lature et Faune

REVUE INTERNATIONALE POUR LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE EN AFRIQUE Gastion de la Faune, Am^nagement d'aires prot^g^es, Conservation des ressources naturelles.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NATURE CONSERVATION IN AFRICA Wildlife and Protected Areas Management and Natural Resources Conservation.

Volume 7, n'1 , Janvier - Mars 1991 . January - March 1 991 ,

Organisation des Nations Unies /A

pour rAlimentation et I'Agriculture (/ ^TS^ ^ Food and Agriculture Organization ^ "^ ^"

of tln' lIiiiftHl Nafinns ^V

/C^<^^ ^^ Programme des Nations Unies pour '^» rEnvironnement

United Nations Environment Programme

i^fJ

FAO Regional Office for Africa

Bureau Regional de la F.A.O. pour FAfrique - Accra (Ghana)

Nature et Faune

Volume 7, n**! Janvier-Mars 1991. January-March 1991,

iO)

La revue Nature et Faune est une publication international e trimestrielle destin6e ci permettre un ^change d'informations et de connassainces scJentifiques concernant la gestion de la faune, I'amenagement des aires protegees et la conserva- tion des ressources natureiles sur le continent africain.

"Nature et Faune" is a quarterly international publication de- dicated to the exchange of information and scientific data on wildlife and protected areas management and conservation of natural resources on the African continent.

Editeur - Editor : J.J. Leroy

Ass. Editeur - Ass. Editor : J. Aikins

Conseillers - Advisers : J.D. Keita - G.S. Child

Nature et Faune depend de vos contributions b6n6voles et volontaires sous la forme d'articles ou d'annonces dans le domaine de la conservation de la nature et de la faune sau- vage dans la Region. Pour la publication d'articles ou tout renseignement complementaire, ecrire k I'adresse suivante:

"Nature et Faune" Is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles and announcements in the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region. For publication of articles or any further Information, please contact:

Revue NATURE ET FAUNE

FA.O. Regional Ofllce for Africa

P.O. BOX 1628

ACCRA (Ghana)

Sommaire - Contents

Editorial 3

JLe sort des rhinoceros d'Afrique: trag6die k I'^chelle d'un continent 4 African solutions to wildlife problems in Africa: insights from a community-based

project In Zambia 10

Notes on the duikers of Sierra Leone 24

HprWildlife management for rural development in sub-Saharan Africa 36

TRADUCTIONS -TRANSLATIONS 48

Conservation, Reunions k venir / Upcoming events , Books / Livres 79

Le contenu des articles de cette revue exprime les opinions de leurs auteurs et ne reflete pas necessairement celles de la FAO, du PNUE ou de la redaction. 11 n'exprime done pas une prise de position officielle, ni de I'Organisation des Nations Unies pour I'Alimentation et I' Agriculture, ni du Programme des Nations Unies pour I'Environne- ment. En particulier les appellations employees dans cette publication et la presentation des donnees qui y figurent n'impliquent de la part de ces Organisations aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique des pays, territoires, villes ou zones ou de leurs autorites, ni quant aux traces de leurs frontiires ou llmites.

The opinions expressed by contributing authors are not necessarily those of FAO, UNEP or the editorial board. Thus, they do not express the official position of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, nor that of the United Nations Environment Programme. The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the position of these organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or corKeming the deli- mitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

Printed by The Advent Press — Accra

EDITORIAL

Chers lecteurs, votre courrier le prouve, la version bilingue est arrivee a point nomme pour renforcer les contacts inter-africains et favoriser les echanges d'idees et de techni- ques entre pays francophones et pays anglo- phones au sein du continent et au-dela.

Apres un an (quatre numeros) de version bilingue, et alors que le nombre de lecteurs n'a cesse d'augmenter, en particulier dans les pays anglophones, notre revue va renouer avec une habitude delaisse le temps de mettre en place la nouvelle version: il s'agit des nou- velles de la conservation et de la revue de li- vres et de reunions Internationales. Ce troi- sieme volet de "Nature et Faune" vient se gref- fer apres les pages vertes des traductions; il presente directement chaque information sui- vie de sa traduction, sauf la revue des livres et des reunions qui sera faite dans les langues d'origine.

Comme dans le passe, "Nature et Faune" traite de sujets aussi varies et complemen- taires que possible : le sort tragique des rhino- ceros a travers le continent, les causes et les remedes appliques; I'exemple zambien de gestion de la faune par les communautes ru- rales elles-memes; un article plus scientifique sur les cephalophes de Sierra Leone et en particulier sur le rarissime cephalophe de Jen- tink, et enfin un document plus general mais non moins captivant sur I'importance de la faune et de son amenagement pour le deve- loppement rural en Afrique subsaharienne.

Dear readers, your letters testify to the fact that the bilingual edition came in at the right time to help strengthen interafrican contacts and improve the exchange of Ideas and te- chniques between English and French-spea- king countries of the continent and beyond.

After one year (four issues) of the bilingual version, and with an ever increasing rea- dership especially from the English-speaking countries, the magazine is introducing topics that were "abandoned" during the preparation of the bilingual edition : conservation news, book review and international meetings. This third section of the magazine will come after the green pages of translations; each item is presented with its translation, except the book review and meetings which are presented in their original language.

As with past issues, the present edition of "Nature et Faune" covers subjects that are as broad and complementary as possible: the tragic fate of rhinoceros in Africa, causes and remedies; the Zambian example of local parti- cipation in wildlife management; a scientific article on the duikers of Sierra Leone, espe- cially the extremely rare Jentink's duiker, and finally, a more general but also captivating article on the importance of wildlife and its management for rural development in sub- Saharan Africa.

Le sort des rhinoceros d'Afrique : tragedie a I'echelle d'un continent

(see translation page 48)

Violent, dangereux, agressif, vicieux : les qualifications ne manquent pas pour designer les rhinoceros. Une telle reputation, qui fut savamment entretenue pendant des dizaines d'annees par les recits des grands chasseurs, est cependant injustifiee. Certes, les rhinoce- ros ont leur caractere : lis sont quelquefois irascibles, et leurs reactions demeurent tou- jours impr6visibles. Mais ils n'ont cependant rien de ces monstres agressifs qui n'existent somme toute que dans I'esprit des hommes, lorsque ceux-ci accablent les animaux afin de mieux justifier leur propre penchant pour la cruaute et la violence...

Les rhinoceros : animaux surprenants, anachroniques, bizarres, sont les derniers descendants d'une lignee ancienne, les seuls survivants d'une famille qui connut ses heures de gloire a une epoque ou Thomme n'existait pas encore. Fossiles vivants, rescapes de la prehistoire, temoins d'une epoque revolue, les rhinoceros ont, intacts, traverse les ages. L'evolution a fait d'eux des machines parfaite- ment adaptees au monde dans lequel ils vi- vent. Mais revolution n'a pu les mettre a I'abri de la convoitise des hommes.

100 000 rhinoceros noirs vivaient encore en Afrique 11 y a quelques dizaines d'annees seulement : il en reste moins de 3 500 aujour-

par Bernard de Wetter*

d'hui, et le braconnage dementiel qui a defer- le sur la majorite du continent est peut-etre en train de leur porter I'estocade finale. Quant au rhinoceros blanc, I'autre espece presente en Afrique, ses effectifs actuels ne represen- ted plus que I'ombre de ce qu'ils etaient au siecle passe.

Bien plus sans doute que le fait meme de leur declin, ce sont les causes profondes de celui-ci qui paraissent inacceptables. Les rhi- noceros n'entrent nullement en conflit avec les activites de I'homme, ne representent au- cune menace pour celle-ci. lis disposent par ailleurs de suffisamment d'espace encore pour pouvoir prosperer dans la plus grande partie de leur aire de repartition. S'ils dispa- raissent, c'est uniquement parce qu'ils sont massacres en grand nombre, et ceci pour des motifs particulierement futiles, puisqu'il s'agit ni plus ni moins que de perpetuer des tradi- tions, des croyances solidement incrustees dans la mentalite de certains peuples.

La cause de tous les malheurs pour les rhi- noceros, ce sont les cornes qu'ils arborent sur le devant de la tete. Celles-ci ne sont pas soudees au squelette de I'animal : elles ne sont en fait rien de plus qu'un agglomerat de keratine, c'est-a-dire une matiere comparable aux ongles de nos doigts ou aux sabots des

chevaux. Elles sont cependant pris^es en tant que medicament aux pouvoirs multiples et presque magiques (mais dont I'inefficacite reelle a aujourd'hui ete demontee scientifique- ment), tandis qu'au Yemen, on les utilise pour fabriquer les crosses des poignards tradition- nels, les "djambiahs", que se doit de porter tout Yemenite male qui se respecte.

Les demeles des rhinoceros avec I'homme ne datent pas d'hier : depuis des milliers d'an- nees, ces animaux ont ete convoites par I'etre humain, qui lui a attribue des vertus surnatu- relles : au Moyen-Age en Europe, ne I'a-t-on pas confondu avec la licorne, cet animal my- thique ? L'interet de I'homme envers les rhi- noceros a laisse des traces tout au long de I'histoire.

Les cornes des rhinoceros etaient large- ment utilisees au debut de I'ere chretienne dans la Chine imperiale : fagonnees par les artisans de renom, elles etaient transformees en objets ornamentaux, reserves aux nantis de la societe. La plupart des cornes travail- lees en Extreme-Orient a I'epoque etaient ce- pendant transformees en coupes sculptees, qui servaient uniquement de pieces de collec- tion. Par la suite, les coupes servirent princi- palement a detecter la presence de poison re- pandu dans un breuvage : la pratique de sou- mettre les boissons a I'epreuve de la corne se repandit en Extreme-Orient, en Europe, et meme dans certaines regions d'Afrique. Mais les cornes de rhinoceros furent de tout temps utilisees principalement dans le domaine de la medecine. Les Europeens leur attribuerent des vertus curatives pendant plusieurs cen- taines d'annees. Cependant, c'est en Asie que I'emploi de la corne de rhinceros dans la medecine traditionelle fut le plus repandu. Panacee universelle, ou presque, la corne etait consideree posseder (et posseder d'ail- leurs toujours) des effets curatifs contre une

panoplie de maux aussi divers que la fidvre et les migraines, les Intoxications alimentaires ou les morsures de serpent I Seules les Guja- ratis de I'lnde orientale cependant attribuerent a la corne de rhinoceros des pouvoirs aphro- disiaques.

Le commerce des cornes de rhinoceros etait deja une entreprise florissante dans une certaine partie de I'Afrique bien avant I'arrivee des Blancs. Deja dans les premiers siecles de I'ere chretienne, les arabes entretenaient des relations avec les ports africains de la Mer Rouge, et les cornes, collectees a I'interieur du continent, etaient exportees vers les ports arabes et indiens, d'ou elles continuaient en- suite vers la Chine. Les echanges commer- ciaux entre I'Afrique et {'Orient se perpetue- rent au cours des siecles, via les cites por- tuaires de la Mer Rouge et de I'Ocean Indien. Les Anglais et les Allemands, qui se partage- rent I'Afrique de I'Est au siecle passe, conti- nuerent le commerce des cornes de rhinoce- ros. On estime que durant la seconde moitie du 19e siecle, une moyenne de onze tonnes de cornes etaient exportees annuellement, ce qui represente la mort d'au moins 170 000 animaux !

La valeur de la corne augmenta reguliere- ment tout au long du 20e siecle. La vente de cornes de rhinoceros et d'ivoire devint un monopole d'Etat en Afrique de I'Est et du Sud apres I'independance : a la fin des annees soixante, la corne se vendait 30£ le kilo. Mais ce chiffre allait deculper quelque dix annees plus tard, et ne cesserait par la suite de grim- per en fleche pour atteindre des sommes as- tronomiques. Plusieurs facteurs furent a I'ori- gine de cette flambee des prix, dont le princi- pal fut I'entree en scene d'un nouvel acheteur dans les annees soixante-dix : le Yemen. Le Yemen du Nord etait demeure pendant des decennies une nation particulierement pauvre

et compldtement coupee du reste du monde; mais au terme d'une guerre civile sauvage qui le devasta pendant plus de huit ans, le pays s'ouvrit k I'aide Internationale. Parallelement, de tres nombreux Y6m6nites partirent travail- ler sur les champs petroliferes d'Arabie Saou- dite au debut des annees soixante-dix. Les sommes considerables de devises rapportees par ces travailleurs propulserent I'ecooomie du pays, et permit k des acheteurs toujours plus nombreux de s'offrir un luxe jusqu'alors reserve a I'elite de la society : un poignard au manche sculpte dans une corne de rhinoce- ros... A la fin des annees soixante-dix, un geo- graphe americain, Esmond Bradley Martin, mit en Evidence le role jou6 par le Y6men du Nord dans la disparition des rhinoceros en Afrlque : ce petit pays de moins de six mil- lions d'Smes absorbait k lui seul non moins

de 50 % du volume total du trafic des cornes de rhinoceros afrlcains I

Personne n'a jamais su et ne saura com- bien de rhinoceros peuplaient TAfrique au moment ou les premiers explorateurs blancs mirent pied sur cette terre jusqu'alors incon- nue. Mais les recits des premiers voyageurs abondent en rencontres avec des rhinoceros, et il n'etait pas rare d'en rencontrer 60 ou 80 exemplaires en une seule journee de marche. Avec le developpement des structures colo- niales debuta I'age d'or des grands chasseurs : d6s la fin du siecle pass6, la faune d'Afrique exergait un attrait irresistible sur les porteurs de fusil de tous horizons. Les rhinoceros, grosses betes placides et peu m6fiantes, han- dicapes par leur vue mediocre, constituaient des cibles de premier choix.

Groupe de jeunes rhinoceros deplac^s pour une meilleure protection vers le centre du Zimbabwe . Imire Game Ranch. Group of young rhinoceros translocated for a better protection to the central area of Zimbabwe. Imire Game Ranch

(Photo J.-J. Leroy)

L'homme blanc se livra k un veritable car- nage, particulierement en Afrique du Sud. Le rhinoceros blanc fut le premier a se ressentir des effets de cette chasse abusive : en 1 890, I'espece avait pour ainsi dire disparu dans le sud du continent. En 1 890, un groupe de six sujets fut cependant apergu au Natal, et pour la premiere fois, des mesures de protection allaient enfin etre prises en faveur de ces ani- maux : la chasse fut interdite, et une reserve ailait bientot etre creee en vue de leur protec- tion. Dans le centre de I'Afrique, le rhinoceros blanc faisait deja I'objet d'une exploitation bien avant I'arrivee des Blancs, mais "leux-ci s'associerent bientot aux marchands arabes a la recherche de rhinoceros, notamment au Tchad.

Plus nombreux et moins facile k localiser que son cousin blanc, le rhinoceros noir par- vint a se maintenir plus longtemps; mais ses effectifs ne cesserent cependant de baisser pendant toute la premiere moitie du vingtieme siecle, et deja dans les annees quarante, I'es- pece etait devenue tres rare dans certains pays, tels le Tchad, I'Ethiopie et la Somalie. Ailleurs par contre, I'entre deux guerres mar- qua une periode de repit pour les rhinoceros, et ce fut bien plus la mise en culture de nou- velles terres que la chasse qui diminua leurs effectifs.

Au debut des annees cinquante, si les rhi- noceros avaient done disparu dans une partie de leur aire de repartition, leur avenir en tant qu'especes n'etait cependant nullement me- nace. En Afrique du Sud, le rhinoceros blanc connaissait au contraire un renouveau spec- taculaire. Mais la fin des annees de repit ne devait plus tarder... Deja dans les annees cin- quante, on assista a une recrudescence du braconnage dirige contre les rhinoceros, une tendance qui ne fit que s'accentuer par la suite un peu partout en Afrique. Au debut des

annees soixante-dix, les armes traditionnelles furent de plus remplac6es par un equipement moderne et redoutable : carabines de chasse et fusils automatiques. Une veritable vague de braconnage se mit k deferler sur TAfrique, eliminant sur son passage les rhinoceros d'un pays apres I'autre. Ceux-cl avaient pour ainsi dire disparu d'Ethiopie, de Somalie, du Tchad, du Soudan, d'Angola, du Mozambique et d'Ouganda k la fin des annees soixante- dix.

L' Afrique de I'Est fut frapp6e de plein fouet egalement : le Kenya, qui comptait encore 20 000 rhinoceros noirs en 1970, n'en abritait plus que 500 quinze annees plus tard. La le- pre du braconnage gagna ensuite la Tanzanie et la Zambie voisines, et les rhinoceros y fu- rent d^cimes en quelques annees. La Repu- blique Centrafricaine fut longtemps conside- ree comme un bastion sur pour les rhinoce- ros. Mais en 1983, des membres du gouver- nement Bokassa prirent soudain conscience du potentiel fabuleux que representaient les comes des quelque 3000 rhinoceros que comptait le pays : le massacre fut mene avec une efficacitd inouTe, et 99 % des rhinoceros de Centrafrique furent aneantis en quelques moisseulement...

Un seul pays abritait encore plusieurs mil- liers de rhinoceros en 1984 : le Zimbabwe, I'ancienne Rhodesie du Sud de I'ere coloniale britannique. Mais cette annee, les tueurs de rhinoceros tournerent leurs regards vers cet uitime bastion : les premieres incursions de braconniers furent enregistrees en decembre 1984, et le pays dut rapidement faire face a une veritable invasion de braconniers bien or- ganises, puissamment armes et particuliere- ment agressifs, operant de la Zambie voisine.

La ou la situation politique le permettait, des efforts toujours plus intenses furent me- nes en vue d'assurer la protection des rhino-

c^ros. Mais la lutte antibraconnage et le ren- forcement des moyens de surveillance ne pu- rent cependant empecher les tueurs de per- p6trer leurs m6faits, m§me dans les sites les plus frequentes.

Le Kenya se vit bientot contraint de ras- sembler la majority de ses quelque 500 rhino- ceros rescap6s dans des sanctuaires sp6- ciaux cr66s k leur intention. D^s 1985 fut ap- plique un plan national de sauvetage des rhi- noceros, et des travaux d'amenagement fu- rent entrepris en vue de doter cinq pares na- tionaux de sanctuaires. Veritables forte- resses, ces sanctuaires sont entour^s d'une cloture haute de trois metres, eiectrifiee k 5000 Volts, et munie de systemes d'alarme eiectroniques. lis sont surveilies en perma- nence par des gardes qui parcourent jour et nuit le perimetre de la cloture, le long de la- quelle sont Instalies des postes de patrouille k des intervalles de quelques kilometres. Cinq pares nationaux ont ete designes pour heber- ger un tel sanctuaire, dont la superficie varie de 2 500 k 22 000 hectares : Nakuru, Nairobi, Meru, Tsavo et Aberdares; quatre ranches prives, qui detiennent plus d'un tiers des rhi- noceros du Kenya k I'heure actuelle, ont ega- lement ete Indus dans la strategie nationale de sauvetage de ces animaux...

Plus de 1000 rhinoceros blancs peuplaient le Pare national de la Garamba au Zaire a I'heure de I'independance; mais 11 n'en restait plus que 14 en tout et pour tout lorsque fut lance un ambitieux programme de sauvetage de ces animaux en 1984. Finance par rUICN, la Societe zoologique de Francfort et I'UNES- CO, le projet de rehabilitation du Pare natio- nal de la Garamba mene depuis 1984 une sur- veillance attentive autour des rhinoceros blancs, dont le nombre est remonte depuis a 22 unites : les ultimes survivants d'une popu- lation jadis florissante qui comptait plusieurs

dizaines de milliers d'animaux, repartis sur un vaste territoire couvrant le Tchad, la Republi- que Centrafricaine, le Soudan, le nord du Zaire et de I'Ouganda.

Des les premieres attaques des bracon- niers dans la Valiee du Zambeze, au Zim- babwe, le gouvernement s'engagea dans une lutte de grande envergure pour sauver ses rhinoceros. Mais en depit des efforts absolu- ment remarquables consentis par ce pays, les rhinoceros noirs de la Valiee du Zambeze fu- rent decimes par centaines. En 1985, le De- partement des pares nationaux entreprit done de capturer un maximum de rhinoceros dans la Valiee du Zambeze, afin de les relacher dans d'autres sites situes loin des frontieres, ou lis demeurent a I'abri des tueurs. Plusieurs centaines de rhinoceros ont d'ores et dej^ fait I'objet de telles mesures, tandis que se pour- suivait dans la Valiee du Zambeze la guerre du rhinoceros, une guerre qui sacrifie chaque annee chez les gardes des dizaines de vies humaines...

Les efforts entrepris au Kenya, au Zaire et au Zimbabwe constituent probablement la derniere chance de survie des rhinoceros en Afrique. Tant que durera le projet de rehabili- tation du Pare national de la Garamba, 11 est permis d'esperer que les derniers rhinoceros blancs d'Afrique Centrale survivront, et pour- ront se multiplier lentement. Si les forteresses du Kenya parviennent k remplir leur role, elles permettront k un important noyau de repro- duction du rhinoceros noir de se maintenir durant le temps necessaire. Aussi longtemps que la lutte anti-braconnage sera menee avec autant de vigueur dans la Valiee du Zambeze, les braconniers ne pourront s'attaquer aux populations de rhinoceros du sud de I'Afri- que, ou les deux especes jouissent aujour- d'hui encore d'une protection exemplaire. Quelques petites populations de ces pachy-

dermes survivent au Botswana, en Namibie, au Malawi et au Swaziland. L'Afrique du Sud est desormais le dernier pays d'Afrique ou les rhinoceros des deux especes sont en aug- mentation constante.

Les rhinoceros ont souffert de toutes les m^prises. lis ont occup6, ils occupent encore une place ambigue dans I'esprit et la culture de peuples aussi diff^rents les uns des autres que les Chinois, les Arabes, les Indiens ou les Zoulous.

Depuis des miII6naires, les rhinoceros ont exerce une fascination melee de superstition et de crainte sur I'homme. L'homme, qui tout en leur conf6rant des qualitds surnaturelles, a de tout temps cherche a les eliminer. Comme si I'existence des rhinoceros lui paraissait in- supportable, parce que ces creatures etranges ont, peut-etre, le pouvoir de ramener I'espece humaine k sa juste dimension, a sa juste place. Les rhinoceros sont 1^ pour nous rappeler que la vie sur Terre n'a pas commen- ce avec I'apparition de l'homme...

S'ils venaient k disparaitre, le monde n'en cesserait sans doute pas de tourner. Mais la nature d'Afrique, aves ses men/eilles de cou- leurs et de formes, serait-elle encore la meme sans les rhinoceros ? Quel espoir aurait-on encore de sauvegarder des communautes naturelles intactes et tous les etres qui les composent, mammiferes, oiseaux, poissons, insectes et autres invertebres, des plus visi- bles aux plus discrets, des plus imposants

aux plus anodins, des plus populaires aux moins aimes, des plus ceidbres aux plus ridi- cules, et sur lesquels, sans aucune exception, reposent pourtant les fondements memes de la vie sur notre planete ?

Dans quelques rares sanctuaires, les der- niers rhinoceros d'Afrique vivent encore leur vie paisible, insouciante, au rythme des jours et des nuits, des saisons et des annees, comme ils I'ont fait depuis toujours et pour- raient le faire encore jusqu'^ la fin des temps. A condition que l'homme leur en laisse la chance-

Article extrait des cahiers d'Ethologie ap- pliquee. 1989, 9(1): 97-102

* Adresse de I'auteur : rue Leys 35 B-1040 BRUXELLES BELGIQUE

10

African solutions to wildlife problems in Africa: insights from a community-based

project in Zambia

(voir traduction page 52)

by D.M. Lewis, A. Mwenya and G.B. Kaweclie*

Today, rural coexistence with wildlife is precarious and heavily aid dependent. The magnitude of the challenge to make it once more self-sustainable in the longer term clearly requires more than a law enforcement response. As In former traditional times, rural community cooperation is indispensable.

Historically, African societies had a stable coexistence witii wildlife, a function of tiie in- trinsic value attached to ecological conserva- tion in African culture (Hadley, 1985; l^arl<s, 1976). However, the institution of colonial centralized governments undermined custo- mary laws as well as the authority of traditio- nal African leaders who enforced them (Swift, 1982; Willis, 1985). As the colonial govern- ments were unable to provide an effective al- ternative means of wildlife conservation, the result was a poaching "gold rush" for the riches of rhino horn, elephant ivory and other short-term gains.

Following independence, most African states maintained the colonial structure of centralized game departments and national parl<s systems. In most cases, wildlife mana- gement has been based on the adoption of

punitive measures designed to maintain bar- riers between wildlife resources in protected areas and local residents living in or around such areas.

Zambia has had more than a decade of ef- forts in dealing with wildlife managment, and specifically with a serious poaching problem (Lewis and Kaweche, 1985; Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989; Leder-Williams, 1985). In- tensive law enforcement campaigns were wa- ged in selected parts of the country and fun- ded by large amounts of money. However, despite increased arrests, wildlife losses continued; in some cases they even increa- sed where such programmes operated (Le- wis, 1986). National losses of wildlife re- sources during this period included a near ex- tinction of the blacl< rhino and the reduction of over 50 percent of the elephant population. Similar trends have been documented in the United Republic of tanzania, Uganda, Namibia and Kenya.

Although law enforcement measures conti- nued as an accepted deterrent to poaching, Zambia's National Pari<s and Wildlife Services undertook experimental studies (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989) and a technical worl<shop (Dalai-Clayton and Lewis, 1984)

11

Where the ADMADE programme has been implemented no rhinos have been poached in 3 years L^ ou le programme ADMADE a 6t6 r^lis^, aucun rhino n'a 6t6 braconn^ en 3 ans (photo J J. Leroy)

during this period to help identify the under- lying causes of illegal hunting. As a result, a new national policy of wildlife management, called the Administrative management design (ADMADE) for game managment areas, was formulated to deal with these causes (Mwe- nya, Kaweche and Lewis, 1988).

Based heavily on people's participation. In the areas where it has been implemented, AD- MADE has proved to be highly effective. For instance, In a three-year period, poaching of elephants declined by over 90 percent in one wildlife area in Zambia where local participa- tion was actively promoted (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989). Furthermore, a resident population of black rhino suffered not a single instance of poaching during this period des- pite adequate numbers to attract illegal hun- ters (Lewis, unpublished data). This was achieved at a fraction of the cost assumed ne- cessary to ensure adequate protection of wil-

dlife in Africa on a per km basis by many wil- dlife experts (Parker, 1984; Bell and Clarke, 1984).

This article first focuses on selected quan- tifiable variables that the above-mentioned studies and the results thus far obtained from the ADMADE programme have identified as key determinants in helping to predict poa- ching levels and wildlife management pro- blems for a given area. Various methods or management treatments that can modify the value of these variables, and thus reduce the frequency and severity of poaching, are also discussed. Finally, a set of guiding principles are presented that government planners and wildlife authorities may find useful when considering options for dealing with wildlife management in Africa.

12

VARIABLES AND CAUSAL RELATIONSHIPS

Availability of alternative pro- tein sources

In rural societies where legal protein sources are limited, residents tend to adopt il- legal practices to secure at least a minimal per caput requirement. As such practices go unchecked, subsistence levels are often ex- ceeded. Under these circumstances villagers living outside and along the boundaries of protected areas with easy access to wildlife resources wHI resort to illegal hunting in these areas, despite the greater risks of being ap- prehended.

A comparative study between two neigh- boring villages, both in a tsetse-fly infested area and therefore without domestic animals, suggested the significance of the availability of alternative protein sources in predicting poaching levels among village communities li- ving outside protected areas (Lewis, 1 988; Le- wis, unpublished data). One village was loca- ted along a major river with high availability of fish. The other had no significant alternative meat supply other than the depleted wildlife resources In its area. The village with acess to fish had far fewer traditional hunters and contributed much less to the area's poaching problems than the village with less acess to fish.

Options for dealing with this variable may be limited, depending on the intrinsic features of the area concerned. One possibility is to promote alternative protein sources not dis- ruptive to wildlife (i.e. introduction of fish far- ming, more intensive farming of plant protein

species, etc.). Another is to allot a sustaina- ble quota of animals to resident village hun- ters, and to employ their services to provide meat to the community. This would reduce pressures on the more threatened species and would also permit a more careful monito- ring of the off-takes. This may help to ensure a net positive growth rate In the harvested po- pulations, if such a growth rate Is desirable from a management point of view.

