lature et Faune

REVUE INTERNATIONALE POUR LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE EN AFRIQUE
Gastion de la Faune, Am^nagement d'aires prot^g^es, Conservation des ressources naturelles.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NATURE CONSERVATION IN AFRICA
Wildlife and Protected Areas Management and Natural Resources Conservation.

Volume 7, n'1 , Janvier - Mars 1991 .
January - March 1 991 ,

Organisation des Nations Unies /A

pour rAlimentation et I'Agriculture (/ ^TS^ ^
Food and Agriculture Organization ^ "^ ^"

of tln' lIiiiftHl Nafinns ^V

/C^<^^ ^^ Programme des Nations Unies pour
'^» rEnvironnement

United Nations Environment
Programme

i^fJ

FAO Regional Office for Africa

Bureau Regional de la F.A.O. pour FAfrique - Accra (Ghana)

Nature et Faune

Volume 7, n**! Janvier-Mars 1991.
January-March 1991,

iO)

La revue Nature et Faune est une publication international e
trimestrielle destin6e ci permettre un ^change d'informations
et de connassainces scJentifiques concernant la gestion de
la faune, I'amenagement des aires protegees et la conserva-
tion des ressources natureiles sur le continent africain.

"Nature et Faune" is a quarterly international publication de-
dicated to the exchange of information and scientific data on
wildlife and protected areas management and conservation
of natural resources on the African continent.

Editeur - Editor : J.J. Leroy

Ass. Editeur - Ass. Editor : J. Aikins

Conseillers - Advisers : J.D. Keita - G.S. Child

Nature et Faune depend de vos contributions b6n6voles et
volontaires sous la forme d'articles ou d'annonces dans le
domaine de la conservation de la nature et de la faune sau-
vage dans la Region. Pour la publication d'articles ou tout
renseignement complementaire, ecrire k I'adresse suivante:

"Nature et Faune" Is dependent upon your free and voluntary
contributions in the form of articles and announcements in
the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region.
For publication of articles or any further Information, please
contact:

Revue NATURE ET FAUNE

FA.O. Regional Ofllce for Africa

P.O. BOX 1628

ACCRA (Ghana)

Sommaire - Contents

Editorial 3

JLe sort des rhinoceros d'Afrique: trag6die k I'^chelle d'un continent 4
African solutions to wildlife problems in Africa: insights from a community-based

project In Zambia 10

Notes on the duikers of Sierra Leone 24

HprWildlife management for rural development in sub-Saharan Africa 36

TRADUCTIONS -TRANSLATIONS 48

Conservation, Reunions k venir / Upcoming events , Books / Livres 79

Le contenu des articles de cette revue exprime les opinions de leurs auteurs et ne reflete pas necessairement celles de la FAO, du PNUE ou de la redaction. 11 n'exprime
done pas une prise de position officielle, ni de I'Organisation des Nations Unies pour I'Alimentation et I' Agriculture, ni du Programme des Nations Unies pour I'Environne-
ment. En particulier les appellations employees dans cette publication et la presentation des donnees qui y figurent n'impliquent de la part de ces Organisations aucune
prise de position quant au statut juridique des pays, territoires, villes ou zones ou de leurs autorites, ni quant aux traces de leurs frontiires ou llmites.

The opinions expressed by contributing authors are not necessarily those of FAO, UNEP or the editorial board. Thus, they do not express the official position of the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, nor that of the United Nations Environment Programme. The designations employed and the presentation of material in
this publication do not imply the position of these organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or corKeming the deli-
mitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Printed by The Advent Press — Accra

EDITORIAL

Chers lecteurs, votre courrier le prouve, la
version bilingue est arrivee a point nomme
pour renforcer les contacts inter-africains et
favoriser les echanges d'idees et de techni-
ques entre pays francophones et pays anglo-
phones au sein du continent et au-dela.

Apres un an (quatre numeros) de version
bilingue, et alors que le nombre de lecteurs
n'a cesse d'augmenter, en particulier dans les
pays anglophones, notre revue va renouer
avec une habitude delaisse le temps de mettre
en place la nouvelle version: il s'agit des nou-
velles de la conservation et de la revue de li-
vres et de reunions Internationales. Ce troi-
sieme volet de "Nature et Faune" vient se gref-
fer apres les pages vertes des traductions; il
presente directement chaque information sui-
vie de sa traduction, sauf la revue des livres et
des reunions qui sera faite dans les langues
d'origine.

Comme dans le passe, "Nature et Faune"
traite de sujets aussi varies et complemen-
taires que possible : le sort tragique des rhino-
ceros a travers le continent, les causes et les
remedes appliques; I'exemple zambien de
gestion de la faune par les communautes ru-
rales elles-memes; un article plus scientifique
sur les cephalophes de Sierra Leone et en
particulier sur le rarissime cephalophe de Jen-
tink, et enfin un document plus general mais
non moins captivant sur I'importance de la
faune et de son amenagement pour le deve-
loppement rural en Afrique subsaharienne.

Dear readers, your letters testify to the fact
that the bilingual edition came in at the right
time to help strengthen interafrican contacts
and improve the exchange of Ideas and te-
chniques between English and French-spea-
king countries of the continent and beyond.

After one year (four issues) of the bilingual
version, and with an ever increasing rea-
dership especially from the English-speaking
countries, the magazine is introducing topics
that were "abandoned" during the preparation
of the bilingual edition : conservation news,
book review and international meetings. This
third section of the magazine will come after
the green pages of translations; each item is
presented with its translation, except the book
review and meetings which are presented in
their original language.

As with past issues, the present edition of
"Nature et Faune" covers subjects that are as
broad and complementary as possible: the
tragic fate of rhinoceros in Africa, causes and
remedies; the Zambian example of local parti-
cipation in wildlife management; a scientific
article on the duikers of Sierra Leone, espe-
cially the extremely rare Jentink's duiker, and
finally, a more general but also captivating
article on the importance of wildlife and its
management for rural development in sub-
Saharan Africa.

Le sort des rhinoceros d'Afrique :
tragedie a I'echelle
d'un continent

(see translation page 48)

Violent, dangereux, agressif, vicieux : les
qualifications ne manquent pas pour designer
les rhinoceros. Une telle reputation, qui fut
savamment entretenue pendant des dizaines
d'annees par les recits des grands chasseurs,
est cependant injustifiee. Certes, les rhinoce-
ros ont leur caractere : lis sont quelquefois
irascibles, et leurs reactions demeurent tou-
jours impr6visibles. Mais ils n'ont cependant
rien de ces monstres agressifs qui n'existent
somme toute que dans I'esprit des hommes,
lorsque ceux-ci accablent les animaux afin de
mieux justifier leur propre penchant pour la
cruaute et la violence...

Les rhinoceros : animaux surprenants,
anachroniques, bizarres, sont les derniers
descendants d'une lignee ancienne, les seuls
survivants d'une famille qui connut ses heures
de gloire a une epoque ou Thomme n'existait
pas encore. Fossiles vivants, rescapes de la
prehistoire, temoins d'une epoque revolue,
les rhinoceros ont, intacts, traverse les ages.
L'evolution a fait d'eux des machines parfaite-
ment adaptees au monde dans lequel ils vi-
vent. Mais revolution n'a pu les mettre a I'abri
de la convoitise des hommes.

100 000 rhinoceros noirs vivaient encore
en Afrique 11 y a quelques dizaines d'annees
seulement : il en reste moins de 3 500 aujour-

par Bernard de Wetter*

d'hui, et le braconnage dementiel qui a defer-
le sur la majorite du continent est peut-etre en
train de leur porter I'estocade finale. Quant
au rhinoceros blanc, I'autre espece presente
en Afrique, ses effectifs actuels ne represen-
ted plus que I'ombre de ce qu'ils etaient au
siecle passe.

Bien plus sans doute que le fait meme de
leur declin, ce sont les causes profondes de
celui-ci qui paraissent inacceptables. Les rhi-
noceros n'entrent nullement en conflit avec
les activites de I'homme, ne representent au-
cune menace pour celle-ci. lis disposent par
ailleurs de suffisamment d'espace encore
pour pouvoir prosperer dans la plus grande
partie de leur aire de repartition. S'ils dispa-
raissent, c'est uniquement parce qu'ils sont
massacres en grand nombre, et ceci pour des
motifs particulierement futiles, puisqu'il s'agit
ni plus ni moins que de perpetuer des tradi-
tions, des croyances solidement incrustees
dans la mentalite de certains peuples.

La cause de tous les malheurs pour les rhi-
noceros, ce sont les cornes qu'ils arborent
sur le devant de la tete. Celles-ci ne sont pas
soudees au squelette de I'animal : elles ne
sont en fait rien de plus qu'un agglomerat de
keratine, c'est-a-dire une matiere comparable
aux ongles de nos doigts ou aux sabots des

chevaux. Elles sont cependant pris^es en
tant que medicament aux pouvoirs multiples
et presque magiques (mais dont I'inefficacite
reelle a aujourd'hui ete demontee scientifique-
ment), tandis qu'au Yemen, on les utilise pour
fabriquer les crosses des poignards tradition-
nels, les "djambiahs", que se doit de porter
tout Yemenite male qui se respecte.

Les demeles des rhinoceros avec I'homme
ne datent pas d'hier : depuis des milliers d'an-
nees, ces animaux ont ete convoites par I'etre
humain, qui lui a attribue des vertus surnatu-
relles : au Moyen-Age en Europe, ne I'a-t-on
pas confondu avec la licorne, cet animal my-
thique ? L'interet de I'homme envers les rhi-
noceros a laisse des traces tout au long de
I'histoire.

Les cornes des rhinoceros etaient large-
ment utilisees au debut de I'ere chretienne
dans la Chine imperiale : fagonnees par les
artisans de renom, elles etaient transformees
en objets ornamentaux, reserves aux nantis
de la societe. La plupart des cornes travail-
lees en Extreme-Orient a I'epoque etaient ce-
pendant transformees en coupes sculptees,
qui servaient uniquement de pieces de collec-
tion. Par la suite, les coupes servirent princi-
palement a detecter la presence de poison re-
pandu dans un breuvage : la pratique de sou-
mettre les boissons a I'epreuve de la corne se
repandit en Extreme-Orient, en Europe, et
meme dans certaines regions d'Afrique. Mais
les cornes de rhinoceros furent de tout temps
utilisees principalement dans le domaine de la
medecine. Les Europeens leur attribuerent
des vertus curatives pendant plusieurs cen-
taines d'annees. Cependant, c'est en Asie
que I'emploi de la corne de rhinceros dans la
medecine traditionelle fut le plus repandu.
Panacee universelle, ou presque, la corne
etait consideree posseder (et posseder d'ail-
leurs toujours) des effets curatifs contre une

panoplie de maux aussi divers que la fidvre et
les migraines, les Intoxications alimentaires
ou les morsures de serpent I Seules les Guja-
ratis de I'lnde orientale cependant attribuerent
a la corne de rhinoceros des pouvoirs aphro-
disiaques.

Le commerce des cornes de rhinoceros
etait deja une entreprise florissante dans une
certaine partie de I'Afrique bien avant I'arrivee
des Blancs. Deja dans les premiers siecles
de I'ere chretienne, les arabes entretenaient
des relations avec les ports africains de la Mer
Rouge, et les cornes, collectees a I'interieur
du continent, etaient exportees vers les ports
arabes et indiens, d'ou elles continuaient en-
suite vers la Chine. Les echanges commer-
ciaux entre I'Afrique et {'Orient se perpetue-
rent au cours des siecles, via les cites por-
tuaires de la Mer Rouge et de I'Ocean Indien.
Les Anglais et les Allemands, qui se partage-
rent I'Afrique de I'Est au siecle passe, conti-
nuerent le commerce des cornes de rhinoce-
ros. On estime que durant la seconde moitie
du 19e siecle, une moyenne de onze tonnes
de cornes etaient exportees annuellement, ce
qui represente la mort d'au moins 170 000
animaux !

La valeur de la corne augmenta reguliere-
ment tout au long du 20e siecle. La vente de
cornes de rhinoceros et d'ivoire devint un
monopole d'Etat en Afrique de I'Est et du Sud
apres I'independance : a la fin des annees
soixante, la corne se vendait 30£ le kilo. Mais
ce chiffre allait deculper quelque dix annees
plus tard, et ne cesserait par la suite de grim-
per en fleche pour atteindre des sommes as-
tronomiques. Plusieurs facteurs furent a I'ori-
gine de cette flambee des prix, dont le princi-
pal fut I'entree en scene d'un nouvel acheteur
dans les annees soixante-dix : le Yemen. Le
Yemen du Nord etait demeure pendant des
decennies une nation particulierement pauvre

et compldtement coupee du reste du monde;
mais au terme d'une guerre civile sauvage qui
le devasta pendant plus de huit ans, le pays
s'ouvrit k I'aide Internationale. Parallelement,
de tres nombreux Y6m6nites partirent travail-
ler sur les champs petroliferes d'Arabie Saou-
dite au debut des annees soixante-dix. Les
sommes considerables de devises rapportees
par ces travailleurs propulserent I'ecooomie
du pays, et permit k des acheteurs toujours
plus nombreux de s'offrir un luxe jusqu'alors
reserve a I'elite de la society : un poignard au
manche sculpte dans une corne de rhinoce-
ros... A la fin des annees soixante-dix, un geo-
graphe americain, Esmond Bradley Martin,
mit en Evidence le role jou6 par le Y6men du
Nord dans la disparition des rhinoceros en
Afrlque : ce petit pays de moins de six mil-
lions d'Smes absorbait k lui seul non moins

de 50 % du volume total du trafic des cornes
de rhinoceros afrlcains I

Personne n'a jamais su et ne saura com-
bien de rhinoceros peuplaient TAfrique au
moment ou les premiers explorateurs blancs
mirent pied sur cette terre jusqu'alors incon-
nue. Mais les recits des premiers voyageurs
abondent en rencontres avec des rhinoceros,
et il n'etait pas rare d'en rencontrer 60 ou 80
exemplaires en une seule journee de marche.
Avec le developpement des structures colo-
niales debuta I'age d'or des grands chasseurs
: d6s la fin du siecle pass6, la faune d'Afrique
exergait un attrait irresistible sur les porteurs
de fusil de tous horizons. Les rhinoceros,
grosses betes placides et peu m6fiantes, han-
dicapes par leur vue mediocre, constituaient
des cibles de premier choix.

Groupe de jeunes rhinoceros deplac^s pour une meilleure protection vers le centre du Zimbabwe . Imire Game Ranch.
Group of young rhinoceros translocated for a better protection to the central area of Zimbabwe. Imire Game Ranch

(Photo J.-J. Leroy)

L'homme blanc se livra k un veritable car-
nage, particulierement en Afrique du Sud. Le
rhinoceros blanc fut le premier a se ressentir
des effets de cette chasse abusive : en 1 890,
I'espece avait pour ainsi dire disparu dans le
sud du continent. En 1 890, un groupe de six
sujets fut cependant apergu au Natal, et pour
la premiere fois, des mesures de protection
allaient enfin etre prises en faveur de ces ani-
maux : la chasse fut interdite, et une reserve
ailait bientot etre creee en vue de leur protec-
tion. Dans le centre de I'Afrique, le rhinoceros
blanc faisait deja I'objet d'une exploitation
bien avant I'arrivee des Blancs, mais "leux-ci
s'associerent bientot aux marchands arabes a
la recherche de rhinoceros, notamment au
Tchad.

Plus nombreux et moins facile k localiser
que son cousin blanc, le rhinoceros noir par-
vint a se maintenir plus longtemps; mais ses
effectifs ne cesserent cependant de baisser
pendant toute la premiere moitie du vingtieme
siecle, et deja dans les annees quarante, I'es-
pece etait devenue tres rare dans certains
pays, tels le Tchad, I'Ethiopie et la Somalie.
Ailleurs par contre, I'entre deux guerres mar-
qua une periode de repit pour les rhinoceros,
et ce fut bien plus la mise en culture de nou-
velles terres que la chasse qui diminua leurs
effectifs.

Au debut des annees cinquante, si les rhi-
noceros avaient done disparu dans une partie
de leur aire de repartition, leur avenir en tant
qu'especes n'etait cependant nullement me-
nace. En Afrique du Sud, le rhinoceros blanc
connaissait au contraire un renouveau spec-
taculaire. Mais la fin des annees de repit ne
devait plus tarder... Deja dans les annees cin-
quante, on assista a une recrudescence du
braconnage dirige contre les rhinoceros, une
tendance qui ne fit que s'accentuer par la
suite un peu partout en Afrique. Au debut des

annees soixante-dix, les armes traditionnelles
furent de plus remplac6es par un equipement
moderne et redoutable : carabines de chasse
et fusils automatiques. Une veritable vague
de braconnage se mit k deferler sur TAfrique,
eliminant sur son passage les rhinoceros d'un
pays apres I'autre. Ceux-cl avaient pour ainsi
dire disparu d'Ethiopie, de Somalie, du
Tchad, du Soudan, d'Angola, du Mozambique
et d'Ouganda k la fin des annees soixante-
dix.

L' Afrique de I'Est fut frapp6e de plein fouet
egalement : le Kenya, qui comptait encore 20
000 rhinoceros noirs en 1970, n'en abritait
plus que 500 quinze annees plus tard. La le-
pre du braconnage gagna ensuite la Tanzanie
et la Zambie voisines, et les rhinoceros y fu-
rent d^cimes en quelques annees. La Repu-
blique Centrafricaine fut longtemps conside-
ree comme un bastion sur pour les rhinoce-
ros. Mais en 1983, des membres du gouver-
nement Bokassa prirent soudain conscience
du potentiel fabuleux que representaient les
comes des quelque 3000 rhinoceros que
comptait le pays : le massacre fut mene avec
une efficacitd inouTe, et 99 % des rhinoceros
de Centrafrique furent aneantis en quelques
moisseulement...

Un seul pays abritait encore plusieurs mil-
liers de rhinoceros en 1984 : le Zimbabwe,
I'ancienne Rhodesie du Sud de I'ere coloniale
britannique. Mais cette annee, les tueurs de
rhinoceros tournerent leurs regards vers cet
uitime bastion : les premieres incursions de
braconniers furent enregistrees en decembre
1984, et le pays dut rapidement faire face a
une veritable invasion de braconniers bien or-
ganises, puissamment armes et particuliere-
ment agressifs, operant de la Zambie voisine.

La ou la situation politique le permettait,
des efforts toujours plus intenses furent me-
nes en vue d'assurer la protection des rhino-

c^ros. Mais la lutte antibraconnage et le ren-
forcement des moyens de surveillance ne pu-
rent cependant empecher les tueurs de per-
p6trer leurs m6faits, m§me dans les sites les
plus frequentes.

Le Kenya se vit bientot contraint de ras-
sembler la majority de ses quelque 500 rhino-
ceros rescap6s dans des sanctuaires sp6-
ciaux cr66s k leur intention. D^s 1985 fut ap-
plique un plan national de sauvetage des rhi-
noceros, et des travaux d'amenagement fu-
rent entrepris en vue de doter cinq pares na-
tionaux de sanctuaires. Veritables forte-
resses, ces sanctuaires sont entour^s d'une
cloture haute de trois metres, eiectrifiee k
5000 Volts, et munie de systemes d'alarme
eiectroniques. lis sont surveilies en perma-
nence par des gardes qui parcourent jour et
nuit le perimetre de la cloture, le long de la-
quelle sont Instalies des postes de patrouille k
des intervalles de quelques kilometres. Cinq
pares nationaux ont ete designes pour heber-
ger un tel sanctuaire, dont la superficie varie
de 2 500 k 22 000 hectares : Nakuru, Nairobi,
Meru, Tsavo et Aberdares; quatre ranches
prives, qui detiennent plus d'un tiers des rhi-
noceros du Kenya k I'heure actuelle, ont ega-
lement ete Indus dans la strategie nationale
de sauvetage de ces animaux...

Plus de 1000 rhinoceros blancs peuplaient
le Pare national de la Garamba au Zaire a
I'heure de I'independance; mais 11 n'en restait
plus que 14 en tout et pour tout lorsque fut
lance un ambitieux programme de sauvetage
de ces animaux en 1984. Finance par rUICN,
la Societe zoologique de Francfort et I'UNES-
CO, le projet de rehabilitation du Pare natio-
nal de la Garamba mene depuis 1984 une sur-
veillance attentive autour des rhinoceros
blancs, dont le nombre est remonte depuis a
22 unites : les ultimes survivants d'une popu-
lation jadis florissante qui comptait plusieurs

dizaines de milliers d'animaux, repartis sur un
vaste territoire couvrant le Tchad, la Republi-
que Centrafricaine, le Soudan, le nord du
Zaire et de I'Ouganda.

Des les premieres attaques des bracon-
niers dans la Valiee du Zambeze, au Zim-
babwe, le gouvernement s'engagea dans une
lutte de grande envergure pour sauver ses
rhinoceros. Mais en depit des efforts absolu-
ment remarquables consentis par ce pays, les
rhinoceros noirs de la Valiee du Zambeze fu-
rent decimes par centaines. En 1985, le De-
partement des pares nationaux entreprit done
de capturer un maximum de rhinoceros dans
la Valiee du Zambeze, afin de les relacher
dans d'autres sites situes loin des frontieres,
ou lis demeurent a I'abri des tueurs. Plusieurs
centaines de rhinoceros ont d'ores et dej^ fait
I'objet de telles mesures, tandis que se pour-
suivait dans la Valiee du Zambeze la guerre
du rhinoceros, une guerre qui sacrifie chaque
annee chez les gardes des dizaines de vies
humaines...

Les efforts entrepris au Kenya, au Zaire et
au Zimbabwe constituent probablement la
derniere chance de survie des rhinoceros en
Afrique. Tant que durera le projet de rehabili-
tation du Pare national de la Garamba, 11 est
permis d'esperer que les derniers rhinoceros
blancs d'Afrique Centrale survivront, et pour-
ront se multiplier lentement. Si les forteresses
du Kenya parviennent k remplir leur role, elles
permettront k un important noyau de repro-
duction du rhinoceros noir de se maintenir
durant le temps necessaire. Aussi longtemps
que la lutte anti-braconnage sera menee avec
autant de vigueur dans la Valiee du Zambeze,
les braconniers ne pourront s'attaquer aux
populations de rhinoceros du sud de I'Afri-
que, ou les deux especes jouissent aujour-
d'hui encore d'une protection exemplaire.
Quelques petites populations de ces pachy-

dermes survivent au Botswana, en Namibie,
au Malawi et au Swaziland. L'Afrique du Sud
est desormais le dernier pays d'Afrique ou les
rhinoceros des deux especes sont en aug-
mentation constante.

Les rhinoceros ont souffert de toutes les
m^prises. lis ont occup6, ils occupent encore
une place ambigue dans I'esprit et la culture
de peuples aussi diff^rents les uns des autres
que les Chinois, les Arabes, les Indiens ou les
Zoulous.

Depuis des miII6naires, les rhinoceros ont
exerce une fascination melee de superstition
et de crainte sur I'homme. L'homme, qui tout
en leur conf6rant des qualitds surnaturelles, a
de tout temps cherche a les eliminer. Comme
si I'existence des rhinoceros lui paraissait in-
supportable, parce que ces creatures
etranges ont, peut-etre, le pouvoir de ramener
I'espece humaine k sa juste dimension, a sa
juste place. Les rhinoceros sont 1^ pour nous
rappeler que la vie sur Terre n'a pas commen-
ce avec I'apparition de l'homme...

S'ils venaient k disparaitre, le monde n'en
cesserait sans doute pas de tourner. Mais la
nature d'Afrique, aves ses men/eilles de cou-
leurs et de formes, serait-elle encore la meme
sans les rhinoceros ? Quel espoir aurait-on
encore de sauvegarder des communautes
naturelles intactes et tous les etres qui les
composent, mammiferes, oiseaux, poissons,
insectes et autres invertebres, des plus visi-
bles aux plus discrets, des plus imposants

aux plus anodins, des plus populaires aux
moins aimes, des plus ceidbres aux plus ridi-
cules, et sur lesquels, sans aucune exception,
reposent pourtant les fondements memes de
la vie sur notre planete ?

Dans quelques rares sanctuaires, les der-
niers rhinoceros d'Afrique vivent encore leur
vie paisible, insouciante, au rythme des jours
et des nuits, des saisons et des annees,
comme ils I'ont fait depuis toujours et pour-
raient le faire encore jusqu'^ la fin des temps.
A condition que l'homme leur en laisse la
chance-

Article extrait des cahiers d'Ethologie ap-
pliquee. 1989, 9(1): 97-102

* Adresse de I'auteur :
rue Leys 35
B-1040 BRUXELLES
BELGIQUE

10

African solutions to wildlife problems in
Africa: insights from a community-based

project in Zambia

(voir traduction page 52)

by D.M. Lewis, A. Mwenya and G.B. Kaweclie*

Today, rural coexistence with wildlife is
precarious and heavily aid dependent. The
magnitude of the challenge to make it once
more self-sustainable in the longer term
clearly requires more than a law enforcement
response. As In former traditional times, rural
community cooperation is indispensable.

Historically, African societies had a stable
coexistence witii wildlife, a function of tiie in-
trinsic value attached to ecological conserva-
tion in African culture (Hadley, 1985; l^arl<s,
1976). However, the institution of colonial
centralized governments undermined custo-
mary laws as well as the authority of traditio-
nal African leaders who enforced them (Swift,
1982; Willis, 1985). As the colonial govern-
ments were unable to provide an effective al-
ternative means of wildlife conservation, the
result was a poaching "gold rush" for the
riches of rhino horn, elephant ivory and other
short-term gains.

Following independence, most African
states maintained the colonial structure of
centralized game departments and national
parl<s systems. In most cases, wildlife mana-
gement has been based on the adoption of

punitive measures designed to maintain bar-
riers between wildlife resources in protected
areas and local residents living in or around
such areas.

Zambia has had more than a decade of ef-
forts in dealing with wildlife managment, and
specifically with a serious poaching problem
(Lewis and Kaweche, 1985; Lewis, Kaweche
and Mwenya, 1989; Leder-Williams, 1985). In-
tensive law enforcement campaigns were wa-
ged in selected parts of the country and fun-
ded by large amounts of money. However,
despite increased arrests, wildlife losses
continued; in some cases they even increa-
sed where such programmes operated (Le-
wis, 1986). National losses of wildlife re-
sources during this period included a near ex-
tinction of the blacl< rhino and the reduction of
over 50 percent of the elephant population.
Similar trends have been documented in the
United Republic of tanzania, Uganda, Namibia
and Kenya.

Although law enforcement measures conti-
nued as an accepted deterrent to poaching,
Zambia's National Pari<s and Wildlife Services
undertook experimental studies (Lewis,
Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989) and a technical
worl<shop (Dalai-Clayton and Lewis, 1984)

11

Where the ADMADE programme has been implemented no rhinos have been poached in 3 years
L^ ou le programme ADMADE a 6t6 r^lis^, aucun rhino n'a 6t6 braconn^ en 3 ans (photo J J. Leroy)

during this period to help identify the under-
lying causes of illegal hunting. As a result, a
new national policy of wildlife management,
called the Administrative management design
(ADMADE) for game managment areas, was
formulated to deal with these causes (Mwe-
nya, Kaweche and Lewis, 1988).

Based heavily on people's participation. In
the areas where it has been implemented, AD-
MADE has proved to be highly effective. For
instance, In a three-year period, poaching of
elephants declined by over 90 percent in one
wildlife area in Zambia where local participa-
tion was actively promoted (Lewis, Kaweche
and Mwenya, 1989). Furthermore, a resident
population of black rhino suffered not a single
instance of poaching during this period des-
pite adequate numbers to attract illegal hun-
ters (Lewis, unpublished data). This was
achieved at a fraction of the cost assumed ne-
cessary to ensure adequate protection of wil-

dlife in Africa on a per km basis by many wil-
dlife experts (Parker, 1984; Bell and Clarke,
1984).

This article first focuses on selected quan-
tifiable variables that the above-mentioned
studies and the results thus far obtained from
the ADMADE programme have identified as
key determinants in helping to predict poa-
ching levels and wildlife management pro-
blems for a given area. Various methods or
management treatments that can modify the
value of these variables, and thus reduce the
frequency and severity of poaching, are also
discussed. Finally, a set of guiding principles
are presented that government planners and
wildlife authorities may find useful when
considering options for dealing with wildlife
management in Africa.

12

VARIABLES AND CAUSAL
RELATIONSHIPS

Availability of alternative pro-
tein sources

In rural societies where legal protein
sources are limited, residents tend to adopt il-
legal practices to secure at least a minimal
per caput requirement. As such practices go
unchecked, subsistence levels are often ex-
ceeded. Under these circumstances villagers
living outside and along the boundaries of
protected areas with easy access to wildlife
resources wHI resort to illegal hunting in these
areas, despite the greater risks of being ap-
prehended.

A comparative study between two neigh-
boring villages, both in a tsetse-fly infested
area and therefore without domestic animals,
suggested the significance of the availability
of alternative protein sources in predicting
poaching levels among village communities li-
ving outside protected areas (Lewis, 1 988; Le-
wis, unpublished data). One village was loca-
ted along a major river with high availability of
fish. The other had no significant alternative
meat supply other than the depleted wildlife
resources In its area. The village with acess
to fish had far fewer traditional hunters and
contributed much less to the area's poaching
problems than the village with less acess to
fish.

Options for dealing with this variable may
be limited, depending on the intrinsic features
of the area concerned. One possibility is to
promote alternative protein sources not dis-
ruptive to wildlife (i.e. introduction of fish far-
ming, more intensive farming of plant protein

species, etc.). Another is to allot a sustaina-
ble quota of animals to resident village hun-
ters, and to employ their services to provide
meat to the community. This would reduce
pressures on the more threatened species
and would also permit a more careful monito-
ring of the off-takes. This may help to ensure
a net positive growth rate In the harvested po-
pulations, if such a growth rate Is desirable
from a management point of view.

