg (Happold 1987). Habitat La zone de I'etude est situee dans la partie sud du Pare National de la Comoe, le plus grand pare national de I'Afrique de I'Ouest, sur la rive du fleuve Comoe. L'habitat est defmi comme une savane boisee du type sub-soudano/guineen avec des densit^s d'arbres allant de 0,2 a 10 arbres par 100 km^, et a ete decrit en detail par Porembski (1991) et Poilecot (1991). Les vastes prairies parsemant la savane constituent l'habitat prefere du cobe de buffon. Au cours de la saison des pluies, certaines de ces herbes atteignent une hauteur de 3 metres ce qui reduit la visibilite de I'animal a partir du mois d'avril jusqu'a ce que les herbes ne soient brulees en Novembre ou en Decembre. Le fleuve Comoe est borde par une foret de galerie vaste de 50 ^ 200 metres rarement frequentee par les antilopes. Immobilisation En Mai 1995 et entre Janvier et Juin 1996, 14 cobes de buffon des deux sexes, ages de 6 mois plus de trois ans ont ete anesthesies. Le poids des animaux se situait entre 30 et 67 kg. Les medicaments et les associations de medicaments suivants ont ete utilises pour immobiliser les animaux : - Tilest 500 (lOOmg tiletamine et 100 mg zolazepam par ml, Parke-Davis) - Rompun (lOOmg xylazine par ml, Bayer) - Immobilon des grands animaux (2,25 mg d'Etorphine, 7,38 mg d'acepromazine par ml, C - Vet) - Ketalar (100 mg de Ketamine par ml, Sanofi - Ceva) Les antidotes suivants ont ete utilises : - Yohimbin (20 mg d'anyohimbine par ml, Kyron) - Revivon (3 mg de diprenorphine par ml , C - Vet) 39 Africa 10^ 9° 4 N ■ Capital • Towns National Parks Como^ National Park Kafolo f^ River Comoe Gallery forest □ Forest pockets / Dirt roads/tracks Km 40 En 1995, nous avons utilise des projectiles Telinject en plastic de 3 ml. Les animaux ont ete immobilises avec, soit un melange de 85 mg de tiletamine, 85 mg de zolazepame et 60 mg de xylazine, soit avec une combinaison de 50 mg de xylazine et 100 mg de ketamine Des projectiles Telinject de 2 ml ont ete utilises en 1996 remplis de 1,35 mg d'etorphine, 4,43 mg d'acepromacine et 10 mg de xylazine. Tous les projectiles etaient munis d'une aiguille de 3,8 cm. Trois des animaux anesthesies en 1996 etaient captures avec une sarbacane de 2 m (B22T, Telinject, Allemagne), 1 1 autres avec une carabine de CO2 comprime (G.U.T.50, Telinject Allemagne). Les animaux etaient accostes le plus proche possible en voiture, soit la nuit (2 cas) soit le jour (tous les autres cas) et injectes a I'epaule ou de preference dans le dos. En 1995, differentes pressions de CO2 etaient utilisees en fonction de la distance de tir, selon les indications du manufacturier. Cette pression de CO2 recommandee pour les distances de tir situees entre 40 et 60 m (5-7 bar) etait cependant accompagnee d'un bruit qui a instantanement force les animaux a fuir a toute vitesse, couvrant des distances d' environ 500 m. En outre, les animaux alertes avaient reussi a eviter le projectile approchant. Par consequent, en 1996, pour reduire la charge energique, voire le bruit du canon, la pression de CO2 de la carabine a ete ramenee a 10 m (1 bar ) pour toutes les distances, peu importe la distance actuelle de tir. Le bruit a done ete considerablement reduit et les animaux ne reagissaient qu'apres avoir ete piques par r aiguille. Aussitot que I'antilope s'assoupissait, on s'en approchait a pied, lui couvrait les yeux d'une serviette et pla9ait sa langue dans un angle de la bouche. Les rythmes cardiaque et respiratoire etaient ensuite mesures. Les mesures morphometriques sont prises et la bete est marquee d'une plaque a I'oreille (40x50 mm, Losenbeck, Allemagne ) et d'un collier magnetique. (Biotrack, GB). Apres cette operation, 3ml de diprenorphine lui est administre soit dans la veine jugulaire ou saphene. L' animal est ensuite redresse sur le ventre avec la tete dressee devant lui et le cou etire. II est garde sous surveillance etroite jusqu'a ce qu'il ne se leve et s'en aille. Si necessaire, tout le processus est chronometre jusqu'a la demiere minute pres a I'aide d'une montre bracelet. Resultats Application des projectiles La distance entre 1' expert et 1' animal vise etait de 5 a 40 metres. Sauf dans le cas des animaux No 1 et 2, seule une flechette etait utilisee par animal. Aucune blessure n'a ete causee aux animaux avec le projecteur a CO2 ou la sarbacane. Rythmes cardiaque et respiratoire Les rythmes cardiaque et respiratoire etaient mesures tout de suite apres la chute complete de r animal. Les rythmes cardiaques allaient de 57 a 1 16 battements la minute et la respiration, de 4 a 18 souffles la minute. 