Employment opportunities

The growing need for income opportuni- ties in rural socieities Is becoming acute throughout Africa as the availability and ac- cessibility of natural resources diminish. Gi- ven the external market forces related to wil- dlife, principally meat and trophies (skins, horns, teeth, etc.), when the need for income Is great enough, local residents engage them- selves in paid services, legal or otherwise. Because of limited educational opportunities, local people often do not know the real mar- ket value of wildlife commodities sought by outside commercial interests and therefore exchange or sell them at prices far below their actual value.

While employment opportunities and aval- lability of non-wildlife protein sources may va- ry between areas, it is relatively simple to de- termine what their respective levels are. With such information predictions about poaching levels can be made (see Figure 1).

Wildlife management as Implemented by the governing authority can help to Increase local employment opportunities In a number of ways:

Recruit and train local residents to pro- vide the major share of the required work-

13

force in the management of wildlife. Such a programme was initiated on a trial basis in 1985 by Zambia's National Parl<s and Wildlife Service (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989). Results Included an Increased understanding and appreciation of wildlife resources, their economic values, and the need to prevent non-residents from entering their area to hunt illegally. Locally recruited perconnel em- ployed to protect their chiefdom's wildlife were shown to have a superior knowledge of the land and less absenteeism than civil ser- vant wildlife scouts, whose home areas were usually In a different part of the country. As a result, these locally recruited workers, called village scouts, contributed a significantly greater proportion of total arrests of illegal hunters. Furthermore, because the salary scales for the village scouts were based more

Availability

aiiernativ« protein

Employment opportunities

on expected local income earnings, the costs of maintaining them proved far less expensive than civil sen/ant scouts.

Promote programmes that encourage lo- cal residents to engage in small, non-disrup- tive "cottage Industries" that depend on either consumptive (sustained-yield utilization) or non-consumptive uses of wildlife. Evidence suggests conservationist attitudes toward wil- dlife within a village area grow as the resi- dents' dependency on the sustained-yield use of wildlife increases. As this occurs there is also an increase in appreciation among the local residents for the law enforcement efforts by their own village scouts. Such apprecia- tion may take the form of volunteering infor- mation to village scouts when illegal hunters enter their area, as has been documented in

Zambia (Lewis, 1989).

Encourage vil- lage meetings to solicit views and criticisms from lo- cal residents on the management of their wildlife re- sources. These have proved ins- trumental in mini- mizing misconcep- tions and promo-

FIGURE 1: Poaching levels and characteri- stics as affected by alter- native protein sources and employment oppor- tunities.

14

ting self-imposed responsibilities in the mana- gement and protection of wildlife resources (Lewis, 1988 and unpublished data). This ap- proach is fundamental for establishing ties of joint cooperation between local residents and the technical government department respon- sible for providing legally sustainable benefits from wildlife for local communities (Mwenya, Kawecheand Lewis, 1988).

Government acceptance of tradi- tional leadership on wildlife is- sues

Chiefs and/or headmen are the corners- tones of African rural societies and the tradi- tional customs that bind and regulate village communities. Land tenure and acess to natu- ral resources were formerly determined by these chiefs in the common interest. Intefe- rence with or abolition of these powers during and after colonial administration has led to a situation where central governments are una- ble to sustain needs of adequate law enforce- ment to protect wildlife resources. The conti- nued misuse of these resources leads to the imposition of ineffective punitive measures which tend to further erode the influence of traditional rulers.

A potentially acceptable approach for intef- grating traditional local leadership with mo- dern centralized governments in dealing with wildlife conservation issues is the formation of a partnership between the two authorities. The ADMADE policy (Mwenya, Kaweche and Lewis, 1988) effectively does this by the es- tablishment of Wildlife Management Authori- ties for each game management area. Chai- red by the District Governor, an Authority is composed of local, traditional rulers and se-

nior-level wildlife officers. The members meet periodically to exchange views and adopt wil- dlife management policies for that particular area. Under this approach, direct technical and capital inputs may be directed through government channels while traditional rulers exert their influence to increase local support and cooperation in managing the wildlife re- sources in their area.

In the Chikwa-Luelo area of the Luangwa Valley, for example, the two ruling chiefs ac- cepted the ADMADE policy, which by vitrue of their chieftainship gave them chairmanship of their own Wildlife Management sub-Authority. These sub-authorities bring proposals and funding requests to the Wildlife Management Authority. The chiefs asserted their leaders- hip by condemning illegal hunting with the un- derstanding that their community would re- ceive benefits through the sharing of wildlife revenues under the ADMADE programme. Within a year poaching was reduced in the Chil<wa-Luelo area.

The chiefs achieved greater respect from their people for using their traditional powers of authority to bring improved benefits to the community from wildlife. Revenue benefits were shared, as promised by the National Parks and Wildlife Service, and local residents wfere made village scouts to manage and pro- tect the wildlife in their own chiefdoms while earning a livelihood. Because a significant re- duction in poaching was achieved well in ad- vance of the establishment of the village scout programme, the decline in illegal hunting was attributed to the influence of traditional lea- ders (personal communication with Pater Mwanza, Unit Leader of the Chikwa-Luelo area).

Similar response to local traditional rulers is emerging in several other game manage- ment areas where ADMADE is being imple-

15

merited and where the revenue benefits being sustained by ADMADE have become more noticeable. The Wildlife Managment Authori- ties in most of the ADMADE areas, for exam- ple, have opened "Community Development Accounts" In which they deposit the commu- nity development shares of the ADMADE wil- dlife revenues. In 1988 these shares equalled US$230,000 for ten ADMADE units. To en- sure that projects accepted by the community are funded, only the sub-authorities, whose members are primarily village headmen, can recommend community projects to the Au- thority, and chiefs are made signatories to these acoounts so that funds are used as in- tended.

The Importance of traditional leadership in wildlife managment has become very appa- rent under the ADMADE designs and is also

proving to be far more cost-effective than di- rect implementation by a government authori- ty (see Figure 2). For example, an approach observed in Luano and Sichifula-Mulobezi Game Management Areas under the AD- MADE programme is the translocation of villa- gers who engage In illegal hunting to areas where there are no animals. When it is known that a certain person hunts animals illegally and Is setting a bad example to the local com- munity, that person is sentenced by the chief as being unable to live peacefully with wildlife and is ordered to live where there are no ani- mals and to take up some other occupation. Figure 3 presents a set of relationships be- tween traditional rulers and hunters as they may affect illegal hunting.

Poaching mtd

Management costs

FIGURE 2:

Changes in rates of illegal hunting as a function of Increa- sed expenditure of management effort using different ma- nagement designs;

a) reliance on conventional civil servant scouts who enforce punitive measures without local involvement;

b) greater reliance on local participa- tion with joint lea- dership between traditional rulers and civil authori- ties.

16

Aoc8ptanc8 of traditional rulers as a wildlife manao«<T>«nt authofity by Ihe government

FIGURE 3: Poa- ching levels in a region as a function of go- vernment recognition of traditional rulers

Revenue earning capacity of tlie resource

Another variable in tlie poacliing picture is the revenue-earning capacity of the resource. First, the area must be capable of generating substantial revenue through local manage- ment of wildlife resources. Second, there must be an agreed arrangement for returning a major portion of these revenues to the local area for meeting programme costs. In order to increase local employment through wildlife management, develop alternative protein sources, or incorporate local ruling authorities in the governing of wildlife matters, revenue is required on an annual basis. Otherwise, continuity cannot be assured; frequent inter- ruptions of the programme will tend to dis- courage local participation in the wildlife ma- nagement effort.

National development plans throughout Africa show, beyond any doubt, that wildlife is relatively low priority in government spending. Results of the Lupande Development Project (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1 989) and the current ADMADE programme (ADMADE, 1988), indicate that in order to achieve a com- mitment on the part of local people to partici- pate in wildlife management efforts on a sus- tained basis, wildlife revenues need to be available at the local level, and the people themselves must participate in the develop- ment as well as the implementation of mana- gement efforts.

On a national scale this is being effectively demonstrated by the ADMADE programme. For the 1987 and 1988 financial years, US$260,000, representing 40 percent of the total revenue earned from the wildlife re- source in ten ADMADE units, were withheld for local wildlife management programmes (in

17

addition to the base level allocation of $230,000 referred to earlier). This sum was used to meet both recurrent and capital ex- penditures in these units. Recurrent expendi- tures included the maintenance and running costs of the seven ADMADE vehicles, wages and allowances for the village scouts and ge- neral workers, law enforcement costs, and sit- ting allowances for the members of the wildlife management authorities. As for the capital expenditures, ten new camps were es-

•

Maintain local

vigilanoB of

wiidlil* r»souro«ft,

subsidized by

QOv«rnm«nt rBvvniiet

Promote

oonsarvabonJst views

vnong local residents

by diraciino legally

obtairted wlldiite

revenues toward

supporting community

benefia

•

Promote social status

of local residents

employed in wikSife

management

•

Salaor scale of legally

employed scouu

should be compebtive

wi^ easing

employment

opportunities

jrvestm

profit-orienied

wKdlite management

to support

local empioyment

•

Develop alternative

protein sources

•

Employ traditional

hunters (o harvest

sustained- yield

quotas kx

local consumption

•

Maximize

employment of

viNage scouts from

revenues derived

from sustained- yield

uses of wikSiis

•

Oerrxxtttrate to

local residents the

higher per caput

earnings from

legal uses of

wildlte tan from

illegaJuses

Revenue earning capacity of wildlife

tablished, 150 new huts for village scouts were built, three senior staff houses were re- novated, one unit headquarters was built and work on three others was Initiated. Both the recurrent and capital budgets were approved by each respective management authority.

IN SEARCH OF SOME GUIDING PRINCIPLES

Based on the experience of the ADMADE programme in Zambia, the fol- lowing are offered as a set of guiding principles that go- vernment planners and wildlife authorities may find useful when considering options for dealing with wildlife manage- ment in Africa.

Employ predictive management in redu- cing illegal hunting

Given that the various de- terminants of Illegal hunting are quantifiable, identification of those variables contributing to the problem, and the changes required to reduce it, provide a set of appropriate managment treatments. This

FIGURE 4:

Management treatments in response to three different determinants of poaching le- vels for a given area (see pre- sidctions in Figs 1 and 3)

18

Bene f its /Avantages

Monetary (returns per kg for local residents) Binifices mon^talres (rentrSes d' argent pour les populations

locales, par kilogramme)

approach is a predictive managment tool; Fi- gure 4 provides a basis for evaluating the va- riables discussed in this article in order to de- termine an appropriate management ap- proach.

Allow time and flexibility in in- troducing new programmes

It is unreasonable to expect Immediate and universal acceptance of locally based wil- dlife management programmes. Initially, wil- dlife extension officers may face the handicap of being associated with past mistakes of the government de- partment re- sponsible for enforcing wil- dlife laws (Le- wis, 1989). This can result in strong initial re- sistance, des- pite the poten- tial benefits a programme may represent for the commu- nity. To facili- tate the accep- tance of whate- ver programme is being introdu- ced, the wildlife extension offi- cer must be sensitive to needs and aspi- rations of the lo- cal residents, and be know-

ledgeable of past experiences and of local tri- bal customs. Persistence and patience are required simultaneously. Programmes that are forced into implmentation too quickly wi- thout full acceptance and understanding of how they can serve local needs will lack the necessary foundation of local involvement and commitment.

Ensure economic incentives for legal uses of wildlife

An obvious factor in determining relative poaching pressures on particular species of

Legal/Chasse legale

Illegal/Braconnage

Meat Viande

Skin Peaux

Other trophies Autres trophies

potentially high potentlellement ^levds

high Aleves

high ^lev^s

moderate moderns

low to nil de faibles k nul

low faibles

Employment (eraployment levels per animal harvested) Emplois (emplois par animal exploit^)

1. Processing wildlife products Transformation

2. Marketing Commercialisation

high nombreux

high nombreux

low peu nombreux

low peu nombreux

Accountability of off-take Autres avantages

1. Sustainability Durability

2. Awareness by local leaders Sensibillsation des chefs

locaux

high Clevis	low faibles
high	low to moderate
eleves	de faibles k mod^res

Table 1 : Relative benefits available to the local community from the legal and illegal hunting of wildlife

Tableau 1

Chasse legale et braconnage: avantages comparatifs pour les communaut^s locales

19

wildlife is the economic benefit awarded to the illegal hunter. The sliding scale extends from the least commercially profitable spe- cies, such as duiker or grysbok, to the most profitable, elephant and rhino. While an effec- tive law enforcement programme involving lo- cal residents may reduce illegal hunting pres- sures, an Important complementary approach is to maximize the legally obtainable commer- cial values of the more "profitable" species, and to ensure that a portion of these revenues is channelled to local areas. This will increase cooperation with the law while sustaining the management costs of the area. This ap- proach has a greater chance of local accep- tance than community support of illegal uses for the simple reason that a larger economic return for the local community can be sustai- ned from legal uses (see Table).

The manifestations of this approach in re- ducing poaching are far-reaching as seen in the Zambian ADMADE programme (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989; Mwenya, Ka- weche and Lewis. 1988; ADMADE. 1988). Wi- thin a three-year period in Lower Lupande Game Management Area, for example, local village leaders identified various ways of im- proving the management of their wildlife re- sources to increase the revenue potential. Vil- lage headmen volunteered their services as vigilantes to inform village scouts when illegal hunters entered their area. On another occa- sion village leaders raised their concern that safari hunters, who contribute the largest share of legally sustainable wildlife revenues, were hunting only male lions. Concerned that the trophy males were being overhunted, they urged that fewer males should be hunted, if necessary replaced with females. From a ma- nagement perspective, this was the appro- priate decision; it underlines the potential for improved management with local accpetance

as the appreciation for the sustainability of re- venue earnings from wildlife increases among the indigenous residents.

Another example serves to demonstrate how quickly a management problem can be solved through sustainable economic Incen- tives. Local traditional leaders were advised that late season bush fires were lowering the forage capacity to sustain wildlife. To main- tain hunting quotas that would generate local income and meat benefits, village leaders agreed to advise residents of the dangers of starting fires after forage conditions became too dry.

Ensure threshold effect of wil- dlife management benefits

Reduction of poaching levels through local employment in wildlife management Is a non- linear relationship for rural communities where employment opportunities are few (see Figure 5). Studies in Zambia suggest that if benefits are limited to too small a percentage of residents, residents who are not involved may resent the programme and conspire to frustrate the success of those who are em- ployed (Lewis, 1989 and unpublished data). However, once enough people in the commu- nity are receiving benefits, community peer pressure quickly shifts to local acceptance of the need to cooperate with the legal users of wildlife and poaching rates drop dramatically.

In the ADMADE pilot programme, the Lu- pande Development Project, local employ- ment was initially comprised of only village scouts. As their efforts reduced poaching, a parallel effort was made to employ local resi- dents in the legal. sustainable uses of wildlife. By the end of the third year, there were ap- proximately three times more people em-

20

Poaching ievAls

Pefcentafle of local residents rec»<vinfl bone^t• from a wildlife manaoe^wnf

FIGURE 5: Changes in poaching levels in response to increasing percentage of local residents receiving benefits from a manage- ment programme that en- courages legal uses of wil- dlife only

ployed in the legal uses of wildlife than as vil- lage scouts (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989; Lewis, unpublished data). The level of Illegal hunting at the end of this period was negligible as compared to levels three years earlier. Attitude surveys indicated increased community interest in discouraging illegal hunters from entering the area, and greater support for village scouts (Lewis, 1988).

Use successful efforts as exam- ples to stimulate programme ex- pansion

If a programme is successful In reducing the effects of those variables contributing to poaching rates, it may also act as a catalyst for positive change in adjoining areas. Expe- rience In Zambia has shown that the ex- change of Information between neighbouring

communities Is often rapid and can greatly fa- cilitate subsequent expansion of a pro- gramme if initial efforts are successful. Fur- thermore, this is achievable at no extra cost to the implementing agency of the programme. In 1989, only two years after the ADMADE programme was Instituted, two chiefs from outside the implementation area made formal requests to have their chiefdoms classified as Game Management Areas and adopted under the ADMADE policy. The significance of this is that only In a Game Management Area can the National Parks and Wildlife Service use public funds to assist with wildlife manage- ment and resource protection.

To take full advantage of the "stepping- stone" effect, the initial implementation area should be where the potential sustainability of wildlife benefits Is relatively high and initial ef- forts should be persistent enough to bring the benefits Into full recognition by the communi-

21

ty. In this way the news travelling to neighbo- ring areas will be positive and convincing.

Capitalize on the buffer effect of local participation

A successful programme of local involve- ment in wildlife management in areas adjoi- ning protected or park areas may significantly reduce law enforcement costs within the pro- tected areas. As wildlife conservationist views evolve and grow, the probability of illegal hun- ters entering the protected area with the sup- port or acceptance of local residents dimi- nishes (Lewis, Kaweche and Mwenya, 1989; ADMADE, 1988).

Arrange for protection of uninha- bited lands

Resource requirements for human habita- tion may differ from those of wildlife re- sources. In many cases, therefore, an area endowed with important wildlife resources may be totally void of human habitation. Pro- tection of these areas can be achieved through maintaining or developing a sense of association or ownership by the nearest com- munities: this can offer the needed work-force for the area's management. This also helps to ensure the full potential revenues earned from the area, on a sustained-yield basis, thus pro- viding community benefits and easing manag- ment costs.

Avoid overconserving wildlife at the expense of the indigenous conservationists

It is recognized and appreciated that some wildlife enthusiasts in Africa often volunteer their services as non-professionals to aid in managing wildlife. The terms of reference for such non-government cooperation with the appointed legal wildlife managment authori- ties, however, are often vague. This can fos- ter a dangerous trend if well-funded, but un- coordinated non-government organizations assume roles that cause conflicts with go- vernment authorities. This may lead to divi- sive manoeuvrings between government and non-government authorities and a sub- sequent loss in cost-effectiveness for the use of funds available to wildlife conservation. Such conflicts may result in injudicious fun- ding distribution by outside donor agencies.

An even more serious potential negative effect of these conflicts, however, is the ero- sion of confidence and morale among the professionally trained indigenous conservatio- nists serving as civil servants for the official wildlife management department. This can have profound influences on poaching rates. Symptoms may include slow responses to poaching problems, inadequate coordination with other government agencies, and failure to discipline junior staff effectively. As a result confusion reigns and more wildlife Is poa- ched. The irony, of course, is that such pro- blems arise from conservation efforts them- selves.

Government authorities need full recogni- tion and support to strengthen their leader- ship and effectiveness in upholding the law and implementing wildlife management pro-

22

grammes. This recognition by both donor agencies and non-government organizations is essential.

CONCLUSION

Variables influencing rates of poaching and other wildlife managment problems in Africa are identifiable and modifiable. When guided by African values and traditions and in cooperation with a national parks' service sympathetic to the needs of local residents living with wildlife resources, these variables can be favourably adjusted more cost-effecti- vely than has been shown possible with conventional methods. This approach to conservation, successfully tested at the pilot level in Zambia, and recently applied nation- wide, has considerable potential for applica- tion in other areas of Africa. Key factors for success include the support of local leaders for legal uses of wildlife with their correspon- ding commercial benefits as opposed to ille- gal uses, and the level of local resident partici- pation in actual management efforts.

Although this approach involving people's participation and the recycling of locally gene- rated wildlife revenues to support local deve- lopment and resource management costs is clearly pragmatic and cost-effective, expe- rience shows that most African wildlife conservation efforts still depend heavily on outside funding. Although well-intentioned and unquestionably needed, this funding and the dependence created has often frustrated efforts to make management more self-sup- portive through sustainable uses of wildlife. In many cases, project proposals seek funds that are large so as to be appealing to do- nors. However, in the face of such large fun- ding, locally generated resources are easily

overlooked or not perceived as relevant to the overall financing of community-based pro- grammes in wildlife management. The irony is that projects based on large overseas grants generally do not lead to permanent so- lutions because such large funds are not sus- tained indefinitely. External inputs directed at wildlife management need to be linked closely with simultaneous efforts to develop sustaina- ble local involvement.

References

ADIVIADE. 1988. First Annual Planning Work- shop Proceedings, eds. Lewis, D.M., Mwenya, A.N. & Kaweche, G.B. Chilan- ga, Zambia, National Parks and Wildlife Service.

Bell, R.H.V. & Clarke, J.E. 1984. Funding and financial control. In Bell, R.H.V. & McShane-Caluzi, E., eds. Conservation and wildlife management in Africa, p. 534-536. US Peace Corps.

Dala-Clayton, B. & Lewis, D.M. 1984. Proc. Lupande Development Workshop. Lu- saka, Zambia, Government Printers.

Hadley, M. 1985. Comparative aspects of land use and resource management in sa- vannah environments. In Tothil, J.E. & Mott, J.J., eds. Ecology and manag- ment of the world's savannah's, p. 142- 158. London, Commonwealth Agricul- tural Bureau.

Leder-Williams, N. 1985. Black rhino in Luang- wa Valley National Park. Oryx, 19: 27- 34.

Lewis, D.M. 1986. The Luangwa Valley ele- phants: toward developing a manage- ment policy. Chilanga, Zambia, Natio- nal Parks and Wildlife Service.

23

Lewis, D.M. 1988. Survey of perceptions to- ward wildlife for two village communi- ties with different exposure to a wildlife conservation project. ADMADE/NPWS Research Report. Chilanga, Zambia, National Parl<s and Wildlife Service.

Lewis, D.M. 1989. a promise worth keeping. Animal Kingdom, 92(4): 58-63.

Lewis, D.M. & Kaweche, G.B. 1985. The Luangwa Valley of Zambia: preserving its future by integrated management. Ambio, 14(6): 362-365.

Lewis, D.M., Kaweche, G.B. & Mwenya, A.N. 1989. Wildlife conservation outside pro- tected areas ~ lessons from an experi- ment in Zambia. Consen/. Biol. (In press)

Marks, S.A. 1976. Large mammals and a brave people. Seattle, Univ. of Was- hington Press.

Mwenya, A.N., Kaweche, G.B. & Lewis, D.M. 1 988. Administrative Management Des- ign for game management areas (AD- I^ADE). National Parks and Wildlife Ser- vices of Zambia. Lusaka Zambia, Go- vernment Printers.

PARKER, I.S.C. 1984. Conservation of the African elephant. In Gumming, D.H.M. & Jackson, P., eds. The status and conservation of Africa's elephants and rhino's. Proc. Joint Meeting of lUCNISSC African Elephant and Rhino Specialist Groups at Hwange Safari Lodge, Zimbabwe, 30 July - 7 August 1981. Gland, Switzerland.

Swift, J. 1 982. The future of African hunter-ga- therer and pastoral peoples. Develop- ment and change, 13(2): 159-181.

Willis, A.J. 1985. An introduction to the history of Central Africa. Fourth ed. Oxford, UK, Oxford Univ. Press.

* Dale M. Lewis is technical adviser to the Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Service, and Coordinator of the Zambia Wildlands and Human Needs Programme. Ackim Mwenya is Deputy-Director of the Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Sen/ice, and Co-Adminis- trator of the Zambia Wildland Management and Human Needs Development Project. Gil- son B. Kaweche is Chief Wildlife research Of- ficer of the Zambia National Parks and Wildlife Service, and Co-Administrator of the Zambia Wildland Management and Human Needs Development Project.

Article culled from Unasylva , Vol. 41 , n°161,pp. 11-20

24

NOTES ON THE DUIKERS OF SIERRA LEONE

(voir traduction page 61)

by V.J. Wilson and B.LP. Wilson^

ABSTRACT

INTRODUCTION

A brief expedition to Sierra Leone, West Africa, In December 1988 as part of the Pan African Decade of Duiker Research pro- gramme (1985-1994), produced very positive results. At the time our visit was planned, no scientific specimens of Jentink's duiker, Ce- phalophus jentinki had been obtained in the country and while there was some indication that the species still existed in Sierra Leone there was considerable doubt concerning its status. The survey confirmed the discovery by Davies and Birkenhager in September 1988 of the presence of a viable population in the Western Area Forest Reserve on the Free- town Peninsula. A number of pairs of horns of Jentink's duiker were also obtained from a local hunter. This important discovery of such a rare and endangered species so close to the capital city of Freetown is of tremen- dous importance. The area also supports at least three and probably four other forest dui- ker species, plus other forest wildlife, and should now be considered for National Park status. Notes on the nine duiker species of Sierra Leone are also recorded.

NDLR: The cover picture shows a Jentink's duiker photogra- phed by Mr VJ. Wilson at Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville, Texas

One of the objectives of the Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1994) pro- gramme initiated by the Chipangali Wildlife Trust in Zimbabwe is to carry out detailed sur- veys in as many evergreen forests of Africa as possible, in order to establish as much as possible on the distribution and status of some of the rarer duikers on the continent.

As Wilson (1987) has pointed out effective conservation plans for the preservation and utilisation of the rainforests and the fauna and flora found in them must first be preceeded by detailed surveys.

The Chipangali Wildlife Trust in Zimbabwe is at present deeply committed to such sur- veys and as a result is involved in survey pro- jects in a number of countries in Africa.

Tropical evergreen forests and other tropi- cal ecosystems will only be truly secure when the people who make a living from them are able to substantially produce more food and other goods than they themselves need. Sound information on critical areas is essen- tial while we still have moist tropical rainfo- rests left (Wilson 1987). It is with this objec- tive in mind that an Action Plan for Duiker Conservation was compiled in December

25

1987 by the senior author together with the lUCN in Gland, Switzerland. One of the coun- tries for which detailed information was requi- red was Sierra Leone. Wilson (1987) points out that Jentink's duiker and Ogilby's duiker were perhaps the rarest and least known of all the antelopes of the West African rainforests, and that their secretive habits and the dense habitats in which they lived, made them very difficult to study. These species could well disappear before we even know anything of their behaviour and ecology (Wilson 1987).

The Red Data Book draft 3 (November 1984) dealing with Jentink's duiker stated that "A survey is needed to more accurately deter- mine distribution and status with a view to re- commending conservation strategies".

Several duiker species along with Jentink's duiker may be in danger of extinction. It is anticipated that the Pan African Decade of Duiker Research will provide new data neces- sary for the correct CITES and Red Data Book listings. However the primary goal of the sur- vey is to promote the conservation of the Afri- can duikers especially as commercial hunting for "bush-meat" is increasing and massive ha- bitat destruction is widespread.

Wilson (1987) together with several au- thors, Jones (1966), Davies (1987), etc., have discussed the possibility of the occurrence of Jentink's duiker in Sierra Leone but as no ac- tual specimen records existed anywhere it was impossible to establish if they did in fact occur in the country.

It was always the intention of the survey team to visit Sierra Leone (Wilson 1987) in or- der to establish if Jentink's duiker occurred in the country and the opportunity presented it- self in April 1988 when Mr. John Waugh of the Sierra Leone Conservation Society wrote to the senior author with the following informa- tion: "In the course of investigation of the re-

sources of the Western Area Forest Reserve, I have found a strong indication that a popula- tion of Jentink's duiker still exists in the moun- tains of the Reserve". He went on to indicate that the "Rugged mountainous terrain makes this large area virtually inaccessible and this is where the Jentink's duiker are reported to live".

Mr. Samuel Musa-Jambawai also of the Conservation Society of Sierra Leone then ar- ranged for the authors to visit Sierra Leone in December 1988 in order to establish if Jen- tink's duiker did in fact occur in the Western Area Forest Reserve on the Freetown Penin- sula.

In the same letter Mr. S. Musa-Jambawai reported that he had personally shot and kil- led a male Jentik's duiker in the Gola Forest in 1 960. It was one of two which he saw. This was therefore the first positive record of the presence of the species in Sierra Leone. The first conclusive evidence of Jentink's duiker in Sierra Leone was obtained by Davies and Bir- kenhager (in press) in the southern part of the Freetown Peninsula in September 1988.

