^Nature et Faune REVUE INTERNATIONALE POUR .LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE EN AFRIQUE Gestion de la Faune, Am^nagement d' aires prot^g6es, Conservation des ressources naturelles. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NATURE CONSERVATION IN AFRICA Wildlife and Protected Areas Management and Natural Resources Conservation. Volume 6 , n" 4 , Octobre - Decembre 1990. October - December 1990. Organisation des Nations Unies pour TAlimentation et TAgricuIture Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations /^^^^ '^v Programme des Nations Unies pour y Jmmk V I'E^Dvironnement yi «|^ ^P M United Nations Environment >il__/S^ Programme FAO Regional Office for Africa Bureau Regional de la F.A.O. pour I'Afrique - Accra (Ghana) Nature et Faune Volume 6, nM Octobre - D6cembre 1990 October - December 1990 lA revue Nature et Faune est une publication interaationale trimestrielle destin6e k permettre un 6change d'informa- tions et de connaissances scientifiques concemant la gestion de la faune, I'am^nagement des aires prot6^6es et la conser- vation des ressources naturelles sur le contment africain. "Nature et Faune" is a quarterly international publication de- dicated to the exchange of information and scientific data on wildlife and protected areas management and conserva- tion of natural resources on the African continents Editeur - Editor : JJ. Leroy Ass. Editeur - Ass. Editor : J. Aikins Conseillers - Advisers : J.D. Keita - G.S. Child Nature et Faune depend de vos contributions b6n6voles et volontaires sous la forme d'articles ou d'annonces dans le domaine de la conservation de la nature et de la faune sau- vage dans la R6gion. Pour la publication d'articles ou tout renseignement compl6mentaire, 6crire k I'adresse suivante : Nature et Faune is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles and announcements in the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region. For publication of articles or any further information, please contact : Revue NATURE ET FAUNE FA.O. Regional Office for Africa P.O. Box 1628 Accra (Ghana) Sommaire - Contents Editorial 3 Screwworm Cochliomyia hominivorar. a new menace for Africa, (traduction p. 39) 4 Dossier "Elephant d'Afrique": 6tudes r6gionales. (translation p. 40) 7 A note on the social structure of free-ranging olcapi (traduction p. 49) 24 Past and present distribution and status of the Wild Dog Lycaon pictus in Namibia, (trad p. 52) 29 TRADUCTIONS -TRANSLATIONS 39 L« contenu dM articles d« c«tte r«vue expfime les opinions d« l«urs auteurs •( ne raflete pas n«c«ssairefnent c«ll«s de la FAO, du PNUE ou d« la rMaction. II n'exprim* done pas una prise de position officielle, ni de I'Organisation des Nations Unies pour I" Alimentation et I' Agriculture, ni du Programme des Nations Unies pour PEnviron- nement. En particulier les appellations employees dans cette publication et la presentation des donnees qui y figurent n'Impliquent de la part de ces Organisations au- cune prise de position quant au statut juridique des pays, territoires, villas ou zones ou de leurs euitorites, ni quant aux traces de leurs frontiires ou limites. The opinions expressed by contributing authors are not necessarily those o( FAG, UNEP or the editorial board. Thus, they do not express the official position of the Food and Agriculture Organization of tt>e United Nations, not that of the Unrted Nations Environment Programme. The designatiorw employed and the preserrtation o< mate- rial in this publication do not imply the position of these organisations concemir>g the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or corKeming the delimitation of its frontiers or bourKlaries. Printed by The Advent Press EDITORIAL Le premier article est bref, mais le fleau en question est grave. Dans le Nord de I'Afrique, la lucilie bouchere attaque tous les mammiferes, du betail a rhomme, et les animaux sauvages ne sont pas epargnes. Son impact economique est deja 6norme, mais si I'homme ne reagit pas vite et fort, I'Afrique court a la catastrophe. La FAO I'a bien compris, la lutte a deja commence. (La version frangaise de cet article n'est pas une traduction directe de la version anglaise; c'est egalement une version originale que nous reprenons sans modification de Spore magazine edition frangaise. Toutefois, les idees contenues dans les 2 articles sont si- milaires et utilisent les memes donnees). L'elephant, animal symbole de I'Afri- que et porte-drapeau des especes mena- cees, occupe une place importante dans notre magazine. Ce numero presente un dossier region par region de la Conference des donateurs pour la sauvegarde de l'ele- phant et de son habitat (Paris, avril 1990) et repris de I'excellent bulletin "Ressources et Espaces Naturels" edite par la delegation re- gionale de I'UICN en Afrique de I'Ouest. Les articles suivants traitent respecti- vement d'une espece rare et meconnue, I'o- kapi, cette "girafe de foret" presente unique- ment au Zaire, et d'une espdce plus repan- due a travers le continent mais helas trds menacee partout : le chien sauvage ou ly- caon. The first article is brief, but the plague In question is very serious. In North Africa, the Screwworm is attacking all mammals, from cattle to men, and wild animals are not spared either. Its economic impact is im- mense, and if man does not act expediently, Africa will be facing a catastrophy. FAO has foreseen this and the fight has already be- gun. (The french version of this article is not a translation of the english version. It is an original version that we culled intact from the Spore magazine french version. The ideas expressed in both articles are howe- ver similar and are based on the same data). The elephant, the symbol of Africa and the standard bearer of endangered spe- cies, occupies an important place in our ma- gazine. This issue carries an article cove- ring each region of the continent on the Do- nors Conference for the protection of the elephant and its habitat (Paris April 1990). It was culled from the bulletin "Ressources et Espaces Naturels" issued by the regional of- fice of the UICN in West Africa. The last two articles deal respectively with a rare species, the Okapi, the " forest giraffe" found only in Zaire, and another spe- cies more commonly found on the conti- nent, but threatened everywhere, unfortuna- tely : the Wild dog or Lycaon. ^■1 • SCREWWORM (Cochliomyia hominivorax) - a new menace for Africa ( Voir traduction page 39) A newly-introduced pest poses a se- rious risf< for Africa's domestic and wild ani- mals and also to the human population. It is the New World Screwworm fly (NWS), Cochliomyia hominivorax. or "devourer of man". Female screwworm flies lay their eggs in wounds such as insect bites, scratches, wounds caused by shearing, castration, de- horning and branding or the umbilicus of newborn animals. The eggs hatch into lar- vae, or maggots, which eat deeply into the li- ving flesh; in a very short time a skin punc- ture or abrasion as small as a tick bite or scratch can be transformed into a large and dangerous wound. Unless treated quickly, even full-grown cattle can die within days. The NSW is the most destructive pest of live- stock in the Americas. Its presence outside the Western Hemisphere was confirmed for the first time in April 1989 in Libya. It Is thought to have entered Libya on sheep im- ported from Latin America. The fly has been known to migrate up to 200 kilometres, although the pest most commonly spreads in the larval form through the transport of infested animals. The pest's range used to extend from Florida to Texas in the United States, through Central America and some Caribbean Islands Into the tempe- rate zones of South America. It has already cost the US and Mexico US $500 million to eradicate the screwworm from the US and most of Mexico. It is feared that if the pest is not eradicated very quickly from Libya, it will spread into neighboring countries, across the Sahara into tropical Africa and even around the Mediterranean basin, into Southern Eu- rope, and possibly into West Asia. Eradication - the aim It Is possible to treat domestic live- stock attacked by NWS but great expense and effort are involved. The possible effects on the wild animal population of Africa which cannot be treated, are alarming. Once infes- ted, wild animals would become a continuing reservoir of infection, probably causing more widespread and devastating losses than tsetse. The female screwworm lays clutches of up to 400 eggs at about three-day intervals before she dies. Larvae hatch 11 to 24 hours later and begin to feed on the host's tissues. The wounds produce an odour that then at- tracts more flies. After feeding and growing for four to eight days, the lan/ae drop to the ground, burrow into the soil and pupate. Adult flies emerge in as little as seven days and complete a life cycle that can be as short as three weeks (see diagram). The only wor- thwhile option is to eradicate the screwworm totally and the only proven technique is to combine the release of sterile male flies from the air with strict ground controls on the mo- vements of animals, quarantine, monitoring and preventative treatment of wounds. The sterile insect technique (SIT) was pioneered in the US 33 years ago. A special rearing centre propagates flies and bom- bards the lan/ae with a carefully controlled dose of gamma radiation to make them ste- rile without weakening or reducing the male's desire to mate. The Irradiated pupae are packaged and delivered to the infested area, ready to hatch. The flies are then loaded into light aircraft for dispersal. The technique is effective because the female NWS, mating with a sterile male, lays eggs that do not hatch. The female usually mates only once while the males mate five or six times; satu- rating an area with sterile males, that greatly outnumber the local fertile males, and results in population decline and eventual eradica- tion. Action to-date The Libyan Government has already spent over $7.5 million to fight screwworm. It had fielded more than 90 teams to inspect and treat wounded animals every 21 days in the infested and adjacent areas and has set. up 12 quarantine stations to control move- ment of animals. Adult female Screwworm fly./ Femelle adulte de la Lucilie Bouchdre. (photo FAO) CYCLE BIOLOGIQUE DE LA LUCILIE BOUCHERE SCREWWORM LIFE-CYCLE (> nj\, ^i V (ii^)) i^u.' > Jh« ground ^:v ^ .