Nature et Faune REVUE INTERNATIONALE POUR LA CONSERVATION DE LA NATURE EN AFRIQUE Gestion de la Faune, Am^nagement d'alres prot6g6e8, Conservation dee ressources naturelles. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL ON NATURE CONSERVATION IN AFRICA Wildlife and Protected Areas Management and Natural Resources Conservation. t"*.-' '•-^^^^^SiKSFi^^^lSIKlKlfi'^IS^fliRtrK Volume 8. nM. Octobre-D6cembre 1992. October-December 1992. Organisation des Nations Unies pour r Alimentation et I'Agriculture Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ^<'Cv >^ Programme des Nations Unies pour (/ ^0^^^ si TEnvironnement W ^ M ^y United Nations Environment ■# Programme FAO Regional OfTice for Africa Bureau Regional de la F.A.O. pour TAfrique - Accra (Ghana) Nature et Faune Volume 8. n° 4 Octobre-Decembre 1992. October-December 1992. 1^ La revue Nature et Faune est une publication Internationale trimestrielle destinee a permettre un echange d'informations et de connaissances scientifiques concernant la gestion de la faune, I'amenagement des aires protegees et la conserva- Jtion des ressources naturelles sur le continent africain. "Nature et Faune" is a quarterly international publication de- dicated to the exchange of information and scientific data on wildlife and protected areas management and conservation of natural resources on the African continent. Editeur - Editor : Eric Caufriez Ass. Editeur - Ass. Editor : J. Thompson Conseillers - Advisers : J.D. Keita, ^. Darroze Nature et Faune depend de vos contributions ben6voles et volontaires sous la forme d'articles ou d'annonces dans le domaine de la conservation de la nature et de la faune sau- vage dans la Region. Pour la publication d'articles ou tout renseignement complementaire, ecrire a I'adresse suivante: "Nature et Faune" is dependent upon your free and voluntary contributions in the form of articles and announcements in the field of wildlife and nature conservation in the Region. For publication of articles or any further information, please contact: , :!^. Revue NATURE ET FAUNE / F.A.O. Regional Office for Africa ,^p P.O. BOX 1628 %f4-'' ACCRA (Ghana) Sommaire -Contents Editorial 3 La Conference des Nations Unies sur L'Environnement et le Developpement durable 4 Food habits of blue monkeys on Mount Meru, Tanzania 16 1993 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas 26 Biodiversity - a key resource for development 27 TRADUCTIONS - TRANSLATIONS 32 Le contenu des articles de cette revue exprime les opinions de leurs auteurs et ne reflate pas n6cessairennent celles de la FAO, du PNUE ou de la redaction. II n'exprime done pas une prise de position officielle, ni de I'Organisation des Nations Unies pour I'Ali- mentation et I'Agriculture, ni du Programme des Nations Unies pour I'Environnement. En particulier les appellations employees dans cette publication et lo presentation des donn6es qui y figurent n'impliquent de la part de ces Organisations aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique des pays, territoires, villes ou zones ou de leurs autorit^s, ni quant aux traces de leurs frontidres ou limites. Printed by The Advent Press — Accra EDITORIAL Voici maintenant quelques mois, Rio de Janeiro accueillait 30000 hotes autour d'un objectif ambitieux mais prioritaire: concilier gestion de I'environnement et developpe- ment, rassembler les volontes et les efforts pour une gestion durable des ressources de la Planete bleue. Depuis, apres que degus et satisfaits aient pu s'exprimer sur tous les medias du monde, les dispositions annoncees a Rio se mettent peu a peu en place. Le Sommet de la Terre n'etait-il pas en fait surtout un point de depart ? Le financement des dispositions et pro- grammes mis au point a Rio et recemment adoptes par I'Assemblee generale des Na- tions Unies a New-York, ne sera pas une chose aisee dans le contexte economique actuel. Neanmoins, chacun doit egalement employer les moyens dont il dispose pour gerer les ressources naturelles avec le sou- ci du long terme. Et ce avec le souci de LA generation fu- ture, tant il est vrai que le temps nous presse desormais a agir ENSEMBLE. A few months ago, Rio de Janeiro hosted 30,000 guests for an ambitious but priority objective: reconcile the management of en- vironment and development, rally goodwill and efforts to achieve a sustainable manage- ment of the resources of the Blue planet. Since then, after both the disappointed and satisfied have expressed their views through the media all over the world, mea- sures announced in Rio are being put in place little by little. The Earth Summit cer- tainly served as a point of departure. Financing of decisions made and pro- grammes drawn up in Rio and recently adop- ted by the U.N. General Assembly in New York, will not be easy given the present eco- nomic situation. Nevertheless, every person should use the means at his disposal to ma- nage natural resources with a long-term ob- jective. With our concern for the future genera- tion, it becomes all the more real that it is ur- gent to act TOGETHER from now on. La Conference des Nations Unies sur I'Environnement et le Developpement Durable "le sommet de la terre" Rio de Janeiro, Bresil 3 - 14 juin 1992 par E. Caufriez * Rappelez-vous, juin 92 fut un mois pas comme les autres... Une effervescence diplomatique et media- tique a cristallise I'attention et les esperances de la terre entiere a I'occasion de la reunion de la plupart des chefs d'Etat et de gouvernement de ce monde lors de la Conference des Na- tions Unies sur TEnvironnement et le Develop- pement, que Ton retiendra sans doute sous I'appellation "Sommet de la Terre" ou encore "Sommet Planete Terre". En fait, cet evenement, et ses annees de preparation, servirent egalement de catalyseur aux dialogues, aux echanges de vues et de re- flexions, mais aussi a une intense activite de lobbying, au niveau de toute la planete, sur la question cruciale de I'avenir du genre humain, notre avenir, et celui de nos enfants... L'Hommeayantpris conscience des limites de sa planete et de la disparite de I'utilisation de ses ressources, il devenait urgent de tracer une voie pour redresser la situation ! Divers Programmes et Agences speciali- sees des Nations Unies ont bien entendu four- ni un travail considerable dans la preparation de la Conference. Mais I'importance prise par les ONG dans ce grand concert planetaire est indeniable et cette evolution etait souhaitable si Ton considere le travail accompli par celles- ci sur le terrain. II est certain que les ONG pren- dront une part active dans le processus com- plexe et ambitieux amorce a Rio de Janeiro. Les satisfaits et les degus de Rio... On ne peut nier que le Sommet de la Terre fut un progres essentiel dans la prise de conscience collective du genre humain, et sin- gulierement de ceux qui le dirigent et I'adml- nistrent, sur le fait que la Terre et ses residents reclament une gestion plus durable et plus Equitable de ses ressources. Rio est aussi un engagement qui marque le debut d'une nouvelle epoque, empreintede re- sponsabilite ecologique face a une humanity toujours plus nombreuse aspirant a plus de bien-etre tout en preservant son avenir. Rio est done un point de depart, une prise de conscience et I'amorce d'un dialogue plus constructif, et en cela I'on peut paiier de suc- c6s... Certes, le depart a connu quelques rat^s: la Charte de la Terre Initialement pr6vue s'est transform6e en une Declaration de Rio de por- t^e symbolique, la Declaration de principes fo- restiers adoptee fait autoritd mais n'est pas ju- ridiquement contraignante, certains engage- ments restent vagues et demandent a etre fix6s au niveau des cliiffres et du calendrier, et le plus grand utilisateur des ressources gene- tiques du monde s'est bien gard^ de signer la Convention sur la Diversity Biologique... Et surtout, les pays developpes, aux prises avec leurs soucis budgetaires et la faiblesse de I'dconomie mondiale, n'ont guere concretise les attendus financiers de ce sommet. Sans doute les exigences de certains pour un changement radical ont et6 plus que d^- Ques. Mais pouvait-on ralsonnablement atten- dre plus d'une telle reunion ? Le succ6s ou I'echec de Rio apparaftra mieux dans les mois et les ann^es ^ venir, mais il est trds probable que la r^alite se situera en- tre ces deux extremes. Cinq documents majeurs pour un Sommet. La Declaration de Rio sur rEnvironnement et le Deve- loppement. Vous trouverez un poster avec le texte in- tegral de la Declaration de Rio au centre du journal. Cette Declaration, k defaut d'etre la Charte de la Terre initialement prevue dans les prepa- ratifs du Sommet, a le merite de concilier sur le papier environnement et oeveioppement, en offrant vingt-sept Principes qui constituent de- sormais le cadre dans iequel devrait prendre forme toute action de developpement. Les besolns et les devoirs des uns et des autres sont prociames en soulignant la re- sponsabilite de chacun vis-^-vis de I'environ- nement, patrimoine commun de I'humanite entiere, presente et k venir. Quelques principes forts y sont clairement enonces tels que la liaison entre I'environne- ment et le developpement durable, la notion "pollueur = payeur", la responsabilite des Etats vis-^-vis de leurs voisins pour ce qui touche les questions d'environnement qui, c'est bien connu, ne connaissent pas les frontidres. Mais encore: la transparence de I'information (par exemple en matiere d'activites k risques, de produits dangereux), la generalisation des etudes d'Impact environnementales, impor- tance de la participation des populations, des communautes, des femmes et des jeunes no- tamment, et, ce qui est une evolution recente dans I'ethique Internationale mais qui ne faisait aucun mystere depuis longtemps, I'influence desastreuse des conflits armes sur I'environ- nement et le developpement durable... II n'est pas impossible toutefois que la De- claration de Rio soit remise sur la table lors d'une procliaine occasion. L'on evoque d'ail- leurs le prochain 50eme anniversaire des Na- tions Unies en 1995. Les Principes forestiers. L'expression "Principes forestiers" est en fait une abreviation pour "Declaration de prin- cipes, non juridiquement contraignante mais faisant autorite, pour un consensus mondial sur la gestion, la conservation et I'exploitation ecologiquement viable de tous les types de fo- r§ts". ^M^^M • La rehabilitation est encore envisageable... (Rehabilitation is still possible) • Mmh, oul. {3^'ailleurs il serait impossible de construire du neuf I (Mnnh yes, in fact, it will be impossible to start afresh) ^ ( illustration : A. Wojogbe) Mr. Justice D.F. Anrtan, aiors Vice President du Conseil provisoire de la Defense Nationale, signe la Convention sur la Di- versity Bioiogique au nom de la R6publique du Ghana. Mr Justice D.F. Annan, then Vice Chairman of the PNDC, signing the Convention on Biological Diversity for the Republic of Ghana. (UN Photo 180406 / Joe B. Sills III) I V a Plus cfe richesses d^M to Nature qu6 danft I'ensemble des banoues du monde" (Publicity de ia Citybank dans un num6ro d« I'hebdomadaire br6silien, Veja, paru lors du Sommet de Rio) L'on a done finalement 6cart6 pour I'lnstant une Convention qui aurait r6glement6 juridi- quement la gestion des for§ts en ia subordon- nant k des preoccupations 6cologlques. Le prIncIpe meme d'une convention 6talt consl- d6r6 par plusieurs pays producteurs de pro- dults forestlers tropicaux comme une attelnte k leur souveralnet6 et k leur capaclt6 de deve- loppement. Suite k cette pol6mlque entre le Nord et le Sud, le Sommet aura done produit un document tres decri6 par les ONG de la conservation, qui voient entre autres dans son caract^re non contraignant une faiblesse ma- jeure. Les pays forestlers tropicaux redoutaient surtout qu'une telle Convention ne fournlsse les arguments juridiques pour des mesures unilat6rales prises par certains pays ddvelop- pes centre le commerce de leurs produits fo- restlers, compromettant ainsi une importante ressource qui puisse assurer leur d6veloppe- ment. Cette question fut largement d6battue dans les pr6c6dents numeros de Nature et Faune. 