In the "Handbook of Sierra Leone" publis- hed by Goddard (1925) he states: In regard to antelopes, no less than fourteen different spe- cies are found in Sierra Leone, the duiker fa- mily (Cephalophus) being particularly well represented, as can be seen from the follo- wing list:

Yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultor)

Red-flanked duiker (Cephalophus rufilatus)

Banded duiker (Cephalophus doriae) Maxwell's duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli)

Jentink's duiker (Cephalophus jentinki)

Black duiker (Cephalophus niger)

Bay duiker (Cephalophus dorsaiis)

26

Ogilby's duiker

Royal antelope

Waterbuck

Buff on 's kob

Bongo

Lesser bushbuck or

harness antelope

Water-chivrotain

(Cephalophus ogilbyi) (Nectragus pygmoeus) (Cobus defassa unctuosus)

(Cobus kob)

(Tragelaphus euryceros)

(Tragelaphus scrlptus typicus) (Dorcatherium aquatlcum)

Of the eight representatives of the Cepha- lophine enumerated above by far the commo- nest are the Black duil<er and Maxwell's dui- ker (the "bush goat" and the fritambu of the Creoles), which are found everywhere in Sier- ra Leone where there is plenty of cover, prefe- rably forest undergrowth. The handsome little Red-flanked duiker is also common in most areas In the north of the country. The remai- ning five species are rare and are seldom seen by Europeans, skins however, occasio- nally come into their possession, the beautiful Banded duiker's skin being particularly pri- zed.

Then Stanley (1928) copied word for word the data given by Goddard (1925) and even gave the same list of animals. However there is one important difference in that Goddard (1925) says: "By far the commonest are the Black duiker and the Maxwell's duiker", while Stanley (1928) says: "Of the eight repre- sentatives of the family Cephalophinae, Max- well's duiker and Jentink's duiker are quite common".

Stanley (op. cit.), goes on to say: 'The shif- ting system of cultivation under which land, after being cleared for crops, is then allowed to lie fallow for five or six years until dense and almost impenetrable forest regrowth has become re-established, affords admirable protection for these two forest duiker. In fact

the only way by which it Is possible to hunt them, and also some of the far rarer duikers mentioned above. Is by calling them, at which a few native hunters are adept".

Thus from the data presented above It would appear that in the 1928 article by Stan- ley the word "Jentink's" should perhaps read "Black" and it Is possible that in the produc- tion of the paper the error occurred.

Many years later Montague (1959) in a re- vised edition of 'The Sierra Leone Handbook", Chapter III (Mammals), says: "In the forest and farm bush Maxwell's Grey Duiker Cepha- lophus maxwelli, which is a greyish brown, is the commonest, and in the savannah and the farm bush on its edges the Red-flanked Dui- ker, C. rufilatus, which is rufous with a broad grey band down the back. The only other common duiker is the Black duiker, C. niger, locally called 'Bush goaf which is dark brown in colour and a forest Inhabitant. Amongst the several rarer duikers the Banded duiker, C. zebra, found only In the Goia forest area and neighbouring Liberia, is the most striking as it is pale rufous with about a dozen very distinct wide black bands across its back and down Its flanks".

There Is no mention whatsoever of the Jentink's duiker in his paper. Jones (1966) in his "Notes on the Commoner Sierra Leone Mammals" gives again, word for word, the same data on duikers as given by Montague (1959). However he did give some additional data and again I quote him in full: "However, the writer has not been able to find any defi- nite records of, nor did he come across Jen- tink's Duiker, Cephalophus jentinkl or Ogil- gy's Duiker, Cephalophus ogilbyi, and no specimens exist from Sierra Leone in the Bri- tish Museum of Natural History in London".

Jones (pers. comm.), who spent many years in Sierra Leone, never ever heard of or

27

came across Jentink's duiker. He also says In correspondence with tlie authors, "If Jentink's duiker had been common the army officers at Daru who did a lot of hunting in the West around Stanley's time and sent specimens to the British Museum (Natural History) would surely have come across it".

Toboku-Metzger (1979) briefly mentions Jentink's duiker In Sierra Leone but no posi- tive or original data Is given. Robinson (1971) says: "Jentink's duiker {Cephalophus Jentin- ki) which has the most restricted range of all existing Cephalophinae is another West Afri- can species found only in Eastern Liberia and the Western Ivory Coast, where Its distribution

is centred on the Cavally river". Again Robin- son (1971) was merely quoting Kuhn (1965). Wilkinson (1974) lists Abott's duiker {Cephalo- phus spadix) in his list of Sierra Leone mam- mals. This Is clearly erroneous and It should doubtless read Yellow-backed duiker (C. syl- vicultor) as presumably Wilkinson would not have had any reason to suppose that Jen- tink's duiker was present.

STUDY AREA

Sierra Leone (General)

The Republic of Sierra Leone lies be- tween Guinea and Li- beria along the Atlan- tic Coast and is one of the smallest coun- tries in Africa. It Is the fifth most densely populated country south of the Sahara with a population of over four million inha- bitants. The country Is approximately

28,000 sq. miles (72,600 sq km) consisting of plains and rolling hills, with over 50% of the country having clima- tic conditions which favour moist ever- green forests. Howe- ver today less than 5% of Sierra Leone is

28

still covered with primary rainforest, while about 55% Is covered with farm bush (trees less than 10 metres tall) and there is another 4% of secondary rainforest (Davies 1987). While much of the land is not arable, especial- ly in the Northern and Central areas, agricul- ture Is, and always was, a predominant activi- ty, with at least 80% of the population enga- ged in subsistence farming. The methods used are of the Swidden type - cut, burn and then move on. There are extensive mangrove swamps along the coast and in the river es- tuaries and creeks, while vast lowland plains cover almost half the country. In the East and North-east the plateau country rises to about 1 ,220 metres above sea level with some areas in the Loma and Tingi Mountains rising to above 1 ,830 metres.

About 200 years ago three quarters of Sierra Leone was covered with primary and derived forests, but by about 1 826 large areas were being felled to meet the timber needs of Britain. In addition the forests were being fel- led for cultivation by local farmers.

Today there are very few large areas of Primary forest and the remaining high forest of the Gola extends into Liberia. There are also several large patches of high forest in the re- mote mountainous area of Loma and Tingi which are, fortunately, protected Forest Reserves. The Pygmy hippopotamus {Cheropsis liberiensis), one of West Africa's unique species, still occurs in se- veral areas in Sierra Leone. The beautiful Zebra (or Banded) duiker is present in the Gola forests and perhaps in a few other areas. Un- fortunately it Is often hunted for its skin and meat. Bongo {Boocerus eurycerus) is restricted to a few fo-

rest areas and there are still large numbers of many species of monkeys.

Chimpanzees still occur in many areas, but their numbers have been reduced consi- derably. Perhaps the duikers and monkeys form the bulk of the "bush-meat" trade, much of which is dried and exported to Liberia. Thousands of duikers and monkeys are killed each year. While it is known that the elephant and many other mammal species still occur in the country, there is no official checklist or at- las of the mammals of Sierra Leone. Howe- ver, more details of the mammals of Sierra Leone can be found in: Davies (1987), Grubb (1988), Happold (1973 &1987), Jones (1966), Lowes (1970), Teleki and Baldwin (1981) and Merz(1986).

Western Area Forest Reserve (Freetown Peninsula)

The Western Area Forest Reserve lies south of Freetown on the Peninsula and consists of a rugged majestic ridge of fores- ted mountains in some places up to 915 me-

29

ed majestic ridge of forested mountains in some places up to 915 metres above sea le- vel. These mountains are unique along the West African Coast, with the only other range being in Cameroon (Toboku-Metzger 1979).

The forests of the Peninsula, which are es- sential for the protection of Freetown's water supply have been exploited for a great many years and the cutting of trees continues una- bated.

This beautiful and accessible mountain range is of tremendous importance and unfor- tunately very little has ever been written concerning the Wildlife of the Area. (Map page 28). In addition to several species of duiker and the bush buck, {Tragelaphus scriptus) there is evidence of the presence of Diana monkeys {Cercopithecus diana), and the rare Yellow-headed Picathartes {Pica- thartes gymnocephalus).

METHODS

This preliminary survey of the duikers of Sierra Leone took place in December 1988. During the survey two trips were made to the Freetown Peninsula where a number of Afri- can hunters and forestry rangers were inter- viewed concerning the duikers in the area.

Hunters found with fresh or dried duiker meat or with duiker skins were also questio- ned and a discussion with the owner of a lo- cal hotel at which a young Bay duiker was lo- cated also took place. Two field trips were made into the forest on the peninsula during which time details of duiker droppings and tracks were noted.

In addition an extended vehicle journey was undertaken which took us to several fo- rest areas In Sierra Leone and duiker tracks

and droppings which were seen during the trips were noted.

A record was also kept of all dead duiker found being sold along the main roads or found in the possession of hunters. A detai- led discussion was also held with Dr. Sitter, an animal trapper, who has lived in Sierra Leone for many years.

Finaly, a considerable amount of data on the distribution and status of the duikers of Sierra Leone was provided by Mr. Samuel Musa-Jambawai, our companion and guide for the entire period. Samuel had worked in the Forestry Department in a senior position for many years and was thoroughly familiar with the forests and wildlife of the country.

RESULTS

Maxwell's duiker {Cephalophus maxwelli)

This species appeared to be the most common antelope in Sierra Leone and was positively recorded from all areas visited, i.e. Gola Forest, Tiwai Island, Western Area Fo- rest Reserve, Makali/Masingbi area, Bo area and the area between Yonibana and Water- loo.

On one day in the Western Area Forest Re- serve fresh tracks were seen in several areas, four freshly dressed carcasses were exami- ned which were in the possession of a hunter on his way to sell the fresh meat at a holiday resort, and five flat dry skins were observed in the possession of another hunter. The hunter with the fresh carcasses also showed us the skulls of the animals and Indicated that all four had ben shot that morning. He also reported that he had shot another two the day before.

30

on his head contained eight Maxwell's duiker and about twenty monkeys of various spe- cies.

Also on the road between Waterloo and Yonibana two approaching vehicles were seen to have unskinned Maxwell's duiker car- casses tied to the radiator grilles. Davies (1987) says that Maxwell's duikers is ubiqui- tous in the forested region of Sierra Leone where it is the commonest species. It is also very common on Tiwai Island in the Moa Ri- vfir. Fresh dressed Maxwell's duiker car- casses in the Freetown Peninsula area fet- ched a price which varied between Leones 200 (US$2.5) and Leones 500 (US$6.25) each. The Mende name for Maxwell's duiker is tuwuolo, and the Creoles call it fritambu. The skins are also used to cover drums.

Bay Duiker {Cephalophus dorsalis)

Only a single positive record of the occur- rence of this duiker of Sierra Leone was obtai- ned during our visit. A sub-adult male was photographed in captivity at the Africana To- key Village on the Freetown Peninsula. It was in superb condition and the bright red coat was very glossy and silky. It had a broad black stripe on the back from the tail to the neck. The animal was apparently brought to the owners of the hotel as a tiny baby which was then reared. It had come from the Wes- tern Area Forest Reserve.

Tracks of a duiker, which appeared to be of an immature Bay duiker, were seen on the Tiwai Island but could not be positively identi- fied. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish between the tracks of young and half grown duikers of the different spe- cies. According to the researchers working on the island, the Red-flanked aniker (C. rufi-

latus) was also present, but again detailed examination of a specimen would be essential before any conclusion could be drawn. Ho- wever, the Bay duiker has been positively identified In the Gola Forest (Davies 1987).

Black duiker {Cephalophus niger)

Two dried feet of this species were seen in a market in Freetown and a large dried skin of a female was found in the possession of a hunter in the Western Area Forest Reserve. He was on his way to Waterloo to sell the skin. He claimed to have shot the animal on the Peninsula near the village of Kent. This species was reported by hunters to occur in the Gola Forest but none was actually seen (Davies 1987). While Jones (1966) recorded Black duiker as fairly common in Sierra Leone, it is thought that this information was not based on original data but merely extrac- ted from the paper by Montague (1959).

Yellow-backed duiker

(Cephalophus sylclcultor)

Fresh tracks of a Yellow-backed duiker were seen in the forest near Makali/Masingbi and a skull of a very old female was shown to us on Tiwai Island where this species is appa- rently common. Dr Sitter, an animal dealer near Waterloo, indicated that the species was common in the Western Area Forest Reserve. However, we did not record the species from the area during our visit but a very large dui- ker spoor was seen on three occasions in the forests which could have been Yellow-backed duiker or perhaps Jentink's duiker. There was also evidence of the species in the TonkolikI

31

district and several otiier areas. The Mende name for the Yellow-backed duiker is ngulei.

Jentink's duiker {Cephalophus jentinki)

The main reason for our visit to Sierra Leone was to establish the positive presence of this duiker in the country. (This was in fact established shortly before our visit, by Davies and Birkenhager in press). We were taken di- rectly to a village in the Southern part of Free- town Peninsula where a hunter was reported to have shot three Jentink's duiker during 1988. On being questioned about the species he explained exactly what it looked like, even though we did not prompt him to describe the animal to us. He then produced a pair of horns of an immature Jentink's duiker and a splendid horn of a large animal (possibly a

HORNS/CORNES	Specimen	Specimen	Specimen	Specimen
	N'l	^2	N'S	N''4
	I horn/	2 Horns/	1 Horn/	2 Horns/
	Corne	Cornes	Corne	Cornes
	mm	mm	mm	mm
Greatest Length Longeur Maximum	202	IA7 & 144	182	212 & 212
Diameter at base Diamfetr* k la	28 X 26	29 X 26	25 X 23	30 X 28
base
HORN CORES
PART IE CENTRALE
Greatest Length Longeur maximum	-	-	-	154 X 159
Diameter at base Diametre h la base	-	-	-	25 X 25 25 X 25

Table 1 : Measurements of Jentink's Duiker Horns from Sierra Leone

Tableau 1 : Dimensions des cornes de Cephalophe de Jentink de

Sierra Leone , , , . ^

: e Hijj b be>;* »iai>' bo f

male). Details of horns are given in Table 1 below, which includes the ones given to us by Dr. Davies.

A couple of days later the same hunter produced a pile of Jenink's duiker droppfngs which he had collected that day in the forest and we are able to positively identify them. Droppings of captive Jentink's duiker from Brownsville Zoo In Texas were studied in de- tail, so we were thoroughly familiar with the droppings of the species. The hunter indica- ted that the species occurred in several places on the peninsula but they were not common. He also explained that neither he nor any other hunter in Sierra Leone knew the animal as Jentink's duiker. According to Mr. Samuel Musa-Jambawai the Mende name for the Jentink's duiker is Kaikulowulei (or Squir- rel Coloured duiker) and the Creole name is dikidiki, which is the name used In Freetown Peninsula. There is also an unconfirmed re- port of Jentink's duiker from near Songo which is only about 50 km from Freetown. The hunter who gave us the horns of the Jentink's duiker indicated that at night the species move down from the hills into the farm- bush where It is then shot. He al- so reported that it will go onto the beach at night and even right to the sea to lick the salt from the

32

sand. Tracks were often seen on the beach by hunters. The species is supposedly very nocturnal and in the Western Area Forest Re- serve all the specimens were shot at night. However Samuel Musa-Jambawai indicated that he had shot the one in Gola Forest in 1960 in daylight, at about 10.00 a.m. Dr Sit- ter, the animal dealer near Freetown, said he reared a baby Jentink's duiker about fifteen years ago and later sold it to another animal dealer for export to the U.S.A. He Indicated that when he first obtained the animal he thought it was a baby Yellow-backed duiker. It was only when it matured that he realised it was a Jentink's duiker.

Two additional pairs of horns of this spe- cies were given to us by Dr Glyn Davies from Kenema. The horns were also obtained in the Western Area Forest Reserve some months before our arrival and full credit should go to Dr Davies for being the first person to record the presence of the species in the Freetown Peninsula area. A much more detailed report of the distribution of the species in Sierra Leone has been written by Dr Davies (Davies and Birkenhager in press). One pair of horns given to us by Dr Davies is exceptionally long and measures 212 mm. (Plate 1)

cm 20

"hs

10 5

' 0

Specimen No. 4

Specimen No. I

Specimen No. J

Specimen No. 2

PLATE 1 Jentink's duiker horns collected on Freetown Peninsula, Sierra Leone. PLANCHE 1 Cornes de cdphalophes de Jentink provenant de la P6ninsule de Freetown.

33

Zebra duiker {Cephalophus zebra)

There was no sign of this animal during our visit to Sierra Leone but it has been positi- vely reported from the Gola Forest area (Da- vies 1987). Mr Sam Musa-Jambawai indica- ted that about ten years ago Zebra duiker skins were common in the villages in the East of Sierra Leone. He also felt the species was far less shy than Jentink's duiker and there is also the suggestion that it may still occur in the Western Area Forest Reserve (Sitter, pers.comm.).

Grey (Crowned) duiker {Sylvicapra grimmia)

Philipson (1978) reported the presence of the Grey duiker in the Outamba-Ducata area, on the Freetown Peninsula and also in the Lo- ma Mountains. While it most probably does exist in the Savannah Woodlands of the North of Sierra Leone and even in the montane grasslands of the Loma Mountains it is unlike- ly to occur on the Freetown Peninsula.

Red-flanked duiker {Cephalophus rufilatus)

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

No positive evidence of its occurrence in Sierra Leone was obtained during our visit but no doubt it still exists in Northern Savanna zone of Sierra Leone. It could also possibly occur on Tiwai Island (see data under Bay duiker).

Ogilby's duiker {Cephalophus ogilby)

There is Very little evidence of the pre- sence of this species in Sierra Leone and Jones (1966) was unable to obtain any defi- nite records of the species in the country. There is some suggestion that it occurs in the country (Phillipson 1978 and Honacki, et al 1982). Positive proof of its existence in Sierra Leone is provided by a museum specimen (Groves, cited by Grubb 1988).

The possible presence of the nine species of duiker in Sierra Leone gives some indica- tion of the importance of this groupe of ani- mals in the country. It is of great significance and importance that Jentink's duiker still exists in the Western Area Forest Reserve on the Freetown Peninsula together with the Bay, Black, Maxwell's and Yellow-backed duikers which makes the area one of incredible im- portance. While it is certain that at least four and probably five duiker species occur on the Peninsula there is still the possibility of Zebra and other duikers also occurring there. For such a small area, this is quite remarkable and consequently the area should be properly protected. The value of a single Jentink's dui- ker is extremely high and the fact that it still occurs in such a heavily populated area sug- gests that they have the ability to survive un- der great pressure or that it has moved into a most inacessible part of the mountains. Wha- tever the reason the Forestry Department of Sierra Leone and indeed the Government of

34

the country should look very seriously at the upgrading of the Western Area Forest Re- serve Into a National Park.

To have a population of Jentlnk's duiker and possibly other rare duikers so close to Freetown could be of considerable benefit to the country. In addition to the rare duikers, the Diana monkey and possibly the yellow- headed Picathartes {Picathartes gymnoce- phalus) also occur in the Western Area Forest Reserve.

Together with the beautiful white beaches, warm sea, closeness to Freetown, cool ever- green forests and the friendly people, the Western Area Forest Resen/e could well be- come an important "Wilderness Area National Park", where walking trails would be very po- pular and of great economic importance to Sierra Leone.

A very detailed survey of the fauna and flo- ra of the area is now essential to provide a management plan. The area could become the first National Park in Sierra Leone, a status it well deserves. The authors intend returning to Sierra Leone in 1991 to carry out a detailed survey. With many rare species in the Wes- tern Area Forest Reserve and the fact that much hunting takes place in this non-hunting area rapid action is essential if the rare spe- cies and the forests in which they are found are to be preserved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost our sincere thanks are due to Mr Samuel Musa-Jambawai for his friendliness and support for the entire period of our visit to Sierra Leone. Samuel attended to our transport requirements, accomodation, food etc., and also helped continually with the questioning of the locals about duikers. We

could not have done as well as we did without his help and he above all located the jentlnk's duiker horns for us. Thanks are also due to Dr Glyn Davles for providing transport to the Gola Forest and for donating to us two pairs of Jentlnk's duiker horns. We owe special thanks to him for allowing us to use some of his data. Dr S.S. Banya, President of the Sier- ra Leone Conservation Society also helped a great deal as did the Hon. Edward Gbia, who helped arrange our trip to Sierra Leone and who introduced us to several cabinet minis- ters and also to His Excellency the President of Sierra Leone, Dr J.S. Momoh with whom we were able to discuss conservation mat- ters.

Thanks are also due to Mr A.P. Koroma, the Chief Conservator of forests, for his sup- port and encouragement.

Finally special thanks to Mrs Paddy Wil- son, wife of the senior author for the drawing of the maps. Mr Kevin Wilson and Mr Vau- ghan Southey kindly produced this paper on the computer. Kevin Wilson also kindly pho- tographed the duiker horns.

The Trustees of the Chipangali Trust should also be thanked for providing funds for the entire programme and the cost of this publication.

REFERENCES

ANSELL, W.F.H. 1971. Order yA/t/odac/y/a. In the Mammals of Africa. An indentifica- tlon manual Part 15 (J. Meester & H.W. Setzer, eds.) Smithsonian Ins. Press Washington, D.C., 15: 1-84.

DAVIES, A.G. 1987. The Gola Forest Re- serves, Sierra Leone. Wildlife Conser- vation and Forest Management. lUCN

35

Tropical Forest Programme. Cam- bridge University Press, U.K.

DAViES. G & BIKENHAGER, B. Jentink's dui- ker in Sierra Leone: evidence from the Freetown Peninsuia. Oryx (in press).

GODDARD, T.M. 1925. The Handbook of Sier- ra Leone.

GRUBB, P. 1988. Some notes on West African antelopes. (IVIanuscript in preparation).

HAPPOLD, D.C.D. 1973. The distribution of large Mammals in West Africa. Mam- malia 37: 88-93.

HAPPOLD, D.C.D. 1987. The Mammals of Ni- geria. Oxford, Clarendon Press.

HONACKI, J.H., KINMAN K.E. & KOEPPE, J.W. 1982. Mammal species of the World, Kansas Allen Press.

JONES, T. S. 1966. Notes on the Commoner Sierra Leone Mammals. Nigerian field 3(1): 4-17.

KUHN, H.J. 1956. A provincial list of mam- mals of Liberia. Senckenbergiana Bio- log ica 46(5): 321-340.

LOWES, R.H.G. 1970. Destruction in Sierra Leone. Oryx 10: 309-310.

MERZ, G. 1986. The status of the forest ele- phant Loxondonta africana cyclotis, Matschie, 1900 in the Gola Forest Re- serves, Sierra Leone. Biological Conservation 36: 83-94.

MONTAGUE, F.A. 1959. The Natural History of Sierra Leone (Mammals). In Revised edition of Sierra Leone Handbook pages 34-52.

PHILLIPSON, J.A. 1978. Wildlife Conservation and management in Sierra Leone, pp. 188 Special Report to MANRF, Free- town.

ROBINSON, P.T. 1971. Wildlife trends in Libe- ria and Sierra Leone. Oryx II: 117-122.

STANLEY, W.B. 1928. Game preservation in Sierra Leone. Sierra Leone Studies 1 1 : (2-15).

TOBOKU-METZGER, D. 1979. Nature conser- vation in Sierra Leone. African Wildlife News 14 (3): 12-16.

TELEKI. G. & BALDWIN, L 1981. Sierra Leone's Wildlife Legacy. Options for Sun^ival. Zoonoz 54 (10): 21-23.

WILKINSON, A.F. 1974. Areas to preserve in Sierra Leone Oryx 12 (5): 596-597.

WILSON, V.J. 1987. Pan African Decade of Duiker Research (1985-1994) and the Chipangali Wildlife Trust, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.

Article culled from Arnoldia Zimbabwe Vol. 9, n° 33, 1990, pp. 451-462

*Author's address: Chipangali Wildlife Trust P.O. BOX 1057 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

(NDLR: Mr B.LB. Wilson died accidentally on January 91).

36

Wildlife management for rural development in sub-Saharan Africa

(voir traduction page 70)

by E.O.A. Asibey and G.S. Child'

The authors of this article present a criti- cal review of the status of wildlife manage- ment in the sub-Saharan countries of Africa, and suggest the approaches to ensure the sustainable utilization of this critical resource.

More tiian 130 million hectares in sub- Saharan Africa have been set aside for wildlife conservation. Extensive areas have also been established in which the utilization of wildife resources is controlled. In addition, virtually every country in the region has hun- ting legislation in force, which is usually des- igned to manage recreational hunting, and as a mechanism for raising revenue, in the form of fees and taxes for hunting licences. Thus, wildlife management is recognized by govern- ments as a viable option in the designation of land for various uses.

However, the actual and potential contri- butions of wildlife to rural economies and nu- trition as a source of food and an object of commerce are rarely recognized officially. In- deed, in many countries these aspects are, to a large extent, illegal by definition.

The urgent requirement today is for a significant and sustained effort to include the evaluation, development, management and utilization of wild animals in national plans for socio-economic development. The involve-

ment of national planning and financial institu- tions at all levels is essential and assistance may also be required from competent interna- tional agencies to ensure success. At the same time long-term sustained utilization of wildlife resources cannot succeed without lo- cal people participating in management and receiving a fair share of the benefits that ac- crue.

Human and animal populations

As a starting point for an examination of sub-Saharan wildlife, a brief review of human population trends and related environmental factors is appropriate, as these exert funda- mental infleunces on wildlife resources.

Sustained high rates of population growth characterize almost every country in sub- Saharan Africa. The associated urgent de- mand for increased food production is lea- ding African farmers to shorten fallow periods, to try to obtain increased yields from low ferti- lity soils, and to grow crops on marginal land. The result is that arable land is steadily being degraded. And, where livestocl< populations are increasing as fast as and in some areas faster than the human population, Africa's vast grazing lands are undergoing similar des-

37

truction. This is especially true where the loss of traditional grazing land to crop production intensifies the pressure on the remaining area.

in the drier parts of Africa, millions of hec- tares of grazing land and rangeland are threa- tened by overgrazing. Many of the perennial rangeland grasses are being replaced by nu- tritionally poorer annual ones, threatening to impair permanently the rangeland's potential for recovery, and decrease its carrying capa- city. As the vegetation has been removed or reduced, the wind has also wfnnowed out the small amount of silt that the soil contains, re- ducing its ability to retain moisture.

Sub-Saharan Africa's forests and woo- dlands are also being depleted; an area of nearly four million ha is being deforested or degraded annually, largely in humid and sub-humid West Africa. The main cause of deforestation is clearing for agriculture, but uncontrolled logging, gathering for fuelwood, fire and overgrazing are also taking their toll. It was estimated that deforestation rates in

tropical Africa exceeded planting rates by a factor of 29 to 1 in the period 1975-1980 (Lan- ly, 1982).

Of course, these rangelands and forests are also the habitat for wild animals. Drastic changes in habitat such as those at present being experienced in Africa lead inexorably to changes in species composition and diversity and may have adverse effects on total popu- lations. Therefore, the major challenge for wildlife management in sub-Saharan Africa to- ward the twenty-first century is to coordinate the management of wild animals and their ha- bitat with overall socio-economic develop- ment efforts.

Wildlife as food

The first human beings depended comple- tely on wild animals for their protein supply. With domestication of animal stock and settled agriculture, humans have gradually

Over grazing is threatening to impair permanently the carrying capacity of millions of hectares of diyland range in Africa Le surp^turage menace des millions d'hectares de pdturage en Afrique et risque de r^duire la capacity de charge des parcours

(photo Y.MuIler,FAO)

38

moved from complete to partial dependence on wild animals for meat. Nontheless, in all cultures of the modern world, wherever peo- ple eat meat, there is still a singificant demand for wild meat. Wild animals of various forms and sizes, both vertebrates and invertebrates, form part of the diet of people across the globe.

In sub-Saharan Africa the proportion of wild animal meat in total protein supplies is exceptionally high. For example, communi- ties living near a forest in Nigeria obtain 84 percent of their animal protein from bush- meat. In Ghana, approximately 75 percent of the population consumes wild animals regu- larly; in Liberia, 70 percent; and in Botswana, 60 percent (FAO, 1989). However, even these high figures may understate the reality of the situation as wildlife consumption is often un- recorded as part of the informal sector.

