Rint i intake ae phot) rs nore : +h; Ration bid ep bal Pan ai or 2 2 ig ie bog Skah fea erent Rreareter ° alt Shores myo ch Saat. a) eg Bia ce URE ited i st yas ta Ohe Mey is wis shed ys eae Sats oo bi oy i zm ar si aN tas" ? Sah Sed ibe AMAT eS Ty Menem tay seat tersdal atin a44y leet * Yea, Seguteg 34 seegne i oie! a: ‘ cae eed ia beng ia . erst tetas "y WET ae aing oa ty Pa lS whe. Pi 34 ~e wh tS bee ea Ragbad et Giese “eesti td ay rye 088 ey CEG Het tihe de pred oe we: ite! ror +" Tabane 4+ . x ’ et Leer dots toe Bie se wie iets rata ee 7 “aa iH of tog atte oo ye a oo ee t 4 ‘1 is ie * sen ge 4% wees aes i Peat gk fig Re anigaden ae pores eine Nenad Satnda Me tt ve ; ns an ee piet Site deere whee + of et ae ts Hobart rote fe pipe are rs ee Pee Reet ra idee PEE VO ee ee ance ca Ci¢e wy lager et aad Raease ree neh! yet Mepis. eo Per s ee eo tned web Ag was isnt? M tae fines a? sabe as pinta ys ass “9 aaetd sibpiee aoe eas. need bel atria = fist Pewteey ae ws ae eh ay eo arercr ears Sat Pare 3 ’ HON AYES 0826 8 iets dees Ms be ino 8 es oy ee tee, See ae eee oe * ‘ es Bikes tae tt el et Les parse n tha a ae P55) cae é inet vee de Orie rirog ee] ths ray res hre ae ¥ i hemes $35 atbitts H a ‘ sales gi Teh ath sae ee Ae ; oe ne weet yt pe aE sale eee east ae Sho rahe - Grace inte or ae ae pices tily ‘es Coyle Slt ti att a “ane ‘ oe ane Ig is wn & Neng a A gbatdy on ene ae ae st bak eres te ts 7 a rr vt 24, ta pay, Tivest ae Bead sie in inure Mghiss te Pew ey 7 Marisa lye ite Bee Bees. if Mot “whet os 4 sey vine sire Nature A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME XXXVI MAY 1887 to OCTOBER 1887 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH London and Hetv Pork MACMILLAN AND CoO. 1887 a Nature, Dec. t, 1887] y (R.), Shadow of Adam’s Peak, 152 (Prof. Cleveland), Popular Errors in Meteorology, 375 | (Sir Frederick, C.B., F.R.S.), the Work of the Imperial nstitute, 17 omby (Hon. Ralph): Upper Wind Currents near the Equator and the Diffusion of Krakatéo Dust, 85 ; Shadow Adam’s Peak, 197; Upper Cloud Movements in the quatorial Regions of the Atlantic, 222 ; the Meteorologiske titut at Upsala and Cloud Measurements, 319 ; the Different ‘arieties of Thunderstorms, and a Scheme for their Systematic ) vation in Great Britain, 548 ion, a General Method of Determining the Constant of, Loewy, 118 s precatorius, in, 70 s te Wave-length, Recent Determinations of, L. Bell, 524 01 agate of the Haloid Salts of Didymium, Dr. G. _H. Bailey, 570 bso. ee Spectra of Rare Earths, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 570 bt (Dr.) and Dr. Noelting on the Constitution of Azimido a unds, 569 > Ether, Velocity of Formation of, Prof. Menschutkin, 569 Cinnamic, on some New, Dr. Cohen and Prof. Perkin, the Proteids of Seeds of, Dr. Sidney stics : Experiments on Laws of Vibration of Tuning-Forks, tof. Munk, 383 am’s Peak, Shadow of, R. Abbay, 152; Hon. Ralph Aber- Y, 197 ty Manual of Scientific Inquiry, 255 : Captive Kite-Balloon, E. Douglas Archibald, 278 Academy of, in France, 429 esidual, Wm. Durham, Prof. H. E. Armstrong, id Solution, Chemical, Wm. Durham, 318 Capt. van Géle’s Exploration of Mobangi Tributary of 0, 66; Mitteilungen of the German African Society, 91 ; unker’s Explorations in Central, 257 ; News of African ravel, Herr G, A. Krause, 258; Lieut. Wissmann’s African dition, 283 ; Return of Lieut. Wissmann from his Journey Africa, 616 ; Ethnology of the Ogoway and Lower igo Basins, Cay. A. Pecile, 377 ; Forestry of West Africa, ed Moloney, 387 ; Dr. Holub’s African Explorations, 452 ; _of Stanley’s Expedition, 475; Geology of Africa, Dr. h, 478 ; Religious Conditions of, Dr. Oppel, 589 lows, J. Lloyd Bozward, 245 ows at Helensburgh, Robert H. Scott, F.R.S., 175; is P. Muirhead, 175 lh (J. G.), Till Algernes Systematik, Mrs. Mary P. Merri- 313 ’ Itural Chemistry, Experiments in, J. Raulin, 456 INDEX Bg la Pests of India, Surgeon-General Edward Balfour, I Agriculture : Premium offered for the Best Text-book of Tropi- cal Agriculture, 499 Aino Studies, the Language, Mythology, and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan viewed in the Light of, 25 Air-Bubbles from Snow, Rev. A. Bonney, 215 Air, Micro-Organisms in, a New Method for Determining, Prof. Carnelley and Thos, Wilson, 570 Airy (Sir G. B., F.R.S.), on the Establishment of the Roman Dominion in South-East Britain, 78 ae (Sir W.), the Growth of the Recruit and Young Soldier, 597 Ajax, H.M. Ship, the Steering of, 61 Alaska, Shores and Alps of, A. W. Seton Karr, 220 Albert Hall, Indian Antiquities at, 184 Albert Medal, the, 135 Albert Nyanza and Muta-Nzige, 499 Albuquerque (J. A.), Primeiros Principios da Theoria dos Determinantes, 51 Alcock (Dr. Thomas), Natural History of the Coast of Lan- cashire, 526 Alcohol, Bichlorureted, M. Delacre, 116 Alcohol, New Tetrahydric, M. Combes, 587 Alcohol and Water Combinations, Prof. Mendeléef, 570 Alcoholic Fermentation, Chemical and Physiological Equation of, Prof. Delpino, 456 Algz, Gelatinous Sheathing of Filaments of, Herr G. Klebs, 15 Algze, the Classification of, J. G. Agardh, Mrs. Mary P. Merri- eld, 313 Algebra, Higher, H. S. Hall and S. R. Knight, 409, 507 Algeria : the Grasshopper Plague in, 184; Earthquake in, 350; Volcanic Eruption on Algerian Coast, 376 Algiers, the Locust Plague in, 350 Algol Type, New Variable of the, E. Sawyer, 376 Alkali Trade, Present Position of the, A. E. Fletcher, 569 Alkaline Vanadates, 24 Alkyl Nitrites, the Reduction-Products of the Nitro-Paraffins and, Prof. Dunstan and T. S. Dymond, 570 Alloys: on the Electro-Deposition of, Prof. S. P. Thompson, 547; Experiments on the Possible Electrolytic Decomposition of, Prof. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 547 , Alphita, a »Medico-Botanical Glossary from the Bodleian Manuscript Selden B. 35, Dr. J. F. Payne, 529 Alpine Flowers, the Preservation of, I11 Alps, Preliminary Note on Traverses of the Western and of the Eastern, made during the Summer of 1887, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 590 Alps of Alaska, Shores and, W. H. Seton Karr, 220 é Vi - INDEX [Wature, Dec. 1, 1887 Altai, Flora of the, A. Krasnoff, 325 Alumina, on the Reduction of, M. G. A. Faurie, 528 Aluminium, its History, &c., Joseph W. Richards, 292 Alums formed by Selenic Acid, on the, C. Fabre, 287 Alvarez (E.), Microbe of Indigo, 360 Amagat (E. H.): Expansion and Compressibility of Water, 24; Solidification of Liquids by Pressure, 312 Amati (Prof. A.), on the State of Education in Italy, 45 Amber, Remarkable Piece of, 63 America: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 14, 398, 429; American Woman’s Education Association, Seaside Laboratory for Study of Biology, 15 ; American Journal of Science, 64, 113, 479, 551, 5753 American Journal of Mathematics, 70, 262; American Oriental Association, 111; American Indian Dialects, Gatschet’s Ethnographic Map of, 112 ; Earthquakes in Central America, 136; American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 161 ; American Museum of Natural History, 279 ; Education in America, W. Odell, 295; American Mining Industries, R. Pumpelly, 315 ; American Meteorological Journal, 375 ; Minerals at the American Exhibition, 381; British Museums and American Museums, Dr. Alfred R. Wallace, 530; Scientific Revival in the Southern States of America, 587 Anales de la Oficina Meteorologica Argentina, 110 Analysis, Qualitative Chemical, Dr. C. Remigius Fresenius, 4II Analysis, Qualitative, Outlines of, A. H. Sexton, 410 Analytical Statics, a Treatise on, I. Todhunter, 459 Anatomical Researches on the Physiology of the Spinal Ganglia, Dr. Joseph, 120 Ancon, the Necropolis of, Prof. A. H. Keane, 281 André (MM. Berthelot), on the Liberation of Ammonia by Vegetable Soils, 72 Animals, Breeding for Intelligence in, Dr. H. Rayner, 246 Animals Liable to become addicted to Opium-Poisoning, Jammes, 325 Animals, Lower, Effects of Earthquakes upon, Prof. Milne, 350 pee der Hydrographie und Maritimen Meteorologie, 136, 348, 617 Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 165, 375 Annales de l'Institut Pasteur, 112 Annals of Botany, the New Botanical Periodical, 254 Annatto, 279 Antarctic Expedition, Proposed Victorian, 17; Antarctic Ex- ploration, 277 ; Capt. C. Pasco, R.N., on, 399; Australian Promotion of, 211 Anthropology: Anthropological Institute, 72, 117, 143; on the Relative Recuperative Powers of Man in Rude and Civilized States, Dr. G. Harley, F.R.S., 143; a Suggestion for Anthropologists, Dr. William F. Warren, 198; Opening Address by Prof. A. H. Sayce, President of Section H at the British Association, 511; the Primitive Seat of the Aryans, Canon Isaac Taylor, 597: the Non-Aryan and Non-Semitic White Races and their Place in the History of Civilization, J. S. Stuart Glennie, 598; on the Picture Origin of the Characters of the Assyrian Syllabary, Rev. W. Houghton, 598 ; Boat-shaped Graves in Syria, Geo. St. Clair, 598; the Effect of Town Life upon the Human Body, J. Milner Fothergill, 598 ; on the Bosjes Pelvis, Prof. Cleland, F.R.S., 598 ; Experimental Production. of Chest Types in Man, G, W. Hambleton, 599; Scientific Treatment of Consump-' tion, G. W. Hambleton, 599; Tattooing, Miss A. W. Buck- land, 599 ; Early Ages of Metal in South-East Spain, Henri and Louis Siret, 599; Certain Degenerations of Design in Papuan Art, S. J. Hickson, 599; Origin of Totemism, C. Staniland Wake, 599 ; Gypsies and an Ancient Hebrew Race in Sus and the Sahara, R. G. Haliburton, 599 ; Colour-Names amongst the English Gypsies, W. E. A. Axon, 599: on the Migrations of Pre-Glacial Man, Henry Hicks, F.R.S., 599; Observations on Recent Explorations made by General Pitt- Rivers, at Rushmore, J. G. Garson, 600 Anticyclone, the Jubilee, 248 Anticyclones, is Cold the’Cause of?, H. Helm Clayton, 268 Ants at Nancy, Shower of, 349 Apatite in Slag, Occurrence of, W. M. Hutchings, 460 Aponogetonacez, on the, A. Engler, 117 Aquila, Meetings of the Geodynamical Committee of the Italian Meteorological Society at, 614 Arabia, South-West, General Haig’s Journey to, 211 Arabia, Southern, Contemplated Journey in, Ed. Glaser, 478 Arago Statue, the, 254 Archzological Institute, Congress of the, 348 Archeology, Indian, 1&4. a Archibald (E. Douglas): Upper Wind Currents near the Equator and the Diffusion of Krakatdo Dust, 152; Captive Kite- Balloon, 278 - Arctic Flora in Central Sweden, Discovery of Fossil Remains of an, Prof. A. G. Nathorst, 211 a Ardennes, Walks in the, Percy Lindley, 340 Areovolumeter, Dr. Sandrucci’s, 45 Areschong (Prof. J. E.), Death of, 111 Argentine Republic, Meteorology in, 283 ag Argyll (Duke of, F.R.S.): Thought without Words, 52; th Scenery of Scotland, 603 “a Aristotelian Society, Abstract of its Proceedings, 586 Arizona, Earthquake in, 110 a Armstrong (Prof. H. E., F.R.S.), Residual Affinity, 30; Note on Valency, 569 a Anaudeau (M.), Proposed Aérial Postal Tube between Dover and Calais, 349 ‘aaa Armold (Edwin Lester), Bird Life in England, Prof. R. Bowdler Sharpe, 435 eS Arrol (William), Machinery employed at the Forth Bri 3 Art and Literature, the Connection between Science and, Pri Huxley, 14 Artists, Science for, 199; Ed. L. Garbett, 221 ~ Aryans, the Primitive Seat of the, Canon Isaac Taylor, 597 — Ascherson’s (Prof. Paul) Botanical Researches in Egypt, 254 Asia, Central, MM. Bonvalot Capus and Pepin’s Journe: 88 Adane Society of Bengal, 95 Pap Assyrian Syllabary, on the Picture Origin of the Characters the, Rev. W. Houghton, 598 : aa Astronomy: Astronomical Column, 16, 43, 65, 90, 112, 138 161, 185, 232, 256, 282, 308, 376, 401, 431, 454, 477, 50 527, 542, 564, 588, 616; Astronomical Phenomena for thi Week, 16, 44, 65, 90, 113, 138, 161, 186, 210, 232, 257, 28: 308, 326, 350, 377, 401, 431, 456, 478, 502, 527, it 56. 