Employment opportunities

The growing need for income opportuni-
ties in rural socieities Is becoming acute
throughout Africa as the availability and ac-
cessibility of natural resources diminish. Gi-
ven the external market forces related to wil-
dlife, principally meat and trophies (skins,
horns, teeth, etc.), when the need for income
Is great enough, local residents engage them-
selves in paid services, legal or otherwise.
Because of limited educational opportunities,
local people often do not know the real mar-
ket value of wildlife commodities sought by
outside commercial interests and therefore
exchange or sell them at prices far below their
actual value.

While employment opportunities and aval-
lability of non-wildlife protein sources may va-
ry between areas, it is relatively simple to de-
termine what their respective levels are. With
such information predictions about poaching
levels can be made (see Figure 1).

Wildlife management as Implemented by
the governing authority can help to Increase
local employment opportunities In a number
of ways:

Recruit and train local residents to pro-
vide the major share of the required work-

13

force in the management of wildlife. Such a
programme was initiated on a trial basis in
1985 by Zambia's National Parl<s and Wildlife
Service (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989).
Results Included an Increased understanding
and appreciation of wildlife resources, their
economic values, and the need to prevent
non-residents from entering their area to hunt
illegally. Locally recruited perconnel em-
ployed to protect their chiefdom's wildlife
were shown to have a superior knowledge of
the land and less absenteeism than civil ser-
vant wildlife scouts, whose home areas were
usually In a different part of the country. As a
result, these locally recruited workers, called
village scouts, contributed a significantly
greater proportion of total arrests of illegal
hunters. Furthermore, because the salary
scales for the village scouts were based more

Availability

aiiernativ«
protein

Employment opportunities

on expected local income earnings, the costs
of maintaining them proved far less expensive
than civil sen/ant scouts.

Promote programmes that encourage lo-
cal residents to engage in small, non-disrup-
tive "cottage Industries" that depend on either
consumptive (sustained-yield utilization) or
non-consumptive uses of wildlife. Evidence
suggests conservationist attitudes toward wil-
dlife within a village area grow as the resi-
dents' dependency on the sustained-yield use
of wildlife increases. As this occurs there is
also an increase in appreciation among the
local residents for the law enforcement efforts
by their own village scouts. Such apprecia-
tion may take the form of volunteering infor-
mation to village scouts when illegal hunters
enter their area, as has been documented in

Zambia (Lewis,
1989).

Encourage vil-
lage meetings to
solicit views and
criticisms from lo-
cal residents on
the management
of their wildlife re-
sources. These
have proved ins-
trumental in mini-
mizing misconcep-
tions and promo-

FIGURE 1: Poaching
levels and characteri-
stics as affected by alter-
native protein sources
and employment oppor-
tunities.

14

ting self-imposed responsibilities in the mana-
gement and protection of wildlife resources
(Lewis, 1988 and unpublished data). This ap-
proach is fundamental for establishing ties of
joint cooperation between local residents and
the technical government department respon-
sible for providing legally sustainable benefits
from wildlife for local communities (Mwenya,
Kawecheand Lewis, 1988).

Government acceptance of tradi-
tional leadership on wildlife is-
sues

Chiefs and/or headmen are the corners-
tones of African rural societies and the tradi-
tional customs that bind and regulate village
communities. Land tenure and acess to natu-
ral resources were formerly determined by
these chiefs in the common interest. Intefe-
rence with or abolition of these powers during
and after colonial administration has led to a
situation where central governments are una-
ble to sustain needs of adequate law enforce-
ment to protect wildlife resources. The conti-
nued misuse of these resources leads to the
imposition of ineffective punitive measures
which tend to further erode the influence of
traditional rulers.

A potentially acceptable approach for intef-
grating traditional local leadership with mo-
dern centralized governments in dealing with
wildlife conservation issues is the formation of
a partnership between the two authorities.
The ADMADE policy (Mwenya, Kaweche and
Lewis, 1988) effectively does this by the es-
tablishment of Wildlife Management Authori-
ties for each game management area. Chai-
red by the District Governor, an Authority is
composed of local, traditional rulers and se-

nior-level wildlife officers. The members meet
periodically to exchange views and adopt wil-
dlife management policies for that particular
area. Under this approach, direct technical
and capital inputs may be directed through
government channels while traditional rulers
exert their influence to increase local support
and cooperation in managing the wildlife re-
sources in their area.

In the Chikwa-Luelo area of the Luangwa
Valley, for example, the two ruling chiefs ac-
cepted the ADMADE policy, which by vitrue of
their chieftainship gave them chairmanship of
their own Wildlife Management sub-Authority.
These sub-authorities bring proposals and
funding requests to the Wildlife Management
Authority. The chiefs asserted their leaders-
hip by condemning illegal hunting with the un-
derstanding that their community would re-
ceive benefits through the sharing of wildlife
revenues under the ADMADE programme.
Within a year poaching was reduced in the
Chil<wa-Luelo area.

The chiefs achieved greater respect from
their people for using their traditional powers
of authority to bring improved benefits to the
community from wildlife. Revenue benefits
were shared, as promised by the National
Parks and Wildlife Service, and local residents
wfere made village scouts to manage and pro-
tect the wildlife in their own chiefdoms while
earning a livelihood. Because a significant re-
duction in poaching was achieved well in ad-
vance of the establishment of the village scout
programme, the decline in illegal hunting was
attributed to the influence of traditional lea-
ders (personal communication with Pater
Mwanza, Unit Leader of the Chikwa-Luelo
area).

Similar response to local traditional rulers
is emerging in several other game manage-
ment areas where ADMADE is being imple-

15

merited and where the revenue benefits being
sustained by ADMADE have become more
noticeable. The Wildlife Managment Authori-
ties in most of the ADMADE areas, for exam-
ple, have opened "Community Development
Accounts" In which they deposit the commu-
nity development shares of the ADMADE wil-
dlife revenues. In 1988 these shares equalled
US$230,000 for ten ADMADE units. To en-
sure that projects accepted by the community
are funded, only the sub-authorities, whose
members are primarily village headmen, can
recommend community projects to the Au-
thority, and chiefs are made signatories to
these acoounts so that funds are used as in-
tended.

The Importance of traditional leadership in
wildlife managment has become very appa-
rent under the ADMADE designs and is also

proving to be far more cost-effective than di-
rect implementation by a government authori-
ty (see Figure 2). For example, an approach
observed in Luano and Sichifula-Mulobezi
Game Management Areas under the AD-
MADE programme is the translocation of villa-
gers who engage In illegal hunting to areas
where there are no animals. When it is known
that a certain person hunts animals illegally
and Is setting a bad example to the local com-
munity, that person is sentenced by the chief
as being unable to live peacefully with wildlife
and is ordered to live where there are no ani-
mals and to take up some other occupation.
Figure 3 presents a set of relationships be-
tween traditional rulers and hunters as they
may affect illegal hunting.

Poaching
mtd

Management costs

FIGURE 2:

Changes in rates of
illegal hunting as a
function of Increa-
sed expenditure of
management effort
using different ma-
nagement designs;

a) reliance on
conventional civil
servant scouts who
enforce punitive
measures without
local involvement;

b) greater reliance
on local participa-
tion with joint lea-
dership between
traditional rulers
and civil authori-
ties.

16

Aoc8ptanc8 of traditional rulers as a wildlife
manao«<T>«nt authofity by Ihe government

FIGURE 3: Poa-
ching levels in a region
as a function of go-
vernment recognition
of traditional rulers

Revenue earning capacity of tlie
resource

Another variable in tlie poacliing picture is
the revenue-earning capacity of the resource.
First, the area must be capable of generating
substantial revenue through local manage-
ment of wildlife resources. Second, there
must be an agreed arrangement for returning
a major portion of these revenues to the local
area for meeting programme costs. In order
to increase local employment through wildlife
management, develop alternative protein
sources, or incorporate local ruling authorities
in the governing of wildlife matters, revenue is
required on an annual basis. Otherwise,
continuity cannot be assured; frequent inter-
ruptions of the programme will tend to dis-
courage local participation in the wildlife ma-
nagement effort.

National development plans throughout
Africa show, beyond any doubt, that wildlife is
relatively low priority in government spending.
Results of the Lupande Development Project
(Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1 989) and the
current ADMADE programme (ADMADE,
1988), indicate that in order to achieve a com-
mitment on the part of local people to partici-
pate in wildlife management efforts on a sus-
tained basis, wildlife revenues need to be
available at the local level, and the people
themselves must participate in the develop-
ment as well as the implementation of mana-
gement efforts.

On a national scale this is being effectively
demonstrated by the ADMADE programme.
For the 1987 and 1988 financial years,
US$260,000, representing 40 percent of the
total revenue earned from the wildlife re-
source in ten ADMADE units, were withheld
for local wildlife management programmes (in

17

addition to the base level allocation of
$230,000 referred to earlier). This sum was
used to meet both recurrent and capital ex-
penditures in these units. Recurrent expendi-
tures included the maintenance and running
costs of the seven ADMADE vehicles, wages
and allowances for the village scouts and ge-
neral workers, law enforcement costs, and sit-
ting allowances for the members of the
wildlife management authorities. As for the
capital expenditures, ten new camps were es-

•

Maintain local

vigilanoB of

wiidlil* r»souro«ft,

subsidized by

QOv«rnm«nt rBvvniiet

Promote

oonsarvabonJst views

vnong local residents

by diraciino legally

obtairted wlldiite

revenues toward

supporting community

benefia

•

Promote social status

of local residents

employed in wikSife

management

•

Salaor scale of legally

employed scouu

should be compebtive

wi^ easing

employment

opportunities

jrvestm

profit-orienied

wKdlite management

to support

local empioyment

•

Develop alternative

protein sources

•

Employ traditional

hunters (o harvest

sustained- yield

quotas kx

local consumption

•

Maximize

employment of

viNage scouts from

revenues derived

from sustained- yield

uses of wikSiis

•

Oerrxxtttrate to

local residents the

higher per caput

earnings from

legal uses of

wildlte tan from

illegaJuses

Revenue earning capacity of wildlife

tablished, 150 new huts for village scouts
were built, three senior staff houses were re-
novated, one unit headquarters was built and
work on three others was Initiated. Both the
recurrent and capital budgets were approved
by each respective management authority.

IN SEARCH OF SOME GUIDING
PRINCIPLES

Based on the experience of the ADMADE
programme in Zambia, the fol-
lowing are offered as a set of
guiding principles that go-
vernment planners and wildlife
authorities may find useful
when considering options for
dealing with wildlife manage-
ment in Africa.

Employ predictive
management in redu-
cing illegal hunting

Given that the various de-
terminants of Illegal hunting
are quantifiable, identification
of those variables contributing
to the problem, and the
changes required to reduce it,
provide a set of appropriate
managment treatments. This

FIGURE 4:

Management treatments
in response to three different
determinants of poaching le-
vels for a given area (see pre-
sidctions in Figs 1 and 3)

18

Bene f its /Avantages

Monetary (returns per kg for local residents)
Binifices mon^talres (rentrSes d' argent pour les populations

locales, par kilogramme)

approach is a predictive managment tool; Fi-
gure 4 provides a basis for evaluating the va-
riables discussed in this article in order to de-
termine an appropriate management ap-
proach.

Allow time and flexibility in in-
troducing new programmes

It is unreasonable to expect Immediate
and universal acceptance of locally based wil-
dlife management programmes. Initially, wil-
dlife extension officers may face the handicap
of being associated with past mistakes of the
government de-
partment re-
sponsible for
enforcing wil-
dlife laws (Le-
wis, 1989). This
can result in
strong initial re-
sistance, des-
pite the poten-
tial benefits a
programme
may represent
for the commu-
nity. To facili-
tate the accep-
tance of whate-
ver programme
is being introdu-
ced, the wildlife
extension offi-
cer must be
sensitive to
needs and aspi-
rations of the lo-
cal residents,
and be know-

ledgeable of past experiences and of local tri-
bal customs. Persistence and patience are
required simultaneously. Programmes that
are forced into implmentation too quickly wi-
thout full acceptance and understanding of
how they can serve local needs will lack the
necessary foundation of local involvement
and commitment.

Ensure economic incentives for
legal uses of wildlife

An obvious factor in determining relative
poaching pressures on particular species of

Legal/Chasse
legale

Illegal/Braconnage

Meat
Viande

Skin
Peaux

Other trophies
Autres trophies

potentially high
potentlellement
^levds

high
Aleves

high
^lev^s

moderate
moderns

low to nil
de faibles k nul

low
faibles

Employment (eraployment levels per animal harvested)
Emplois (emplois par animal exploit^)

1. Processing wildlife products
Transformation

2. Marketing
Commercialisation

high
nombreux

high
nombreux

low
peu nombreux

low
peu nombreux

Accountability of off-take
Autres avantages

1. Sustainability
Durability

2. Awareness by local leaders
Sensibillsation des chefs

locaux

high
Clevis

low
faibles

high

low to moderate

eleves

de faibles k mod^res

Table 1 : Relative benefits available to the local community from
the legal and illegal hunting of wildlife

Tableau 1

Chasse legale et braconnage: avantages comparatifs
pour les communaut^s locales

19

wildlife is the economic benefit awarded to
the illegal hunter. The sliding scale extends
from the least commercially profitable spe-
cies, such as duiker or grysbok, to the most
profitable, elephant and rhino. While an effec-
tive law enforcement programme involving lo-
cal residents may reduce illegal hunting pres-
sures, an Important complementary approach
is to maximize the legally obtainable commer-
cial values of the more "profitable" species,
and to ensure that a portion of these revenues
is channelled to local areas. This will increase
cooperation with the law while sustaining the
management costs of the area. This ap-
proach has a greater chance of local accep-
tance than community support of illegal uses
for the simple reason that a larger economic
return for the local community can be sustai-
ned from legal uses (see Table).

The manifestations of this approach in re-
ducing poaching are far-reaching as seen in
the Zambian ADMADE programme (Lewis,
Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989; Mwenya, Ka-
weche and Lewis. 1988; ADMADE. 1988). Wi-
thin a three-year period in Lower Lupande
Game Management Area, for example, local
village leaders identified various ways of im-
proving the management of their wildlife re-
sources to increase the revenue potential. Vil-
lage headmen volunteered their services as
vigilantes to inform village scouts when illegal
hunters entered their area. On another occa-
sion village leaders raised their concern that
safari hunters, who contribute the largest
share of legally sustainable wildlife revenues,
were hunting only male lions. Concerned that
the trophy males were being overhunted, they
urged that fewer males should be hunted, if
necessary replaced with females. From a ma-
nagement perspective, this was the appro-
priate decision; it underlines the potential for
improved management with local accpetance

as the appreciation for the sustainability of re-
venue earnings from wildlife increases among
the indigenous residents.

Another example serves to demonstrate
how quickly a management problem can be
solved through sustainable economic Incen-
tives. Local traditional leaders were advised
that late season bush fires were lowering the
forage capacity to sustain wildlife. To main-
tain hunting quotas that would generate local
income and meat benefits, village leaders
agreed to advise residents of the dangers of
starting fires after forage conditions became
too dry.

Ensure threshold effect of wil-
dlife management benefits

Reduction of poaching levels through local
employment in wildlife management Is a non-
linear relationship for rural communities
where employment opportunities are few (see
Figure 5). Studies in Zambia suggest that if
benefits are limited to too small a percentage
of residents, residents who are not involved
may resent the programme and conspire to
frustrate the success of those who are em-
ployed (Lewis, 1989 and unpublished data).
However, once enough people in the commu-
nity are receiving benefits, community peer
pressure quickly shifts to local acceptance of
the need to cooperate with the legal users of
wildlife and poaching rates drop dramatically.

In the ADMADE pilot programme, the Lu-
pande Development Project, local employ-
ment was initially comprised of only village
scouts. As their efforts reduced poaching, a
parallel effort was made to employ local resi-
dents in the legal. sustainable uses of wildlife.
By the end of the third year, there were ap-
proximately three times more people em-

20

Poaching
ievAls

Pefcentafle of local residents rec»<vinfl bone^t•
from a wildlife manaoe^wnf

FIGURE 5: Changes in
poaching levels in response
to increasing percentage of
local residents receiving
benefits from a manage-
ment programme that en-
courages legal uses of wil-
dlife only

ployed in the legal uses of wildlife than as vil-
lage scouts (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya,
1989; Lewis, unpublished data). The level of
Illegal hunting at the end of this period was
negligible as compared to levels three years
earlier. Attitude surveys indicated increased
community interest in discouraging illegal
hunters from entering the area, and greater
support for village scouts (Lewis, 1988).

Use successful efforts as exam-
ples to stimulate programme ex-
pansion

If a programme is successful In reducing
the effects of those variables contributing to
poaching rates, it may also act as a catalyst
for positive change in adjoining areas. Expe-
rience In Zambia has shown that the ex-
change of Information between neighbouring

communities Is often rapid and can greatly fa-
cilitate subsequent expansion of a pro-
gramme if initial efforts are successful. Fur-
thermore, this is achievable at no extra cost to
the implementing agency of the programme.
In 1989, only two years after the ADMADE
programme was Instituted, two chiefs from
outside the implementation area made formal
requests to have their chiefdoms classified as
Game Management Areas and adopted under
the ADMADE policy. The significance of this
is that only In a Game Management Area can
the National Parks and Wildlife Service use
public funds to assist with wildlife manage-
ment and resource protection.

To take full advantage of the "stepping-
stone" effect, the initial implementation area
should be where the potential sustainability of
wildlife benefits Is relatively high and initial ef-
forts should be persistent enough to bring the
benefits Into full recognition by the communi-

21

ty. In this way the news travelling to neighbo-
ring areas will be positive and convincing.

Capitalize on the buffer effect of
local participation

A successful programme of local involve-
ment in wildlife management in areas adjoi-
ning protected or park areas may significantly
reduce law enforcement costs within the pro-
tected areas. As wildlife conservationist views
evolve and grow, the probability of illegal hun-
ters entering the protected area with the sup-
port or acceptance of local residents dimi-
nishes (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989;
ADMADE, 1988).

Arrange for protection of uninha-
bited lands

Resource requirements for human habita-
tion may differ from those of wildlife re-
sources. In many cases, therefore, an area
endowed with important wildlife resources
may be totally void of human habitation. Pro-
tection of these areas can be achieved
through maintaining or developing a sense of
association or ownership by the nearest com-
munities: this can offer the needed work-force
for the area's management. This also helps to
ensure the full potential revenues earned from
the area, on a sustained-yield basis, thus pro-
viding community benefits and easing manag-
ment costs.

Avoid overconserving wildlife at
the expense of the indigenous
conservationists

It is recognized and appreciated that some
wildlife enthusiasts in Africa often volunteer
their services as non-professionals to aid in
managing wildlife. The terms of reference for
such non-government cooperation with the
appointed legal wildlife managment authori-
ties, however, are often vague. This can fos-
ter a dangerous trend if well-funded, but un-
coordinated non-government organizations
assume roles that cause conflicts with go-
vernment authorities. This may lead to divi-
sive manoeuvrings between government and
non-government authorities and a sub-
sequent loss in cost-effectiveness for the use
of funds available to wildlife conservation.
Such conflicts may result in injudicious fun-
ding distribution by outside donor agencies.

An even more serious potential negative
effect of these conflicts, however, is the ero-
sion of confidence and morale among the
professionally trained indigenous conservatio-
nists serving as civil servants for the official
wildlife management department. This can
have profound influences on poaching rates.
Symptoms may include slow responses to
poaching problems, inadequate coordination
with other government agencies, and failure
to discipline junior staff effectively. As a result
confusion reigns and more wildlife Is poa-
ched. The irony, of course, is that such pro-
blems arise from conservation efforts them-
selves.

Government authorities need full recogni-
tion and support to strengthen their leader-
ship and effectiveness in upholding the law
and implementing wildlife management pro-

22

grammes. This recognition by both donor
agencies and non-government organizations
is essential.

CONCLUSION

Variables influencing rates of poaching
and other wildlife managment problems in
Africa are identifiable and modifiable. When
guided by African values and traditions and
in cooperation with a national parks' service
sympathetic to the needs of local residents
living with wildlife resources, these variables
can be favourably adjusted more cost-effecti-
vely than has been shown possible with
conventional methods. This approach to
conservation, successfully tested at the pilot
level in Zambia, and recently applied nation-
wide, has considerable potential for applica-
tion in other areas of Africa. Key factors for
success include the support of local leaders
for legal uses of wildlife with their correspon-
ding commercial benefits as opposed to ille-
gal uses, and the level of local resident partici-
pation in actual management efforts.

Although this approach involving people's
participation and the recycling of locally gene-
rated wildlife revenues to support local deve-
lopment and resource management costs is
clearly pragmatic and cost-effective, expe-
rience shows that most African wildlife
conservation efforts still depend heavily on
outside funding. Although well-intentioned
and unquestionably needed, this funding and
the dependence created has often frustrated
efforts to make management more self-sup-
portive through sustainable uses of wildlife. In
many cases, project proposals seek funds
that are large so as to be appealing to do-
nors. However, in the face of such large fun-
ding, locally generated resources are easily

overlooked or not perceived as relevant to the
overall financing of community-based pro-
grammes in wildlife management. The irony
is that projects based on large overseas
grants generally do not lead to permanent so-
lutions because such large funds are not sus-
tained indefinitely. External inputs directed at
wildlife management need to be linked closely
with simultaneous efforts to develop sustaina-
ble local involvement.

References

ADIVIADE. 1988. First Annual Planning Work-
shop Proceedings, eds. Lewis, D.M.,
Mwenya, A.N. & Kaweche, G.B. Chilan-
ga, Zambia, National Parks and Wildlife
Service.

Bell, R.H.V. & Clarke, J.E. 1984. Funding and
financial control. In Bell, R.H.V. &
McShane-Caluzi, E., eds. Conservation
and wildlife management in Africa, p.
534-536. US Peace Corps.

Dala-Clayton, B. & Lewis, D.M. 1984. Proc.
Lupande Development Workshop. Lu-
saka, Zambia, Government Printers.

Hadley, M. 1985. Comparative aspects of land
use and resource management in sa-
vannah environments. In Tothil, J.E. &
Mott, J.J., eds. Ecology and manag-
ment of the world's savannah's, p. 142-
158. London, Commonwealth Agricul-
tural Bureau.

Leder-Williams, N. 1985. Black rhino in Luang-
wa Valley National Park. Oryx, 19: 27-
34.

Lewis, D.M. 1986. The Luangwa Valley ele-
phants: toward developing a manage-
ment policy. Chilanga, Zambia, Natio-
nal Parks and Wildlife Service.

23

Lewis, D.M. 1988. Survey of perceptions to-
ward wildlife for two village communi-
ties with different exposure to a wildlife
conservation project. ADMADE/NPWS
Research Report. Chilanga, Zambia,
National Parl<s and Wildlife Service.

Lewis, D.M. 1989. a promise worth keeping.
Animal Kingdom, 92(4): 58-63.

Lewis, D.M. & Kaweche, G.B. 1985. The
Luangwa Valley of Zambia: preserving
its future by integrated management.
Ambio, 14(6): 362-365.

Lewis, D.M., Kaweche, G.B. & Mwenya, A.N.
1989. Wildlife conservation outside pro-
tected areas ~ lessons from an experi-
ment in Zambia. Consen/. Biol. (In
press)

Marks, S.A. 1976. Large mammals and a
brave people. Seattle, Univ. of Was-
hington Press.

Mwenya, A.N., Kaweche, G.B. & Lewis, D.M.
1 988. Administrative Management Des-
ign for game management areas (AD-
I^ADE). National Parks and Wildlife Ser-
vices of Zambia. Lusaka Zambia, Go-
vernment Printers.

PARKER, I.S.C. 1984. Conservation of the
African elephant. In Gumming, D.H.M.
& Jackson, P., eds. The status and
conservation of Africa's elephants and
rhino's. Proc. Joint Meeting of
lUCNISSC African Elephant and Rhino
Specialist Groups at Hwange Safari
Lodge, Zimbabwe, 30 July - 7 August
1981. Gland, Switzerland.

Swift, J. 1 982. The future of African hunter-ga-
therer and pastoral peoples. Develop-
ment and change, 13(2): 159-181.

Willis, A.J. 1985. An introduction to the history
of Central Africa. Fourth ed. Oxford,
UK, Oxford Univ. Press.

* Dale M. Lewis is technical adviser to the
Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Service,
and Coordinator of the Zambia Wildlands and
Human Needs Programme. Ackim Mwenya
is Deputy-Director of the Zambia National
Parks and Wildlife Sen/ice, and Co-Adminis-
trator of the Zambia Wildland Management
and Human Needs Development Project. Gil-
son B. Kaweche is Chief Wildlife research Of-
ficer of the Zambia National Parks and Wildlife
Service, and Co-Administrator of the Zambia
Wildland Management and Human Needs
Development Project.

Article culled from Unasylva , Vol. 41 ,
n°161,pp. 11-20

24

NOTES ON THE DUIKERS OF
SIERRA LEONE

(voir traduction page 61)

by V.J. Wilson and B.LP. Wilson^

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

A brief expedition to Sierra Leone, West
Africa, In December 1988 as part of the Pan
African Decade of Duiker Research pro-
gramme (1985-1994), produced very positive
results. At the time our visit was planned, no
scientific specimens of Jentink's duiker, Ce-
phalophus jentinki had been obtained in the
country and while there was some indication
that the species still existed in Sierra Leone
there was considerable doubt concerning its
status. The survey confirmed the discovery
by Davies and Birkenhager in September
1988 of the presence of a viable population in
the Western Area Forest Reserve on the Free-
town Peninsula. A number of pairs of horns
of Jentink's duiker were also obtained from a
local hunter. This important discovery of
such a rare and endangered species so close
to the capital city of Freetown is of tremen-
dous importance. The area also supports at
least three and probably four other forest dui-
ker species, plus other forest wildlife, and
should now be considered for National Park
status. Notes on the nine duiker species of
Sierra Leone are also recorded.

NDLR: The cover picture shows a Jentink's duiker photogra-
phed by Mr VJ. Wilson at Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville, Texas

One of the objectives of the Pan African
Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1994) pro-
gramme initiated by the Chipangali Wildlife
Trust in Zimbabwe is to carry out detailed sur-
veys in as many evergreen forests of Africa as
possible, in order to establish as much as
possible on the distribution and status of
some of the rarer duikers on the continent.

As Wilson (1987) has pointed out effective
conservation plans for the preservation and
utilisation of the rainforests and the fauna and
flora found in them must first be preceeded
by detailed surveys.

The Chipangali Wildlife Trust in Zimbabwe
is at present deeply committed to such sur-
veys and as a result is involved in survey pro-
jects in a number of countries in Africa.

Tropical evergreen forests and other tropi-
cal ecosystems will only be truly secure when
the people who make a living from them are
able to substantially produce more food and
other goods than they themselves need.
Sound information on critical areas is essen-
tial while we still have moist tropical rainfo-
rests left (Wilson 1987). It is with this objec-
tive in mind that an Action Plan for Duiker
Conservation was compiled in December

25

1987 by the senior author together with the
lUCN in Gland, Switzerland. One of the coun-
tries for which detailed information was requi-
red was Sierra Leone. Wilson (1987) points
out that Jentink's duiker and Ogilby's duiker
were perhaps the rarest and least known of all
the antelopes of the West African rainforests,
and that their secretive habits and the dense
habitats in which they lived, made them very
difficult to study. These species could well
disappear before we even know anything of
their behaviour and ecology (Wilson 1987).

The Red Data Book draft 3 (November
1984) dealing with Jentink's duiker stated that
"A survey is needed to more accurately deter-
mine distribution and status with a view to re-
commending conservation strategies".

Several duiker species along with Jentink's
duiker may be in danger of extinction. It is
anticipated that the Pan African Decade of
Duiker Research will provide new data neces-
sary for the correct CITES and Red Data Book
listings. However the primary goal of the sur-
vey is to promote the conservation of the Afri-
can duikers especially as commercial hunting
for "bush-meat" is increasing and massive ha-
bitat destruction is widespread.

Wilson (1987) together with several au-
thors, Jones (1966), Davies (1987), etc., have
discussed the possibility of the occurrence of
Jentink's duiker in Sierra Leone but as no ac-
tual specimen records existed anywhere it
was impossible to establish if they did in fact
occur in the country.

It was always the intention of the survey
team to visit Sierra Leone (Wilson 1987) in or-
der to establish if Jentink's duiker occurred in
the country and the opportunity presented it-
self in April 1988 when Mr. John Waugh of the
Sierra Leone Conservation Society wrote to
the senior author with the following informa-
tion: "In the course of investigation of the re-

sources of the Western Area Forest Reserve,
I have found a strong indication that a popula-
tion of Jentink's duiker still exists in the moun-
tains of the Reserve". He went on to indicate
that the "Rugged mountainous terrain makes
this large area virtually inaccessible and this is
where the Jentink's duiker are reported to
live".

Mr. Samuel Musa-Jambawai also of the
Conservation Society of Sierra Leone then ar-
ranged for the authors to visit Sierra Leone in
December 1988 in order to establish if Jen-
tink's duiker did in fact occur in the Western
Area Forest Reserve on the Freetown Penin-
sula.

In the same letter Mr. S. Musa-Jambawai
reported that he had personally shot and kil-
led a male Jentik's duiker in the Gola Forest in
1 960. It was one of two which he saw. This
was therefore the first positive record of the
presence of the species in Sierra Leone. The
first conclusive evidence of Jentink's duiker in
Sierra Leone was obtained by Davies and Bir-
kenhager (in press) in the southern part of the
Freetown Peninsula in September 1988.