^ In July 1989, FAO and the UN Deve- lopment Programme organized a regional training course for officials from Libya, Alge- ria, Chad, Egypt, Niger, Sudan, Morocco and Tunisia. A second training course was held in Libya in March for African countries farther from Libya, which are considered 'the se- cond line of defence". And components for 1,750,000 animal treatment and sampling kits together with information material in Arabic, English and French have been provided to Li- bya and neighboring countries. To meet the North African emergency, transport planes will make at least two delive- ries eack week of irradiated flies from Mexico to the operation headquarters in Libya. Mil- lions of flies will be released to achieve a ratio of at least 10 sterile males to each local male. Photo FAO FAO estimates that it would cost $42 million per year for two years to mount a full eradication programme. However, this ex- pense is only a fraction of the losses that a widespread infestation would cause. If it is not eradicated from Libya, the estimated costs of controlling screwworm in the five countries of North Africa alone would exceed $250 million per year. The costs of further spread are incal- culable: this is truly a now-or-never opportu- nity to eradicate screwworm from Africa. Culled from Spore magazine n''28, en- glish version. For furtiier information please contact: Tfie Information Division, FAO, Via delle Terme di Caracalla 00100 Rome . DOSSIER "ELEPHANT D'AFRIQUE" ( See translation page 40 ) Conference des donateurs pour la sauvegarde de I'elephant d'Afrique et de son habitat - Paris, Avril 1990. Article extrait de "Ressources et Es- paces Naturels", n° 5-1990 (Bulletin de la De- legation UICN en Afrique de I'Ouest) ETUDES REGIONALES INTRODUCTION Au cours des deux dernieres decen- nies, les populations d'elephants ont diminue de maniere spectaculaire en raison, principa- lement, du braconnage pour I'ivoire. Or, I'e- lephant a une importance enorme. C'est le symbole de I'Afrique et le porte-drapeau des especes dont il faut assurer la conservation; il forme partie integrante de nombreux bio- topes africains et joue un role capital dans le maintien des ecosystemes et de la diversite biologique. Enfin, sa valeur economique di- recte et indirecte est loin d'etre negligeable. La presente reunion a trois objectifs principaux: - expliquer la situation de I'elephant d'Afriquer en indiquant les besoins generaux de conservation; - parvenir a une comprehension com- mune des divers besoins et des strategies de conservation des elephants d'Afrique; et - obtenir que les pays donateurs en- gagent de nouvelles subventions importantes pour les projets de conservation des ele- phants. La formule adoptee pour examiner la situation de I'elephant cherche a refleter I'am- pleur du probleme, I'immensite et la diversite du continent africain et les disparites regio- nales bien reeiles. II a egalement ete tenu compte des importantes variations - tant ge- netiques que du comportement - entre les populations d'elephants. Quatre rapports regionaux expliquent les problemes et les priorites recenses par les services charges de la faune, dans le contexte ecologique, sociologique, economi- que et politique de chaque region, lis met- tent aussi en relief les differences entre les re- gions et la capacite des gourvernements de satisfaire aux besoins de conservation en ge- neral et a ceux de I'elephant en particulier. Les rapports illustrent plusieurs moyens, differents mais tous legitimes, de conserver les Elephants. Le choix de I'un plutot que de I'autre incombe ci cheque Etat. II est essentiellement dict^ par i'habitat, les normes cuiturelles, les conditions locales et les objectifs nationaux. AinsI, le choix du Ke- nya - avec ses elephants de savane, sa penu rie grave de terres arables et son importante Industrie touristique - n'est pas applicable au Zaire qui possede des Elephants de foret en- core mal Studies, de vastes §tendues cou- vertes de forets et peu habitees, une econo- mie agricole et une Industrie du tourisme re- lativement peu developpee. Neanmoins, il est clair que dans toutes ces regions, il faut immediatement renforcer la protection des elephants, ce qui necessite une amelioration importante de I'appui insti- tutionnel, assortie de conceptions nouvelles et originales des problemes de conservation. Les menaces pesant, a long terme, sur r^lephant sont complexes et pour sauver I'a- nimal ainsi que son habitat, il faudra prendre des mesures radicales aux niveaux social, politique et economique. Depuis toujours, les methodes traditionnelles de conservation ont pris appui sur la science, soutenue par la force des armes. Toutefois, si Ton veut que les mesures de conservation reussissent, a long terme, il faut que les communautes lo- cales jouent un role beaucoup plus grand dans la conservation de leurs propres res- sources. Pour cela, nous devons rompre avec la tradition et faire appel a des experts de tres nombreuses disciplines: economie, agriculture, tourisme, investissements, aide au developpement, gestion de la faune et amenagement du territoire, sante, bien-etre social et education sont tous partie prenante k cette conception elargie a la conservation. Bien qu'avec les investissements et le soutien appropries, la plupart des popula- tions d'elephants puissent etre protegees contre le braconnage, la majorite disparaitra si Ton ne s'attaque aux conflits qui oppose les Elephants k une population humaine en augmentation. Ces conflits sont principale- ment entretenus par la concurrence pour I'espace et les ressources et, pour les resou- dre, il faudra emprunter une vole pluridiscipli- naire. - II faut s'efforcer de stabiliser la demo- graphie. - II convient de definir et d'appliquer des mesures encourageant les communau- tes a participer a la conservation de I'ele- phant et d'organiser I'enseignement a cet ef- fet. - Des changements dans les structures juridiques regissant I'utilisation des res- sources sauvages seront necessaires pour faciliter la mise au point de mesures d'encou- ragement. - La creation d'industries du domaine public ou prive, liees a I'elephant, doit etre encouragee pour produire des avantages economiques tangibles. - La question cruciale de I'amenage- ment du territoire doit etre revue. - La majorite des Etats de I'aire de re- partition devront ameliorer de fagon fonda- mentale leur capacite de gestion, s'ils veulent conserver leurs elephants. La mise en oeuvre de telles initiatives ne se fera cependant pas rapidement. Entre- temps, il importe de prendre des mesures im- mediates pour proteger les elephants. Celles-ci varieront selon qu'il s'agira de pe- tites populations dans de petites aires prote- gees ou de populations nombreuses dans de vastes espaces; selon que ces populations vivent dans une savane ouverte ou dans un habitat forestier ferme; qu'elles sont mena- cees par un braconnage organise ou la chasse de subsistence ou encore parce qu'elles portent prejudice a I'agriculture. Quel que soit le cas, il est essentiel que les Aire de distribution et effectifs des elephants Distribution area and numbers of elephants Etats de I'aire de repartition et les pays dona- teurs s'engagent davantage. Pour r6ussir il faurda: - un engagement politique accru au ni- veau national et local; - un meilleur 6quipement, plus de per- sonnel, une formation et une remuneration ad6quates ainsi que des sen/ices officiels be- n^ficlant de budgets accrus; et - un soutien des organisations non gouvernementales et du public dans les Etats de I'aire de repartition. Procdder aux ameliorations neces- saires sera couteux. Les Etats de I'aire de re- partition, comme les pays donateurs, doivent se demander "Quelle est la valeur d'un ele- phant?" La conservation des elephants peut apporter de grands avantages par le biais du tourisme, de la consommation, du maintien de la qualite des ecosystdmes et en tant que ressource utile k I'education et k la science. Elle entratne toutefois des couts Aleves, que ce soit en termes de gestion ou de perte d'options. Ces couts varient selon les Etats et les regions, de meme que le niveau des in- vestissements que peuvent consentir les Etats et le secteur prive. Neanmoins, il im- porte de s'appliquer k augmenter les enga- gements actuels, d'identifier de nouvelles sources de financements et d'avoir le cou- rage politique de satisfaire aux besoins de conservation de I'elephant, aujourd'hui. ATRIQUE DE L'EST Situation des elephants L'Afrique de I'Est a souffert, peut-etre plus que n'importe quelle autre region, de la chasse illicite. Dans les deux dernieres de- cennies, le Kenya, le Soudan et la Tanzanie ont perdu plus de 80% de leurs elephants; la RWANDA lURUNOI 430 000 110 000 1981 1989 10 Somalie et I'Ouganda en perdaient plus de 90% dans le meme temps. Aujourd'hui, la population d'Afrique de I'Est constitute environ 18% du total conti- nental. Preoccupations prioritaires des gourver- nements Les principales preoccupations de I'A- frique de I'Est concernent le controle de la chasse illicite. Certes, les conflits entre rhomme et I'elephant, pour I'espace et les ressources, iront probabiement en s'intensi- fiant a I'avenir, a mesure qu'augmentera la population humaine, mais il reste encore de vastes espaces sauvages, tres peu peuples. Ces terres pourraient accueillir beaucoup d'elephants mais, a cause de la chasse non controlee, ils y sont rares. Le braconnage menace le tourisme, Industrie important et source de devises 6trangeres. II est impossible de faire une dis- tinction entre les braconniers et les bandits qui operent en relative impunity dans cer- taines regions. L'echo donne par la presse a une ou deux agressions contre des touristes, au Kenya, n'a pas manqu6 d'inqui^ter car le tourisme assure un apport financier direct aux services charges de la faune. Les ele- phants etant une attraction touristique pri- mordiale, leur disparition rique fort de faire tiedir I'lnt^ret des touristes pour la region. Mesures prises Le Kenya, la Tanzanie et la Somalie ont fermement soutenu la decision de trans- ferer I'espace k I'Annexe I de la Convention de Washington. Ils ont pris publiquement parti contre la vente d'lvoire et d6ploy6 des efforts determines pour faire cesser le bra- connage des elephants dans leurs pays res- pectifs. Au Kenya, le deploiement des armees de terre et de mer pour lutter contre les bra- conniers demontre clairement la determina- tion du gouvernement. La decision prise par ce pays, en juillet 1989, de bruler 12 tonnes d'lvoire a attire I'attention mondiale sur la gravite du probleme de protection des ele- phants en Afrique de I'Est. En Tanzanie, I'o- peration Uhai lancee contre les braconniers et les trafiquants de tous niveaux a exige la participation de 2000 hommes et coute 1.3 million de dollars; elle a abouti a 1500 arre- stations et prouve que le gouvernment avait la ferme intention d'ameiiorer la protection des elephants. Futures initiatives Au Kenya et en Tanzanie, les mesures prises visent a une augmentation de tourisme et k I'ameiioration de sa gestion. L'idee est de generer des fonds suppiementaires pour la conservation et la protection des ele- phants. Get objectif n'est pas realisable, dans un proche avenir, en Ethiopie, en So- malie et au Soudan toujours en etat de guerre. En revanche, il pourrait le devenir en Ouganda. De plus en plus, on se rend compte qu'il est essentiel d'obtenir I'appui des com- munautes locales k la conservation, pour qu'elles aident k enrayer le braconnage et k assurer la survie k long terme de I'eiephant. Dans ce but, I'accent est mis, de plus en plus, sur les activites d'education et de vulga- risation. Depuis de nombreuse annees, les programmes d'education jouent un role im- portant dans la region, par I'entremise des "Clubs nature" et des ecoles. 