588, 616; the Orbit of the Minor Planet Eucharis, Dr. L. « Ball, 16; New Organization for furthering Astronomic: Research (Draper Memorial), 41; Miss Clerke’s” History of Astronomy, 43; Melbourne Observatory, Transit of Venus in 1882, 44 ; on the Movements of the System in Space, P. Ubaghs, 45; Diurnal Nutation, - Niesten on, 45; Paris Astronomical Congress, 54; In * national Astronomical Congress, 429; Total Solar August 19, 1887, 60; Dr. A. Woeikof, 77 ; in Japan, David P. Todd, 609 ; Micrometric Measures of Jupit Saturn, Dr. Dob-rck, 65; Present Appearance of S Ring, M. Stuyvaert, 65; the Red Spot upon Jupiter, Discovery of a New Comet, 65; on a General Meth Determining the Constant of Aberration, M. Loewy, Ee: Photography the Servant of Aso M. de G go; a New Minor Planet, 90; Comet 1887 ¢ (Barnard, May 12), 138; Dr. E. Lamp, 90; Astronomical graphy, Prof. C. A. Young, 113; Paris Observatoi Mouchez, 112; Astronomical Photography, 113; 1887 ¢ (Barnard, May 12), Dr. H. Oppenheim, 113 ; Planet No. 266, 138; Parallax of a Tauri, 138; } Meridian Observations, 138; Annual Visitation of the Observatory, 139; the Great Southern Comet (1887 « 185 ; New Minor Planets, 161 ; Companion of Sirius, Short Method of Computing Refractions forall Zenith Dis 186 ; Relative Positions of the Principal Stars in the Pl Dr. W. L. Elkin, 232; Researches on the Diameter Sun, Prof. Auwers, 256; the Nice Observatory, M. 282; Photographic Chart of Heavens, Mouchez, 287 Solar Eclipse of 1886, W. H. Pickering, 308 ; New of the Algol Type, E. Sawyer, 376; Annals of the mical Observatory of Harvard College, Edward C. P 388 ; Magnitudes of Nautical Almanac Stars, [401 1887 ¢ (Barnard, May 12), 401 ; Note on Work carried « Meudon Observatory, J. Janssen, 408; Variable Star in t Ring Nebula in Lyra, Herr Spitaler, 431 ; New V Star, Mr. Espin, 431; Discovery of a Comet, W. R. B < 431; Brooks’s Comet, H. V. Egbert, 454; Dr. Fran 478; Observations of Brooks’s New Comet, 504; Morrison Observatory, 455; New Observatory at Juvis 455; Total Solar Eclipse of August 19, M. Niesten, 455 Nature, Dec. 1, 1887] INDEX Minor Planet No. 267, 455; Astronomische Gesellschaft, 476; Neuchatel Observatory, Dr. Hirsch, 477; Wedge Photometer, Prof. Pickering, 477 ; Differential Formulas for Variation of Element of an Orbit, R. Radau, 480; New Variable, Prof. Lewis Boss, 501; Dearborn Observatory, Prof. Hough, 501 ; the Spectra of Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water Vapour, Prof. Griinwald, 501; on the Problematic Satellite of Venus, Prof. Stroobant, 503; Observations of Olbers’ Comet (1815 I.), 504; Cordoba Observatory, 527 ; New Minor Planet, 527; Olbers’ Comet, 1887, W. H. Brooks, 527 ; Provisional Elements of Brooks’s New Comet, (August 24), MM. Rambaud and Sy, 528; on the Organiza- tion of the Astronomical Service in the United States, M. A. Laussedat, 528; Flamsteed’s Stars ‘‘ Observed but not . Existing,” Prof. C..H. F. Peters, 542; Corrigenda in Various Star-Catalogues, Prof. Peters, 543 ; the ‘‘ Satellite” of Venus, M. Stroobant, 543; the Leander McCormick Observatory, Prof. Ormond Stone, 543; the Nice Observatory, M. Perro- tin, 543; Proper Motion of Ll 26481, J. Tebbutt, 564; the - Washburn Observatory, 564; New Minor Planet, Dr. Peters, 588 ; Olbers’ Comet, Herr VU. Tetens, 588 ; Southern Double Stars, 588; Parallax of = 2398, Dr. E. Lamp, 616; New Minor Planet, Dr. Knorre, 616; Liverpool Astronomical Society, 623 Ataxy, Experiments on ooh ys of, Dr. Goldschneider, 384 Atlantic Weather Chart, 17 Atlantic, North, Ocean, Earthquake in, 183 Atlantic, Upper Cloud Movements in the Equatorial Regions of the, Capt. David Wilson-Barker, 197; Hon. Ralph Aber- cromby, 222 ; Atlas, Queen’s Jubilee, 208 Atlas, Statistical, of India, 615 Atmospheric Electricity, Nahrwold’s Experiments on, 280; Observations of, Prof. L. Weber, 548 Atmospheric Pressure, Colliery Explosions and, Hy. Harries, 437 Atomic Weight of Gold, J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., 568 Atomic Weight of Zirconium, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 568 Atoms, the Inter-molecular Arrangement of, Prof. J. Wislicenus, Atropine, on the Constitution of, Prof. Ladenburg, 570 Aubel (Van), Nature of Chemical Action between Acids and - Zine, 400 August Meteors of 1887, W. F. Denning, 407 Auk, the, 6. * Aurore Boreales, at Throndhjem and New York, Remarkable, 89 Australia : the Diamond-drill Bore in, C. S. Wilkinson, 210 ; Australian Promotion of Antarctic Exploration, 211 ; Fauna of, Meyrick, 215; Dr. von Lendenfeld’s Explorations of the Australian Alps, 283; Meteorology of the Australian Alps, Dr. von Lendenfeld, 348: Australian Museum of Sydney, 501 Auwers (Prof.), Researches on the Diameter of the Sun, 256 Axon (W. E. A.), Colour Names amongst the English Gypsies, ' 599 Ayrton (Prof. W. E., F.R.S.) and Prof. John Perry, F.R.S., the Secohmmeter, 129 ; Note on Beams fixed at Ends, 191 Ayrton (Prof., F.R.S.), Magnetic Resistance, 262; Magnet _ Ammeters and Voltmeters, 263 Azemar (Pére), on the Stieng Tribe, 501 Azimido Compounds, on the Constitution of, Drs. Noelting _and Abt, 569 Babylonian Seals, Dr. W. H. Ward, 111 Bacillus of Malaria, 613 Backhouse (T.W.) : Iridescent Clouds, 77; Bishop’s Ring, 102, 365 ; Sky-coloured Clouds, 269, 365, 556; the Perception of Colour, 531 ; the Law of Error, 531 Bacteria : the Effect of Freezing on, Dr. T. M. Prudden, 8g ; Influence on Organic Substances in Water by Development of, S. Leone, 209 ; on the Presence of, in the Lymph, &c., of _ Living Fish and other Vertebrates, Prof. J. C. Ewart, 251 ; | Photography of, Edgar M. Crookshank, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 316, 388 Baden, Meteorology in, 324 Bailey (Dr. G, H.): the Atomic Weight of Zirconium, 568 ; Absorption-Spectra of Rare Earths, 570; Absorption-Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didymium, 570 Baird (Spencer F.), Obituary Notice of, R. Bowdler Sharpe, 397 Baker (B.), Bridging the Firth of Forth, 79 Balance, Hughes’s Induction, J. Cook, 605 Balances, Torsion, Dr. A. Springer, 569 Balfour (Surgeon-General Edward), Agricultural Pests of India, 6 109 Ball (John, F.R.S.), Flora of North Patagonia, 539 Ball (Dr. L. de), the Orbit of the Minor Planet Eucharis, 16 Ball (Sir Robert S., F.R.S.), a Dynamical Parable, 424 Balloon, Captive Kite, E. Douglas Archibald, 278 Balloon Ascent, Jovis and Mallet, 374 Ballooning : a New Varnish for Textile Materials, Jovis, 376 Ballot, Solution of a Problem of Probabilities concerning the, J. Bertrand, 432 Baltic Canal, the, 136 Banded Gneisses, the Origin of, J. J. H. Teall, 590 Barbier (M. Ph.) and M. Léo Vignon, on a New Mode of Formation of the Substituted Safranines, 615, 624 Barnard (E. E.), Discovery of a New Comet by (May 12, 1887, c), 65: Dr. E. Lamp, 90; Dr. H. Oppenheim, 113, 138; Dr. H. Kreutz, 401 Barus (Carl), Viscosity of Steel and its Relations to Temperature, 479; Effects of Magnetization on the Viscosity and the Rigidity of Iron and Steel, 575 Batavia Observatory, 184 Bath (W. Harcourt), Sparrow Chasing Pigeons, 4 Baths, Effect of, on Chemical Phenomena of Respiration and Nutrition, 89 Bathy-hypsographical Map of the British Isles and Surrounding Seas, Report of the B.A. Committee appointed to make Suggestions with Reference to the Production of a, 518 Baumann (Dr. Oscar), on the Island of Fernando Po, 617 Bavaria, Earthquake in, 376 Baxendell (Joseph, F.R.S.): Death of, 563; Obituary Notice of, Prof. Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., 585 Beard (J.), Parietal Eye in Fishes, 246, 340 Beare (Thos. Hudson), 279 Beaver Colonies in Norway, 210 Beddard (F. E.), on the Structure of Fratercula arctica, 593 Bees, Fertile Workers, F. R. Cheshire, 47 Belfast Lough, Occurrence of Sterna anglica in, Prof. Robert O. Cunningham, 582 Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, 88 Belgium, on the Influence of the Various Geological Formations in, M. Navez, 617 Bell (Prof.), Grouse Disease, 240 Bell (L.), Recent Determinations of Absolute Wave-length, 524 Bell (Robert George), the Pliocene Beds of St. Erth, Cornwall, 591 Belon (Pierre), Unveiling of a Statue to the Memory of, 586 Bender (Dr. C.), Remarkable Relations between certain Physical Constants and Chemical Valency, 375 Bengal, Asiatic Society of, 95 ; the Recent Cyclone in Bay of, 136, 306 Benham (W. B.), Recent Researches on Earthworms, 70, 593 Bennett (Dr. Alfred W.), British Association Sectional Pro- cedure, 197 Bennettites, on Count Solms-Laubach, 593 Ben Nevis Observatory, 253, 430; Meteorological Office, Criticisms on, 452; Report of the B.A. Committee on, 498 ; Hygrometry of Ben Nevis, H. N. Dickson, 548 Berlin: Academy of Sciences, 254; Chemical Society, 42; Meteorological Society, 24, 119; Physical Society, 96, 119, 144, 216; Physiological Society, 48, 96, 123, 168, 383 Bernthsen (Prof.), Methylene Blue and Methylene Red, 569 - Berthelot, Recoura, and Louguinine, Heats of Combustion, 167; on Transition between Aromatic and Fatty Series, 312 ; Researches on Drainage, 624 Berthelot and André, on the