In the "Handbook of Sierra Leone" publis-
hed by Goddard (1925) he states: In regard to
antelopes, no less than fourteen different spe-
cies are found in Sierra Leone, the duiker fa-
mily (Cephalophus) being particularly well
represented, as can be seen from the follo-
wing list:

Yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultor)

Red-flanked duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus)

Banded duiker (Cephalophus doriae)
Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli)

Jentink's duiker (Cephalophus jentinki)

Black duiker (Cephalophus niger)

Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsaiis)

26

Ogilby's duiker

Royal antelope

Waterbuck

Buff on 's kob

Bongo

Lesser bushbuck or

harness antelope

Water-chivrotain

(Cephalophus ogilbyi)
(Nectragus pygmoeus)
(Cobus defassa unctuosus)

(Cobus kob)

(Tragelaphus euryceros)

(Tragelaphus scrlptus typicus)
(Dorcatherium aquatlcum)

Of the eight representatives of the Cepha-
lophine enumerated above by far the commo-
nest are the Black duil<er and Maxwell's dui-
ker (the "bush goat" and the fritambu of the
Creoles), which are found everywhere in Sier-
ra Leone where there is plenty of cover, prefe-
rably forest undergrowth. The handsome little
Red-flanked duiker is also common in most
areas In the north of the country. The remai-
ning five species are rare and are seldom
seen by Europeans, skins however, occasio-
nally come into their possession, the beautiful
Banded duiker's skin being particularly pri-
zed.

Then Stanley (1928) copied word for word
the data given by Goddard (1925) and even
gave the same list of animals. However there
is one important difference in that Goddard
(1925) says: "By far the commonest are the
Black duiker and the Maxwell's duiker", while
Stanley (1928) says: "Of the eight repre-
sentatives of the family Cephalophinae, Max-
well's duiker and Jentink's duiker are quite
common".

Stanley (op. cit.), goes on to say: 'The shif-
ting system of cultivation under which land,
after being cleared for crops, is then allowed
to lie fallow for five or six years until dense
and almost impenetrable forest regrowth has
become re-established, affords admirable
protection for these two forest duiker. In fact

the only way by which it Is possible to hunt
them, and also some of the far rarer duikers
mentioned above. Is by calling them, at which
a few native hunters are adept".

Thus from the data presented above It
would appear that in the 1928 article by Stan-
ley the word "Jentink's" should perhaps read
"Black" and it Is possible that in the produc-
tion of the paper the error occurred.

Many years later Montague (1959) in a re-
vised edition of 'The Sierra Leone Handbook",
Chapter III (Mammals), says: "In the forest
and farm bush Maxwell's Grey Duiker Cepha-
lophus maxwelli, which is a greyish brown, is
the commonest, and in the savannah and the
farm bush on its edges the Red-flanked Dui-
ker, C. rufilatus, which is rufous with a broad
grey band down the back. The only other
common duiker is the Black duiker, C. niger,
locally called 'Bush goaf which is dark brown
in colour and a forest Inhabitant. Amongst
the several rarer duikers the Banded duiker,
C. zebra, found only In the Goia forest area
and neighbouring Liberia, is the most striking
as it is pale rufous with about a dozen very
distinct wide black bands across its back and
down Its flanks".

There Is no mention whatsoever of the
Jentink's duiker in his paper. Jones (1966) in
his "Notes on the Commoner Sierra Leone
Mammals" gives again, word for word, the
same data on duikers as given by Montague
(1959). However he did give some additional
data and again I quote him in full: "However,
the writer has not been able to find any defi-
nite records of, nor did he come across Jen-
tink's Duiker, Cephalophus jentinkl or Ogil-
gy's Duiker, Cephalophus ogilbyi, and no
specimens exist from Sierra Leone in the Bri-
tish Museum of Natural History in London".

Jones (pers. comm.), who spent many
years in Sierra Leone, never ever heard of or

27

came across Jentink's duiker. He also says In
correspondence with tlie authors, "If Jentink's
duiker had been common the army officers at
Daru who did a lot of hunting in the West
around Stanley's time and sent specimens to
the British Museum (Natural History) would
surely have come across it".

Toboku-Metzger (1979) briefly mentions
Jentink's duiker In Sierra Leone but no posi-
tive or original data Is given. Robinson (1971)
says: "Jentink's duiker {Cephalophus Jentin-
ki) which has the most restricted range of all
existing Cephalophinae is another West Afri-
can species found only in Eastern Liberia and
the Western Ivory Coast, where Its distribution

is centred on the Cavally river". Again Robin-
son (1971) was merely quoting Kuhn (1965).
Wilkinson (1974) lists Abott's duiker {Cephalo-
phus spadix) in his list of Sierra Leone mam-
mals. This Is clearly erroneous and It should
doubtless read Yellow-backed duiker (C. syl-
vicultor) as presumably Wilkinson would not
have had any reason to suppose that Jen-
tink's duiker was present.

STUDY AREA

Sierra Leone (General)

The Republic of
Sierra Leone lies be-
tween Guinea and Li-
beria along the Atlan-
tic Coast and is one
of the smallest coun-
tries in Africa. It Is
the fifth most densely
populated country
south of the Sahara
with a population of
over four million inha-
bitants. The country
Is approximately

28,000 sq. miles
(72,600 sq km)
consisting of plains
and rolling hills, with
over 50% of the
country having clima-
tic conditions which
favour moist ever-
green forests. Howe-
ver today less than
5% of Sierra Leone is

28

still covered with primary rainforest, while
about 55% Is covered with farm bush (trees
less than 10 metres tall) and there is another
4% of secondary rainforest (Davies 1987).
While much of the land is not arable, especial-
ly in the Northern and Central areas, agricul-
ture Is, and always was, a predominant activi-
ty, with at least 80% of the population enga-
ged in subsistence farming. The methods
used are of the Swidden type - cut, burn and
then move on. There are extensive mangrove
swamps along the coast and in the river es-
tuaries and creeks, while vast lowland plains
cover almost half the country. In the East and
North-east the plateau country rises to about
1 ,220 metres above sea level with some areas
in the Loma and Tingi Mountains rising to
above 1 ,830 metres.

About 200 years ago three quarters of
Sierra Leone was covered with primary and
derived forests, but by about 1 826 large areas
were being felled to meet the timber needs of
Britain. In addition the forests were being fel-
led for cultivation by local farmers.

Today there are very few large areas of
Primary forest and the remaining high forest
of the Gola extends into Liberia.
There are also several large
patches of high forest in the re-
mote mountainous area of Loma
and Tingi which are, fortunately,
protected Forest Reserves. The
Pygmy hippopotamus {Cheropsis
liberiensis), one of West Africa's
unique species, still occurs in se-
veral areas in Sierra Leone. The
beautiful Zebra (or Banded) duiker
is present in the Gola forests and
perhaps in a few other areas. Un-
fortunately it Is often hunted for its
skin and meat. Bongo {Boocerus
eurycerus) is restricted to a few fo-

rest areas and there are still large numbers of
many species of monkeys.

Chimpanzees still occur in many areas,
but their numbers have been reduced consi-
derably. Perhaps the duikers and monkeys
form the bulk of the "bush-meat" trade, much
of which is dried and exported to Liberia.
Thousands of duikers and monkeys are killed
each year. While it is known that the elephant
and many other mammal species still occur in
the country, there is no official checklist or at-
las of the mammals of Sierra Leone. Howe-
ver, more details of the mammals of Sierra
Leone can be found in: Davies (1987), Grubb
(1988), Happold (1973 &1987), Jones (1966),
Lowes (1970), Teleki and Baldwin (1981) and
Merz(1986).

Western Area Forest Reserve
(Freetown Peninsula)

The Western Area Forest Reserve lies
south of Freetown on the Peninsula and
consists of a rugged majestic ridge of fores-
ted mountains in some places up to 915 me-

29

ed majestic ridge of forested mountains in
some places up to 915 metres above sea le-
vel. These mountains are unique along the
West African Coast, with the only other range
being in Cameroon (Toboku-Metzger 1979).

The forests of the Peninsula, which are es-
sential for the protection of Freetown's water
supply have been exploited for a great many
years and the cutting of trees continues una-
bated.

This beautiful and accessible mountain
range is of tremendous importance and unfor-
tunately very little has ever been written
concerning the Wildlife of the Area. (Map
page 28). In addition to several species of
duiker and the bush buck, {Tragelaphus
scriptus) there is evidence of the presence of
Diana monkeys {Cercopithecus diana), and
the rare Yellow-headed Picathartes {Pica-
thartes gymnocephalus).

METHODS

This preliminary survey of the duikers of
Sierra Leone took place in December 1988.
During the survey two trips were made to the
Freetown Peninsula where a number of Afri-
can hunters and forestry rangers were inter-
viewed concerning the duikers in the area.

Hunters found with fresh or dried duiker
meat or with duiker skins were also questio-
ned and a discussion with the owner of a lo-
cal hotel at which a young Bay duiker was lo-
cated also took place. Two field trips were
made into the forest on the peninsula during
which time details of duiker droppings and
tracks were noted.

In addition an extended vehicle journey
was undertaken which took us to several fo-
rest areas In Sierra Leone and duiker tracks

and droppings which were seen during the
trips were noted.

A record was also kept of all dead duiker
found being sold along the main roads or
found in the possession of hunters. A detai-
led discussion was also held with Dr. Sitter,
an animal trapper, who has lived in Sierra
Leone for many years.

Finaly, a considerable amount of data on
the distribution and status of the duikers of
Sierra Leone was provided by Mr. Samuel
Musa-Jambawai, our companion and guide
for the entire period. Samuel had worked in
the Forestry Department in a senior position
for many years and was thoroughly familiar
with the forests and wildlife of the country.

RESULTS

Maxwell's duiker {Cephalophus
maxwelli)

This species appeared to be the most
common antelope in Sierra Leone and was
positively recorded from all areas visited, i.e.
Gola Forest, Tiwai Island, Western Area Fo-
rest Reserve, Makali/Masingbi area, Bo area
and the area between Yonibana and Water-
loo.

On one day in the Western Area Forest Re-
serve fresh tracks were seen in several areas,
four freshly dressed carcasses were exami-
ned which were in the possession of a hunter
on his way to sell the fresh meat at a holiday
resort, and five flat dry skins were observed in
the possession of another hunter. The hunter
with the fresh carcasses also showed us the
skulls of the animals and Indicated that all four
had ben shot that morning. He also reported
that he had shot another two the day before.

30

on his head contained eight Maxwell's duiker
and about twenty monkeys of various spe-
cies.

Also on the road between Waterloo and
Yonibana two approaching vehicles were
seen to have unskinned Maxwell's duiker car-
casses tied to the radiator grilles. Davies
(1987) says that Maxwell's duikers is ubiqui-
tous in the forested region of Sierra Leone
where it is the commonest species. It is also
very common on Tiwai Island in the Moa Ri-
vfir. Fresh dressed Maxwell's duiker car-
casses in the Freetown Peninsula area fet-
ched a price which varied between Leones
200 (US$2.5) and Leones 500 (US$6.25)
each. The Mende name for Maxwell's duiker
is tuwuolo, and the Creoles call it fritambu.
The skins are also used to cover drums.

Bay Duiker {Cephalophus dorsalis)

Only a single positive record of the occur-
rence of this duiker of Sierra Leone was obtai-
ned during our visit. A sub-adult male was
photographed in captivity at the Africana To-
key Village on the Freetown Peninsula. It was
in superb condition and the bright red coat
was very glossy and silky. It had a broad
black stripe on the back from the tail to the
neck. The animal was apparently brought to
the owners of the hotel as a tiny baby which
was then reared. It had come from the Wes-
tern Area Forest Reserve.

Tracks of a duiker, which appeared to be
of an immature Bay duiker, were seen on the
Tiwai Island but could not be positively identi-
fied. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible,
to distinguish between the tracks of young
and half grown duikers of the different spe-
cies. According to the researchers working
on the island, the Red-flanked aniker (C. rufi-

latus) was also present, but again detailed
examination of a specimen would be essential
before any conclusion could be drawn. Ho-
wever, the Bay duiker has been positively
identified In the Gola Forest (Davies 1987).

Black duiker {Cephalophus niger)

Two dried feet of this species were seen in
a market in Freetown and a large dried skin of
a female was found in the possession of a
hunter in the Western Area Forest Reserve.
He was on his way to Waterloo to sell the
skin. He claimed to have shot the animal on
the Peninsula near the village of Kent. This
species was reported by hunters to occur in
the Gola Forest but none was actually seen
(Davies 1987). While Jones (1966) recorded
Black duiker as fairly common in Sierra
Leone, it is thought that this information was
not based on original data but merely extrac-
ted from the paper by Montague (1959).

Yellow-backed duiker

(Cephalophus sylclcultor)

Fresh tracks of a Yellow-backed duiker
were seen in the forest near Makali/Masingbi
and a skull of a very old female was shown to
us on Tiwai Island where this species is appa-
rently common. Dr Sitter, an animal dealer
near Waterloo, indicated that the species was
common in the Western Area Forest Reserve.
However, we did not record the species from
the area during our visit but a very large dui-
ker spoor was seen on three occasions in the
forests which could have been Yellow-backed
duiker or perhaps Jentink's duiker. There was
also evidence of the species in the TonkolikI

31

district and several otiier areas. The Mende
name for the Yellow-backed duiker is ngulei.

Jentink's duiker {Cephalophus
jentinki)

The main reason for our visit to Sierra
Leone was to establish the positive presence
of this duiker in the country. (This was in fact
established shortly before our visit, by Davies
and Birkenhager in press). We were taken di-
rectly to a village in the Southern part of Free-
town Peninsula where a hunter was reported
to have shot three Jentink's duiker during
1988. On being questioned about the species
he explained exactly what it looked like, even
though we did not prompt him to describe the
animal to us. He then produced a pair of
horns of an immature Jentink's duiker and a
splendid horn of a large animal (possibly a

HORNS/CORNES

Specimen

Specimen

Specimen

Specimen

N'l

^2

N'S

N''4

I horn/

2 Horns/

1 Horn/

2 Horns/

Corne

Cornes

Corne

Cornes

mm

mm

mm

mm

Greatest Length
Longeur Maximum

202

IA7 & 144

182

212 & 212

Diameter at base
Diamfetr* k la

28 X 26

29 X 26

25 X 23

30 X 28

base

HORN CORES

PART IE CENTRALE

Greatest Length
Longeur maximum

-

-

-

154 X 159

Diameter at base

Diametre h la
base

-

-

-

25 X 25
25 X 25

Table 1 : Measurements of Jentink's Duiker Horns from Sierra Leone

Tableau 1 : Dimensions des cornes de Cephalophe de Jentink de

Sierra Leone , , , . ^

: e Hijj b be>;* »iai>' bo f

male). Details of horns are given in Table 1
below, which includes the ones given to us by
Dr. Davies.

A couple of days later the same hunter
produced a pile of Jenink's duiker droppfngs
which he had collected that day in the forest
and we are able to positively identify them.
Droppings of captive Jentink's duiker from
Brownsville Zoo In Texas were studied in de-
tail, so we were thoroughly familiar with the
droppings of the species. The hunter indica-
ted that the species occurred in several
places on the peninsula but they were not
common. He also explained that neither he
nor any other hunter in Sierra Leone knew the
animal as Jentink's duiker. According to Mr.
Samuel Musa-Jambawai the Mende name for
the Jentink's duiker is Kaikulowulei (or Squir-
rel Coloured duiker) and the Creole name is
dikidiki, which is the name used In Freetown
Peninsula. There is also an unconfirmed re-
port of Jentink's
duiker from near
Songo which is
only about 50 km
from Freetown.
The hunter who
gave us the horns
of the Jentink's
duiker indicated
that at night the
species move
down from the
hills into the farm-
bush where It is
then shot. He al-
so reported that it
will go onto the
beach at night
and even right to
the sea to lick the
salt from the

32

sand. Tracks were often seen on the beach
by hunters. The species is supposedly very
nocturnal and in the Western Area Forest Re-
serve all the specimens were shot at night.
However Samuel Musa-Jambawai indicated
that he had shot the one in Gola Forest in
1960 in daylight, at about 10.00 a.m. Dr Sit-
ter, the animal dealer near Freetown, said he
reared a baby Jentink's duiker about fifteen
years ago and later sold it to another animal
dealer for export to the U.S.A. He Indicated
that when he first obtained the animal he
thought it was a baby Yellow-backed duiker.
It was only when it matured that he realised it
was a Jentink's duiker.

Two additional pairs of horns of this spe-
cies were given to us by Dr Glyn Davies from
Kenema. The horns were also obtained in the
Western Area Forest Reserve some months
before our arrival and full credit should go to
Dr Davies for being the first person to record
the presence of the species in the Freetown
Peninsula area. A much more detailed report
of the distribution of the species in Sierra
Leone has been written by Dr Davies (Davies
and Birkenhager in press). One pair of horns
given to us by Dr Davies is exceptionally long
and measures 212 mm. (Plate 1)

cm
20

"hs

10
5

' 0

Specimen No. 4

Specimen
No. I

Specimen
No. J

Specimen No. 2

PLATE 1 Jentink's duiker horns collected on Freetown Peninsula, Sierra Leone.
PLANCHE 1 Cornes de cdphalophes de Jentink provenant de la P6ninsule de Freetown.

33

Zebra duiker {Cephalophus zebra)

There was no sign of this animal during
our visit to Sierra Leone but it has been positi-
vely reported from the Gola Forest area (Da-
vies 1987). Mr Sam Musa-Jambawai indica-
ted that about ten years ago Zebra duiker
skins were common in the villages in the East
of Sierra Leone. He also felt the species was
far less shy than Jentink's duiker and there is
also the suggestion that it may still occur in
the Western Area Forest Reserve (Sitter,
pers.comm.).

Grey (Crowned) duiker {Sylvicapra
grimmia)

Philipson (1978) reported the presence of
the Grey duiker in the Outamba-Ducata area,
on the Freetown Peninsula and also in the Lo-
ma Mountains. While it most probably does
exist in the Savannah Woodlands of the North
of Sierra Leone and even in the montane
grasslands of the Loma Mountains it is unlike-
ly to occur on the Freetown Peninsula.

Red-flanked duiker {Cephalophus
rufilatus)

DISCUSSION AND
CONCLUSION

No positive evidence of its occurrence in
Sierra Leone was obtained during our visit but
no doubt it still exists in Northern Savanna
zone of Sierra Leone. It could also possibly
occur on Tiwai Island (see data under Bay
duiker).

Ogilby's duiker {Cephalophus
ogilby)

There is Very little evidence of the pre-
sence of this species in Sierra Leone and
Jones (1966) was unable to obtain any defi-
nite records of the species in the country.
There is some suggestion that it occurs in the
country (Phillipson 1978 and Honacki, et al
1982). Positive proof of its existence in Sierra
Leone is provided by a museum specimen
(Groves, cited by Grubb 1988).

The possible presence of the nine species
of duiker in Sierra Leone gives some indica-
tion of the importance of this groupe of ani-
mals in the country. It is of great significance
and importance that Jentink's duiker still
exists in the Western Area Forest Reserve on
the Freetown Peninsula together with the Bay,
Black, Maxwell's and Yellow-backed duikers
which makes the area one of incredible im-
portance. While it is certain that at least four
and probably five duiker species occur on the
Peninsula there is still the possibility of Zebra
and other duikers also occurring there. For
such a small area, this is quite remarkable
and consequently the area should be properly
protected. The value of a single Jentink's dui-
ker is extremely high and the fact that it still
occurs in such a heavily populated area sug-
gests that they have the ability to survive un-
der great pressure or that it has moved into a
most inacessible part of the mountains. Wha-
tever the reason the Forestry Department of
Sierra Leone and indeed the Government of

34

the country should look very seriously at the
upgrading of the Western Area Forest Re-
serve Into a National Park.

To have a population of Jentlnk's duiker
and possibly other rare duikers so close to
Freetown could be of considerable benefit to
the country. In addition to the rare duikers,
the Diana monkey and possibly the yellow-
headed Picathartes {Picathartes gymnoce-
phalus) also occur in the Western Area Forest
Reserve.

Together with the beautiful white beaches,
warm sea, closeness to Freetown, cool ever-
green forests and the friendly people, the
Western Area Forest Resen/e could well be-
come an important "Wilderness Area National
Park", where walking trails would be very po-
pular and of great economic importance to
Sierra Leone.

A very detailed survey of the fauna and flo-
ra of the area is now essential to provide a
management plan. The area could become
the first National Park in Sierra Leone, a status
it well deserves. The authors intend returning
to Sierra Leone in 1991 to carry out a detailed
survey. With many rare species in the Wes-
tern Area Forest Reserve and the fact that
much hunting takes place in this non-hunting
area rapid action is essential if the rare spe-
cies and the forests in which they are found
are to be preserved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost our sincere thanks are
due to Mr Samuel Musa-Jambawai for his
friendliness and support for the entire period
of our visit to Sierra Leone. Samuel attended
to our transport requirements, accomodation,
food etc., and also helped continually with the
questioning of the locals about duikers. We

could not have done as well as we did without
his help and he above all located the jentlnk's
duiker horns for us. Thanks are also due to
Dr Glyn Davles for providing transport to the
Gola Forest and for donating to us two pairs
of Jentlnk's duiker horns. We owe special
thanks to him for allowing us to use some of
his data. Dr S.S. Banya, President of the Sier-
ra Leone Conservation Society also helped a
great deal as did the Hon. Edward Gbia, who
helped arrange our trip to Sierra Leone and
who introduced us to several cabinet minis-
ters and also to His Excellency the President
of Sierra Leone, Dr J.S. Momoh with whom
we were able to discuss conservation mat-
ters.

Thanks are also due to Mr A.P. Koroma,
the Chief Conservator of forests, for his sup-
port and encouragement.

Finally special thanks to Mrs Paddy Wil-
son, wife of the senior author for the drawing
of the maps. Mr Kevin Wilson and Mr Vau-
ghan Southey kindly produced this paper on
the computer. Kevin Wilson also kindly pho-
tographed the duiker horns.

The Trustees of the Chipangali Trust
should also be thanked for providing funds for
the entire programme and the cost of this
publication.

REFERENCES

ANSELL, W.F.H. 1971. Order yA/t/odac/y/a. In
the Mammals of Africa. An indentifica-
tlon manual Part 15 (J. Meester & H.W.
Setzer, eds.) Smithsonian Ins. Press
Washington, D.C., 15: 1-84.

DAVIES, A.G. 1987. The Gola Forest Re-
serves, Sierra Leone. Wildlife Conser-
vation and Forest Management. lUCN

35

Tropical Forest Programme. Cam-
bridge University Press, U.K.

DAViES. G & BIKENHAGER, B. Jentink's dui-
ker in Sierra Leone: evidence from the
Freetown Peninsuia. Oryx (in press).

GODDARD, T.M. 1925. The Handbook of Sier-
ra Leone.

GRUBB, P. 1988. Some notes on West African
antelopes. (IVIanuscript in preparation).

HAPPOLD, D.C.D. 1973. The distribution of
large Mammals in West Africa. Mam-
malia 37: 88-93.

HAPPOLD, D.C.D. 1987. The Mammals of Ni-
geria. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

HONACKI, J.H., KINMAN K.E. & KOEPPE,
J.W. 1982. Mammal species of the
World, Kansas Allen Press.

JONES, T. S. 1966. Notes on the Commoner
Sierra Leone Mammals. Nigerian field
3(1): 4-17.

KUHN, H.J. 1956. A provincial list of mam-
mals of Liberia. Senckenbergiana Bio-
log ica 46(5): 321-340.

LOWES, R.H.G. 1970. Destruction in Sierra
Leone. Oryx 10: 309-310.

MERZ, G. 1986. The status of the forest ele-
phant Loxondonta africana cyclotis,
Matschie, 1900 in the Gola Forest Re-
serves, Sierra Leone. Biological
Conservation 36: 83-94.

MONTAGUE, F.A. 1959. The Natural History
of Sierra Leone (Mammals). In Revised
edition of Sierra Leone Handbook
pages 34-52.

PHILLIPSON, J.A. 1978. Wildlife Conservation
and management in Sierra Leone, pp.
188 Special Report to MANRF, Free-
town.

ROBINSON, P.T. 1971. Wildlife trends in Libe-
ria and Sierra Leone. Oryx II: 117-122.

STANLEY, W.B. 1928. Game preservation in
Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Studies 1 1 :
(2-15).

TOBOKU-METZGER, D. 1979. Nature conser-
vation in Sierra Leone. African Wildlife
News 14 (3): 12-16.

TELEKI. G. & BALDWIN, L 1981. Sierra
Leone's Wildlife Legacy. Options for
Sun^ival. Zoonoz 54 (10): 21-23.

WILKINSON, A.F. 1974. Areas to preserve in
Sierra Leone Oryx 12 (5): 596-597.

WILSON, V.J. 1987. Pan African Decade of
Duiker Research (1985-1994) and the
Chipangali Wildlife Trust, Bulawayo,
Zimbabwe.

Article culled from Arnoldia Zimbabwe
Vol. 9, n° 33, 1990, pp. 451-462

*Author's address:
Chipangali Wildlife Trust
P.O. BOX 1057
Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

(NDLR: Mr B.LB. Wilson died accidentally
on January 91).

36

Wildlife management for rural
development in sub-Saharan Africa

(voir traduction page 70)

by E.O.A. Asibey and G.S. Child'

The authors of this article present a criti-
cal review of the status of wildlife manage-
ment in the sub-Saharan countries of Africa,
and suggest the approaches to ensure the
sustainable utilization of this critical resource.

More tiian 130 million hectares in sub-
Saharan Africa have been set aside for wildlife
conservation. Extensive areas have also
been established in which the utilization of
wildife resources is controlled. In addition,
virtually every country in the region has hun-
ting legislation in force, which is usually des-
igned to manage recreational hunting, and as
a mechanism for raising revenue, in the form
of fees and taxes for hunting licences. Thus,
wildlife management is recognized by govern-
ments as a viable option in the designation of
land for various uses.

However, the actual and potential contri-
butions of wildlife to rural economies and nu-
trition as a source of food and an object of
commerce are rarely recognized officially. In-
deed, in many countries these aspects are, to
a large extent, illegal by definition.

The urgent requirement today is for a
significant and sustained effort to include the
evaluation, development, management and
utilization of wild animals in national plans for
socio-economic development. The involve-

ment of national planning and financial institu-
tions at all levels is essential and assistance
may also be required from competent interna-
tional agencies to ensure success. At the
same time long-term sustained utilization of
wildlife resources cannot succeed without lo-
cal people participating in management and
receiving a fair share of the benefits that ac-
crue.

Human and animal populations

As a starting point for an examination of
sub-Saharan wildlife, a brief review of human
population trends and related environmental
factors is appropriate, as these exert funda-
mental infleunces on wildlife resources.

Sustained high rates of population growth
characterize almost every country in sub-
Saharan Africa. The associated urgent de-
mand for increased food production is lea-
ding African farmers to shorten fallow periods,
to try to obtain increased yields from low ferti-
lity soils, and to grow crops on marginal land.
The result is that arable land is steadily being
degraded. And, where livestocl< populations
are increasing as fast as and in some areas
faster than the human population, Africa's
vast grazing lands are undergoing similar des-

37

truction. This is especially true where the loss
of traditional grazing land to crop production
intensifies the pressure on the remaining area.

in the drier parts of Africa, millions of hec-
tares of grazing land and rangeland are threa-
tened by overgrazing. Many of the perennial
rangeland grasses are being replaced by nu-
tritionally poorer annual ones, threatening to
impair permanently the rangeland's potential
for recovery, and decrease its carrying capa-
city. As the vegetation has been removed or
reduced, the wind has also wfnnowed out the
small amount of silt that the soil contains, re-
ducing its ability to retain moisture.

Sub-Saharan Africa's forests and woo-
dlands are also being depleted; an area of
nearly four million ha is being deforested or
degraded annually, largely in humid and
sub-humid West Africa. The main cause of
deforestation is clearing for agriculture, but
uncontrolled logging, gathering for fuelwood,
fire and overgrazing are also taking their toll.
It was estimated that deforestation rates in

tropical Africa exceeded planting rates by a
factor of 29 to 1 in the period 1975-1980 (Lan-
ly, 1982).

Of course, these rangelands and forests
are also the habitat for wild animals. Drastic
changes in habitat such as those at present
being experienced in Africa lead inexorably to
changes in species composition and diversity
and may have adverse effects on total popu-
lations. Therefore, the major challenge for
wildlife management in sub-Saharan Africa to-
ward the twenty-first century is to coordinate
the management of wild animals and their ha-
bitat with overall socio-economic develop-
ment efforts.

Wildlife as food

The first human beings depended comple-
tely on wild animals for their protein supply.
With domestication of animal stock and
settled agriculture, humans have gradually

Over grazing is threatening to impair permanently the carrying capacity of millions of hectares of diyland range in Africa
Le surp^turage menace des millions d'hectares de pdturage en Afrique et risque de r^duire la capacity de charge des parcours

(photo Y.MuIler,FAO)

38

moved from complete to partial dependence
on wild animals for meat. Nontheless, in all
cultures of the modern world, wherever peo-
ple eat meat, there is still a singificant demand
for wild meat. Wild animals of various forms
and sizes, both vertebrates and invertebrates,
form part of the diet of people across the
globe.

In sub-Saharan Africa the proportion of
wild animal meat in total protein supplies is
exceptionally high. For example, communi-
ties living near a forest in Nigeria obtain 84
percent of their animal protein from bush-
meat. In Ghana, approximately 75 percent of
the population consumes wild animals regu-
larly; in Liberia, 70 percent; and in Botswana,
60 percent (FAO, 1989). However, even these
high figures may understate the reality of the
situation as wildlife consumption is often un-
recorded as part of the informal sector.

Perhaps the most important measure of
the local value of bushmeat comes from stu-
dies that ask people what they value most
from forests. In an evaluation of the Subri
forestry project in Ghana, Korang (1986)
found that 94 percent of those surveyed
considered the worst Impact of forest conver-
sion to be the loss of bushmeat in the area.