41 Immobilisation a Faide du Tilest / Rompun et du Rompun/ Ketalar Le cobe femelle (No 1, tab. 2) (voir version anglaise) qui a ete anesthesie avec 85mg de tiletamine, 85 mg de zolazepame et 60 mg de xylazine (Tilest /Rompun) a reagi au bruit emis par le projecteur en se sauvant a grande vitesse avant meme d'etre atteinte par la flechette. Apres I'injection, elle a parcouru une distance d'environ 500 m, est tombee a quatre reprises mais s'est toujours relevee chaque fois que Ton s'est approche d'elle. Au total 20 minutes se sont ecoulees avant qu' on ait pu s'approcher de 1' animal. II a fallu une deuxieme dose de 30 mg de tiletamine, 30mg de zolazpame et 20 mg de xylazine (administre a I'aide de la sarbacane) pour pouvoir immobiliser r animal. Le cobe s'est releve la premiere fois 55 minutes apres le traitement avec des mouvements ataxiques. Elle s'est ensuite assoupie pour 65 autres minutes avant de se retirer dans un endroit plus touffu de la savane ou elle a encore passe cinq heures de temps. Elle a ete par la suite rencontree plusieurs fois eta couvert la plus grande distance jamais faite par toutes les femelles etudiees (>200 m.). L' immobilisation d'un male (No 2, tab. 2) (voir version anglaise) avec un melange de 250 mg de xylazine et 200 mg de ketamine (Rompun/Ketalar) n'a pas produit de resultats satisfaisants. L' animal ayant reagi au bruit du projecteur en prenant rapidement la fuite dans une vegetation dense, ses premieres reactions au medicament n'ont pas pu etre determinees. Quand il a ete retrouve 15 minutes plus tard, a 500 metres de la, il etait toujours conscient. Bien qu'il eut marche ataxiquement quelques metres de distance, il a continue a manifester de puissants reflexes de tentatives de fuite. Pour pouvoir le traiter sans danger, une deuxieme dose de 75 mg de xylazine et de 60 mg de ketamine s'est averee necessaire. Meme apres cette deuxieme piqure, I'animal a manifeste une forte resistance et n'a pu etre capture qu'avec I'aide de quatre personnes. A cause de sa resistance, il n'a pas pu etre pese. Bien qu'une dose de 20 mg d'anyohimbine lui ait ete administree par voie intramusculaire sous forme d' antidote contre la xylamine, le cobe a mis six heures de temps pour se relever. La distance parcourue par ce male en particulier est passee de 50m avant 1' anesthesie a 150 m apres. Immobilisation a I'lmmobilon/Rompun Tous les animaux immobilises avec 1,35 mg d'etorphine, 4,43 mg d'acepromazine et 10 mg de xylazine (Immobilon/Rompun) se sont affaisses en moins de cinq minutes apres la piqure, quelle que soit la partie du corps touchee par le projectile. Bien que les animaux n'aient pas reagi au bruit du projecteur, une fois que la pression du projectile a ete reduite, ils ont toujours pris la fuite aussitot qu'ils ont ete touches par I'aiguille. La distance parcourue au cours de la fuite etait de 50 a 300 metres, quelle que soit la partie du corps touchee par la seringue. Dans tous les cas observes, I'elan a ete rapide au depart mais plus lent tout de suite apres. Les premieres reactions au medicament sont devenues evidentes une ou deux minutes plus tard. Au debut on a note chez les animaux, une ataxie suivie d'une demarche aux pattes raides et a la tete haute. Deux a trois minutes apres, les animaux se sont assoupis sur leurs pattes posterieures mais ont toujours essaye de se relever, ce qu'ils sont parfois parvenus a faire une ou deux fois. Une fois completement affaiblis, ils ont continue a rouler d'un cote a I'autre, luttant pour se relever mais en vain. Cependant, des que Ton s'etait approche d'eux et que leurs yeux etaient couverts, ils s'etaient calmes et il etait devenu facile de les traiter a ce point. La procedure de marquage a 42 toujours dure moins de dix minutes ce qui fait que la duree totale d' immobilisation ne depassait jamais 20 minutes. Apres une injection de 3 mg de diprenorphine, les animaux se sont leves et sont repartis sans se preoccuper des operateurs a cote. Des animaux individuels avec des poids allant de 30 a 67 kg avaient ete immobilises avec cette methode. Dans aucun de ces cas avions - nous constate des differences au niveau de la distance parcourue avant ou apres le traitement en s'approchant en voiture des animaux. Discussions Le projecteur G.U.T. 50 avec la pression reduite et la sarbacane ont ete utilises avec succes pour administrer des produits anesthesiques a des cobe de buffon a I'etat sauvage. Alors que la sarbacane ne pent etre utilisee que pour des animaux eloignes de moins de 20 metres, le projecteur G.U.T. avec une pression de 1 bar pent etre utilise pour des distances allant jusqu'a 60 m. Puisque la pression de tir etait faible, aucune blessure cutanee ou musculaire n'a ete observee Cependant, 1' inconvenient de la pression reduite est qu'il est difficile d'atteindre le cible actuellement vise. A propos des medicaments