11 est important cependant de remarquer k ce propos que le Chapitre 1 1 du programme Action 21, intitul6 "Lutte centre le deboise- ment" prevoit de "faciliter et promouvoir la mise en oeuvre effective" des principes fores- tiers...,"et, sur la base de I'appiicatlon de ces principes, d'examiner la n6cessit6 et Tapplica- bllit6 de toutes sortes d'arrangements appro- pri6s convenus au plan international pour pro- mouvoir la cooperation Internationale" dans le domaine forestier. R6sumons done ee document en quelqiies points majeurs, en les commentant partois: - Reconnaissance de la souverainet^ des Etats k exploiter.. .durablement... leurs res- sources foresti^res, sans compromettre I'envl- ronnement des Etats voislns (Principes 1 et 2); - Reconnaissance des rdles multiples des fordts et de la n^essit6 d'une gestion durable satisfaisant k I'ensemble de ces r6les (Pream- bule, Principes 2, 4 et 6). La production de bois ne serait done plus qu'un objectif d'amdnage- ment parmi d'autres. Et ce qui 6tait jusqu'it present implicite dans la gestion forestidre devra itre pris en compte de manidre plus ex- plicite dans les objectifs d'amSnagement et lespolitiques forestidres. Le Programme d' ac- tion forestier tropical exprime d'ailleurs ce concept. - Les politiques foresti^res nationales de- vralent reconnaitre les droits des peuples fo- restlers indigenes, leur Identity et leur culture. II est n6cessaire de d6velopper les conditions permettant k ces peuples de poursuivre leurs systdmes d'exploitation durable des forets et de maintenir leur structures soeiales et leur bien-etre, notamment au moyen d'aceords sur la propri6t6 des terres (Principe 5); - Seuls un commerce International ouvert et libre. respectant les regies et procedures multilat6rales (ex: le GATT), ainsi qu'une poli- tique appropriee en matiere de fiscalit6, de commerce, d'industrie et de transport, sont k m§me de favoriser une gestion durable des fo- r§ts. Les coQts et b6n6fices pour I'environne- ment doivent §tre int6gr6s dans les lois et les m6canismes du march6 (Principes 13 et 14). Ainsi, la politique d'embargo sur les bois tro- picaux est clairement rejetSe par la commu- naut6 Internationale, it la grande satisfaction des pays forestiers tropicaux, et au grand d6- pitde certaines organisations 4cologlstes du Nord. II reste cependant it promouvoir les pra- tiques techniques et commerciales qui per- mettent une exploitation ii long terme des res- sources forestidres, dans les for§ts tropi- cales, niais aussi dans les forets temp6r6es. - Les autres principes contiennent des ap- pels en faveur d'une meilleure cooperation scientifique et technique, de I 'amelioration des politiques foresti^res, de i'accroissement des efforts de boisement, d'augmentation du cou- vert forestier et de ia productivite des forets d6- grad^es - en bref, "ren- dre le monde plus vert". - En consequence, il est demand^ h chacun d'augmenter ses ef- forts financiers, et no- tamment aux pays riches d'accroitre leur assistance aux pays en d6veloppement. Le probleme de I'effet n6- faste de la dette des pays en d^veloppe- ment qui entrafne une surexploitation de leurs forets doit §tre pris en compte par la commu- '^aute Internationale. Les Principes fores- tiers, malgr6 cette fai- blesse que Ton doit re- connaitre aux docu- ments de bonnes inten- tions, apportent-ils pour autant quelqu'espoir d'am^ioration dans la gestion de toutes les fo- rdts du monde ? Ui encore. Ton ne peut juger L'INTERET BIEN COMPRIS DES FIRMES Le Costa Rica a transform^ 25% de son territoire en r6serves naturelles. L'iNBIO, un Institut de re- cherche universitaire, a commenc6 ^ en recen- ser toutes les espdces grSce k un accord avec la firme pharmaceutique am6ricaine Merck: celle- ci analyse les 6chantillons et, en ^change, verse k riNBIO un nnillion de dollars par an, fornne ses scientifiques et s'engage k partager les b6n6- fices d'une 6ventuelle d6couverte. March^ de dupes ou partenariat ? L'avenir nous le dira. Pour I'heure, le gouvernement, qui n'a pas 6t6 consult^, s'interroge sur cette appropria- tion d'une ressource qu'il consid^re comme pu- blique. Mais les termes apparemment avantageux de ce montage ont incite la Tanzanie, le Mexique et rindon6sie k suivre I'exemple du Costa Rica. (extrait du Courrier de la Plandte n°7 - Mai 1992) detelles resolutions que sur les rdsultats obte- nus. Et 1^ encore, il sera surtout question du sens des responsabiiit^s des uns, et de la vigi- lance des autres. Le dialogue, m§me difficile, amorc^ k Rio entre le Nord et le Sud, doit conti- nuer. Enfin, le d^bat sur l'avenir des forets s'est bien av6rd mondial: les forgts temp6r6es sont elles aussi menac^es, par la mauvaise gestion, la surexploitation et la pollution. La Convention sur la Diversi- te Biologique, Depuis i'apparition de la vie sur terre, ja- mais sans doute notre plandte n'aura connu un tel appauvrissement g6- netique, d'une telle rapi- dite. Perte ou transforma- tion irremediable de bio- topes, fragmentation des grands espaces naturels en petites aires disper- sees, introduction d'es- peces ind^sirabies qui des^quilibrent les ^co- syst^mes r6cepteurs, surexploitation des es- pdces animales et veg6- tales, pollution des sols, des eaux et de I 'atmo- sphere, pratiques agri- coles et forestieres non durables, sont autant de facteurs qui contribuent k la menace insidieuse de I'erosion g^netique. Insidieuse car difficile k cerner par un pu- blic non averti, I'erosion g^n^tique est peu spectaculaire et done peu m^diatis^e, mais ses effets k long terme sont redout^s par les scientifiques. Pourtant, les reticences affich6es par cer- tains pays industriels vis-^-vis de cette Convention attestent que la diversity biologi- que a d^pass^ le stade d'une preoccupation de scientifiques ou d'6cologistes pour se pla- cer sur le plan de la competition et du pouvoir 6conomique, qui est plus susceptible de moti- ver les decisions du genre humain en cette fin de XX^me siecle. Les pays en developpement disposent de- puis toujours d'une ricliesse qui encore une fois semble leur 6chapper: les gdnes a I'etat sauvage. Certains voient dans cette ressource le petrole, Tor ou le diamant de demain: une source de revenus appreciable, mais dont le gisement est par definition vivantet vulnerable, k I'inverse des gisements des matieres inertes pr6citees. Essentiel pour le developpement de I'agri- culture, de la recherciie m6dicale et la bioclii- mie, le patrimoine genetique etait depuis long- temps consider^ comme un patrimoine com- mun. Dans le domaine agricole en particulier, la FAQ a toujours pr6n6 le libre acces aux res- sources pliytog6n6tiques, principe inclu de- puis 1983 dans le Systdme global de gestion des ressources pliytog^netiques, qui com- prend en particulier un engagement internatio- nal n'ayantcependant pas valeur juridique, ap- prouvd par 103 pays. Le patrimoine genetique est depuis tou- jours une mati^re premiere des pays en deve- loppement. Avec la tendance actuelle de privi- legier le droit k la propriety intellectuelie (bre- vets) avanc§ par les pays developp^s, ne ris- que-t-on pas la mise en valeur de ces res- sources par le Nord, revendues avec une plus value importante k ces memes pays en deve- loppement sous forme de variet6s de plantes am6lior6es et de medicaments ? De plus, les pays en developpement sont ou seront tentes de considerer leurs res- sources genetiques comme une matiere pre- miere nationale, et de gerer celle-ci en mon- nayant Taccds k ses "gisements", sous forme de "concessions" aux firmes privees etran- geres et d'accords bilateraux leurs garantis- sant certains avantages (voir encadre page precedente). Ne risque-t-on pas de perdre le libre acces aux genes sauvages ? Mais aujourd'hui ce patrimoine est en dan- ger, et particulierement en ce qui concerne les forets tropicales qui receient une part appre- ciable des especes vivantes de notre bio- sphere, dont une majorlte nous est encore to- talement inconnue. La Convention constitue cependant une avancee certaine dans ce domaine. Brieve- ment, elle se propose de: - conserver le patrimoine genetique; - aider les pays en developpement k conserver ces ressources et k appiiquer la Convention. - favoriser le transfert de technologie vers les pays en developpement; - reglementer les activites des societes pri- vees de biotechnologie; - definir I 'acces aux ressources genetiques et leur proprietaire; - etablir des mecanismes de compensation en faveur des pays en developpement pour I'exploitation de leur materiel genetique. Les Etats-Unis ont jusqu'^ present refuse de signer la Convention, plusieurs autres pays industrialises s'y sont resignes sans enthou- siasme. Finalement 156 pays plus la Commu- naut6 Europ6enne signdrent la Convention k Rio. Toutefois, elle n'obtiendra force de loi que lorsque trente pays auront fait ratifier la Convention par leur corps legislatifs respectifs. Le Fonds pour I'environnement mondial constituera le mecanisme de financement de cette Convention. La Convention sur le change- ment climatique. Deuxieme veritable traite international jurl- diquement contraignant adopts lors du Som- met, la Convention sur le changement climati- que a deja recueilli ci la mi-octobre 1992 la si- gnature de 1 57 pays et de la Communaute Eu- ropeenne. Toutefois son entree en vigueur en tant que loi Internationale doit attendre sa rati- fication par les corps legislatifs d'au moins 50 pays, ce qui ne devrait pas se produire avant 1994. Devant les risques, encore difficiles a eva- luer de fagon precise, des bouleversements in- duits par un rechauffement global de notre at- mosphere (voir Volumes 7.4 et 8.1 de Nature et Faune), le but le plus concret affiche par la Convention consiste a reduire les emissions de gaz dits a effets de serre au niveau d'emis- sionde 1990. Aucun calendrier precis n'a toutefois et6 decide, chaque Nation etant invitee a agir sans delai. L'on devine aisement des lors les criti- ques adressees a I'encontre de la Convention par ses d6tracteurs. qui estiment que sans echeance claire, les gouvernements ne vont pas faire preuve d'un zele excessif. Certains consid^rent meme que revenir au niveau d'emission de gaz de 1990 ne permet- tra pas d'enrayer le phenomene. II n'empeche que I'effort impose par la Convention se revele d^k trds consequent et difficile k mettre en oeuvre. Sans doute un objectif plus s^vdre en- core n'aurait-il 6t6 que moins r6aliste. La responsabilit^ des pays industrialists y est particulierement soulign6e, non seulement en tant que principaux pollueurs et devoreurs d'energie, mais comme principaux detenteurs des moyens scientifiques, technologiques et financiers pour s'attaquer au probleme. Cooperation scientifique et 6change d'in- formation, transfert et accessibilite a la techno- logie "propre" ou "douce", sont desormais clai- rement enonces dans un traite international qui aura sous peu force de loi. Les pays d^veloppes s'engagent done non seulement a reduire leurs emissions de gaz a effet de serre, mais aussi a fournir aux pays en developpement les moyens humains, techni- ques et financiers pour atteindre les objectifs fixes par la Convention. Ainsi, une assistance financiere "nouvelle et additionnelle" devra etre accordee par les pays les plus riches. Celle-ci pourrait etre octroyee en utilisant le meca- nisme du Fonds pour I'environnement mondial (pour rappel, la phase pilote de ce Fonds a du- re trois ans et s'est conclue en decembre 1 992. Ce mecanisme est en cours de restructura- tion...) La Convention stipule en outre: - I'obligation de chaque Partie (pays signa- taire) a la Convention de fournir regulierement des rapports quant k I'application des diff^- rentes mesures enoncees; - la tenue de Conferences des Parties de- vant evaluer les resultats obtenus. La premiere Conference devra se tenir avant le 31 decem- bre 1998; - La mise sur pied d'une structure permet- tant le suivi de la Convention, constitute d'un 10 Secretariat, de deux organes subsidiaires, I'un scientifique et technique, I'autre plus adminis- tratif, charge de I 'application de la Convention. Le PROGRAMME ACTION 21: un plan de gestion mon- dial pour le XXIeme Siecle, Tracer les voies qui concilient developpe- ment et environnement signifie egalement re- pondre ^ des questions tres diverses, touchant pratiquement a toutes les activites de la socie- ty. C'est pourquoi le Programme Action 21, avec ses 40 chapitres, ses 1 1 5 programmes et ses centaines de pages, peut paraitre singulid- rement ambitieux, certains diront irrealiste. II est vrai que ce document exprime les objectifs a atteindre sur le mode conditionnel. Pouvait- II d'ailleurs en etre autrement ? Cependant, le Programme Action 21, en proposant des objectifs assez precis et les moyens k mettre en oeuvre, apporte la base des actions futures k mener pour g6rer intelll- gemment nos ressources a plus long terme. En cela, il peut etre mis en parallele avec d'au- tres initiatives telies que I'agenda Ya Wanan- chi, plan d'action pour I'environnement et le developpement adopte par la Conference mondiale des ONG "Les Racines de I'Avenir" (Paris, d^cembre 1991), ou la Strat^gie pour I'Avenir de la