Liberation of Ammonia by Vegetable Soils, 72 Berthelot and Fabre, the Different States of Tellurium, 118 Bertrand (J.), Solution of a Problem of Probabilities concerning Ballot, 432 Bertrand (M. J.), Thermodynamics, 528 Bettany (G. T.), Life of Chas. Darwin, 124 Me: (Th.), Discovery of Two New Rivers in New Guinea, 47 Bezold (Prof. von), Newton’s Law of Colour-mixing, 119 Bibliotheque Géologique de la Russie, 400 Bidwell (Shelford), on Magnetic Torsion of Iron Wires, 143 eee vill INDEX [Wature, Dec. 1, 1889 Binet (Paul) and J. L. Prevost, Cytesus laburnum, Physio logical Action of, 504 arclne Vision, iE some Phenomena of, Joseph Le Conte, I Bialtey « Seaside Laboratory for Study of, American Women’s Education Association, 15; Liverpool Marine Biology Station on Puffin Island, Prof. W. A. Herdman, 275; on a Point of Biological Interest in the Flowers of Plewrothallis ornatus, Rehb. f., F. W. Oliver, 303; Opening Address in Section D at the British Association, by Prof. Alfred Newton, F.R.S., President of the Section, 462; the Problem of the Hop-Plant Louse (Phoredon humult, Schrank) in Europe and America, Prof. C. V. Riley, 566; Proposed Contributions to the Theory of Variation, Patrick Geddes, 592; on the Struc- ture of Haplodiscus piger, W. F. R. Weldon, 592; on the Degeneration of the Olfactory Organ of Certain Fishes, Prof. Wiedersheim, 592 ; on the Torpid State of Protopterus, Prof. Wiedersheim, 592; the Larynx and Stomach of Cetacean Embryos, Prof, D’Arcy Thompson, 592 ; the Blood Corpuscles of the Cyclostomata, Prof. D’Arcy Thompson, 592; on the Luminous Larviform Females of the Phengodini, Prof. C. V. Riley, 592; the Present Aspect of the Cell Question, Prof. Schafer, 592; Jcerya purchasi, an Insect Injurious to Fruit- Trees, Prof. Riley, 592; the Hessian Fly, Prof. Fream, 592 ; Recent Researches on Earthworms, W. B. Benham, 593; a Luminous Oligocheete, Prof. Harker, 593 ; on the Structure of Fratercula arctica, F. E. Beddard, 593; on Cramer's Gemma borne by Zrichomanes alata, Prof. Bower, 593; on Bennettites, the Type of a New Group between Angio- sperms and Gymnosperms, Count Solms-Laubach, 593; Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by Lepidopterous Larve for the Purposes of Defence, E. B. Poulton, 593; Further Experiments upon the Protective Value of Colour and Markings in Insects, E. B. Poulton, 594; Further Experiments upon the Colour-Relation between Phyto- phagous Larve and their Surroundings, E. B. Poulton, 94 Bird: Provincial Names and Folk-Lore of British Birds, Rev. Charles Swainson, 49; Our Bird Allies, Theodore Wood, 99; Use of Flowers by Birds, 101, 244; William White, 173; Birds and Caterpillars, A. G. Butler, 280; Folk-Lore of Ceylon Birds, 381; Ocean Birds, J. F. Green, Prof. R. Bowdler Sharpe, 435; Bird-Life in England, Edwin Lester Arnold, Prof. R. Bowdler Sharpe, 435; Photochrono- graphy applied to Dynamic Problems of Flight of Birds, M. Marey, 480; Birds at Lighthouses and Light-vessels, Migration of, Report of the B.A. Committee for the Purpose of obtaining Observations on the, 516; on the Measurement: of the Forces brought into Play in the Flight of a Bird, M. Marey, 552. (See a/so Ornithology.) ‘Bismuth in Magnetic Field, Calorific Conductibility of, A. Righi, 312 Bismuth and Manganese, Fluorescences of, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, 336 oa! Blake (Prof. J. F.), on a Star-fish from'the Yorkshire Lias, 591 Blanford (Henry F., F.R.S.): Eleven-Year Periodical Fluctua- tion of the Carnatic Rainfall, 227 ; Carnatic Rainfall, 293 Blast-Furnace Coal Tar from the Garthsherrie Works, on the Constituents of the Light Oils of, Watson Smith, 569 Blue Hill Observatory, 281 Blyth (A. W.), Lead-poisoning, 117 Board Schools, Proposed Evening Classes in Elementary Natural Science in, 254 Board of Trade on Weights and Measures, Report of, 204 Boat-shaped Graves in Syria, Geo. St. Clair, 598 Bodies, Rolling Contact of, Prof. Hele Shaw, 92 Bodleian Library, the, 109 Bog-Oak in Norway, 185 Bohemia, on the Permian Fauna of, Prof. Anton Fritsch, 591 Boiling-Point and Pressure, M. F. O'Reilly, 4 Boiling, Melting and, Point Tables, Thos. Carnelley, 411 Boisbaudran (Lecoq de): Fluorescences of Manganese and Bismuth, 336 ; New Fluorescences with well-marked Spectral Bands, 360; New Fluorescences with well-defined Spectral Rays, 383, 408 Boiteau (O.), Phylloxera, 312 Bolletino della Societa Geofragica Italiana, 375 Bombay Observatory, 280 Bonavia (E.), the Cultivated Oranges and Lemons of India an Ceylon, 563 Bonn, Earthquake at, 452 i ; Bonnetond (M.), New Way of utilizing Dynamite, 564 Bonney (Rev. A.), Air-Bubbles from Snow, 215 — Bonney (Prof. T. G., F.R.S.): Microscopic Structure of som¢ Caucasian Rocks, 70; Landslip at Zug, 389 ; on the Rounding of Pebbles by Alpine Rivers, with a Note on their Bearin upon the Origin of Bunter Conglomerate, 573; Prelim Note on Traverses of the Western and of the Eastern made during the Summer of 1887, 590 ; Marjalen Sea, 612 Bonnier (Gaston), Les Plantes des Champs and des Bois, 555 Bonvalot, Capus, and Pepin’s (MM.) Journey in Central As 88 nee the Diamond-Drill, in Australia, C. S. Wilkinson, 21 Boreal Cloudlets, Luminous, D. J. Rowan, 245 a Borneo Expedition, Whitehead’s, 279 Horne Bort (L. Teisserenc de), Charts showing Mean Amount of over Surface of Globe, 15 ; Bosanquet (R. H. M.), Magnetization, on versals, 23 Bosjes Pelvis, on the, Prof. Cleland, F.R.S., 598 Boss (Prof. Lewis), New Variable, 501 pay Boston Church Tower, Thermometrical Observations on, W Marriott, 118. : Botany: Proposed Botanical Survey of India, 143. Jahrbiicher, 22; the Developmént of Form in Roburoid Franz Krasan, 22; a New Species of Truffle, A 23; Tabasheer mentioned in Older Botanical V _Ernst Huth, 29; Variation in Plants and Animals, Geddes, 47 ; on Bigeneric Orchid Hybrids, R. A. - Narcissus reflexus, W. Brockbank, 70; (Vicotiana J. H. Stone, 70; the Proteids of the Seeds of Abrus torius (Jequirity), Dr. Sidney Martin, 70; Vaccinum | medium, N. E. Brown, 70: Flora of Christmas Island, Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 78 ; Aponogetonaceze, A. | 117; Die Natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, A. Engler Prandl, 123 ; Botanical Federation in West Indies, yr 135; Oberpliocan-Flora aus den Baugruben des Klarbeck bei Niederrad und Schleuse bei Hochst a M., T. | F. Kinkelin, J. Starkie Gardner, 150; German Plants, Kerner and Wettstein, 209; the Mucila Ferns, Tokutaro Ito and Walter Gardiner, 214; cular Swellings on Roots of Vicia Faba, Prof. H. 214; Annals of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ca i., 242; the Annals of Botany, 254; Botanical in Egypt, Prof. Paul Ascherson’s, 254; My Hundred Flowers, Mary A. Pratten, 267; Proposed Wes Island Botanical Stations, 279, 348; on a Pointo Interest in the Flowers of Pleurothallis ornatus, Re F, W. Oliver, 303; Habitat of Peripatus leuckar Botany of San Domingo, W. T. Thiselton D Baron Eggers, 367 ; Radicular Nature of Stolo: lepis, A. Trécul, 408 ; a Monstrous Foxglove, F. R 482 ; F. Howard Collins, 508; Garden Roses o D. Brandis, ;F.R.S., 509; Alphita: a Medico- Glossary from the Bodleian Manuscript Selden B. 3 Botany of the Riukiu (Loochoo) Islands, Tokutaro It Flora of North Patagonia, John Ball, F.R.S., 539 Plantes des Champs et des Bois, Gaston Bonnier, Cornus macrophylla, Specimen near Auchnagie, 564 Cramer’s Gemma borne by 77ichomanes alata, P. Sequences of 593 Bottomley (J. T.), Expansion by Heat of Wires under P Stress, 550 ey Bee Boulder-Clay, Till or Lower, Comparative Study of several of the Glaciated Countries of Europe, Hugh 573 ; Boulder-Stones, Note on a Few of the Remarkable, to along the Eastern Margin of the Wicklow Mount Edward Hull, F.R.S., 574 : ie alls Bouquet de la Grye, Tidal Velocities of Pacific and A Oceans in Canal between the two, 143 ee Bourdillon (T. F.), Fertilization of the Coffee Plant, 580 Bourne (Prof. A. G.)’: Scorpion Virus, 53; a Junior’ Practical Zoology, 77; Sense of Taste or Smell in 125 : Boussinesq (M. J.), on the Theory of Outflow between Walls at a Low or a High Level, 600 a p vee Nature, Dec. t, 1887] INDEX 1X sussingault (M.), Obituary Notice of, 134 | ee Origin of Scarlatina, Researches on the, M. Picheney, 24 jwer (Prof.), on Cramer’s Gemma borne by 7?ichomanes alata, 593 : ywman (F. H.), the Chemistry of Cotton Fibre, 569 ywrey (James John), Fall of Peculiar Hailstones in Kingston, Jamaica, 153 wward (J. Lloyd), After-Glows, 245 ‘ackebasch’s (Dr.) Explorations of the Cordilleras, 283 ‘adford Philosophical Society, 431 ‘ain and the Spinal Marrow, Duality of the, M. Brown- tbo 624 rz andis (Sir D., F.R.S.), Garden Roses of India, 509 raun (Dr. Carl), a New Cosmogony, A. M. Clerke, 321, 341 , Nepheline Rocks in, O. A. Derby, 286 eeding for Intelligence in Animals, Dr. H. Rayner, 246 on (Ph.), Measurement of Luminous Sensations in Function the Quantities of Light, 480 dge, Forth, 79; Structure and Progress of the, E. Malcolm ood, 353; Machinery employed at the, William Arrol, 356 ham (W. T.), Kilaucain r880, 479 dley (W.), Account of a Recent Visit to the Ancient Por- hry Quarries of Egypt, 595 ines, on Ice and, J. Y. Buchanan, 9 isbane University, Proposed, 13 itain, South-East, on the Establishment of the Roman Dominion in, Sir G, B. Airy, F.R.S., 78 AITISH ASSOCIATION, 158, 231, 323; General Arrangements, 348, 377; Sectional Procedure, Prof. Silvanus P. Thomp- son, 151; Dr. Alfred W. Bennett, 197; Foreign . Visitors at, 323; Exhibition of Specimeris and Instruments at, 323; British Association and the Government of New South Wales, 398; the Meeting for 1889, 429 ; Inaugural Address by Sir Henry E. Roscoe, M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President, 416 eports of Committees—Fourth Report of the Committee for _ considering the Best Methods of recording the Direct Inten- _ sity of Solar Radiation, 497 ; Report of the Electrical Stan- dards Committee, 498 ; Report of the Committee on the Ben Nevis Meteorological Observations, 498 ; Final Report of the Committee appointed in August 1881, to co-operate with the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius, in the Publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean, for the Year 1861, 498 ; Fourth Report of the Committee for co-operat- _ing with Mr. E. J. Lowe in his Project of establishing on a Permanent and Scientific Basis a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow, 498; Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in Canada, 499; Report of the Committee on Magnetic Observations, 499 ; Report of the Committee on Standards of Light, 499; Report of the Committee on Differential Gravity Meters, 499 ; Report of the Committee on the Translation of Foreign Scientific Memoirs, 499 ; Report of the Committee on the Influence of Silicon on the Properties of Steel, 516 ; Report of the Committee on the Nature of Solution, 516; Report of the Committee on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives, 516 ; Second Report on the Cae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, by Dr. H. Hicks, 516 ; Report of the Committee for obtaining Observations on the Migrations of Birds at Light-houses and Light-vessels, and of reporting on the same, 516 ; Report of the Committee appointed for the Purpose of investigating the Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons Mountain, 517; Report of the Committee for continuing the Preparation of a Report on our Present Knowledge of the Flora of China, 518; Report of the Committee appointed to make Suggestions with reference to the Production of a Bathy-hypsographical Map of the British Isles and Surrounding Seas, 518; Report of the Committee appointed for the Purpose of co-operating with the Royal Geographical Society in endeavouring to bring before the Authorities of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge the Advisability of promoting the Study of Geography, by establishing Special Classes for the Purpose, 518 ; Report of the Committee appointed for the Purpose ‘of continuing the Inquiries relating to the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools, 518; Report of the Egyptian Photographs Committee, 520; Report of the North American Committee, 520; Report of the Electrolysis Committee, Dr. Oliver Lodge, 520 Section A (Mathematical and Physical Science)—Opening Address by Sir Robert S. Ball, LL.D., F.R.S., President of the Section, a Dynamical Parable, 424; New Electric Balances, by Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., 522; on the Application of the Centi-ampere, or the Deci-ampere Balance for the Measurement of the E,M.F. of a Single Cell, by Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., 522 ; Conduction of Electricity through Gases, Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S., 522; onthe Nature of the Photographic Star Disks and the Removal of a Difficulty in Measurements for Parallax, Prof. Pritchard, F.R.S., 523; Instruments for Stellar Photography, Sir Howard Grubb, F.R.S., 523 ; on the Turbulent Motion of Water between Two Planes, by Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., 523; on the Theory of Electrical Endosmose and Allied Phenomena, and on the Existence of a Sliding Coefficient for a Fluid in Contact with a Solid, by Prof. Lamb; F.R.S., 523; on the Ratio of the Two Elasticities of Air, by Prof. S. P. Thompson, 523; a Null Method in Electro-Calorimetry, by Prof. Stroud and Mr. W. W. Haldane Gee, 523; Recent Determinations of Absolute Wave-length, Mr. L. Bell, 524; on the Existence of Reflection when the Relative Refractive Index is Unity, Lord Rayleigh, 524; on the Action of an Electric Current in hastening the Formation of Lagging Compounds, Dr. Gladstone, F.R.S., 524; on the Magnetization of Iron in Strong Fields, Prof. Ewing, F.R.S., and Mr. W. Low, 546; on some Points in Electrolysis and Electric Con- duction, Prof. G. Wiedemann, 546; on the Accuracy of Ohm’s Law in Electrolysis, Prof. Fitzgerald, F.R.S., and Mr. F. Trouton, 547; Further Researches concerning the Electrolysis of Water, Prof. von Helmholtz, 547; Ex- periments on the Possible Electrolytic Decomposition of Alloys, Prof. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 547; Experiments on the Speeds of Ions, by Prof. Lodge, F.R.S., 547; on Chemical Action in a Magnetic Field, Prof. H. A. Rowland, 547; on the Electro-deposition of Alloys, by Prof. S. P. Thompson, 547 ; on the Action ofthe Solvent in Electrolytic Conduction, T. C. Fitzpatrick, 547 ; Industrial Electro-deposition of Platinum, Prof. S. P. Thompson, 547; Princeton Eclipse Expedition, Prof. C. A. Young, 547; Observations of Atmospheric Electricity, Prof. Weber, 548; the Hygrometry of Ben Nevis, H. N. Dick- son, 548; Different Varieties of Thunderstorms and a Scheme for their Systematic Observation in Great Britain, Hon. R. Abercromby, 548; on the Magnetization of Hadfield’s Manganese Steel in Strong Fields, Prof. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., and William Low, 548; on the Influence of a Plane of Transverse Section on the Magnetic Permea- bility of an Iron Bar, Prof. J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., and William Low, 548; on the Magnetic Properties of Gases, Prof. Quincke, 549; Final Value of the B.A. Unit of Electrical Resistance as determined by the American Committee, Prof. H. A. Rowland, 549; on Induction between Wires and Wires, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., 549; on the Effect of Continental Lands in altering the Level of the Adjoining Oceans, Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., 549 ; on a Standard Lamp, Prof. A. A. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S., 549 ; Expansion by Heat of Wires under Pulling Stress, J. T. Bottomley, 550 ; Experiments on Electrolysis and Electrolytic Polarization, W. W. Haldane Gee, Henry Holden, and Chas. H. Lees, 550; on the Vortex Theory of the Luminiferous Ether, Prof. Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S. 550 Section B (Chemical Science)—Opening Address by Edward Schunck, F.R.S., President of the Section, 442 ; the Atomic Weight of Gold; by J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., 568; the Atomic Weight of Zirconium, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 568; Torsion Balances, Dr. A. Springer, 569; Integral Weights in Chemistry, T. Sterry Hunt, 569; Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halogens in Presence of Oxygen, Dr. A. Richardson, 569; the Present Position of the Alkali Trade, A. E. Fletcher, 569; on the Constituents of the Light Oils of Blast-Furnace Coal Tar from the Garthsherrie Works, Watson Smith, 569; a New Apparatus for con- densing Gases by Contact with Liquids, Prof. Lunge, 569 ; the Extent to which Calico-Printing and the Tinctorial Arts have been affected by the Introduction of Modern Colours, Chas. O’Neill, 569; Chemistry of Cotton Fibre, F. H. Bowman, 569; Isomeric Change in the Phenol Series, x INDEX [Nature, Dec. 1, 1887 O. R. Ling, 569 ; on Methylene Blue and Methylene Red, Prof. Bernthsen, 569 ; on the Constitution of Azimido Com- pounds, Drs. Noelting and Abt, 569; Velocity of Forma- tion of Acetic Ether, Prof. Menschutkin, 569 ; the Relation of Geometrical Structures to Chemical Properties, Prof. Wislicenus, 569; Note on Valency, Prof. Armstrong, Solubility of Isomeric Organic Compounds, Prof Carnelley, 569; Alcohol and Water Combinations, Prof. Mendeleef, 570; on the Constitution of Atropine, Prof. Ladenburg, 570; the Reduction-products of the Nitro-paraffins and Alkyl Nitrites, Prof. Dunstan and T. S. Dymond, 570; on a Partial Separation of the Constituents of a Solution during Expansion by Rise of Temperature, J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., 570; a New Method for determining Micro- organisms in Air, Prof. Carnelley and Thomas Wilson, 570 ; the Absorption-Spectra of Rare Earths, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 570; the Absorption-Spectra of the Haloid Salts of Didy- mium, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 570; on Solution, W. Durham, 570; Phenol Phenomena of Neutralization and_ their Bearing on the Nature of Solution, W. W. J. Nicol, 570; Notes on some Peculiar Voltaic Combinations, C. R. A. Wright, F.R.S., and C. Thompson, 570; the Present Aspect of the Question of the Sources of Nitrogen in Vegetation, Sir J. Lawes, F.R.S., and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., 570; Dispersion Equivalents and Constitutional Formule, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 570; on Organic Vanadates, J. A. Hall, 570; on some New Cinnamic Acids, Dr. Cohen and Prof. Perkin, 570; the Antiseptic Properties of Metallic Salts, Prof. Carnelley, 571; Antiseptic Properties of some Fluorine Compounds, W. Thomson, 571 ; on the Compo- sition of Water by Volume, A. Scott, 571; on some Vapour Densities at High Temperature, A. Scott, 571; on the Estimations of the Halogens and Sulphur in Organic Com- pounds, R. T. Plimpton, 571 ; on the Derivatives and Con- stitution of the Pyrocresols, W. Bott and Prof. Schwarz, 571 Section C (Geology)—Opening Address by Henry Woodward, F.R.S., President of the Section, 447 ; on the Mineralogi- cal Constitution of Calcareous Organisms, by Vaughan Cornish and Percy F. Kendall, 571 ; the Matrix of the Diamond, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, 571; on the Discovery of Carboniferous Fossils in a Conglomerate at Moughton Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire, Robert Law and James Hors- fall, 571 ; Places of Geological Interest on the Banks of the Saskatchewan, Prof. J. Hoyes Panton, 571; the History and Cause of the Subsidences at Northwich and its Neigh- bourhood in the Salt District of Cheshire, Thos. Ward, 572; the Sonora Earthquake of May 3, 1887, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., and Jas. Douglas, 572; the Disaster at Zug on July 5, 1887, by the Rev. E. Hill, 572; the Triassic Rocks of West Somerset, W. A. E. Ussher, 572; the Devonian Rocks of West Somerset on the Borders of the Trias, W. A. E. Ussher, 572 ; Observations on the Rounding of Pebbles by Alpine Rivers, with a Note on their Bearing upon the Origin of Bunter Conglomerate, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 573 : the Terminal Moraines of the Great Glaciers of England, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, 573; on some Important Extra-Morainic Lakes in Central England, North America, and Elsewhere during the Period of Maximum Glaciation, and on the Origin of Extra-Morainic Boulder-Clay, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, 573 ; on the Exten- sion of the Scandinavian Ice to Eastern England in the Glacial Period, Prof. Otto Torell, 573; a Comparative Study of the Till or Lower Boulder-Clay in several of the Glaciated