In considering the role of wild animals as
food, it is important to take a wide view rather
than a limited perspective covering only large
"game animals". In fact, small animals gene-
rally provide the greatest amount of meat to
the subsistence diet. Various types of snails,
snakes and other reptiles and amphibians are
also consumed. For example, in Ghana and
several other parts of West Africa, residents of
districts with high concentrations of snails are
considered lucky by inhabitants of other
areas. Insects also often make a singificant
contribution to overall protein supplies.

Nutritional value of bushmeat

Available evidence indicates that fresh
bushmeat compares favourably with dome-
stic meat. In terms of both yield of lean meat
per kg of live weight, and in mineral and pro-
tein content (Asibey and Eyeson, 1975; Led-
ger and Smith, 1964). Studies also indicate
that the meat of wild animals has superior fat
content (Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979).

HIadik et al. (1987) argue that the caloric
value of bushmeat is as important as the pro-
tein it provides. They note that many highly
prized bushmeat species are preferred for
their fatty consistencies.

Unfortunately, there is little information on
the nutritional value of preserved bushmeat
(smoked, salted, biltong). Methods of preser-
vation vary according to locality and re-
sources. The traditional method of smoking
is widespread in use, suitability and accept-
ability, despite Its limitations. Salting is re-
stricted by the availability of salt. Biltong can
be prepared where a combination of salt and
sunshine is available. More systematic work
in this area is necessary to cover the wide
range of wild animals eaten, as well as the nu-
tritional impact of prevailing methods of pre-
paration and preservation.

Factors influencing consumption
of wild meat

The deternlining factor influencing wild
animal consumption appears to be the ade-
quacy of supply. In fact, wherever it has been
investigated in African countries, it has be-
come evident that the majority of meat-eating
people would eat bushmeat If it were readily
available. Studies In Ghana and Nigeria have

39

demonstrated this to be true irrespective of
ciass, income ievei, educational bacl<ground,
religion or sex (Blaxter, 1975; Martin, 1983;
Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

The demand for wild meat is in no way
limited to rural areas. In fact, rapidly increa-
sing urbanization has created a spiralling de-
mand for wildmeat in the cities of Africa.
Throughout sub-Saharan Africa and particu-
larly in West Africa, there is a long tradition of
bushmeat trade based on supplies from rural
areas to markets In urban areas. There are
well-established chains, from the hunter
through retailers in the cities. This system
provides employment and Income for large
numbers of people.

Bushmeat is by far the most expensive
meat In many countries. For example. In Iba-
dan, Nigeria In 1975, when market prices for
mutton and beef were US$2.80 and $4.20 per
kg respectively, grasscutter meat cost as
much as $9.60 per kg and wild hare cost
$7.20 per kg (Asibey, 1987).

Often, the demand for bushmeat and the
consequent bushmeat prices are increasing
much more rapidly than those for domestic
meat. For example, an analysis of market
prices in Accra, Ghana revealed that in the
period 1980-1986 bushmeat prices increased
eightfold, while those for beef increased six-
fold (Asibey, J 987).

In many parts of Africa, the high demand
for and cost of bushmeat, compared to other
forms of animal protein, has created a situa-
tion where the hunter finds It more profitable
to sell his catch, rather than eat it.

Wildlife as a source of income

In most sub-Saharan countries, subsis-
tence agriculture provides employment for

the majority of people. Activities that gene-
rate additional Income or reduce expenditure
are invaluable, particularly where they en-
hance the quality of rural life. The forest,
forest products and wild animals provide such
possibilities. Hunting activities generate
considerable income in many parts of Africa
(Asibey, 1978a,b, 1987).

In the Bendel State of Nigeria, when 25
percent of the population were earning an an-
nual income of less than US$130 per annum,
and 38 percent were earning between
US$130 and US$600, a grasscutter {Thryono-
mys swinderianus Temminck), a small rodent,
was selling for US$7.61 . Therefore, a hunter
who was able to kill four grasscutters per
month, was very comfortably in the second-
income bracket (Martin, 1983).

In Ghana In January 1987 the official mini-
mum daily wage was 90 cedis (Ed. note: cur-
rency fluctuations make a US$ comparison
impractical); at the same time, a grasscutter
brought a minimum of 200 cedis in the rural
areas, and from 700 to 3,400 cedis in Accra
(Asibey, 1987). In an earlier study Asibey
(1978b) found that farmers more than dou-
bled their agricultural income by selling bush-
meat to chop bars (traditional restaurants) in
Sunyani, the regional capital.

These examples are not isolated cases.
Hunting and gathering of wild animals as food
items provide substantial income directly or
indirectly for large numbers of rural people
across Africa (Asibey, 1978a). For many of
them, income from hunting is an essential
part of their subsistence economy: they must
hunt to survive.

The income derived from hunting is often
spent on cheaper protein (usually poorly pre-
served fish) with the savings used to meet
other expenses (Asibey, 1974b, 1978a, b).
Clearly this trend has the potential to affect

40

the diet of rural people adversely and to threa-
ten their food security In terms of quality and
nutritional status of diet. If the availability of
bushmeat is not increased, rural consumption
may decline, as the rate of exploitation and in-
tensity of hunting to supply urban markets are
increased by demand. The situation is com-
pounded where domestic animal husbandry
is unable to meet protein needs, for example
in trypanosomiasis-infested areas. The socio-
economic cost of this scenario to the rural
communities requires critfcal examination.

International trade in bushmeat

Throughout the world, bushmeat has be-
come increasingly important as an item of in-
ternational trade. Yet despite the considera-
ble production of bushmeat in Africa, no
country stands out as an exporter. In part,
this is because of the stringent standards de-
manded by the principal importers, notably
the Federal Republic of Germany and France.
However, this is mainly due to the lack of sta-
tistical information on bushmeat trade within
Africa. Most countries of the region (except
Ghana) still give no systematic consideration
to bushmeat consumption or trade at national
levels of planning, finance and development.
The limited Information collected remains un-
published and thus unavailable.

This is a serious omission, with unfortu-
nate consequences for those whose survival
is closely linked to wild animals, as a source
of food and Income, and also for efforts to
conserve and manage wildlife resources.

Conservation and management
of wildlife

In most countries of sub-Saharan Africa,
wildlife conservation efforts have stemmed
from concern over the severe depletion and in
some cases near or complete extinction of
selected large game species ~ lion, elephant,
rhino, etc. ~ that represent significant poten-
tial sources of national income. Given this
orientation, the most common approach has
been the application of stringent laws des-
igned to prevent all exploitation of wildlife wi-
thin protected areas, and to restrict utilization
severely throughout the country.

Where animals and their habitat are in jeo-
pardy, this approach is often the only practi-
cal first step available toward long-term sus-
tained conservation and management. But it
must be clearly recognized as a temporary
and transitional phase.

Various options are open for this. The
simplest and often the most effective Is to pro-
tect existing populations. Where viable popu-
lations no longer remain, suitable parts of the
former range of a species may be selected for
reintroduction of wild animals. There is evi-
dence that introduced species can multiply to
economically exploitable levels (Teer, 1971).
The technology is available but funding is a
constraint. Attractive returns that have been
demonstrated need to be further consolidated
and better communicated to potential inves-
tors.

However, there is clear evidence that at-
tempts to protect or re-establish wildlfe re-
sources that do not take into consideration
the socio-economic needs of local people are
doomed. Preservation laws are often abused
with Impunity. This is to be expected where
resources are linked with survival. People

41

with very low incomes survive as best tiiey
can. The temptation to break preservation
laws is great, since wild animals can provide
food and cash. Furthermore, the people who
should enforce the law often receive inade-
quate salaries and therefore may be tempted
to turn a blind eye to or even aid rich exploi-
ters such as illegal trophy hunters.

If a wildlife management programme is to
be effective in the long term, it must be based

Bushmeat being sold in Kumasi central market (Ghana)
Viande de brousse vendue au march^ central de Kumasi
(photo J. Falconer)

on the active involvement and participation of
local people, and provide them with signifi-
cant and sustainable benefits in terms of both
food and income (see article on a successful
effort in Zambia on p. 10).

Management of wild animals to
increase food resources

Although the domestication of many spe-
cies of wild animals is theoretically possible,
relatively little progress has been made in this
area. There is high potential for the taming
and handling of many species of animals. For
example, in Ghana it has been demonstrated
that the grasscutter can be raised for quality
meat in boxes in human dwellings (Asibey,
1974b,c).

Even without domestication, however,
there are indications that wild animals could
be successfully managed for food, either in
isolation or integrated into existing agricultu-
ral systems, i.e. livestock production, forestry,
and crop production.

Commercial production of bush-
meat

in some countries, besides subsistence
captive breeding, attempts have been made
at commercial farming or ranching of wild ani-
mals for meat and by-products. Bushmeat is
not a new commodity that needs to be adver-
tised. None of the countries in which assess-
ments have been made have sufficient wild
animals to meet bushmeat demand. Any In-
novation that increases productivity is there-
fore desirable. Captive breeding and ran-
ching could be key concepts in this connec-
tion, and there are indications of a good fu-
ture for the development of more such
ranches (Jintanugool, 1978).

Where it is desirable to create ranches or
centres for bushmeat production, the estab-
lishment of these facilities near consumer
communities gives the advantages of a ready

42

market, mlnimai transport and possibilities for
recreational use to generate additional in-
come.

Besides reducing pressures on wild popu-
lations, ranching and captive breeding can al-
so ease competition between urban and rural
users. Non-consumptive use, I.e. game wat-
ching, and sport hunting on wild animal
ranches can generate additional employment,
income and revenue.

Integration of wild animal and
livestock production

Both wild and domestic animals convert
vegetable matter into valuable meat; however,
until recently Indigenous animals have been
deliberately exterminated to allow exclusive
use of rangelands by domestic stock. Limited
narrow knowledge, and a fear of reduction In
productivity resulting from competition be-
tween wild and domestic animals, as well as
the presumed transfer of diseases were
among the root causes for this approach.

Benchmark studies, however, have
conclusively established that the meat-produ-
cing potential of wild animals often compares
favourably with livestock (Asibey, 1966; Blax-
ter, 1975; King and Heath, 1975; Hoogesteijn
Reul, 1979; Thresher, 1980).

Moreover, the elimination of wild animals
does not necessarily lead to maximum utliza-
tion ot vegetation on rangelands. Domestic
animals are selective in their feeding and not
all plants on the range are utilized. A variety
of comaptible animals, which do not compete
for food resources, can thus be advantageous
(Asibey and Asare, 1978). This is possible
with a suitable mix of domestic and wild ani-
mal species. For example, domestic cattle
and kudu, impala and hartebeeste are mana-

ged in combination in South Africa, resulting
in an overall increase In yield per hectare
(Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979). Systematic integra-
tion of wild animals with domestic livestock is
also practised in Zimt)abwe (Woodford, 1983;
Worou, 1983). It should be observed that the
plants consumed by the wild animals might
otherwise have to be controlled manually or
chemically. It is therefore more economical
to combine livestock with wild animals on ran-
gelands to maximize the use of vegetation
and avoid the need for weed control.

Given the potential for bushmeat produc-
tion alongside livestock, it is important to fo-
cus on the developing systems and technolo-
gies to improve integration and increase meat
production. There is a need to pull together
information on the integration of wild animals
and livestock and evaluate socio-economic
returns. This should provide direction for fu-
ture development and more rational utilization
of rangelands. The additional revenue that
can be derived from wild animals through
sport hunting and recreation should also be
borne in mind.

Wild animals and forestry

Wild animals are one of the most impor-
tant direct contributions of the forests to the
well-being of local people, yet in the past they
have been regarded by foresters as "minor"
products or even as pests. Forest manage-
ment efforts have generally not included the
deliberate application of techniques designed
to increase the sustainable yield of bushmeat
from forest-based wild animals. Further
consideration of this possibility could lead to
significant improvements in forestry develop-
ment efforts, both those aimed at commercial

43

production as well as those concentrating on
conservation of the resource base.

Selective timber extraction enhances ve-
getation growth and therefore favours in-
creases in the populations of many forest ani-
mals. For example, a recent study (Prins and
Reitsma, 1989) found that in southwest Ga-
bon the African buffalo {Syncerus caffer na-
nus Sparrman) was absent in primary forest
but present in secondary forest. Although the
study did not produce conclusive evidence
with regard to smaller animals, it is probable
that the relationship holds for these as well.
Allowing or even encouraging hunting of
small animals in logging areas by local people
could help them to achieve food security and
therefore to ensure that the forest would be
more valuable to them as forest than under
any other form of land use.

Similarly, in conservation areas local peo-
ple could be allowed to hunt in exchange for
assistance in reafforestation efforts. This
would provide a motivated source of local la-
bour, a serious constraint in many forestry ef-
forts.

On the other hand, monoculture tree plan-
tations tend to result in reductions of both
quantity and variety of wild animal species,
particularly where exotic tree species are
used. The alteration of the natural ground
cover may create an inappropriate environ-
ment for animal species. This, in turn, can re-
sult in an increased risk of fire, as under-
growth that was formerly eaten by animals is
left untouched. Planting might be organized
in such a way as to allow indigenous species
of fodder value to remain in or along the bor-
ders of the plantation area. The trade-off that
would be socio-economically optimal has yet
to be determined.

Habitat manipulation techniques also may
be developed and improved to enhance wild

animal production in savannah forests. For
example, the planting of indegenous trees of
nutritional value would help to increase bush-
meat yield potential where other interventions
may be inadvisable.

Wild animals in crop production
systems

In general, agricultural crops have been
regarded as being in direct competition with
wild animals, with the result that extensive
efforts have been devoted toward their com-
plete extermination. In fact, the origin of
many of the national game departments in
southern Africa can be traced to the percei-
ved need for an organization with the respon-
sibility for destroying wild animal "pests" that
threatened government plantations.

Wild animals can and do cause tremen-
dous damage to agricultural crops. Some
antelope species browse young trees and eat
valuable agricultural crops. Birds, notably the
quelea, are known to cause serious damage
to grain crops and drastically reduce yield.
Rodents cause untold millions of dollars
worth of losses, both in the field and after har-
vest.

But the plantation system also creates an
environment that is particularly favourable to
the harvesting and utilization of wild animals
as food. Unfortunately, the anxiety generated
by the damage tends to be so ovenA/helming
that possibilities to utilize pest species for
nutritional purposes are rarely examined. In
many situations the development of techni-
ques for the sustainable exploitation of the
animals concerned could control damage and
provide an additional source of income and
food.

Ironically, in many situations effective tra-

44

ditional techniques already exist but are unu-
sed because local people are often employed
only as a source of labour in plantation sys-
tems; their knowledge of local conditions is
ignored. For example, in West Africa, various
traditional methods exist to trap and utilize
potential rodent pests, e.g. grasscutter
{Thryonomys swinderianus Temmnick) in
Ghana, Benin and Cote d'lvoire, and giant rat
{Cricetomys gambianus) in Nigeria around
agricultural crops. This both provides food
and keeps the population of these animals be-
low excessive levels. By including local peo-
ple in plantation efforts, these methods could
be applied cost-effectively on a large scale.
In fact, on many cocoa and oil-palm planta-
tions, local workers can be observed trapping
so-called pests for food in their free time.

Rice cultivation under irrigation in northern
Ghana faced serious problems with grain-
eating bird pests. Local workers were trained
in using mist-nets, with the result that the da-
mage was substantially reduced and the far-
mers obtained a good source and regular

supply of protein in what was previously a
protein-deficient area (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

Another approach to integrating wild ani-
mal and crop production could be the mainte-
nance or creation of patches of natural mixed
vegetation alongside plantation areas, which
will allow wild animals to survive. In many
countries hedgerows and shelter-belts pro-
vide a valuable habitat in areas that would
otherwise be devoid of wild animals. Al-
though not deliberately instituted for bush-
meat production, systematic application
could be valuable in many sub-Saharan coun-
tries where large stretches of land are farmed.

There has been no major deliberate effort
to integrate wild animals into cropping sys-
tems in sub-Saharan Africa. It is hoped that in
the long run the renewed interest in the inte-
gration of tree growing into agricultural sys-
tems (agroforestry) will be followed by inte-
gration with wild animals that will take advan-
tage of the tree cover.

Wildlife legislation

Large game species have been depleted in many counties, leading to imposition of protective legilatioh
La rarefaction du gros gibier dans de nombreux pays a amend a promulguer des lois scveres de protection

(photo J.J. Leroy)

Legislation
has been a ma-
jor constraint to
the utilization of
wild animals for
food in subsis-
tence econo-
mies, because it
is designed to
protect endan-
gered species
and regulate tro-
phy hunting. Le-
gislation in tropi-
cal countries of-
ten seeks to es-

45

tablish sport hunting as perceived in Europe.
Tlius, sucli concepts as game animals, liun-
ting seasons, bag limits, trophies, hunting re-
serves and royal game, have been freely
adopted. Their biological validity under tropi-
cal conditions does not appear to have been
questioned.

A serious defect of such legislation Is that
traditional utilization is ignored or defined as
poaching and the technologies used declared
unlawful methods of hunting. Furthermore,
possession, disposal and commercialization
of wild animal meat or other products are ille-
gal. To cater for conflicts with livestock and
agriculture, the concept of vermin has been
adopted.

Thus, by focusing on endangered and tro-
phy species, national legislation in many de-
veloping countries has had a negative effect
on the management of species that do not fall
Into these categories. The institution of state
ownership of wildlife, centrally imposed li-
cences and restrictions on the sale of pro-
ducts prevent landholders from considering
wildlife management as a potentially profita-
ble land use option. Thus, incentives to
conserve wildlife are stiffled.

Conclusioi\

Hitherto there has been little or no serious
planning to develop the potential of wild ani-
mals to contribute to rural economies. For
over two decades in most of sub-Saharan
Africa, wild animals have received relatively
serious attention for their role in tourism. The
role of wild animals as food, however, gene-
rally Is taken for granted and ignored, or sim-
ply not acknowledged as being of any signifi-
cance.

The management of wildlife resources for
their meat-producing potential has remained
essentially an academic exercise. An excep-
tion is in Zimbabwe, where both commercial
and communal landholders now show interest
in developing their wild animal stocks for both
economic benefits and for food.

In most countries, however, the basic in-
formation necessary to regulate and sustain
the use of wildlife resources for food does not
exist. Detailed work is necessary to survey
wild animal resources, to ascertain the pre-
sent level of dependence of subsistence eco-
nomies on wild animals for food and income,
and to develop options for management.

In most cases, progress Is hindered by a
shortage of adequately trained workers and a
lack of resources. To date, wildlife conserva-
tion and management have fallen on the
shoulders of a dedicated few, although for-
mally there has been official participation on a
continuing basis. Lack of interest at national
and international levels has been a chronic
blockage to advancement from local or indivi-
dual efforts to wide-ranging programmes. Al-
though most African wildlife management
programmes require an increase in funding to
support the human and material resources
and technology needed to turn overexploita-
tion into sustained utilization, in many In-
stances relatively modest resources, when di-
rected to effective approaches, could yield
substantial results. What is most required is a
broad-based commitment to the sustainable
utilization of wildlife resources for rural deve-
lopment.

In this context, it is noteworthy that in de-
veloped countries wild animals continue to be
managed and utilized as a food resource, as
well as for sport and recreation. A similar,
multiple-use approach should be strongly ad-
vocated for sub-Saharan Africa.

46

The time Is ripe
to focus critical
eyes on the poten-
tial role of wild ani-
mals in food securi-
ty, and particularly
on possibilities for
Incorporating these
considerations In
ongoing rural deve-
lopment projects.
The potential also
exists for linkages
between wildlife
management ef-
forts and nutrition
projects in develo-
ping countries.

Forest reserves
and forested land
have important
contributions to
make in maintaining wild animal populations
for sustained utilization. However, for forests
to fulfil this potential, forest management
plans must be re-evaluated to ensure that
they consider all forest resources, including
wildlife, as a source of local as well as natio-
nal benefits.

Bibliography

Asibey, E.O.A. 1966. Why not bushmeat too?

Ghana Farmer, 10: 165-170.
Asibey, E.O.A. 1974a. Wildlife as a source of

protein In Africa south of the Sahara.

Bio-Consen/ation, 6(1): 32-39.
Asibey, E.O.A. 1974b. Some ecological and

economic aspects of the grasscutter

(Thrynomys swinderianus Temminck),

Tiypanosomiasis-resistant wildlife species (here a topi) could be ranched for food in tsetse-
infested areas Les especes d'animaux sauvages resistant a la tiypanosoraiase (id un topi) pour-
raient fitre elev^es dans les zones infest^es par la mouche ts^-ts^ (photo J J. Leroy)

mammalia, rodenta {Hystricomorpha)
In Ghana. Univ. of Aberdeen. (PH.D.
thesis)

Asibey, E.O.A. 1974c. The grasscutter, Tryo-
nomys swinderianus Temminck, in
Ghana. Symp.Zool. Sac. London, 34:
161-170.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1978a. Wildlife production as a
means of protein supply In West Africa
with particular reference to Ghana.
Proc. 8th World Forestry Congr., Vol III,
P. 869-881.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1978b. An aspect of wildlife in
the life of farmers in Ghana. Accra, De-
partment of Game and Wildlife, (mi-
meo)

Asibey, E.O.A. & Asare, E.0. 1978. Range and
wildlife management In Africa. Proc.
AAASA 3rd General Conference, p. 83-
115. Vol. II. Ibadan, Nigeria.

47

Asibey, E.O.A. & Eyeson, K.K. 1975. Additio-
nal information on the importance of
wiid animals as a food source in Africa
south of Sahara. J. Ghana Wildlife Soc.
Bongo. 1(2): 13-17.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1987. The grasscutter. Accra,
Ghana; FAO Regional Office for Africa.

Blaxter, K.L 1975. Protein from non-domesti-
cated herbivores. In Pirie, N.W., ed.
Food protein sources, p. 147-1 56. Lon-
don, Cambridge University Press.

FAO. 1 989. Forestry and nutrition: a reference
manual. Rome.

HIadik, C. et al. 1987. Se nourrir en foret
equatoriale: anthropologie alimentaire
diff^rentielle des populations des re-
gions forestidres humides d'Afrique.
Research Team Report No. 263. Paris,
CNRS.

Hoogesteijn Reul, R. 1979. Productive poten-
tial of wild animals in the tropics. WId
Anim. Rev. 32: 18-24.

Jintanugool, J. 1978. The integrated manage-
ment of forest wildlife as a source of
protein for the rural population of Thai-
land. P roc. 8th World Forestry Congr.,
Vollll, p. 851-858.

King, J.M. & Heath, B.R. 1975. Game domesti-
cation for animal production in Africa.
Experiences at the Galana ranch. WId
Anim.Re^., 16:23-30.

Korang, T. 1986. Impact of forest manage-
ment on the rural population: a case-
study of the Subri Project. Kumasi,
Ghana, Institute of Renewable Natural
Resources, Univ. of Science and Te-
chnology. (Unpublished thesis)

Lanly, J.P. 1982. Tropical forest resources.
FAO Forestry Paper No.30. Rome,
FAO.

Ledger, H.P. & Smith, N.S. 1964. The carcass

and body composition of Uganda kob.
J. Wild. Mgmt, 28(4): 827-829.

Martin, G.H.G. 1983. Bushmeat in Nigeria as a
natural resource with environmental im-
plications. Environ. Conserv. 2: 125-
132.

Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. 1986. Research priorities
for sustainable utilisation of wildlife re-
serves in West Africa. Proc. 18th lUFRO
World Congr., Vol. II, p. 687-698.

Prins, H.H.T. & reitsma, J.IVI. 1989. Mamma-
lian biomass in an African equatorial
rain forest. J. Anim. Ecol., 58: 851 -861 .

Teer, J.G. 1971. Game ranching in Texas, p.
893-899. lUCN Pub. No. 24.

Woodford, M.H. 1983. Wild animal meat and
products utilisation at subsitence level
in Africa. 7th session of the African Fo-
restry Commission Working Party on
Wildlife Management and National
Parks. FO paper AFG/WL: 83/6.5.

Worou, L 1983. The management of national
parks and other conservation areas for
rural development. 7th Session of the
African Forestry Commission Working
Party on Wildlife /Management and Na-
tional Parks. FO paper AFC/WL:83/6.2.

*E.O.A. Asibey, formerly Chief Administra-
tor, Forestry Commission, Ghana, is currently
an Ecologist at the World Bank In Washing-
ton, D.C.

*G.S. Child Is Senior Officer (Wildlife and
Protected Area Management), FAO Forestry
Department, Rome.

Article culled from Unasylva,
Vol. 41, n" 161, pp. 3-10

48

The fate of the
African rhinoceros :
tragedy on a
continental scale*

by Bernard de Wetter**

Violent, dangerous, aggres-
sive, vicious: there is no limit to
adjectives to describe the rhince-
ros. Such a reputation which was
purposely maintained for dozens
of years by the accounts of great
hunters is, however, unjustified.
Of course, the rhinoceros have
then- character: they are some-
times irritable and their reac-
tions are always unpredictable.
However they are not the aggres-
sive monsters which exist only in
the minds of men, when the lat-
ter ovecome the animals in order
to better justify their own ten-
dency to crudeness and vio-
lence-
Surprising, anachronistic and
strange, rhinoceros are the last
descendants of an ancient line,
the only survivors of a family
which had its moments of glory
in an era when man did not yet
exist. As Uving fossils rescued
from prehistory and proof of an
ended era, rhinoceros have gone
through the ages untouched.
Evolution made them machines
perfectly adapted to the world in
which they live, but it was not
able to protect them from the co-
vetousness of man.

A 100,000 black rhinoceros
still Uved in Africa just a few do-

zens of years ago. Today, there
remain less than 3,500 and the
poaching craze which broke out
over most of the continent is per-
haps in the process of giving
them the final death-blow. As
regarding the white rhinoceros,
the other species present in Afri-
ca, the current numbers repre-
sent no more than a fraction of
what they were in the last centu-
ry-

Although the fact remains
that they are declining, it is the
underlying causes of this decline
which are unacceptable. The
rhinoceros do not in any way
come into conflict with man's ac-
tivities, and pose no danger to
the latter. Besides, they still have
enough space to be able to live
alright in most parts of their dis-
tribution areas. If they disap-
pear, it is only because they have
been massacred in great num-
bers and particularly for frivo-
lous reasons, since it is purely
more or less to sustain the tradi-
tions and beliefs solidly entren-
ched in the mentality of certain
peoples.

The rhinoceros suffer all
these misfortunes because of the
horns sticking out in front of
their heads. These are not joi-
ned to the skeleton of the animal.
In fact, they are nothing more
than a cluster of keratin, that is
to say, a material comparable to
our finger-nails or the hoofs of
horses. However, they are gree-
dily craved for in some parts of
the world. In the Far East, they

are taken as medication, and are
supposed to have several powers,
almost magical (but its actual
ineffectiveness has now been
scientifically proven). In Yemen,
they are used to make the cross-
heads of traditional daggers,
"djambiahs", which every male
Yemeni who respects himself
must carry.

The contentions between rhi-
noceros and man date a long way
back: for thousands of years
these animals have been coveted
by human beings who attributed
supernatural virtues to them. In
Europe in the Middle Ages, was
it not mistaken for the Unicorn,
that mystic animcil? Man's inter-
est in the rhinoceros has left
traces throughout history.

The horns of the rhinoceros
were greatly used at the begin-
ning of the Christian era in impe-
rial China. Shaped by renowned
artisans, they were transformed
into ornamental objects reserved
for the affluent in society. Most
of the horns used in the Far East
in that era were however trans-
formed into sculptured cups
which only served as items of col-
lection. Consequently, the cups
mainly served to detect the pre-
sence of poison in a drink. The
practice of testing drinks with
the horn spread in the Far East,
Europe and even in some parts
of Africa. But the rhinoceros
horn was at all times used mainly
in the field of medicine. Euro-
peans attributed curative powers
to it for several hundreds of

49

years. However, it was in Asia
that the use of the rhinoceros
horn in traditional medicine was
widespread. As a universal pa-
nacea, or almost, the horn was
considered cis possessing (and
still possesses) cures for a whole
range of illnesses ranging from
fevers and migraines, food poiso-
ning to snake bites ! Only the
Gujaratis of eastern Inida, howe-
ver, attributed aphrodisiac po-
wers to the rhinoceros horn.

The trade in rhinoceros horn
was already a flourishing busi-
ness in some parts of Africa well
before the arrival of the Whites.
Already in the first centuries of
the Christian era, the Arabs
maintained relations with the
African ports of the Red Sea and
the horn collected on the conti-
nent was exported to Arab and
Indian ports, from where it then
went on to China. The trade be-
tween Africa and the East went
on over the centuries, via the
port cities of the Red Sea and
the Indian Ocean. The English
and Germans who divided up
East Africa in the last century
continued the trade in rhinoce-
ros horn. It is estimated that du-
ring the second half of the 19th
century, an average of eleven
tons of horn was exported an-
nu£illy, which means the death of
at least 170,000 animals !

The value of the horn increa-
sed gradually thro^i^out the
20th century. The sale of the rhi-
noceros horn and ivory became
the monopoly of the State in east

and southern Africa after inde-
pendence. At the end of the
1960's, the horn was sold at £30 a
kilo. But this figure was to in-
crease tenfold some ten years la-
ter and continued thereafter to
soar to astronomic amounts. Se-
veral factors are responsible for
this rocketing of prices, the main
one being the entry onto the
scene of a new buyer in the
1970's - Yemen. North Yemen
for decades, remained a particu-
larly poor nation and completely
cut off from the rest of the world,
but due to a terrible civil war
which devastated it for more
than eight years, the country
opened up to international aid.
At the same time, many Yemenis
went to work in the oil fields of
Saudi Arabia at the beginning of
the 1970's. Considerable

amounts of foreign exchange
brought back by these workers
propped up the economy of the
country and allowed the buyers,
who were still many, to obtain a
luxury item, up till then reserved
for the elite of the society: a dag-
ger with the handle sculptured in
rhinoceros horn. At the end of
the 1970's, Esmond Bradley
Martin, an American geogra-
pher, threw light on the role
played by North Yemen in the
disappearance of the Africzm
rhinoceros. This small country
with a population of less than six
million people, absorbed all by
itself not less than 50% of the to-
tal volume of trade in African
rhinoceros.