Perhaps the most important measure of the local value of bushmeat comes from stu- dies that ask people what they value most from forests. In an evaluation of the Subri forestry project in Ghana, Korang (1986) found that 94 percent of those surveyed considered the worst Impact of forest conver- sion to be the loss of bushmeat in the area.

In considering the role of wild animals as food, it is important to take a wide view rather than a limited perspective covering only large "game animals". In fact, small animals gene- rally provide the greatest amount of meat to the subsistence diet. Various types of snails, snakes and other reptiles and amphibians are also consumed. For example, in Ghana and several other parts of West Africa, residents of districts with high concentrations of snails are considered lucky by inhabitants of other areas. Insects also often make a singificant contribution to overall protein supplies.

Nutritional value of bushmeat

Available evidence indicates that fresh bushmeat compares favourably with dome- stic meat. In terms of both yield of lean meat per kg of live weight, and in mineral and pro- tein content (Asibey and Eyeson, 1975; Led- ger and Smith, 1964). Studies also indicate that the meat of wild animals has superior fat content (Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979).

HIadik et al. (1987) argue that the caloric value of bushmeat is as important as the pro- tein it provides. They note that many highly prized bushmeat species are preferred for their fatty consistencies.

Unfortunately, there is little information on the nutritional value of preserved bushmeat (smoked, salted, biltong). Methods of preser- vation vary according to locality and re- sources. The traditional method of smoking is widespread in use, suitability and accept- ability, despite Its limitations. Salting is re- stricted by the availability of salt. Biltong can be prepared where a combination of salt and sunshine is available. More systematic work in this area is necessary to cover the wide range of wild animals eaten, as well as the nu- tritional impact of prevailing methods of pre- paration and preservation.

Factors influencing consumption of wild meat

The deternlining factor influencing wild animal consumption appears to be the ade- quacy of supply. In fact, wherever it has been investigated in African countries, it has be- come evident that the majority of meat-eating people would eat bushmeat If it were readily available. Studies In Ghana and Nigeria have

39

demonstrated this to be true irrespective of ciass, income ievei, educational bacl<ground, religion or sex (Blaxter, 1975; Martin, 1983; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

The demand for wild meat is in no way limited to rural areas. In fact, rapidly increa- sing urbanization has created a spiralling de- mand for wildmeat in the cities of Africa. Throughout sub-Saharan Africa and particu- larly in West Africa, there is a long tradition of bushmeat trade based on supplies from rural areas to markets In urban areas. There are well-established chains, from the hunter through retailers in the cities. This system provides employment and Income for large numbers of people.

Bushmeat is by far the most expensive meat In many countries. For example. In Iba- dan, Nigeria In 1975, when market prices for mutton and beef were US$2.80 and $4.20 per kg respectively, grasscutter meat cost as much as $9.60 per kg and wild hare cost $7.20 per kg (Asibey, 1987).

Often, the demand for bushmeat and the consequent bushmeat prices are increasing much more rapidly than those for domestic meat. For example, an analysis of market prices in Accra, Ghana revealed that in the period 1980-1986 bushmeat prices increased eightfold, while those for beef increased six- fold (Asibey, J 987).

In many parts of Africa, the high demand for and cost of bushmeat, compared to other forms of animal protein, has created a situa- tion where the hunter finds It more profitable to sell his catch, rather than eat it.

Wildlife as a source of income

In most sub-Saharan countries, subsis- tence agriculture provides employment for

the majority of people. Activities that gene- rate additional Income or reduce expenditure are invaluable, particularly where they en- hance the quality of rural life. The forest, forest products and wild animals provide such possibilities. Hunting activities generate considerable income in many parts of Africa (Asibey, 1978a,b, 1987).

In the Bendel State of Nigeria, when 25 percent of the population were earning an an- nual income of less than US$130 per annum, and 38 percent were earning between US$130 and US$600, a grasscutter {Thryono- mys swinderianus Temminck), a small rodent, was selling for US$7.61 . Therefore, a hunter who was able to kill four grasscutters per month, was very comfortably in the second- income bracket (Martin, 1983).

In Ghana In January 1987 the official mini- mum daily wage was 90 cedis (Ed. note: cur- rency fluctuations make a US$ comparison impractical); at the same time, a grasscutter brought a minimum of 200 cedis in the rural areas, and from 700 to 3,400 cedis in Accra (Asibey, 1987). In an earlier study Asibey (1978b) found that farmers more than dou- bled their agricultural income by selling bush- meat to chop bars (traditional restaurants) in Sunyani, the regional capital.

These examples are not isolated cases. Hunting and gathering of wild animals as food items provide substantial income directly or indirectly for large numbers of rural people across Africa (Asibey, 1978a). For many of them, income from hunting is an essential part of their subsistence economy: they must hunt to survive.

The income derived from hunting is often spent on cheaper protein (usually poorly pre- served fish) with the savings used to meet other expenses (Asibey, 1974b, 1978a, b). Clearly this trend has the potential to affect

40

the diet of rural people adversely and to threa- ten their food security In terms of quality and nutritional status of diet. If the availability of bushmeat is not increased, rural consumption may decline, as the rate of exploitation and in- tensity of hunting to supply urban markets are increased by demand. The situation is com- pounded where domestic animal husbandry is unable to meet protein needs, for example in trypanosomiasis-infested areas. The socio- economic cost of this scenario to the rural communities requires critfcal examination.

International trade in bushmeat

Throughout the world, bushmeat has be- come increasingly important as an item of in- ternational trade. Yet despite the considera- ble production of bushmeat in Africa, no country stands out as an exporter. In part, this is because of the stringent standards de- manded by the principal importers, notably the Federal Republic of Germany and France. However, this is mainly due to the lack of sta- tistical information on bushmeat trade within Africa. Most countries of the region (except Ghana) still give no systematic consideration to bushmeat consumption or trade at national levels of planning, finance and development. The limited Information collected remains un- published and thus unavailable.

This is a serious omission, with unfortu- nate consequences for those whose survival is closely linked to wild animals, as a source of food and Income, and also for efforts to conserve and manage wildlife resources.

Conservation and management of wildlife

In most countries of sub-Saharan Africa, wildlife conservation efforts have stemmed from concern over the severe depletion and in some cases near or complete extinction of selected large game species ~ lion, elephant, rhino, etc. ~ that represent significant poten- tial sources of national income. Given this orientation, the most common approach has been the application of stringent laws des- igned to prevent all exploitation of wildlife wi- thin protected areas, and to restrict utilization severely throughout the country.

Where animals and their habitat are in jeo- pardy, this approach is often the only practi- cal first step available toward long-term sus- tained conservation and management. But it must be clearly recognized as a temporary and transitional phase.

Various options are open for this. The simplest and often the most effective Is to pro- tect existing populations. Where viable popu- lations no longer remain, suitable parts of the former range of a species may be selected for reintroduction of wild animals. There is evi- dence that introduced species can multiply to economically exploitable levels (Teer, 1971). The technology is available but funding is a constraint. Attractive returns that have been demonstrated need to be further consolidated and better communicated to potential inves- tors.

However, there is clear evidence that at- tempts to protect or re-establish wildlfe re- sources that do not take into consideration the socio-economic needs of local people are doomed. Preservation laws are often abused with Impunity. This is to be expected where resources are linked with survival. People

41

with very low incomes survive as best tiiey can. The temptation to break preservation laws is great, since wild animals can provide food and cash. Furthermore, the people who should enforce the law often receive inade- quate salaries and therefore may be tempted to turn a blind eye to or even aid rich exploi- ters such as illegal trophy hunters.

If a wildlife management programme is to be effective in the long term, it must be based

Bushmeat being sold in Kumasi central market (Ghana) Viande de brousse vendue au march^ central de Kumasi (photo J. Falconer)

on the active involvement and participation of local people, and provide them with signifi- cant and sustainable benefits in terms of both food and income (see article on a successful effort in Zambia on p. 10).

Management of wild animals to increase food resources

Although the domestication of many spe- cies of wild animals is theoretically possible, relatively little progress has been made in this area. There is high potential for the taming and handling of many species of animals. For example, in Ghana it has been demonstrated that the grasscutter can be raised for quality meat in boxes in human dwellings (Asibey, 1974b,c).

Even without domestication, however, there are indications that wild animals could be successfully managed for food, either in isolation or integrated into existing agricultu- ral systems, i.e. livestock production, forestry, and crop production.

Commercial production of bush- meat

in some countries, besides subsistence captive breeding, attempts have been made at commercial farming or ranching of wild ani- mals for meat and by-products. Bushmeat is not a new commodity that needs to be adver- tised. None of the countries in which assess- ments have been made have sufficient wild animals to meet bushmeat demand. Any In- novation that increases productivity is there- fore desirable. Captive breeding and ran- ching could be key concepts in this connec- tion, and there are indications of a good fu- ture for the development of more such ranches (Jintanugool, 1978).

Where it is desirable to create ranches or centres for bushmeat production, the estab- lishment of these facilities near consumer communities gives the advantages of a ready

42

market, mlnimai transport and possibilities for recreational use to generate additional in- come.

Besides reducing pressures on wild popu- lations, ranching and captive breeding can al- so ease competition between urban and rural users. Non-consumptive use, I.e. game wat- ching, and sport hunting on wild animal ranches can generate additional employment, income and revenue.

Integration of wild animal and livestock production

Both wild and domestic animals convert vegetable matter into valuable meat; however, until recently Indigenous animals have been deliberately exterminated to allow exclusive use of rangelands by domestic stock. Limited narrow knowledge, and a fear of reduction In productivity resulting from competition be- tween wild and domestic animals, as well as the presumed transfer of diseases were among the root causes for this approach.

Benchmark studies, however, have conclusively established that the meat-produ- cing potential of wild animals often compares favourably with livestock (Asibey, 1966; Blax- ter, 1975; King and Heath, 1975; Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979; Thresher, 1980).

Moreover, the elimination of wild animals does not necessarily lead to maximum utliza- tion ot vegetation on rangelands. Domestic animals are selective in their feeding and not all plants on the range are utilized. A variety of comaptible animals, which do not compete for food resources, can thus be advantageous (Asibey and Asare, 1978). This is possible with a suitable mix of domestic and wild ani- mal species. For example, domestic cattle and kudu, impala and hartebeeste are mana-

ged in combination in South Africa, resulting in an overall increase In yield per hectare (Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979). Systematic integra- tion of wild animals with domestic livestock is also practised in Zimt)abwe (Woodford, 1983; Worou, 1983). It should be observed that the plants consumed by the wild animals might otherwise have to be controlled manually or chemically. It is therefore more economical to combine livestock with wild animals on ran- gelands to maximize the use of vegetation and avoid the need for weed control.

Given the potential for bushmeat produc- tion alongside livestock, it is important to fo- cus on the developing systems and technolo- gies to improve integration and increase meat production. There is a need to pull together information on the integration of wild animals and livestock and evaluate socio-economic returns. This should provide direction for fu- ture development and more rational utilization of rangelands. The additional revenue that can be derived from wild animals through sport hunting and recreation should also be borne in mind.

Wild animals and forestry

Wild animals are one of the most impor- tant direct contributions of the forests to the well-being of local people, yet in the past they have been regarded by foresters as "minor" products or even as pests. Forest manage- ment efforts have generally not included the deliberate application of techniques designed to increase the sustainable yield of bushmeat from forest-based wild animals. Further consideration of this possibility could lead to significant improvements in forestry develop- ment efforts, both those aimed at commercial

43

production as well as those concentrating on conservation of the resource base.

Selective timber extraction enhances ve- getation growth and therefore favours in- creases in the populations of many forest ani- mals. For example, a recent study (Prins and Reitsma, 1989) found that in southwest Ga- bon the African buffalo {Syncerus caffer na- nus Sparrman) was absent in primary forest but present in secondary forest. Although the study did not produce conclusive evidence with regard to smaller animals, it is probable that the relationship holds for these as well. Allowing or even encouraging hunting of small animals in logging areas by local people could help them to achieve food security and therefore to ensure that the forest would be more valuable to them as forest than under any other form of land use.

Similarly, in conservation areas local peo- ple could be allowed to hunt in exchange for assistance in reafforestation efforts. This would provide a motivated source of local la- bour, a serious constraint in many forestry ef- forts.

On the other hand, monoculture tree plan- tations tend to result in reductions of both quantity and variety of wild animal species, particularly where exotic tree species are used. The alteration of the natural ground cover may create an inappropriate environ- ment for animal species. This, in turn, can re- sult in an increased risk of fire, as under- growth that was formerly eaten by animals is left untouched. Planting might be organized in such a way as to allow indigenous species of fodder value to remain in or along the bor- ders of the plantation area. The trade-off that would be socio-economically optimal has yet to be determined.

Habitat manipulation techniques also may be developed and improved to enhance wild

animal production in savannah forests. For example, the planting of indegenous trees of nutritional value would help to increase bush- meat yield potential where other interventions may be inadvisable.

Wild animals in crop production systems

In general, agricultural crops have been regarded as being in direct competition with wild animals, with the result that extensive efforts have been devoted toward their com- plete extermination. In fact, the origin of many of the national game departments in southern Africa can be traced to the percei- ved need for an organization with the respon- sibility for destroying wild animal "pests" that threatened government plantations.

Wild animals can and do cause tremen- dous damage to agricultural crops. Some antelope species browse young trees and eat valuable agricultural crops. Birds, notably the quelea, are known to cause serious damage to grain crops and drastically reduce yield. Rodents cause untold millions of dollars worth of losses, both in the field and after har- vest.

But the plantation system also creates an environment that is particularly favourable to the harvesting and utilization of wild animals as food. Unfortunately, the anxiety generated by the damage tends to be so ovenA/helming that possibilities to utilize pest species for nutritional purposes are rarely examined. In many situations the development of techni- ques for the sustainable exploitation of the animals concerned could control damage and provide an additional source of income and food.

Ironically, in many situations effective tra-

44

ditional techniques already exist but are unu- sed because local people are often employed only as a source of labour in plantation sys- tems; their knowledge of local conditions is ignored. For example, in West Africa, various traditional methods exist to trap and utilize potential rodent pests, e.g. grasscutter {Thryonomys swinderianus Temmnick) in Ghana, Benin and Cote d'lvoire, and giant rat {Cricetomys gambianus) in Nigeria around agricultural crops. This both provides food and keeps the population of these animals be- low excessive levels. By including local peo- ple in plantation efforts, these methods could be applied cost-effectively on a large scale. In fact, on many cocoa and oil-palm planta- tions, local workers can be observed trapping so-called pests for food in their free time.

Rice cultivation under irrigation in northern Ghana faced serious problems with grain- eating bird pests. Local workers were trained in using mist-nets, with the result that the da- mage was substantially reduced and the far- mers obtained a good source and regular

supply of protein in what was previously a protein-deficient area (Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

Another approach to integrating wild ani- mal and crop production could be the mainte- nance or creation of patches of natural mixed vegetation alongside plantation areas, which will allow wild animals to survive. In many countries hedgerows and shelter-belts pro- vide a valuable habitat in areas that would otherwise be devoid of wild animals. Al- though not deliberately instituted for bush- meat production, systematic application could be valuable in many sub-Saharan coun- tries where large stretches of land are farmed.

There has been no major deliberate effort to integrate wild animals into cropping sys- tems in sub-Saharan Africa. It is hoped that in the long run the renewed interest in the inte- gration of tree growing into agricultural sys- tems (agroforestry) will be followed by inte- gration with wild animals that will take advan- tage of the tree cover.

Wildlife legislation

Large game species have been depleted in many counties, leading to imposition of protective legilatioh La rarefaction du gros gibier dans de nombreux pays a amend a promulguer des lois scveres de protection

(photo J.J. Leroy)

Legislation has been a ma- jor constraint to the utilization of wild animals for food in subsis- tence econo- mies, because it is designed to protect endan- gered species and regulate tro- phy hunting. Le- gislation in tropi- cal countries of- ten seeks to es-

45

tablish sport hunting as perceived in Europe. Tlius, sucli concepts as game animals, liun- ting seasons, bag limits, trophies, hunting re- serves and royal game, have been freely adopted. Their biological validity under tropi- cal conditions does not appear to have been questioned.

A serious defect of such legislation Is that traditional utilization is ignored or defined as poaching and the technologies used declared unlawful methods of hunting. Furthermore, possession, disposal and commercialization of wild animal meat or other products are ille- gal. To cater for conflicts with livestock and agriculture, the concept of vermin has been adopted.

Thus, by focusing on endangered and tro- phy species, national legislation in many de- veloping countries has had a negative effect on the management of species that do not fall Into these categories. The institution of state ownership of wildlife, centrally imposed li- cences and restrictions on the sale of pro- ducts prevent landholders from considering wildlife management as a potentially profita- ble land use option. Thus, incentives to conserve wildlife are stiffled.

Conclusioi\

Hitherto there has been little or no serious planning to develop the potential of wild ani- mals to contribute to rural economies. For over two decades in most of sub-Saharan Africa, wild animals have received relatively serious attention for their role in tourism. The role of wild animals as food, however, gene- rally Is taken for granted and ignored, or sim- ply not acknowledged as being of any signifi- cance.

The management of wildlife resources for their meat-producing potential has remained essentially an academic exercise. An excep- tion is in Zimbabwe, where both commercial and communal landholders now show interest in developing their wild animal stocks for both economic benefits and for food.

In most countries, however, the basic in- formation necessary to regulate and sustain the use of wildlife resources for food does not exist. Detailed work is necessary to survey wild animal resources, to ascertain the pre- sent level of dependence of subsistence eco- nomies on wild animals for food and income, and to develop options for management.

In most cases, progress Is hindered by a shortage of adequately trained workers and a lack of resources. To date, wildlife conserva- tion and management have fallen on the shoulders of a dedicated few, although for- mally there has been official participation on a continuing basis. Lack of interest at national and international levels has been a chronic blockage to advancement from local or indivi- dual efforts to wide-ranging programmes. Al- though most African wildlife management programmes require an increase in funding to support the human and material resources and technology needed to turn overexploita- tion into sustained utilization, in many In- stances relatively modest resources, when di- rected to effective approaches, could yield substantial results. What is most required is a broad-based commitment to the sustainable utilization of wildlife resources for rural deve- lopment.

In this context, it is noteworthy that in de- veloped countries wild animals continue to be managed and utilized as a food resource, as well as for sport and recreation. A similar, multiple-use approach should be strongly ad- vocated for sub-Saharan Africa.

46

The time Is ripe to focus critical eyes on the poten- tial role of wild ani- mals in food securi- ty, and particularly on possibilities for Incorporating these considerations In ongoing rural deve- lopment projects. The potential also exists for linkages between wildlife management ef- forts and nutrition projects in develo- ping countries.

Forest reserves and forested land have important contributions to make in maintaining wild animal populations for sustained utilization. However, for forests to fulfil this potential, forest management plans must be re-evaluated to ensure that they consider all forest resources, including wildlife, as a source of local as well as natio- nal benefits.

Bibliography

Asibey, E.O.A. 1966. Why not bushmeat too?

Ghana Farmer, 10: 165-170. Asibey, E.O.A. 1974a. Wildlife as a source of

protein In Africa south of the Sahara.

Bio-Consen/ation, 6(1): 32-39. Asibey, E.O.A. 1974b. Some ecological and

economic aspects of the grasscutter

(Thrynomys swinderianus Temminck),

Tiypanosomiasis-resistant wildlife species (here a topi) could be ranched for food in tsetse- infested areas Les especes d'animaux sauvages resistant a la tiypanosoraiase (id un topi) pour- raient fitre elev^es dans les zones infest^es par la mouche ts^-ts^ (photo J J. Leroy)

mammalia, rodenta {Hystricomorpha) In Ghana. Univ. of Aberdeen. (PH.D. thesis)

Asibey, E.O.A. 1974c. The grasscutter, Tryo- nomys swinderianus Temminck, in Ghana. Symp.Zool. Sac. London, 34: 161-170.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1978a. Wildlife production as a means of protein supply In West Africa with particular reference to Ghana. Proc. 8th World Forestry Congr., Vol III, P. 869-881.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1978b. An aspect of wildlife in the life of farmers in Ghana. Accra, De- partment of Game and Wildlife, (mi- meo)

Asibey, E.O.A. & Asare, E.0. 1978. Range and wildlife management In Africa. Proc. AAASA 3rd General Conference, p. 83- 115. Vol. II. Ibadan, Nigeria.

47

Asibey, E.O.A. & Eyeson, K.K. 1975. Additio- nal information on the importance of wiid animals as a food source in Africa south of Sahara. J. Ghana Wildlife Soc. Bongo. 1(2): 13-17.

Asibey, E.O.A. 1987. The grasscutter. Accra, Ghana; FAO Regional Office for Africa.

Blaxter, K.L 1975. Protein from non-domesti- cated herbivores. In Pirie, N.W., ed. Food protein sources, p. 147-1 56. Lon- don, Cambridge University Press.

FAO. 1 989. Forestry and nutrition: a reference manual. Rome.

HIadik, C. et al. 1987. Se nourrir en foret equatoriale: anthropologie alimentaire diff^rentielle des populations des re- gions forestidres humides d'Afrique. Research Team Report No. 263. Paris, CNRS.

Hoogesteijn Reul, R. 1979. Productive poten- tial of wild animals in the tropics. WId Anim. Rev. 32: 18-24.

Jintanugool, J. 1978. The integrated manage- ment of forest wildlife as a source of protein for the rural population of Thai- land. P roc. 8th World Forestry Congr., Vollll, p. 851-858.

King, J.M. & Heath, B.R. 1975. Game domesti- cation for animal production in Africa. Experiences at the Galana ranch. WId Anim.Re^., 16:23-30.

Korang, T. 1986. Impact of forest manage- ment on the rural population: a case- study of the Subri Project. Kumasi, Ghana, Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, Univ. of Science and Te- chnology. (Unpublished thesis)

Lanly, J.P. 1982. Tropical forest resources. FAO Forestry Paper No.30. Rome, FAO.

Ledger, H.P. & Smith, N.S. 1964. The carcass

and body composition of Uganda kob. J. Wild. Mgmt, 28(4): 827-829.

Martin, G.H.G. 1983. Bushmeat in Nigeria as a natural resource with environmental im- plications. Environ. Conserv. 2: 125- 132.

Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. 1986. Research priorities for sustainable utilisation of wildlife re- serves in West Africa. Proc. 18th lUFRO World Congr., Vol. II, p. 687-698.

Prins, H.H.T. & reitsma, J.IVI. 1989. Mamma- lian biomass in an African equatorial rain forest. J. Anim. Ecol., 58: 851 -861 .

Teer, J.G. 1971. Game ranching in Texas, p. 893-899. lUCN Pub. No. 24.

Woodford, M.H. 1983. Wild animal meat and products utilisation at subsitence level in Africa. 7th session of the African Fo- restry Commission Working Party on Wildlife Management and National Parks. FO paper AFG/WL: 83/6.5.

Worou, L 1983. The management of national parks and other conservation areas for rural development. 7th Session of the African Forestry Commission Working Party on Wildlife /Management and Na- tional Parks. FO paper AFC/WL:83/6.2.

*E.O.A. Asibey, formerly Chief Administra- tor, Forestry Commission, Ghana, is currently an Ecologist at the World Bank In Washing- ton, D.C.

*G.S. Child Is Senior Officer (Wildlife and Protected Area Management), FAO Forestry Department, Rome.

Article culled from Unasylva, Vol. 41, n" 161, pp. 3-10

48

The fate of the African rhinoceros : tragedy on a continental scale*

by Bernard de Wetter**

Violent, dangerous, aggres- sive, vicious: there is no limit to adjectives to describe the rhince- ros. Such a reputation which was purposely maintained for dozens of years by the accounts of great hunters is, however, unjustified. Of course, the rhinoceros have then- character: they are some- times irritable and their reac- tions are always unpredictable. However they are not the aggres- sive monsters which exist only in the minds of men, when the lat- ter ovecome the animals in order to better justify their own ten- dency to crudeness and vio- lence- Surprising, anachronistic and strange, rhinoceros are the last descendants of an ancient line, the only survivors of a family which had its moments of glory in an era when man did not yet exist. As Uving fossils rescued from prehistory and proof of an ended era, rhinoceros have gone through the ages untouched. Evolution made them machines perfectly adapted to the world in which they live, but it was not able to protect them from the co- vetousness of man.

A 100,000 black rhinoceros still Uved in Africa just a few do-

zens of years ago. Today, there remain less than 3,500 and the poaching craze which broke out over most of the continent is per- haps in the process of giving them the final death-blow. As regarding the white rhinoceros, the other species present in Afri- ca, the current numbers repre- sent no more than a fraction of what they were in the last centu- ry-

Although the fact remains that they are declining, it is the underlying causes of this decline which are unacceptable. The rhinoceros do not in any way come into conflict with man's ac- tivities, and pose no danger to the latter. Besides, they still have enough space to be able to live alright in most parts of their dis- tribution areas. If they disap- pear, it is only because they have been massacred in great num- bers and particularly for frivo- lous reasons, since it is purely more or less to sustain the tradi- tions and beliefs solidly entren- ched in the mentality of certain peoples.

The rhinoceros suffer all these misfortunes because of the horns sticking out in front of their heads. These are not joi- ned to the skeleton of the animal. In fact, they are nothing more than a cluster of keratin, that is to say, a material comparable to our finger-nails or the hoofs of horses. However, they are gree- dily craved for in some parts of the world. In the Far East, they

are taken as medication, and are supposed to have several powers, almost magical (but its actual ineffectiveness has now been scientifically proven). In Yemen, they are used to make the cross- heads of traditional daggers, "djambiahs", which every male Yemeni who respects himself must carry.

The contentions between rhi- noceros and man date a long way back: for thousands of years these animals have been coveted by human beings who attributed supernatural virtues to them. In Europe in the Middle Ages, was it not mistaken for the Unicorn, that mystic animcil? Man's inter- est in the rhinoceros has left traces throughout history.

The horns of the rhinoceros were greatly used at the begin- ning of the Christian era in impe- rial China. Shaped by renowned artisans, they were transformed into ornamental objects reserved for the affluent in society. Most of the horns used in the Far East in that era were however trans- formed into sculptured cups which only served as items of col- lection. Consequently, the cups mainly served to detect the pre- sence of poison in a drink. The practice of testing drinks with the horn spread in the Far East, Europe and even in some parts of Africa. But the rhinoceros horn was at all times used mainly in the field of medicine. Euro- peans attributed curative powers to it for several hundreds of

49

years. However, it was in Asia that the use of the rhinoceros horn in traditional medicine was widespread. As a universal pa- nacea, or almost, the horn was considered cis possessing (and still possesses) cures for a whole range of illnesses ranging from fevers and migraines, food poiso- ning to snake bites ! Only the Gujaratis of eastern Inida, howe- ver, attributed aphrodisiac po- wers to the rhinoceros horn.

The trade in rhinoceros horn was already a flourishing busi- ness in some parts of Africa well before the arrival of the Whites. Already in the first centuries of the Christian era, the Arabs maintained relations with the African ports of the Red Sea and the horn collected on the conti- nent was exported to Arab and Indian ports, from where it then went on to China. The trade be- tween Africa and the East went on over the centuries, via the port cities of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. The English and Germans who divided up East Africa in the last century continued the trade in rhinoce- ros horn. It is estimated that du- ring the second half of the 19th century, an average of eleven tons of horn was exported an- nu£illy, which means the death of at least 170,000 animals !

The value of the horn increa- sed gradually thro^i^out the 20th century. The sale of the rhi- noceros horn and ivory became the monopoly of the State in east

and southern Africa after inde- pendence. At the end of the 1960's, the horn was sold at £30 a kilo. But this figure was to in- crease tenfold some ten years la- ter and continued thereafter to soar to astronomic amounts. Se- veral factors are responsible for this rocketing of prices, the main one being the entry onto the scene of a new buyer in the 1970's - Yemen. North Yemen for decades, remained a particu- larly poor nation and completely cut off from the rest of the world, but due to a terrible civil war which devastated it for more than eight years, the country opened up to international aid. At the same time, many Yemenis went to work in the oil fields of Saudi Arabia at the beginning of the 1970's. Considerable

amounts of foreign exchange brought back by these workers propped up the economy of the country and allowed the buyers, who were still many, to obtain a luxury item, up till then reserved for the elite of the society: a dag- ger with the handle sculptured in rhinoceros horn. At the end of the 1970's, Esmond Bradley Martin, an American geogra- pher, threw light on the role played by North Yemen in the disappearance of the Africzm rhinoceros. This small country with a population of less than six million people, absorbed all by itself not less than 50% of the to- tal volume of trade in African rhinoceros.