11 La vulgarisation devrait devenir une activity importante k I'avenir. Au Kenya, par exempie, un quart des recettes d'entrees dans les pares sera directement verse aux communaut^s locales. On espere que les sommes considerables dont il s'agit auront des effets notables sur le d^veloppement des communautes rurales pauvres et, partant, sur I'attitude vis-^-vIs de la conservation en gene- ral et des elephants en particulier. Cette opti- que de la conservation n'est pas nouvelle pour la region. Ce n'est qu'apres de tongues negotiations avec les communautes locales auxquelles fut garanti un eventail d'avantages economiques et sociaux que fut cree le Pare national de I'Amboseli, en 1974. Que les pro- messes n'aient finalement pas ete tenues est a mettre sur le compte de I'execution du plan plutot que sur I'intention. Le financement de la conservation des ^l^phants La capacity des gouvernements de la region d'investir les fonds appropries dans la conservation des Elephants varie enorme- ment, principalement en fonction du niveau des recettes du tourisme. Le Kenya, la Tan- zanie et I'Ouganda ont constitu^ des re- serves afin de garantir qu'une part impor- tante du revenu de la faune sauvage soit rein- vestie dans la gestion des aires de conserva- tion. Par exempie, le Kenya et la Tanzanie ont estim6 que leurs besoins totaux pour la conservation (I'accent etant mis sur les ele- phants) depa^^aient 100 millions de dollars par pays pour la nouvelle decennie. Pour 1991, le Kenya estime les recettes des en- trees dans les pares nationaux a 9,5 millions de dollars tandis que la Tanzanie estime son revenu annuel de la faune sauvage a 4,5 mil- lions de dollars. En Ouganda, au Soudan, en Somalie et en Ethiopie, la situation est bien pire. Les confiits armes passes et presents entravent le tourisme et rendent la protection des ele- phants plus difficile. La secheresse et la fa- mine ont entratne une deterioration economi- que. En Ouganda, les recettes du tourisme etaient negligeables en 1989 (90 000 dollars) et les pares nationaux ont du compter sur moins de 230 000 dollars pour leur fonetion- nement. MIM9i^^^ 12 AFRIQUEAUSTRALE Preoccupations prioritaires des gouverne- merits En Afrique australe, la situation des elephants varie enormement d'un pays a I'au- tre. En Zambie, par exemple, la population est passee de 160 000 a 32 000 depuis 1981 alors qu'au Zimbabwe et au Botswana elle a augmente regulierement, au rythme de 5% I'an. On salt peu de choses de la situation des elephants en Angola et au Mozambique a cause de la guerre civile dont souffrent ces pays depuis longtemps. La population d'Afri- que du Sud reste stable et sous controle ri- goureux. La population d'Afrique australe constitue environ 33% du total continental. Les questions de conservation et de gestion de la faune sont coodonnees au ni- veau regional dans le cadre de la SADCC (Conference de coordination pour le deve- loppement de I'Afrique australe) bien que la Namibie et I'Afrique du Sud n'en fassent pas, actuellement, partie. La politique de la SADCC en matiere de conservation souligne I'importance d'integrer le developpement et rutilisation durable des ressources naturelles. Cette politique impregne la conception de la consen/ation des elephants qui est celle de I'Afrique australe. Les services de la faune de la region ont pour preoccupation principale de mettre 311 0[ 0 204 000 1981 1989 13 en place des m6canismes garantissant que la conservation des especes est b6n§fique k I'homme. Que la region puisse se concentrer sur cet objectif montre que le braconnage, tout en restant un probleme grave pour cer- tains Etats, n'a pas pris les memes propor- tions que dans d'autres regions et n'est pas consider^ comme une menace preoccu- pante pour les §l§phants. L'Afrique australe a une longue tradi- tion de gestion active de la faune. En conse- quence, I'expertise necessaire a la conserva- tion des Elephants et I'interet pour la gestion d'intervention sont plus developpes que par- tout ailleurs sur le continent. Sur les traces des plonniers de la conservation, le Zim- babwe a mis en place un modele de conser- vation comunautaire de la faune. Autrefois, la conservation au Zim- babwe, comme ailleurs, aboutissait invaria- blement a priver les communautes de leurs ressources naturelles. La faune devait done etre fortement protegee par le gouvernement dans les aires r^servees a la conservation. Dans le meme temps, le developpement de •'agriculture et de r6l6vage, souvent sur des terres marginales, entrafnait la destruction de la faune sauvage. Le "capital naturel" 6tait sacrifid pour des profits financiers k court terme. L'op6ration "Campfire" (feu de camp) a 6t6 congue pour surmonter ces problemes. Elle propose que les communautes conser- ved elles-memes leur propre faune sauvage. On leur remet le pouvoir de decision sur leurs ressources, la capacity d'utiliser la faune sauvage de fagon rationnelle et I'exper- tise technique qui leur permet de g§rer les ressources de manidre durable. En conse- quence, elles attachent un prix k la faune, la gardent et la gdrent sur leurs terres et sont plus rdceptives aux Initiatives du gouverne- ment. Le modele a suscite beaucoup d'int^- r§t dans toute la region et ailleurs sur le continent. Des projets reposant sur les memes principes sont mis en oeuvre ou en vole d'elaboration en Zambie, au Malawi et au Botswana. Mesures prises Les efforts nationaux en faveur de la conservation sont axes sur deux domaines. Premierement, les efforts de lutte centre le braconnage sont renforces la ou ils sont actuellement falbles, par exemple en Zambie et au Botswana, et maintenus a un niveau eleve au Zimbabwe et en Afrique du Sud. On a de plus en plus recours au concept de gardien de la faune communau- taire pour reduire le braconnage. Deuxiemement, des projets permettant aux communautes locales de b^neficier de la presence des elephants sur leurs terres sont mis en oeuvre au Zimbabwe et en Zambie et sont en bonne voie de preparation au Bots- wana et au Malawi. L'utilisation de la viande, de la peau et de I'ivoire est un pilier de la strategie de conservation du Zimbabwe et il- lustre les r^sultats tangibles des modifica- tions qui ont commence k s'op6rer dans la legislation, il y a vingt ans. De tels projets sont applicables dans des pays comme le Zimbabwe et le Botswa- na qui ont des populations d'6l6phants en expansion, k I'interieur comme k I'exterieur des aires protegees. Ces deux pays ont I'in- tention de r6duire globalement le nombre de leurs Elephants ce qui fournira des quantit6s considerables de produits pr§cieux. Les operations d'abattage s6lectif s'accompa- gnent de strategies visant k faire l'utilisation la plus complete possible des produits obte- nus. 14 Futures initiatives En matidre de conservation des 616- phants, les priorit6s nationales seront influen- c6es par les politiques de la SADCC qui se trouvent refl6t6es dans Natural Resources and the Environment - Policies and Develop- ment Strategy, publi6 en 1988. Cette politi- que souligne que le developpement econo- mique et la protection de I'environnement dolvent favoriser un equilibre §cologique, condition pr^alable au developpement de tous les secteurs de I'economie. Pour atteindre cet objectif, il convient d'apporter des ameliorations a la surveillance continue des effectifs et tendance des popu- lations d'el^phants, notamment en Zambie, au Mozambique et en Angola. II est §gale- ment n6cessaire d'accroitre le personnel for- me, d'am^liorer la legislation sur la faune et d'etendre I'education a I'environnement a tous les secteurs de la societe. Parmi les re- gions n6cessitant une aide et une ameliora- tion particulieres se trouvent la bande de Ca- prlvi, en Namibie et une bonne partie de la Zambie. du Mozambique et de I'Angola. Le marche de I'ivoire d'Afrique australe est une activity presentant un interet particu- lier et decoulant de la demarche adoptee par cette region vis-^-vis de la conservation. Le financement de la conservation des Elephants Les depenses de conservation des ele- phants varient considerablement d'un pays k I'autre. Le Departement zimbabwden des pares nationaux et de la gestion de la faune. par exemple, compte sur un budget de 21 millions de dollars pour couvrir les frais an- nuels ordinaires de la gestion du patrimoine naturel national. Au Mozambique, les de- penses sont inf§rieures k 500 000 dollars et en Angola, elles seraient negligeables. Le Botswana augmentera fortement ses de- penses de protection et de gestion des ele- phants en 1990. 15 ATRIQUE CENTRALE Preoccupations prioritaires des gouverne- ments Situation des elephants Les 6l6phants d'Afrique centrale ont 6chappe a une diminution importante de leur nombre au cours des siecles mais n'ont pas 6t6 6pargn6s par la derniere vague de bra- connage. On pense que les populations ont diminue d'un tiers dans la derniere decennie. 