Nobody ever knew and nobo-
dy will ever know how many rhi-
noceros there were in Africa at
the time the first white explorers
set foot on this land which was
up until then unknown. Indeed
the accounts of the first travellers
are full of encounters with rhino-
ceros and it was not uncommon
to come upon 60-80 rhinoceros
in just one day of walking. With
the development of colonial
structures, the golden age of the
great hunters started and since
the end of the last century, Afri-
can wildlife has had an irresisti-
ble attraction for hunters from
all horizons. Big, calm and har-
dly suspicious beasts, the rhino-
cerous, handicapped by their in-
difference, constituted the first
targets.

The white man went on a real
carnage, especially in South Afri-
ca. The white rhinoceros was the
first to be affected by this abusive
hunting. In 1890, the species had
disappeared from the south of
the continent, so to speak. In
1890, a group of six were howe-
ver seen in Natal and for the first
time, measures to protect these
animals were taken; hunting was
prohibited and a reserve was
soon estabhshed for their protec-
tion. In central Africa, the white
rhinoceros was already the ob-
ject of exploitation well before
the arrival of the whites but the
latter soon associated themselves
with Arab traders in search of
rhinoceros, especially in Chad.

50

The black rhinoceros which
are more in number and less easy
to locate than their white "cou-
sins", managed to Uve much lon-
ger, but their numbers continued
to dwindle throughout the whole
of the first half of the 20th centu-
ry and already in the 1940's, the
species became very rare in some
countries such as Chad, Ethiopia
and Somalia. Elsewhere on the
contrary, the period between the
two wars marked an era of reco-
very for the rhinoceros, and it
was rather the cultivation of new
lands and not hunting which re-
duced their numbers.

At the beginning of the
1950's, though the rhinoceros
had thus disappeared from part
of their distribution area, their
future as a species was not threa-
tened in any way. In South Afri-
ca on the contrary, the white rhi-
noceros had a remarkable
growth. But the years of recove-
ry did not continue for long... Al-
ready in the 1950's, there was re-
newed poaching of rhinoceros, a
tendency which only increased
thereafter almost everywhere in
Africa. At the beginning of the
1970's, traditional arms were re-
placed by modern and dangerous
equipment - automatic hunting
guns and rifles. A real wave of
poaching started to break out in
Africa, eliminating along its way
the rhinoceros in one coimtry af-
ter another. The rhinoceros, so
to speak, disappeared from
Ethiopia, Somalia, Chad, Sudan,

Angola Mozambique and Ugan-
da at the end of the 1970s.

East Africa was equally hard
hit. Kenya, which still had 20,000
black rhinoceros in 1970, had no
more than 500 fifteen years later.
The poaching disease then hit
neighboring Tan2ania and Zam-
bia and the rhinoceros were de-
cimated within a few years. The
Central African Republic was for
a long time considered as a sure
bastion for rhinoceros, but in

1983, members of the Bokassa
government suddenly became
aware of the incredible potential
of the country's 3,000 rhinoceros,
so the massacre was carried out
with unprecedented efficiency
and 99% of the rhinoceros in the
country were annihilated in a
matter of months...

Only one country, Zimbabwe
(formerly Southern Rhodesia in
the British colonial era), still had
several thousand rhinoceros in

1984, but in this very year, the
rhinoceros killers turned theu- at-
tention to this last bastion. The
first incursions of poachers were
recorded in December 1984 and
the country had to quickly deal
with a real invasion of well-orga-
nised poachers who were power-
fully armed and particularly ag-
gressive, operating initially from
neighbouring Zambia.

Where the poUtical situation
permitted, more intensive efforts
were carried out to ensure the
protection of the rhinoceros, but
the anti-poaching fight and the
reinforcement of the means of

surveillance could however not
prevent the killers from perpe-
trating their misdeeds even in the
most frequented sites. Kenya
was soon forced to gather most
of her 500 surviving rhinoceros
into special sanctuaries built for
them. From 1985, a national
plan for the rescue of rhinoceros
was implemented, and work was
undertaken in order to provide
sancutaries in five national parks.
These sanctuaries are real for-
tresses surrounded by a three
meter high fence electrified with
5,000 volts of current and fitted
with electronic alarm systems.
They are under permanent sur-
veillance day and night by guards
who walk round the fence along
which patrol posts have been
erected at intervals of a few kilo-
meters. Five national parks were
designated to possess such sanc-
tuaries of areas varying from
2,500 to 22,000 hectares, namely
Nakuru, Nairobi, Meru, Tsavo
and Aberdares. Four private
ranches which currently keep
more than one third of Kenya's
rhinoceros were £ilso included in
the national plan for the rescue
of these animals...

More than 1,000 white rhino-
ceros were in the Garamba Na-
tional Park in Zaire at the tune
of independence, but only 14 re-
mained in all, when an ambitious
rescue programme for these ani-
mals was launched in 1984. Fi-
nanced by UICN, The Zoologi-
cal Society of Frankfurt and
UNESCO, the rehabihtation

51

programme for the Garamba Na-
tional Park has since 1984 car-
ried out careful surveillance on
the white rhinoceros whose num-
bers have since risen to 22.
These are the last survivors of a
formerly flourishing population
of several tens of thousands of
animals spread over a vast terri-
tory covering Chad, Central Afri-
can Republic, Sudan, and the
north of Zaire and Uganda.

From the moment of the first
attacks by poachers in the Zam-
bezi Valley in Zimbabwe, the go-
vernment undertook a large-
scale fight to save its rhinoceros,
but in spite of the absolutely re-
markable efforts made by this
country, the black rhinoceros in
the Zambezi Valley were deci-
mated in hundreds. In 1985, the
Department of National Parks
consequently undertook to cap-
ture as many rhinoceros as possi-
ble in the Zambezi Valley so as
to release them on the other sites
situated fcir from the borders
where they remaijied safe from
the killers. Several hundreds of
rhinoceros were already involved
in this exercise, while in the
Zambezi Valley a rhinoceros war
continued, a war which sacrificed
dozens of human lives, those of
the wardens each year...

The efforts made in Kenya,
Zaire and Zimbabwe probably
constitute the last chance of sur-
vival for the rhinoceros in Africa.
As long as the rehabilitation pro-
gramme lasts in the Garamba
National Park, one can hope that

the white rhinoceros of central
Africa will survive and slowly
multiply. If the fortresses in Ke-
nya manage to succeed in their
role, they will make possible an
important centre for reproduc-
tion for black rhinoceros, lasting
for as long as necessary. As long
as the anti-poaching fight is car-
ried out with as much vigor in the
Zambezi Valley, the poachers
cannot attack the rhinoceros po-
pulations in South Africa, where
today, the two species still enjoy
exemplary protection. A few
small populations of these pachy-
derms are surviving in Botswana,
Namibia, Malawi and Swaziland.
South Africa is the last countury
in Africa where the numbers of
the two species are constantly in-
creasing.

The rhinoceros suffered from
all these mistakes. They occu-
pied and still occupy an ambi-
guous place in the minds and
cultures of peoples as different
from one another as Chinese,
Arabs, Indians and Zulus.

For thousands of years the
rhinoceros gave man a feeling of
fascination mixed with supersti-
tion and fear. While conferring
supernatural qualities on them,
man sought to eliminate them all
along, as if the existence of the
rhinoceros was unbearable for
him because these strange crea-
tures perhaps had the power to
bring the human species to its
right size and place. The rhino-
ceros are there to remind us that

life on earth did not begin with
the appearance of man...

If they disappeared, the
world would no doubt continue
to go on, but would nature in
Africa, with its wonders of co-
lours and shapes, still be the
same without the rhinoceros ? If
it proves impossible to save ani-
mals as prestigious as these, what
chances of survival would there
be for the thousands of other en-
dangered species elsewhere in
the world, animals less known,
even insignificant, not to mention
plants ? What hope would there
be of keeping the naturzil com-
munities intact as well as all the
creatures which constitute them;
mammals, birds, fish, insects and
other invertebrates from the
most visible to the most discreet,
the most imposing to the cal-
mest, the most popular to the
least liked, the most famous to
the most absurd, and upon what,
without exception, rests yet still
the very foundation of life on our
planet ?

In a few exceptional sanctua-
ries, the last African rhinoceros
still live their peaceful life, hee-
dless of the patterns of day and
night, seasons and years as they
have always done and could still
do till the end of time. On
condition that man gives them
the chance to do so...

* culled from:

"Les Cahiers d'Ethologie Appliqui

1989,9(1): 97-102

** Author's address: 35,rue Leys

B-1040 BRUSSELS (Belgium)

52

Les communautes
africaines au
secours de la faune:
Texemple de la
Zamble *

D.M. Lewis, A. Mwenya et
G.B. Kaweche

A notre ipoque, la coexistence
des ruraux avec la faune est tris
pricaire et nicessite beaucoup
d'assistance. Ritablir I'equilibre d
long terme est une tdche enorme
pour laquelle il ne suffira pas de
l^giferer et de riprimer. La coope-
ration des communautes rurales,
comme dans les anciens temps,
est essentielle.

Les soci6t6s africaines tradi-
tionnelles vivaient en 6quilibre
avec la faune. En effet, la cul-
ture africaine attache une grande
importance ^ la conservation de
Penvironnement (Hadley, 1985;
Marks, 1976). Mais I'avenement
des administrations coloniales
centralis6es a sap6 le droit cou-
tumier ainsi que I'autoritd des
chefs traditionnels qui en 6taient
les ddpositaires (Swift, 1982; Wil-
lis, 1985). Les administrations
coloniales n'ont pas pu mettre en
place d'autres structures effi-
caces pour la conservation de la
faune, d'oii une course effr6n6e
vers la corne de rhinoceros, I'i-
voire et, d'une fa9on g6n6rale, le
braconnage.

Aprds I'inddpendance, la plu-
part des Etats africains ont mai-
tenu la structure coloniale cen-
tralis6e des services de la faune
et des pares nationaux. Dans la
plupart des cas, l'am6nagement
de la faune se limitait k des me-
sures r6pressives, qui ont mainte-
nu une barridre entre les habi-
tants des zones prot6g6es ou du
voisinage et la faune.

Pendant plus de 10 ans, la
2jambie s'est attach6e h. ram6na-
gement de la faune et plus pr6ci-
s6ment a la lutte contre le bra-
connage, qui avait atteint des
proportions alarmantes (Lewis et
Kaweche, 1985; Lewis, Kaweche
et Mwenya, 1989; Leder-Wil-
Uams, 1985). De grandes cam-
pagnes de r6pression ont tit lan-
c6es dans certaines zones du
pays avec des financements
considerables. On avait beau
mettre les braconniers en prison,
la destruction de la faune se
poursuivait; dans certains cas,
elle s'aggravait meme (Lewis,
1986). Les pertes ont tit consi-
derables: quasi-extinction du rhi-
noc6ros noir, rdduction de plus
de 50% de la population d'616-
phants. Des tendances analo-
gues ont tit observ6es en R6pu-
blique-Unie de Tanzanie, en Ou-
ganda, en Namibie et au Kenya.

Alors meme que la politique
de rdpression continuait d'etre
appliqu6e, le Service zambien
des pares nationaux et de la
faune a entrepris des 6tudes ex-
pdrimentales (Lewis, Kaweche et
Mwenya, 1889) et organise un

atelier technique (Dalai-Clayton
et Lewis, 1984) pour identifier
les causes profondes de la chasse
ill6gale. Ces efforts ont debou-
ch6 sur une nouvelle politique
d'amenagement de la faune:
I'ADMADE, qui vise a combat-
tre ces causes (Mwenya, Ka-
weche et Lewis, 1988).

L'ADMADE, qui repose sur
la participation populaire, s'est
xtvt\t& extremement efficace.
Par exemple, dans une zone ou la
participation populaire a tit ac-
tive, le braconnage des 61ephants
a 6te rdduit de plus de 90% en
trois ans (Lewis, Kaweche et
Mwenya, 1989), et aucun rhino-
ceros noir n'a 6te tu6 alors qu'il
en existait suffisamment pour at-
tirer les braconniers (Lewis, don-
n6es non publi6es). Ces r6sultats
ont tit obtenus pour un cout au
kilometre carr6 bien inferieur a
ce que beaucoup d'experts esti-
ment necessaire pour assurer
une bonne protection de la faune
en Afrique (Parker, 1984; Bell et
Clarke, 1984).

Cet article presente tout d'a-
bord certaines variables quanti-
fiables identifi6es h. la suite des
6tudes ci-dessus et de I'applica-
tion de I'ADMADE comme les
principaux facteurs k prendre en
compte pour pr6dire I'intensitd
du braconnage et les problemes
d'am6nagement de la faune dans
une zone donnde. Diverses me-
thodes ou formules d'amenage-
ment capables de modifier la va-
leur de ces variables, et done de
r6duire la frequence et I'intensitd

53

du bracoimage, sont pr6sent6es
ensuite. L'article se termine par
un ensemble de principes direc-
teurs qui pourraient aider les
planificateurs et les responsables
de la faune africains a choisir les
options d'cimenagement de la
faune

VARIABLES ET
RELATIONS CAUSALES

Les ressources locales
en proteines

La ou il y a peu de sources
"16gales" de proteines, les ruraux
tendent k enfreindre la loi pour
se procurer au moins une ration
minimale. En I'absence de re-
pression, ils ne se limitent pas a
ce dont ils ont besoin pour I'au-
toconsommation. Ainsi, les villa-
geois vivzint a proximite des
zones prot6g6es n'hesitent pas a
y braconner malgre le risque d'e-
tre pris.

Une comparaison entre deux
villages voisins, tous deux situes
dans une zone infestee par la
mouche tse-tse, et ou il n'y a
done pas d'animaux domesti-
ques, montre bien a quel point
I'existence d'autres sources de
proteines influe sur I'intensite du
braconnage parmi les villageois
vivant a proximite des zones pro-
tegees (Lewis, 1988; Lewis, don-
nces non publices). L'un de ces
villages est situe en bordure
d'une riviere tres poissonneuse.

Dans I'autre, I'unique source de
proteines d'une certaine impor-
tance est constituee par la faune
tres appauvrie de la zone. Le
premier village compte beau-
coup moins de chasseurs tradi-
tionnels que le second, et le bra-
connage y est beaucoup moins
important.

Les possibilites d'influer sur
cette variable peuvent etre limi-
tees et dependent des caracteris-
tiques de la zone. Une option
possible consiste a developper
d'autres sources de proteines
(pisciculture, cultures riches en
prot6ines, etc.). Une autre serait
d'allouer aux chasseurs de cha-
que village des quotas raisonna-
bles pour approvisionner en
viande la communaute. Cela re-
duirait la pression que subissent
les especes tout en permettantde
mieux controler le taux d'exploi-
tation. On peut meme, si cela est
souhaitable du point de vue de
I'amenagement, fixer le quota de
fagon a obtenir une augmenta-
tion des populations visees.

Emploi

A mesure que les ressources
naturelles s'amenuisent et de-
viennent moins accessibles, les
soci6tes rurales africaines ont de
plus en plus besoin d'activitds r6-
muneratrices. Comme il existe
un marche exterieur tr^s porteur
des produits tels que viande, tro-
phees (peaux, cornes, dents),
etc., I'exploitation de la faune, 16-
gale ou ill^gale est bien tentante
pour des populations qui man-
quent terriblement d'argent. Peu
instruites, elles ignorent bien
souvent la valeur marchande
reelle des produits de la faune
recherch6s par la clientele etran-
gere et les troquent ou les ven-
dent a vil prix.

Les possibilites d'emploi et
les ressources en proteines va-
rient d'une zone k I'autre, mais il
est relativement facile de les me-
surer. Ces informations permet-
tent de predire I'intensite du bra-
connage (voir figure 1).
Les autorites responsables de Ta-

Disponibilitc
d'autres
sources de
proteines

PEU NOMBREUX

Emplois

Figure 1 Intensite et
caractere du bracon-
nage en fonction des
disponibilit^s de pro
twines et d'emplois

54

menagement de la faune peuvent
aider de plusieurs fagons a ac-
croitre I'emploi. Elles peuvent
notamment:

Employer pour I'amenagement
de la faune line majorite d'hahi-
tants de la zone, apres leur avoir
donne une fonnation appropriee.
Un programme de ce genre a 6le
lance a litre experimental en
1985 par le Service zambien dcs
pares nationaux et de la faune
(Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya,
1989). Les habitants ont alors
mieux compris et apprecie I'im-
portance de la faune, sa valeur
economique et la necessite d'em-
pecher les non-residents de venir
chasser illegalement dans leur
zone. Les gardes recrutes loca-
lement pour proteger la faune de
leur chefferie connaissent beau-
coup mieux la terre et sont moins
enclins a I'absenteisme que les
fonctionnaires, qui generalement
proviennent d'une autre region.
Ces gardes villageois ont reussi a
arreter beaucoup plus de bra-
conniers que les gardes fonction-
naires, pour un cout bien moin-
dre car ils sont remuncres selon
un barcme local.

Promouvoir des programmes
encourageant les populations lo-
cales a se lancer dans de petits ar-
tisanat! bases sur I'exploitation
viable ou Vohservation de la
faune. L'experience prouve que
les villageois s'interessent d'au-
tant plus h. la conservation de la
faune qu'ils en tirent un rende-
ment soutenu. Dans ces condi-

tions, ils comprennent mieux
I'activite de prevention et de re-
pression des gardes recrut6s lo-
calement. Par exemple, ils peu-
vent spontanement les informer
quand des braconniers pcnetrent
dans la zone, comme cela est ar-
rive en Zambie (Lewis, 1989).

Encourager les villageois a se
reunir pour faire connaitre leur
avis et eventuellement leurs criti-
ques QonQQrnQtit Vammag^mmt
de la faune locale. Ces reunions
aident a combattre les prejuges
et a promouvoir I'autodiscipline
pour Tamenagement et la protec-
tion de la faune (Lewis, 1988 et
donnees non publiees). Cette
approche est essentiellc pour
etablir entre les services techni-
ques du gouvernement et les po-
pulations locales une coopera-
tion permettant a ces dernieres
de tirer legalement de la faune
des avantages durables (Mwe-
nya, Kaweche et Lewis, 1988).

Reconnaissance du role
des chefs coutumiers

Les chefs coutumiers sont la
pierre angulaire des societes ru-
rales africaines et des traditions
qui donnent aux villages leur uni-
te et leur ordre. Autrefois, ces
chef prenaient les decisions
concernant la tenure des terres
et I'acces aux ressources natu-
relles dans Tinteret commun. Le
regime colonial et les gouverne-
ments qui lui ont succede ont al-

ter6 ou supprim6 ces pouvoirs
traditionnels sans que les admi-
nistrations centrales soient en
mesure de prendre la releve et
de faire appliquer la loi pour
proteger la faune. D'oii un cer-
cle vicieux: comme les ressources
continuent a etre utilisees de fa-
9on abusive, la repression est
maintenue, et cela tend a reduire
encore I'influence des chefs cou-
tumiers.

II faudrait permettre aux
chefs coutumiers de jouer un
role dans les programmes de
conservation de la faune des
gouvernements modernes en
constituant une veritable associa-
tion entre ces deux autorites.
C'est ce qu'a reussi a faire I'AD-
MADE (Mwenya, Kaweche et
Lewis, 1988) en creant des comi-
tes de la faune dans chaque zone
d'amenagement. Presides par le
gouverneur de district, ces comi-
tes sont composes de chefs cou-
tumiers locaux et de fonction-
naires specialistes de la faune.
lis se reunissent periodiquement
pour proceder a des echanges de
vue et adopter des poUtiques d'a-
menagement pour la zone
concernee.Les apports techni-
ques directs et les investisse-
ments peuvent ainsi etre achemi-
nes par les fiUeres gouvernemen-
tales, tandis que les chefs coutu-
miers exercent leur influence
pour mobiliser I'appui et la co-
operation des populations lo-
cales.

Dans la zone de Chikwa-Lue-
lo, dans la vallee du Luangwa, les

55

deux chefs ont acceptd I'AD-
MADE qui leur conferait ex offi-
cio la presidence du Sous-Comi-
ty de gestion de la faune dans
leur chefferie. Les sous-comites
transmettent les propositions et
les demandes de financement au
Comit6 de gestion de la faune.
Les chefs ont renforce leur auto-
rit6 en condamnant le bracon-
nage, tout en assurant a leurs
communautds qu'elles rece-
vraient leur juste part des bene-
fices provenant de la faune dans
le cadre de I'ADMADE. II a
suffi d'un an pour que le bracon-
nage diminue beaucoup.

Le prestige des chefs a aug-
mente du fait qu'ils avaient utili-
s6 leurs pouvoirs traditionnels au
profit de leurs communautes: les
recettes ont ete partag6es
comme I'avait promis le Service
des pares nationaux et de la
faune, et des habitants de la zone
nonmi6s gardes villageois ont pu
gagner de I'argent en gerant et
protdgeant la faune de la cheffe-
rie. Comme le braconnage avait
deja diminue avant I'entree en
fonction des gardes villageois, ce
resultat a ete attribue a I'in-
fluence des chefs coutumiers
(communication personnelle de
Peter Mwanza, chef de rUnit6
de la zone de Chikwa-Luelo).

Les chefs coutumiers obtien-
nent des resultats analogues dans
plusieurs autres zones d'am6na-
gement de la faune ou I'AD-
MADE rapporte des recettes
considerables. Ainsi, dans la
plupart des zones visees par

I'ADMADE, les comit6s de la
faune ont ouvert des comptes de
developpement communautaire
ou est versee la part de recettes
qui revient a la communaute. En
1988, cette part a et6 de 230 000
dollars U.S. pour un total de 10
unitds de I'ADMADE. Afin de
garantir que les fonds soient
reellement utilises comme le sou-
haitent les communautes, les
projets ne peuvent etre recom-
mandes au Comite que par les
sous-comites, compos6s essen-
tiellement des chefs de villages,
lesquels ont la signature pour les
comptes de developpement villa-
geois.

L'ADMADE a fait ressortir
clairement le role des chefs cou-
tumiers dans I'amenagement de
la faune; cette formule est beau-
coup plus rentable que la gestion
directe par une administration
nationale (voir figure 2). Par
exemple, dans les zones d'ame-
nagement de la faune de Luano
et de Sichifula-Mulobezi, les
chefs bannissent les villageois
convaincus de braconnage parce
qu'ils donnent le mauvais exem-
ple et sont incapables de vivre en
bonne harmonic avec la faune.
La figure 3 illustre les relations
entre les chefs coutumiers et les
chasseurs et I'influence qu'elles
peuvent avoir sur le braconnage.

Intensit

d

Braconnage

Interruption des apports

Cout de i'amenagement

figure 2: reduction de I'intensit^ de braconnage en fonction de raccroissement
des depenses d'amenagement; comparaison entre 2 types d'amenagement:

a/ emploi de fonctionnaires charges d'appliquer des mesures de repression sans
participation locale

b/ participation des populations locales sous I'autorit^ conjonte des chefs coutu-
miers et de {'administration

56

Nombre
de chasseurs!
traditionnels

BRACONNAGE
INTENSE

d'especes de grande |
valeur marchande par des !
chasseurs de I'exterieur j
utilisant des methodes
non traditionnelles

BRACONNAGE
MODERE

consistant essentielle- 1
ment en chasse de subsi-
stance pratiquee par les
residents; peu de complici-
te avec les braconniers de |
I'exterieur

BRACONNAGE
MODERE

essentiellement par i
des braconniers de I'exte- ]
rieur; risque de participa-
tion active des residents!
payes en especes ou en |
nature (viande)

BRACONNAGE
FAIBLE k MODERE

Les residents sontl
plus facilement complices |
des braconniers de I'exte-
rieur s'ils ne peuvent pas sel
procurer de viande ou d'ar- 1
gent de fagon legale

IMPORTANT

R61e reconnu par le gouvernement aux chefs
traditionnels dans I'amenagement de la faune

Figure 3 Intensity de braconnage en fonction du r61e reconnu par les
gouvemements aux chefs traditionnels

La faune comme source
de recettes

Les recettes que peut rappor-
ter la faune sont un autre para-
metre important pour la lutte
centre le braconnage. Premiere-
ment, I'amenagement local doit
etre une source de recettes suffi-
sante. Deuxiemement, il faut
qu'une bonne partie de ces re-
cettes soient r^investies sur
place. Sans un budget annuel,
tous les r6sultats, qu'il s'agisse de
la cr6ation d'emplois, des nou-
velles sources de prot6ines ou de
la participation des autorites lo-
cales resteront precaires. Com-
ment mobiliser les populations

locales pour un programme dont
la continuite n'est pas assuree?

II suffit de Jeter un coup
d'oeil sur les plans de developpe-
ment des pays africains pour
constater que la faune ne b6nefi-
cie pas d'une priorite trds elevee
dans les budgets publics. Les t6-
sultats du projet de developpe-
ment du Lupande (Lewis, Ka-
weche et Mwenya, 1989), ainsi
que I'actuel programme AD-
MADE (ADMADE, 1988), indi-
quent que deux conditions sont
essentielles pour que les popula-
tions locales se mobilisent dura-
blement en faveur de I'amenage-
ment de la faune. Premierement,
cet amdnagement doit rapporter
des recettes a r6chelle locale.

deuxiemement, les populations
doivent participer non seulement
k la mise en oeuvre mais aussi a
I'elaboration du programme.

La validite de ces principcs k
I'echelle nationale est illustree
par I'ADMADE. Pendant les
exercices 1987 et 1988, 260 000
dollars, representant 40% des re-
cettes totales provenant de la
faune dans 10 unites de I'AD-
MADE (en plus de I'allocation
de base de 230 000 dollars dont il
est question plus haut), ont ete
reserves pour fmancer les bud-
gets de fonctionnement et d'e-
quipement approuv6s par les co-
mites de la faune de ces 10 uni-
tes: exploitation et entretien de 7
vehicules de I'ADMADE, traite-
ments et indemnites des gardes
villageois et des ouvriers, force
publique, jetons de presence des
membres des comites, construc-
tion de 10 nouveaux campements
et de 150 cases pour les gardes
villageois, renovation de 3 mai-
sons pour des cadres, construc-
tion d'un bureau d'unite et mise
en chantier de 3 autres.

PRINCIPES
DIRECTEURS

On peut degager du pro-
gramme de I'ADMADE en
Zambie certains principes direc-
teurs qui pourraient <iider les
planificateurs et les responsables
a choisir les meilleures options
pour I'amenagement de la faune
en Afrique.

57

Employer des n\ethodes
de gestion previsionnelle
pour reduire le bracon-
nage

Comme les divers paramctres
qui conditionnent le braconnage
sont quantifiables, on peut deter-
miner la formule d'amenagement
appropriee en identifiant les pa-
ramctres pertinents et les modifi-
cations h y apporter. La figure 4
peut servir de base pour evaluer

les variables examinees dans le
present article afin de determi-
ner un modele degestion appro-
pride.

Perseverance et sou-
plesse

II ne faut pas s'attendre que
les programmes d'amenagement
de la faune reposant sur la parti-
cipation locale soient immcdiate-
ment accept6s par tous. Au de-

Dispoj
nibilit^s
d'autres
sources dc
proteines

Organiser loca-
lement la surveil-
lanc« de la faune
avec une subvention
de I'Etat

Sensibiliser les po
pulations a Timporlance
de la conservation er
utilisant k leur profit le;
recettes legales de la

faune

•

Donner un certain
prestige aux habitants
travaillant k I'annenage-
ment de la faune

•
Velller k assurer

aux gardes des remu

nerations competitives

Emplois
locaux

Investir dans des
formules lucratives
d'amenagement pour
developper i'emploi
local

Developper d'au
tres sources de pro
leines

Etablir des quo
tas viables et employe
des chasseurs tradi
tionnels pour e^^provi-
sionner les consom
mateurs locaux

•
Employer
maximum des gardes
villageois remuneres
grace aux recettes pro-
venant de la faune

•

Prouver aux po
pulations locales qu
I'exploitation legale de
la faune rapporte plus
que le braconnage

Rentabiiit^ potentielle de la faune

Figure 4 Mesures d'amenagement appropriees en fonction de trois
parametres influant sur I'inlensit^ du braconnage (voir fig.! et 3

but, les moniteurs locaux ris-
quent d'etre mis sur le meme
pied que les administrations pre-
c6demment chargees d'appliquer
les lois sur la faune et d'etre ren-
dus responsables de leurs er-
reurs (Lewis, 1989). Ainsi,
meme s'il est potentiellement
tres avantageux pour la commu-
naute, le programme risque
d'etre mal accueilli. Pour le faire
accepter, le moniteur doit faire
preuve de patience et de perse-
v6rance. II doit etre sensible aux
besoins et aux aspirations des
populations locales et doit bien
connaitre les antecedents et les
coutumes tribales. Comment les
populations se mobiliseraient-
elles pour un programme qui
leur est impose de but en blanc
et dont elles ne comprennent pas
les avantages?

L'utilisation legale de la
faune doit etre rentable

La rentabilte du braconnage
est un des facteurs les plus im-
portants qui determinent, pour
chaque esp5ce, I'intensite de la
chasse illegale. Tous les animaux
n'ont pas la meme valeur com-
merciale; les cephalophes et les
grysboks, par exemple, rappor-
tent beaucoup moins que les ele-
phants ou les rhinoceros. Un
programme efficace de lutte
contre le braconnage avec la par-
ticipation des populations locales
peut r6duire la chasse illegale,
mais il est important qu'il soit

58

complete par des mesures pro-
pres a maximiser les profits qui
peuvent etre retires legalement
des animaux les plus recherches,
et a assurer qu'une partie suffi-
sante de ces profits revienne aux
coramunautes locales pour inci-
ter celles-ci k appuycr la loi et
pour financer le cout de I'amena-
gement. Ce genre de formule a
toutes chances d'etre bien accep-
tee puisque I'utilisation legale de
la faune rapportera plus que la
complicite avec les braconniers
(voir tableau page 18).