Vie, "Sauver la Plandte", pr6sen- t6een1991 parl'UICN (Alliance mondiale pour la Nature), le WWF (Fonds mondial pour la Na- ture) et le PNUE (Programme des Nations Unies pour I'Environnement). Combattre la pauvret6, changer les mo- deles de consommation de nos ressources, prot6ger et promouvoir la sant6 humaine, pro- t^ger I'atmosphdre, combattre la deforesta- tion, promouvoir I'approche int6gr6e de rutlll- sation des sols, prot^ger les ^cosyst^mes de montagne, proteger et g^rer les ressources en eau douce, satisfaire les besoins agricoles sans d^grader les sols, g^rer les d^chets, ren- dre accessibles les 'technologies propres", promouvoir I'^ducation et la sensibilisation k la protection de I'environnement, renforcer le role des femmes et des diverses structures so- ciales pour un d§veioppement durable, etc.: la liste des defis relev^s lors de la lecture du Programme Action 21 est impressionnante. Le cout de I'application de ce Programme dans les pays en developpement a souvent pu etre ^voque dans la presse, sans que Ton ne parvienne reeliement k s'imaginer ce que peut signifier une note de 600 milliards de dollars par an, dont 1 25 milliards de dollars fournis par la communaute Internationale en dons ou k des conditions favorables, de 1 993 ci I'an 2000. Qu'importe d'ailleurs la pertinence de I'estl- mation du cout du Programme Action 21 , il est surtout etabli que ne pas appliquer les me- sures pr^conisees aurait des consequences bien plus incaicuiables... Mais comment financer ce Programme ? Les activites du Programme Action 21 peu- vent en fait etre en grande partie financees par les budgets actuels des Etats, mais aussi par le secteur prive. II s'agirait alors plutdt de veil- ler k ce que les objectifs du Programme Action 21 soient desormais integres aux programmes de developpement et aux activites economi- ques existantes. Mais, de nouveiles ressources addition- nelles seront bien sOr necessaires. 11 Les pays industrialists sont appeles k consacrer au minimum 0.7% de leur PNB au d6veloppement (centre 0.35% en mdyenne aujourd'hui). Cela doublerait les quelques 53 milliards de dollars actuellement consacr^s ei cette aide publique au d^veloppement (Chif- fres 1989). Bien qu'aucune decision formelle n'ait 6t6 prise k Rio, certains chefs d'Etats ont manifes- te cette intention, et d'autres ont annonc^ des initiatives et quelques financements addition- nels. A concr6tiser... Ensuite, diverses propositions ont ete sug- g6r6es telles que nouvelles taxes Internatio- nales sur les transports aeriens, sur les pro- duits petroliers et les armes - des ecotaxes peu appreci^es par certains groupes d'interets puissants - reduction des budgets de defense (les dividendes de la paix), echanges dettes- nature, annulation des dettes des pays en 66- veloppement, financements priv6s et trans- ferts de technologie (propre!). et transparent. Cependant, sa vocation mon- diale ne concemera done que les elements du Programme Action 21 de portee planetaire, c'est-a-dire conservation de la diversite biolo- gique, changement climatique, eaux Interna- tionales et protection de la couche d'ozone. I_a capacity de la communaute Internatio- nale k relever le defi du Programme Action 21 dependra aussi de sa capacite a depasser les tendances au repli sur sol dans une conjonc- ture difficile, et a resoudre rapidement certains conflits qui reclament beaucoup de moyens humains et financiers. En effet, les guerres et les disputes steriies que se livrent les hommes pour un peu de terre et de pouvoir ne sont-elles pas la premiere des menaces qui pese sur I'environnement et le de- veloppement durable? Le Programme Action 21 a ete approuve par 172 Etats et 102 Chefs d'Etat ont indiqu6 dans leur declaration leurvolonte de participer k ce Programme. Les mecanismes de financement devraient s'articuler autour de I'Aide publique au deve- loppement (bi- et multilaterale), le Fonds pour I'environnement mondial et I'Association Inter- nationale de developpement (AID, une filiale du groupe de la Banque Mondiale qui fournit des prets sans int^rets aux pays de plus faibles revenus). Le President de la Banque mondiale a propos§ que des fonds supplementaires soient accord^s ^ I'AID et qu'une partie des 1 ,2 milliards de dollars US des revenus annuels netsde la Banque mondiale soit allouee k I'AID sous la forme d'un "Accroissement marginal pour la Terre" qui financerait des projets natio- naux d'environnement. Le Fonds pour I'environnement mondial devrait etre restructure pour faciliter la partici- pation de tous les pays, de fagon a ce que son fonctionnement devienne plus democratique Resultats de I'Assemblee Gene- rale des Nations Unies en ce qui concerne le suivi de la CNUED. Apres avoir atteint le Sommet de la Terre en Juin, les Representants des Nations ont done rejoint leur "camp de base" le plus proche, k savoir I'Assemblee generaledes Nations Unies k New-York, en decembre 1992. Loin de I'euphorie de Rio, 11 fallait se mettre d'accord et decider de I'aprds-CNUED, et no- tamment du dispositif qui veillerait a I'applica- tion et k la poursuite du travail amorce dans la metropole br^silienne. L'Assembl^e a proc6de a I'adoption du rap- port de la CNUED, approuvant ainsi le pro- gramme d'Action 21 , la Declaration de Rio et 12 les "Principes forestiers" et appelant k leur ap- L'Assembl^e a en outre 66ck\6 d'^blir un plication. Conseil consultatif, rassemblant des experts Apr^s quelques efforts diplomatiques, il a repr^sentant la science. I'lndustrie, la finance 6t6 d^cid§ la cr^tion d'une Commission sur et d'autres disciplines connexes, charge de le d^veloppement durable (voir encadr6). conseiller le Secretaire g^n^ral et la Commis- LE FONCTIONNEMENT DE LA COMMISSION... Cette Commission sur le d^vetoppement durable sera en fait un organe subsidiaire du Conseil Economique et Social des Nations Unies (EGOSOC). Cinquante-trois Ftepr6sentants de haut niveau des Etats membres de I'ONU seront 6lus lors de la prochaine as- sembl6e de I'ECOSOC en f6vrier 1993. La participation k cette Commission s'effectuera par un roulement par- mi les Gouvernements et les diff^rentes regions g^ographiques y seront representees de iaqon Equitable. La Commission aura pour tSche: - de veiller k I'application d'Action 21 - en 6tant consciente que ce programme dynamique peut 6voluer avec ie temps - et aux activit6s int6ressant le d6veloppement durable men6es par les organismes des Nations Unies; - de consid§rer I'application du programme Action 21 et des Conventions n6goci6es lors de CNUED par les Gou- vernements, sur la base des informations fournies par ces derniers, y compris les probldmes relatifs aux res- sources financidres et au transfert de technologie 6cologiquement rationnelle; - de r6examiner les engagements pris par les pays donateurs dans Action 21, y compris la mise k disposition de ressources financi^res additionnelles et de transfert de technologie ^ des conditions favorables; et de suivre les progrds accomplis par ces Etats dans la realisation de I'objectif de 07% du Produit National Brut fix6 pour t'aide publique au dSveloppement en faveur des pays en developpement. - d 'examiner et d 'analyser les informations fournies par les ONG comp6tentes, et de renforcer le dialogue avec les ONG et le secteur independant. Les travaux de la Commission pourraient §tre divis6s en plusieurs secteurs: ressources et m6canismes finan- ciers, transfert de technologie ecologiquement rationnelle, renforcement des capacites endog^nes aux fins du d6veloppement durable, et execution (aux niveaux international, regional et national) du programme Action 21 et des conventions relatives ^ I'environnement. Selon le calendrier etabli, la premiere reunion substantive de cette Commission devrait avoir lieu en juin 1993. VERS UN ROLE ACTIF DES ONG... Suite k I'importante contribution des ONG dans le processus de la CNUED. il semble desormais acquis que les ONG se verront proposer une participation active dans la Commission, sans doute sur le modeie qui a etablj leur participation aux travaux de preparation de la CNUED, avec un nombre limite d'ONG. Mais les modalitei^ precises de cette participation restent encore k d6finir. , 13 DES INDUSTRIELS PLUS VERTS... Le Sommet de la Terre aura 6t6 courtis6 par toute une panoplie d'industriels aux vertus 6cologi- ques... Le Conseil des industriels pour un d6velopp«- mept durable, r^unissant 48 PDG des principales entreprises mondiales, a largement promotionn6 sa vision du d^veJoppement durable au moyen d'un livre intitul6 "Changer de cap", public en six (angues (Edition fran9aise, Dunod). Tswation des ressources naturelles et applicatiori syst6matique du principe "po'lueur == payeur" sont deux exemples des positions prises par ces indus- triels "nouvelle vague" pour qui ractivit6 6conomi- que doit respecter i'environnement et §tre un fac- teur de d§veloppement durable. La Foire Internationale de i' "ecobusiness", ECO BRASIL, s'est tenue en m§me temps que la GNUED. Cette vitrine de la technologie propre a aussi certainennent illustr6 le foss6 technologique grandissant entre le Nord et le Sud. Certes, voitures k hydrog^ne ou 6lecirique, Mer- cedes recyclable k 90%, systdme de d6sulfuration et chatnes d'absorption des gaz carboniques, ou encore stations d'6puration Hi-Tech, permettront peut-§tre de diminuer un jour la pollution dans les pays qui pourront se payer cette technologie. Ail- leurs, 11 est 6tabli que la pauvret§ est le premier facteur de degradation de I'environ ement... sion sur les questions concernant le d^velop- pement durable. De plus, un Comit6 interorganlsations sur le developpement durable sera charg6 de r6- organiser et de coordonner les actlvit6s des agences et des programmes des Nations Unies dans le cadre du Programme Action 21 . Dans la foul6e de ces r^suitats, signalons encore: - la cr^tion d'un comit§ intergouverne- mental de n^gociation pour I'^iaboration d'une convention Internationale sur la lutte contre la desertification, en particulier en Afrique, - la tenue prochaine d'une premiere Confe- rence des Nations Unies sur le developpement durable des petits Etats insulaires en avril 1994, ^laBarbade, - la reunion d'une Conference des Nations Unies sur les stocks de poissons transzones et les grands migrateurs en 1993, - la proclamation du 22 mars comme Jour- nee Mondiaie de I'Eau. Une session extraordinaire des Nations Unies est projetee au plus tard pour 1997 afin de passer en revue les progres dans la realisa- tion des objectifs du Sommet planete Terre. SI UON POUVAIT CONCLURE... La Conference des Nations Unies sur I'En- vironnement et le Developpement a place ie genre humain devant ses responsabilites. Les engagements financiers qui tardent k se concretiser semblent porter une ombre sur les retombees de Rio. II convient cependant de patienter encore et de considerer le fait que bien des moyens humalns et financiers actuel- lement utiPises sans souci du long te|;me pour- raient contrlbuer de facto au financement du programme decide k Rio, sans necessaire- ment constituer un financement "nouveau et additionnei". 