11 convient, cependant, de noter que les fo- rets qui couvrent les vastes regions (1 .75 mil- lion de kilometres carres) ou vivent les ele- phants rendent toute estimation des popula- tions extremement difficile. Aujourd'hui, la population d'Afrique centrale forme environ 45% du total conti- nental. La conservation des 6l6phants de la region est intimement liee a ceile des forets d'Afrique centrale. La, les objectifs de conservation des Elephants sont directement lies aux activites qui assureront la conserva- tion de la diversite biologique, des sols, des bassins versants et des ressources li- gneuses. La Declaration de la Lome, en 1988, enongait I'intention des sept pays de la re- gion de consacrer 30% de la sixieme alloca- tion du Fonds Europeen de Developpement a des projets de conservation et de gestion des forets. Cette mesure donnera un formi- dable coup de pouce a la conservation des elephants. Une foresterie bien geree peut ameliorer I'habitat des elephants et la region CAMCROUN REPUBLIQUC CCNTRArRICAIME 6UIHEE IQUATORlALEpnilllllllHcbNGOlui, ,.,o. „,» , 1 436 00 0 277 000 1981 1989 16 a la capacity de devenir la principale place forte des Elephants en Afrique. Actuellement, toutefois, la demande de devises etrangeres pour soutenir le developpement et sers/ir la dette entrafne la deforestation pour la pro- duction de bois et de cultures de rapport. L'aire de repartition de I'elephant diminue ra- pldement et I ouverture de nouvelles routes favorise le braconnage. Le braconnage est aujourd'hui une menace grave dans bien des pays de la re- gion. Des bandes de braconniers tres bien organisees ont fortement reduit les popula- tions d'elephants de savane et ont commen- ce a operer dans les forets. Bien que chaque pays ait cree un departemet charge de la faune sauvage, ces services sont mal finan- ces et n'ont pu faire plus que proteger I'inte- gritd des pares nationaux et des reserves fo- restieres. Les unites de lutte contre le bra- connage, mal equipees, n'ont ete a meme d'enrayer ni les activites de chasse de subsi- stance du passe ni celles des bandes de bra- conniers d'aujourd'hui. II faut cependant re- connaitre que les vastes forets ne facilitent pas le controle du braconnage. Mesures prises Les mesures prises k ce jour se bor- nent essentiellement a maintenir la presence du gouvernment dans les pares nationaux et les reserves forestieres. Les tentatives de gestion des Elephants sont inexistantes et les operations anti-braconnage s'aventurent ra- rement sur le terrain. Dans ce tableau gene- ral, il y a cependant des exceptions: celle du Pare national de la Garamba, au Zaire, par exemple, ou les efforts d^ployes pour sauver les derniers rhinoceros blancs du Nord ont entratne une amelioration de I' infrastructure et du moral du personnel et r^ussit k mettre un terme au braconnage des elephants. Dans le Pare national de Korup, au Came- roun, les activites entreprises ont ameliore I'i- mage de la conservation et reduit, de ma- niere significative, le braconnage des ele- phants. Futures initiatives Deux lignes d'activites principales sont necessaires pour conserver les elephants de la region. Premi^rement, les departements char- ges de la faune sauvage doivent nettement ameliorer leur capacite de protection et de gestion des elephants. S'ils y parviennent, le revenu potentiel des elephants sera conside- rable. II est peu probable que le tourisme puisse jouer un grand role etant donne le mi- lieu forestier difficile d'acces mais un abat- tage controle pourrait procurer une source importante de devises etrangeres et creer des emplois pour les communautes locales. Cependant, exploiter les elephants avec succes exige d'ameliorer radicalement la capacity de gestion, de faire un recense- ment complet des populations et de conduire des etudes de faisabilite rigoureuses de I'a- battage. Deuxiemement, la conservation des Elephants beneficiera considerablement d'une amelioration de la gestion des forets. Chaque Etat entreprendra ses propres pro- jets prioritaires mais tous travailleront de concert, partageant leurs experiences sur une base regionale. Cette politique sera aus- si utile a la resolution des problemes de conservation que de gestion des elephants. II convient aussi de prevoir, k I'^chelle regio- nale, une revision de la legislation sur la faune sauvage, de la recherche, de la crea- tion de revenu et de I'^ducation. 17 Ces derni^res anndes, les politiques relatives k la conservation des forets se sont efforc6es d'obtenir la participation et le sou- tien des communautes locales. Toutefois, apr^s plusieurs ann^es d'efforts, 11 est clair que ces politiques ont 6chou6 dans les grandes lignes. Les gouvernements de la re- gion ont hate d'amdiiorer leurs performances et ont convoqu^ une reunion minist^rielle, en mai 1990, afin de parachever un plan d'action regional sur la conservation des forets. Ce plan d'action pourrait aussi servir de m^canisme de coordination des initiatives de conservation des Elephants. L'Organisa- tion de conservation de la faune sauvage d'Afrique centrale (OCFSA) pourrait aussi jouer un role utile en tant que centre d'infor- mation regional et si elle etait elargie au Ca- meroun, k la Guin6e 6quatoriale, au Gabon at au Congo et recevait le soutien financier indispensable. Le financement de la conservation des 6l6phant8 Bien qu'ii n'y ait pas de statistiques de- tainees k disposition, le financement de la conservation des elephants en Afrique cen- trale semble fiable. Cela peut partiellement s'expliquer par I'absence totale de connais- sance des populations d'elephants de la re- gion. Jusqu'^ maintenant, 11 n'y a eu aucune tentative syst^matique de recensement. En consequence, on s'est peu interroge sur leur valeur potentielle ou sur les mecanismes qui permettraient de realiser cette valeur. Leur valeur evidente etant faible, les gouverne- ments de la region etaient peu incites k consacrer leurs maigres ressources finan- cieres k la conservation des elephants. Tous les aspects que revet la conser- vation des elephants necessitent un finance- ment accru, qu'il s'agisse de I'education des communautes locales ou de la formation et de l'6quipement des responsables de la conservation. Tant I'utilisation des forets que celle des elephants pourrait procurer un re- venu permettant ces ameliorations et encou- rageant le developpement des villages, ga- gnant ainsi I'adhesion des communautes lo- cales aux initiatives de conservation des gou- vernements. 18 AFRIQUE DE L'OUEST Situation des ^Idphants En Afrique de I'Ouest se trouvent 16 Etats de I'aire de repartition. Dans tous ces pays, les populations sont reduites, allant de 4500 individus au Burkina Faso a 40 en Gui- nee-Bissau. Malgre leurs effectifs reduits, elles ont souvent une importance considera- ble du point de vue de la conservation. Les elephants du desert de Gourma, au Mali, par exemple, vivent dans un milieu inhospitalier, a la limite extreme de I'aire de repartition, lis ont done un comportement unique et pre- sentent sans doute des adaptations physiolo- giques. Dans la plupart des pays de la region, les territoires actuels des elephants revou- vrent, dans une large mesure, ceux des pare nationaux et des reserves forestieres. Une forte proportion des elephants sont proteges dans ces zones mais il y a quelques excep- tions, notamment en Guinee et au Liberia ou de tres nombreux elephants vivent en dehors des aires protegees. Aujourd'hui, la population d'Afrique de rOuest constitue environ 3% du total conti- nental. 17 60Q 18 000 1981 1989 19 Preoccupations priopritaires des gouver- nements En Afrique de I'Ouest, les populations sont probablement plus en danger que par- tout ailleurs en Afrique. Reduites de fagon spectaculaire au d6but du siecle, par les chasseurs d'lvolre, la disparition de leur habi- tat a emp§ch6 leur reconstitution. On les trouve maintenant en groupes Isolds, coup6s d'autres populations par une occupation hu- maine dense. Parce qu'elles sont extreme- ment reduites et isolees, beaucoup de popu- lations d'el6phants sont trds vuln6rables et leur conservation necessite I'application de techniques de gestion sophistiquees. Le braconnage de I'ivoire ne pose pas, aujourd'hui, de grave probleme dans la ma- jeure partie de la region car II y a trop peu d'elephants pour attirer les braconniers. Mal- gre cela, les effectifs ont diminue d'environ 14% dans les deux dernidres ann6es en rai- son des conflits qui s'intensifient entre rhomme et les Elephants et de la disparition progressive de leur habitat. Mesures prises Les mesures prises concernent le maintien des pares nationaux et des reserves forestieres. Presque tous les elephants survi- vant dansia region ont 6t6 "comprim6s" dans ces espaces, souvent de petites dimensions, de plus en plus soumis aux pressions des populations humaines du voisinage et de po- litiques d'occupation des sols contradic- toires. La protection efficace des didphants dans les pares s'est sold6e par une augmen- tation des populations dans certains pays, par exemple au Nigeria, au Togo et au Burki- na Faso. Futures initiatives SI Ton veut que survivent les popula- tions d*6l6phants de la region, 11 taut, de toute urgence, lancer des projets dans les zones ou la concurrence entre I'homme et les 616- phants est le plus aigue. Ces projets devront resoudre les problemes tres reels que ren- contrent les communautes locales du fait de la presence des 6l6phants et accroTtre, par I'education et la vulgarisation, le soutien local aux elephants. Les mesures de conservation des ele- phants devraient prendre exemple sur le pro- jet d'elevage en ranch de Nazinga, au Burki- na Faso. Le ranch pourrait servir de centre de formation pour la region. Si Ton veut preserver le plus grand nombre possible des populations aux effec- tifs reduits 11 faudra recourir a une gestion in- terventionniste intense. Pour cela, il convient de developper considerablement la capacity rdgionale ainsi que les investissements pour former les sp6- cialistes de la gestion des Elephants. L'ame- lioration de la capacity peut beneficier de I'e- change d'information avec ceux qui ont I'ex- pertise, de discussions sur des probldmes re- gionaux, de la formation professionnelle et de I'education. Le jumelage de pares d'Afri- que de I'Ouest avec des pares bien ger6s, ailleurs, peut etre un instrument utile. II fau- dra surmonter la barridre linguistique entre I'Afrique