utilises, ni le Tilest 500 / Rompun ni le Ketalar / Rompun n'ont donne des resultats satisfaisants quant a 1' immobilisation du Kobus kob kob. Les animaux avaient pris jusqu'a 20 minutes pour s'assoupir, etaient partiellement conscients ou ont du moins manifeste de puissants reflexes de fuite. Le traitement de ces animaux etait par consequent non seulement difficile mais aussi dangereux tant pour les etres humains que pour les betes elles- memes. En outre, la procedure de mesurage a soit pris beaucoup plus de temps ou n'a pas du tout eu lieu. Par ailleurs, les animaux se sont beaucoup plus eloignes apres la capture, ce qui n'a non plus pas ete favorable a la recherche en cours. Bien que seul un animal ait ete immobilise avec chacun de ces melanges, nous deconseillons 1' utilisation de ces produits pour anesthesier le cobe etant donne que nos resultats n' etaient pas encourageants. L' immobilisation des cobes de buffon a I'aide d'un melange d'Immobilon et de Rompun a satisfait tous les criteres exigibles tout comme 1' administration de 1' antidote Revivon. Les antilopes se sont affaisses en moins de cinq minutes et ont pu facilement etre manipules par la suite. Leur comportement envers les experts ou la voiture n'a pas change apres le processus de capture. En raison de la faible dose de xylazine, aucun effet negatif n'a ete observe au cours de notre etude comme signale chez d'autres bovides (Wiesner et Hatlapa, 1982). Par ailleurs nous sommes enclin a croire que le melange Immobil on/Romp un offre une plus grande marge de securite parce que nous avons reussi a immobiliser, sans probleme, des animaux pesant entre 30 et 67 kg. Ceci confirme I'avantage de cette combinaison, puisqu'il est difficile de determiner le poids exacte des animaux a I'etat libre. Les essais menes sur les animaux en captivite ont montre qu' aussi bien la dose de produit anesthesique necessaire que le temps que met le medicament pour produire 1' effet souhaite peuvent etre reduits en administrant une dose d'hyaluronidase (Kinetine) (Hector 1997). Etant 43 donne que cette enzyme doit etre conservee au froid et se decompose rapidement, nous n'avons pas pu I'utiliser sur le terrain. Remerciements L' etude a ete rendue possible grace a 1' assistance fmanciere de la Fondation Thyssen et la Fondation Volkswagen (Az 1/64 102). Frauke Fischer a beneficie de I'appui financier du Service Allemand des Echanges Academiques (DAAD No 563 706 500). Nous aimerions egalement remercier I'Universite de Wurzburg pour son assistance financiere. Nous remercions MM. Koffi Kouadio et Matthias Gross pour I'assistance sur le terrain, Michelle Ihrig pour les conseils importants qu'elle a prodigues sur une premiere ebauche de ce projet et Ira Olaleye pour avoir dessine les cartes. Au Ministere de 1' Agriculture et des Ressources animales a Abidjan, nous disons enfin merci pour nous avoir donne I'autorisation (1223/Minagra/CAB - 1) d'entreprendre la recherche dans le Pare National de la Comoe. 44 WHO PAYS FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN TANZANIA? J.R. Kideghesho* INTRODUCTION Wildlife sector receives the top priority in the agenda of natural resources management and conservation in Tanzania. The land area of the country dedicated for wildlife conservation in form of wildlife protected areas (viz. National Parks, Game Reserves, Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Game Controlled Areas) is about 28.0%. This is almost twice the land area occupied by forestry protected areas. There are 570 forest reserves in Tanzania occupying 15.0% of the land area of the country. Of these 3.0% overlaps with wildlife protected areas. Tanzania's global reputation as one of the four 'megadiversity nations', merits the concerted efforts in conserving the natural resources. Other three megadiversity nations are Democratic Republic of Congo (former Zaire), Brazil and Indonesia. For a country to be classified as a 'megadiversity nation' has to meet a certain criteria including possessing of high diversity of species and habitats together with high degree of endemism. With 310 mammal species Tanzania ranks the fourth in the Afro-tropical realm, third in terms of birds (1016 species), second in terms of reptiles (245 species), amphibians (121 species), and 11, 000 higher plants (about 74% of plants found in East Africa). Of these species some are threatened. According to lUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Tanzania has about 30 mammals, 26 birds, 3 reptiles and several fish species that are threatened. The high number of threatened mammals puts Tanzania in a list of the 10 countries with the large number of threatened mammals along with Madagascar (53), Indonesia (49), China (40), Brazil (40) India (39), Australia (38), Zaire (31), Mexico (25) and USA (25) (WCMC, 1992). Being one of the 25 most endemic-rich countries in the world, Tanzania has 13 known endemic species of mammals, 13 birds, 56 reptiles, 40 amphibians and several fish species (World Resources Institute, 1992). In Africa it ranks the sixth, surpassed by Madagascar, Zaire, Cameroon, Ethiopia and South Africa (WCMC, 1992). The country's high diversity of species and ecosystems provide opportunities for both consumptive and non-consumptive use of wildlife. Currently, the two forms make a contribution of 2% of the country's Gross Domestic product (GDP). However, the vision of wildlife sector for the next 20 years is to raise this contribution to 5% by the year 2025 (MNRT, 1998). * Faculty of Forestry & Nature Conservation, SUA E-mail: J.Kideghesho @ tanzanet.com 45 Despite the economic contribution of wildlife sector to country's GDP, There has been a dilemma in addressing the question of 'who are the beneficiaries and who are the losers from wildlife conservation'. This question is valid if practical wildlife conservation and sustainable development are to be met. The concern is centred on the fact that, while some people exploit wildlife and ecosystems without necessarily paying the full social and- economic costs of their exploitation, rural people, particularly those sharing the immediate boundaries with protected areas are the most negatively affected by wildlife conservation. The costs local people incur by virtue of proximity to protected areas and the little contribution wildlife make to their livelihood have made them label wildlife as a liability. However, they feel that wildlife is an asset to the government, conservation authorities and other people including those who do not bear the costs of wildlife conservation. ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE Although the potentials of wildlife sector in Tanzania are not fully exploited, the sector could be made the most economically rewarding form of land use. A study conducted in 1988 by the International Trade Centre and lUCN suggested that Tanzania's wildlife resource had a value of around US $120 million per year (Leader-Williants, Kayera and Overton, 1996). The high concentration of wildlife species and unspoilt natural tourist attractions has made Tanzania an ideal destination for tourists who contribute immensely to Tanzania's economy. Over the last decade, a gradual increase of tourists in Tanzania's 12 national parks has been recorded. The number has increased from 132,879 in 1987/88 to 269,902 in 1997/98. The revenue generated increased from US $2,534,481 to US $14,218,207.75 for the two periods respectively (T ANAPA, 1999), an annual increase of 46.1%. Between 1987 and 1996, the wildlife sector earned the country an amount of US $73,324,635 both from consumptive and non-consumptive use (Gamassa, 1998). Non-consumptive use fees from the national parks amounted to US $37,609 while consumptive fees from game reserves and game controlled areas amounted to US $35,725,082. In a period of 1994/95 the amount collected from game viewing and hunting was 15,98,244, consumptive and non- consumptive fees contributing approximately equally. Besides generation of foreign currency, wildlife sector provides opportunities for employment, research and education. Wildlife is also a source of protein to people. Notwithstanding these benefits, the sector faces a dilemma generated by the question of 'who pays for and who benefits from wildlife'. This situation makes wildlife fail to demonstrate its importance as a positive development factor to stakeholders who gain little or no benefits from wildlife. WHO REALLY PAYS FOR WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN TANZANIA? Wildlife conservation is an expensive undertaking. It needs an investment in terms of financial resources, knowledgeable and skilled manpower. Moreover, it needs foregoing some of the economic, social and cultural opportunities. Different stakeholders pay for costs associated with wildlife conservation in one way or another. 