14 Autant que de I'argent neuf, n'est-il pas tout aussi important que le nouvel esprit de Rio souffle i^ oil se trouve I'argent d^j^ disponibie. Nui doute que les generations futures nous jugeront sur nos capacites k ddpasser nos 6goTsmes. et k r^pondre avec efficacitd et de- termination aux probl^mes de la degradation de la qualite de la vie, du fait de la pauvrete ET de la degradation de notre environnement. II est moins interessant de discuter du suc- ces ou de i'eciiec du Sommet de ia terre, que de veiller k preciser et concretiser rapidement ses recommendations ou ses directives. Re- sponsables publics ou acteurs prives, indivi- dus ou associations, Institutions Internatio- nales ou ONG, chacun k I'obligation morale de ne plus ignorer ce qui s'est decide k Rio de Ja- neiro, un mols de juin 1992... * Cadre associe pour i'amenagement de la faune et des aires protegees, Bureau regio- nal de la FAO pour I'Afrique, Accra, GHANA. "Aprds Rio, les pays, les entreprises, les individus, tout le monde devra changer de comportement." (Maurice Strong, Secretaire general de la CNUED) Pour en savoir plus... DEPARTMENT DE L'INFORMATION Room S-845, Organisation des Nations Unies NewYork, NY 10017, USA Tel:(212) 963-4295, Fax:(212) 963-4556 Documents also published in English by the Environmental Law Centre of lUCN: AGENDA 21 & UNCED Proceedings (5 volumes), Oceana Pu- blications, Inc., 75 Main Street, Dobbs Ferry, NY 15 FOOD HABITS OF BLUE MONKEYS ON MOUNT MERU, TANZANIA by S.L.S. Maganga* & R.G. Wright** ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION The food habits of the Kilimanjaro blue monkey {Cercopithecus mitis kibonotensis) on Mount Meru, Tanzania, was investigated from January to December 1987. The annual diet of these monkeys consisted of items from 38 plant species. The plant items were bark, flowers, fruits, leaves (blades), petioles and shoots (terminal). Monkeys also fed on inver- tebrates but they were not identified or recor- ded. Fruits were the most frequently used item and accounted for approximately 80% of the feeding records. They were mostly fed on In between January and May, and least fed on June and July which are dry months. This was the period when leaves and other items were the principal items in the diet. Monkeys preferred fruits possibly because they provide more energy than other sources of food. When fruits became scarce, large quantity of leaves and other plant items were eaten in order to get the daily requirement of carbohydrates that could not be obtained from fruits. Blue monkeys or Sykes monkeys {Cerco- pithecus mitis) are restricted to suitable habi- tats of only eastern, central and southern Afri- ca (Kingdon, 1971). They are generally confi- ned to the semi-evergreen and evergreen montane, riverine, bamboo, and lowland rain forests (Swynnerton, 1958; Gartlan and Brain, 1968; Omar and de Vos, 1970). High forests are therefore the prime habitat of blue mon- X>- A-^o-joc^l 16 Food Habits Study Site MEM} TOUEST PLAMTATONS , keys since tall trees are very important for provi- ding food. Although there are over 20 subspecies of these monl1.0% of the total feeding records at Narok, Mount Meru, Tanzania. Species (part eaten) Percent in diet Reus thonningii *(fruits) 62.4 Allophylus sp. * (fruits) 7.3 Zelineria scabra (flowers, leaves) 7.0 Basella alba * (leaves) 3.0 Neoboutonia macrocalix (barl<, leaves) 2.4 Tabernaemontana holstii (flowers, leaves) 1.8 Turrea holstii (bark, leaves) 1.8 Maesa lanceolata * (fruits) 1.5 Englerina holstii (fruits) 1.4 Cussonia spicata (bark, leaves) 1.0 TOTAL 89.6 * Denotes a plant that also contributed > 1 .0% at Lai- kinoi (Table 2) Table 2: Percent feeding records of plant species included in the diet of blue monkeys and which contributed >1,0 % of the total feeding records at Laikinoi, Mount Meru, Tanzania. Species (parts eaten) Percent in diet Reus thonnigii * (fruits) 52.7 Schefflera volkensii (fruits) 8.7 Gallniera coffeiodes (fruits) 6.4 Basella alba * (leaves, shoots) 4.4 Maesa lanceolata * (fruits) 3.4 Urera hypselodendron (fruits) 3.3 Parquetina nigrescens (leaves, shoots) 3.1 Hagenia abyssinica (petioles) 2.8 Allophylus sp. * (fruits) 2.6 Prunus africana (fruits) 2.3 Englerina holstii * (flowers,fruits) 1.8 Xymalos monospora (leaves) 1.6 Cyphostemma kilimandscharicum (shoots) ... .1.1 Hypoestes aristata (leaves) 1 .0 Nuxia congesta (leaves) 1.0 TOTAL 96.2 * Denote^Mplant that also contributed > 1 .0% at Na- rok (TableT). 19 lively. Most of the fruits consumed were from only one tree species, F. thonningii, averaging 63.4% at Narok and 53.5% at Laiklnoi. There- fore in a month, fruits of other species contri- buted only 1 2.8% at Narok and 24.2% at l-aiki- noi. Leaves were the next food item most hea- vily consumed by monkeys at both sampling sites. The remaining parts formed relatively a small portion of the plant diet at both sites. Monkeys fed on the bark of only three indige- nous tree species {Cussonia spicata, Neobu- tonia macrocalyx and Turrea holstii) at Narok but did not eat bark at Laikinoi. Feeding Pattern of Plant Parts The pattern of feeding on different plant parts are presented in Figure 2. Flowers, shoots, petioles and bark were combined be- cause the monthly percentages of the total fee- ding observations of each item were relatively low. The extent at which blue monkeys fed on each plant part or item varied monthly. More fruits were eaten between January and May, and declined between June and July when fruits accounted for only 34% (Narok) and 37% (Laikinoi) of the feeding records. Thereafter, the percentage of fee- Table 3: Percentages of feeding records of plant parts ^- ^^ fruits increased until the end or items eaten by blue monkeys at Narok and Laikinoi, Mount Meru, Tanzania. °^ ^"® y®^''' The pattern of feeding on leaves (blades) was opposite to that of fruits such that feeding on leaves was low from January to May when monkeys fed more on fruits. The contribution of leaves to the total monthly feeding records was hi- ghest (about 47%) In June, a period when feeding on fruits was low. The feeding on leaves again declined as At Narok 10 plant species accounted for 89.6% of the total feeding records, while at Lai- kinoi 15 plant species accounted for 95.2% of the feeding records for the year. Ficus thon- ningii ranked first and contributed over half of the feeding records at each sampling site. The ranking of the remaining species was very dif- ferent for each site with the exception of Basel- la alba which was the fourth most preferred species at both sites. In addition, the percent- ages of feeding records of B. alba were com- paratively similar (3.0% at Narok and 4.4% at Laikinoi). Allophylus sp. was the second in preference at Narok but was ninth at Laikinoi and accounted for less than half of what it contributed at Narok. Plant Parts Eaten by Blue Monkeys The plant parts fed on by monkeys during the sampling period are shown In Table 3. Fruits were the most frequently used item throughout the year at both Narok (76.8 %) and Laikinoi (81 .6%). The monthly average of fruits from all species was 76.2% and 77.7% of the feeding records at Narok and Laikinoi, respec- Narok Laikinoi Plants parts Annual Monthly Mean Annual Monthly Mean Bark 1.39 2.01 0.00 0.00 Rowers 3.54 2.57 0.83 1.00 Fruits 76.84 76.16 81.59 77.71 Leaves (blades) 14.81 14.23 11.38 12.55 Petioles 2.28 3.99 2.79 3.66 Shoots (terminal) 1.14 ^■^ 3.41 2.98 TOTAL 100.00 100.00 20 JAN MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP bct NOV DEC 1987 dies in East and Central Africa, for example, 30 species in Budongo Fo- rest, and 59 species in Ki- bale Forest, Uganda (Ru- dran, 1978); and 36 spe- cies in Kahuzi-Beiga Na- tional Park, Zaire (Schll- chte, 1975). There was little overlap c o 11 *u. .:.-,■ ..... o^ P'3"t species consu- Rg. 2 : Monthly percent feeding records of the plant parts eaten by blue monkeys at Narok on Mount Meru. Tanzania. "^^d by blue monkeys In Poucentage mensuel des observations de consommation de parties de plantes par this Study and at Kitsale les cercopith^ques k diad^me k Narok, Mont Meru, Tanzanie. Forest. Only B. alba and N. macrocalyx were eaten by the feeding on fruits increased. On the other hand, the monthly pattern of feeding on flo- wers, petioles, shoots and bark was highest in July. DISCUSSION The number of plant species that contribu- ted 1 .0% or more to the monkey feeding ob- servations over the year was higher at Laikinoi than at Narok. This difference is likely due to differences In the floristic composition of the two sampling sites primarily because the two sites are located at different elevations. It may also be a result of the degree of forest distur- bance by humans. This has been more In- tense at lower elevations (Narok) than at hi- gher elevations (Laikinoi). Consequently, the native forest at Narok is more impoverished than the forest at Laikinoi. For example, Laiki- noi had more fruit tree species for monkeys to feed on than at Narok. Tree species such as S. volkensli and G. cofeoides were more abun- dant at Laikinoi than Narok. The number of plant species found to be eaten by blue monkeys In this study (38) gene- rally correspond to those found In other stu- blue monkeys at both places. This is profc)ably because these two forest types are very diffe- rent; Kibale is a tropical rain forest while Mt. Meru is montane forest. On the other hand, five plant species eaten by monkeys at Kahu- zi-Beiga National Park in Zaire were also ea- ten by monkeys on Mt. Meru. These were B. alba, H. abyssinica, M. lanceolata, U. hypse- londendron and X. monospora. Surprisingly, B. alba, a non-woody climber with soft and succulent leaves and shoots, was eaten in all three countries. Moreover, it ranked fourth in terms proportion of feeding records both at Laikinoi and Narok sampling sites. This might not only be related to its nutritive value but to its succulent parts as well. Fruits were the most highly utilized food Item by blue monkeys and were included in the diet each month throughout the year at both sites. Food habit studies of blue monkeys In Uganda (Rudran, 1978; Struhsaker, 1978) and in Zaire (Schlitche, 1975) also showed that fruits accounted for a larger portion of the plant food items included in the monkey diet than other parts. Leaves were the second item In terms of fre- quency of utilization and were mostly eaten 21 when fruits were scarce. Struhsaker (1978) and Rudran (1978) found similar results. Ru- dran (1978) suggested that leaves become an important food item during periods of fruit shortage; a suggestion which seems to be consistent with the results of this study. The pattern of feeding on fruits or leaves and other plant items is not unique to blue monkeys, but is also exhibited by other pri- mates (Altmann, 1989). HIadik (1977) repor- ted that chimpanzees {Pan troglodytes troglo- dytes) in Gabon ate more leaves and stems during the dry season, and the trend was re- versed in the wet season. Similarly, howler monkeys (/\loutta palliata) on Baro Colorado Island in Panama were observed to include more leaves in their diet when fruits were scarce compared to times when fruits were abundant (Milton, 1979). Leighton and Leigh- ton (1983) found a similar feeding pattern in frugivorous primates in Borneo. This feeding pattern implies that frugivo- rous primates probably eat large proportions of leaves to compensate for nutritional sub- stances, mainly carbohydrates supplied by fruits. Studies have shown that fleshy fruits In- cluded in the diets of some primates usually contain high concentrations of total nonstruc- tural carbohydrates (TNC) which serve as an important and available source of energy for these primates (Chivers and HIadik, 1980; Mil- ton, 1 981 ; Leigthon and Leighton, 1 983; water- man, 1984). During fruit shortage and to mini- mize energy expended in searching for the scarce fruits, monkeys seek for alternative food to obtain their minimum daily energy re- quirement. Monkeys therefore consume more of other food items such as leaves, petioles and shoots. These parts have low TNC and low available energy because most of the en- ergy is tied up in the strucutral carbohydrates in the cell walls that are highly lignified (McKey et al. 1981; Barabga, 1982). Since high lignin content reduces digestibility, monkeys have to consume larger volumes of these food items, as is the case with arboreal folivores (McNab, 1981), to obtain sufficient energy. Leaves and pieces of bark of Neoboutonia macrocaljx at Narok study site on Mount Meru, Tanzania. Feuilles et morceaux d'6- 00 roe de Neo- boutonia macro- calix, sur ie site d'6tude de Na- rok au Mont Me- ru, Tanzania. (Photo: S. L S. Maganga ) 22 CONCLUDING REMARKS Blue monkeys fed on many plants and se- veral plant items, but fruit was tfie most consu- med item. Although the food resources In the area was not quantified, there is evidence that monkeys experience food shortage (principal- ly fruits) in the dry season. The shortage may "be compounded by the fact that the area is a forest plantation that was established by clea- ring the natural forest. This may have reduced the abundance of food plant species, in parti- cular fruit trees that monkeys depend upon. In addition, the remnant patches of natural forest in the plantation are being exploited for fire- wood and building poles. It is important that these patches of forest are well protected against further destruction to ensure a sustai- ned food supply for blue monkeys in this area. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Special thanks are due to the Non^/egian Agency of International Development (NO- RAD) for funding this study. Various members in the Faculty of Forestry at Sokoine Universi- ty of Agriculture are thanked for their guidance and assistance during the study. Many grati- tudes go to Mr. E.P. Silloh for all the necessa- ry logisitics during field work, and Mr. M. Ab- dallah for helping in the data collection. Mr. S.P. Kibuwa and Dr. T. Pocs identified some of the food plant specimens. Their service is hi- ghly appreciated. REFERENCES Altmann, J. 1974. Observational study of be- haviour: sampling methods. Beha- viour 49:227-265. Altmann, S.A. 1989. The monkey and the fig. Amer. Sci. 77:256-263. Baranga, D. 1982. Nutrient composition and food preferences of colobus monkeys in Kibale Forest, Uganda. Afr. J. Ecol. 20:113-121. Chivers, D.J. and CM. HIadik. 