francophone et I'Afrique anglo- phone. L'appui des gouvernements et des communautes locales k la conservation des elephants peut etre encourage par une pro- motion active du tourisme de nature dans la region. De nombreuses propositions origi- nales peuvent ameiiorer la capacite des Etats de I'aire de repartition de gerer leurs ele- phants. II est cependant essentiel que les 20 services charges de la faune sauvage etablis- sent leurs priorites et les incorporent dans un plan d'action. Ceci fait, les bailleurs de fonds et experts Strangers pourront contribuer au d6veloppement et ^ la mise en oeuvre des activites de conservation des elephants dans la region. Le financement de la conservation des 6l6phants Bien que Ton manque d'informations prdcises, le financement de la conservation des elephants dans la region est faible. Plu- sieurs facteurs peuvent en etre responsables: les populations nationales d'elephants sont trop rdduites pour avoir une place dans la planification nationale; les elephants d'Afri- que de I'Ouest, contrairement a ceux d'Afri- que de I'Est, ont actuellement peu d'impor- tance 6conomique; lis sont trop peu nom- breux pour que les pays donateurs s'y inte- ressent comme k ceux d'autres regions d'A- frique; les populations d'Afrique de I'Ouest ont suscite relativement peu d'interet scienti- fique et les services de la faune d'Afrique de I'Ouest 6taient, jusqu'^ present, mal repr6- sent^s au niveau international. Afin que le niveau de gestion requis pour sauver de nombreuses populations de I'extinction devienne reality, il faudra disposer d'un financement beaucoup plus important. On peut d6finir trois domaines principaux vers lesquels les Investissements devront §tre dirig^s. - Des investissements importants doi- vent permettre le ddveloppement de I'infra- structure des pares et la formation des ex- perts en gestion des §l6phants. - Des campagnes actives d'information et d'6ducation seront fondamentales pour faire comprendre et accepter I'importance de la conservation. - Si Ton veut maintenir I'interet pour les Elephants, il Importe de mettre en place des projets dont les gouvernements et commu- naut§s locales tireront des avantages econo- miques. LE COMMERCE DE L'lVOIRE Pendant des siecles, I'ivoire a ete un important produit d'exportation pour I'Afri- que. Les principaux marches de I'ivoire se trouvent dans les pays a devises fortes: ces dernieres annees, I'Amerique du Nord, I'Eu- rope et le Japon ont absorbe 90% du com- merce. Dans les annees 70 et 80, la demande croissante a entratne une hausse reguliere des prix de I'ivoire et, partant, une vague de braconnage des elephants. En 1985, la Convention de Washington a mis en place un systdme de controle de I'ivoire ax6 sur les procedures r^gissant les permis. Toutefois, le massacre continu et generalise des ele- phants ne tarda pas k demontrer I'impuis- sance du systeme k empecher le commerce lllicite de I'ivoire. En fait, le commerce I6gal a probablement servi de couverture au com- merce lllicite. En retrospective, il semble Evi- dent qu'un systeme de controle se bornant k Influer sur la surveillance du commerce sans essayer de controler ni I'offre, ni la demande soit vou6 k r^chec. Faute d'une gestion scientifique des populations d'6l6phants, qui aurait d6termin6 I'offre et la capacity des Etats de I'aire de repartition ainsi que la vo- lenti des pays consommateurs k respecter la loi, aucun m6canisme n'6tait susceptible d'influer sur les forces du march6. En conse- quence, k mesure que le nombre d'6l6phants diminuait de meme que I'offre d'ivoire, les prix pouss6s par la demande montaient, 21 Commerce de I'ivoire: Foffre en baisse entraine les prix a la hausse Exportation d'ivoire d'Afrique Export of ivory from Africa 200 -^ r.1 150 ■= Tonnes e Tons = so -= =-aoo Prix de I'ivoire k Hong Kong Price of ivory in Hong Kong 1G0 iooUS$/Kg Offre / Supply 1986 - 188 tonnes 1987 - 152 tonnes 1988 - 118 tonnes 1989 - 59 tonnes Prix / Price 1986 - $62/Kg 1987 - $77 /Kg 1988 - $95/Kg 1989 - $144/K| g Ivory trade: reductions in supply bring about rising prices 22 exergant une nouvelle presslon sur les 616- phants. Le rapport du Groupe d'etude sur le commerce de I'ivoire, publie en 1989, illus- trait clairement la situation et a incite de nom- breux pays consommateurs k interdire im- portation d'ivoire. I_a forte pression exerc6e par le public et les medias. principalement en Europe et en Amerique du Nord a jou§ un r6le important dans la decision prise par les Parties a la Convention de Washington d'ins- crire I'elephant a I'Annexe I, interdisant tout commerce international de I'ivoire et des au- tres produits de I'elephant. La demande ayant spectaculairement - quolque artificiellement - baisse, les prix de I'ivoire firent de meme en Afrique, en Ameri- que du Nord et en Europe. Toutefois, au Ja- pon, ou la demande interne reste 6levee, les prIx ont continue de monter. Nous dispo- sons, en revanche, de peu d' informations pr6cises sur I'effet qu'a pu avoir I'interdiction sur le braconnage. La Tanzanie et le Kenya, par exemple, annoncent une diminution du braconnage, le Malawi n'indique aucun chan- gement. L'avenir du commerce de I'ivoire est difficile k predire. II se peut que quinze pays d'Afrique continuent d'exporter legalement de I'ivoire. Cinq d'entre eux (Afrique du Sud, Botswana, Malawi, Zambie et Zimbabwe) ont 6mis une reserve k la decision de la Conven- tion de Washington tandis que les dix autres ne sont pas Parties k la Convention. Les pays d'Afrique australe sont en train d'etablir un march6 central de I'ivoire avec centre d'adjudication au Botswana. II est cependant Evident que pour poursuivre le commerce de I'ivoire, le princi- pal probleme n'est pas de garantir I'offre mais de trouver un marche. Le march6 mon- dial est extremement d^prime, les principaux pays Importateurs adh§rant k la decision de la Convention. Le seul grand consommateur d'ivoire restant est la Chine (*). Entre-temps, 250 tonnes d'ivoire brut au moins, mais plus probablement 350 tonnes s'entassent en Afrique et ces reserves ne peuvent que croitre, k mesure que s'y ajoute I'ivoire confisqu6 ou provenant d'ani- maux morts de mort naturelle. Les pays consommateurs detiennent, en outre, 580 tonnes. Sans debouch^ legal, il existe un reel danger de voir cet ivoire entrer sur le marche en passant par les pays qui ne sont pas Parties k la Convention de Washington et les entrepots clandestins des principaux pays consommateurs. II semble que la de- mande augmente dans certains pays du Moyen et de rExtreme-Orient et les enormes reserves d'ivoire pourraient trouver de nou- veaux marches qui seront difficiles, voire im- possibles, a controler. (*)(NDLR: Aprds Hong Kong le 18 juil- let dernier, la Chine a accept^ en septembre de se rallier k I'interdiction du commerce de I'ivoire avec effet ci compter du 11 Janvier 1991). 23 A NOTE ON THE SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF FREE-RANGING OKAPI ( Voir traduction page 49 ) by R.E. Bodmer and Kathryn R. Gubista INTRODUCTION METHODS Artiodactyla in tropical forests virtually always live in small groups or occur as solita- ry individuals (Jarma 1974, Estes 1974, and Leuthold 1977). The social system of okapi {Okapia johnstoni) appears to be no excep- tion and many anecdotal accounts describe them as solitary animals occasionally living in pairs (Lydekker 1908, Lang 1918). Because of difficulties observing tropical forest ungu- lates in dense understorey these early ac- counts of okapi associations were sketchy and often ambiguous. This study examined okapi organization to determine whether oka- pi were truly solitary or whether they formed some type of social associations. Crude esti- mates were also made of the okapi home range over a one month period and of okapi density in the Epulu area, Zaire. The study was conducted in the Epulu area (125'N, 2835'E, 750 m) of northeastern Zaire from February 1982 to April 1982. The Epulu river, a road, and the Mangombe Stream enclosed the triangular study area of 1 .69 km^. The Mangombe Stream was sand based with a width of 2-3 m and was often dry. Water only flowed in this stream after heavy rains. The study area was composed of primary forest except along the road where forest disturbance had led to seconda- ry re-growth. The primary forests of the Epu- lu area consists basically of two types, 1) the Gilbertiodendron dewevrei dominated fo- rests and 2) the mixed forests of Brachyste- gia laurentii and Cynometra alexandri (Hart 1985, and Thomas 1986). Surveys of okapi hoof prints on the Mangombe Stream permitted the position of an okapi to be determined with respect to the 24 stream and other okapi. The 1.01 km of stream lying between the Epulu River and the road was divided into 101 sections of 10 m and surveyed for 48 consecutive dry days. The date, track size, direction of movement, and stream section were recorded for each okapi crossing. The hoof prints were erased after the data were recorded. Hoof prints were measured at the lon- gest and widest points to discriminate be- tween different age groups. Hoof prints re- corded on the stream fit nicely into three size categories : 10 cm long by 9 cm wide, 9 cm long by 7 cm wide, and 8 cm long by 6 cm wide. Ages of okapi in each category were estimated with reference to hoof print sizes of captive individuals. Hoof prints of captive okapi smaller than 8 cm by 7 cm are calves less than one year old (N = 2), 9 cm by 7 cm hoof prints are considered as juveniles (N = 2), and 10 cm by 9 cm hoof prints distin- guish full grown adults (N = 5). RESULTS Okapi apparently only entered and left the study area via the Mangombe Stream. Hoof prints were not observed on the mud based road during the 48 day observation period. The Epulu River was wide, deep and fast flowing and formed an obvious barrier for okapi crossing (Figure 1). Hoof prints of okapi on the Mangombe Stream exhibited a loose group arrangement. Individuals did not always move in unison, but they did concurrently utilize particular sections of forest. The hoof print associa- tions consisted of two adults (1^ cm by 9 cm), one juvenile (9 cm by 7 cm), and one calf (8 cm by 6 cm). The okapi visited three sections of fo- rest during the observation period. For the first 13 days their activities were concentra- ted In the vicinity of the stream. From day 14 ROAD EPULU A map of the study site in the Epulu area Carte du site d'etude dans la zone d'Epulu 25 to day 31 all four okapi were predominantly outside the study area. A four day transition period marked their return Into the study area where they remained during the final 12 days of obsen/ation (Figure 2). The okapi tracks demonstrated asso- ciation with one another within each of the areas (x2 = 31.16, d.f.