Nobody ever knew and nobo- dy will ever know how many rhi- noceros there were in Africa at the time the first white explorers set foot on this land which was up until then unknown. Indeed the accounts of the first travellers are full of encounters with rhino- ceros and it was not uncommon to come upon 60-80 rhinoceros in just one day of walking. With the development of colonial structures, the golden age of the great hunters started and since the end of the last century, Afri- can wildlife has had an irresisti- ble attraction for hunters from all horizons. Big, calm and har- dly suspicious beasts, the rhino- cerous, handicapped by their in- difference, constituted the first targets.

The white man went on a real carnage, especially in South Afri- ca. The white rhinoceros was the first to be affected by this abusive hunting. In 1890, the species had disappeared from the south of the continent, so to speak. In 1890, a group of six were howe- ver seen in Natal and for the first time, measures to protect these animals were taken; hunting was prohibited and a reserve was soon estabhshed for their protec- tion. In central Africa, the white rhinoceros was already the ob- ject of exploitation well before the arrival of the whites but the latter soon associated themselves with Arab traders in search of rhinoceros, especially in Chad.

50

The black rhinoceros which are more in number and less easy to locate than their white "cou- sins", managed to Uve much lon- ger, but their numbers continued to dwindle throughout the whole of the first half of the 20th centu- ry and already in the 1940's, the species became very rare in some countries such as Chad, Ethiopia and Somalia. Elsewhere on the contrary, the period between the two wars marked an era of reco- very for the rhinoceros, and it was rather the cultivation of new lands and not hunting which re- duced their numbers.

At the beginning of the 1950's, though the rhinoceros had thus disappeared from part of their distribution area, their future as a species was not threa- tened in any way. In South Afri- ca on the contrary, the white rhi- noceros had a remarkable growth. But the years of recove- ry did not continue for long... Al- ready in the 1950's, there was re- newed poaching of rhinoceros, a tendency which only increased thereafter almost everywhere in Africa. At the beginning of the 1970's, traditional arms were re- placed by modern and dangerous equipment - automatic hunting guns and rifles. A real wave of poaching started to break out in Africa, eliminating along its way the rhinoceros in one coimtry af- ter another. The rhinoceros, so to speak, disappeared from Ethiopia, Somalia, Chad, Sudan,

Angola Mozambique and Ugan- da at the end of the 1970s.

East Africa was equally hard hit. Kenya, which still had 20,000 black rhinoceros in 1970, had no more than 500 fifteen years later. The poaching disease then hit neighboring Tan2ania and Zam- bia and the rhinoceros were de- cimated within a few years. The Central African Republic was for a long time considered as a sure bastion for rhinoceros, but in

1983, members of the Bokassa government suddenly became aware of the incredible potential of the country's 3,000 rhinoceros, so the massacre was carried out with unprecedented efficiency and 99% of the rhinoceros in the country were annihilated in a matter of months...

Only one country, Zimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia in the British colonial era), still had several thousand rhinoceros in

1984, but in this very year, the rhinoceros killers turned theu- at- tention to this last bastion. The first incursions of poachers were recorded in December 1984 and the country had to quickly deal with a real invasion of well-orga- nised poachers who were power- fully armed and particularly ag- gressive, operating initially from neighbouring Zambia.

Where the poUtical situation permitted, more intensive efforts were carried out to ensure the protection of the rhinoceros, but the anti-poaching fight and the reinforcement of the means of

surveillance could however not prevent the killers from perpe- trating their misdeeds even in the most frequented sites. Kenya was soon forced to gather most of her 500 surviving rhinoceros into special sanctuaries built for them. From 1985, a national plan for the rescue of rhinoceros was implemented, and work was undertaken in order to provide sancutaries in five national parks. These sanctuaries are real for- tresses surrounded by a three meter high fence electrified with 5,000 volts of current and fitted with electronic alarm systems. They are under permanent sur- veillance day and night by guards who walk round the fence along which patrol posts have been erected at intervals of a few kilo- meters. Five national parks were designated to possess such sanc- tuaries of areas varying from 2,500 to 22,000 hectares, namely Nakuru, Nairobi, Meru, Tsavo and Aberdares. Four private ranches which currently keep more than one third of Kenya's rhinoceros were £ilso included in the national plan for the rescue of these animals...

More than 1,000 white rhino- ceros were in the Garamba Na- tional Park in Zaire at the tune of independence, but only 14 re- mained in all, when an ambitious rescue programme for these ani- mals was launched in 1984. Fi- nanced by UICN, The Zoologi- cal Society of Frankfurt and UNESCO, the rehabihtation

51

programme for the Garamba Na- tional Park has since 1984 car- ried out careful surveillance on the white rhinoceros whose num- bers have since risen to 22. These are the last survivors of a formerly flourishing population of several tens of thousands of animals spread over a vast terri- tory covering Chad, Central Afri- can Republic, Sudan, and the north of Zaire and Uganda.

From the moment of the first attacks by poachers in the Zam- bezi Valley in Zimbabwe, the go- vernment undertook a large- scale fight to save its rhinoceros, but in spite of the absolutely re- markable efforts made by this country, the black rhinoceros in the Zambezi Valley were deci- mated in hundreds. In 1985, the Department of National Parks consequently undertook to cap- ture as many rhinoceros as possi- ble in the Zambezi Valley so as to release them on the other sites situated fcir from the borders where they remaijied safe from the killers. Several hundreds of rhinoceros were already involved in this exercise, while in the Zambezi Valley a rhinoceros war continued, a war which sacrificed dozens of human lives, those of the wardens each year...

The efforts made in Kenya, Zaire and Zimbabwe probably constitute the last chance of sur- vival for the rhinoceros in Africa. As long as the rehabilitation pro- gramme lasts in the Garamba National Park, one can hope that

the white rhinoceros of central Africa will survive and slowly multiply. If the fortresses in Ke- nya manage to succeed in their role, they will make possible an important centre for reproduc- tion for black rhinoceros, lasting for as long as necessary. As long as the anti-poaching fight is car- ried out with as much vigor in the Zambezi Valley, the poachers cannot attack the rhinoceros po- pulations in South Africa, where today, the two species still enjoy exemplary protection. A few small populations of these pachy- derms are surviving in Botswana, Namibia, Malawi and Swaziland. South Africa is the last countury in Africa where the numbers of the two species are constantly in- creasing.

The rhinoceros suffered from all these mistakes. They occu- pied and still occupy an ambi- guous place in the minds and cultures of peoples as different from one another as Chinese, Arabs, Indians and Zulus.

For thousands of years the rhinoceros gave man a feeling of fascination mixed with supersti- tion and fear. While conferring supernatural qualities on them, man sought to eliminate them all along, as if the existence of the rhinoceros was unbearable for him because these strange crea- tures perhaps had the power to bring the human species to its right size and place. The rhino- ceros are there to remind us that

life on earth did not begin with the appearance of man...

If they disappeared, the world would no doubt continue to go on, but would nature in Africa, with its wonders of co- lours and shapes, still be the same without the rhinoceros ? If it proves impossible to save ani- mals as prestigious as these, what chances of survival would there be for the thousands of other en- dangered species elsewhere in the world, animals less known, even insignificant, not to mention plants ? What hope would there be of keeping the naturzil com- munities intact as well as all the creatures which constitute them; mammals, birds, fish, insects and other invertebrates from the most visible to the most discreet, the most imposing to the cal- mest, the most popular to the least liked, the most famous to the most absurd, and upon what, without exception, rests yet still the very foundation of life on our planet ?

In a few exceptional sanctua- ries, the last African rhinoceros still live their peaceful life, hee- dless of the patterns of day and night, seasons and years as they have always done and could still do till the end of time. On condition that man gives them the chance to do so...

* culled from:

"Les Cahiers d'Ethologie Appliqui

1989,9(1): 97-102

** Author's address: 35,rue Leys

B-1040 BRUSSELS (Belgium)

52

Les communautes africaines au secours de la faune: Texemple de la Zamble *

D.M. Lewis, A. Mwenya et G.B. Kaweche

A notre ipoque, la coexistence des ruraux avec la faune est tris pricaire et nicessite beaucoup d'assistance. Ritablir I'equilibre d long terme est une tdche enorme pour laquelle il ne suffira pas de l^giferer et de riprimer. La coope- ration des communautes rurales, comme dans les anciens temps, est essentielle.

Les soci6t6s africaines tradi- tionnelles vivaient en 6quilibre avec la faune. En effet, la cul- ture africaine attache une grande importance ^ la conservation de Penvironnement (Hadley, 1985; Marks, 1976). Mais I'avenement des administrations coloniales centralis6es a sap6 le droit cou- tumier ainsi que I'autoritd des chefs traditionnels qui en 6taient les ddpositaires (Swift, 1982; Wil- lis, 1985). Les administrations coloniales n'ont pas pu mettre en place d'autres structures effi- caces pour la conservation de la faune, d'oii une course effr6n6e vers la corne de rhinoceros, I'i- voire et, d'une fa9on g6n6rale, le braconnage.

Aprds I'inddpendance, la plu- part des Etats africains ont mai- tenu la structure coloniale cen- tralis6e des services de la faune et des pares nationaux. Dans la plupart des cas, l'am6nagement de la faune se limitait k des me- sures r6pressives, qui ont mainte- nu une barridre entre les habi- tants des zones prot6g6es ou du voisinage et la faune.

Pendant plus de 10 ans, la 2jambie s'est attach6e h. ram6na- gement de la faune et plus pr6ci- s6ment a la lutte contre le bra- connage, qui avait atteint des proportions alarmantes (Lewis et Kaweche, 1985; Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya, 1989; Leder-Wil- Uams, 1985). De grandes cam- pagnes de r6pression ont tit lan- c6es dans certaines zones du pays avec des financements considerables. On avait beau mettre les braconniers en prison, la destruction de la faune se poursuivait; dans certains cas, elle s'aggravait meme (Lewis, 1986). Les pertes ont tit consi- derables: quasi-extinction du rhi- noc6ros noir, rdduction de plus de 50% de la population d'616- phants. Des tendances analo- gues ont tit observ6es en R6pu- blique-Unie de Tanzanie, en Ou- ganda, en Namibie et au Kenya.

Alors meme que la politique de rdpression continuait d'etre appliqu6e, le Service zambien des pares nationaux et de la faune a entrepris des 6tudes ex- pdrimentales (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya, 1889) et organise un

atelier technique (Dalai-Clayton et Lewis, 1984) pour identifier les causes profondes de la chasse ill6gale. Ces efforts ont debou- ch6 sur une nouvelle politique d'amenagement de la faune: I'ADMADE, qui vise a combat- tre ces causes (Mwenya, Ka- weche et Lewis, 1988).

L'ADMADE, qui repose sur la participation populaire, s'est xtvt\t& extremement efficace. Par exemple, dans une zone ou la participation populaire a tit ac- tive, le braconnage des 61ephants a 6te rdduit de plus de 90% en trois ans (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya, 1989), et aucun rhino- ceros noir n'a 6te tu6 alors qu'il en existait suffisamment pour at- tirer les braconniers (Lewis, don- n6es non publi6es). Ces r6sultats ont tit obtenus pour un cout au kilometre carr6 bien inferieur a ce que beaucoup d'experts esti- ment necessaire pour assurer une bonne protection de la faune en Afrique (Parker, 1984; Bell et Clarke, 1984).

Cet article presente tout d'a- bord certaines variables quanti- fiables identifi6es h. la suite des 6tudes ci-dessus et de I'applica- tion de I'ADMADE comme les principaux facteurs k prendre en compte pour pr6dire I'intensitd du braconnage et les problemes d'am6nagement de la faune dans une zone donnde. Diverses me- thodes ou formules d'amenage- ment capables de modifier la va- leur de ces variables, et done de r6duire la frequence et I'intensitd

53

du bracoimage, sont pr6sent6es ensuite. L'article se termine par un ensemble de principes direc- teurs qui pourraient aider les planificateurs et les responsables de la faune africains a choisir les options d'cimenagement de la faune

VARIABLES ET RELATIONS CAUSALES

Les ressources locales en proteines

La ou il y a peu de sources "16gales" de proteines, les ruraux tendent k enfreindre la loi pour se procurer au moins une ration minimale. En I'absence de re- pression, ils ne se limitent pas a ce dont ils ont besoin pour I'au- toconsommation. Ainsi, les villa- geois vivzint a proximite des zones prot6g6es n'hesitent pas a y braconner malgre le risque d'e- tre pris.

Une comparaison entre deux villages voisins, tous deux situes dans une zone infestee par la mouche tse-tse, et ou il n'y a done pas d'animaux domesti- ques, montre bien a quel point I'existence d'autres sources de proteines influe sur I'intensite du braconnage parmi les villageois vivant a proximite des zones pro- tegees (Lewis, 1988; Lewis, don- nces non publices). L'un de ces villages est situe en bordure d'une riviere tres poissonneuse.

Dans I'autre, I'unique source de proteines d'une certaine impor- tance est constituee par la faune tres appauvrie de la zone. Le premier village compte beau- coup moins de chasseurs tradi- tionnels que le second, et le bra- connage y est beaucoup moins important.

Les possibilites d'influer sur cette variable peuvent etre limi- tees et dependent des caracteris- tiques de la zone. Une option possible consiste a developper d'autres sources de proteines (pisciculture, cultures riches en prot6ines, etc.). Une autre serait d'allouer aux chasseurs de cha- que village des quotas raisonna- bles pour approvisionner en viande la communaute. Cela re- duirait la pression que subissent les especes tout en permettantde mieux controler le taux d'exploi- tation. On peut meme, si cela est souhaitable du point de vue de I'amenagement, fixer le quota de fagon a obtenir une augmenta- tion des populations visees.

Emploi

A mesure que les ressources naturelles s'amenuisent et de- viennent moins accessibles, les soci6tes rurales africaines ont de plus en plus besoin d'activitds r6- muneratrices. Comme il existe un marche exterieur tr^s porteur des produits tels que viande, tro- phees (peaux, cornes, dents), etc., I'exploitation de la faune, 16- gale ou ill^gale est bien tentante pour des populations qui man- quent terriblement d'argent. Peu instruites, elles ignorent bien souvent la valeur marchande reelle des produits de la faune recherch6s par la clientele etran- gere et les troquent ou les ven- dent a vil prix.

Les possibilites d'emploi et les ressources en proteines va- rient d'une zone k I'autre, mais il est relativement facile de les me- surer. Ces informations permet- tent de predire I'intensite du bra- connage (voir figure 1). Les autorites responsables de Ta-

Disponibilitc d'autres sources de proteines

PEU NOMBREUX

Emplois

Figure 1 Intensite et caractere du bracon- nage en fonction des disponibilit^s de pro twines et d'emplois

54

menagement de la faune peuvent aider de plusieurs fagons a ac- croitre I'emploi. Elles peuvent notamment:

Employer pour I'amenagement de la faune line majorite d'hahi- tants de la zone, apres leur avoir donne une fonnation appropriee. Un programme de ce genre a 6le lance a litre experimental en 1985 par le Service zambien dcs pares nationaux et de la faune (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya, 1989). Les habitants ont alors mieux compris et apprecie I'im- portance de la faune, sa valeur economique et la necessite d'em- pecher les non-residents de venir chasser illegalement dans leur zone. Les gardes recrutes loca- lement pour proteger la faune de leur chefferie connaissent beau- coup mieux la terre et sont moins enclins a I'absenteisme que les fonctionnaires, qui generalement proviennent d'une autre region. Ces gardes villageois ont reussi a arreter beaucoup plus de bra- conniers que les gardes fonction- naires, pour un cout bien moin- dre car ils sont remuncres selon un barcme local.

Promouvoir des programmes encourageant les populations lo- cales a se lancer dans de petits ar- tisanat! bases sur I'exploitation viable ou Vohservation de la faune. L'experience prouve que les villageois s'interessent d'au- tant plus h. la conservation de la faune qu'ils en tirent un rende- ment soutenu. Dans ces condi-

tions, ils comprennent mieux I'activite de prevention et de re- pression des gardes recrut6s lo- calement. Par exemple, ils peu- vent spontanement les informer quand des braconniers pcnetrent dans la zone, comme cela est ar- rive en Zambie (Lewis, 1989).

Encourager les villageois a se reunir pour faire connaitre leur avis et eventuellement leurs criti- ques QonQQrnQtit Vammag^mmt de la faune locale. Ces reunions aident a combattre les prejuges et a promouvoir I'autodiscipline pour Tamenagement et la protec- tion de la faune (Lewis, 1988 et donnees non publiees). Cette approche est essentiellc pour etablir entre les services techni- ques du gouvernement et les po- pulations locales une coopera- tion permettant a ces dernieres de tirer legalement de la faune des avantages durables (Mwe- nya, Kaweche et Lewis, 1988).

Reconnaissance du role des chefs coutumiers

Les chefs coutumiers sont la pierre angulaire des societes ru- rales africaines et des traditions qui donnent aux villages leur uni- te et leur ordre. Autrefois, ces chef prenaient les decisions concernant la tenure des terres et I'acces aux ressources natu- relles dans Tinteret commun. Le regime colonial et les gouverne- ments qui lui ont succede ont al-

ter6 ou supprim6 ces pouvoirs traditionnels sans que les admi- nistrations centrales soient en mesure de prendre la releve et de faire appliquer la loi pour proteger la faune. D'oii un cer- cle vicieux: comme les ressources continuent a etre utilisees de fa- 9on abusive, la repression est maintenue, et cela tend a reduire encore I'influence des chefs cou- tumiers.

II faudrait permettre aux chefs coutumiers de jouer un role dans les programmes de conservation de la faune des gouvernements modernes en constituant une veritable associa- tion entre ces deux autorites. C'est ce qu'a reussi a faire I'AD- MADE (Mwenya, Kaweche et Lewis, 1988) en creant des comi- tes de la faune dans chaque zone d'amenagement. Presides par le gouverneur de district, ces comi- tes sont composes de chefs cou- tumiers locaux et de fonction- naires specialistes de la faune. lis se reunissent periodiquement pour proceder a des echanges de vue et adopter des poUtiques d'a- menagement pour la zone concernee.Les apports techni- ques directs et les investisse- ments peuvent ainsi etre achemi- nes par les fiUeres gouvernemen- tales, tandis que les chefs coutu- miers exercent leur influence pour mobiliser I'appui et la co- operation des populations lo- cales.

Dans la zone de Chikwa-Lue- lo, dans la vallee du Luangwa, les

55

deux chefs ont acceptd I'AD- MADE qui leur conferait ex offi- cio la presidence du Sous-Comi- ty de gestion de la faune dans leur chefferie. Les sous-comites transmettent les propositions et les demandes de financement au Comit6 de gestion de la faune. Les chefs ont renforce leur auto- rit6 en condamnant le bracon- nage, tout en assurant a leurs communautds qu'elles rece- vraient leur juste part des bene- fices provenant de la faune dans le cadre de I'ADMADE. II a suffi d'un an pour que le bracon- nage diminue beaucoup.

Le prestige des chefs a aug- mente du fait qu'ils avaient utili- s6 leurs pouvoirs traditionnels au profit de leurs communautes: les recettes ont ete partag6es comme I'avait promis le Service des pares nationaux et de la faune, et des habitants de la zone nonmi6s gardes villageois ont pu gagner de I'argent en gerant et protdgeant la faune de la cheffe- rie. Comme le braconnage avait deja diminue avant I'entree en fonction des gardes villageois, ce resultat a ete attribue a I'in- fluence des chefs coutumiers (communication personnelle de Peter Mwanza, chef de rUnit6 de la zone de Chikwa-Luelo).

Les chefs coutumiers obtien- nent des resultats analogues dans plusieurs autres zones d'am6na- gement de la faune ou I'AD- MADE rapporte des recettes considerables. Ainsi, dans la plupart des zones visees par

I'ADMADE, les comit6s de la faune ont ouvert des comptes de developpement communautaire ou est versee la part de recettes qui revient a la communaute. En 1988, cette part a et6 de 230 000 dollars U.S. pour un total de 10 unitds de I'ADMADE. Afin de garantir que les fonds soient reellement utilises comme le sou- haitent les communautes, les projets ne peuvent etre recom- mandes au Comite que par les sous-comites, compos6s essen- tiellement des chefs de villages, lesquels ont la signature pour les comptes de developpement villa- geois.

L'ADMADE a fait ressortir clairement le role des chefs cou- tumiers dans I'amenagement de la faune; cette formule est beau- coup plus rentable que la gestion directe par une administration nationale (voir figure 2). Par exemple, dans les zones d'ame- nagement de la faune de Luano et de Sichifula-Mulobezi, les chefs bannissent les villageois convaincus de braconnage parce qu'ils donnent le mauvais exem- ple et sont incapables de vivre en bonne harmonic avec la faune. La figure 3 illustre les relations entre les chefs coutumiers et les chasseurs et I'influence qu'elles peuvent avoir sur le braconnage.

Intensit

d

Braconnage

Interruption des apports

Cout de i'amenagement

figure 2: reduction de I'intensit^ de braconnage en fonction de raccroissement des depenses d'amenagement; comparaison entre 2 types d'amenagement:

a/ emploi de fonctionnaires charges d'appliquer des mesures de repression sans participation locale

b/ participation des populations locales sous I'autorit^ conjonte des chefs coutu- miers et de {'administration

56

Nombre de chasseurs! traditionnels

BRACONNAGE INTENSE

d'especes de grande | valeur marchande par des ! chasseurs de I'exterieur j utilisant des methodes non traditionnelles

BRACONNAGE MODERE

consistant essentielle- 1 ment en chasse de subsi- stance pratiquee par les residents; peu de complici- te avec les braconniers de | I'exterieur

BRACONNAGE MODERE

essentiellement par i des braconniers de I'exte- ] rieur; risque de participa- tion active des residents! payes en especes ou en | nature (viande)

BRACONNAGE FAIBLE k MODERE

Les residents sontl plus facilement complices | des braconniers de I'exte- rieur s'ils ne peuvent pas sel procurer de viande ou d'ar- 1 gent de fagon legale

IMPORTANT

R61e reconnu par le gouvernement aux chefs traditionnels dans I'amenagement de la faune

Figure 3 Intensity de braconnage en fonction du r61e reconnu par les gouvemements aux chefs traditionnels

La faune comme source de recettes

Les recettes que peut rappor- ter la faune sont un autre para- metre important pour la lutte centre le braconnage. Premiere- ment, I'amenagement local doit etre une source de recettes suffi- sante. Deuxiemement, il faut qu'une bonne partie de ces re- cettes soient r^investies sur place. Sans un budget annuel, tous les r6sultats, qu'il s'agisse de la cr6ation d'emplois, des nou- velles sources de prot6ines ou de la participation des autorites lo- cales resteront precaires. Com- ment mobiliser les populations

locales pour un programme dont la continuite n'est pas assuree?

II suffit de Jeter un coup d'oeil sur les plans de developpe- ment des pays africains pour constater que la faune ne b6nefi- cie pas d'une priorite trds elevee dans les budgets publics. Les t6- sultats du projet de developpe- ment du Lupande (Lewis, Ka- weche et Mwenya, 1989), ainsi que I'actuel programme AD- MADE (ADMADE, 1988), indi- quent que deux conditions sont essentielles pour que les popula- tions locales se mobilisent dura- blement en faveur de I'amenage- ment de la faune. Premierement, cet amdnagement doit rapporter des recettes a r6chelle locale.

deuxiemement, les populations doivent participer non seulement k la mise en oeuvre mais aussi a I'elaboration du programme.

La validite de ces principcs k I'echelle nationale est illustree par I'ADMADE. Pendant les exercices 1987 et 1988, 260 000 dollars, representant 40% des re- cettes totales provenant de la faune dans 10 unites de I'AD- MADE (en plus de I'allocation de base de 230 000 dollars dont il est question plus haut), ont ete reserves pour fmancer les bud- gets de fonctionnement et d'e- quipement approuv6s par les co- mites de la faune de ces 10 uni- tes: exploitation et entretien de 7 vehicules de I'ADMADE, traite- ments et indemnites des gardes villageois et des ouvriers, force publique, jetons de presence des membres des comites, construc- tion de 10 nouveaux campements et de 150 cases pour les gardes villageois, renovation de 3 mai- sons pour des cadres, construc- tion d'un bureau d'unite et mise en chantier de 3 autres.

PRINCIPES DIRECTEURS

On peut degager du pro- gramme de I'ADMADE en Zambie certains principes direc- teurs qui pourraient <iider les planificateurs et les responsables a choisir les meilleures options pour I'amenagement de la faune en Afrique.

57

Employer des n\ethodes de gestion previsionnelle pour reduire le bracon- nage

Comme les divers paramctres qui conditionnent le braconnage sont quantifiables, on peut deter- miner la formule d'amenagement appropriee en identifiant les pa- ramctres pertinents et les modifi- cations h y apporter. La figure 4 peut servir de base pour evaluer

les variables examinees dans le present article afin de determi- ner un modele degestion appro- pride.

Perseverance et sou- plesse

II ne faut pas s'attendre que les programmes d'amenagement de la faune reposant sur la parti- cipation locale soient immcdiate- ment accept6s par tous. Au de-

Dispoj nibilit^s d'autres sources dc proteines

Organiser loca- lement la surveil- lanc« de la faune avec une subvention de I'Etat

Sensibiliser les po pulations a Timporlance de la conservation er utilisant k leur profit le; recettes legales de la

faune

•

Donner un certain prestige aux habitants travaillant k I'annenage- ment de la faune

• Velller k assurer

aux gardes des remu

nerations competitives

Emplois locaux

Investir dans des formules lucratives d'amenagement pour developper i'emploi local

Developper d'au tres sources de pro leines

Etablir des quo tas viables et employe des chasseurs tradi tionnels pour e^^provi- sionner les consom mateurs locaux

• Employer maximum des gardes villageois remuneres grace aux recettes pro- venant de la faune

•

Prouver aux po pulations locales qu I'exploitation legale de la faune rapporte plus que le braconnage

Rentabiiit^ potentielle de la faune

Figure 4 Mesures d'amenagement appropriees en fonction de trois parametres influant sur I'inlensit^ du braconnage (voir fig.! et 3

but, les moniteurs locaux ris- quent d'etre mis sur le meme pied que les administrations pre- c6demment chargees d'appliquer les lois sur la faune et d'etre ren- dus responsables de leurs er- reurs (Lewis, 1989). Ainsi, meme s'il est potentiellement tres avantageux pour la commu- naute, le programme risque d'etre mal accueilli. Pour le faire accepter, le moniteur doit faire preuve de patience et de perse- v6rance. II doit etre sensible aux besoins et aux aspirations des populations locales et doit bien connaitre les antecedents et les coutumes tribales. Comment les populations se mobiliseraient- elles pour un programme qui leur est impose de but en blanc et dont elles ne comprennent pas les avantages?

L'utilisation legale de la faune doit etre rentable

La rentabilte du braconnage est un des facteurs les plus im- portants qui determinent, pour chaque esp5ce, I'intensite de la chasse illegale. Tous les animaux n'ont pas la meme valeur com- merciale; les cephalophes et les grysboks, par exemple, rappor- tent beaucoup moins que les ele- phants ou les rhinoceros. Un programme efficace de lutte contre le braconnage avec la par- ticipation des populations locales peut r6duire la chasse illegale, mais il est important qu'il soit

58

complete par des mesures pro- pres a maximiser les profits qui peuvent etre retires legalement des animaux les plus recherches, et a assurer qu'une partie suffi- sante de ces profits revienne aux coramunautes locales pour inci- ter celles-ci k appuycr la loi et pour financer le cout de I'amena- gement. Ce genre de formule a toutes chances d'etre bien accep- tee puisque I'utilisation legale de la faune rapportera plus que la complicite avec les braconniers (voir tableau page 18).