1980. Morpho- logy of the gastrointestinal tract in pri- mates: comparison with other mam- mals In relation to diet. J. Morph. 166:337-386. Clutton-Brock, T.H. 1975. Feeding behaviour of red colobus and black and white co- lobus in East Africa. Folia Primatol. 23:165-207. Gartlan, J.S. and C.K. Brain. 1968. Ecology and variability in Cercopithecus ae- thiops and C. mitis. p. 253-292 in Jay, C.P. ed. Primates: Studies in Adapta- tion and Variability. Holt, Rinebart and Winston, New York. HIadik, CM. 1977. Chimpanzee of Gabon and chimpanzees of Gombe: some comparative data on the diet. p. 481- 501 in Clutton-Brock, ed. Primate Eco- logy: Studies of feeding and ranging behaviour in lemurs, monkeys and apes. Academic Press, London. Kingdon, J. 1971. East African mammals: An Atlas of Evolution in Africa, Vol. 1. Aca- demic Press, London. 631 p. Kingdon J. 1981 . Where have the colonialists come from? A zoogeographical exami- nation of some mammalian isolates in eastern Africa. Afr. J. Ecol. 19:115-124. Leighton, M. and D.R. Leighton. 1983. Verte- brate responses to fruiting seasonality within a Bornean rain forest, p. 181- 196 in Sutton, S.L, T.C Whitemore and A.C Chadwick, eds. Tropical Rain Forest: Management and Ecology. Blackwell Scientific Publishers, Oxford. 23 / McNab, B.K. 1981 . The Influence of food ha- bits on the energetics of eutherian mammals. Ecol. Monogr. 56:1-19. McKey, D.B., J.S. Gartlan, P.G. Waterman and G.M. Choo. 1981. Food selection by black colobus monkeys {Colobus satanas) in relation to plant chemistry. Bid. J. Linn. Society. 16:11 5-1 46. Milton, K. 1979. Factors influencing leaf choice by howler monkeys: a test of some hypotheses of food selection by general ist herbivores. Amer. Nat. 1.14:362-378. Milton, K. 1981. Food choice and digestive strategies of two sympatric primate species. Amer. Nat. 1 1 7:496-505. Oates, J.F. 1977. The guereza and its food, p. 276-321 In Clutton-Brock, ed. Pri- mate Ecology: Studies of feeding and ranging behaviour in lemurs, monkeys and apes. Academic Press, London. Omar, A. and A. de Vos. 1970. Damage to exotic softwoods by Sykes monkeys. E. Afr. Agric. For. J. 35:323-330. Rudran, R. 1978. Socioecology of Blue Mon- keys {Cercopithecus mitis stuhlmanii) of Kibale Forest, Uganda. Smith. Contrib. Zool. No.249. Washington, D.C. 88 p. Schlichte, H.J. 1975. Nahrungsverhalten von didemmeerhatzen im Nationalpark Ka- huzi-Beiga, Kivuhochland, Zaire. Weit- / schrift fur Saugetierkunde, 40:193-214. Struhsaker, T.T. 1975. The Red Colobus Monkey. The Univ. of Chicago Press. 311 p. Struhsaker, T.T. 1978. Food habits of five monkey species in Kibale Forest, Uganda, p. 225-248 in Chivers, D.J. and J. Herbert, eds. Recent Advances in Primatology. Vol. 1. Behaviour. Aca- demic Press, London. Swynnerton, G.H. 1958. Fauna of the Seren- geti National Park. Mammalia, 22:435- 450. Swynnerton, G.H. and R.W. Hayman. 1951. A checklist of the land mammals of the Tangayika Territory and Zanzibar Protectorate. J. E. Afr. Nat. Hist. Soc. 20:274-392. Van der Zee, D. and J.D. Skinner. 1977. Preli- minary observations on samango and vervet monkeys near Lake Sibayi. S. Afr. J. Sci. 73:381-382. Waser, P. 1975. Monthly variations in feeding and activity patterns of the mangabey, Cercocebus albegina (Lydeker). E. Afr. Wildl. J. 13:249-263. Waser, P. 1977. Feeding, ranging and group size in the mangabey, Cercocebus al- begina. p. 183-222 in Clutton-Brock, ed. Primate Ecology: Studies of fee- ding and ranging behaviour in lemurs, monkeys and apes. Academic Press, London. Waterman, P.G. 1984. Food acquisition and processing as a function of plant che- mistry, p. 117-211 in Chivers, D.J., B.A. Wood and A. Bilsborough, eds. Food Acquisition and Processing in Primates. Plenum Press, New York. * Department of Forest Biology Sokoine University of Agriculture P.O. BOX 3010, Chuo Kikuu Morogoro Tanzania **Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources University of Idatio f^oscow, Idaho 83843 USA 24 Appendix: List of plant species eaten by blue monkeys at Narok and Laiki- noi, Mount Meru, Tanzania. Annexe: Liste des especes vegetales consommies par le cercopith^que k diademe a Narok et Laikinoi, Mont Meru, Tanzanie. Species (Growth form) Family Espdces (Forme de crolssance) (*) Famllle 1. Acalypha psilostachya (H) Euphorbiaceae 2. Allophyllus sp. (T) Sapindaceae 3. Basetia alba (C) Basellaceae 4. Caesalpinia decapetala (8) ^ Caesalplniaceae 5. Cheilanthes concolor (F) SInopterldaceae 6. Croton macrostachyus (T) Euphorbiaceae 7. Cussonia spicata (T) Arallaceae 8. Cyphostemma kilimandscaricum (C) Vltaceae 9. Dombeya leucoderma (T) Sterculiaceae W. Bnglerina holstii (P) Loranthaceae ^^.Ficusthonningii (Y) ..^^ . Moraceae 12. Galiniera cofeoides (T) Rubiaceae 13. Garcinia sp. (T) Guttiferae 14. Gouania longispicata (C) Rhamnaceae 15. Hagenia abyssinica (T) .- Rosaceae 16. Hypoestes aristata (H) Acanthaceae 17. Ipomea wightii {C) Convdvulaceae 18. Maesa/anceo/afa (T) Myrslnaceae 19. Mimulopsis solmil {H) Acanthaceae 20. Neoboutonia macrocalyx (T) . . 1 . ^. . Euphorbiaceae 21 . Nuxia congesta (T) , . . , . .^. . . Loganlaceae 22. Parquetina nigrescens (C) Asclepiadaceae 23. Periploca linearifolia (C) Asclepiadaceae 24. Prunus africana (T) Rosaceae 25. Rubus steudneri {S) Rosaceae 26. Schefflera volkensii (T) Arallaceae 27. Senecio syringifolia (C) Composltae 28. Tabernaemontana holstii (T) Apocynaceae 29. Thelypteris madagascariensis (F) Thelypterldaceae 30. Turrea holstii (T) Meliaceae 31 . Urera hypselodendron (L) Urtlcaceae 32. Urtica massaica (H) Urtlcaceae 33. Xylamos monospora (T) ^ Monlmlaceae 34. Zehneria scabra (C) .~^. . . .* Cucurt)itaceae + 4HJnknown species (T)/+ 4 espdces non identifides. (*) Growth form / Forme de crolssance: T = Tree/Arbre; S = Shrub/Arbrlsseau; ^ L = Uane/Llane; C = CHmber/plante grimpante; H = Herb/Pl.herbac6e; P = P^raslte/PI. para- site; F = Fern/Fougdre. 25 1993 United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas During 1993, the World Conservation Mo- nitoring Centre will be compiling the 1993 Uni- ted Nations List of National Parks and Protec- ted Areas, working In close cooperation with lUCN - The World Conservation Union, and its Comnnission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA). The World Conservation Mo- nitoring Centre, based in the UK, is a joint ven- ture of lUCN, UNEP and WWF. Its mission is to provide information on the status, security and management of biological diversity as the basis for its conservation and sustainable use; and to assist governments and other agencies to build their own monitoring and planning ca- pabilities. Many will already be familiar with the content and style of previous UN lists, which provide definitive listings of protected areas around the world meeting certain defined cri- teria. The 1993 edition will be released at the forthcoming lUCN General Assembly in Argen- tina. The UN List is a widely used and authorita- tive reference work of international repute, and one which receives significant world attention. Successive editions of the UN List have increa- sed the range of information provided on the world's protected areas. The 1993 UN List will be no exception, with several innovations: Latitude and longitudes of individual pro- tected areas will be included, in direct re- sponse to frequent requests for locational in- formation. The section devoted to analytical graphs and tables will be expanded to take in a wider range of topics. Four new thematic chapters will be inclu- ded, on transfrontier reserves, protected areas In the forestry sector and private sectors res- pectively, and indigenous reserves. An electronic version of the 1993 UN List will be provided on DOS diskette. This will in- clude the basic datafile used in the compilation of the list, in a format suitable for use in data- base or spreadsheet programs. Database functionality, included on the diskette, will al- low users to carry out their own analyses wi- thout recourse to other software. As in previous editions, strict criteria will be used to determine whether or not a site is in- cluded. Broadly, all protected areas that fall within lUCN management categories l-V, and cover more than 1,000 ha, are included. The current 1990 UN List includes approximately 6,000 sites matching these criteria, but WCMC estimates that at least 8,500 sites will be inclu- ded in the 1993 edition. The UN List is based on the protected areas database maintained by WCMC. The quality of this database is largely dependent on the cooperation of national management agen- cies and CNPPA, in order to provide an up-to- date list. For further information, please contact: World Conservation Monitoring Centre 219 Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 ODL United Kingdom 26 Biodiversity - a key resource for development By Peter Hanneberg ♦ Tomatoes and sugar cane would hardly be grown on a commercial scale today If breeders had not been able to draw on the genes of wild species. Cocoa, maize, wheat, cassava and meat-producing animals have also been im- proved with the help of genes from the wild. To safeguard future production of food and pharmaceuticals, it is important to protect the gene pool found in unspoilt nature. Wild species and the genetic variation that exists between and within them can contribute substantially to the development of agricul- ture, medicine and industry. For future gene- rations, biological diversity holds great poten- tial in terms of feeding an alarmingly growing population. Only four decades from now we will have to produce three times as much food as we do today. This reinforces the need to maintain the richest possible pool of genes. Ninety-eight per cent of all livestock pro- duction world-wide stems from only ten wild animal and bird species. Wild species are still being used to improve the characteristics of domesticated animals. One example is the American wild buffalo, which was crossed with cattle, giving rise to the 'beefalo' and conside- rably boosting meat production. It is estimated that the plant kingdom in- cludes some 75,000 edible species. Just 20 or so of these account for 90 percent of the world's food base. Wild species and strains that could be used to improve these crops number in their thousands. Tomatoes and sugar cane Had it not been for the genes of a few wild species found in Ecuador and Peru, tomatoes simply could not have been grown for profit to- day. A special type of tomato from the Gala- pagos Islands has been used to make the world's cultivated tomatoes capable of being harvested by machine. Colour and nutritional value have also been improved. Without the genes from wild Indonesian su- gar cane, cane sugar production would proba- bly not be commercially viable anywhere in the world. It is believed that the genetic material of a wild strain in Hawaii could be used to de- velop a sugar cane that is resistant to rodent attack. Improved varieties Cocoa is the cultivated plant that has bene- fited most from crossing with Its wild relatives. It is followed by tobacco, which has been made resistant to a number of serious di- seases. Ninety per cent of all grain production Is ac- counted for by wheat, rice, maize and barley. All four of these cereals have been improved considerably with the help of genes from clo- sely related wild species. Many virus diseases, rusts and other fungus diseases have been combated and yields have Increased. 27 Maize, Ecuador: Example of genetic diversity - samples of maize land races from the Andes at Santa Catalina Agricultural Research Station near Quito. MaVs, Equateur: Exemple de la diversity g6n6tique: 6chantillons de races de maVs des Andes, au centre de recherche de Santa Catalina, pr^s de Quito. (Photo FAQ : P.J. Mahler) Potato, cassava and sweet potato make up 94 percent of global root-crop harvests. All three have been made more resistant tp di- sease by genes from wild species. In India and a number of African states, cas- sava harvests have been improved by a factor of anything between 2 and 18. Similar ad- vances have been achieved with green vege- tables, timber trees, fodder crops, fruits and oilseeds. More effective than chemicals in the animal kingdom, improved varieties of meat and egg producers, fish and insects such as the honey-bee and the silkworm have been developed. These examples - and there are many more - Indicate the enormous poten- tial of the species found in the unspoilt natural environment. The input of genetic material from nature not only increases the growth and net output of important food crops and ani- mals. It can also, unlike pesticides, make crops better able to withstand pathogens, whereas spraying with chemicals often makes the parasites and other agents of plant disease themselves more resistant, so that even larger doses are needed. 