=3, p<.001). The bino- mial expansion (p + q)^ was used to test this association with p being the time the animals were inside the study area and q being the time the animals were outside the study area. Expected values for p and q were 0.5. The expansion was raised to the 4th power because there were four sets of hoof prints. Close associations between indivi- duals were noted quite frequently. On four out of five occasions the adult hoof prints were recorded on the Mangombe Stream in the same time interval, direction, and loca- tion. The hoof prints of the okapi calf were always noted in association with other okapi hoof prints, on one occasion with both the adults and on another with the juvenile. The juvenile's hoof prints were recorded alone on the stream more frequently than any of the other individuals with 88 % of crossings oc- curing in the absence of other okapi. The presence of okapi calf indicated that one adult was a reproductive female, be- cause the mother-young bond in okapi lasts between 12 to 14 months (Rabb 1978). An additional observation sighted three okapi moving together through a gar- den area. This group was seen in a location outside of the study area and consisted of one adult, one juvenile, and one calf. The area utilized by the two adult oka- pi was estimated at 352 ha over the 48 day observation period. This was calculated by adding the area of the study site to the esti- mated area that the okapi used when outside the study site. This area was estimated by relating the proportion of time the okapi were inside divided by the area of the study site to the proportion of time the okapi were outside IN THE STUDY SITE A I'int^rieur du site d'§tude OUT OF THE STUDY SITE Mors du site ADULT ADULT JUVENILE CALF veau 1^ 24 32 "T" 40 Days / Jours g ^ q The diagram shows the position of okapi in relation to the study site and their association with another one Le diagramme montre la position des okapis par rapport au site d'etude et leur association avec un autre 48 26 divided by the estimated area outside. The density of okapi in the Epulu area was esti- mated at one okapi every 88 ha or approxi- mately one okapi per km^. This was calcula- ted by dividing the estimated 352 ha home range by the four sets of okapi hoof prints. The okapi biomass for this same area would be approximately 800 kg (250 kg for each adult, 200 kg for the juvenile, and 100 kg for the young) or 227 kg/km^. DISCUSSION The limited observations made during this study suggest that okapi are slightly more social than would be predicted by the term "solitary". Individuals followed during this study utilized sections of forest simulta- neously, but their associations were by no means in the form of a tight knit group. The age structure of the okapi in the study area would suggest a family network with adults, juvenile, and calf. However, the sex of each Individual could not be determined except for the assumed presence of one female. The Epulu area of Zaire has historically been one of the densest areas of okapi (Verschuren 1978) and there still appeared to be large numbers of okapi present during this study. The biomass of tropical forest ungu- lates is often considerably lower than for their savanna or grassland counterparts because the relative scarcity of herbivore food under the forest canopy (Eisenberg and McKay 1974). However, the biomass of okapi in the Epulu area appears to be relatively high for a tropical forest ungulate and not all that diffe- rent from the savanna giraffes (500 kg/km^) (Dagg and Foster 1976). This may be a re- sult of okapi feeding on more cbundant leafy browse (Landsheere 1957, Gijzen 1959, lo- nides 1965) whilst many of the other ungulate species such as duikers and chevrotain feed on less abundant fruits (Dubost 1984). There- fore, okapi may be free of competition and be able to maintain a relatively high biomass. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are very grateful to the Zairian go- vernment, and to Drs. John and Terry Hart for their assistance and accomodations in Epulu. Dr. George Rabb and Dr. Edwin Banks are thanked for their guidance and en- couragement. Dr. N. Burley and Dr. C. Packer reviewed earlier drafts of the manu- script, and A.R. Gent assisted with the stati- stics. The project was funded in part by the Chicago Zoological Society. LITERATURE CITED DAGG, A.L and J.B. FOSTER 1976. The Gi- raffe. Its Biology, Behavior, and Ecolo- gy. Van Nostrand Reibhold Company, N.Y., 210 pp. DUBOST, G. 1084. Comparison of the diets of frugivorous forest ruminants of Gabon. J. Mamm., 65 (2) : 298-316. EISENBERG, J.F. and G.M. McKay 1974. Comparison of ungulate adaptations in the new and old world tropical forests with special reference to Ceylon and the rainforests of Central America. IN : The behaviour of Ungulates and its Relation to Management. Ed. by V. Geist and F. Walther, I.U.C.N. Publications New Se- ries No. 24, 585-602. 27 ESTES, R.D. 1974. Social organization of Afri- can bovidae. IN : The Behaviour of Un- gulates and its Relation to Management. Ed. by V. Geist and F. Walther, I.U.C.N. Publications New Series No. 24, 166-205. GIJZEN, A. 1959. Das Okapi. Die Neue Brehmbucherei, Heft 231, 120 pp. HART, J.A. and S. THONfAS, 1986. The Ituri forest of Zaire : primate diversity and prospects for conservation. Primate Conservation, 7 : 42-44. lONIDES, L.J.P. 1955. Okapi {Okapia johnsto- ni). Afric. Wildlife, 9 : 63-65. JARMAN, P.J. 1974. The social organization of antelope in relation to their ecology. Be- haviour, 48 : 215-267. LANDSHEERE, J. DE. 1957. Observation concernant la capture, I'^levage et les soins de I'okapi. Zoo, 23 : 12-25. LANG, H. 1918. In quest of the rare okapi. Zool. Soc. BuU. N.Y., 21 : 1601-1614. LEUTHOLD, W. 1977. African Ungulates. Springer- Verlag, N.Y., 307 pp. LYDEKKER, R.E. 1908. The Game Animals of Africa. Powland Wsird, London. RABB, G.B. 1978. Birth, early behaviour and clinical data of the okapi. Acta 21ool. et Pathol. Ant., 71: 93-106. VERSCHUREN, J. 1978. Note sur la distribu- tion geographique et la situation actuelle de I'okapi. Okapia johnstoni. Acta Z^ol. et Pathol. Ant., 71 : 15-30. SUMMARY This paper reports on a field study, examining tlie social organization of the oka- pi. Rough estimates were also made of the okapi home range over a one month period and of okapi density in the Epulu area, Zaire. *Richard E. Bodmer Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield, III. 60513, USA Present address: Dept Zoologica Museu Paraense Emiiio Goeldi Caixa Postal 399 66.040 Belem, PA BRAZIL *Kathryn R. Gubista University of Illinois, Dept. of Biology, Urbana, ILL. 61801, USA Article culled from Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia n° 80/1988 28 Past and present distribution and status of the Wild Dog (Lycaon pictus) in Namibia by C.J.H. Mines* ( Voir traduction page 52 ) Abstract The wild dog Lycaon pictus has un- dergone an extensive reduction in range and numbers in the southern African subregion in recent years. Little information is available on its distribution and status in Namibia. Re- sults from a questionnaire survey show that wild dogs have become highly restricted in their distribution and that numbers are de- creasing. This species is now the most en- dangered large mammal in Namibia and no- where is it adequately protected in this coun- try. Wild dogs cause minimal domestic stoc/c losses but are aggressively hunted wherever they occur in livestock farming areas. INTRODUCTION Wild dog Lycaon pictus Temmlnck 1820 populations throughout Africa have shown large decreases in range and num- bers in recent years. In southern Africa they are considered endangered throughout much of their range (Skinner et al. 1977; Smi- thers 1983; Lensing & Joubert 1977). The si- tuation In Namibia has changed drastically since Shortridge (1934) wrote, "wild dog are widely distributed in South-West Africa, and hunting packs may be met with periodically almost everywhere except In the extreme south". The reasons for this reduction in num- bers and range are a variety of human pres- sures, which have isolated the species in southern Africa to a number of restricted pockets in and around conservation areas or areas of very low agricultural development. In Namibia much of the information on wild dog numbers and range is conflicting and the species is generally poorly known. Joubert and Mostert (1975) regarded them as "one of the most endangered species" in the country but base this assessment on limi- ted information. Lensing and Joubert (1977) were of the opinion that the. conservation sta- tus of the wild dog in Namibia was "most criti- 29 ANGOLA KAVANG01 CREROLANC . WEST W I BOTSWANA HEREROLANO EAST KATIMA MULILO BOESIMANLAND I /l -GAME PARKS OF NAMIBIA A - Etosha National Park B - Namib Naukluft Park C - Skeleton Coast Park Q - Caprivi Game Reserve E - Kaudom Game Reserve F - Huns Mountain Q - Waterberg Plateau Pork SOUTH AFRICA 30 cal". Little effort has been put into tlie conservation of wild dogs despite these dire warnings and the recommendation by Len- sing and Joubert (1977) that research on this species should be accorded "priority over all other problem animal species". Because of the paucity of Information on the distribution and status of wild dogs in Namibia it was decided to investigate their status by means of a questionnaire survey. The objectives of the survey were: a) to estimate the past and present distribution of wild dogs in Namibia and to at- tempt to determine what factors have led to their overall decline, b) to assess the importance of wild dogs as problem animals in livestocl< farming areas, and c) to propose some conservation measures to ensure the long-term sun/ival of wild dogs in Namibia. names, dates and numbers are often not pre- cise. The review of historical literature yiel- ded little information as few early explorers and travellers in Namibia documented their observations accurately. As pointed out by Skead (1980) some