Countries of Europe (Britain, Scandinavia, Ger- many, Switzerland, and the Pyrenees), Hugh Miller, 573; Note on a few of the many Remarkable Boulder-Stones to be found along the Eastern Margin of the Wicklow Mountains, Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., 574; on New Facts relating to Zozoon. canadense, Sir J. William Dawson, F.R.S., 574; Elements of Primary Geology, T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., 574; Gastaldi on Italian Geology and the Crystalline Rocks, T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., 575; Preliminary Note on Traverses of the Western and of the Eastern Alps made during the Summer of 1887, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 590; Origin of Banded Gneisses, J. J. H. Teall, 590; on the Occurrence of Porphyritic Structures in some Rocks of the Lizard District, Howard Fox and Alex. Someryail, 590: Preliminary Observations on the Geology of Wicklow and Wexford, Prof. Sollas, 591; some Effects of Pressure on the Sedimentary R of North Devon, J. E. Marr, 591; on the Organic Origi of the Chert in the Carboniferous Limestone Series a Ireland, and its Similarity to that in the Correspondi at in North Wales and Yorkshire, Dr. George Jennings Hi de, 591; on the Affinities of the so-called Torpedo (Cyclobate. Egerton) from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, A. Smit Woodward, 591; Pliocene Beds of St. Erth, Cornwal Robert Geo. Bell, 591; on a Star-fish from the Yorkshi Lias, Prof. J. F. Blake, 591; the Classification Dinosauria, Prof. Seeley, F.R.S., 591; on the R Clavicles and Interclavicles of Iguanodon, Prof, | Seeley, F.R.S., 591; on the Permian Fauna of Bo: Prof. Anton Fritsch, 591 5: Section D (Biology)—Opening Address by Prof, . Newton, F.R.S., President of the Section, 462; the P of the Hop-Plant Louse (Phorodon humuli, Scht Europe and America, Prof. C. V. Riley, 566 ; A Contributions to the Theory of Variation, Patrick G 592; on the Structure of Haplodiscus piger, W. : Weldon, 592; on the Degeneration of the Olfactory of Certain Fishes, Prof. Wiedersheim, 592; on the State of Protopterus, Prof. Wiedersheim, 592; the and Stomach of Cetacean Embryos, Prof. D’Arcy son, 592; the Blood Corpuscles of the Cyclostomata, D’Arcy Thompson, 592; on the Luminous L Females of the Phengodini, Prof. C. V. Riley, 5 Present Aspect of the Cell Question, Prof. Schiifer, Icerya purchasi, an Insect Injurious to Fruit-Trees, Riley, 592; the Hessian Fly, Prof. Fream, 5925 Researches on Earthworms, W. B. Benham, 593 nous Oligochzte, Prof. Harker, 593; on the Fratercula arctica, F. E. Beddard, 593; on Cr Gemma borne by 77ichomanes alata, Prof. Bower, on Bennettites, the Type of a New Group between sperms and Gymnosperms, Count Solms-La Secretion of Pure Aqueous Formic Acid by | Larvee for the Purposes of Defence, E. B. P Further Experiments upon the Protective Value and Markings in Insects, E. B. Poulton, 594; Fu Experiments upon the Colour-Relation between P phagous Larve and their Surroundings, E, B. Poul Section E (Geography)—Opening Address by Col. Warren, F.R.S., President of the Section, 465 ; a Recent Visit to the Ancient Porphyry Quarries W. Brindley, 595 ; Matabeleland and the Country the Zambesi and the Limpopo, Capt. C. E. Ha the Beginning of the Geography of Great Brit Boyd Dawkins, 596 ; Teaching of coe tothe Universities, H. J. Mackinder, 596; t of Burmah, G. Skelton Streeter, 596; the Val f Déce (Brazil), Wm. J. Steains, 596 ; on some Defects Ordnance Survey, H. S. Wilkinson, 597 ; Utilization Ordnance Survey, Sir Chas. Wilson, 597; New orographical Map of the Clyde Basin, Dr. H. R. a Plea for the Metre, E. G. Ravenstein, 597. Section F (Economic Science and Statistics) —Opening / by Robert Giffen, LL.D., President of the Sec’ Recent Rate of Material Progress in England, 487 _ Section G (Mechanical Science)--Opening Address Osborne Reynolds, F.R.S., President of the Secti Section H (Anthropology)—Opening Address by Pro’ Sayce, President of the Section, 511; the Primitive the Aryans, Canon Isaac Taylor, 597; the Non- Non-Semitic White Races and their Place in th of Civilization, J. S. Stuart Glennie, 598 ; on the Origin of the Characters of the Assyrian Syllabary, R Houghton, 598; Boat-shaped Graves in Syria, G Clair, 598 ; the Effect of Town Life upon the Human J. Milner Fothergill, 598; on the Bosjes Pelvis, Cleland, F.R.S., 598; Experimental Productio Types in Man, G. W. Hambleton, 599; Sci ment of Consumption, G. W. Hambleton, 599 ; Miss A. W. Buckland, 599; Early Ages of Metal in east Spain, Henri and Louis Siret, 599 ; Certain De tions of Design in Papuan Art, S. J. Hickson, 599 ; of Totemism, C. Staniland Wake, 599; Gypsies « Ancient Hebrew Race in Sus and the Sahara, — Haliburton, 599; Colour-Names amongst the ; Nature, Dec. t, 1887] INDEX xi Gypsies, W. E. A. Axon, 599; on the Migrations of Pre- Glacial Man, Henry Hicks, F.R.S., 599; Observations on Recent Explorations made by General Pitt-Rivers, at Rushmore, J. G. Garson, 600 itish Birds, Provincial Names and Folk-lore of, Rey. Chas. Swainson, 49 ritish Flora, Illustrations of the, 171 ritish Isles, Distribution of Rain over the, during the Year 1886, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 388 ritish Isles and Surrounding Seas, Report of the B.A. Com- mittee appointed to make Suggestions with reference to the _ Production of a Bathy-hypsographical Map of the, 518 British Isles, Pictorial Geography of the, Mary E. Palgrave, 5 British Medical Association, 15 British Museum, 14 ; Additions to Natural History Branch of, 62; Dr. Henry R. Woodward, F.R.S., on the Natural History Branch of, 345 ; the Vote for, 398; the British Museum and American Museums, Dr. Alfred R. Wallace, 530 British Pharmaceutical Conference, 429 British Race-types of to-day, Prof. Huxley’s Remarks on, 563 British Rainfall, Symons’s, 430 Brittain (Harry), Notes on the Rivers and Broads of Norfolk and Suffolk, 457 Broads, Land of the, Ernest R. Suffling, 457 Broads, Norfolk, a Month on the, Walter Rye, 457 Broads and Rivers of Norfolk and Suffolk, Notes on the, Harry Brittain, 457 Broads and Rivers of Norfolk and Suffolk, Handbook to the, G. C. Davies, 457 Broca (Paul), Statue of, 324 Brockbank (W.), Varcissus reflexus, 70 Brocken Spectre, the, H. Sharpe, 118 Brodie (Fredk. J.), the Recent Drought, 395 3romley Industrial Institute, 18 Brooks's New Comet, 480, 504, 552; H. V. Egbert, 454; Dr. Franz, 478 : Brooks (W. H.), Olbers’ Comet, 1887, 527 Brouardel (M.), Typhus Abdominalis, 524. Brown (N. E.), Vaccinum intermedium, 70 3rown (J. Croumbie), School of Forestry in Germany, 193 3rown (W. G.), a Light Fog, 556 3rown-Séquard (M.), Duality of the Brain and the Spinal Marrow, 624 Brugmansia Lowit, Microscopic Sections of, Deby, 167 Brussels International Exhibition of 1888, 282 3russels Observatory, Removal of, 41 Buchanan (J. Y.), on Ice and Brines, 9 Buckland (Miss A. W.), Tattooing, 599 Bulletin de l’Académie de Belgique, 45, 116, 262, 503 Bulletin of Lyons Anthropological Society, 162 Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, 285, 309 Bunge’s (Dr.) New Siberian Islands Exhibition, 113 Bunter Conglomerate, on the Rounding of Pebbles by Alpine Rivers, with a Note on their Bearing upon the Origin of, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 573 Burmah, Ruby Mines of, G. Skelton Streeter, 596 Burnett ILectures, Prof. G. G. Stokes, P.R:S., Beneficial Effects of Light, 98 Burnham (S. M.) Precious Stones in Nature, Art, and Litera- ture, 482 usk (Geo., F.R.S.), Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger, 74 Butler (A. G.), Birds and Caterpillars, 279 Butter, a New Method for preserving, M. Grosfils, 376 on the Vable-Anchor, M. Pagan’s, 541 Vacciatore (Prof.), the Total Solar Eclipse of August 19, 1887, 4 Wicvesin, Dr. Ladenburg, 453 tae Gwyn Cave, North Wales, Second B.A. Report on, by Dr. H. Hicks, 516 Pailletet (L.) and E. Mathias, Density of Sulphurous Acid in Liquid and Vapour State, 167 Pairo Observatory, 281 talais and Dover, Proposed Aérial Postal Tube between, Arnaudeau, 349 Calcareous Organisms, Mineralogical Constitution of, Vaughan Cornish and Percy F. Kendall, 571 Calculus, Easy Lessons in the Differential, indicating from the Outset the Utility of the Processes called Differentiation and Integration, R. A. Proctor, 602 Calcutta, Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Vol. I., 242 Calcutta Indian Museum, 306 Calico-Printing, the Extent to which, and the Tinctorial Arts have been affected by the Introduction of Modern Colours, Chas. O’Neill, 569 Callaway (Dr. Chas.), the Scenery of Scotland, 604 Calorific Conductibility of Bismuth in Magnetic Field, A. Righi, 312 Calorimeter, a Vapour, Prof. Neesen, 288 Cambridge (Rev. O. P.), Classification of Spiders, 12 Cambridge: the New Degrees at, Outis, 175, 196; Observa- tories at Oxford and, 181; the Proposed New Geological Museum at, 586 Cameroons: Observations taken on board the Hadicht at the, 88; Scientific Station at, 113; H. H. Johnston’s Natural History Collections, made near the, 254; Report of the B.A. Committee appointed for the Purpose of investigating the Flora and Fauna of the Cameroons Mountain, 517; Planta- tions in, 564 Canada, Fossil Wood from the Western Territories of, Sir J. William Dawson, F.R.S., 274 Canada, Tidal Observations in, Report of the B.A. Committee on, 499 ; Canadense, Eozoon, New Facts relating to, Sir J. William Dawson, F.R.S., 574 Canal between Baltic and German Ocean, Proposed, 15 Candler (C.), the Prevention of Consumption, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 340 Cantor Lectures, 15 Cantoni (Giovanni), Observations on the Luminous Solar Rays, 45 Cape Colony, Report of the Meteorological Commission of, 6 . Capiilarity, Curious Phenomenon in, S. A. Hill, 125 Capron (J. Rand), the Droseras, 341 Captive Kite-Balloon, E. Douglas Archibald, 278 Carbon, Graphitic, Cubic Crystals of, L. Fletcher, 304 Carboniferous Fossils, on the Discovery of, in a Conglomerate at Moughton Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire, Robert Law and James Horsfall, 571 Carboniferous Limestone Series of Ireland, on the Organic Origin of the Chert in the, and its Similarity to that in the Corresponding Strata in North Wales and Yorkshire, Dr. Geo. Jennings Hinde, 591 Carey, Safety of Mr., 17 : Carnatic Rainfall, Eleven-Year Periodical Fluctuation of the, Henry F. Blanford, F.R.S., 