Le succes de I'ADMADE en
Zambie illustre bien les nom-
breux avantages de cette me-
thode (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwe-
nya, 1989; Mwenya, Kaweche et
Lewis, 1988; ADMADE, 1988).
Par exemple, dans la zone d'a-
mcnagement de la faune du Bas
Lupande, les chefs de village ont
identifie plusieurs moyens d'a-
meliorer Tamenagement de la
faune pour accroitre les recettes
et spontanement offcrt d'infor-
mer les gardes villageois si des
braconniers penetraient dans la
zone. Une autre fois, ils ont fait
observe que les safaris de chasse,
qui sont la plus importante
source de recettes legales,
tuaient trop de lions males et ont
sugger6 qu'on reduise le nombre
de lions chasses, les remplagant
au besoin par des honnes. Du
point de vue de I'amdnagement,
c'6tait une excellente suggestion;
cela montre a quel point I'ame-
nagement est faciUte quand la
population locale I'accepte et se

rend compte qu'il peut etre pour
elle une source durable de re-
cettes.

Un autre exemple montre
que la perspective de gains dura-
bles aide a resoudre tres rapide-
ment les problemes d'amenage-
ment. Les feux de brousse allu-
mes en fin de saison, quand le
fourrage est sec, reduisent la ca-
pacite de charge en faune. II a
suffi d'avertir les chefs que les
quotas de chasse, et done les re-
cettes locales et la production de
viande, risquaient d'etre reduits,
pour qu'ils conseillent aux villa-
geois de ne pas allumer de feux
trop tard dans la saison.

Les avantages que rap-
porte ramenagement doi-
vent atteindre un certain
seuil

La relation entre I'emploi
cree localement par I'amenage-
ment de la faune et la reduction
du braconnage n'est pas lineaire
dans les zones oil il y a peu d'em-
plois pour les ruraux (voir figure
5). L'exemple de la Zambie
montre que, quand I'amcnage-
ment de la faune profite a un
trop petit nombre d'habitants de
la zone, les autres sont hostiles
au programme et en entravent
I'application (Lewis, 1989, don-
nees non publiees). Mais quand

Intensite

de

braconnage

Reaction d'envie quand les b6n6fices
sont r6serv6s k un petit nombre

Seuil d'efficacit6:
effet de pression

Pourccntagc des habitants d'unc zone tirant ^^
des benefices de I'amcnagement de la faune ^

Figure 5 Modifications de I'intensite de braconnage en fonction du pourcentage
des habitants de la zome qui tirent des benefices d'un programme d'am^na-
gement encourageant I'utilisation legale de la faune

59

les b6n6ficiaires sont assez nom-
breux, ils font pression en faveur
d'une utilisation legale de la
faune et Tintensitd du bracon-
nage diminue rapidement.

L'emploi local cr66 par le
projet pilote du Lupande dans le
cadre de I'ADMADE s'est limit6
d'abord aux seuls gardes villa-
geois. Peu a peu, le braconnage
diminuant, on s'est efforc6 de
cr6er d'autres emplois locaux en
developpant I'utilisation viable et
legale de la faune. Au bout de
trois ans, il y avait il y avait trois
foir plus de personnes gagnant
ainsi leur vie que de gardes villa-
geois (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwe-
nya, 1989; Lewis, donn6es non
publi6es), et le braconnage 6tait
devenu ndgligeable. Les en-
quetes ont r6v616 que les villa-
geois 6taient d6sireux de dissua-
der les braconniers d'entrer dans
leur zone et prets h appuyer les
gardes villageois (Lewis, 1988).

Utiliser les exemples de
succes

Un programme qui r6ussit k
r6duire les effets des variables
influant sur le braconnage pent
aussi servir de catalyseur pour
amorcer des am61iorations dans
les zones voisines. Ce qui s'est
pass6 en ZLambie montre que
I'information circule vite entre
communaut6s voisines et que le
succes est contagieux. Cela per-
met d'61argir le programme sans
ddpenses suppl6mentaires. Ainsi,

en 1989, deux ans seulement
apr5s le lancement de I'AD-
MADE, deux chefs qui n'6taient
pas compris dans le programme
ont demand^ officiellement que
leur chefferie soit classde comme
zone d'am6nagement de la faune
relevant de I'ADMADE. En ef-
fet, le Service des Pares Natio-
naux et de la Faune ne pent utili-
ser des fonds publics que dans
les zones d'am6nagement.

Pour maximiser cet effet de
contagion, il faut choisir, au d6-
but, des zones oil le potentiel de
la faune est relativement 61ev6 et
pers6v6rer jusqu'^ ce que les
avantages soient pleinement re-
connus par la commaunaut6, afm
que I'exemple soit convaincant
pour les communautds voisines.

La zone amenagee peut
avoir un effet tampon

La mobilisation des popula-
tions locales pour I'am^nage-
ment de la faune k proximit6 des
zones prot6g6es et des pares na-
tionaux peut r6duire consid6ra-
blement le coiit de la surveillance
de ces derniers. A mesure que le
souci de conserver la faune se
generalise, il devient de plus en
plus difficile aux braconniers de
trouver des complicit6s sur place
(Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya,
1989; ADMADE, 1988).

Organiser la protection
des zones inhabitees

Un habitat qui convient k la
faune n'est pas n6cessairement
propice au peuplement humain.
II existe done beaucoup de zones
riches en faune mais inhabit6es.
Pour assurer leur protection, il
est int6ressant de mobiliser les
communaut6s les plus proches
en leur donnant le sentiment que
c'est leiu" propre richesse
qu'elles protdgeront. II sera ainsi
facile de trouver le personnel n6-
cessaire pour am6nager la zone
et aussi d'en tirer de fagon dura-
ble un ma»mum de recettes
pour financer les couts d'amdna-
gement et rapporter des avan-
tages k la communautd.

Eviter les surencheres

Beaucoup d'amis de la nature
s'offrent k aider b6n6volement k
am6nager la faune en Afrique.
LeiU" aide est souvent pr6cieuse,
mais les modalit6s de la collabo-
ration de ces volontaires avec les
autorit6s nati(Hiales sont rare-
ment ddfinies de fa^on precise.
Quand des organisations non
gouvernementales riches pren-
nent des initiatives non coordon-
n6es, il risque d'y avoir des
conflits avec I'administration lo-
cale. D'oii le danger de rivalit6
et d'utilisation inefficace des
fonds disponibles pour la conser-
vation de la faune. Ces conflits
peuvent entrainer une mauvaise

60

allocation des ressources de la
part des donateurs exterieurs.

Bien plus, ils risquent de de-
moraliser les 6cologistes profes-
sioimels des service officiels d'a-
menagement de la faune. Tout
cela peut en definitive rendre
inefficace la lutte contre le bra-
connage a cause notamment de
la lenteur des interventions, de la
mauvaise coordination avec les
autres organisations officielles et
de la difficulte de controler le
personnel subalterne. La confu-
sion rcgne ct le braconnagc re-
double. Comme quoi I'enfer est
pav6 de bonnes intentions: c'est
justement I'effort de conserva-
tion qui provoque tous ces pro-
blcmes.

II est essentiel que les orga-
nisraes donateurs et les organisa-
tions non gouvernementales ap-
puicnt sans reticence les autori-
tes nationales, afin que cclles-ci
puissent avoir toute Tautorile
voulue pour faire respecter la loi
et executer les programmes d'a-
menagement de la faune.

CONCLUSION

Les parametres qui influent
sur I'intensite du braconnage et
sur I'intensite du braconnage et
sur les autres problemes d'ame-
nagement de la faune en Afrique
sont identifiables et modifiables.
Leur modification coute moins
cher si les interventions sont gui-
dees par les valeurs et traditions
africaines et par un service des

pares nationaux sensible aux be-
soins des populations locales.
Cette approche de la conserva-
tion, dont I'efficacite a 6te prou-
vee en Zambie par un projet pi-
lote, et qui a ete ensuite appli-
quee dans tout le pays, pourrait
etre etcndue a d'autres pcirties
de I'Afrique. Le succes depend
avant tout de la mobilisation des
chefs coutumiers a I'appui des
utilisations legales de la faune
qui rapportent des benefices
commerciaux, ainsi que de la
participation des populations lo-
cales aux activites d'amenage-
ment.

Cette approche reposant sur
la participation populaire et sur
le recyclage des recettes tirees
de la faune pour financer le d6-
veloppemcnt local et I'amenage-
ment meme de cette faune est
pragmatique et rentable. Pour-
tant, dans la majeure partie de
I'Afrique, la conservation de la
faune est encore essentiellement
tributaire des financements exte-
rieurs. Ces financements bien
intentionnes, si indispensables
soient-ils, ont pree une depen-
dance qui a empeche d'adopter
des formulcs d'amenagement ca-
pables de s'autofinancer et repo-
sant sur une utilisation viable de
la faune. Souvent, les proposi-
tions de projet comportent des
budgets considerables afin d'in-
teresser les donateurs. A cote de
ces apports massifs de fonds, on
a tendance a ne pas tenir compte
de I'importance des ressources
d'origine locale pour le finance-

ment des programmes commu-
nautaires d'amenagement de la
faune. De plus, les projets finan-
ces par des dons ext6rieurs im-
portants ne permettent pas en
general de resoudre definitive-
ment les problemes, car les ap-
ports ne sont pas maintenus in-
definiment. II est essentiel que
les apports exterieurs fournis
pour I'amenagement de la faune
soient etroitement coordonn6s
avec les efforts visant a mobiliser
durablement la participation
locale.

Article repris de Unasylva,
Vol.41, n°161,pp 11-20

61

NOTES SUR LES
CEPHALOPHES DE
SIERRA LEONE

par V J. Wilson
et B.L.P. Wilson*

RESUME

En ddcembre 1988, une breve
expedition effectuee en Sierra
Leone (Afrique de I'Ouest) dans
le cadre du programme de la D6-
cennie Panafricaine pour la Re-
cherche sur les Cephalophes a
donn6 des rdsultats tr^s
concluants. Jusqu'au moment oil
la visite fut effectu6e, aucun sp6-
cimen scientifique de c6pha-
lophe de Jentink (Cephalophus
jentinki) n'avait encore 6t6 enre-
gistr6. Et meme s'il y avait des
raisons de croire k I'existence de
I'espdce en Sierra Leone, un s6-
rieux doute planait encore sur
son statut r6el. L'6tude men6e
confirme la decouverte en sep-
tembre 1988 par Davies et Bir-
kenhagen de la presence d'une
colonic viable de cette esp^ce
sur la P6ninsule de Freetown,
dans la Reserve Forestidre de la
Region Occidentale de Sierra
Leone. Dans un village, on a ob-
tenu d'un chasseur quelques
paires de cornes de c6phalophes
de Jentink. La decouverte non
loin de la capitale Freetown
d'une espece aussi rare et de sur-

croit menac6e d'extinction est
d'une port6e considerable. Vu
qu'on y trouve au moins trois si-
non quatre esp6ces de cepha-
lophes de foret, la region devrait
pouvoir bdneficier du statut de
Pare National. Des observations
sur les neuf espdces de cepha-
lophes de Sierra Leone ont ega-
lement ete relevees.

INTRODUCTION

L'un des objectifs du Pro-
gramme de la Decennie Panafri-
caine pour la recherche sur les
cephalophes initie par la Fonda-
tion Chipangali pour la Faune
(Zimbabwe) vise k etablir, h par-
tir de recherches systematiques,
le statut et la carte de repartition
des espdces de cephalophes les
plus rares vivant dans les zones
forestieres du continent africain.

Selon Wilson (1987), toute
politique serieuse en matidre de
conservation et d'utilisation des
ressources forestieres et de leur
faune et fltffe doit etre precedee
d'enquetes minutieuses.

C'est k ce genre de re-
cherches que se hvre, k I'heure
actuelle, la Fondation Chipangali
pour la Faune au Zimbabwe qui
s'impUque aussi activement dans
des projets de recherche simi-
laires dans d'autres pays afri-
cains.

L'avenir des forets tropicales
humides et autres ecosyst^mes
des zones tropicales ne sera as-

sure que lorsque les populations
qui vivent des ressources des fo-
rets seront en mesure de pro-
duire, plus qu'elles n'en ont be-
soin pour leur survie, de la nour-
riture et autres biens de consom-
mation. Nous avons un grand
besoin d'informations precises
dans des domaines et zones criti-
ques, pendant que nous dispo-
sons encore de forets tropicales
humides (Wilson 1987). Ayjmt
cet objectif k I'esprit, le chef d'e-
quipe de recherche a eiabore en
decembre 1987, de concert avec
I'UICN k Gland (Suisse), un plan
d'action pour la Protection des
cephalophes. II s'agissait d'ob-
tenir des informations plus pre-
cises sur un certain nombre de
pays, dont la Sierra Leone. Wil-
son (1987) a indique que les ce-
phalophes de Jentink et de Ogil-
by etaient probablement les es-
pdces d'antilope les plus rares et
les moins coimues vivant dans les
forets denses de I'Afrique
Occidentale. Selon I'auteur, ces
espdces vivent cachees dans des
endroits k habitat dense, ce qui
rend difficile toute etude k ca-
ractere scientifique. Or elles
pourraient disparailre avant
meme de Uvrer quelques infor-
mations sur leurs habitudes, leur
comportement et leur ecologie
(WUson 1987).

L'ebauche n*3 du Red Data
Book (novembre 1984) consa-
cree aux donnees relatives au ce-
phalophe de Jentink stipulait
"qu'une enquete s'av^re neces-
saire pour determiner avec plus

62

de pr6cision la repartition et le
statut de I'esp^ce dans la pers-
pective de recommandations de
strai6gies en matidre de conser-
vation".

Plusieurs especes de cepha-
lophes, dont celle de Jentink,
pourraient etre menac6es de dis-
parition. II a 6t6 prevu que le
Programme pour la D6cennie
Panafricaine pour la Recherche
sur les cephzilophes fournisse de
nouvelles donn6es pour I'eta-
bUssment de Ustes correctes dans
les documents de references du
CITES et le "Red Data Book".
L'objectif premier du projet de-
meure toutefois de proraouvoir
la conservation des diverses es-
peces d'antilopes d'Afrique, sur-
tout que la chasse commerciale
pour la "viande de brousse" s'in-
tensifie et que la destruction
massive de I'habitat se r6pand.

Tant Wilson (1987) que d'au-
tres auteurs tels que Jones
(1966), Davies (1987), etc., ont
6voque la possibility que le c6-
phalophe de Jentink existe en
Sierra Leone, mais aucune
preuve n'a et6 avancee qui per-
mettrait d'affirmer qu'on peut
rencontrer I'espdce dans le pays.

L'6quipe de recherche a tou-
jours manifest6 le desir de se
rendre en Sierra Leone pour
confirmer ou infirmer I'existence
de I'espdce de Jentink (Wilson
1987). L'occasion lui 6tait of-
ferte en avril 1988, lorsque Mr
John Waugh de la Soci6t6 de
Conservation de la Nature de
Sierra Leone 6crivit au chef de

r6quipe en ces termes: "Au cours
de mes recherches sur les res-
sources de la R6serve Foresti^re
de la Region Occidentale, j'ai
d6couvert des indices soUdes
tendant k prouver I'existence de
nos jours du c6phalophe de Jen-
tink sur les montagnes de la r6-
serve". Et I'auteur de la lettre
d'aj outer que "le rehef accident6
rend inaccessible cette vaste
zone montagneuse ou I'espdce a
et6 reper6e".

En d6cembre 1988, une mis-
sion de recherche se rendit en
Sierra Leone, grace aux disposi-
tions prises par Mr Samuel Mu-
sa-Jcunbawai (un autre responsa-
ble de la soci6t6 Sierra Leonaise
pour la Conservation de la Na-
ture. La mission avait pour but
d'etabUr la preuve que I'espece
de Jentink existe dans la Reserve
Forestiere de la R6gion Occi-
dentale sur la Peninsule de Free-
town.

Dans sa lettre d'invation, Mr
Samuel Musa-Jambawai affirme
avoir tu6 par balle un c6pha-
lophe male de I'espdce de Jen-
tink en 1960 dans la foret de Go-
la. C'etait I'un des deux cepha-
lophes qu'il vit personnellement
et le premier signe positif de la
pr6sence de cette espece en Sier-
ra Leone. Mais la premiere
preuve concluante de I'existence
de cephalophe de Jentink en
Sierra Leone fut 6tabUe en sep-
tembre 1988 par Davies et Bir-
kenhager (sous presse). Selon
les auteurs, cette espece existe

dans la partie mdridionale de la
P6ninsule de Freetown.

Dans son "Guide de la Sierra
Leone" (1925), Goddard affir-
mait: "En ce qui concerne les
antilopes, il n'existe pas moins de
quatorze espdces differentes r6-
pertoriees en Sierra Leone. Par-
mi elles, la famille des c6pha-
lophes est fortement representee
comme le montre la Uste sui-
vante:

c6ph. k dos jaune (C. sylvicultor)
ceph. a flancs roux (C. rufilatus)
ceph. zebre (C. doriae)
ceph. de Maxwell (C. maxwelli)
c6ph. de Jentink (C jentinki)
c6ph. noir (C. niger)

c6ph. bai (C. dorsalis)

c^ph. d'Ogilby (C. Ogilbyi)
antilope royale {Meet, pygmaeus)
cobe defassa (Cobus defassa onc-
tuosus)

cobe de Buffon {Cobus Kob)
bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros)
guib harnach6 (Tragelaphus
scriptus typicus)

chevrotain aquatique (Dorcathe-
rium aquaticum)

Des huit especes de cepha-
lophes ci-dessus mentionnees,
les plus courantes sont le cepha-
lophe noir et le c6phalophe de
Maxwell (commun6ment appel6s
"chevre de brousse" et "fritam-
bou" par les Cr6oles) qu'on ren-
contre partout en Sierra Leone
dans des endroits oil pousse un
couvert vegetal abondant, de
preference dans les sous-bois des
forets. Le magnifique cepha-
lophe h. flancs roux, de petite

63

taille, se rencontre dans la plu-
part des r6gions du nord du pays.
Les cinq autres espdces sont
rares et si de temps k autre les
Europ6ens peuvent entrer en
possession de leurs peaux (celle
du c6phalophus z6br6 est parti-
culidrement pris6e), il ne leur ar-
rive pas souvent d'en rencontrer
de vivant.

Stanley (1928) reprit mot k
mot les donn^es foumies par
Goddard (1925); plus encore, il
donna la meme liste d6]k 6tablie
par Goddard. Toutefois, il existe
une difference de taille dans les
afHrmations de I'un et I'autre.
Selon Goddard (1925), "les es-
p^ces les plus courantes sont le
c^phalophe noir et le c6pha-
lophe de Maxwell", alors que
Stanley (1928) 6crit: "Des huit es-
pdces de c6phalopliin6s, le c6-
phalophe de Maxwell et le c6-
phalophe de Jentink sont les es-
pdces les plus r6pandues."

Et Stanley (op. cit) d'ajouter:
"la pratique du syst6me de cul-
ture par rotation, consistant en
une mise en jach^re des terrains
de culture pour une p6riode de
cinq k six ans afin de favoriser la
formation d'un convert v6g6tal
dense et imp6n6trable, assure
une admirable protection natu-
relle de ces deux espdces de c6-
phalophes de foret. Pour les
chasses, les chasseurs indigenes
utilisent une tedmique qui
consiste k les attirer hors de leur
refuge en imitant leur cri. La
meme m6tliode est utilis6e pour

chasser les autres espdces rares
sus-mentionn6es.

Sur la base de ce qui pr6c6de,
il apparait done clairement
qu'une erreur a bien pu se glisser
dans Particle de Stanley (1928) et
que, au lieu de "Jentink", Ton de-
vrait lire "Noir".

Quelques ann6es plus tard,
Montague (1959) dcrit au chapi-
tre III (Mammif^res) d'une 6di-
tion revue et corrig6e du "Guide
de la Sierra Leone" ce qui suit:
"Dans les forets et les buissons
des zones cultiv6es, I'espdce la
plus couramment rencontr6e est
le cdphalophe gris de Maxwell
(Cephalophus maxwelli) alors
que le cdphalophe k flancs roux
(Cephalophus rufllatus) marqu6
d'une large bande grise sur le
dos vit dans la savanne et les
zones de culture en bordure de
foret. La seule esp6ce rencon-
tr6e partout dans la r6gion est le
c^phalophe noir (Cephalophus
niger), appel6 localement "ch6-
vre de brousse", qui vit en zone
de foret et a un pelage marron
sombre. Parmi les quelques es-
pdces rares, on citera le c6pha-
lophe z6br6 (Cephalophus zebra).
Cette esp^ce, qu'on ne trouve
que dans la zone foresti^re de
Gola et au Liberia voisin, est trds
remarquable par sa robe roux
pale z6br6e d'une douzaine de
large bandes noires traversant
son dos de haut en bas. Aucune
mention n'a €t6 faite de I'espdce
de c6phalophe de Jentink par
I'auteur de la communication.

Dans ses "Notes sur les Mam-
mif^res les plus courants en Sier-
ra Leone", Jones (1966) foumit
mot pour mot les memes infor-
mations que celles d6}k donn6es
par Montague. Mais il ajouta ce
qui suit: "cependant I'auteur n'a
pu ni ddcouvrir des indices pr6-
ds pas plus qu'il n'est tomb6 sur
des sp6cimens de c6phalophe de
Jentink (Cephalophus jentinfd)
ou de c6phalophe d'Ogilby (Ce-
phalophus offlbyi). En outre, au-
cun sp6cimen d'origine sierra
leonaise n'existe au Mus6e
d'Histoire Naturelle de Londres.

Jones (conununication per-
sonnelle), qui passa de longues
ann6es en Sierra Leone, afHrmait
n'avoir jamais entendu parler de
I'existence du cephalophe de
Jentink, ni en avoir rencontrd
dans le pays. Dans ime lettre aux
auteurs, il dcrivit: "Si I'espdce de
Jentink avait 6t6 aussi r6pandue
qu'on le dit, les officiers de I'ar-
m6e k Daru, qui chassaient beau-
coup dans la region de I'Ouest k
r6poque de Stanley et en-
voyaient les specimens trouves
au Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle
de Londres, en auraient certai-
nement rencontr6 un.

Toboku-Metzger (1979) fit
une mention brdve de I'existence
du c6phalophe de Jentink en
Sierra Leone, mais sans fournir
de donn6e positive ou originale.
Robinson (1971) declara: "Le ce-
phalophe de Jentink (Cephalo-
phus jentinki), dont la distribu-
tion est la plus restrainte parmi
toutes les espdces de c6phalophi-

64

n6s, ne se trouve qu'zl I'Est du Li-
beria et k rOuest de la Cote d'l-
voire, oii sa distribution est cen-
tr6e sur la riviere Cavally". Une
fois de plus, Robinson (1971) ci-
tait Kuhn (1%5). De meme,
Wilkinson (1974) inclut dans sa
liste le c6phalophe d'Abott (Ce-
phalophus spadix) parmi les
mammifdres de Sierra Leone.
Nous estimons que c'est \k une
erreur de sa pait et que Ton de-
vrait lire c6phalophe k dos jaune
{Cephalophus sylvicultor) d^s
lors que, selon toute vraisem-
blance, Wilkinson n'aurait eu au-
cune raison de supposer que le
c^phalophe de Jentink existait.

LA ZONE ETUDIEE

Sierra Leone : Generali-
tes (voir carte page27)

La R6publique de Sierra
Leone, un des plus petits pays
d'Afrique, s'6tire entre la Guin6e
et le Liberia et est limit^e au Sud
par rOc6an Atlantique. Avec
une population de plus de quatre
millions d'habitants, la Sierra
Leone est le cinqui6me pays le
plus dens6ment peupl6 parmi les
pays africains subsahariens. EUe
couvre une superficie d'environ
726 000 km^ (soit 28 000 mille^).
C'est un pays de plaines et de
collines, dont plus de la moiti6
de la superficie jouit d'un climat
favorable aux forets denses et

humides. Et pourtant, k I'heure
actuelle, moins de 5% du terri-
toire est toujours couvert de fo-
rets primaires, alors que les fo-
rets constitu6es d'arbres de
moins de 10 metres de haut re-
couvrent environ 55% du pays.
Les forets secondaires couvrent
4% du pays (Davies 1987).
Quoiqu'une portion consid6rable
de la terre ne soit pas arable,
surtout dans les r6gions du Nord
et du Centre, I'agriculture 6tait
et demeure I'activit^ pr6pond6-
rante de la population dont 80%
est engagee dans la pratique de
Tagriculture de subsistence. Les
methodes de culture utilis6es
sont de type itindrante, a savoir
abattage d'arbres, brulis, change-
ment de terrain. De vastes man-
groves existent le Jong de la cote
et dans les estuaires des fleuves
et les criques tandis que de
vastes plaines couvrent presque
la moitid dukpays. A I'Est et au
Nord-Est s'616vent des plateaux
d'environ 1220 mdtres d'altitude
avec les montagnes Loma et Tin-
gi dont I'altitude d6passe 1830
m6tres.Il y a 200 ans les 3/4 de la
Sierra Leone dtaient converts de
forets primaires et secondaires
mais dts 1826 de larges zones fu-
rent abattues pour rdpondre aux
besoins de bois tropicaux de la
Grande Bretange et aussi pour la
culture par les fermiers locaux.

De nos jours il y a trds peu de
grandes 6tendues de forets pri-
maires et la seule foret k hauts
arbres est celle de Gola qui se
prolonge au Liberia. De vastes

dtendues de forets hautes exis-
tent encore dans les regions
montagneuses 61oign6es de Lo-
ma et Tingi qui sont heureuse-
ment des R6serves Foresti6res
prot6g6es. L'hippopotame nain
(Choeropis liberiensis), une des
esp^ces enddmiques d'Afrique
de rOuest, existe encore en plu-
sieurs endroits de Sierra Leone.

Le splendide c6phalophe z6-
br6 est pr6sent dans les forets de
Gola - et sans doute dans d'au-
tres r6gions aussi - mais est mal-
heureusement souvent traque
pour sa peau et sa chair. Le
Bongo (Boocecus eurycerus) ne
vit que dans un petit nombre de
rdserves foresti6res, et il existe
encore un grand nombre d'es-
p6ces de singes.

Les chimpanz6s se rencon-
trent dans beaucoup de r6gions,
mais leur nombre a consid6ra-
blement baiss6. L'on est en droit
de croire que les singes et les c6-
phalophes forment le gros du gi-
bier tu6 pour le commerce de
"viande de brousse" dont une
grande quantitd est sech6e et ex-
port6e vers le Liberia voisin.
Des milliers de singes et de c6-
phalophes sont tu6s chaque an-
n6e. Bien que l'on sache que V6-
I6phant et d'autres mammif6res
se rencontrent encore dans le
pays, il n'existe ni liste officielle
de controle, ni atlas des mammi-
f^res de Sierra Leone. Toute-
fois, des informations compl6-
mentaires peuvent etre trouv6es
dans les ouvrages de Davies
(1987), Grubb (1988), Happold

65

(1973 et 1987), Jones (1966),
Lowes (1970), Teleki et Baldwin
(1981) et Merz (1986).

Reserve Forestiere de la
Region Occidentale (Pe-
ninsule de Freetown)

Cette r6serve se trouve sur la
Peninsule au Sud de Freetown et
comprend une crete majestueuse
au relief accident6 fait de mon-
tagnes couvertes de forets. Cer-
taines de ces montagnes peuvent
atteindre une altitude de 915 me-
tres. Selon Toboku-Metzger
(1079), ce sont des montagnes
uniques en leur genre en Afrique
de rOuest, et ne sont compara-
bles qu'a la chaine des mon-
tagnes que Ton trouve au Came-
roun.

Sexploitation des forets de la
P6ninsule a commenc6 depuis de
nombreuses anndes et continue*
sans r6pit. Or ces forets sont im-
portantes pour la protection de
I'approvisionnement en eau de la
ville de Freetown.

L'importance de cette belle
r6gion montagneuse au relief ac-
cessible est consid6rable; et
pourtant tr6s peu a et6 6crit
concernant sa faune. Outre plu-
sieurs esp^ces de c6phalophes et
le guib harnach6 {Tragelaphus
scriptus), il est prouv6 que les
cercopithdques Diane (Cercopi-
thecus diana) et le rare Pica-
thartes k la tete jaune
(Picathartes gymnocephalus)
existent aussi.(voir carte page 28)

METHODE

Cette 6tude pr61iniinaire sur
les cephalophes de Sierra Leone
a ete menee en decembre 1988.
Dans le cadre de Tdtude, deux
sorties ont 6t6 organisees sur la
P6ninsule de Freetown oii un
certain nombre de chasseurs lo-
caux et de guides ont et6 interro-
ges sur les cephalophes de la r6-
gion.

Les chasseurs trouves en pos-
session de viande de cephalophe
fraiche ou scchee, ou de peaux
ont 6galcment ete interrog6s. II
y eut aussi une discussion avec le
propietaire d'un hotel de la place
oil fut reper6 un jeune cepha-
lophe bai. Deux voyages de ter-
rain furent organises en foret sur
le P6ninsule pour enregistrer les
details relatifs aux pistes suivies
par les cephalophes et leurs ex-
cr6ments.

De plus, un voyage prolongd
emmena r6quipe ^ travers plu-
sieurs zones forestieres de Sierra
Leone, voyage durant lequel des
donndes sur les pistes de c6pha-
lophes et leurs dejections furent
notdes.

Note a dgalement 6t6 prise de
toutes les cephalophes mortes en
vente le long des routes ou en
possession des chasseurs. L'e-
quipe eut aussi une discussion
d6taill6e avec le Docteur Sitter,
un trappeur qui vit en Sierra
Leone depuis longtemps.