'Since 1945, pesticide spraying has increa- sed by one million per cent,' says David Pimen- tal of Cornell University. 'But crop losses due to pests have not decreased. In fact, they have increased by 20 percent!'. Included in the historic document Agenda 21 is a call to facilitate a transition away from conventional, non-sustainable agricultural practices, including overuse of agrochemi- 28 cals. These methods, with their emphasis on petroleum-based fertilizers and pesticides, monoculture and hybridization of seeds, have led to the extinction of thousands of varieties of indigenous seeds and crops. And they are leading to ever increasing inputs of hazardous substances, groundwater pollution, soil ero- sion, and illness among farm workers. Medical discoveries In medicine, too, there is an Immense po- tential for development thanks to the genetic variation of wild species. Every time a doctor's prescrltption is made up, there is a 50-50 chance that the medicine will have originated in a wild plant or animal species. Today, a child suffering from leukaemia has four chances in five of survival, thanks to treat- ment with drugs containing active substances discovered in the rosy periwinkle, a tropical fo- rest plant originating in Madagascar. Thirty years ago, the same child would have had on- ly one chance in five. Yet modern science Is only just beginning to tap into the richness of life on our planet. In the rain forests, as well as other ecosystems, there may be thousands of medicinal plant species that could be of great value to huma- nity, but are still undiscovered. fMyungwe Mountain Forest in Rwanda : A heritage also precious for its biodiversity. La for§t d'altitude de Nyungwe au Rwanda: Un patrimoine pr6cieux 6galement pour sa diversity biologique. (Photo: E. Caufriez) 29 Ethiopia : An improved variety of barley. Ethiopia is a region from where many cereals originated. The conservation of genetic diveristy over the centuries has led to the development of improved varieties. Ethiopie : Une vari6t6 am6llor6e d'orge. L'Ethiople est une region d'origine de plusleurs c6r6ales. La conservation de la diversity g6n6tique au cours des sidcles a permis le d^veioppement de vari6t6s am6lior6es. (Photo FAO : F. Botts) Socioeconomic benefits There are also numerous examples of di- rect economic benefits arising from wise use of the power of biological variation. World-wide, medicines from wild products are worth some $40 billion a year. And in Asia, for instance, wheat production had risen by $2 billion and production of rice by $1 .5 billion a year by the mld-70s, as a result of dwarfism being genetically incorporated into both crops. A 'useless' wild wheat plant from Tur- key provided commercial wheat varieties with resistance to disease worth $50 million annual- ly in the United States alone. An ancient wild relative of corn from Mexi- co can be crossed with modern varieties, with potential worldwide savings to farmers estima- ted at $4.4 billion a year. One gene from a sin- gle Ethiopian barley plant now protects Cali- fornia's $160 million annual barley crop from yellow dwarf virus. Furthermore, some $87 million a year (4.5 percent) of the GDP of the United States is attributable to the harvesting of wild species. 30 million species It is difficult, not to say impossible, to form an opinion of how many species there are on earth. Scientists put the figure at around 30 million, although estimates vary between 5 and 80 million. Only 1 .4 million species have been described and named. 30 Of them, 750,000 are insects, 41 ,000 verte- brates and 250,000 plants. Enormous num- bers of invertebrates, fungi, algae and other micro-organisms have still to be discovered and named. Species diversity may be up to six times greater in the warm tropics than in cooler northern Europe. Tropical seas, coral reefs, rain forests, and wetlands are among the biologically most productive ecosysterhs. All these species are the result of hundreds of millions of years of evolution. Our own spe- cies, man, has developed on the basis of them, and we are now thanking our fellow species by undermining the diversified platform of life that it has taken so long to build up. It is feared that a quarter of the earth's species could be en- dangered within the next 20-30 years. Reserves not enough There are various ways of countering the threat to genetic resources and biological va- riation. Rich natural habitats can be preserved In national parks and reserves, and the over- exploitation of particular species in nature can be outlawed. According to UNEP statistics, in 1990 the world's 6,930 protected sites covered 652 mil- lion hectares or 4.9 percent of the earth's land surface. A substantial increase occurred in just over two years between 1988 and 1990, when the number of sites rose by around 3,000 and the protected area expanded by some 200 million hectares. Another way is to store seeds for ex situ conservation in botanic gardens or gene banks. It is also important to try to preserve an undisturbed environment for the species to live in, for example by reducing pollutant emis- sions to the biosphere. All these measures result in greater protec- tion for biological diversity, though this has ne- ver been their express purpose. A matter of survival The UN conference in Rio has forcefully ac- centuated the importance of biological diver- sity, by means of a new convention and Agen- da 21 . Even the most critical environmental or- ganizations see the convention as a step for- ward - not least because it gives the develo- ping countries the right to decide how their ge- netic resources are to be exploited, whether they are found in rain forests or in other natu- ral habitats. (...) Conservation of the earth's living resources is important in maintaining essential ecologi- cal processes and life-support systems, pre- serving genetic diversity, and ensuring the sus- tainable utilization of species and ecosystems. Or, as the new 'Caring for the Earth' strate- gy from the lUCN, UNEP and the WWF puts it, biodiversity must be conserved as a matter of principle, as a matter of survival, and as a mat- ter of economic benefit. * Peter Hanneberg is the Editor-in-chief of Enviro, an International magazine on the envi- ronment published by the Swedish Environ- mental Protection Agency. (Article culled from Enviro, NO 14, Decem- ber 1992) 31 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT "The Earth Summit" Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 3 - 14 June 1992 by E. Caufriez * Remember, June 1992 was a month different from all others ... A diplomatic and media exci- tement crystallized the attention and hopes of the entire planet on the occasion of the meeting of the majority of heads of state and governments of the world during the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Deve- lopment (UNCED), which will no doubt be remembered by the name "Earth Summit" or even "Summit of Planet Earth". In effect, this event and its years of preparation not only ser- ved as a catalyst for dialogues, exchange of views and thoughts, but also as an intense lobbying activity at the level of the whole planet on the crucial question of the future of humanity, our fu- ture and that of our children ... Having become aware of the limits of his planet and the dispa- rity in the use of its resources, it became urgent for man to map out a way to redress the situation. Various Programmes and specialized agencies of the Uni- ted Nations worked considerably hard during the preparations for the conference. But, the ground gained by the NGOs in this grand planetary concert is undeniable and this development is desirable if one considers the work accom- plished by the NGOs in the field. It is certain that the NGOs will play an active part in the complex and ambitious process initiated in Rio de Janeiro. The Satisfled and the Disappoin- ted of RIO One cannot deny that the Earth Summit recorded an es- sential progress in the collective awareness of humanity, and par- ticularly of those who lead and govern them, of the fact that the Earth and its inhabitants are cal- ling for a more lasting and equi- table management of its re- sources. Rio is also a commitment which marks the beginning of a new era, marked by ecological responsibility in the face of an ever-increasing population, aspi- ring for better welfare while pre- serving its future. Rio is therefore a starting point, an awareness and the be- ginning of a more constructive dialogue, and in this light one can talk of success ... Naturally, the meeting en- countered some setbacks from the start: the Earth Charter ini- tially envisaged was transformed into the Rio Declaration with symbolic scope; the Declaration on Forest Principles adopted is authoritative but not legally bin- ding, some commitments remain vague and require figures and a timetable, and the greatest user of genetic resources in the world abstained from from signing the Convention on Biologiccd Diver- sity ... And above all, the develo- ped countries, preoccupied with their budgetary problems and the weakness of the world economy, have not yet provided the fi- nances pledged for this confe- rence. No doubt those who called for a radical change were more than disappointed. But can one really expect more from such a meeting ? The success or failure of Rio will come out better in the months and years to come, but most probably, the reality will be between these two extremes. FTVE MAJQI^ PQCT- MENTS FOR A SUMMIT The Rio Declaration on Environ- ment and Development You will find a poster with the complete text of the Rio De- claration in the centre of the cur- rent issue. This Declaration, though not the Earth Charter initially envisa- ged during the preparations of 32 the Summit, has the merit of combining on paper environment and development by offering twenty seven principles which constitute henceforth the frame- work within which any develop- ment action should take place. The needs of some and duties of others are proclaimed by unders- coring the responsibility of each person vis-a-vis the environment, common heritage of the whole of mankind, present and future. Some strong principles were clearly spelt out there, such as the Unk between the environment and sustainable development, the notion of "polluter = payer", the responsibility of countries vis-a-vis their neigh- bours with regards to environ- mental problems, which we know do not respect borders. Others are: the availability of information (for example on risky activities, dangerous pro- ducts), the generalisation of envi- ronmental impact assessment, the importance of the participa- tion of populations, communities, women and the youth in particu- lar, and, what has become a re- cent development in internatio- nal ethics, but which for a long time has been no mystery, the di- sastrous influence of armed conflicts on the environment and sustainable development ... Nevertheless, it is not^ impos- sible that the Rio Declaration will be brought up for considera- tion on the next occasion. The forthcoming 50th anniversary of the United Nations m 1995 comes to mind. The Forest Principles The expression "Forest Prin- ciples" is in fact an abbreviation of "Declziration of principles, not legally binding but authoritative, for a global consensus on the ma- nagement, conservation and sus- tainable development of all types of forests". Therefore, in the end, a Convention which would regulate legally the management of forests "There is more wealth in Nature than in all the banks in the world" (Citybank advertisement in an issue of a Bra- zilian weekly, Veja, which came out during the Rio Summit). by making it subject to ecological preoccupations, has for the time been avoided. The very principle of a convention was considered by several producer countries of tropical forest products as an at- tack on their sovereignty and on their capacity to develop. As a result of this controversy between the North and South, the Summit produced a document which is very much disapproved of by NGOs involved with conserva- tion, which see among other things in its non-binding nature a major