46 The government, for example, by devoting the large areas of land for wildlife conservation and allocating money in a bid of promoting wildlife sector, it pays for wildlife conservation. These resources could otherwise be used for other purposes, therefore a decision by the government to invest in wildlife conservation and foregoing other ventures is an opportunity cost. Wildlife institutions entrusted with conserving the wildlife such as TANAPA, Wildlife Division and Ngorongoro Conservation Area pay for wildlife conservation through their investment in terms of time, human and financial resources. Tourists pay for wildlife conservation through paying for the services rendered by protected areas. Local and international NGOs, UN and bilateral organisations committed to conservation such as WWF, AWF, lUCN, UNDP UNESCO, UNEP, USAID, GTZ, NORAD, and DfID pay for wildlife conservation through funding a number of conservation projects and programmes. Local communities pay through the costs inflicted by wildlife such as property damage, marginalization and risk posed by wild animals to their life. Albeit the costs which are incurred by different stakeholders in a bid of conserving wildlife, the experience has shown that, those who benefit from exploiting wildlife species and ecosystems seldom pay the full social and economic costs of their exploitation. The society, individuals and institutions who had gained little benefit from the original exploitation are the ones who bear these costs. This is a typical case with rur^l communities who share the immediate boundaries with wildlife areas. By virtue of the costs caused by wildlife, rural communities pay more and yet they benefit less from the wildlife. These costs are a source of mistrust and conflicts between conservation authorities and rural communities. The concern over wildlife-related costs incurred by rural communities is expressed by Tanzania Wildlife policy under the following setbacks pertinent to rural communities (MNRT, 1998): • Failure of the wildlife conservation as a form of land use to compete adequately with other forms of land use, especially to the rural communities • inadequate financial and human resources to enable the government to devolve wildlife management responsibilities to the rural people countrywide • Inadequate wildlife use rights especially to the rural communities • Inadequate capacity to control problem animals The box below carries quotations from Tanzania wildlife policy admitting inadequate contribution of wildlife to rural communities Box 1: Who benefits, who loses? "Wildlife conservation is an important form of land use in Tanzania that generates a substantial amount of revenue and foreign exchange However rural communities have benefited little from those forms of wildlife utilisation taking place in settled land..." pp 14. " On the one hand, villagers are neither able to afford the resident license fees nor to use traditional weapons under current legislation. On the other hand, richer urban dwelling Tanzanians apply to shoot a number of animals well below market prices and at considerable opportunity cost to those rural communities whose land they hunt " pp 17 Quoted from the Wildlife Policy of Tanzania (MNRT, 1998). 47 WHAT COSTS DOES WILDLIFE CAUSE TO LOCAL COMMUNITIES? By virtue of living in proximity to wildlife-rich areas the local communities bear numerous costs. These costs are summarised by the equation given in a box below. Box 2: Wildlife-Related Costs (WRC) to Rural Communities WRC = f (OC + DC + DL + Dl + DT + DP) Where: 00 = Opportunity Costs DC = Crop Damage DL = Livestock Depredation Dl = Destruction to Infrastructure DT = Diseases Transmission to people and livestock DP = Danger of death or injury to people. Opportunity Cost (OC) Most of the protected areas were established by evicting people from wildlife-rich areas. This meant forcing people to forego their social, economic and cultural values. The act of foregoing social and cultural benefits and/or economic ventures in order to give a room for other purposes (wildlife conservation for this case) is termed as opportunity cost. Some of the benefits or opportunities foregone by local communities include loss of access to; cultivation and grazing land, sacred sites, fuelwood and food including bush meat, vegetables and fruits. Crop Damage (DC) Wildlife rich areas were previously regarded as low potential land use areas (LPLAs) because of low suitability for agriculture. However, following the land scarcity attributable to population growth in high potential land use areas, in-migration to LPLAs has made crop cultivation important land use in these areas, besides pastoralism and wildlife conservation. Emergence of crop cultivation as a land use in wildlife-rich areas has invited a problem of crop damage. In a study conducted in 3 villages around Arusha National park, about 90% of respondents (n=54) indicated crop damage as the most serious problem facing the communities around the park. The raided crops include; maize, banana, cassava, potatoes, and coffee. Problem animals cited were elephants, buffaloes, bush pigs and primates. The study indicates that, most of the villagers are against the idea of abolishing the park. However, they feel that what they get from the park is inadequate or rather does not address their immediate problem which is crop damage (see laments in box 3). 