227, 293; General Richard Strachey, F.R.S., 267 Carnelley (Prof. Thos.), Melting- and Boiling-Point Tables, 411; Solubility of Isomeric Organic Compounds, 569 Carnelley (Prof.) and Thos. Wilson, a New Method for deter- mining Micro-Organisms in Air, 570 Carniola, Central, Hydrography of, 564 Carniola, Proposed Memorial Tablet to Sir Humphrey Davy in, 66 Carnivorous Plants, German, Kerner and Wettstein, , 209 Carnoy (T. B.), La Cytodiérése chez les Animaux : Etude com- parée du Noyau et du Protoplasme, Rev. Dr. L. Martial Klein, 170 Carpenter (Alfred), Monkeys opening Oysters, 53 Carrington (J. T.), Disappearance of Moths at High Water, 137 Careall (Lewis), the Game of Logic, Alfred Sidgwick, 3 Case for a London Teaching University, the, 329 Casey’s Journey in Central Asia, 139 Caspary (Dr. Robert), Death of, 586 Caspian Steppes, Prof. Mushketoff’s Exploration in the, 541 Cat and Dog, Friendship of, 173 Caterpillars, Birds and, A. G. Butler, 280 Caucasus, Moritz von Déchy’s Explorations of the, 17 ; Zoology of the, 376 Cell-Division in Animals, T, B. Carnoy, Rev. Dr. L. Martial Klein, 170 Cell Question, the Present Aspect of the, Prof. Schafer, 592 Xii INDEX [Wature, Dec. 1, 1887 | Cemetery in Paris, Discovery of Ancient Gaulish, 184 Centi-ampere or the Deci-ampere Balance for the Measure- ment of the E.M.F. of a Single Cell, on the Application of the, Sir William Thomson, F.R.S., 522 Central Asia: Casey’s Journey in, 139; Earthquake of June 9, 1887, in, Venukoff, 312 Century of Electricity, T. C. Mendenhall, 266 Ceylon, Monsoon Rainfall in, F. J. Waring, 214 Ceylon Birds, Folk-lore of, 381 Chadwick (Edwin), Health of Nations, Benjamin Ward Richardson, 385 ; Challenger Expedition, Zoological Results of the, 26, 121 ; Polyzoa of the, Geo. Busk, F.R.S., 74 Champernowne (Mr.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 88 Chandler, on the Great Southern Comet, 1887 a, 185 Charleston Earthquake, Abstract of the Results of the, C. E. Dutton and Everett Hayden, 269, 297 Chatin (M. Ad.), on a New Species of Truffle, 23 Chauffajon’s Orinoco Explorations, 17 Chauveau (A.), Relations between Chemical and Mechanical Work of Muscular Tissue, 382, 408 Chauveau and Kaufmann, Experiments for determining the Coefficient of Nutritive and Respiratory Activity of the Muscles at Work and in Repose, 23 Chemistry : Synthesis of Juglon, 15 ; Chemical Society, 23, 47, 117, 166, 335 ; Chemistry for Beginners, R. L. Taylor, 28 ; Dr. K. Olszewski on the Determination of the Boiling-point of Ozone, 42; on the two Tetrabromureted?H ydrocamphenes, W. de la Royeére, 45; the Proteids of the Seeds of Abrus precatorius (Jequirity), Dr. Sidney Martin, 70; Synthetic “Acetic Acid and Kindred Forms, Louis Henry, 72; on the Liberation of Ammonia by Vegetable Soils, Berthelot and André, 72 ; Experiments in Agricultural Chemistry, J. Raulin, 456 ; a Question for Chemists, Harry Napier Draper, 77 ; an Important New Reaction: Products of Action of Acetylene upon Benzene containing Aluminium Chloride, MM. Varet and Vienne, 89 ; New Colouring-matters from Roshydrazine, Dr. J. H. Ziegler, 111 ; Chemical Decomposition caused by Pressure, Van ’t Hoff and Spring, 116 ; on Alkalvids in Plants, MM. Errera, Maistrian, and Claustrian, 116 ; a New Chloro- bromide of Silicon, Prof. Emerson Reynolds, 137; New Method of Substitution of Chlorine in Hydrocarbon, MM. Colson and Gautier, 137; the Atomic Weight of Fluorine, Prof. Christensen, 160 ; Decomposition by Dr. W. Spring’s Com- pressing Machinery, 160 ; a New Class of Voltaic Combina- tions in which Oxidizable Metals replaced by Alterable Solu- tions, Dr. C. R. A. Wright and C. Thompson, 166 ; Chemical Science in Melbourne University, Dr. Orme Masson, 184; a Double Fluoride of Potassium and Germanium, Profs. Kriiss and Nilson, 209 ; Molecular Condition of Phosphorus, * Arsenic, and Antimony, Prof. V. Meyer, 231 ; Thorium, Drs. Kriiss and Nilson, 255; the ‘‘Dead Space” in Chemical Reactions, Herr Liebreich, 280; on ‘Transition between Aromatic and Fatty Series, Berthelot and Recoura, 312; Chemical Affinity and Solution, Wm. Durham, 318; Dis- covery of New Elements, Profs. Kriiss and Nilson, 3243 Chemistry of the Rare Earths, A. E. Tutton, 357; Heat of Formation of some Crystallized Tellurides, 360 ; new Fluores- cences with well-marked Spectral Bands, L. de Boisbaudran, 360 ; Silicates of Thorine, Troost and Ouvrard, 360; Owens College Course of Practical Organic, Julius B. Cohen, 363 ; Censtitutional Formule of the Progress of Organic, 368; Opening Address in Section B of the British Association, by Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S., 442; Dr. Ladenburg on Cadaverin, 453; Remarkable Relation between Certain Physical Constants and Chemical Valency, Dr. C. Bender, 3753 Nature of Chemical Action between Acids and Zinc, Spring and Van Aubel, 400; Titanates of Zinc, Lucien Lévy, 432; Compressibility of some Solutions of Gas, F, Isambert, 432; Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Dr. C, Remigius Fresenius, 411; Chemical and Physiological Equation of Alcoholic Fermentation, Prof. Delpino, 456 ; New Oxides of Manganese, Dr. Franke, 476; Toluylendia- mine, MM. Engel and Kiener, 504; Chemistry and Heat, R. G. Durrant, 507; Germanium, Dr. Clemens Winkler, 525 ; Chemical Teaching, 525 ; on the Teaching of Chemistry, M. M. Pattison Muir, 536 ; Chemical Action in a Magnetic Field, Prof. H. A. Rowland, 547 ; the Atomic Weight of Gold, by J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., 568; the Atomic Weight of Zirconium, Dr. G, H. Bailey, 568 ; Torsion Balances, Dr. A. Springer, 569; Integral Weights in Chemistry, T. Sterry Hunt, 569; Action of Light on the Hydracids of the Halo- gens in Presence of Oxygen, Dr. A. Richardson, 569; Present Position of the Alkali Trade, A. E. Fletcher, 569 the Constituents of the Light Oils of Blast-Furnace Coal T. from the Garthsherrie Works, Watson Smith, 569; a1 Apparatus for condensing Gases by Contact with Liqu Prof. Lunge, 569; the Extent to which Calico-printing the Tinctorial Arts have been affected by the Introduce Modern Colours, Chas. O'Neill, 569; Chemistry of | Fibre, F. H. Bowman, 569 ; Isomeric Change in the P Series, O. R. Ling, 569 ; on Methylene Blue and Meth Red, Prof. Bernthsen, 569; on the Constitution of A Compounds, Drs. Noelting and Abt, 569 ; Velocity of F tion of Acetic Ether, Prof. Menschutkin, 569; the Rel: of Geometrical Structures to Chemical Properties, Wislicenus, 569 ; Note on Valency, Prof. Armstr bility of Isomeric Organic Compounds, Prof.£Carnell« Alcohol and Water Combinations, Prof. Mendeléef, the Constitution of Atropine, Prof. Ladenburg, 5 Reduction-products of the Nitro-paraffins and Alkyl Prof. Dunstan and T. S. Dymond, 570; on a Partial tion of the Constituents of a Solution during Exp Rise of Temperature, J. W.* Mallet, F.R.S., 5705 Method for determining Micro-organisms in Air, Prof. nelley and Thomas Wilson, 570; of Kare Earths, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 5 _the tion-Spectra of the Haloid Salts’ of Didymium, H. Bailey, 570; on Solution, W. Durham, 570; Phenomena of Neutralization and _ their Nature of Solution, W. W. J. Nicol, 570; — some Peculiar Voltaic Combinations, C. R. A. F.R.S., and C. Thompson, 570; the Present of the Question of the Sources of Nitrogen in Vegetati J. Lawes, F.R.S., and Dr. Gilbert, F.R.S., 5703 persion Equivalents and Constitutional Formule, Dr, Gladstone, 570; on Organic Vanadates, J. A. Ha on some New Cinnamic Acids, Dr. Cohen and Prof. 570; the Antiseptic Properties of Metallic Salts, Prof, nelley, 571; Antiseptic Properties of some Fluorine pounds, W. Thomson, 571; on the Composition of W Volume, A. Scott, 571; on some Vapour Densities Temperature, A. Scott, 571; on the Estimations of the gens and Sulphur in Organic Compounds, R. T. Plun 5713; on the Derivatives and Constitution of the P W. Bott and Prof. Schwarz, 571; New Tetrahydric Al M. Combes, 587 Chepstow, Fourth Report of the B.A. Committee on Pr establishing a Meteorological Observatory at, 498 _ Chert in the Carboniferous Limestone Series of Ire’ Organic Origin of the, and its Similarity to that in the responding Strata in North Wales and Yorkshire, D Jennings Hinde, 591 * Cheshire (F. R.), Bees, ‘‘ Fertile Workers,” 47 Children, Mental Development in, 483 eae Chile, Meteorology in, 136 sueriok China: Notes on the Geology of Part of the Eastern C and the Adjacent Islands, 163; the Question of C Equivalents for our Scientific Terms, 307 ; Proposed I tion of Mathematical Science into Chinese Gove Examinations, 325; Chinese Gingers, 374; Report B.A. Committee on our Present Knowledge of the China, 518; Typhoons of the China Seas, Capt. D. 565 Cholera, Dissemination of, 540 Christensen (Prof.), the Atomic Weight of Fluorine, 160 Christmas Island, Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, F.R.S. Maclear, 12; Flora of, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F. 7 Pa Cinnamic Acids, on some New, Dr. Cohen and Prof. 570 City and Guilds of London Institute, 476; Techn Examinations, 476 Clark (Alvan), Obituary Notice of, 476 ae (J. Edmund), Slate Ripples on Skiddaw High 3 Clarke (Dr. Hyde), Thought without Words, 52 Clarke (J. F. M.), Three Weeks in Norfolk, 457 Va ae e el c iy Nature, Dec. 1, 1887] INDEX Xili Clavicles and Interclavicles, on the Reputed, of Iguanodon, Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S., 591 2 Clay (London) and Bagshot Beds, Lieut. Lyons, W. H. Huddleston, F.R.S., 71 Clayton (H. Helm), Is Cold the Cause of Anticyclones ? 