Enfm, Mr Samuel Musa-Jam-
bawai, notre compagnon et
guide, nous a fourni une impor-

tante documentation siu" la r6-
partition et le statut des diverses
espdces de cephalophes de Sier-
ra Leone. II fut nagudre un ca-
dre superieur du departement
des Forets et avait une parfaite
connaissance des forets et de la
faune de Sierra Leone.

RESULTATS

Le Cephalophe de Max-
well (Cephalophus maxwel-
li)

C'est I'espece d'antilope la
plus repandue en Sierra Leone,
et presente dans toutes les re-
gions visitees, a savoir la Foret
de Gola, I'lle de Twai, la Reserve
Forestiere de la Zone Ouest, les
Regions de Makali/Masingbi, de
Bo et celle entre Yonibana et
Waterloo.

Un jour, dans la R6serve Fo-
restiere de la R6gion Occiden-
tale, nous avons relev6 des traces
fraiches de cephalophe de Max-
well en plusieurs endroits. Nous
avons aussi examine quatre car-
casses fraichement depouiliees
appartenant ^ un chasseur qui
s'en allait les vendre ^ un centre
de viliegiature, II nous a exhibe
les tetes des betes tuees le matin
meme et dit avoir tue 2 autres ce-
phalophes de Maxwell la veille.
Un autre chasseur nous a montre
cinq peaux sechees et aplaties
provenant de cephalophes de
Maxwell.

66

Sur le chemin qui passe pres
de Bo, nous avons rencontr6 un
chasseur portant sur la tete un
grand panier de viande sechee.
Selon lui, ce panier contenait la
viande de huit c^phalophes de
Maxwell et d'environ vingt singes
d'especes diverses.

Entre Waterloo et Yonibana,
nous avons rencontr6 deux v6hi-
cules portant attachees aux
grilles de leur radiateur deux ce-
phalophes de Maxwell non de-
pouillees. Selon Davies (1987),
le cephalophe de Maxwell est
I'espece la plus repandue dans
les zones forestieres de Sierra
Leone. EUe est en abondance
sur rile de Tiwai et aux abords
du Fleuve Moa. Sur la Peninsule
de Freetown le prbc des car-
casses fraiches de cephalophes
varie entre 200 Leones (soil 2,5
dollars US) et 500 Leones (soit
6,25 dollars US) piece. Les
Mcnd6 I'appellent tuwiiolo, les
Creoles fritambu. La peau sert
aussi 21 faire des tambours.

Le Cephalophe Bai {Ce-
phalophus dorsalis)

Nous n'avons obtenu qu'une
seule et unique preuve de I'exis-
tence de cette espece au cours
de notre visite. Un male sub-
adulte a et6 photographic en
captivite dans le village Africana
Tokey sur la P6ninsule de Free-
town. 11 6tait en tres bonne
condition physique et son pelage
roux 6tait soyeux et luisant. Une

large bande noire traverse son
dos de la queue au cou. Le pro-
pri6taire de I'hotel a prob-
ablement du I'acquerir tout petit
pour I'elever. II avait tit trouve
dans la Reserve Forestiere de la
R6gion Occidentale.

Nous n'avons pu identifier
avec certitude des traces d'un c6-
phalophe apergues sur I'lle de
Tiwai, mais tout portait a croire
qu'il s'agissait de celles d'un
jeune cephalophe bai. En effet,
il est extremement difficile, sinon
impossible, de faire la difference
entre les traces d'un jeune ce-
phalophe et celles d'un sub-
adulte des diffcrentes especes.
Selon les chercheurs qui travail-
Icnt sur I'ile, le c6phalophe a
flancs roux {Cephalophus rufila-
his) serait aussi pr6sent; mais il
faudraient un examen detaille
d'un specimen avant toute
conclusion. Cependant le cepha-
lophe bai a et6 formellement
identifie dans la Foret de Gola
(Davies, 1987).

Le Cephalophe

(Cephalophus niger)

noir

Deux pattes sechees ont ete
apergues au march6 de Free-
town. Un chasseur de la Reserve
Forestiere de la Region Occi-
dentale fut trouve en possession
d'une grandc peau s6chee de ce-
phalophe noir femelle. II allait a
Waterloo pour vendre la peau, et
pretend avoir tu6 I'animal sur la
peninsule, k edit du village de

Kent. Bien que les chasseurs de
la region soutiennent que I'es-
pece existe dans la Foret du Go-
la, aucun cephalophe noir n'y a
ttt aper^u (Davies 1987). On
pense done que I'affirmation de
Jones (1966) de I'existence de
cette esp5ce un peu partout en
Sierra Leone n'est pas fondee
sur des donn6es originales, mais
basee sur des citations de I'arti-
cle de Montague (1959).

Le Cephalophe a dos
jaune (Cephalophus sylvi-
cultor)

Des traces fraiches d'un ce-
phalophe a dos jaune (Cephalo-
phus sylicultor) ont ete apergues
dans la foret situee pres de Ma-
ka-Masingbi et le crane d'une
tres vieille femelle nous a ete
montr6 sur I'lle de Tiwai ou I'es-
pece semble etre commune. Se-
lon le Docteur Sitter, un mar-
chand d'animaux r6sidant prbs
de Waterloo, le cephalophe a
dos jaune serait tres repandu
dans la Reserve Forestiere de la
Region Occidentale. Cependant
nous n'avons pas enregistr6 cette
esp5ce dans la zone pendant no-
tre visite, meme si par trois fois
nous avons aper^u de grandes
traces qui auraient pu etre celles
d'un cephalophe a dos jaune ou
celles d'un cephalophe de Jen-
tink. L'espece 6tait aussi signa-
16e dans le district de Tonkoliki
et dans plusieurs autres rdgions.
Les Mend6 I'appellent ngulei.

67

Le Cephalophe de Jen-
tink (Cephalophus jentiJd)

La raison principale de notre
mission en Sierra Leone 6tait
d'apporter la preuve de la pr6-
sence de cette espdce de c6pha-
lophe dans le pays (ce qui, en
fait, avait 6t6 dtabli peu avant no-
tre visite par Davies et Birkenha-
ger, sous pfcsse). Nous fumes
conduits d6s notre arrivde dans
un village du Sud de la P6ninsule
de Freetown oil un chasseur af-
firmait avoir tu6 par balle trois
c6phalophes de Jentink au cours
de rann6e 1988. R6pondant k
nos questions sur I'esp^ce, cet
homme se mit k decrire exacte-
ment I'animal sans que r6quipe
posat des questions de prdcision.
Ensuite, il nous exhiba une paire
de cornes d'un jeune cdphalophe
de Jentink et une autre spendide
corne d'un grand animal (proba-
blement un male), dont la des-
cription est donn6e au Tableau 1
(voir page 31) y compris les
cornes donn6es par Dr Davies.

Quelques jours plus tard, le
meme chasseur nous montra un
amas d'excrements de cepha-
lophe de jentink rapport6s de la
foret ce jour-la. Ayant eu I'occa-
sion d'etudier en detail les excr6-
ments d'un cephalophe de la
meme espece, en captivit6 au
pare zoologique de Brownsville
au Texas (USA), il nous a 6t6 fa-
cile d'identifier ceux que le chas-
seur avait exhib6s. Le chasseur
affirma que Tesp^ce se rencontre

dans plusieurs endroits de la re-
gion mais qu'elle n'6tait pas com-
mune. En outre, ni lui ni aucun
autre chasseur de Sierra Leone
ne connassait cet animal sous le
nom de c6phalophe de Jentink.
Selon Mr Samuel Musa-Jamba-
wai, le nom Mend6 de Tanimal
est le kmkulowulei (ou Antilope
aux couleurs de I'dcureuil); les
Creoles I'appellent dikidiki, nom
utifis6 sur la p6ninsule. Des
sources non confirm6es font 6tat
de I'existence de cette espdce
dans les environs de Songo, situ6
k une cinquantaine de km seule-
ment de la ville de Freetown. Le
chasseur qui nous donna les
cornes de c6phalophe de Jentink
nous a expliqu6 que cet animal
descend la nuit des collines vers
les buissons dans les fermes ou il
est abattu. Quelquefois, a-t-il
dit, le c6phalophe de Jentink va
la nuit sur la plage, meme au
bord de la mer, pour 16cher le sel
contenu dans le sable. Des
traces ont souvent 6t6 vues sur la
plage par des chasseurs. On
pense que I'espdce est tr6s noc-
turne; dans la Reserve Foresti^re
de la Region Occidentale tous
les specimens ont 6t6 abattus la
nuit. Toutefois, Samuel Musa-
Jambawai indique qu'il a tue son
cephalophe dans la Foret de Go-
la en 1960 k 10 heures du matin,
c'est-^-dire en plein jour. Quant
au Docteur Sitter, il dit avoir 61e-
ve, il y a environ 15 ans, un bebe
cephalophe de Jentink qu'il ven-
dit plus tard a un autre mar-
chand d'animaux qui I'exporta

aux Etats-Unis. II indique que
lorsqu'il obtint Tanimal il crut
que c'6tait un jeune cephalophe
k dos jaune, ce n'est que lorsque
Tanimal arriva k maturite qu'il
realisa qu'il s'agissait d'un ce-
phalophe de Jentink.

Deux autres paires de comes
de la meme esp6ce (vivant dans
la Reserve Forestiere de la Re-
gion Occidentale) nous ont ete
offertes par Dr Glyn Davies de
Kenema, auquel revient tout le
merite d'avoir ete le premier k
enregistrer la presence de cette
espece dans la region de la Pe-
ninsule de Freetown. Un
compte rendu plus detaiUe de la
repartition des espdces k travers
la Sierra Leone a ete ecrit par
Davies (dans Davies & Burken-
hager, sous presse). L'une des
paires offertes par Davies est
d'une longueur exceptionnelle :
elle mesure 212 mm. (voir
Planche 1, page 32)

Le Cephalophe zebre

(Cephalophus zebra)

Aucun indice sur I'existence
de cette espece de cephalophe
n'a ete enregistre lors de notre
visite en Sierrra Leone, mais il a
ete etabli (Davies 1987) qu'elle
existe dans la region de la foret
de Gola. Mr Samuel Musa-Jam-
bawai indique qu'il y a dix ans on
trouvait facilement des peaux de
cephalophes zebres dans les vil-
lages situes k I'Est du pays. II
pense que I'espece est beaucoup

68

moins timide que le c6phalophe
de Jentink, et qu'il est toujours
possible de la rencontrer dans la
Reserve Forestidre de la R6gion
Occidentale (Sitter, communica-
tion personnelle).

Le cephalophe a flancs
roux iCephalophus rufila-
tus)

Durant notre visite, nous n'a-
vons pas pu obtenir de preuve
concluante de la pr6sence du ce-
phalophe k flancs roux (Cepha-
lophus rufilatus) en Sierra
Leone, mais il n'y a aucun doute
qu'il existe encore dans la zone
de savane au Nord du pays. II
est fort probable qu'on le trouve
sur I'lle de Tiwai (voir notes sur
Cephalophus dorsalis).

Le cephalophe commun
ou gris (Sylvicapra grim-
mid)

Phillipson (1978), rapporte la
presence de cette espdce dans la
region d'Outamba-Ducata, sur la
P6ninsule de Freetown et les re-
gions montagneuses de Loma.
Bien qu'il existe trds prob-
ablement dans les savanes boi-
sees du Nord du pays et meme
dans les prairies des montagnes
de Loma, il est peu probable
qu'on le trouve sur la peninsule
de Freetown.

marquable pour une si petite re-
gion; par consequent, il faudrait
lui assurer une protection appro-
priee. La valeur d'un cepha-
lophe de Jentink est extreme-
ment eievee et le fait qu'ils se
trouvent encore dans une zone
aussi peupiee suggdre qu'ils ont
une bonne capacite de survie en
milieu perturbe ou qu'ils ont mi-
gre vers la plus inaccessible zone
des montagnes. Quoiqu'il en
soit, le service des Eaux et Forets
et le Gouvernement de Sierra
Leone devraient tr^s serieuse-
ment envisager d'eiever le statut
de la Reserve k celui d'un Pare
National.

DISCUSSION ET
CONCLUSION

Le cephalophe d'Ogilby

(Cephalophus ogilbyi)

Trds peu d'indices permet-
tent d'affirmer que cette espdce
existe en Sierra Leone. Dej^
Jones (1966) ne fut pas en me-
sure d'avoir le moindre releve
defmitif sur son existence dans le
pays. II y a quelques suggestions
que le cephalophe d'Ogilby (Ce-
phalophus ogilbyi) peut encore se
rencontrer en Sierra Leone
(Phillipson 1978, et Honacki et
al. 1982). La preuve concrete de
son existence en Sierra Leone est
fournie par la presence d'un spe-
cimen au musee (Groves, cite
par Grubb, 1988).

La presence possible de neuf
espdces de cephalophes en Sier-
ra Leone souligne I'importance
de cette famiUe d'animaux dans
le pays. La presence de cepha-
lophe de Jentink dans la Reserve
Forestiere de la Region Occi-
dentale avec les espdces comme
le cephalophe bai, le cephalophe
noir, le cephalophe de Maxwell
et le cephalophe k dos jaune, re-
vet une signification et une im-
portance particuliere. Cela
confere k la region une valeur in-
croyable. Alors qu'il est etabU
que quatre (et probablement
cinq) espdces de cephalophes
existent sur la Peninsule, il y a
aussi la possibilite que d'autres
espdces dont le cephalophe zd-
bre s'y trouvent. C'est assez re-

La presence non loin de la
capitale d'une colonic de cepha-
lophes de Jentink et, prob-
ablement, celle d'autres espdces
rares pourrait profiter considdra-
blement au pays. De plus, outre
les espdces rares de cdpha-
lophes, on trouve dans la reserve
le cercopithdque Diana et peut-
etre le Picathartes k tete jaune
{Picathartes gymnocephalus).

Lorsque I'on considdre les
splendides plages blanches, la
mer chaude, la proximite de
Freetown, la fraicheur des forets
humides ainsi que I'amitie qui
caracterise les populations de la
region, la Reserve Forestidre de
la Region Occidentale a tons les
atouts pour devenir un "Pare Na-
tional de la jungle" oh les pistes
amenagees pour la promenade
seraient trds populaires et consti-

69

turaient un grand atout 6conomi-
que poUf la Sierra Leone.

Pour d6gager un bon plan de
gestion, il est essentiel d'etudier
en detail la flore et de la faune
de la zone. La region pourrait
devenir le premier Pare National
du pays, un statut qu'il ne d6m6-
rite pas. Les auteurs projettent
d'effectuer une seconde visite en
Sierra Leone en 1991 pour entre-
prendre cette 6tude detaill6e.
Compte tenu de I'existence de
plusieurs espdces rares dans
cette r6serve forestiere et en rai-
son de la pratique importante de
la chasse dans cette zone oil la
chasse est interdite, une action
rapide est essentielle si Ton veut
pr6server ces especes rares et les
forets qui les abritent.

REMERCIEMENTS

Nos remerciements vont en
premier lieu a Mr Samuel Musa-
Jambawai pour son amiti6 et le
support qu'il nous a fourni du-
rant tout notre s6jour en Sierra
Leone. II s'dtait occupe de tous
nos probl^mes de transport, lo-
gement et nourriture et nous ai-
da aussi continuellement en
questionnant les autochtones au
sujet des c^phalophes. Nous
n'aurions pas atteint le resultat
obtenu sans son aide, et par des-
sus tout, il localisa pour nous les
comes de cephalophe de Jen-
tink. Nous remercions egale-
ment le Dr Glyn Davies du don
des deux paires de cornes de c6-

phalophes de Jentink et du
moyen de transport qu'il nous a
fourni pour nous rendre k la fo-
ret de Gola. Nous lui sommes
egalement reconnaissants de
nous avoir permis d'utiliser cer-
taines de ses donn6es dans notre
travail. Que le Dr S.S. Banya,
President de la societ6 Sierra
Leonaise de Protection de la Na-
ture, qui nous a beaucoup aid6,
ainsi que I'Honorable Edward
Gbla resolvent I'expression de
notre plus profonde gratitude.
Hon. Edward Gbla nous a assis-
tes dans I'organisation de ce
voyage d'etude en Sierra Leone
et a facilite nos contacts avec les
autorites dans le pays: il nous a
introduits auprds de plusieurs
cabinets minist6riels et de Son
Excellence Dr. J.S. Momoh, Pr6-
sident de Sierra Leone, avec le-
quel nous avons pu discuter des
probldmes de conservation. Nos
remerciements vont 6galement a
Mr A.P. Koroma, Conservateur
Principal des Forets de Sierra
Leone, pour son aide et ses en-
couragements.

Enfin, que Mme Paddy Wil-
son, 6pouse du chef de I'^quipe,
trouve ici I'expression de nos re-
merciements speciaux pour la
realisation des cartes. De meme,
nous remercions MM Kevin Wil-
son et Vaughan Southey, qui ont
bien voulu produire ce document
sur ordinateur. Kevin Wilson a
protographi6 les cornes des ce-
phalophes.

Nous remercions le conseil
d'administration de la Fondation

Chipangali pour avoir financ6 le
programme et les frais de cette
publication.

* Article repris de Amoldia
Zimbabwe

9 (33): 451-462, July 90.

Chipangali Wildlife Trust
P.O.B0X 1057 Bulawayo (Zw)

NDLR: Mr Barry Wilson est
d6c6d6 des suites d'un accident
de la route en Janvier 1991.

La photo de couverture
est un cephalophe de Jentink
photographi6 par Mr VJ.
Wilson au Gladys Porter
Zoo, Brownsville, Texas

70

Amenagement de la
faune pour le
developpement
rural en Afrique

E.O A. Asibey et G.S. Child*

En Afrique subsaharienne, il
y a plus de 130 millions d'ha de
r6serves de faune. II existe aussi
de vastes zones dans lesquelles
I'utiiisation de la faune est
contr616e. En outre, presque
tons les pays de la r6gion ont des
lois qui rdglementent la chasse
sportive et permettent de faire
rentrer de I'argent dans les
caisses de I'Etat sous forme de
droits et redevances per9us sur
les permis de chasse. Les gou-
vernements reconnaissent done
que Tamenagement de la faune
est une option viable dans les
plans d'utilisation des terres.

Mais il est rare que les contri-
butions que la faune, en tant que
source d'aliments ou de biens
marchands, apporte ou peut ap-
porter k I'dconomie et a la nutri-
tion en milieu rural, soient offi-
ciellement reconnues. Bien plus,
dans beaucoup de pays, ces utili-
sations sont dans une grande me-
sure ill6gales.

n est maintenant urgent de
s'efforcer par tous les moyens
d'int6grer revaluation, la raise en
valeur, I'amfnagement et I'utiii-
sation des animaux sauvages
dans les plans nationaux de deve-

loppement socio-6conomique. II
est essentiel que organismes na-
tionaux responsables de la plani-
fication et des finances partici-
pent k cet effort k tous les ni-
veaux; I'assistance d'organisa-
tions Internationales compe-
tentes pourra aussi etre neces-
saire. D'un autre c6t6, ime utili-
sation viable k long terme de la
faune ne sera possible, que si les
populations locales participent k
Tam^nagement et regoivent leur
juste part des b6n6fices.

Populations
et animates

humaines

Avant d'examiner la faune
subsaharienne, il convient de
dire quelques mots de revolution
d6mographique et des pro-
blames d'environnement
connexes, qui influent profond6-
ment sur les ressources en faune.

Les taux de croissance d6mo-
graphique sont 61ev6s dans pres-
que tous les pays d' Afrique sub-
saharienne, d'oil la n6cessit6
d'accroitre d'urgence la produc-
tion vivridre, qui pousse les agri-
culteurs africains k raccourcir les
jacheres, k essayer de produire
davantage sur des sols peu fer-
tiles et k cultiver des terres mar-
ginales. Tout cela entraine inexo-
rablement une degradation des
terres arables. Quand le cheptel
augmente aussi vite ou meme
plus vite que les populations hu-
maines, les vastes terres pasto-
rales de I'Afrique se d6gradent

de la meme fagon, surtout 1^ oii
des parcours traditionnels ont
6t6 mis en culture, ce qui fait
croitre la pression sur le reste
des zones pastorales.

Dans les zones seches, de^
milUons d'hectares de paturages
et de parcours sont menaces par
le surpaturage. Beaucoup de
gramin6es p6rennes sont rempla-
c6es par des gramin6es annuelles
de moins grande valeur nutri-
tionnelle; cette deterioration ris-
que d'etre irreversible et de re-
duire la capacite de charge des
parcours. L^ ou la vegetation a
disparu ou s'est eclaircie, le vent
emporte le peu de sediment que
contient le sol, ce qui r6duit sa
capacitd de retention d'eau. Les
forets denses et claires d' Afrique
subsahariennes sont elle aussi en
danger; chaque annee, pres de 4
milUons d'ha de forets disparais-
sent ou se degradent, principale-
ment en Afrique occidentale hu-
mide et subhumide. La princi-
pale cause du d6boisement est le
defrichement pour I'agriculture;
mais I'exploitation anarchique de
la foret, la collecte de bois de
chauffe, les feux et le surpatu-
rage prelevent aussi de lourds
tributs. On a estime qu'entre
1975 et 1980, pour chaque ha
plantd, 29 ha ont et6 deboises
(Lanly, 1982).

Les animaux sauvages ont
leurs habitats dans ces parcours
et ces forets. Lorsque ces habi-
tats sont transform^s, comme
c'est actuellement le cas en Afri-
que, il est inevitable que la com-

71

position et diversitd de la faune
soient modifi6es, et des popula-
tions entidres peuvent etre mena-
c6es. Pendant cette derni6re d6-
cennie du 20e sidcle, il sera done
essentiel d'intdgrer I'amdnage-
ment de la faune et de son habi-
tat dans les efforts de developpe-
ment socio-6conomique g6n6ral.

La faune comme source
d'aliments

L'homme prdhistorique n'a-
vait d'autre source de proteines
que les animaux sauvages. L'a-
v^nement de I'dlevage et de I'a-
griculture s^dentaire Ta en partie
affranchi de cette d6pendance.
Cependant, dans toutes les soci6-
t6s modernes non v6g6tariennes,
il reste une demande assez im-
portante de viande d'animaux
sauvages. Dans toutes les r6-
gions du monde, des animaux
sauvages de tous types et de
toutes tallies, tant vert6br6s
qu'invert6br6s, constituent une
part de I'alimentation des
honunes.

En Afrique subsaharienne,les
animaux sauvages fournissent
ime proportion exceptionnelle-
ment 61ev6e des prot6ines ali-
mentaires. Au Nigdria, des com-
munautds vivant k proximitd de
la foret tirent de la chasse 84%
de leurs prot6ines d'origine ani-
male. Au Ghana, environ 75%
de la population consomment t6-
gulidrement des animaux sau-
vages; au Liberia, cette propor-

tion est de 70%, et au Botswana
de 60% (FAO, 1989).

Si 61ev6s qu'ils soient, ces
chiffres sont peut-etre inf6rieurs
a la r6alit6, car une bonne partie
des animaux sauvages consom-
m6s ne sont pas commercialisms
et 6chappent aux statistiques.

La meilleure fa^on de mesu-
rer la valeur locale de la viande
de chasse est peut-etre de de-
mander aux gens pourquoi la fo-
ret est importante pour eux. En
6valuant le projet de forestriede
Subri au Ghana, Korang (1986) a
constat6 que, pour 94% des per-
sonnes interrog6es, la conse-
quence la plus grave de la
conversion de la foret 6tait la dis-
parition de la viande de chasse.

Si Ton veut se faire une id6e
du role que jouent les animaux
sauvages dans I'alimentation, il
ne faut pas se contenter de pren-
dre en consideration le gros gi-
bier. En g6n6ral, dans les r6-
gimes de subsistance, la majeure
partie de la viande provient des
petits animaux. On consomme
divers types d'escargots, de ser-
pents et d'autres reptiles et
d'amphibiens. Dans plusieurs
rdgions d' Afrique occiden-
tale,notamment au Ghana, les
habitants des zones riches en es-
cargots sont envi6s par leurs voi-
sins. Les insectes constituent
aussi souvent une part impor-
tante des ressources totales en
protdines.

Valeur nutritionnelle de
la viande de chasse

Les donndes disponibles indi-
quent que la viande de chasse
fraiche soutient favorablement la
comparaison avec la viande d'a-
nimaux domestiques pour ce qui
est du rendement en viande mai-
gre par kilogramme de poids vif
et de la teneur 616ments min6-
raux et en protdines (Asibey et
Eyeson, 1975; Ledger et Smith,
1964). Des 6tudes ont montr6
par ailleurs que la viande des
animaux sauvages contient da-
vantage de Upides (Hoogesteijn
Reul, 1979).

Selon Hladik et al. (1987), la
valeur calorique de la viande de
chasse est aussi importante que
les proteines qu'elle fournit.
Beaucoup d'animaux sauvages
sont particuli6rement appr6ci6s
parce que leur viande est bien
grasse.

Malheureusement, la valeur
nutritionnelle de la viande de
chasse conserv6e (fum6e, sal6e
ou sech6e) est mal connue. Les
m6thodes de conservation va-
rient selon les endroits et les res-
sources. Le fumage traditioimel,
malgr6 ses inconv6nients, est en-
core trbs r6pandu. La salaison
est Umit6e par le manque de sel.
La viande s6ch6e (biltong) peut
etre prepar6e 1^ o^ le sel et le so-
leil ne manquent pas. II faudrait
6tudier plus systdmatiquement
toute la gamme des animaux sau-
vages consonmi6s, ainsi que les

72

aspects nutritionnels des diff6-
rentes m6thodes courantes de
pr6paration et de conservation.

Facteurs influant sur la
consommation de viande
d'animaux sauvages

La consommation d'animaux
sauvages semble conditionn6e
principalement par les disponibi-
lit6s. Partout ou la question a
6t6 6tudi6e dans les pays d'Afri-
que, il est apparu que la majorit6
des non-v6g6tariens sont prets h
consommer de la viande de
chasse s'ils peuvent s'en procu-
rer. Selon des 6tudes effectu6es
au Ghana et au Nigeria, cela est
vrai quels que soient la classe so-
ciale, le niveau de revenu, I'in-
struction, la religion ou le sexe
(Blaxter, 1975; Martin, 1983;
Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

La demande de viande de
chasse n'est nullement limit6e
aux campagnes. L'urbanisation
rapide a entramd une croissance
exponentielle de la demande
dans les villes zifricaines. Dans
toute I'Afrique subsaharienne et
en particulier en Afrique occi-
dentale, la viande de chasse est
depuis longtemps vendue sur les
march6s urbains. II existe des fi-
lidres bien 6tablies allant du
chasseur au d6taillant. C'est 1^
une importante source d'emplois
et de revenus.

Dans beaucoup de pays, la
viande de chasse est de loin la
viande la plus chdre. Ainsi, k

Ibadan (Nig6ria), en 1975, quand
la viande de mouton et de boeuf
se vendaient respectivement 2,80
dollars et 4,20 dollars le kilo-
gramme, la viande d'aulacode
valait 9,60 dollars et le U6vre sau-
vage 7,20 dollars (Asibey, 1987).

Dans bien des cas, la de-
mande et le prix de la viande de
chasse augmentent beaucoup
plus vite que ceux de la viande
d'animaux domestiques. Ainsi, k
Accra (Ghana), le prix de la
viande de chasse a 6t6 multipli6
par huit entre 1980 et 1986, tan-
dis que la viande de boeuf a seu-
lement sextuple (Asibey, 1987).

Dans beaucoup de r6gions
d' Afrique, il y a une telle de-
mande pour la viande de chasse
qu'il est plus avantageux pour les
chasseur de la vendre que de la
manger.

La faune en tant que
source de revenus

Dans la plupart des pays d'A-
frique subsaharienne, la majoritd
de la population vit de Tagricul-
ture de subsistance. Les activites
capables de cr6er des revenus ou
de reduire les d6penses sont
done extremement importantes,
surtout si en meme temps elles
ameliorent la qualitd de la vie
des ruraux. La foret, ses pro-
duits et les animaux qui I'habi-
tent offrent une base pour de
telles activites. La chasse est une
trds importante source de revenu

dans beaucoup de parties de I'A-
frique (Asibey,1978a,b,1987).

Dans r6tat de Bendel, au Ni-
g6ria, uu aulacode se vendait
7,61 dollars, alors que 25% de la
population gagnaient loins de
130 dollars par an et 38% entre
130 et 600 doUars. II suffisait
done de tuer quatre aulacodes
par mois pour se trouver au mi-
lieu de cette deuxi^me classe de
revenu (Martin, 1983).

Au Ghana, en Janvier 1987, le
salaire minimal journalier 6tait
de 90 cedis.(NDLR: en raison
des fluctuations des taux de
change, la conversion en dollars
U.S. n'aurait gudre de sens.) A
la meme 6poque, un aulacode
rapportait au moins 200 c6dis en
milieu rural et de 700 k 3400 c6-
dis k Accra (Asibey, 1987). Dans
une 6tude pr6c6dente, Asibey
(1978b) a observe qu'un paysan
pouvait plus que doubler son re-
venu en vendant de la viande de
chasse aux petits restaurants tra-
ditionnels de la capitale r6gio-
nale, Sunyani.

Ce ne sont pas 1^ des exeples
isol6s. La chasse et la collecte
d'animaux sauvages comestibles
fournissent directement ou indi-
rectement d'importants revenus
k un grand nombre de ruraux un
peupartout en Afrique (Asibey,
1978a). Dans bien des cas, la
chasse apporte k I'^conomie de
subsistance im complement es-
sentiel.