confusion is found in the literature as to what species is being referred to as '^wild dog". Hyaenas, jackals and feral domestic dogs have all been referred to as "wild dogs" in the past. However, as the prin- cipal objective of the survey was to develop an overview of the past and present distribu- tion and status of the wild dog in Namibia, it was felt that the information gathered was va- lid. All information quoted from the question- naire returns is marked QR preceded by the returnee's name. The information is presen- ted per magisterial district/communal area (Figure 1). LiJserltz-Karasburg METHODS A short questionnaire was sent to 200 selected individuals and institutions in Nami- bia requesting Information on the past and present distribution of wild dogs in this coun- try and their importance as problem animals. A 45% return rate was achieved. Additional information on wild dogs was obtained through a search of both histo- rical and modern literature. RESULTS Much of the information presented here came from personal discussions and communications with individuals. Place There are no recent records of wild dogs for this area. Smithers (1983), however, quoted Sweetman as having seen wild dogs 150 km north of the Orange River mouth on the main coast road in 1 967. Although Shor- tridge (1934) states that wild dogs were vir- tually unknown in the vicinity of the Orange River during the early part of this century, they do not seem to have been so rare in ear- lier times, e.g. Cook (1849) (in Skead 1980) reported them to the south of Warmbad in 1834 and wrote, "our fears for the safety of the cattle were aroused by the barking and howling of wild dogs which are most fero- cious and destructive creatures". Shaw (1840) (in Skead 1980) also saw wild dogs on the plains of the Ham River 65 km from Warmbad. This population was likely to have been entirely dependent on the large herds of migratory game which previously occurred in the area. The destruction of these herds 31 and the intrcxJuction of formal agricultural practices in the early part of the century pro- bably led to this population's demise. Keetmanshoop-Namaland-Bethanien There are no recent records of wild dogs from any of these areas. Shortridge (1934) mentions that "sporadic visits have been recorded from around Bersebad and Great Namaqualand". Wild dogs were known to the farming community of the southwes- tern Keetmanshoop district up until the late 1940's (G. Owen-Smith pers. comm.). Wild dogs have appeared occassionally in the Ka- lahari Gemsbok National Park in South Africa and it is possible that there are sporadic fo- rays by these animals into Namibia. Mariental-Rehoboth-Maltahdhe There are no recent records of wild dogs from any of these districts. They were known, however, to occur in both the Reho- both and Mariental district.^; as recently as the 1950's (Wohler QR). They were noted from both the Auob and Nossob River valleys in the late 1950's. Isolated occurrence of ani- mals crossing onto farms from Botswana may still occur. It is doubtful whether wild dogs were ever common in any of the districts mentio- ned above. Shortridge (1934) states that wild dogs were "of rather infrequent occurrence south of the Tropic of Capricorn". Windhoek-Okahandja There is no mention in Shortridge (1934) of wild dogs in either of these districts even though the species must have occurred here at the time of his visits to Namibia. Bergmann (QR) reported small numbers of animals in the Omitara area in 1937. Eichoff (QR) recorded more than 100 cattle lost on her farm within a single year (1935-1936) and that wild dog packs ranged from three to 30 animals. There are reports that wild dogs oc- curred sporadically in these areas up until the 1950's. The most recent record is of four fe- male dogs destroyed on the farm Spring- bokvlei near Nina in 1983. Omaruru-Otjiwarongo There are no recent records of wild dogs from the Omaruru district, but they un- doubtedly occurred there in the past. Wild dogs are reported periodically in the Otjiwa- rongo district, in the area between the Water- berg Plateau Park itself (the last confirmed sighting was in 1981 (Cooper QR)). Recent records include a group of 15 animals dug out of a warren and destroyed on the farm Ringklip In 1982 and Delfs (QR) reports an- nual sightings of 4-12 wild dogs on the farm Otjahewlta. There are unconfirmed reports of a small group of wild dogs seen north of Otji- warongo in mld-1986. Gobabis Wild dogs have occurred sporadically throughout the district In recent years. Most records indicate that the animals enter from Botswana and Hereroland East. Riedel (QR) reported wild dogs as a problem on the farms in the northeast of the district up until about 1983. They have bred in the district in recent years; two adults with six young were caught on a farm near the Botswana border in 1981 (Delfs QR). These animals were kept and raised in captivity and are still alive. 32 Karibib-Swakopmund and the Namib There are no recent records of wild dogs from these areas; the last record was in 1955 near Karibib (Gladis QR). According to Kriess (QR) wild dogs were widely distribu- ted and well known in the Namib from the 1930's to the late 1940's. At this time small- stock farming started on a formal basis In these areas. The traditional migration pat- terns of the game were affected by the construction of fences and this in turn affec- The situation described above, where wild dog populations were severely depleted in the late 1940's, seems to have occurred in many of the other livestock farming districts in Namibia. A number of questionnaire re- turns indicated that wild dogs were common- ly seen in the late 1930's but sporadically in the 1950's (records from Gobabis, Otjiwaron- go, Okhandja, Karibib, Omaruru, Rehoboth and Windhoek districts). Few sightings were reported in later years. ted the wild dog populations. They were acti- vely hunted on the farms and in a relatively short time were almost eradicated from the district. Kriess (QR) saw wild dogs following migrating game in the pro-Namib and has re- corded them from the Spitzkoppe, the Oma- ruru River and Welwitshia Vlakte. He repor- ted the last wild dogs seen in the area as being "about 15 years ago in Game Reserve 3", i.e. In 1969-70 In the present Namlb-Na- kluft Park. Kohler (1959) mentions that wild dogs occasionally entered the Damara Re- serve from the Namib. Outjo-Etosha National Park-Tsumeb There are no recent records of wild dogs outside of Etosha National Park (ENP) in the Outjo district. Shortridge (1934) com- ments that although not abundant, wild dogs were well known from the Etosha Pan area. Today, wild dogs are seldom seen in the ENP and past records indicate a similar sporadic occurrence. Their status in the park is uncer- tain but It Is doubtful whether any animals are resident. The most recent reports are of 14 animals seen in November 1985 In the north- 33 east of the park, two dogs seen 9 km from Namutoni in the same month and four ani- mals seen about 20 km north of Namutoni by tourists in February 1 986. A reintroduction attempt In the ENP In the late 1970's failed, probably because the animals were not fully adult when released and were inexperienced hunters. Future rein- troductlons of wild dogs to the ENP should be considered. Wild dogs are known from the Tsumeb district and are probably part of a population that moves through Owambo, Tsumeb and Etosha. Historically, they were regularly seen in the Tsumeb district (Burger QR) and there are also a number of recent records, e.g. in February 1986 six dogs were seen on the farm Naguseb bordering the ENP, four dogs were shot on the farm Operet in July 1986 and a "small pack" was seen south of the Mangetti farms in early 1987 (Voights pers. comm.). Grootfontein Shortridge (1 934) states that wild dogs "are apparently most generally numerous in the Grootfontein district and the Caprlvl". Al- though they are today no longer found throu- ghout the district they are regularly encoun- tered in the Maroelaboom farming area bor- dering Bushmanland and Hereroland. Their occurrence in these areas shows some sea- sonality, the animals being most commonly seen during the drier months. They are hea- vily persecuted on these farms and are shot on sight. In 1985, 50-60 wild dogs were esti- mated to have been killed on farms bordering Bushmanland. They have bred on some of the farms in recent years; a warren contai- ning a number of pups was dug up on the farm Abendrushe in 1981 (H.P. Smith pers. comm.). Wild dogs continue to range widely in this district. In October 1986 two animals were found along the Eastern National Water Carrier, one of which subsequently drowned. In August 1987, three male dogs were caught In traps on a farm 10 km south of Krombat. Because of severe injuries, two of the dogs were destroyed, and the remaining dog was released in Bushmanland. Damaraland-Kaokoland There are no recent records from ei- ther of these districts and the historical re- cord Is vague. Kohler (1959) notes that wild dogs occasionally occurred in the Damara Reserve area. He also recorded the issuing of rifles to "Headmen and Board members" for the "destruction of vermin". This would have had a negative effect on wild dogs po- pulation in Damaraland. Shortridge (1934) mentions that wild dogs were known from the Kaokoland area but no other historical infor- mation was found. Owen-Smith (1971) re- corded them from a number of areas in the Kaokoveld, e.g. from the Ovahimba hi- ghlands between the Steilrandberge and the Zebra mountains, the southern dolomite hills and in the eastern sandveld. He also repor- ted a pack of some 20 individuals that bred north of Warmquelle In 1970. Owambo The historical record for Owambo Is poor. Shortridge (1934) says only that the species was well known from the area but not abundant. Wild dogs must have occur- red in fair numbers in the past and they were known from most of the territory until the 1970's. Recent records include one of 17 animals in the army training area near Oshi- velo In June 1986. There are several records 34 of animals in tine soutlieastern area near the Kavango-Tsumeb border. Hereroland-West and -East Wllhelm (in Shortridge 1934) states that "wild dogs occur everywhere in the Omaheke and the Kaukauveld in greater or lesser numbers". The Omaheke and the