weakness. Tropical forest countries fea- red in particular that such a convention would not pro^ade the legal arguments for the unilateral measures taken by some develo- ped countries against trade in their forest products, thus com- promising an important resource which could ensure their deve- lopment. This problem has been discussed at length in previous editions of "Nature et Faune". It is however important to ob- serve in this regard that Chapter 11 of Agenda 21, entitled "Fight against deforestation", is inten- ded to "facilitate and promote the effective implementation of the forest principles ...,' and on the basis of the appUcation of these principles, to examine the necessity and the "appUcability of dll sorts of appropriate ar- rangements agreed upon in the international plan for the pro- motion of international coope- ration" in the forestry sector. Let us therefore summarize this document in a few main points, commenting on them eve- ry now and then: - Recognition of the soverei- gnty of States to exploit - in a ju- dicious manner - their forest re- sources, without causing damage to the environment of neighbou- ring states (Principles 1 and 2). - Recognition of the multiple roles of forests and the need for a sustainable management satisfac- tory to all these roles (Preamble, Principles 2, 4 and 6). Timber production would therefore be only an objective of development 33 among others. And, what has up till now been implicit in forest management should be taken in- to consideration in a more expU- cit m£umer in the objectives of development and forestry poli- cies. The Tropical Forestry Ac- tion Programme moreover ex- presses this concept. - National poUcies on forests should recognize the rights of the indigenous forest people, their identity and their culture. It is necessary to develop conditions which enable these people to pursue their systems of sustaina- ble exploitation of forests and to maintain their social structures and their well-being, especially through agreements on land ow- nership (Principle 5). - Only open and free interna- tional trade, respecting the laws and multilateral procedures (for example GATT), as well as an appropriate policy on fiscal sys- tem, trade industry and transport will be able to encourage a sus- tainable management of forests. The costs and benefits to the en- vironment must be integrated in- to the laws and mechanisms of the market (Principles 13 and 14). In this way the embargo on tropical timber is clearly rejected by the international community, to the great satisfaction of the with tropical forest countries, and to the great resentment of some ecological organisations of the North. What remains, howe- ver, is to promote technical and commercial practices which will enable long-term exploitation of forest resources in the tropical as well as temperate forests. The other principles contain appeals for better scien- tific and technical cooperation, improvement in forest poUcies, increase in cifforestation efforts, increase in forest cover and pro- ductivity of destroyed forests - in brief, "greening the world". - Consequently, each is asked to increase their financial sup- port, and in particular rich coun- tries are asked to increase their assistance to developing coun- tries. The problem of the harm- ful effect of the debt of develo- ping countries which leads to an overexploitation of their forests, must be taken into account by the international community. In spite of this weakness which one must expect with all well-intentioned documents, will the Forest Principles for all that, bring any hope of improvement in the management of all forests in the world? There again, one can only judge such resolutions by the results obtained. And there again, it will in particular be a question of the sense of re- sponsibility of some, and the vigi- lance of others. The dialogue ini- tiated in Rio between the North and the South, though difficult, must continue. Finally, the discussion on the future of forests turned out to be worldwide: the temperate forests are also threatened, by bad ma- nagement, overexploitation and pollution. The forest issue also comes up in the problems of bio- diversity and climate change! The Convention on Biodiversity Since the appearance of life on earth, no doubt our planet has never known such genetic impo- verishment of such rapidity. Irre- mediable loss or transformation of biotopes, fragmentation of large natural areas into small dis- persed areas, introduction of un- desirable species which throws out of balance the receiving eco- systems, overexploitation of ani- mal and vegetable species, pollu- tion of soils, waters and the at- mosphere, unsustainable agricul- tural and forest practices, are for as much the factors which contri- bute to the insidious threat of ge- netic erosion. It is insidious because it is dif- ficult for the uninformed public to discern, genetic erosion not being spectacular and therefore without much media coverage, but scientists fear its long-term effects. However, the reserve shown by some industrialized countries vis-a-vis the Convention testifies that biodiversity has passed the stage where it is a preoccupation for scientists and ecologists, and has reached the competitive level 34 or that of economic power, which is more Ukely to motivate deci- sions of mankind at the end of this 20th century period. Developing countries have al- ways had wealth which once again seems to elude them: gene it its natural state. Some see in this resource the oil, gold or dia- mond of tomorrow: an apprecia- ble source of income, but its de- posits are by definition alive and vulnerable, as opposed to those of the above-mentioned inert ma- terials. Essential for the development of agriculture, medical research and biochemistry, genetic heri- tage was for a long time conside- red as a common heritage. In the area of agriculture especially, FAO always recommended free access to phytogenetic resources, principle included since 1983 in the global system for the manage- ment of phytogenic resources, which indudes in particular an intemational obUgation, with no legal value however, approved by 103 countries. Genetic heritage has always been a raw material for develo- ping countries. With the current tendency to favour the rights of iatellectual property (patents) advanced by developed coun- tries, does one not risk having the North develop these resources, which will be resold at a much hi- gher value to the same develo- ping countries in the form of va- rieties (tf imfM'oved plants and medicines? Furthermore, developing countries are or will be tempted to consider their genetic re- sources as a national raw mate- rial, and to manage it by capitaU- zing on the access to these "depo- sits", in the form of "concessions" to foreign private firms and bila- teral accords guaranteeing them some advEmtages (see box). Does one not risk losing free ac- cess to natural gene ? But today, this heritage is in danger, and particularly with re- gards to tropical forests which harbour a great part of living spe- cies of our biosphere, most of which are still totally unknown to us. THE INVOLVEMENT OF COMPANIES Costa Rica has transformed 25% of its territory into natural reserves. IN- BIO, a University research institute, started a census of all the species there, thanks to an agreement with Merck, the American pharmaceutical company. The latter analyzes the samples and in exchange gives INBIO one million dollars a year, trains scientists and undertakes to share the profits of a prospective discovery. Is it a swindle or a partnership? The future will tell us. For the time being, the government, which was not consulted, questions this appropria- tion of a resource which it considers as pubic-owned. But, the apparently advantageous terms of this arrangement have en- couraged Tanzania, Mexico and In- donesia to follow the example of Cos- ta Rica. (Extract from "Courrier de la pla- nete* No. 7 - May 1992). The Agreement however constitutes a definite advance- ment in this area. Briefly, it pro- posed to: - conserve genetic heritage; - help developing countries to conserve these resources and to apply the Agreement. The Fund for the Protection of the Envi- ronment will constitute the main financing source; - encourage the transfer of te- chnology to developing coun- tries; - regulate the activities of pri- vate biotechnical companies; - determine the access to ge- netic resources and their owners; - establish the mecanism for compensation to developing countries for the exploitation of their genetic material. The United States has up till now refused to sign the Agree- ment, several other industrialized countries resigned themselves to it without enthusiasm. In the end, 156 countries as well as the Europesm Community signed the Rio Agreement. Nevertheless, it will only become law when thirty countries have had the Agree- ment ratified by their respective legislative bodies. The Global Environment Fa- cility will constitute the mecha- nism for financing this Agree- ment. Agreement on Climate Change The second real legally bin- ding international treaty adopted 35 at the Summit, the Agreement on Climate Change, has akeady re- ceived as at mid-October the si- gnatures of 157 countries and the European Community. Never- theless, its coming into force as international law must await its ratification by the legislative bo- dies of at least 50 countries, which will not take place before 1994. in the light of the risks, still ditficult to evaluate accurately, the disorders caused by global warming of our atmosphere (see volumes 7.4 and 8.1 of "Nature et Faune"), the most concrete ob- jective of the Agreement consists of redudng the emissions of so- called greenhouse gases to the 1990 level of emission. No definite timetable has ho- wever been set, and each nation has been asked to act without de- lay. One can easily guess from that point on, the criticisms level- led against the Agreement by its detractors, who feel that without a clear time limit, governments will not show great enthusiasm. Some even feel that going back to the 1990 level of emission cA gas will not enable the removal of the phenomenon. Neverthe- less, the effort demanded in the Agreement already seems to be great and difficult to implement. No doubt, a more severe objec- tive would not have been less rea- listic. The responsibility of indus- trialized countries are particular- ly outlined in it, not only as prin- cipal polluters and users of ener- gy, but also as the main holders of the scientific, technological and financial means to attack the problem. Scientific cooperation and ex- change of information, transfer of and access to "clean" or "frien- dly" technology are henceforth clearly spelt out in an internatio- nal treaty which will soon be- come law. Developed countries there- fore have pledged not only to re- duce their emission of green- house gases, but also to provide developing countries with the hu- man, technical and financial means to attain the objectives sti- pulated in the Agreement. Thus "new and additional" financial as- sistance will be granted by the ri- chest countries. This can be granted by using the Global En- vironment Facility mechanism (as a reminder, the pilot phase of the Facility lasted three years and ended in December, 1992. This mechanism is in the process of being restructured...). The Agreement stipulates al- so: - the obligation of each Party (signatory country) to the Agree- ment to provide on a regular ba- sis, reports on the application of the different measures spelt out; - organisation of conferences by parties to evaluate the results obtained. The first conference should be held before 31st De- cember 1998; - the setting up of a structure to enable the monitoring of the Agreement, comprising a Secre- tariat, two subsidiary organs, one scientific and tehcnical, and the other more admiaistrative, re- sponsible for the application of the Convention. AGENDA 21: a world ma- nagement plan for the 21st century Mapping out the paths which reconcile development and envi- ronment also means solving very diverse problems on practically on all activities of society. This is why Agenda 21 with its 40 chapters, 115 programmes and hundreds of pages, could seem remarkably ambitious, some would even say unrealistic. It is true that this document ex- presses the objectives to be attai- ned on the conditional model. Could it be otherwise, besides? However, Agenda 21 by pro- posing quite definite objectives and the means to implement them, provide the basis for future actions to be