Le succes de I'ADMADE en Zambie illustre bien les nom- breux avantages de cette me- thode (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwe- nya, 1989; Mwenya, Kaweche et Lewis, 1988; ADMADE, 1988). Par exemple, dans la zone d'a- mcnagement de la faune du Bas Lupande, les chefs de village ont identifie plusieurs moyens d'a- meliorer Tamenagement de la faune pour accroitre les recettes et spontanement offcrt d'infor- mer les gardes villageois si des braconniers penetraient dans la zone. Une autre fois, ils ont fait observe que les safaris de chasse, qui sont la plus importante source de recettes legales, tuaient trop de lions males et ont sugger6 qu'on reduise le nombre de lions chasses, les remplagant au besoin par des honnes. Du point de vue de I'amdnagement, c'6tait une excellente suggestion; cela montre a quel point I'ame- nagement est faciUte quand la population locale I'accepte et se

rend compte qu'il peut etre pour elle une source durable de re- cettes.

Un autre exemple montre que la perspective de gains dura- bles aide a resoudre tres rapide- ment les problemes d'amenage- ment. Les feux de brousse allu- mes en fin de saison, quand le fourrage est sec, reduisent la ca- pacite de charge en faune. II a suffi d'avertir les chefs que les quotas de chasse, et done les re- cettes locales et la production de viande, risquaient d'etre reduits, pour qu'ils conseillent aux villa- geois de ne pas allumer de feux trop tard dans la saison.

Les avantages que rap- porte ramenagement doi- vent atteindre un certain seuil

La relation entre I'emploi cree localement par I'amenage- ment de la faune et la reduction du braconnage n'est pas lineaire dans les zones oil il y a peu d'em- plois pour les ruraux (voir figure 5). L'exemple de la Zambie montre que, quand I'amcnage- ment de la faune profite a un trop petit nombre d'habitants de la zone, les autres sont hostiles au programme et en entravent I'application (Lewis, 1989, don- nees non publiees). Mais quand

Intensite

de

braconnage

Reaction d'envie quand les b6n6fices sont r6serv6s k un petit nombre

Seuil d'efficacit6: effet de pression

Pourccntagc des habitants d'unc zone tirant ^^ des benefices de I'amcnagement de la faune ^

Figure 5 Modifications de I'intensite de braconnage en fonction du pourcentage des habitants de la zome qui tirent des benefices d'un programme d'am^na- gement encourageant I'utilisation legale de la faune

59

les b6n6ficiaires sont assez nom- breux, ils font pression en faveur d'une utilisation legale de la faune et Tintensitd du bracon- nage diminue rapidement.

L'emploi local cr66 par le projet pilote du Lupande dans le cadre de I'ADMADE s'est limit6 d'abord aux seuls gardes villa- geois. Peu a peu, le braconnage diminuant, on s'est efforc6 de cr6er d'autres emplois locaux en developpant I'utilisation viable et legale de la faune. Au bout de trois ans, il y avait il y avait trois foir plus de personnes gagnant ainsi leur vie que de gardes villa- geois (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwe- nya, 1989; Lewis, donn6es non publi6es), et le braconnage 6tait devenu ndgligeable. Les en- quetes ont r6v616 que les villa- geois 6taient d6sireux de dissua- der les braconniers d'entrer dans leur zone et prets h appuyer les gardes villageois (Lewis, 1988).

Utiliser les exemples de succes

Un programme qui r6ussit k r6duire les effets des variables influant sur le braconnage pent aussi servir de catalyseur pour amorcer des am61iorations dans les zones voisines. Ce qui s'est pass6 en ZLambie montre que I'information circule vite entre communaut6s voisines et que le succes est contagieux. Cela per- met d'61argir le programme sans ddpenses suppl6mentaires. Ainsi,

en 1989, deux ans seulement apr5s le lancement de I'AD- MADE, deux chefs qui n'6taient pas compris dans le programme ont demand^ officiellement que leur chefferie soit classde comme zone d'am6nagement de la faune relevant de I'ADMADE. En ef- fet, le Service des Pares Natio- naux et de la Faune ne pent utili- ser des fonds publics que dans les zones d'am6nagement.

Pour maximiser cet effet de contagion, il faut choisir, au d6- but, des zones oil le potentiel de la faune est relativement 61ev6 et pers6v6rer jusqu'^ ce que les avantages soient pleinement re- connus par la commaunaut6, afm que I'exemple soit convaincant pour les communautds voisines.

La zone amenagee peut avoir un effet tampon

La mobilisation des popula- tions locales pour I'am^nage- ment de la faune k proximit6 des zones prot6g6es et des pares na- tionaux peut r6duire consid6ra- blement le coiit de la surveillance de ces derniers. A mesure que le souci de conserver la faune se generalise, il devient de plus en plus difficile aux braconniers de trouver des complicit6s sur place (Lewis, Kaweche et Mwenya, 1989; ADMADE, 1988).

Organiser la protection des zones inhabitees

Un habitat qui convient k la faune n'est pas n6cessairement propice au peuplement humain. II existe done beaucoup de zones riches en faune mais inhabit6es. Pour assurer leur protection, il est int6ressant de mobiliser les communaut6s les plus proches en leur donnant le sentiment que c'est leiu" propre richesse qu'elles protdgeront. II sera ainsi facile de trouver le personnel n6- cessaire pour am6nager la zone et aussi d'en tirer de fagon dura- ble un ma»mum de recettes pour financer les couts d'amdna- gement et rapporter des avan- tages k la communautd.

Eviter les surencheres

Beaucoup d'amis de la nature s'offrent k aider b6n6volement k am6nager la faune en Afrique. LeiU" aide est souvent pr6cieuse, mais les modalit6s de la collabo- ration de ces volontaires avec les autorit6s nati(Hiales sont rare- ment ddfinies de fa^on precise. Quand des organisations non gouvernementales riches pren- nent des initiatives non coordon- n6es, il risque d'y avoir des conflits avec I'administration lo- cale. D'oii le danger de rivalit6 et d'utilisation inefficace des fonds disponibles pour la conser- vation de la faune. Ces conflits peuvent entrainer une mauvaise

60

allocation des ressources de la part des donateurs exterieurs.

Bien plus, ils risquent de de- moraliser les 6cologistes profes- sioimels des service officiels d'a- menagement de la faune. Tout cela peut en definitive rendre inefficace la lutte contre le bra- connage a cause notamment de la lenteur des interventions, de la mauvaise coordination avec les autres organisations officielles et de la difficulte de controler le personnel subalterne. La confu- sion rcgne ct le braconnagc re- double. Comme quoi I'enfer est pav6 de bonnes intentions: c'est justement I'effort de conserva- tion qui provoque tous ces pro- blcmes.

II est essentiel que les orga- nisraes donateurs et les organisa- tions non gouvernementales ap- puicnt sans reticence les autori- tes nationales, afin que cclles-ci puissent avoir toute Tautorile voulue pour faire respecter la loi et executer les programmes d'a- menagement de la faune.

CONCLUSION

Les parametres qui influent sur I'intensite du braconnage et sur I'intensite du braconnage et sur les autres problemes d'ame- nagement de la faune en Afrique sont identifiables et modifiables. Leur modification coute moins cher si les interventions sont gui- dees par les valeurs et traditions africaines et par un service des

pares nationaux sensible aux be- soins des populations locales. Cette approche de la conserva- tion, dont I'efficacite a 6te prou- vee en Zambie par un projet pi- lote, et qui a ete ensuite appli- quee dans tout le pays, pourrait etre etcndue a d'autres pcirties de I'Afrique. Le succes depend avant tout de la mobilisation des chefs coutumiers a I'appui des utilisations legales de la faune qui rapportent des benefices commerciaux, ainsi que de la participation des populations lo- cales aux activites d'amenage- ment.

Cette approche reposant sur la participation populaire et sur le recyclage des recettes tirees de la faune pour financer le d6- veloppemcnt local et I'amenage- ment meme de cette faune est pragmatique et rentable. Pour- tant, dans la majeure partie de I'Afrique, la conservation de la faune est encore essentiellement tributaire des financements exte- rieurs. Ces financements bien intentionnes, si indispensables soient-ils, ont pree une depen- dance qui a empeche d'adopter des formulcs d'amenagement ca- pables de s'autofinancer et repo- sant sur une utilisation viable de la faune. Souvent, les proposi- tions de projet comportent des budgets considerables afin d'in- teresser les donateurs. A cote de ces apports massifs de fonds, on a tendance a ne pas tenir compte de I'importance des ressources d'origine locale pour le finance-

ment des programmes commu- nautaires d'amenagement de la faune. De plus, les projets finan- ces par des dons ext6rieurs im- portants ne permettent pas en general de resoudre definitive- ment les problemes, car les ap- ports ne sont pas maintenus in- definiment. II est essentiel que les apports exterieurs fournis pour I'amenagement de la faune soient etroitement coordonn6s avec les efforts visant a mobiliser durablement la participation locale.

Article repris de Unasylva, Vol.41, n°161,pp 11-20

61

NOTES SUR LES CEPHALOPHES DE SIERRA LEONE

par V J. Wilson et B.L.P. Wilson*

RESUME

En ddcembre 1988, une breve expedition effectuee en Sierra Leone (Afrique de I'Ouest) dans le cadre du programme de la D6- cennie Panafricaine pour la Re- cherche sur les Cephalophes a donn6 des rdsultats tr^s concluants. Jusqu'au moment oil la visite fut effectu6e, aucun sp6- cimen scientifique de c6pha- lophe de Jentink (Cephalophus jentinki) n'avait encore 6t6 enre- gistr6. Et meme s'il y avait des raisons de croire k I'existence de I'espdce en Sierra Leone, un s6- rieux doute planait encore sur son statut r6el. L'6tude men6e confirme la decouverte en sep- tembre 1988 par Davies et Bir- kenhagen de la presence d'une colonic viable de cette esp^ce sur la P6ninsule de Freetown, dans la Reserve Forestidre de la Region Occidentale de Sierra Leone. Dans un village, on a ob- tenu d'un chasseur quelques paires de cornes de c6phalophes de Jentink. La decouverte non loin de la capitale Freetown d'une espece aussi rare et de sur-

croit menac6e d'extinction est d'une port6e considerable. Vu qu'on y trouve au moins trois si- non quatre esp6ces de cepha- lophes de foret, la region devrait pouvoir bdneficier du statut de Pare National. Des observations sur les neuf espdces de cepha- lophes de Sierra Leone ont ega- lement ete relevees.

INTRODUCTION

L'un des objectifs du Pro- gramme de la Decennie Panafri- caine pour la recherche sur les cephalophes initie par la Fonda- tion Chipangali pour la Faune (Zimbabwe) vise k etablir, h par- tir de recherches systematiques, le statut et la carte de repartition des espdces de cephalophes les plus rares vivant dans les zones forestieres du continent africain.

Selon Wilson (1987), toute politique serieuse en matidre de conservation et d'utilisation des ressources forestieres et de leur faune et fltffe doit etre precedee d'enquetes minutieuses.

C'est k ce genre de re- cherches que se hvre, k I'heure actuelle, la Fondation Chipangali pour la Faune au Zimbabwe qui s'impUque aussi activement dans des projets de recherche simi- laires dans d'autres pays afri- cains.

L'avenir des forets tropicales humides et autres ecosyst^mes des zones tropicales ne sera as-

sure que lorsque les populations qui vivent des ressources des fo- rets seront en mesure de pro- duire, plus qu'elles n'en ont be- soin pour leur survie, de la nour- riture et autres biens de consom- mation. Nous avons un grand besoin d'informations precises dans des domaines et zones criti- ques, pendant que nous dispo- sons encore de forets tropicales humides (Wilson 1987). Ayjmt cet objectif k I'esprit, le chef d'e- quipe de recherche a eiabore en decembre 1987, de concert avec I'UICN k Gland (Suisse), un plan d'action pour la Protection des cephalophes. II s'agissait d'ob- tenir des informations plus pre- cises sur un certain nombre de pays, dont la Sierra Leone. Wil- son (1987) a indique que les ce- phalophes de Jentink et de Ogil- by etaient probablement les es- pdces d'antilope les plus rares et les moins coimues vivant dans les forets denses de I'Afrique Occidentale. Selon I'auteur, ces espdces vivent cachees dans des endroits k habitat dense, ce qui rend difficile toute etude k ca- ractere scientifique. Or elles pourraient disparailre avant meme de Uvrer quelques infor- mations sur leurs habitudes, leur comportement et leur ecologie (WUson 1987).

L'ebauche n*3 du Red Data Book (novembre 1984) consa- cree aux donnees relatives au ce- phalophe de Jentink stipulait "qu'une enquete s'av^re neces- saire pour determiner avec plus

62

de pr6cision la repartition et le statut de I'esp^ce dans la pers- pective de recommandations de strai6gies en matidre de conser- vation".

Plusieurs especes de cepha- lophes, dont celle de Jentink, pourraient etre menac6es de dis- parition. II a 6t6 prevu que le Programme pour la D6cennie Panafricaine pour la Recherche sur les cephzilophes fournisse de nouvelles donn6es pour I'eta- bUssment de Ustes correctes dans les documents de references du CITES et le "Red Data Book". L'objectif premier du projet de- meure toutefois de proraouvoir la conservation des diverses es- peces d'antilopes d'Afrique, sur- tout que la chasse commerciale pour la "viande de brousse" s'in- tensifie et que la destruction massive de I'habitat se r6pand.

Tant Wilson (1987) que d'au- tres auteurs tels que Jones (1966), Davies (1987), etc., ont 6voque la possibility que le c6- phalophe de Jentink existe en Sierra Leone, mais aucune preuve n'a et6 avancee qui per- mettrait d'affirmer qu'on peut rencontrer I'espdce dans le pays.

L'6quipe de recherche a tou- jours manifest6 le desir de se rendre en Sierra Leone pour confirmer ou infirmer I'existence de I'espdce de Jentink (Wilson 1987). L'occasion lui 6tait of- ferte en avril 1988, lorsque Mr John Waugh de la Soci6t6 de Conservation de la Nature de Sierra Leone 6crivit au chef de

r6quipe en ces termes: "Au cours de mes recherches sur les res- sources de la R6serve Foresti^re de la Region Occidentale, j'ai d6couvert des indices soUdes tendant k prouver I'existence de nos jours du c6phalophe de Jen- tink sur les montagnes de la r6- serve". Et I'auteur de la lettre d'aj outer que "le rehef accident6 rend inaccessible cette vaste zone montagneuse ou I'espdce a et6 reper6e".

En d6cembre 1988, une mis- sion de recherche se rendit en Sierra Leone, grace aux disposi- tions prises par Mr Samuel Mu- sa-Jcunbawai (un autre responsa- ble de la soci6t6 Sierra Leonaise pour la Conservation de la Na- ture. La mission avait pour but d'etabUr la preuve que I'espece de Jentink existe dans la Reserve Forestiere de la R6gion Occi- dentale sur la Peninsule de Free- town.

Dans sa lettre d'invation, Mr Samuel Musa-Jambawai affirme avoir tu6 par balle un c6pha- lophe male de I'espdce de Jen- tink en 1960 dans la foret de Go- la. C'etait I'un des deux cepha- lophes qu'il vit personnellement et le premier signe positif de la pr6sence de cette espece en Sier- ra Leone. Mais la premiere preuve concluante de I'existence de cephalophe de Jentink en Sierra Leone fut 6tabUe en sep- tembre 1988 par Davies et Bir- kenhager (sous presse). Selon les auteurs, cette espece existe

dans la partie mdridionale de la P6ninsule de Freetown.

Dans son "Guide de la Sierra Leone" (1925), Goddard affir- mait: "En ce qui concerne les antilopes, il n'existe pas moins de quatorze espdces differentes r6- pertoriees en Sierra Leone. Par- mi elles, la famille des c6pha- lophes est fortement representee comme le montre la Uste sui- vante:

c6ph. k dos jaune (C. sylvicultor) ceph. a flancs roux (C. rufilatus) ceph. zebre (C. doriae) ceph. de Maxwell (C. maxwelli) c6ph. de Jentink (C jentinki) c6ph. noir (C. niger)

c6ph. bai (C. dorsalis)

c^ph. d'Ogilby (C. Ogilbyi) antilope royale {Meet, pygmaeus) cobe defassa (Cobus defassa onc- tuosus)

cobe de Buffon {Cobus Kob) bongo (Tragelaphus euryceros) guib harnach6 (Tragelaphus scriptus typicus)

chevrotain aquatique (Dorcathe- rium aquaticum)

Des huit especes de cepha- lophes ci-dessus mentionnees, les plus courantes sont le cepha- lophe noir et le c6phalophe de Maxwell (commun6ment appel6s "chevre de brousse" et "fritam- bou" par les Cr6oles) qu'on ren- contre partout en Sierra Leone dans des endroits oil pousse un couvert vegetal abondant, de preference dans les sous-bois des forets. Le magnifique cepha- lophe h. flancs roux, de petite

63

taille, se rencontre dans la plu- part des r6gions du nord du pays. Les cinq autres espdces sont rares et si de temps k autre les Europ6ens peuvent entrer en possession de leurs peaux (celle du c6phalophus z6br6 est parti- culidrement pris6e), il ne leur ar- rive pas souvent d'en rencontrer de vivant.

Stanley (1928) reprit mot k mot les donn^es foumies par Goddard (1925); plus encore, il donna la meme liste d6]k 6tablie par Goddard. Toutefois, il existe une difference de taille dans les afHrmations de I'un et I'autre. Selon Goddard (1925), "les es- p^ces les plus courantes sont le c^phalophe noir et le c6pha- lophe de Maxwell", alors que Stanley (1928) 6crit: "Des huit es- pdces de c6phalopliin6s, le c6- phalophe de Maxwell et le c6- phalophe de Jentink sont les es- pdces les plus r6pandues."

Et Stanley (op. cit) d'ajouter: "la pratique du syst6me de cul- ture par rotation, consistant en une mise en jach^re des terrains de culture pour une p6riode de cinq k six ans afin de favoriser la formation d'un convert v6g6tal dense et imp6n6trable, assure une admirable protection natu- relle de ces deux espdces de c6- phalophes de foret. Pour les chasses, les chasseurs indigenes utilisent une tedmique qui consiste k les attirer hors de leur refuge en imitant leur cri. La meme m6tliode est utilis6e pour

chasser les autres espdces rares sus-mentionn6es.

Sur la base de ce qui pr6c6de, il apparait done clairement qu'une erreur a bien pu se glisser dans Particle de Stanley (1928) et que, au lieu de "Jentink", Ton de- vrait lire "Noir".

Quelques ann6es plus tard, Montague (1959) dcrit au chapi- tre III (Mammif^res) d'une 6di- tion revue et corrig6e du "Guide de la Sierra Leone" ce qui suit: "Dans les forets et les buissons des zones cultiv6es, I'espdce la plus couramment rencontr6e est le cdphalophe gris de Maxwell (Cephalophus maxwelli) alors que le cdphalophe k flancs roux (Cephalophus rufllatus) marqu6 d'une large bande grise sur le dos vit dans la savanne et les zones de culture en bordure de foret. La seule esp6ce rencon- tr6e partout dans la r6gion est le c^phalophe noir (Cephalophus niger), appel6 localement "ch6- vre de brousse", qui vit en zone de foret et a un pelage marron sombre. Parmi les quelques es- pdces rares, on citera le c6pha- lophe z6br6 (Cephalophus zebra). Cette esp^ce, qu'on ne trouve que dans la zone foresti^re de Gola et au Liberia voisin, est trds remarquable par sa robe roux pale z6br6e d'une douzaine de large bandes noires traversant son dos de haut en bas. Aucune mention n'a €t6 faite de I'espdce de c6phalophe de Jentink par I'auteur de la communication.

Dans ses "Notes sur les Mam- mif^res les plus courants en Sier- ra Leone", Jones (1966) foumit mot pour mot les memes infor- mations que celles d6}k donn6es par Montague. Mais il ajouta ce qui suit: "cependant I'auteur n'a pu ni ddcouvrir des indices pr6- ds pas plus qu'il n'est tomb6 sur des sp6cimens de c6phalophe de Jentink (Cephalophus jentinfd) ou de c6phalophe d'Ogilby (Ce- phalophus offlbyi). En outre, au- cun sp6cimen d'origine sierra leonaise n'existe au Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle de Londres.

Jones (conununication per- sonnelle), qui passa de longues ann6es en Sierra Leone, afHrmait n'avoir jamais entendu parler de I'existence du cephalophe de Jentink, ni en avoir rencontrd dans le pays. Dans ime lettre aux auteurs, il dcrivit: "Si I'espdce de Jentink avait 6t6 aussi r6pandue qu'on le dit, les officiers de I'ar- m6e k Daru, qui chassaient beau- coup dans la region de I'Ouest k r6poque de Stanley et en- voyaient les specimens trouves au Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle de Londres, en auraient certai- nement rencontr6 un.

Toboku-Metzger (1979) fit une mention brdve de I'existence du c6phalophe de Jentink en Sierra Leone, mais sans fournir de donn6e positive ou originale. Robinson (1971) declara: "Le ce- phalophe de Jentink (Cephalo- phus jentinki), dont la distribu- tion est la plus restrainte parmi toutes les espdces de c6phalophi-

64

n6s, ne se trouve qu'zl I'Est du Li- beria et k rOuest de la Cote d'l- voire, oii sa distribution est cen- tr6e sur la riviere Cavally". Une fois de plus, Robinson (1971) ci- tait Kuhn (1%5). De meme, Wilkinson (1974) inclut dans sa liste le c6phalophe d'Abott (Ce- phalophus spadix) parmi les mammifdres de Sierra Leone. Nous estimons que c'est \k une erreur de sa pait et que Ton de- vrait lire c6phalophe k dos jaune {Cephalophus sylvicultor) d^s lors que, selon toute vraisem- blance, Wilkinson n'aurait eu au- cune raison de supposer que le c^phalophe de Jentink existait.

LA ZONE ETUDIEE

Sierra Leone : Generali- tes (voir carte page27)

La R6publique de Sierra Leone, un des plus petits pays d'Afrique, s'6tire entre la Guin6e et le Liberia et est limit^e au Sud par rOc6an Atlantique. Avec une population de plus de quatre millions d'habitants, la Sierra Leone est le cinqui6me pays le plus dens6ment peupl6 parmi les pays africains subsahariens. EUe couvre une superficie d'environ 726 000 km^ (soit 28 000 mille^). C'est un pays de plaines et de collines, dont plus de la moiti6 de la superficie jouit d'un climat favorable aux forets denses et

humides. Et pourtant, k I'heure actuelle, moins de 5% du terri- toire est toujours couvert de fo- rets primaires, alors que les fo- rets constitu6es d'arbres de moins de 10 metres de haut re- couvrent environ 55% du pays. Les forets secondaires couvrent 4% du pays (Davies 1987). Quoiqu'une portion consid6rable de la terre ne soit pas arable, surtout dans les r6gions du Nord et du Centre, I'agriculture 6tait et demeure I'activit^ pr6pond6- rante de la population dont 80% est engagee dans la pratique de Tagriculture de subsistence. Les methodes de culture utilis6es sont de type itindrante, a savoir abattage d'arbres, brulis, change- ment de terrain. De vastes man- groves existent le Jong de la cote et dans les estuaires des fleuves et les criques tandis que de vastes plaines couvrent presque la moitid dukpays. A I'Est et au Nord-Est s'616vent des plateaux d'environ 1220 mdtres d'altitude avec les montagnes Loma et Tin- gi dont I'altitude d6passe 1830 m6tres.Il y a 200 ans les 3/4 de la Sierra Leone dtaient converts de forets primaires et secondaires mais dts 1826 de larges zones fu- rent abattues pour rdpondre aux besoins de bois tropicaux de la Grande Bretange et aussi pour la culture par les fermiers locaux.

De nos jours il y a trds peu de grandes 6tendues de forets pri- maires et la seule foret k hauts arbres est celle de Gola qui se prolonge au Liberia. De vastes

dtendues de forets hautes exis- tent encore dans les regions montagneuses 61oign6es de Lo- ma et Tingi qui sont heureuse- ment des R6serves Foresti6res prot6g6es. L'hippopotame nain (Choeropis liberiensis), une des esp^ces enddmiques d'Afrique de rOuest, existe encore en plu- sieurs endroits de Sierra Leone.

Le splendide c6phalophe z6- br6 est pr6sent dans les forets de Gola - et sans doute dans d'au- tres r6gions aussi - mais est mal- heureusement souvent traque pour sa peau et sa chair. Le Bongo (Boocecus eurycerus) ne vit que dans un petit nombre de rdserves foresti6res, et il existe encore un grand nombre d'es- p6ces de singes.

Les chimpanz6s se rencon- trent dans beaucoup de r6gions, mais leur nombre a consid6ra- blement baiss6. L'on est en droit de croire que les singes et les c6- phalophes forment le gros du gi- bier tu6 pour le commerce de "viande de brousse" dont une grande quantitd est sech6e et ex- port6e vers le Liberia voisin. Des milliers de singes et de c6- phalophes sont tu6s chaque an- n6e. Bien que l'on sache que V6- I6phant et d'autres mammif6res se rencontrent encore dans le pays, il n'existe ni liste officielle de controle, ni atlas des mammi- f^res de Sierra Leone. Toute- fois, des informations compl6- mentaires peuvent etre trouv6es dans les ouvrages de Davies (1987), Grubb (1988), Happold

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(1973 et 1987), Jones (1966), Lowes (1970), Teleki et Baldwin (1981) et Merz (1986).

Reserve Forestiere de la Region Occidentale (Pe- ninsule de Freetown)

Cette r6serve se trouve sur la Peninsule au Sud de Freetown et comprend une crete majestueuse au relief accident6 fait de mon- tagnes couvertes de forets. Cer- taines de ces montagnes peuvent atteindre une altitude de 915 me- tres. Selon Toboku-Metzger (1079), ce sont des montagnes uniques en leur genre en Afrique de rOuest, et ne sont compara- bles qu'a la chaine des mon- tagnes que Ton trouve au Came- roun.

Sexploitation des forets de la P6ninsule a commenc6 depuis de nombreuses anndes et continue* sans r6pit. Or ces forets sont im- portantes pour la protection de I'approvisionnement en eau de la ville de Freetown.

L'importance de cette belle r6gion montagneuse au relief ac- cessible est consid6rable; et pourtant tr6s peu a et6 6crit concernant sa faune. Outre plu- sieurs esp^ces de c6phalophes et le guib harnach6 {Tragelaphus scriptus), il est prouv6 que les cercopithdques Diane (Cercopi- thecus diana) et le rare Pica- thartes k la tete jaune (Picathartes gymnocephalus) existent aussi.(voir carte page 28)

METHODE

Cette 6tude pr61iniinaire sur les cephalophes de Sierra Leone a ete menee en decembre 1988. Dans le cadre de Tdtude, deux sorties ont 6t6 organisees sur la P6ninsule de Freetown oii un certain nombre de chasseurs lo- caux et de guides ont et6 interro- ges sur les cephalophes de la r6- gion.

Les chasseurs trouves en pos- session de viande de cephalophe fraiche ou scchee, ou de peaux ont 6galcment ete interrog6s. II y eut aussi une discussion avec le propietaire d'un hotel de la place oil fut reper6 un jeune cepha- lophe bai. Deux voyages de ter- rain furent organises en foret sur le P6ninsule pour enregistrer les details relatifs aux pistes suivies par les cephalophes et leurs ex- cr6ments.

De plus, un voyage prolongd emmena r6quipe ^ travers plu- sieurs zones forestieres de Sierra Leone, voyage durant lequel des donndes sur les pistes de c6pha- lophes et leurs dejections furent notdes.

Note a dgalement 6t6 prise de toutes les cephalophes mortes en vente le long des routes ou en possession des chasseurs. L'e- quipe eut aussi une discussion d6taill6e avec le Docteur Sitter, un trappeur qui vit en Sierra Leone depuis longtemps.