L'argent que rapporte la
chasse sert souvent k acheter des
prot6ines moins couteuses (le

73

plus souvent du pcisson mal
coiisorv6), la difference 6tant
utilis6e pour financer d'autres
d6peiises (Asibey, 1974b,
1978a,b). D'une certaine fa^on,
cette tendance compromet la s6-
curit6 aUmentaire des ruraux en
r6duisant la qualit6 et la valeur
nutritionnelle de leur r6gime. A
moins que les disponibilitds de
viande de chasse n'augmentent,
la consommation des ruraux
pourrait diminuer k mesure que
la demande croissante des villes
incite k exploiter plus intensive-
ment les ressources cyn6g6ti-
ques. La situation est encore
plus grave quand il est impossi-
ble d'elever des animaux domes-
tiques pour produire les pro-
t6ines n6cessaires, par exemple
dans les zones infest6es par la
mouche ts6-tse. II faut 6tudier
avec soin le cout socio-6conomi-
que d'un tel sc6nario pour les
communaut6s rurales.

Commerce
international

Un peu partout dans le
monde, la viande de chasse est
devenue un important zirticle
d'exportation. Pourtant, en Afri-
que, malgr6 la production consi-
derable, aucun pays ne figure sur
la liste des exportateurs. Cela
tient en partie aux normes rigou-
reuses exig6es par les principaux
importateurs, notamment la R6-
publique F6d6rale d'Allemagne
et la France, mms surtout au

manque de statistiques sur le
commerce de la viande de chasse
k rint6rieur de I'Afrique. Dans
presque aucun pays de la region
(sauf au Ghana), la consomma-
tion et le commerce de viande ne
sont syst6matiquement pris en
compte dans la planification, les
comptes et les programmes de
d6veloppement. Les informa-
tions limit6es qui sont rassem-
bl6es ne sont pas publi6es. C'est
l^ une omission grave qui risque
de nuire k ceux qui tirent de la
faune sauvage des aliments etb
des revenus indispensables k Iqui
survie et de compromettre la
conservation et I'amdnagement
de la faune.

Conservation et amena-
gement de la faune sau-
vage

Dans la plupart des pays d'A-
frique subsaharienne, les efforts
de conservation de la faune ont
6t6 motiv6s par la pr6occupation
que suscitait la rar6faction ou la
quasi-extinction de certains ani-
maux -lions, 616phants, rhinoce-
ros, etc- qui pourraient fournir
un gros apport au revenu natio-
nal. Etant donnecete motivation,
la politique le plus couramment
adoptee a consiste k promulguer
des lois sev^res interdisant toute
exploitation de la faune dans les
zones protegees et limitant ri-
goureusement son utilisation ail-
leurs.

Quand I'existence meme des
animaux et de leur habitat est
menacee, cette approche est sou-
vent la seule possibledans I'im-
mediat pour sauvegarder k long
terme la possibilit6 de conserver
et d'amenager la faune. Mais il
faut etre bien conscient qu'elle
n'est valable que pour une phase
transitoire.

Plusieurs options sont possi-
bles. La plus simple et souvent
la plus efficace consiste k prote-
ger les populations existantes.
Lorsqu'il ne reste plus de popu-
lations viables, on pent reintro-
duire des animaux sauvages dans
certaines zones choisies de leur
ancien habitat. L'experience
prouve que des populations in-
troduites peuvent se multiplier
suffisamment pour que leur ex-
ploitation devienne rentable
(Teer, 1971). Cela ne pose pas
de probiemes techniques, mais
on doit trouver des finance-
ments. II faut confirmer les re-
sultats indiquant que I'operation
est rentable et les commimiquer
k des investisseurs potentiels.

L'experience prouve que les
efforts pour proteger ou recons-
tituer la faune sans tenir compte
des besoins socio-economiques
des populations locales sont
voues k rechec. Les lois de pro-
tection de la faune sont souvent
vioiees en toute impunite. Com-
ment pourrait-il en etre autre-
ment quand c'est une question
de vie ou de mort? Les pauvres
survivent comme ils peuvent; la
tentation de violer laloi est

74

grande car les animaux sauvages
peuvent etre une source de nour-
riture et d'argent. De plus les re-
pr6sentants de la loi sont souvent
tr^s mal pay6s, et done assez en-
clins k fermer les yeux, ou meme
k etre complices des infractions
des riches, par exemple de's
chasseurs de troph6es.

Un programme d'am6nage-
ment de la faune sauvage ne peut
etre efficace k long terme que s'il
est bas6 sur la participation
qctive des populations locales et
s'il leur assure des avantages im-
portzmts et durables sous forme
d'aliments et de revenus (voir
Particle sur la Zambie k la page
52).

Amenagement de la
faune sauvage pour accroi-
tre les ressources alimen-
taires

La domestication de beau-
coup d'especes d'animaux sau-
vages est th^oriquement possi-
ble, mais il y a relativement peu
de r6alisations dans ce domaine.
Par exemple au Ghana, il a 6t6
prouv6 qu'on peut 61ever des au-
lacodes en cages dans les mai-
sons pour produire de la viande
de bonne quality (Asibey,
1974b,c).

Mais, meme sans domestica-
tion; certaines experiences indi-
quent qu'il est possible d'am6na-
ger efficacement les populations
d'animaux sauvages poiu- la pro-
duction d'aliments, soit isol6-

ment, soit en les intdgrant dans
les systdmes agricoles (dlevage,
foresterie, cultures).

Production commer-
ciale de gibier

Dans certains pays, en plus
des animaux 61ev6s en captivit6
pour I'autoconsommation, il y a
eu des tentatives d'elevage inten-
sif ou extensif d'animaux sau-
vages pour la production de
viande et de produits secon-
daires. Le gibier n'est pas un
produit nouveau k lancer a coup
de publicit6. Dans aucun pays
oil des evaluations ont 6t6 faites,
la population d'animaux sau-
vages n'est suffisante pour r6-
pondre a la demande. Toute in-
novation capable d'accroitre la
productivit6 est done souhaita-
ble.L'61evage en captivit6 et I'ele-
vage extensif sont done des op-
tions trds prometteuses (Jintanu-
gool, 1978).

La cr6ation de ranches ou
d'61evages intensifs a proximit6
des centres de consommation
pr6sente plusieurs avantages: de-
bouches assures, transports r6-
duits au minimum, possibilite
d'accueillir des visiteurs qui sont
une source de revenus suppie-
mentaires.

L'eievage, en captivite ou ex-
tensif, permet non seulement de
reduire les pressions qui s'exer-
cent sur les populations sau-
vages, mais aussi de rendre
moins aigue la concurrence entre

les consommateurs lu-bains et les
consommateurs ruraux. L'obser-
vation de la faune et la chasse
sportive dans les eievages exten-
sifs d'animaux sauvages peuvent
etre des sources suppiementaires
d'emplois et de revenus pour les
populations et de recettes pour
I'Etat.

Integration de la faune
sauvage et de Televage

Les animaux sauvages, tout
comme les animaux domesti-
ques, transforment des vegetaux
en viande. or, jusqu'^ tout r6-
cemment, on a deiiberement ex-
termine des animaux indigenes
pour Uberer les parcours k I'u-
sage exclusif des troupeaux do-
mestiques, en partie par igno-
rance et en partie parce que Ton
craignait que la faune reduise la
productivite du cheptel en lui fai-
sant concurrence et ne lui trans-
mette des maladies.

Or, il a ete prouve que le po-
tentiel de production de viande
des animaux sauvages soutient
souvent favorablement la compa-
raison avec celui des animaux
domestiques (Asibey, 1966; Blax-
ter, 1975; King et Heath, 1975;
Hoogesteijn Reul, 1975; Thres-
her, 1980).

En outre, I'eiimination des
animaux sauvages ne permet pas
necessairement de maximiser I'u-
tilisationde la vegetation des par-
cours. Les animaux domestiques
ne consomment que certaines

75

plantes. La coexistence de di-
vers types d'animaux compati-
bles, qui ne sont pas en concur-
rence pour la nourriture, peut
done etre avantageuse (Asibey et
Asare, 1978). Elle peut prendre
la forme d'un assortiment appro-
pri6 d'espdces domestiques et
d'esp^ces sauvages. Ainsi, en
Afrique du Sud, des bovins sont
61ev6s avec des koudous, des im-
palas et des bubales, ce qui per-
met d'accroitre le rendement
global du parcours (Hoogesteijn
Reul, 1979). Au Zimbabwe aus-
si, il y a une int6gration syst6ma-
tique de la faune sauvage et de
l'61evage (Woodford, 1983; Wo-
rou, 1983). Cette formule est
d'autant plus rentable qu'elle
permet de maximiser I'utilisation
de la v6g6tation et de se passer
de desherbage manuel ou chimi-
que, puisque les animaux sau-
vages mangent les plantes delais-
s6es par le cheptel domestique.

Etant donn6 ce potentiel, il
importe de travailler a mettre au
point des systdmes et des techni-
ques propres k ameliorer I'intd-
gration et k accroitre la produc-
tion de viande. II faut reunir des
information sur I'integration des
animaux sauvages et du betail
domestique et evaluer sa rentabi-
lit6 socio-6conomique afm d'o-
rienter le d6veloppement futur et
de permettre une utilisation plus
rationnelle des parcours. Ce fai-
sant, on tiendra compte aussi du
surcroit de revenu que peuvent
rapporter les animaux sauvages

par le biais de la chasse sportive
et du tourisme.

Les animaux sauvages
et la foresterie

Les animaux sauvages sont
parmi les produits de la foret qui
contribuent le plus au bien-etre
des populations locales. Or, les
forestiers les consid6raient au-
trefois comme des produits "se-
condaires" ou meme comme des
nuisances. Combien de plans
d'amenagement forestier pr6-
voient I'application syst6matique
de techniques propres k accroi-
tre durablement la production de
viande d'animaux sauvages? Et
pourtant, cela pourrait etre un
puissant auxiliaire des efforts de
deyeloppement forestier, qu'ils
aient pour objectif la production
commerciale ou la conservation
des ressources.

L'exploitation selective du
bois stimule la croissance de la
vegetation, favorisant ainsi I'aug-
mentation de la population de
beaucoup d'animaux. Ainsi,
dans une 6tude recente, Prins et
Reitsma (1989) ont constat6 que,
dans le Sud-Ouest du Gabon, le
buffle (Syncerus caffer nanus
Sparrman), absent dans la foret
primaire, est pr6sent dans la fo-
ret secondaire. L'etude n'a pas
donn6 de r6sultats probants pour
les petits animaux, mais il est
probable que revolution est
comparable. Pourquoi ne pas

autoriser ou meme encourager
les habitants k chasser les petits
animaux dans les forets de pro-
duction? Cela ameliorerait leur
securit6 alimentaire et leur don-
nerait en meme temps de bonnes
raisons de penser qu'il est avan-
tageux pour eux de conserver la
foret plutot que de convertir les
terres k d'autres utilisations.

Dans le meme esprit, dans les
zones de protection, on pourrait
autoriser les habitants a chasser
en dchange de leur aide pour le
reboisement. On aurait ainsi une
main-d'oeuvre locale motivee,
dont I'absence entrave serieuse-
ment beaucoup de projets fores-
tiers.

D'un autre cot6, les planta-
tions monosp6cifiques, surtout
d'essences exotiques, ont en g6-
n6ral pour effet de r€duire la
quantity et la variety des popula-
tions d'animaux sauvages. L'al-
t^ration du convert naturel peut
cr6er un environnement peu pro-
pice aux animaux. D'ou in nou-
veau danger: le sous-6tage n'est
plus brout6, ce qui accroit les ris-
ques d'incendie.

On pourrait laisser dans les
plantations ou en bordure, des
arbres d'essences indigenes pro-
duisant du fourrage. La formule
permettant d'optimiser les avan-
tages socio-6cononiiques reste k
determiner.

II est aussi possible de perfec-
tionner les techniques de mani-
pulation de I'habitat pour accroi-
tre la production d'smimaux sau-
vages dans la savane. Par exem-

76

pie, la plantation d'essences indi-
genes ayant lAie valeur nutrition-
nelle permettrait d'augmenter le
potentiel de production de
viande de chasse \k oh d'autres
interventions ne seraient pas op-
portunes.

Les animaux sauvages
et les systemes de produc-
tion vegetale

On consid^re en g6n6ral qu'il
y a concurrence entre les cul-
tures et la faune sauvage; c'est
pourquoi beaucoup d'efforts ont
6te faits pour exterminer cette
dernidre. Ainsi, en Afrique aus-
trale, les services de la faune ont
bien souvent 6t6 cre6s h. Torigine
pour detriure les animaux sau-
vages, considerds comme des
nuisances pour les plantations du
secteur public.

II est vrai que les animaux
sauvages peuvent ravager les cul-
tures. Certaines antilopes brou-
tent les jeunes arbres et s'atta-
quent aux plantes cultivdes. Les
oiseaux, en particulier le qu616a,
sont notoirement une grave me-
nace pour les c6r6ales et font
beaucoup baisser les rende-
ments. Les pertes provoqu6es
par les rongeurs, tant dans les
champs qu'apr6s la recolte, se
chlffrent par millions de dollars.

Mais le syst6me des planta-
tions cr6e par ailleurs un envi-
ronnement particulidrement fa-
vorable k I'exploitation et k I'uti-
lisation des animaux sauvages

pour I'alimentation. Malheureu-
sement, la crainte des d6gats
qu'ils peuvent causer fait trop
souvent oublier la possibilit6 d'u-
tiliser ces "ravageurs" k des fins
nutritionnelles. DAns bien des
cas, on pourrait a la fois limiter
les d6gats et cr6er une source de
revenus et d'aliments d*appoint
en mettant au point des techni-
ques viables d'exploitation de la
faune.

Pciradoxalement, il existe d6-
j^, dans bien des endroits, des te-
chniques traditionnelles efficaces
qui ne sont pas appliquees parce
qu'on ne tire aucun paiti de la
connaissance du milieu local
qu'ont les habitants, considdres
simplement comme de la main-
d'oeuvre pour les plantations.
Par exemple en Afrique occiden-
tale, diverses m6thodes tradition-
nelles permettent de pi6ger au
voisinage des cultures et d'utili-
ser les rongeurs qui seraient des
ravageurs, notamment I'aulacode
(Thryonmys swinderianus Tem-
minck) au Ghana, au B6nin et en
Cote d'lvoire, et le rat de Gam-
ble {Cricetomys gambianus) au
Nigeria. C'est un moyen a la fois
de se procurer de la nourriture
et d'6viter que ces animaux ne
prolif6rent. Si on mobilise les
populations locales pour I'effort
de plantation, ces mdthodes
pourraient etre appliqu6es sur
une grande echelle avec un bon
rapport cout-efficacite. D'ail-
leurs, dans beaucoup de planta-
tions de cacaoyers et de palmiers
a huile, les ouvriers attrapent.

pendant leur temps libre, des
animaux consid6r6s conmie des
ravageurs pour les manger.

Dans le Nord du Ghana, les
rizi^res irrigudes dtaient d6vast6s
par les oiseaux granivores. On a
appris aux paysans k utiliser des
filets de nylon presque invisibles
pour les capturer, ce qui a per-
mis de rdduire beaucoup les d6-
gats et d'assurer un approvision-
nement rdgulier en viande de
bonne qualitd dans une zone oil
les protdines manquaient (Ntia-
moa-Baidu, 1986).

Une autre fagon d'intdgrer
les animaux sauvages et les cul-
tures consiste k laisser ou k cr6er
a cdt6 des plantations des zones
de v6g6tation naturelle h6t6ro-
gene ou la faune sauvage puisse
survivre. Dans beaucoup de
pays, les haies et les rideaux-
abris constituent des habitats
propices dans des zones ou il n'y
aurait autrement pas d'animaux
sauvages. Meme si cette formule
n'a pas 6t6 con^ue sp6cifique-
ment pour la production de
viande, son application syst6ma-
tique pourrait etre int6ressante
dans beaucoup de pays d' Afri-
que subsaharienne ou les cul-
tures occupent de vastes zones.

On n'a pas essay6 en Afrique
subsaharienne d'int^grer syst6-
matiquement et de fagon massive
les animaux sauvages dans les
systemes agricoles. II faut espe-
rer qu'^ long terme I'int^gration
des arbres dans les systdmes
agricoles (agroforesterie), qui est
considerde comme une option

77

valable depuis quelques temps,
sera suivie de rint6gration des
animaux sauvages capables de ti-
rer parti du couvert forestier.

Legislation sur la faune

les lois ont beaucoup limit6
Tutilisation des animaux sau-
vages pour I'alimentation dans
les 6conomies de subsistance,
parce qu'elles visent k protdger
les especes menacees et k
controler la chasse au troph6e.
Dans beaucoup de pays tropi-
caux, elles sont congues dans
I'optique de la chasse sportive de
type europeen, d'ou la generali-
sation de concepts, tels que ceux
de gibier, de saisons de chasse,
de troph6es, de reserves ou d'a-
nimaux prot6g6s, transferes en
Afrique sans que Ton se soit ap-
paremment demand6 s'ils 6taient
biologiquement valables en mi-
lieu tropical. Un grave defaut de
ce type de lois est qu'elles igno-
rent les techniques tradition-
nelles d'utilisation, assimilees au
braconnage. La possession, I'uti-
lisation et la commercialisation
de la viande et des autres pro-
duits des animaux sauvages sont
illegales. A cause de conflits
avec I'elevage et les cultures, ces
animaux sont consider6s comme
des nuisances.

Ainsi, dans beaucoup de pays
en developpement, les mesures
legislatives sont axees unique-
ment sur les especes menacees
ou les especes produisant des
trophees, ce qui a nui a I'amena-

gement des autres animaux. Le
principe que la faune appartient
k I'Etat, I'obligation d'obtenir
des permis de chasse d61ivr6s
centralement et les restrictions
frappant la vente des produits
empechent les propri6taires
d'envisager I'amdnagement de la
faune comme une option renta-
ble d'utilisation des terres. Tout
cela n'encourage gudre la
conservation.

CONCLUSION

Jusqu'^ present, il n'y a gudre
eu d'efforts serieux pour plani-
fier la mise en valeur du poten-
tiel que represente la faune sau-
vage au profit de I'economie ru-
rale. Dans la majeure partie de
4'Afrique subsaharienne, on s'oc-
cupe beaucoup depuis plus de 20
ans de I'interet touristique de la
faune. Mais son role comme
source d'aliments est g6nerale-
ment ignore ou consid6r6
comme n6gligeable.

L'amenagement de la faune
pour la production de viande est
reste essentiellement un exercice
thdorique, sauf au Zimbabwe oil
les particuliers et les communau-
t6s possedant des terres s'effor-
cent maintenant de valoriser les
populations d'animaux sauvages
pour en tirer de I'argent et des
aliments.

Mais dans beaucoup de pays,
on ne dispose pas des informa-
tions de base necessaires pour
reglementer de fagon viable I'uti-

lisation de la faune pour Pali-
mentation. Une 6tude d6taill6e
des ressources en faune est indis-
pensable. II faut recenser les po-
pulations, determiner la place
que les animaux et les revenus
qu'ils produisent occupent dans
I'dconomie de subsistance et
mettre au point des formules d'a-
m6nagement.

Dans la plupart des cas, le
progr6s est freind par le manque
de personnel qualifie et de res-
sources. Jusqu'a present, tout
I'effort de conservation et d'ame-
nagement de la faune reposait
sur la bonne volonte de quelques
passionn6s, les m6canismes offi-
ciels 6tant purement formels.
Faute d'appui national et inter-
national, ces efforts locaux et in-
dividuels n'ont pas debouche sur
des programmes de grande
6chelle. II est vrai que, dans la
plupart des pays d' Afrique, des
fmancements accrus seraient ne-
cessaires pour mobiliser les res-
sources humaines et materielles
et les technologies indispensa-
bles pour mettre fin a la surex-
ploitation et 6tablir un systdme
d'utilisation viable; mais dans
bien des cas, on pourrait obtenir
des resultats notables avec des
ressources relativement mo-
destes, a condition qu'elles
soient utilis6es de fagon efficace.
Ce qui manque le plus, c'est la
volont6 de tous d'assurer une uti-
Usation viable de la faune pour le
developpement rural.

Dans les pays d6veloppes, on
continue a amenager et a utiliser

78

les animaux sauvages en tant que
ressource alimentaire et pas seu-
lement pour le sport et les loisirs.
II faudrait encourager vivement
une approche polyvalente de ce
genre en Afrique subsaharienne.

Le moment est venu de re-
garder d'un oeil nouveau le role
que pourraient jouer les animaux
sauvages dans la securite alimen-
taire et en particulier les possibi-
lit6s d'integrer leur utilisation
dans les projets de developpe-
ment en cours. II y aurait 6gale-
ment lieu d'etablir des liaisons
entre les activit6s d'amenage-
ment de la faune et les projets de
nutrition dans les pays en deve-
loppement.

Les rdserves forestieres et les
zones boisees devront jouer un
role cl6 pour permettre de
conserver et d'utiliser de fagon
viable les populations d'animaux
sauvages. Mais pour qu'elles
puissent jouer ce role, il faudra
reexaminer les plans d'amenage-
ment afln qu'ils prennent en
compte toutes les ressources fo-
restieres, y compris la faune, et
les avantages qu'elles peuvent
apporter sur le plan local ainsi
qu'a r^chelle nationale.

*E.O.A. Asibey, ancien admi-
nistrateur en chef de la Commis-
sion des forets du Ghana, est ac-
tuellement consultant en ecolo-
gie a la Banque Mondiale (Was-
hington).

*G.S. Child est fonctionnaire
principal (am6nagement de la
faune et des zones proteg6es) au
Departement des forets de la
FAO, Rome.

Article repris de Unasylva
Vol. 41, n°161,pp3-10

79

CONSERVATION

New Parks for Kenya

During 1989, Kenya continued to improve
its networks of protected areas by designa-
ting two new national parks. Kora National
Park, previously a nature reserve, is a semi-
arid area of Acacia/Commiphora Bushland,
on the south bank of the Tana river in Central
Kenya. The Malka Mari National Park is in the
Mandera District, in the far north-eastern cor-
ner of the country.

convention confie la gestion du pare k la Fon-
dation pour une dur^e de 25 ans. Ce pare est
situ6 au centre du Togo et s'6tend sur 200
000 ha.

An ageement was signed in May 1990 be-
tween the Weber Foundation and the Togo-
lese Ministry of Environment and Tourism, un-
der which the management of the Park will be
entrusted to the Foundation for a period of 25
years. The Park is situated in the central part
of Togo and covers an area of 200 000 ha.

Nouveaux Pares au Kenya

En 1989, le Kenya a encore amelior6 son
reseau d'aires protegees en d^signant 2 nou-
veaux pares nationaux. Le Pare National de
Kora, auparavant reserve naturelie, est une
zone sem\-ar\6ek Acacia/Commiphora, situee
sur la rive Sud de la riviere Tana au centre du
Kenya. Le Pare National de Molka Mari est
dans le District Mandera ei I'extreme pointe
Nord-Est du pays.

(source : Parks vol 1, n°1, 1990)
*******************************

La fondation Franz Weber au Pare
National Malfakossa-Fazao (Togo)

Une convention a et6 sign6e en mai 90 en-
tre la Fondation Weber et le ministere togolais
de I'environnement et du Tourisme; cette

(source: Ministere Togolais de I'environne-
ment et du Tourisme)

*******************************

Bringing back the QUAGGA

{Hippotiaris quaqqa quaaaa)

South African scientists are engaged In a
project to rebreed the extinct quagga within 3
generations or 10 years. The last quagga
died in Amsterdam Zoo on August 12, 1883.
Scientists hope to recreate the quagga by in-
terbreeding selected plain zebras, without stri-
ping on their hind legs. Such specimens are
occasionally seen in the Etosha Pan in Nami-
bia and in Zululand (Natal). According to tis-
sue shavings examination from preserved
quagga in Cape Town Museum, there is evi-
dence that quagga was a subspecies of the
plain zebra. This means that the main gene
pool is still available for recreation of the

80

quagga without the intrcxjuction of any extra
specific genes. 8 zebras with greatly reduced
striping were selected from about 2500 and

are now in a breeding station. To speed up
the process, artificial insemination could be
used, if necessary.

Recr6er le couaaaa {Hippotiaris

posterieurs ont disparu. De tels specimens
sont parfois apergus k Etosha Pan ou dans le
Zululand (Natal). D'apr^s des examens de
prelevements de tissus provenant de z^bres
conserves au Musee du Cap, il est clair que le
couagga ^tait une sous-espdce du z§bre de
plaine. Cela signifie que le stock principal de
g^nes est encore disponible pour reorder le
couagga sans apport du moindre g^ne extra
specifique. 8 zebres dont les rayures etaient
fortement reduites ont 6t6 selectionnes parmi
2500. lis sont maintenant dans une station
d'elevage. Pour accelerer le processus, I'in-
semination artificielle pourrait etre utilis^e, si
cela s'av6re necessaire.

(source: lUCN Veterinary group newsletter
n°5, 1990)

*******************************

Des scientifiques sud africains ont entam6
un projet pour recreer le couagga disparu, d'i-
ci 3 generations ou 10 ans. Le dernier couag-
ga mourut au zoo d'Amsterdam le 12 aoOt

1 883. Les scientifiques esp^rent recreer cette
espdce en croisant entre eux des z6bres se-
lectionnes, dont les rayures des membres

La fondation Cote d'Or aide le
Pare National de Ruaha (Tanzanie)

La societe chocolatiere Cote d'Or (Belgl-
que) a cree debut 1990 une fondation pour la
protection de reiephant qui consacrera an-
nuellement et pendant 3 ans un montant de
10 millions de francs ($300,000) k la protec-
tion des elephants dans le Pare de Ruaha
(Tanzanie) ou leur nombre est pass6 de
44000 en 1977 k moins de 15000 dix ans plus
tard. De son cote.le gouvernement tanzanien
s'est engage k renforcer les effectifs de
gardes du pare de 50 %.

Cote d'Or, the chocolate manufacturing
company In Belgium, set up a foundation ear-
ly 1990 for elephant protection. It will vote an-
nually 10 million francs ($300,000) for. three

81

years, toward elephant protection at the Rua-
ha National Park in Tanzania, where their
number has reduced from 44,000 in 1977 to
less than 15,000 10 years later. On its part,
the Tanzanian government has pledged to in-
crease the number of wardens by 50 %.

(source: WWF-Belgium Panda Press
n- 34, 1990)

<^

POUR LA PROTECTION
DE L ELEPHANT

f.

*******************************

Upcoming Events Reunions a venir

* Breeding and Conservation of
Endangered Species

Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust
Summer School
27th July to 1 7th August 1991 7
The fee per person is £700 (including
accomodation and meals)
J.W.P.T., Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BF,
Channel Islands, UK

* International Symposium on
human influences on Endangered
Wildlife Species in Africa

2-5 December 1991 Kampala
info: Dr Edroma Uganda Institute
of Zoology
P.O. BOX 3530 KAMPALA Uganda

*******************************

********************************

* Symposium sur la sant6 et la
gestion des mammiferes en liberte

Symposium on health and
management of free-ranging
mammals

15-17 Octobre 1 991 Nancy, France
info: BP 9 F-54220 MALZEVILLE France

*10th World Forestry Congress
lOemc? Congr^s Forestier Mondiale

Paris 17-26 Sept. 1991

Info: CTFT 45b, avenue de la

Belle-Gabrielle

F- 94736 Nogent-sur-Marne CEDEX

France

82

This congress is followed by optional stu-
dy tours

Netlierlands: forestry in a country with a
high population density (6 days)

Niger: the tree in the fight against desertifi-
cation (9 days)

Cote d'lvoire: Deforestation and Reforesta-
tion (7 days)

Gabon: Conservation and development of
the equatorial forest (9 days)

Ce congrds est suivi de voyages d'^tudes
en option

Pays-Bas: foresterie dans un pays ci forte
densite humaine (6 jours)

Niger: I'arbre dans la lutte centre la deser-
tification

Cote d'lvoire: Deforestation et reboise-
ment (7 jours)

Gabon: Conservation et mise en valeur de
la foret 6quatoriale (9 jours)

BOOKS - LIVRES

"WWF Atlas of the Environment"

by Geoffrey Lean, Don Hinrichsen and
Adam Markham, arrow Books Ltd. London.
192 pp. £10.99

Unlike a conventional atlas, almost all the
maps in this book are of the entire globe. This
book is divided into 42 sections. All the major
issues are there: the ozone hole, population
growth, destruction of mangroves, damaged
watersheds... with maps, diagrams and charts.

(culled from WWF News)

*******************************

"Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems"

Biogeographical and Ecological Studies
by H. Leith and M.J.A. Werger. 714 pp.
US$ 243

This volume presents a comprehensive re-
view of the rain forest ecosystem structure
and the ecological processes operating that
system. General chapters on abiotic and bio-
tic factors are followed by specific chapters on
all major groups of organisms. The human
exploitation of the system, its effects and its li-
mits are discussed. The book is extensively il-
lustrated by pictures, graphs and tables.

"Elsevier's Dictionary of the
World's Game and Wildlife"

(in English, Latin, French, German, Dutch

and Spanish with equivalents in Afrikaans and
Kiswahili)

by G.R. Ferlin 426 pp. US$ 153
This multilingual dictionary, the first of its
kind, provides information on animal species
and terminology concerning hunting and wil-
dlife management. The first part includes list
of animal species and subspecies which can
be considered "game" in a wide sense (1 800
entries) including sea mammals and sea
birds. The second part of the dictionary pre-
sents equivalent game and hunting terms in
five languages.

Ce dictionnaire "polyglotte" (Frangais, An-
glais, Allemand, Latin, Neerlandais et Espa-
gnol avec equivalents en Swahili et Afrikaans)
est le premier du genre. II est divis6 en deux
parties : la premiere comprend une liste (1 800
entries) d'esp^ces et de sous-esp6ces anl-
males pouvant etre considerees comme gl-
bier au sens large, y compris les mammifdres
marins et les oiseaux de mer; la seconde
partie pr6sente les termes de chasse et de gl-
bier en 5 langues.

Cover / couverture: c6phalophe de Jentink ( Cephalophus jentinki ) Jentink's duiker

(photo Vivian J. Wilson)
Back cover / couverture arridre: serval ( Felis serval ) (photo J.J. Leroy)