carried out for the long-term prudent management of our resources. This way, it can be put at par with other initia- tives such as the Ya Wananchi Agenda, a plan of action for the environment and development adopted by the World Confe- rence of NGOs "The Roots of the Future" (Paris, December, 1991), 36 or the Strategy for Sustainable Living, "Caring for the Earth", presented in 1991 by lUCN, WWF and UNEP (United Na- tions Environment Programme). Fighting poverty, changing the consumption methods of our resources, protecting and promo- ting human health, protecting the atmosphere, fighting deforesta- tion, promoting the integrated approach to the use of land, pro- tecting ecosystems of mountains, protecting and managing fresh- water resources, satisfying the agricultural needs without des- troying the land, waste manage- ment, making "clean technology" accessible, promoting education and creating awareness on the protection of the environment, strengthening the role of women and various social sturctures for sustainable development, etc... : the Hst of challenges that come up in the course of reading Agenda 21 is impressive. The cost of implementing this Programme in developing coun- tries has often been mentioned in the press, but one does not really understand the mezming of a bill of 600 billion dollars per year, 125 billion of which are provided by the international community through donations or on favoura- ble terms, from 1993 to the year 2000. Besides, what does the rele- vance of the estimated cost of Agenda 21 matter? It is after well estabUshed that not applying the measures recommended would have much more incalcula- ble consequences... But how does one finance this Programme? The activities of Agenda 21 can in effect be financed largely by the current budgets of states, and also by the private sector. It would therefore be rather a mat- ter of seeing to it that the objec- tives of Agenda 21 are hence- forth integrated into develop- ment programmes and existing economic activities. But new ad- ditional resources will of course be necessary. Industrialized countries are called upon to put aside at least 0.7% of their GNP for development (against 0.35% which is the average today). This will double the 53 billion dollars currently given to this pubhc aid for development (1989 figures). Although no official decision was taken in Rio, some heads of state expressed this intention, and others announced initiatives and some additional financing. This is yet to materiaUze ... Various other proposals were made, such as new international taxes on air transport, petroleum products and arms - ecotaxes not appreciated by some powerful in- terest groups - reduction of de- fense budgets (the dividends of peace), debt for nature swaps, cancellation of debts of develo- ping countries, private financing and transfer of technology (clean!). The mechanisms for financing should revolve around public aid for development (bi- and mulitla- teral), the Global Environment Facility and the International De- velopment Association (IDA, a branch of the World Bank group which provides interest free loans to countries with the lowest in- comes). The President of the World Bank proposed that addi- tional funds be granted to IDA and that part of the 1.2 billion US dollars of the World Bank's net annual income should be alloca- ted to IDA in the form of an "Earth Increment" which would finance national projects on the environment. The Global Environment Fa- ciUty should be restructured to facilitate the participation of all countries, in such a way as to make its operation more demo- cratic and clear. However, its worldwide aim will only concern the elements of Agenda 21, that is to say, conservation of biodi- versity, climate change, interna- tional waters and protection of the ozone layer. The ability of the internatio- nal community to rise up to the challenge of Agenda 21 will also depend on its ability to overcome the tendency to recoil in the face of a difficult situation, and to qui- ckly resolve certain conflicts which require a lot of human and financial resources. 37 In fact, are fruitless wars and disputes that people engage in for a bit of land and power not the main threats to the environ- ment and to sustainable develop- ment? Agenda 21 was approved by 172 states, and 102 heads of state indicated in their declaration their willingness to participate in the programme. The commit- ment is therefore global. RESULTS OF THE UNI- TED NATIONS GENE- RAL ASSEMBLY ON THE FOLLOW-UP TO UNCED After organizing the Earth Summit in June, the repre- sentatives of the various nations then reunited at their nearest "base camp", namely the U.N. General Assembly in New York in December, 1992, Far from the euphoria of Rio, they had to agree and decide on what to do after UNCED, and especially on the mechanism which would see to the imple- mentation and the follow-up of the work started in the Brazilian capital. The Assembly proceeded to the adoption of the UNCED report, thus approving Agenda 21, the Rio Declaration and the "Forest Principles", and calling for their implementation. THE OPERATION OF THE COMMISSION This Commission on sustainable development will in effect be a subsidiary organ of the Economic and Social Council of the Uni- ted Nations (ECOSOC). Fifty three high-ranking representatives of member states of the UN will be elected during the next ECOSOC meeting in Februa- ry 1993. Participation in the Commission will be by rotation among the governments and the various geographic regions will be equally represented on it. The task of the Commission will be: - to see to the implementation of Agenda 21 (bearing in mind that this dynamic programme could evolve with time), and activi- ties relevant to sustainable development carried out by the U.N. bodies; - to look at the implementation of Agenda 21 and the Agreements negociated during UNCED by governments, on the basis of information provided by the latter, including problems relating to financial resources and the transfer of ecologically rational te- chnology; - to re-examine the commitments made by the donor countries in Agenda 21, including making available additional financial re- sources and transfer of technology on favourable terms; and following the progress made by these states in achieving the objective of 0.7% of the Gross National Product fixed for public aid for development to developing countries; - to examine and analyse information provided by the appropriate NGOs, and to strengthen dialogue with the NGOs and the pri- vate sector. The work of the Commission could be divided into many sectors: fmancial resources and mechanisms, transfer of ecologically m- tional technology, strengthening of endogenous capacities for sustainable development, and execution (at the international, regk>- nal and national levels) of Agenda 21 and agreements pertinent to the environment. According to the timetable drawn up, the first substantive meeting of this commission should take place in June 1993. TOWARDS AN ACTIVE ROLE BY NGOs As a result of the important contribution of NGOs to the UNCED process, it appears henceforth accepted that NGOs will find themselves participating actively in the commission, no doubt on the model which established their participation in the preparato- ry work of UNCED, but with a limited number of NGOs. However, the definite modalities of this participation are yet to be defi- ned. 38 GREENER INDUSTRIALISTS The Eiarth Summit would have been fawned on by a panoply of industrialists of ecological vir- tue... The Council of industrialists for sustainable development, assembling 48 directors of major enterprises worldwide, greatly promoted its vi- sion of sustainable development through a book entitled "Changing the Cape" published in six languages Taxation of natural resources and systematic implementation of the principle of "polluter = payer" are two examples of positions taken by these "new wave" of industrialists for whom economic activity should respect the environ- ment and be a factor for sustainable develop- ment. The Ecobusiness International Fair, ECO- BRASIL, was held at the same time as the UN- CED. This showcase of clean technology also certainly illustrated the widening technological gap between the North and the South. Of course, hydrogen or electric cars, 90% recy- cieable mercedes, desulfurization system and carbonic gas absorption plants, or even hi-tech purification stations, will perhaps enable the reduction of pollution one day in the countries which can pay for this technology for them- selves. Besides, it is established that poverty is the primary factor responsible for the degrada- tion of the environment... Furthermore, an inter-organisational committee on sustai- nable development would be charged with the responsibility of reorganising and coor- dinating the activities of United Nations Agencies and Pro- grammes within the framework of Agenda 21. An extraordinary session of the United Nations is scheduled to take place at the la- test in 1997 in order to review the progress made in the realisation of the objectives of the Earth Summit. IF ONE MAY CONCLUDE... After some diplomatic ef- forts, the creation of a Commis- sion on sustainable development was decided on (see box). The Assembly moreover decided to establish a consultative council to assemble experts representing the sciences, industry, finance and other related disciplines, with the responsibility of advising the Secretary General and the Commission on questions rela- ting to sustainable development. The United Na- tions Conference on Environ- ment and Development placed humanity before his responsibili- ties. The financial commitments which are late in materializing appear to cast a shadow on the repercussions of Rio. However, it is advisable to continue waiting and to consider the fact that a lot of human and financial means currently used without long-term concern could in fact contribute to the programme decided on u" Rio, without necessarily constitu ting "new or additional" finan- cing. As far as new money is concerned, it is also all the more important that the new spirit of Rio blows where money is alrea- dy available. There is no doubt that future generations will judge our abili- ties to overcome our selfishness, and to respond with efficiency and determination to the pro- blems of degradation of the qua- lity of life, due to the poverty caused by the degradation of our environment. It is less interesting to discuss the success or the failure of the Earth Summit, than to see to the rapid detailing and concretisa- tion of its recommendations and directives. Government or pri- vate officials, individuals or asso- ciations, international institutions or NGOs, each one has the moral obligation to no longer ignore what was decided in Rio de Ja- neiro, in June, 1992... For further information, see Box page 15. * Associate Professional Offi- cer, Wildlife and Protected Areas Management, FAO Regio- nal Office for Africa, Accra, Ghana 39 HABITUDES ALIMENTAIRES DES CERCOPITHEQUES A DIADEME DU MONT MERU EN TANZANIE par S.L.S. Maganga & R.G. Wright RESUME Des 6tudes ont 6t6 men6es sur les habitudes alimentaires des cercopithdques h diademe du Ki- Umandjaro {Cercopithecus mitis kibnotensis) sur le Mont Meru en Teinzanie, de Janvier k decembre 1987. Le r6gime alimentaire an- nuel de ces singes 6tait compos6 des 616ments de 38 essences v6- g6tales; notamment Tecorce, les fleurs, les fruits, les feuilles (lames), les p6tioles et les tiges (terminales). Les singes se nour- rissaient 6galement d'animaux in- vert6br6s mais ceux-ci n'ont pas 6t6 identifi6s ni document6s. Le r6gime alimentaire 6tait surtout constitu6 de fruits qui re- pr6sentaient environ 80% des ha- bitudes alimentcdres enregistr6es. lis ^taient beaucoup plus consomm6s entre les mois de Janvier et de mai, et beaucoup moins en juin et juillet, p^riode s^che pendant laquelle les feuilles et d'autres deriv6s de la plante constituaient la nourriture principale. Les singes pr6f6rent les fruits, probablement parce qu'ils leur fournissent beaucoup plus d'6- nergie que les autres sources d'a- limentation. Lorsque les fruits se faisaient rares, les feuilles et les autres d6riv6s de la pljmte 6taient consomm6s en grande quantit6 afin de satisfaire leurs besoins quotidiens de glucides qu'ils ne pouvaient plus tirer des fruits. INTRODUCTION L'habitat pr6fere des cercopi- th^ques h diaddme {Cercopithe- cus mitis) se limite k certaines r6- gions de I'Afrique de Test, du centre et du sud seulement, (Kingdon, 1971). En general, ils vivent unique- ment d