Enfm, Mr Samuel Musa-Jam- bawai, notre compagnon et guide, nous a fourni une impor-

tante documentation siu" la r6- partition et le statut des diverses espdces de cephalophes de Sier- ra Leone. II fut nagudre un ca- dre superieur du departement des Forets et avait une parfaite connaissance des forets et de la faune de Sierra Leone.

RESULTATS

Le Cephalophe de Max- well (Cephalophus maxwel- li)

C'est I'espece d'antilope la plus repandue en Sierra Leone, et presente dans toutes les re- gions visitees, a savoir la Foret de Gola, I'lle de Twai, la Reserve Forestiere de la Zone Ouest, les Regions de Makali/Masingbi, de Bo et celle entre Yonibana et Waterloo.

Un jour, dans la R6serve Fo- restiere de la R6gion Occiden- tale, nous avons relev6 des traces fraiches de cephalophe de Max- well en plusieurs endroits. Nous avons aussi examine quatre car- casses fraichement depouiliees appartenant ^ un chasseur qui s'en allait les vendre ^ un centre de viliegiature, II nous a exhibe les tetes des betes tuees le matin meme et dit avoir tue 2 autres ce- phalophes de Maxwell la veille. Un autre chasseur nous a montre cinq peaux sechees et aplaties provenant de cephalophes de Maxwell.

66

Sur le chemin qui passe pres de Bo, nous avons rencontr6 un chasseur portant sur la tete un grand panier de viande sechee. Selon lui, ce panier contenait la viande de huit c^phalophes de Maxwell et d'environ vingt singes d'especes diverses.

Entre Waterloo et Yonibana, nous avons rencontr6 deux v6hi- cules portant attachees aux grilles de leur radiateur deux ce- phalophes de Maxwell non de- pouillees. Selon Davies (1987), le cephalophe de Maxwell est I'espece la plus repandue dans les zones forestieres de Sierra Leone. EUe est en abondance sur rile de Tiwai et aux abords du Fleuve Moa. Sur la Peninsule de Freetown le prbc des car- casses fraiches de cephalophes varie entre 200 Leones (soil 2,5 dollars US) et 500 Leones (soit 6,25 dollars US) piece. Les Mcnd6 I'appellent tuwiiolo, les Creoles fritambu. La peau sert aussi 21 faire des tambours.

Le Cephalophe Bai {Ce- phalophus dorsalis)

Nous n'avons obtenu qu'une seule et unique preuve de I'exis- tence de cette espece au cours de notre visite. Un male sub- adulte a et6 photographic en captivite dans le village Africana Tokey sur la P6ninsule de Free- town. 11 6tait en tres bonne condition physique et son pelage roux 6tait soyeux et luisant. Une

large bande noire traverse son dos de la queue au cou. Le pro- pri6taire de I'hotel a prob- ablement du I'acquerir tout petit pour I'elever. II avait tit trouve dans la Reserve Forestiere de la R6gion Occidentale.

Nous n'avons pu identifier avec certitude des traces d'un c6- phalophe apergues sur I'lle de Tiwai, mais tout portait a croire qu'il s'agissait de celles d'un jeune cephalophe bai. En effet, il est extremement difficile, sinon impossible, de faire la difference entre les traces d'un jeune ce- phalophe et celles d'un sub- adulte des diffcrentes especes. Selon les chercheurs qui travail- Icnt sur I'ile, le c6phalophe a flancs roux {Cephalophus rufila- his) serait aussi pr6sent; mais il faudraient un examen detaille d'un specimen avant toute conclusion. Cependant le cepha- lophe bai a et6 formellement identifie dans la Foret de Gola (Davies, 1987).

Le Cephalophe

(Cephalophus niger)

noir

Deux pattes sechees ont ete apergues au march6 de Free- town. Un chasseur de la Reserve Forestiere de la Region Occi- dentale fut trouve en possession d'une grandc peau s6chee de ce- phalophe noir femelle. II allait a Waterloo pour vendre la peau, et pretend avoir tu6 I'animal sur la peninsule, k edit du village de

Kent. Bien que les chasseurs de la region soutiennent que I'es- pece existe dans la Foret du Go- la, aucun cephalophe noir n'y a ttt aper^u (Davies 1987). On pense done que I'affirmation de Jones (1966) de I'existence de cette esp5ce un peu partout en Sierra Leone n'est pas fondee sur des donn6es originales, mais basee sur des citations de I'arti- cle de Montague (1959).

Le Cephalophe a dos jaune (Cephalophus sylvi- cultor)

Des traces fraiches d'un ce- phalophe a dos jaune (Cephalo- phus sylicultor) ont ete apergues dans la foret situee pres de Ma- ka-Masingbi et le crane d'une tres vieille femelle nous a ete montr6 sur I'lle de Tiwai ou I'es- pece semble etre commune. Se- lon le Docteur Sitter, un mar- chand d'animaux r6sidant prbs de Waterloo, le cephalophe a dos jaune serait tres repandu dans la Reserve Forestiere de la Region Occidentale. Cependant nous n'avons pas enregistr6 cette esp5ce dans la zone pendant no- tre visite, meme si par trois fois nous avons aper^u de grandes traces qui auraient pu etre celles d'un cephalophe a dos jaune ou celles d'un cephalophe de Jen- tink. L'espece 6tait aussi signa- 16e dans le district de Tonkoliki et dans plusieurs autres rdgions. Les Mend6 I'appellent ngulei.

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Le Cephalophe de Jen- tink (Cephalophus jentiJd)

La raison principale de notre mission en Sierra Leone 6tait d'apporter la preuve de la pr6- sence de cette espdce de c6pha- lophe dans le pays (ce qui, en fait, avait 6t6 dtabli peu avant no- tre visite par Davies et Birkenha- ger, sous pfcsse). Nous fumes conduits d6s notre arrivde dans un village du Sud de la P6ninsule de Freetown oil un chasseur af- firmait avoir tu6 par balle trois c6phalophes de Jentink au cours de rann6e 1988. R6pondant k nos questions sur I'esp^ce, cet homme se mit k decrire exacte- ment I'animal sans que r6quipe posat des questions de prdcision. Ensuite, il nous exhiba une paire de cornes d'un jeune cdphalophe de Jentink et une autre spendide corne d'un grand animal (proba- blement un male), dont la des- cription est donn6e au Tableau 1 (voir page 31) y compris les cornes donn6es par Dr Davies.

Quelques jours plus tard, le meme chasseur nous montra un amas d'excrements de cepha- lophe de jentink rapport6s de la foret ce jour-la. Ayant eu I'occa- sion d'etudier en detail les excr6- ments d'un cephalophe de la meme espece, en captivit6 au pare zoologique de Brownsville au Texas (USA), il nous a 6t6 fa- cile d'identifier ceux que le chas- seur avait exhib6s. Le chasseur affirma que Tesp^ce se rencontre

dans plusieurs endroits de la re- gion mais qu'elle n'6tait pas com- mune. En outre, ni lui ni aucun autre chasseur de Sierra Leone ne connassait cet animal sous le nom de c6phalophe de Jentink. Selon Mr Samuel Musa-Jamba- wai, le nom Mend6 de Tanimal est le kmkulowulei (ou Antilope aux couleurs de I'dcureuil); les Creoles I'appellent dikidiki, nom utifis6 sur la p6ninsule. Des sources non confirm6es font 6tat de I'existence de cette espdce dans les environs de Songo, situ6 k une cinquantaine de km seule- ment de la ville de Freetown. Le chasseur qui nous donna les cornes de c6phalophe de Jentink nous a expliqu6 que cet animal descend la nuit des collines vers les buissons dans les fermes ou il est abattu. Quelquefois, a-t-il dit, le c6phalophe de Jentink va la nuit sur la plage, meme au bord de la mer, pour 16cher le sel contenu dans le sable. Des traces ont souvent 6t6 vues sur la plage par des chasseurs. On pense que I'espdce est tr6s noc- turne; dans la Reserve Foresti^re de la Region Occidentale tous les specimens ont 6t6 abattus la nuit. Toutefois, Samuel Musa- Jambawai indique qu'il a tue son cephalophe dans la Foret de Go- la en 1960 k 10 heures du matin, c'est-^-dire en plein jour. Quant au Docteur Sitter, il dit avoir 61e- ve, il y a environ 15 ans, un bebe cephalophe de Jentink qu'il ven- dit plus tard a un autre mar- chand d'animaux qui I'exporta

aux Etats-Unis. II indique que lorsqu'il obtint Tanimal il crut que c'6tait un jeune cephalophe k dos jaune, ce n'est que lorsque Tanimal arriva k maturite qu'il realisa qu'il s'agissait d'un ce- phalophe de Jentink.

Deux autres paires de comes de la meme esp6ce (vivant dans la Reserve Forestiere de la Re- gion Occidentale) nous ont ete offertes par Dr Glyn Davies de Kenema, auquel revient tout le merite d'avoir ete le premier k enregistrer la presence de cette espece dans la region de la Pe- ninsule de Freetown. Un compte rendu plus detaiUe de la repartition des espdces k travers la Sierra Leone a ete ecrit par Davies (dans Davies & Burken- hager, sous presse). L'une des paires offertes par Davies est d'une longueur exceptionnelle : elle mesure 212 mm. (voir Planche 1, page 32)

Le Cephalophe zebre

(Cephalophus zebra)

Aucun indice sur I'existence de cette espece de cephalophe n'a ete enregistre lors de notre visite en Sierrra Leone, mais il a ete etabli (Davies 1987) qu'elle existe dans la region de la foret de Gola. Mr Samuel Musa-Jam- bawai indique qu'il y a dix ans on trouvait facilement des peaux de cephalophes zebres dans les vil- lages situes k I'Est du pays. II pense que I'espece est beaucoup

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moins timide que le c6phalophe de Jentink, et qu'il est toujours possible de la rencontrer dans la Reserve Forestidre de la R6gion Occidentale (Sitter, communica- tion personnelle).

Le cephalophe a flancs roux iCephalophus rufila- tus)

Durant notre visite, nous n'a- vons pas pu obtenir de preuve concluante de la pr6sence du ce- phalophe k flancs roux (Cepha- lophus rufilatus) en Sierra Leone, mais il n'y a aucun doute qu'il existe encore dans la zone de savane au Nord du pays. II est fort probable qu'on le trouve sur I'lle de Tiwai (voir notes sur Cephalophus dorsalis).

Le cephalophe commun ou gris (Sylvicapra grim- mid)

Phillipson (1978), rapporte la presence de cette espdce dans la region d'Outamba-Ducata, sur la P6ninsule de Freetown et les re- gions montagneuses de Loma. Bien qu'il existe trds prob- ablement dans les savanes boi- sees du Nord du pays et meme dans les prairies des montagnes de Loma, il est peu probable qu'on le trouve sur la peninsule de Freetown.

marquable pour une si petite re- gion; par consequent, il faudrait lui assurer une protection appro- priee. La valeur d'un cepha- lophe de Jentink est extreme- ment eievee et le fait qu'ils se trouvent encore dans une zone aussi peupiee suggdre qu'ils ont une bonne capacite de survie en milieu perturbe ou qu'ils ont mi- gre vers la plus inaccessible zone des montagnes. Quoiqu'il en soit, le service des Eaux et Forets et le Gouvernement de Sierra Leone devraient tr^s serieuse- ment envisager d'eiever le statut de la Reserve k celui d'un Pare National.

DISCUSSION ET CONCLUSION

Le cephalophe d'Ogilby

(Cephalophus ogilbyi)

Trds peu d'indices permet- tent d'affirmer que cette espdce existe en Sierra Leone. Dej^ Jones (1966) ne fut pas en me- sure d'avoir le moindre releve defmitif sur son existence dans le pays. II y a quelques suggestions que le cephalophe d'Ogilby (Ce- phalophus ogilbyi) peut encore se rencontrer en Sierra Leone (Phillipson 1978, et Honacki et al. 1982). La preuve concrete de son existence en Sierra Leone est fournie par la presence d'un spe- cimen au musee (Groves, cite par Grubb, 1988).

La presence possible de neuf espdces de cephalophes en Sier- ra Leone souligne I'importance de cette famiUe d'animaux dans le pays. La presence de cepha- lophe de Jentink dans la Reserve Forestiere de la Region Occi- dentale avec les espdces comme le cephalophe bai, le cephalophe noir, le cephalophe de Maxwell et le cephalophe k dos jaune, re- vet une signification et une im- portance particuliere. Cela confere k la region une valeur in- croyable. Alors qu'il est etabU que quatre (et probablement cinq) espdces de cephalophes existent sur la Peninsule, il y a aussi la possibilite que d'autres espdces dont le cephalophe zd- bre s'y trouvent. C'est assez re-

La presence non loin de la capitale d'une colonic de cepha- lophes de Jentink et, prob- ablement, celle d'autres espdces rares pourrait profiter considdra- blement au pays. De plus, outre les espdces rares de cdpha- lophes, on trouve dans la reserve le cercopithdque Diana et peut- etre le Picathartes k tete jaune {Picathartes gymnocephalus).

Lorsque I'on considdre les splendides plages blanches, la mer chaude, la proximite de Freetown, la fraicheur des forets humides ainsi que I'amitie qui caracterise les populations de la region, la Reserve Forestidre de la Region Occidentale a tons les atouts pour devenir un "Pare Na- tional de la jungle" oh les pistes amenagees pour la promenade seraient trds populaires et consti-

69

turaient un grand atout 6conomi- que poUf la Sierra Leone.

Pour d6gager un bon plan de gestion, il est essentiel d'etudier en detail la flore et de la faune de la zone. La region pourrait devenir le premier Pare National du pays, un statut qu'il ne d6m6- rite pas. Les auteurs projettent d'effectuer une seconde visite en Sierra Leone en 1991 pour entre- prendre cette 6tude detaill6e. Compte tenu de I'existence de plusieurs espdces rares dans cette r6serve forestiere et en rai- son de la pratique importante de la chasse dans cette zone oil la chasse est interdite, une action rapide est essentielle si Ton veut pr6server ces especes rares et les forets qui les abritent.

REMERCIEMENTS

Nos remerciements vont en premier lieu a Mr Samuel Musa- Jambawai pour son amiti6 et le support qu'il nous a fourni du- rant tout notre s6jour en Sierra Leone. II s'dtait occupe de tous nos probl^mes de transport, lo- gement et nourriture et nous ai- da aussi continuellement en questionnant les autochtones au sujet des c^phalophes. Nous n'aurions pas atteint le resultat obtenu sans son aide, et par des- sus tout, il localisa pour nous les comes de cephalophe de Jen- tink. Nous remercions egale- ment le Dr Glyn Davies du don des deux paires de cornes de c6-

phalophes de Jentink et du moyen de transport qu'il nous a fourni pour nous rendre k la fo- ret de Gola. Nous lui sommes egalement reconnaissants de nous avoir permis d'utiliser cer- taines de ses donn6es dans notre travail. Que le Dr S.S. Banya, President de la societ6 Sierra Leonaise de Protection de la Na- ture, qui nous a beaucoup aid6, ainsi que I'Honorable Edward Gbla resolvent I'expression de notre plus profonde gratitude. Hon. Edward Gbla nous a assis- tes dans I'organisation de ce voyage d'etude en Sierra Leone et a facilite nos contacts avec les autorites dans le pays: il nous a introduits auprds de plusieurs cabinets minist6riels et de Son Excellence Dr. J.S. Momoh, Pr6- sident de Sierra Leone, avec le- quel nous avons pu discuter des probldmes de conservation. Nos remerciements vont 6galement a Mr A.P. Koroma, Conservateur Principal des Forets de Sierra Leone, pour son aide et ses en- couragements.

Enfin, que Mme Paddy Wil- son, 6pouse du chef de I'^quipe, trouve ici I'expression de nos re- merciements speciaux pour la realisation des cartes. De meme, nous remercions MM Kevin Wil- son et Vaughan Southey, qui ont bien voulu produire ce document sur ordinateur. Kevin Wilson a protographi6 les cornes des ce- phalophes.

Nous remercions le conseil d'administration de la Fondation

Chipangali pour avoir financ6 le programme et les frais de cette publication.

* Article repris de Amoldia Zimbabwe

9 (33): 451-462, July 90.

Chipangali Wildlife Trust P.O.B0X 1057 Bulawayo (Zw)

NDLR: Mr Barry Wilson est d6c6d6 des suites d'un accident de la route en Janvier 1991.

La photo de couverture est un cephalophe de Jentink photographi6 par Mr VJ. Wilson au Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville, Texas

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Amenagement de la faune pour le developpement rural en Afrique

E.O A. Asibey et G.S. Child*

En Afrique subsaharienne, il y a plus de 130 millions d'ha de r6serves de faune. II existe aussi de vastes zones dans lesquelles I'utiiisation de la faune est contr616e. En outre, presque tons les pays de la r6gion ont des lois qui rdglementent la chasse sportive et permettent de faire rentrer de I'argent dans les caisses de I'Etat sous forme de droits et redevances per9us sur les permis de chasse. Les gou- vernements reconnaissent done que Tamenagement de la faune est une option viable dans les plans d'utilisation des terres.

Mais il est rare que les contri- butions que la faune, en tant que source d'aliments ou de biens marchands, apporte ou peut ap- porter k I'dconomie et a la nutri- tion en milieu rural, soient offi- ciellement reconnues. Bien plus, dans beaucoup de pays, ces utili- sations sont dans une grande me- sure ill6gales.

n est maintenant urgent de s'efforcer par tous les moyens d'int6grer revaluation, la raise en valeur, I'amfnagement et I'utiii- sation des animaux sauvages dans les plans nationaux de deve-

loppement socio-6conomique. II est essentiel que organismes na- tionaux responsables de la plani- fication et des finances partici- pent k cet effort k tous les ni- veaux; I'assistance d'organisa- tions Internationales compe- tentes pourra aussi etre neces- saire. D'un autre c6t6, ime utili- sation viable k long terme de la faune ne sera possible, que si les populations locales participent k Tam^nagement et regoivent leur juste part des b6n6fices.

Populations et animates

humaines

Avant d'examiner la faune subsaharienne, il convient de dire quelques mots de revolution d6mographique et des pro- blames d'environnement connexes, qui influent profond6- ment sur les ressources en faune.

Les taux de croissance d6mo- graphique sont 61ev6s dans pres- que tous les pays d' Afrique sub- saharienne, d'oil la n6cessit6 d'accroitre d'urgence la produc- tion vivridre, qui pousse les agri- culteurs africains k raccourcir les jacheres, k essayer de produire davantage sur des sols peu fer- tiles et k cultiver des terres mar- ginales. Tout cela entraine inexo- rablement une degradation des terres arables. Quand le cheptel augmente aussi vite ou meme plus vite que les populations hu- maines, les vastes terres pasto- rales de I'Afrique se d6gradent

de la meme fagon, surtout 1^ oii des parcours traditionnels ont 6t6 mis en culture, ce qui fait croitre la pression sur le reste des zones pastorales.

Dans les zones seches, de^ milUons d'hectares de paturages et de parcours sont menaces par le surpaturage. Beaucoup de gramin6es p6rennes sont rempla- c6es par des gramin6es annuelles de moins grande valeur nutri- tionnelle; cette deterioration ris- que d'etre irreversible et de re- duire la capacite de charge des parcours. L^ ou la vegetation a disparu ou s'est eclaircie, le vent emporte le peu de sediment que contient le sol, ce qui r6duit sa capacitd de retention d'eau. Les forets denses et claires d' Afrique subsahariennes sont elle aussi en danger; chaque annee, pres de 4 milUons d'ha de forets disparais- sent ou se degradent, principale- ment en Afrique occidentale hu- mide et subhumide. La princi- pale cause du d6boisement est le defrichement pour I'agriculture; mais I'exploitation anarchique de la foret, la collecte de bois de chauffe, les feux et le surpatu- rage prelevent aussi de lourds tributs. On a estime qu'entre 1975 et 1980, pour chaque ha plantd, 29 ha ont et6 deboises (Lanly, 1982).

Les animaux sauvages ont leurs habitats dans ces parcours et ces forets. Lorsque ces habi- tats sont transform^s, comme c'est actuellement le cas en Afri- que, il est inevitable que la com-

71

position et diversitd de la faune soient modifi6es, et des popula- tions entidres peuvent etre mena- c6es. Pendant cette derni6re d6- cennie du 20e sidcle, il sera done essentiel d'intdgrer I'amdnage- ment de la faune et de son habi- tat dans les efforts de developpe- ment socio-6conomique g6n6ral.

La faune comme source d'aliments

L'homme prdhistorique n'a- vait d'autre source de proteines que les animaux sauvages. L'a- v^nement de I'dlevage et de I'a- griculture s^dentaire Ta en partie affranchi de cette d6pendance. Cependant, dans toutes les soci6- t6s modernes non v6g6tariennes, il reste une demande assez im- portante de viande d'animaux sauvages. Dans toutes les r6- gions du monde, des animaux sauvages de tous types et de toutes tallies, tant vert6br6s qu'invert6br6s, constituent une part de I'alimentation des honunes.

En Afrique subsaharienne,les animaux sauvages fournissent ime proportion exceptionnelle- ment 61ev6e des prot6ines ali- mentaires. Au Nigdria, des com- munautds vivant k proximitd de la foret tirent de la chasse 84% de leurs prot6ines d'origine ani- male. Au Ghana, environ 75% de la population consomment t6- gulidrement des animaux sau- vages; au Liberia, cette propor-

tion est de 70%, et au Botswana de 60% (FAO, 1989).

Si 61ev6s qu'ils soient, ces chiffres sont peut-etre inf6rieurs a la r6alit6, car une bonne partie des animaux sauvages consom- m6s ne sont pas commercialisms et 6chappent aux statistiques.

La meilleure fa^on de mesu- rer la valeur locale de la viande de chasse est peut-etre de de- mander aux gens pourquoi la fo- ret est importante pour eux. En 6valuant le projet de forestriede Subri au Ghana, Korang (1986) a constat6 que, pour 94% des per- sonnes interrog6es, la conse- quence la plus grave de la conversion de la foret 6tait la dis- parition de la viande de chasse.

Si Ton veut se faire une id6e du role que jouent les animaux sauvages dans I'alimentation, il ne faut pas se contenter de pren- dre en consideration le gros gi- bier. En g6n6ral, dans les r6- gimes de subsistance, la majeure partie de la viande provient des petits animaux. On consomme divers types d'escargots, de ser- pents et d'autres reptiles et d'amphibiens. Dans plusieurs rdgions d' Afrique occiden- tale,notamment au Ghana, les habitants des zones riches en es- cargots sont envi6s par leurs voi- sins. Les insectes constituent aussi souvent une part impor- tante des ressources totales en protdines.

Valeur nutritionnelle de la viande de chasse

Les donndes disponibles indi- quent que la viande de chasse fraiche soutient favorablement la comparaison avec la viande d'a- nimaux domestiques pour ce qui est du rendement en viande mai- gre par kilogramme de poids vif et de la teneur 616ments min6- raux et en protdines (Asibey et Eyeson, 1975; Ledger et Smith, 1964). Des 6tudes ont montr6 par ailleurs que la viande des animaux sauvages contient da- vantage de Upides (Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979).

Selon Hladik et al. (1987), la valeur calorique de la viande de chasse est aussi importante que les proteines qu'elle fournit. Beaucoup d'animaux sauvages sont particuli6rement appr6ci6s parce que leur viande est bien grasse.

Malheureusement, la valeur nutritionnelle de la viande de chasse conserv6e (fum6e, sal6e ou sech6e) est mal connue. Les m6thodes de conservation va- rient selon les endroits et les res- sources. Le fumage traditioimel, malgr6 ses inconv6nients, est en- core trbs r6pandu. La salaison est Umit6e par le manque de sel. La viande s6ch6e (biltong) peut etre prepar6e 1^ o^ le sel et le so- leil ne manquent pas. II faudrait 6tudier plus systdmatiquement toute la gamme des animaux sau- vages consonmi6s, ainsi que les

72

aspects nutritionnels des diff6- rentes m6thodes courantes de pr6paration et de conservation.

Facteurs influant sur la consommation de viande d'animaux sauvages

La consommation d'animaux sauvages semble conditionn6e principalement par les disponibi- lit6s. Partout ou la question a 6t6 6tudi6e dans les pays d'Afri- que, il est apparu que la majorit6 des non-v6g6tariens sont prets h consommer de la viande de chasse s'ils peuvent s'en procu- rer. Selon des 6tudes effectu6es au Ghana et au Nigeria, cela est vrai quels que soient la classe so- ciale, le niveau de revenu, I'in- struction, la religion ou le sexe (Blaxter, 1975; Martin, 1983; Ntiamoa-Baidu, 1986).

La demande de viande de chasse n'est nullement limit6e aux campagnes. L'urbanisation rapide a entramd une croissance exponentielle de la demande dans les villes zifricaines. Dans toute I'Afrique subsaharienne et en particulier en Afrique occi- dentale, la viande de chasse est depuis longtemps vendue sur les march6s urbains. II existe des fi- lidres bien 6tablies allant du chasseur au d6taillant. C'est 1^ une importante source d'emplois et de revenus.

Dans beaucoup de pays, la viande de chasse est de loin la viande la plus chdre. Ainsi, k

Ibadan (Nig6ria), en 1975, quand la viande de mouton et de boeuf se vendaient respectivement 2,80 dollars et 4,20 dollars le kilo- gramme, la viande d'aulacode valait 9,60 dollars et le U6vre sau- vage 7,20 dollars (Asibey, 1987).

Dans bien des cas, la de- mande et le prix de la viande de chasse augmentent beaucoup plus vite que ceux de la viande d'animaux domestiques. Ainsi, k Accra (Ghana), le prix de la viande de chasse a 6t6 multipli6 par huit entre 1980 et 1986, tan- dis que la viande de boeuf a seu- lement sextuple (Asibey, 1987).

Dans beaucoup de r6gions d' Afrique, il y a une telle de- mande pour la viande de chasse qu'il est plus avantageux pour les chasseur de la vendre que de la manger.

La faune en tant que source de revenus

Dans la plupart des pays d'A- frique subsaharienne, la majoritd de la population vit de Tagricul- ture de subsistance. Les activites capables de cr6er des revenus ou de reduire les d6penses sont done extremement importantes, surtout si en meme temps elles ameliorent la qualitd de la vie des ruraux. La foret, ses pro- duits et les animaux qui I'habi- tent offrent une base pour de telles activites. La chasse est une trds importante source de revenu

dans beaucoup de parties de I'A- frique (Asibey,1978a,b,1987).

Dans r6tat de Bendel, au Ni- g6ria, uu aulacode se vendait 7,61 dollars, alors que 25% de la population gagnaient loins de 130 dollars par an et 38% entre 130 et 600 doUars. II suffisait done de tuer quatre aulacodes par mois pour se trouver au mi- lieu de cette deuxi^me classe de revenu (Martin, 1983).

Au Ghana, en Janvier 1987, le salaire minimal journalier 6tait de 90 cedis.(NDLR: en raison des fluctuations des taux de change, la conversion en dollars U.S. n'aurait gudre de sens.) A la meme 6poque, un aulacode rapportait au moins 200 c6dis en milieu rural et de 700 k 3400 c6- dis k Accra (Asibey, 1987). Dans une 6tude pr6c6dente, Asibey (1978b) a observe qu'un paysan pouvait plus que doubler son re- venu en vendant de la viande de chasse aux petits restaurants tra- ditionnels de la capitale r6gio- nale, Sunyani.

Ce ne sont pas 1^ des exeples isol6s. La chasse et la collecte d'animaux sauvages comestibles fournissent directement ou indi- rectement d'importants revenus k un grand nombre de ruraux un peupartout en Afrique (Asibey, 1978a). Dans bien des cas, la chasse apporte k I'^conomie de subsistance im complement es- sentiel.