48 Box 3: An Elder's perceptions "You say good neighbourliness 'ujirani mwema', but when my cattle enter the park to graze I am punished and fined heavily. When your elephants and buffaloes cross into my garden and "clear all my bananas - look at that portion -that was raided last night, there is nothing left. You can not compensate me. Neither can I fine you nor take you to court - why? You say this is our natural resource. No they are your resource. You have built school for our village (Ngurdoto). Yes a good idea. My son asked for breakfast this morning before he left for school. I heard his mother reply, there is no food - nothing! Didn't you see the animals eat the last bananas? We are both angry and hungry. Is this what you call ujirani mwema?" An informal interview as directly quoted from Mzee Joseph Sangito of Ngurdoto village 10th February, 1999 The problem of crop damage can also be represented by data collected from Kondoa District in a period of 10 years from 1987-1998 (Table below). The crops suffered from destruction are maize, millet, fingermillet and sugar cane. Table: The acres of crops destroyed by wild animals in Kondoa District between 1987-98 Problem Elephant Buffalo Tandala Warthog/ Total acres destroyed animal/year Mkubwa bushpig 1989/90 48 42 - - 90 1990/91 149 42 2 - 193 1991/92 211 115 - - 326 1992/93 1243 91 1 6 1341 1993/94 764 12 - - 776 1994/95 1259 26 - 10 1295 1995/96 13 2 - 1 16 1997/98 118 273 - - 391 Source: Game Office- Kondoa District Danger of death or injury to people (DP). The wild animals put the human life at a risk through direct attack or disease transmission (The zoonotic diseases such as rabies and anthrax). Attack by wild animals may result to death or injury. There are numerous recorded cases of death and injury caused by wild animals to humans. The most dangerous animals include lions, leopard, crocodiles, snakes and buffaloes. The table below is an example of the cases occurring in wildlife rich areas as reported in a period of 10 years in Kondoa District. 49 Box 4: Kilombero animals on rampage From Correspondent GERMANUS JOSEPH in Morogoro INCIDENCE of wild animals attacking and killing people in some parts of Kilombero District have reportedly being on the increase and have caused fear among the residents. Speaking with reporters recently, the head of the Roman Catholic- owned St Francis hospital in Ifakara, Dr Kibatala, said of recent his hospital has been receiving an average of four patients per month who have been seriously wounded by fierce wild animals. Dr Kibatala said presently the hospital .attends to four people who were wounded by the animals in different incidentsand some of them have been amputated to save their lives. He named the victims of animal attacks currently admitted to the hospital as: Timothy .Sanga, a resident of Mngeta Village, Hegula Ruvu and a ten-year-old boy Rashid Libenangaboth of Ifakara, and an elderly manwho was identified only by one name of Ubongo. Mr Sanga was seriously wounded by a hippopotamus at Mambanangumbi fishennen's camp in Mngeta village, he said, adding that his right arm has been amputated to save his life. Ruvu was also attacked by hippopotamus when fishing, he added. Another victim, Rashid, was attacked by a crocodile when he was bathing with his friend in Lumemo river, Dr Kibatala said. The boy was allegedly saved by his mother one Hadija Libenanga who dived into the river and snatched the little boy from a crocodile's mouth, the doctor said. The crocodile made away with the boy's ami, according to Dr Kibatala. The fourth victim, Ubongo was attacked by a lion when he was asleep, he said. Ubongo was in his hut at his farmwhen the animal entered and attacked him. Following the increased incidents, the Kilombero District Commissioner, Mr David Holela, has warned the people to take precaution when they are in their famis. Source: Daily News June 1, 2000 Animal HON BUFFALO ELEPHANT ■■■'f»HW HYENA Period killed ivounded Killed Wounded Killed wounded Killed wounded Killed wounded 1988/89 5 2 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1989/90 7 6 1 2 0 0 2 9 0 3 1990/91 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 3 1991/92 4 7 1 3 1 0 1 6 0 3 1992/93 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 1 0 0 1993/94 0 1 0 1 4 2 0 3 0 2 1994/95 0 0 0 0 2 0 1 1 1 2 1995/96 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1996/97 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 Total 21 21 3 6 11 2 5 24 2 14 50 Fig. 1: The number ofpeople killed and injured by wild animals between 1987 1997. ,.^ a .^ N N^ Killed people Injured people \