Kau- kauveld cover most of what is today known as Hereroland and Bushmanland. No other historical information was found regarding Hereroland. The present day situation in He- reroland-West is poorly known. Wild dogs must move through the area (there are nu- merous records from the Otjiwarongo di- strict) but whether any animals are resident in Hereroland-West is not known. It is highly unlikely that they are as the area is heavily populated with intensive livestock farming. In Hereroland-East wild dogs are re- gualrly seen in small packs of 2-10 animals, usually north of the Eiseb veterinary fence. There are several recent records of wild dogs in the south of the territory near the Gobabis district border. The most recent record is one of 12 animals seen in the south during an aerial census in 1985 (van der Merwe QR). The population in the north of Herero- land-East is largely undisturbed, and as long as agricultural/human development remains at a low level they should be relatively safe from persecution. Conflict is likely to arise with the settlement of farmers at Gam, north of the Eiseb fence, although to date there have been no reports of stock losses due to wild dogs. Populations are difficult to estimate due to the highly mobile nature of the ani- mals. The population for the whole of Here- roland is possibly about 100-150 individuals. Bushmanland The historical record for Bushmanland Is poor. Wilhelm (in Shortridge 1934) com- mented that wild dogs were known from the area but otherwise no other records were found. They are, however, regularly seen throughout the territory, being most common along the western boundary (especially the area around the Omuramba Omatako) and in the area centred around Tsumkwe in the east. The populations of the Kavango and and Hereroland-East appear to move through Bushmanland at certain times of the year and probably form an open nomadic system in the three regions. Pack sizes ob- served in recent years range from two to 32 animals. The species breeds in the area. The population is estimated at about 150-200 individuals. While this population is under no direct threat at present, a number of animals have been killed for no apparent reason by military personnel and the rate at which they are shot on bordering farms gives cause for concern. Kavango Wild dogs have occurred throughout the Kavango in the past and still roam through much of the area today. Their num- bers were probably largely unchanged until the massive increase in the human popula- tion in the last 10 years (the population of the Kavango has increased some 300% since the independence of Angola in 1975). Le Grange (1982) stated that up to 1980 wild dogs were often seen on the road between Rundu and Grootfontein and also along the road running parallel to the Kavango River. Because the majority of people are centred around more fertile omaramba systems and the Kavango River, large areas of the Kavango remain 35 uninhibited. There has been little conflict be- tween man and wild dogs in the past, except on certain teaching and experimental farms. The wild dog population is probably relatively stable with some small decrease due to habi- tat loss and agricultural expansion. Popula- tion estimates for the Kavango are very diffi- cult as large areas are seldom visited and hence no information exists. This is especial- ly true of the southwest of the Kavango. In the east wild dogs are regularly seen in groups of 2-26 animals. There are records of wild dogs for all months of 1986 and most of 1987 in the Kaudom Game Reserve. Most observations are from the Kaudom and Ma- hango Game Reserves so it seems that these areas may in fact offer some degree of pro- tection in the future. It is important to ascer- tain, however, whether these parks are suffi- ciently large to protect viable populations of wild dogs. Agricultural expansion and the westernization of agricultural practices offers a particular threat to wild dogs in the Kavan- go. The population is conservatively estima- ted at about 200 individuals. east of the Kavango River (Jones QR). The total population in this area probably num- bers less than 100 individuals. This popula- tion is unlikely to be resident and would move in and out of Botswana and Angola. The major threat to this population is the de- proclamation of the West Caprivi Game Re- serve. East Caprivi Historical records for this area are poor. Other than Shortridge's (1934) com- ment that wild dogs "are most numerous in the Caprivi", there is little information availa- ble. They occur throughout the area at pre- sent, but are seen only irregularly and in small numbers. These numbers are likely to remain low or to decrease even further be- cause most of their prey has been shot out of large areas and livestock farming is expan- ding. The most recent records include a re- port of six wild dogs near Kwena in late May 1987 and of two at Sachinga in August 1987 (H. Kramer in litt.). West Caprivi The^'e are no historical records of wild dogs from the West Caprivi. The present si- tuation is vague because of limited access to the area and the military situation. The pauci- ty of records probably obscures the true pic- ture. The area is proclaimed game reserve and the wild dog population should be under no particular threat at present. Military per- sonnel are generally positive towards the protection of wildlife along both the Kavango and Kwando Rivers. Wild dogs are seen spo- radically throughout the area and immediate- ly west of the Kwando River they are seen monthly (Grobler QR). In September 1986 a pack of 25 were seen in the military area just Wild dogs as problem animals in Namibia The status of the wild dog as a pro- blem animal in Namibia has not changed since Lensing and Joubert (1977) wrote that "Cape hunting dog problems are localised and of very low intensity". If anything, the in- cidence of wild dog problems has diminished In recent years. Areas where they have cau- sed problems in recent years are Tsumeb, Grootfontein, Otjiwarongo, Gobabis and the Kavango. In the commercial farming areas wild dogs are generally ruthlessly hunted, even 36 where they have caused no damage. The number of stock killed by wild dogs as a per- centage of total stock losses to predators is very low - generally less than 1 % (Veterinary Services Data Bank). Problems at present occur only on those farms on or near the borders of communal areas of the north. In the communal areas total stock losses to wild dogs are difficult to determine but they are believed to be low. This is cer- tainly likely in the areas where traditional live- stock farming is practised, because the small herds of cows are tended during the day and then stockaded at night. All major problems with wild dogs in the communal areas have been where livestock are left unattended on experimental farms and at schools. DISCUSSION conservation area. In Etosha National Park their status is uncertain and only in the Ka- vango are they afforded any degree of pro- tection at present, in the Kaudom Game Re- serve. The continued existence of wild dogs in the West Caprivi Game Reserve is threate- ned because of possible deproclamation of the reserve. All the above factors have led to the wild dog becoming highly restricted and rare today, where 30 years ago it was fairly com- mon and widespread. Wild dogs continue to suffer under a multitude of pressures and could be regarded as the most endangered large mammal in Namibia today. If the situa- tion with regard to their requirements for long-term survival are not met soon, wild dogs could be extinct in this country within the next 1 0-20 years. The long-term prospects for the survi- val of wild dogs in Namibia are poor. Perse- cution, habitat loss and lack of any conserva- tion status have led to the present critical si- tuation. Wild dogs have been viewed as ver- min for a long time and as such they have been heavily and arbitrarily persecuted. Much of this persecution is based on the abhorence many people have for their hun- ting method, rather than on the stock lost by farmers. Habitat loss, and hence prey deple- tion continues apace throughout Namibia as human demands take up more and more land. Already in their last strongholds in He- reroland, Bushmanland and Kavango, large areas presently used by wild dogs are now due for agricultural development, principally livestock farming. This will result in conflict and wild dogs will be eradicated from these areas. Wild dogs are nowhere adequately protected within any officially proclaimed ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I thank all those people who sent in questionnaire returns and provided me with information on sightings and other observa- tions. Special thanks are due to Alistair Mac- Donald and the personnel of the Regional Service office in Windhoek and to Chris van Niekerk of Grootfontein who collected infor- mation on the wild dog as a problem animal. REFERENCES JOUBERT, E. & MOSTERT, P.K.N. 1975. distribution patterns and status of some mammals in south West Africa. Mado- qua 9 (1): 5-44. KOHLER, O. 1959. A study of the Omaruru district (SWA). Ethnological pubhca- 37 tion No. 43, Department of Bantu Admi- nistration and Development, Union of South Africa. LE GRANGE, J.P. 1982. Wildehond {Lycaon prictus): Mahango Wildtuin. Internal re- port N13/4/1/15, Directorate of Nature Conservation, Windhoek. LENSING, J.E. & JOUBERT, E. 1977. Inten- sity distribution patterns of the five spe- cies of problem animals in South West Africa. Madoqua 10(2): 131-142. OWEN-SMITH, G.L. 1971. The Kaokoveld - An ecological base for future develop- ment planning. Unpublished report. SHORTRIDGE, G.C. 1934. The mammals of South West Africa. 2 Vols. London: Wil- liam Heinemann. pp 180-186. SKEAD, CJ. 1980. Historical mammal inci- dence in the Cape Province. Cape Town: Department of Nature Environ- mental Conservation. SKINNER, J.D., FAIRALL, N. & BOTHMA, J DU P. 1977. South African Red Data Book - Large Mammals. South y4frican National Scientific Programmes, Report No. 18. Pretoria: C.S.I.R. SMITHERS, R.H.N. 1983. The Mammals of the southern African Subregion. Preto- ria: University of Pretoria. *Directorate of Nature Conservation and Recreational Resorts, Private Bag 13306, Windhoek, Namibia. Article culled from Madoqua 1990, 17 (1): 31-36 ^ v j* Of ^ ^■■^ 'W-^^:- "£