L'argent que rapporte la chasse sert souvent k acheter des prot6ines moins couteuses (le

73

plus souvent du pcisson mal coiisorv6), la difference 6tant utilis6e pour financer d'autres d6peiises (Asibey, 1974b, 1978a,b). D'une certaine fa^on, cette tendance compromet la s6- curit6 aUmentaire des ruraux en r6duisant la qualit6 et la valeur nutritionnelle de leur r6gime. A moins que les disponibilitds de viande de chasse n'augmentent, la consommation des ruraux pourrait diminuer k mesure que la demande croissante des villes incite k exploiter plus intensive- ment les ressources cyn6g6ti- ques. La situation est encore plus grave quand il est impossi- ble d'elever des animaux domes- tiques pour produire les pro- t6ines n6cessaires, par exemple dans les zones infest6es par la mouche ts6-tse. II faut 6tudier avec soin le cout socio-6conomi- que d'un tel sc6nario pour les communaut6s rurales.

Commerce international

Un peu partout dans le monde, la viande de chasse est devenue un important zirticle d'exportation. Pourtant, en Afri- que, malgr6 la production consi- derable, aucun pays ne figure sur la liste des exportateurs. Cela tient en partie aux normes rigou- reuses exig6es par les principaux importateurs, notamment la R6- publique F6d6rale d'Allemagne et la France, mms surtout au

manque de statistiques sur le commerce de la viande de chasse k rint6rieur de I'Afrique. Dans presque aucun pays de la region (sauf au Ghana), la consomma- tion et le commerce de viande ne sont syst6matiquement pris en compte dans la planification, les comptes et les programmes de d6veloppement. Les informa- tions limit6es qui sont rassem- bl6es ne sont pas publi6es. C'est l^ une omission grave qui risque de nuire k ceux qui tirent de la faune sauvage des aliments etb des revenus indispensables k Iqui survie et de compromettre la conservation et I'amdnagement de la faune.

Conservation et amena- gement de la faune sau- vage

Dans la plupart des pays d'A- frique subsaharienne, les efforts de conservation de la faune ont 6t6 motiv6s par la pr6occupation que suscitait la rar6faction ou la quasi-extinction de certains ani- maux -lions, 616phants, rhinoce- ros, etc- qui pourraient fournir un gros apport au revenu natio- nal. Etant donnecete motivation, la politique le plus couramment adoptee a consiste k promulguer des lois sev^res interdisant toute exploitation de la faune dans les zones protegees et limitant ri- goureusement son utilisation ail- leurs.

Quand I'existence meme des animaux et de leur habitat est menacee, cette approche est sou- vent la seule possibledans I'im- mediat pour sauvegarder k long terme la possibilit6 de conserver et d'amenager la faune. Mais il faut etre bien conscient qu'elle n'est valable que pour une phase transitoire.

Plusieurs options sont possi- bles. La plus simple et souvent la plus efficace consiste k prote- ger les populations existantes. Lorsqu'il ne reste plus de popu- lations viables, on pent reintro- duire des animaux sauvages dans certaines zones choisies de leur ancien habitat. L'experience prouve que des populations in- troduites peuvent se multiplier suffisamment pour que leur ex- ploitation devienne rentable (Teer, 1971). Cela ne pose pas de probiemes techniques, mais on doit trouver des finance- ments. II faut confirmer les re- sultats indiquant que I'operation est rentable et les commimiquer k des investisseurs potentiels.

L'experience prouve que les efforts pour proteger ou recons- tituer la faune sans tenir compte des besoins socio-economiques des populations locales sont voues k rechec. Les lois de pro- tection de la faune sont souvent vioiees en toute impunite. Com- ment pourrait-il en etre autre- ment quand c'est une question de vie ou de mort? Les pauvres survivent comme ils peuvent; la tentation de violer laloi est

74

grande car les animaux sauvages peuvent etre une source de nour- riture et d'argent. De plus les re- pr6sentants de la loi sont souvent tr^s mal pay6s, et done assez en- clins k fermer les yeux, ou meme k etre complices des infractions des riches, par exemple de's chasseurs de troph6es.

Un programme d'am6nage- ment de la faune sauvage ne peut etre efficace k long terme que s'il est bas6 sur la participation qctive des populations locales et s'il leur assure des avantages im- portzmts et durables sous forme d'aliments et de revenus (voir Particle sur la Zambie k la page 52).

Amenagement de la faune sauvage pour accroi- tre les ressources alimen- taires

La domestication de beau- coup d'especes d'animaux sau- vages est th^oriquement possi- ble, mais il y a relativement peu de r6alisations dans ce domaine. Par exemple au Ghana, il a 6t6 prouv6 qu'on peut 61ever des au- lacodes en cages dans les mai- sons pour produire de la viande de bonne quality (Asibey, 1974b,c).

Mais, meme sans domestica- tion; certaines experiences indi- quent qu'il est possible d'am6na- ger efficacement les populations d'animaux sauvages poiu- la pro- duction d'aliments, soit isol6-

ment, soit en les intdgrant dans les systdmes agricoles (dlevage, foresterie, cultures).

Production commer- ciale de gibier

Dans certains pays, en plus des animaux 61ev6s en captivit6 pour I'autoconsommation, il y a eu des tentatives d'elevage inten- sif ou extensif d'animaux sau- vages pour la production de viande et de produits secon- daires. Le gibier n'est pas un produit nouveau k lancer a coup de publicit6. Dans aucun pays oil des evaluations ont 6t6 faites, la population d'animaux sau- vages n'est suffisante pour r6- pondre a la demande. Toute in- novation capable d'accroitre la productivit6 est done souhaita- ble.L'61evage en captivit6 et I'ele- vage extensif sont done des op- tions trds prometteuses (Jintanu- gool, 1978).

La cr6ation de ranches ou d'61evages intensifs a proximit6 des centres de consommation pr6sente plusieurs avantages: de- bouches assures, transports r6- duits au minimum, possibilite d'accueillir des visiteurs qui sont une source de revenus suppie- mentaires.

L'eievage, en captivite ou ex- tensif, permet non seulement de reduire les pressions qui s'exer- cent sur les populations sau- vages, mais aussi de rendre moins aigue la concurrence entre

les consommateurs lu-bains et les consommateurs ruraux. L'obser- vation de la faune et la chasse sportive dans les eievages exten- sifs d'animaux sauvages peuvent etre des sources suppiementaires d'emplois et de revenus pour les populations et de recettes pour I'Etat.

Integration de la faune sauvage et de Televage

Les animaux sauvages, tout comme les animaux domesti- ques, transforment des vegetaux en viande. or, jusqu'^ tout r6- cemment, on a deiiberement ex- termine des animaux indigenes pour Uberer les parcours k I'u- sage exclusif des troupeaux do- mestiques, en partie par igno- rance et en partie parce que Ton craignait que la faune reduise la productivite du cheptel en lui fai- sant concurrence et ne lui trans- mette des maladies.

Or, il a ete prouve que le po- tentiel de production de viande des animaux sauvages soutient souvent favorablement la compa- raison avec celui des animaux domestiques (Asibey, 1966; Blax- ter, 1975; King et Heath, 1975; Hoogesteijn Reul, 1975; Thres- her, 1980).

En outre, I'eiimination des animaux sauvages ne permet pas necessairement de maximiser I'u- tilisationde la vegetation des par- cours. Les animaux domestiques ne consomment que certaines

75

plantes. La coexistence de di- vers types d'animaux compati- bles, qui ne sont pas en concur- rence pour la nourriture, peut done etre avantageuse (Asibey et Asare, 1978). Elle peut prendre la forme d'un assortiment appro- pri6 d'espdces domestiques et d'esp^ces sauvages. Ainsi, en Afrique du Sud, des bovins sont 61ev6s avec des koudous, des im- palas et des bubales, ce qui per- met d'accroitre le rendement global du parcours (Hoogesteijn Reul, 1979). Au Zimbabwe aus- si, il y a une int6gration syst6ma- tique de la faune sauvage et de l'61evage (Woodford, 1983; Wo- rou, 1983). Cette formule est d'autant plus rentable qu'elle permet de maximiser I'utilisation de la v6g6tation et de se passer de desherbage manuel ou chimi- que, puisque les animaux sau- vages mangent les plantes delais- s6es par le cheptel domestique.

Etant donn6 ce potentiel, il importe de travailler a mettre au point des systdmes et des techni- ques propres k ameliorer I'intd- gration et k accroitre la produc- tion de viande. II faut reunir des information sur I'integration des animaux sauvages et du betail domestique et evaluer sa rentabi- lit6 socio-6conomique afm d'o- rienter le d6veloppement futur et de permettre une utilisation plus rationnelle des parcours. Ce fai- sant, on tiendra compte aussi du surcroit de revenu que peuvent rapporter les animaux sauvages

par le biais de la chasse sportive et du tourisme.

Les animaux sauvages et la foresterie

Les animaux sauvages sont parmi les produits de la foret qui contribuent le plus au bien-etre des populations locales. Or, les forestiers les consid6raient au- trefois comme des produits "se- condaires" ou meme comme des nuisances. Combien de plans d'amenagement forestier pr6- voient I'application syst6matique de techniques propres k accroi- tre durablement la production de viande d'animaux sauvages? Et pourtant, cela pourrait etre un puissant auxiliaire des efforts de deyeloppement forestier, qu'ils aient pour objectif la production commerciale ou la conservation des ressources.

L'exploitation selective du bois stimule la croissance de la vegetation, favorisant ainsi I'aug- mentation de la population de beaucoup d'animaux. Ainsi, dans une 6tude recente, Prins et Reitsma (1989) ont constat6 que, dans le Sud-Ouest du Gabon, le buffle (Syncerus caffer nanus Sparrman), absent dans la foret primaire, est pr6sent dans la fo- ret secondaire. L'etude n'a pas donn6 de r6sultats probants pour les petits animaux, mais il est probable que revolution est comparable. Pourquoi ne pas

autoriser ou meme encourager les habitants k chasser les petits animaux dans les forets de pro- duction? Cela ameliorerait leur securit6 alimentaire et leur don- nerait en meme temps de bonnes raisons de penser qu'il est avan- tageux pour eux de conserver la foret plutot que de convertir les terres k d'autres utilisations.

Dans le meme esprit, dans les zones de protection, on pourrait autoriser les habitants a chasser en dchange de leur aide pour le reboisement. On aurait ainsi une main-d'oeuvre locale motivee, dont I'absence entrave serieuse- ment beaucoup de projets fores- tiers.

D'un autre cot6, les planta- tions monosp6cifiques, surtout d'essences exotiques, ont en g6- n6ral pour effet de r€duire la quantity et la variety des popula- tions d'animaux sauvages. L'al- t^ration du convert naturel peut cr6er un environnement peu pro- pice aux animaux. D'ou in nou- veau danger: le sous-6tage n'est plus brout6, ce qui accroit les ris- ques d'incendie.

On pourrait laisser dans les plantations ou en bordure, des arbres d'essences indigenes pro- duisant du fourrage. La formule permettant d'optimiser les avan- tages socio-6cononiiques reste k determiner.

II est aussi possible de perfec- tionner les techniques de mani- pulation de I'habitat pour accroi- tre la production d'smimaux sau- vages dans la savane. Par exem-

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pie, la plantation d'essences indi- genes ayant lAie valeur nutrition- nelle permettrait d'augmenter le potentiel de production de viande de chasse \k oh d'autres interventions ne seraient pas op- portunes.

Les animaux sauvages et les systemes de produc- tion vegetale

On consid^re en g6n6ral qu'il y a concurrence entre les cul- tures et la faune sauvage; c'est pourquoi beaucoup d'efforts ont 6te faits pour exterminer cette dernidre. Ainsi, en Afrique aus- trale, les services de la faune ont bien souvent 6t6 cre6s h. Torigine pour detriure les animaux sau- vages, considerds comme des nuisances pour les plantations du secteur public.

II est vrai que les animaux sauvages peuvent ravager les cul- tures. Certaines antilopes brou- tent les jeunes arbres et s'atta- quent aux plantes cultivdes. Les oiseaux, en particulier le qu616a, sont notoirement une grave me- nace pour les c6r6ales et font beaucoup baisser les rende- ments. Les pertes provoqu6es par les rongeurs, tant dans les champs qu'apr6s la recolte, se chlffrent par millions de dollars.

Mais le syst6me des planta- tions cr6e par ailleurs un envi- ronnement particulidrement fa- vorable k I'exploitation et k I'uti- lisation des animaux sauvages

pour I'alimentation. Malheureu- sement, la crainte des d6gats qu'ils peuvent causer fait trop souvent oublier la possibilit6 d'u- tiliser ces "ravageurs" k des fins nutritionnelles. DAns bien des cas, on pourrait a la fois limiter les d6gats et cr6er une source de revenus et d'aliments d*appoint en mettant au point des techni- ques viables d'exploitation de la faune.

Pciradoxalement, il existe d6- j^, dans bien des endroits, des te- chniques traditionnelles efficaces qui ne sont pas appliquees parce qu'on ne tire aucun paiti de la connaissance du milieu local qu'ont les habitants, considdres simplement comme de la main- d'oeuvre pour les plantations. Par exemple en Afrique occiden- tale, diverses m6thodes tradition- nelles permettent de pi6ger au voisinage des cultures et d'utili- ser les rongeurs qui seraient des ravageurs, notamment I'aulacode (Thryonmys swinderianus Tem- minck) au Ghana, au B6nin et en Cote d'lvoire, et le rat de Gam- ble {Cricetomys gambianus) au Nigeria. C'est un moyen a la fois de se procurer de la nourriture et d'6viter que ces animaux ne prolif6rent. Si on mobilise les populations locales pour I'effort de plantation, ces mdthodes pourraient etre appliqu6es sur une grande echelle avec un bon rapport cout-efficacite. D'ail- leurs, dans beaucoup de planta- tions de cacaoyers et de palmiers a huile, les ouvriers attrapent.

pendant leur temps libre, des animaux consid6r6s conmie des ravageurs pour les manger.

Dans le Nord du Ghana, les rizi^res irrigudes dtaient d6vast6s par les oiseaux granivores. On a appris aux paysans k utiliser des filets de nylon presque invisibles pour les capturer, ce qui a per- mis de rdduire beaucoup les d6- gats et d'assurer un approvision- nement rdgulier en viande de bonne qualitd dans une zone oil les protdines manquaient (Ntia- moa-Baidu, 1986).

Une autre fagon d'intdgrer les animaux sauvages et les cul- tures consiste k laisser ou k cr6er a cdt6 des plantations des zones de v6g6tation naturelle h6t6ro- gene ou la faune sauvage puisse survivre. Dans beaucoup de pays, les haies et les rideaux- abris constituent des habitats propices dans des zones ou il n'y aurait autrement pas d'animaux sauvages. Meme si cette formule n'a pas 6t6 con^ue sp6cifique- ment pour la production de viande, son application syst6ma- tique pourrait etre int6ressante dans beaucoup de pays d' Afri- que subsaharienne ou les cul- tures occupent de vastes zones.

On n'a pas essay6 en Afrique subsaharienne d'int^grer syst6- matiquement et de fagon massive les animaux sauvages dans les systemes agricoles. II faut espe- rer qu'^ long terme I'int^gration des arbres dans les systdmes agricoles (agroforesterie), qui est considerde comme une option

77

valable depuis quelques temps, sera suivie de rint6gration des animaux sauvages capables de ti- rer parti du couvert forestier.

Legislation sur la faune

les lois ont beaucoup limit6 Tutilisation des animaux sau- vages pour I'alimentation dans les 6conomies de subsistance, parce qu'elles visent k protdger les especes menacees et k controler la chasse au troph6e. Dans beaucoup de pays tropi- caux, elles sont congues dans I'optique de la chasse sportive de type europeen, d'ou la generali- sation de concepts, tels que ceux de gibier, de saisons de chasse, de troph6es, de reserves ou d'a- nimaux prot6g6s, transferes en Afrique sans que Ton se soit ap- paremment demand6 s'ils 6taient biologiquement valables en mi- lieu tropical. Un grave defaut de ce type de lois est qu'elles igno- rent les techniques tradition- nelles d'utilisation, assimilees au braconnage. La possession, I'uti- lisation et la commercialisation de la viande et des autres pro- duits des animaux sauvages sont illegales. A cause de conflits avec I'elevage et les cultures, ces animaux sont consider6s comme des nuisances.

Ainsi, dans beaucoup de pays en developpement, les mesures legislatives sont axees unique- ment sur les especes menacees ou les especes produisant des trophees, ce qui a nui a I'amena-

gement des autres animaux. Le principe que la faune appartient k I'Etat, I'obligation d'obtenir des permis de chasse d61ivr6s centralement et les restrictions frappant la vente des produits empechent les propri6taires d'envisager I'amdnagement de la faune comme une option renta- ble d'utilisation des terres. Tout cela n'encourage gudre la conservation.

CONCLUSION

Jusqu'^ present, il n'y a gudre eu d'efforts serieux pour plani- fier la mise en valeur du poten- tiel que represente la faune sau- vage au profit de I'economie ru- rale. Dans la majeure partie de 4'Afrique subsaharienne, on s'oc- cupe beaucoup depuis plus de 20 ans de I'interet touristique de la faune. Mais son role comme source d'aliments est g6nerale- ment ignore ou consid6r6 comme n6gligeable.

L'amenagement de la faune pour la production de viande est reste essentiellement un exercice thdorique, sauf au Zimbabwe oil les particuliers et les communau- t6s possedant des terres s'effor- cent maintenant de valoriser les populations d'animaux sauvages pour en tirer de I'argent et des aliments.

Mais dans beaucoup de pays, on ne dispose pas des informa- tions de base necessaires pour reglementer de fagon viable I'uti-

lisation de la faune pour Pali- mentation. Une 6tude d6taill6e des ressources en faune est indis- pensable. II faut recenser les po- pulations, determiner la place que les animaux et les revenus qu'ils produisent occupent dans I'dconomie de subsistance et mettre au point des formules d'a- m6nagement.

Dans la plupart des cas, le progr6s est freind par le manque de personnel qualifie et de res- sources. Jusqu'a present, tout I'effort de conservation et d'ame- nagement de la faune reposait sur la bonne volonte de quelques passionn6s, les m6canismes offi- ciels 6tant purement formels. Faute d'appui national et inter- national, ces efforts locaux et in- dividuels n'ont pas debouche sur des programmes de grande 6chelle. II est vrai que, dans la plupart des pays d' Afrique, des fmancements accrus seraient ne- cessaires pour mobiliser les res- sources humaines et materielles et les technologies indispensa- bles pour mettre fin a la surex- ploitation et 6tablir un systdme d'utilisation viable; mais dans bien des cas, on pourrait obtenir des resultats notables avec des ressources relativement mo- destes, a condition qu'elles soient utilis6es de fagon efficace. Ce qui manque le plus, c'est la volont6 de tous d'assurer une uti- Usation viable de la faune pour le developpement rural.

Dans les pays d6veloppes, on continue a amenager et a utiliser

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les animaux sauvages en tant que ressource alimentaire et pas seu- lement pour le sport et les loisirs. II faudrait encourager vivement une approche polyvalente de ce genre en Afrique subsaharienne.

Le moment est venu de re- garder d'un oeil nouveau le role que pourraient jouer les animaux sauvages dans la securite alimen- taire et en particulier les possibi- lit6s d'integrer leur utilisation dans les projets de developpe- ment en cours. II y aurait 6gale- ment lieu d'etablir des liaisons entre les activit6s d'amenage- ment de la faune et les projets de nutrition dans les pays en deve- loppement.

Les rdserves forestieres et les zones boisees devront jouer un role cl6 pour permettre de conserver et d'utiliser de fagon viable les populations d'animaux sauvages. Mais pour qu'elles puissent jouer ce role, il faudra reexaminer les plans d'amenage- ment afln qu'ils prennent en compte toutes les ressources fo- restieres, y compris la faune, et les avantages qu'elles peuvent apporter sur le plan local ainsi qu'a r^chelle nationale.

*E.O.A. Asibey, ancien admi- nistrateur en chef de la Commis- sion des forets du Ghana, est ac- tuellement consultant en ecolo- gie a la Banque Mondiale (Was- hington).

*G.S. Child est fonctionnaire principal (am6nagement de la faune et des zones proteg6es) au Departement des forets de la FAO, Rome.

Article repris de Unasylva Vol. 41, n°161,pp3-10

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CONSERVATION

New Parks for Kenya

During 1989, Kenya continued to improve its networks of protected areas by designa- ting two new national parks. Kora National Park, previously a nature reserve, is a semi- arid area of Acacia/Commiphora Bushland, on the south bank of the Tana river in Central Kenya. The Malka Mari National Park is in the Mandera District, in the far north-eastern cor- ner of the country.

convention confie la gestion du pare k la Fon- dation pour une dur^e de 25 ans. Ce pare est situ6 au centre du Togo et s'6tend sur 200 000 ha.

An ageement was signed in May 1990 be- tween the Weber Foundation and the Togo- lese Ministry of Environment and Tourism, un- der which the management of the Park will be entrusted to the Foundation for a period of 25 years. The Park is situated in the central part of Togo and covers an area of 200 000 ha.

Nouveaux Pares au Kenya

En 1989, le Kenya a encore amelior6 son reseau d'aires protegees en d^signant 2 nou- veaux pares nationaux. Le Pare National de Kora, auparavant reserve naturelie, est une zone sem\-ar\6ek Acacia/Commiphora, situee sur la rive Sud de la riviere Tana au centre du Kenya. Le Pare National de Molka Mari est dans le District Mandera ei I'extreme pointe Nord-Est du pays.

(source : Parks vol 1, n°1, 1990) *******************************

La fondation Franz Weber au Pare National Malfakossa-Fazao (Togo)

Une convention a et6 sign6e en mai 90 en- tre la Fondation Weber et le ministere togolais de I'environnement et du Tourisme; cette

(source: Ministere Togolais de I'environne- ment et du Tourisme)

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Bringing back the QUAGGA

{Hippotiaris quaqqa quaaaa)

South African scientists are engaged In a project to rebreed the extinct quagga within 3 generations or 10 years. The last quagga died in Amsterdam Zoo on August 12, 1883. Scientists hope to recreate the quagga by in- terbreeding selected plain zebras, without stri- ping on their hind legs. Such specimens are occasionally seen in the Etosha Pan in Nami- bia and in Zululand (Natal). According to tis- sue shavings examination from preserved quagga in Cape Town Museum, there is evi- dence that quagga was a subspecies of the plain zebra. This means that the main gene pool is still available for recreation of the

80

quagga without the intrcxjuction of any extra specific genes. 8 zebras with greatly reduced striping were selected from about 2500 and

are now in a breeding station. To speed up the process, artificial insemination could be used, if necessary.

Recr6er le couaaaa {Hippotiaris

posterieurs ont disparu. De tels specimens sont parfois apergus k Etosha Pan ou dans le Zululand (Natal). D'apr^s des examens de prelevements de tissus provenant de z^bres conserves au Musee du Cap, il est clair que le couagga ^tait une sous-espdce du z§bre de plaine. Cela signifie que le stock principal de g^nes est encore disponible pour reorder le couagga sans apport du moindre g^ne extra specifique. 8 zebres dont les rayures etaient fortement reduites ont 6t6 selectionnes parmi 2500. lis sont maintenant dans une station d'elevage. Pour accelerer le processus, I'in- semination artificielle pourrait etre utilis^e, si cela s'av6re necessaire.

(source: lUCN Veterinary group newsletter n°5, 1990)

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Des scientifiques sud africains ont entam6 un projet pour recreer le couagga disparu, d'i- ci 3 generations ou 10 ans. Le dernier couag- ga mourut au zoo d'Amsterdam le 12 aoOt

1 883. Les scientifiques esp^rent recreer cette espdce en croisant entre eux des z6bres se- lectionnes, dont les rayures des membres

La fondation Cote d'Or aide le Pare National de Ruaha (Tanzanie)

La societe chocolatiere Cote d'Or (Belgl- que) a cree debut 1990 une fondation pour la protection de reiephant qui consacrera an- nuellement et pendant 3 ans un montant de 10 millions de francs ($300,000) k la protec- tion des elephants dans le Pare de Ruaha (Tanzanie) ou leur nombre est pass6 de 44000 en 1977 k moins de 15000 dix ans plus tard. De son cote.le gouvernement tanzanien s'est engage k renforcer les effectifs de gardes du pare de 50 %.

Cote d'Or, the chocolate manufacturing company In Belgium, set up a foundation ear- ly 1990 for elephant protection. It will vote an- nually 10 million francs ($300,000) for. three

81

years, toward elephant protection at the Rua- ha National Park in Tanzania, where their number has reduced from 44,000 in 1977 to less than 15,000 10 years later. On its part, the Tanzanian government has pledged to in- crease the number of wardens by 50 %.

(source: WWF-Belgium Panda Press n- 34, 1990)

<^

POUR LA PROTECTION DE L ELEPHANT

f.

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Upcoming Events Reunions a venir

* Breeding and Conservation of Endangered Species

Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Summer School 27th July to 1 7th August 1991 7 The fee per person is £700 (including accomodation and meals) J.W.P.T., Trinity, Jersey JE3 5BF, Channel Islands, UK

* International Symposium on human influences on Endangered Wildlife Species in Africa

2-5 December 1991 Kampala info: Dr Edroma Uganda Institute of Zoology P.O. BOX 3530 KAMPALA Uganda

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* Symposium sur la sant6 et la gestion des mammiferes en liberte

Symposium on health and management of free-ranging mammals

15-17 Octobre 1 991 Nancy, France info: BP 9 F-54220 MALZEVILLE France

*10th World Forestry Congress lOemc? Congr^s Forestier Mondiale

Paris 17-26 Sept. 1991

Info: CTFT 45b, avenue de la

Belle-Gabrielle

F- 94736 Nogent-sur-Marne CEDEX

France

82

This congress is followed by optional stu- dy tours

Netlierlands: forestry in a country with a high population density (6 days)

Niger: the tree in the fight against desertifi- cation (9 days)

Cote d'lvoire: Deforestation and Reforesta- tion (7 days)

Gabon: Conservation and development of the equatorial forest (9 days)

Ce congrds est suivi de voyages d'^tudes en option

Pays-Bas: foresterie dans un pays ci forte densite humaine (6 jours)

Niger: I'arbre dans la lutte centre la deser- tification

Cote d'lvoire: Deforestation et reboise- ment (7 jours)

Gabon: Conservation et mise en valeur de la foret 6quatoriale (9 jours)

BOOKS - LIVRES

"WWF Atlas of the Environment"

by Geoffrey Lean, Don Hinrichsen and Adam Markham, arrow Books Ltd. London. 192 pp. £10.99

Unlike a conventional atlas, almost all the maps in this book are of the entire globe. This book is divided into 42 sections. All the major issues are there: the ozone hole, population growth, destruction of mangroves, damaged watersheds... with maps, diagrams and charts.

(culled from WWF News)

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"Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems"

Biogeographical and Ecological Studies by H. Leith and M.J.A. Werger. 714 pp. US$ 243

This volume presents a comprehensive re- view of the rain forest ecosystem structure and the ecological processes operating that system. General chapters on abiotic and bio- tic factors are followed by specific chapters on all major groups of organisms. The human exploitation of the system, its effects and its li- mits are discussed. The book is extensively il- lustrated by pictures, graphs and tables.

"Elsevier's Dictionary of the World's Game and Wildlife"

(in English, Latin, French, German, Dutch

and Spanish with equivalents in Afrikaans and Kiswahili)

by G.R. Ferlin 426 pp. US$ 153 This multilingual dictionary, the first of its kind, provides information on animal species and terminology concerning hunting and wil- dlife management. The first part includes list of animal species and subspecies which can be considered "game" in a wide sense (1 800 entries) including sea mammals and sea birds. The second part of the dictionary pre- sents equivalent game and hunting terms in five languages.

Ce dictionnaire "polyglotte" (Frangais, An- glais, Allemand, Latin, Neerlandais et Espa- gnol avec equivalents en Swahili et Afrikaans) est le premier du genre. II est divis6 en deux parties : la premiere comprend une liste (1 800 entries) d'esp^ces et de sous-esp6ces anl- males pouvant etre considerees comme gl- bier au sens large, y compris les mammifdres marins et les oiseaux de mer; la seconde partie pr6sente les termes de chasse et de gl- bier en 5 langues.

Cover / couverture: c6phalophe de Jentink ( Cephalophus jentinki ) Jentink's duiker

(photo Vivian J. Wilson) Back cover / couverture arridre: serval ( Felis serval ) (photo J.J. Leroy)