268 Cleland (Prof., F.R.S.), on the Bosjes Pelvis, 598 Clerke (A. M.): Popular History of Astronomy, 43; a New Cosmogony, Dr. Carl Braun, 321, 341 _ Climate of Europe, Dr. Supan, 257 _ Climatic Treatment of Consumption, the, J. A. Lindsay, 171 _ Climatologists, 500 Clocks and Watches, Fifty Years’ Progress in, Henry Dent Gardner, 392, 484 | a Clothworkers Company and Technical Education, 42 Clouds: Teisserenc de Bort’s Cloud Charts, 15; Meteoro- logiske Institut at Upsala, and Cloud Measurements, Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 319 ; Upper Cloud Movements in the Equatorial Regions of the Atlantic, Capt. David Wilson- Barker, 197; Hon. Ralph Abercromby, 222; Height of Summer Clouds, 206: the Nomenclature of Clouds, Dr. W. K6ppen, 208 ; on the Classification of Clouds, Dr. Képpen, 306 ; Iridescent, T. W. Backhouse, 77; Sky-coloured, T. W. Backhouse, 269, 365, 556 ; Bishop’s Ring, T. W. Backhouse, 365 ; Measurements of the Heights and Motions of Clouds in Spitzbergen, Dr. Nils Ekholm, 459 ; Luminous Boreal Cloud- lets, D. J. Rowan, 245 Cloué (Admiral), Action of Oil on Troubled Waters, 167 Clyde, Lighthouse Illumination and Signalling in, G. M. unter, 64 . Clyde Sea-Area, Temperature of the, Dr. Hugh Robert Mill, 56 BRE YS rm Coal-Dust, Relation of, to Explosions in Mines, Arthur Watts, 221 Coal-Mines, the Royal Society and Viscount Cross, 475 Cocoa-nut Pearls, Dr. Sydney J. Hickson and W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 157; Dr. J. G. F. Riedel, 461 Coffee-Plant, Fertilization of the, T. F. Bourdillon, 580 _ Cohen (Julius B.), Owens College, Course of Practical Organic Chemistry, 363; and Prof. Perkin on some New Cinnamic _ Acids, 570 _ Coils, Sounding, Prof. W. Stroud and Wertheimer, 262 Cold the Cause of Anticyclones, Is? H. Helm Clayton, 268 Coleman (A. P.), Music in Nature, 605 _ Colenso (Rev. J. W., D.D.), First Lessons in Science designed for the Use of Children, 436 _ Colladon (Daniel), Thunderbolt, 23 ; Artificial Waterspout, M. Mascart, 576 Colliery Explosions and Atmospheric Pressure, Hy. Harries, 437 _ Collini (Dr. G. A.), Recent Additions to the Prehistoric and Ethnological Museum of Rome, 526 ; Collins (F. Howard), a Monstrous Foxglove, 508 Collisions at Sea, Jurien de la Graviére, 215 ; Means of Avoid- ing, Moise Lion, 432 | Colour, Perception of, C. E. Stromeyer, 246; T. W. Back- house, 531 - Colour and Markings in Insects, Further Experiments upon the Protective Value of, E. B. Poulton, 594 a Colour-mixing, on Newton’s Law of, Dr. Kénig, 96; Prof. von Bezold, 119 I ‘Colour-Names amongst the English Gypsies, W. E. A. Axon, 599 | Colour-Relation between Phytophagous Larve and their Sur- roundings, Further Experiments upon the, E. B. Poulton, 594 _ Colours, Modern, the Extent to which Calico-Printing and the Tinctorial Arts have been affected by the Introduction of, Chas. O’Neill, 569 Colours for Naturalists, Nomenclature of, and Compendium of Useful Knowledge for Ornithologists, Robert Ridgeway, 124 Colours, Sunlight, Prof. S. P. Langley, 76 @ Colours of Thin Plates, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 391 @ Colson and Gautier (MM.), New Method of Substitution of Chlorine in Hydrocarbons, 13 7 | Combes (M.), New Tetrahydric Alcohol, 587 | Combustion, Heats of, Berthelot, Recoura, and Louguinine, 167 F Comets : Discovery of a New, by E. E. Barnard (May 12, 1887), 65, 552; Dr. E. Lamp, 90; Dr. H. Oppenheim, 113, 138; Dr. H. Kreutz, 401; Brooks’s Comet, H. V. Egbert, 454; Dr. Franz, 478; Discovery of a New Comet (August 24, 1887), W. RK. Brooks, 431, 480, 504, 552; Olbers’ Comet (1815 I.), 504; 1887, W. H. Brooks, 527; O. Tetens, 588; the Great Southern Comet (1887), Dr. J. M. Thome, 161 ; Mr. Chandler, 185 Companion of Sirius, Prof. A. Hall, 186 Comrades, 341 Condensation of Gases, A. E. Tutton, 105 Conduction of Electricity through Gases, Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S-, 522 Conductors, Lightning, Prof. Tyndall on Imperfect Construction of, 430 Conglomerate, on the Discovery of Carboniferous Fossils in a, at Moughton Fell, near Settle, Yorkshire, Robert Law and James Horsfall, 571 Congo Boundary, the New French, 17 Cone Mobangi Tributary of, Capt. van Géle’s Exploration of, 6 Congo State, Discovery of Instruments of the Stone Age in, Ed. Dupont, 116 Congo, M. Edward Dupont’s Proposed Geological Investigation of the, 162 Congress (Astronomical) International, 429 Conic Sections, with Solutions of Questions in London Univer- sity and other Examination Papers, G. Heppel, 602 Connaissance des Temps, 459 Constable (F. C.), the Cuckoo in India, 245 Constant P in Observations of Terrestrial Magnetism, on the, Wm. Harkness, 366; William Ellis, 436; Prof. Arthur W. Riicker, F.R.S., 508 Constantinople, Earthquake in, 587 Constitutional Formulz and the Progress of Organic Chemistry, 368 Constitutional Formulz, Dispersion Equivalents and, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 570 Consumption, Climatic Treatment of, J. A. Lindsay, 171 Consumption, the Prevention of, C. Candler, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 340 Consumption, the Scientific Treatment of, G. W. Hambleton, 99 Ceuta. Rolling, of Bodies, Prof. Hele Shaw, 92 Contact of Gases, Electricity of the, with Liquids, J. Enright, 365, 460; Prof. OliverJ. Lodge, F.R.S., 412 Conte (Joseph Le), on some Phenomena of Binocular Vision, I Caarnenta Lands, on the Effect of, in Altering the Level of the Adjoining Oceans, Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., 549 Cook (J.), Hughes’s Induction Balance, 605 Cope (E. D.), Origin of the Fittest, Essays on Evolution, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 505 Copper, on the Polarization of, M. Krouchkoll, 119 Copper Sulphate, a Remedy against Vine-Mildew, Prof. Pollacci, 262 Cora (Prof, Guido), Map of District round Massowah, 91 Cordilleras, Dr. Brackebusch’s Explorations of the, 283 Cordoba Observatory, 527 Corea, Stone Men of, Mirzeks or, Prof. de Lacouperie, 615 Corfield (W. H., F.R.S.), Treatment and Utilization of Sewage, Cosish (Vaughan) and Percy F. Kendall, Mineralogical Con- stitution of Calcareous Organisms, 571 Cornus macrophylla, a Real Weeping Tree, 564 Correlation between Two Orders of Facts, Note on the Method of Research for, M. de Montessus, 23 Corrigenda in Various Star-Catalogues, Prof. Peters, 543 Corsica and Eastern Pyrenees, Comparative Study of Geological Systems of, Ch. Depéret, 383 Cosmogony, a New, Dr. Carl Braun, A. M.. Clerke, 321, I 34 Cotton Fibre, the Chemistry of, F. H. Bowman, 569 Cowper’s Writing Telegraph, Modification of, J. H. Robertson, fe) Coal alpinellus, Stainton, 528 Craters, Mount Loa, History of the Changes in the, James D. Dana, 551 Credner (Dr. R.), Die Reliktenseen, 65 Critchett (A.), Introductory Lecture at St. Mary’s Hospital, by, 541 Xiv INDEX [Nature, Dec. 1, 1887 Crookshank (Dr. Edgar M.), Micro-Organisms, 239; Photo- graphy of Bacteria, Dr. E. Klein, F, R.S., 316, 388 Crops, Rotation of, M. P. P. Dehérain, 528 Cross (Viscount), Royal Society and Coal-Mines, 475 ; Crova (A.), a Method of Recording the Calorific Intensity of the Solar Rays, 72 Crystalline Iron-Glance, ona Specimen of, formed on some Old Iron Weapons, W. Prinz, 502 Crystalline Plates, Action of, on Light, M. Mascart, 576 Crystalline Rocks, Gastaldi on Italian Geology and the, T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., 575 , Crystallization, Artificial, of Magnetites, Alex. Gorgeu, 43 Crystals, Cubic, of Graphitic Carbon, L. Fletcher, 304 Cubic Crystals of Graphitic Carbon, L. Fletcher, 304 Cuckoo in India, F. C. Constable, 245 Cundall (J. T.), the Volumetric Relations of Ozone and Oxygen, 118 Cunningham ‘(J. T.), the Nephridia of Lanice "conchilega, Malmgren, 162, 246 Cunningham (Prof. Robert O.), Occurrence of Sterna anglica in Belfast Lough, 582 Currents, Telluric, on the Variations of, J. J. Landerer, 504. Curtis (G. E.), Theory of the Wind Vane, 480 Curtius (Dr. Theodor), Hydrazine, 184 Cyclades, the, Earthquake in the, 587 Cyclobatis, Egerton, on the Affinities of the so-called Torpedo, from the Cretaceous of Mount Lebanon, A. Smith Woodward, 591 Cyclone in Bay of Bengal, 110, 136, 306 Cylinder, Steam, Initial Condensation in a, Major Thomas English, 551 Cytisus laburnum, Physiological Action of, J. L. Prevost end Paul Binet, 504 Dahll, Gold in Norway, 185 Dall (William H.), Notes on the Geology of Florida, 575 Dalziel (H.), British Dogs, 255 Dana (James D.): History of the Changes in the Mount Loa Craters, 551; on Taconic Beds and Stratigraphy, 116 Danish Expedition to the Coast of Northern Greenland, Return of the, 588 Darwin (Charles), Life of, G. T. Bettany, 124 Darwin Medal, the, 256 Darwin (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), on Figures of Equilibrium of Rotating Masses, 358 Dasyuridz, the Teeth in the, Oldfield Thomas, 94 _ Daubrée (M.): the Action of Subterranean Waters, 264; the Meteorites of March 19, 1884, at Jati-Pengilon, Java, 336 Daubrée and Meunier, the Grazac Meteorite, 215 Davidson (Prof.), the Kuro Siwo, 283 \ Davies (G. C.), Hand-book to the Rivers and Broads of Nor- folk and Suffolk, 457 sae! (Sir Humphrey), Proposed Memorial Tablet in Carniola to, Dawkins (Prof. Boyd), the Beginning of the Geography of Great Britain, 595 Dawson (Sir J. William, F.R.S.) : Imperial Geological Union, 146 ; Fossil Wood from the Western Territories of Canada, 274; New Facts relating to Lozoon canadense, 574 Dearborn Observatory, Prof. Hough’s, 501 Deby (M.), Microscopic Sections of Brugmansia Lowit, 167 Decharme (M. C.), Isoclinous Magnetic Curves, 624 Déchy’s (Moritz von) Explorations of the Caucasus, 17 Deherain (M. P. P.), Rotation of Crops, 528 Delacre (M.), Bichlorureted Alcohol, 116 Delbceuf (J.), on the Origin of the Curative Effects of Hyp- notism, 504 Delpino (Prof.), Chemical and Physiological Equation of Alco- holic Fermentation, 456 a in Vienna, Sixth International Congress of Hygiene and, 61 Denmark: Ravages of May-bugs in, 63 ; Meteorolo in, Denning (W. F.): Meteor of May 8, 68; Early Pereids, ee ; August Meteors of 1887, 407 ; Large Meteors, 437 Depéret (Ch.), Comparative Study of Geological Systems of Corsica and Eastern Pyrenees, 383 Derby (O. A.), Nepheline Rocks in Brazil, 286 Determinants, Recent Works on the Theory of, Thomas Muir, I Detache Seewarte, 256 Development, Mental, in Children, 483 Devon, North, some Effects of Pressure on the Sedimentary Rocks of, J. E. Marr, 591 Devonian Rocks of West Somerset on the Borders of the Trias, W. A. E. Ussher, 572 Diameter of the Sun, Researches on the, Prof. Auwers, 256 Diamond, Matrix of the, Prof. H. Carvill Lewis, 571 Diatoms in the Thames, W. H. Shrubsole, 125 Dick (Allan B.), Zircons and other Minerals contained in Sand, I Dickoda (H. N.), Hygrometry of Ben Nevis, 548 : Dictionary of Philosophy in the Words of Philosophers, Sage Didymium : Note on the Spectrum of, Dr. Claude M. ae 7 son, 115 ; Absorption-Spectra of the Haloid Salts of, Dr. G. H. Bailey, 570 an Differential Gravity Meters, Report of the B.A. Committee on, iecesnee: the Classification of the, Prof. Seeley, F.R.S., 591 Dispersion Equivalents, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F 7 R. 955 2305 Dispersion Equivalents and Constitutional Formule, Dr. ee | f Gladstone, 570 ; d in making their way through the dense jungle to the upper part of the island, to ascertain the geological cha- racter of the mountain originally protruded from the depths. Itis a little remarkable that, in a sea so calcu- lated to encourage coral growth, no new reefs should have formed round the island since the ancient ones were elevated above the surface ~The Cocos or Keeling . May 5, 1887] NATURE 13 a Islands, 500 miles to "the westward, are a well-known example of thriving coral life. W. J. L. WHARTON. HM. Surveying-Vessel “ Flying-Fish,” January 31, 1887. _ Christmas Island is 190 miles from the nearest point of Java, from which it is separated by a depth of 2450 fathoms. It is formed of coral limestone, has no fringing _ reef, but rises abruptly from the sea in cliffs about 30 feet high, very much underworn, and in many places hollowed _ out in caverns ; the shore is steep-to: generally a depth ie! Sigg fathoms is found at one to two cables from the iffs. __ In appearance it is somewhat saddle-shaped, rising _ from a long back in the middle, 700 to 800 feet high, to _ hills at the north-eastern and at the western sides ; the __western summit is double, and is the best-defined mark : _ its height is 1580 feet. The shape is irregular quadri- _ lateral; it extends through 12’ of latitude, and about the _ same in longitude. __ The island is densely wooded all over, except where the _ cliffs are too steep to allow anything to grow. From the northern side the ascent is gradual to the highest parts ; but on the southern side, after rising gradually for half a mile from the sea cliffs, a second wall of limestone cliffs is met, estimated at 200 to 300 feet high, and thence slopes gently again to the top. _._ The shore cliffs are almost continuous, making the _ island inaccessible except at a few places. These cliffs _ are split by deep fissures extending several feet below _ water; where these have become enlarged, and the adjacent cliffs have fallen in, a small white beach of frag- _ mentary rock is thrown up, and at such places on the lee- side landing can be effected. From the blown direction of the trees on the south ide, and from the weather-worn aspect of rocks exposed to the southward, it is manifest that the south-eastern is by far the prevailing wind. The north side of the island forms a large bight, in _ which the water is quite smooth, so that a boat can go close up to the cliffs, but on the southern and eastern sides a heavy sea dashes against the rocks. The Filying-Fish steamed close round the island looking for anchorage, but found none, except in a small cove two miles to the westward of the north point of the island—this has been named Flying-Fish Cove ; here she anchored in 22 fathoms, with her stern secured by hawsers to the trees, to prevent slipping off the bank. The hill rises nearly perpendicularly at the head of the cove in the form of a horseshoe, and slopes gradually down to the two arms forming the cove. The bare beach is not more than 20 yards wide, and, from the | __ look of the fragments that compose it, must be thrown up | in northerly gales; the upper part of the beach to the foot of the hill, a distance of some hundred yards, is of __ just the same material, viz. fragments of coral rock and coral limestone, but it has a covering of mould from fallen leaves, and is thickly wooded, many of the trees on it being forest trees of 12 feet girth and of great height, apparently hundreds of years of age, showing that a very long time must have elapsed since that beach was raised _ from the water. One very large tree had something like the letters W W cut inside a scroll, and nearly illegible from time ; ) this was the only sign of the island having been visited _ before; but one of our officers heard at Batavia that a __ Dutch vessel was wrecked on the south-east point of the ___ island in a calm about fifteen years ago, and that the crew _ escaped and lived many months on the island before they were taken off, but I have no other details about the o— affair. _ No running water was seen, but the droppings from the leaves during rain and dew must be great, as holes cae AJ i in the rocks and cup-shaped leaves were filled with water. As it was raining over some part of the island (generally the western) great part of the time the Plying-Fish was in the neighbourhood, and clouds were continually being formed over the island from the moist air driven up the side by the south-east wind, a great deal of water must be deposited, and probably be absorbed by the soil. At the eastern end of the cove, among the trees, where had seemed at first the most likely place for a watercourse, a few volcanic stones were found, but everywhere else the only rock seen was coral limestone ; the cliffs above from which detached pieces had fallen to the beach were the same; the soil under the;trees was a rich moist mould, apparently formed from decaying vegetation. Landing was also effected at another small beach in the northern bight near the north-west point ; the general features were the same, but there was no anchorage at half a cable from the shore. A few cocks and hens were landed here, but as the crabs immediately began to chase them, I doubt if they will survive and produce. No large animals were seen, nor marks of any. An iguana, said to be 4 feet in length, was seen in a tree, high up, but was not captured. Rat-holes were numerous, and one rat was secured, also a large bat. Several insects, spiders, flies, beetles, and butterflies, were col- lected ; there were sand-flies, but no mosquitoes. Large crabs were very plentiful, and appeared equally at home running over the sea-cliffs and climbing up the trees ; they were very ravenous, pouncing quickly on a dead gannet and devouring other injured crabs, and they must be terrible enemies to the birds generally. ; Gannet and frigate-birds frequent the island, and evi- dently breed there, but it was not the breeding-season, and very few eggs were found; the young birds were nearly grown. Besides the sea-birds there was the large green Torres Strait pigeon: one was shot, with three large red berries in hiscrop. These pigeons seemed to frequent the higher trees well up the hill. Also a ground-thrush, of a sooty-brown colour, just the colour of the fallen leaves among which it ran nimbly, apparently looking for insects ; and a little fly-catcher of the same sombre colour. As evening advanced, a small swift appeared, which flew about the jungle on the margin of the beach, fly-catching : none of these three last were secured. No bones were found on the beach, nor remnant of any animal ; not even turtle-remains. The flora appeared to be the same as that of the neigh- bouring islands, the'Moluccas. As before stated, the island is densely wooded, and many of the trees attain great size. Chief amongst them I recognized two iron-wood trees, one with straight stem and round trunk, and the other with strong buttresses from the roots; both are natives of Celebes. Creepers were as thick as in the Moluccas, and covered the top branches of the trees. Two palms—one I take to be the sago-palm, growing to a great height ; and the pandanus—were abundant : cocoa- nut trees were not seen, though husks were found on the beach, apparently washed up from elsewhere. Ata small beach on the eastern side there appeared to be banana- trees, but they looked withered and there were no signs of fruit. No mangroves were seen: the flora of the coast was generally such as is found in all tropical islands. _ I regret to say that nearly all the botanical specimens that were collected were destroyed by insufficient drying in the exceedingly damp weather we experienced. (Signed) J. P. MACLEAR, Captain. NOTES. ON March 9, on the invitation of the Chief Justice of Queens- land, a public meeting was held at Brisbane, to consider the establishment of a University for that colony. A resolution was 14 NATURE [Aap Ss = passed inviting ministers of religion, the various professions, and every representative body to petition Parliament to establish a University for Queensland in perpetual commemoration of the Jubilee year of the Queen’s reign. A Committee was appointed to prepare a petition and make arrangements for united action. ACCORDING to the Calcutta Englishman, the Indian Govern- ment-has arranged a scheme for the complete and systematic botanical survey of India. The country will be divided into four great districts, the first under Mr. Duthie, Superintendent of the Government Botanical Gardens at Saharunpur; the second under Surgeon-Major King, Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Calcutta; and the third and fourth under the Madras and Bombay Government Botanists respectively. THE rich flora of the Philippine Islands has hitherto been most imperfectly known. In fact, it has been practically only represented in European herbaria by the collections of Cuming, which, though rich, were made in a’ limited area. It was only, there- fore, to be expected that the explorations made by Dr. Sebastian Vidal, of Soler, Director of the Botanic Garden at Manilla, and of the Conimission for studying the forest flora, would add to our knowledge a profusion of new and interesting species. Dr. Vidal has on two occasions visited Kew with his collections, which have quite realised the expectations that had been formed ofthem, ‘There was some reason to fear that the work might, on financial grounds, have to be interrupted. But from a com- munication made to Kew by the Spanish Minister, we are glad to learn ‘‘that although the Botanical Survey Commission intrusted to Dr. Sebastian Vidal had been at one time sup- pressed in the Budget of 1887-88, it was afterwards re-established in view of the great importance of the work.” THE thirty-sixth meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science will be held in New York during the week beginning August 10, 1887. The New York Academy of Sciences has appointed a Committee to secure concert of action among those who are anxious that adequate preparations’ may be made for the meeting. + In his speech at the Royal Academy banquet, Prof. Huxley offered some suggestive and interesting remarks on the relations between science on the one hand and art and literature on the other. ‘‘I imagine, he said, “that it is the business of the artist and of the man of letters to reproduce and fix forms of imagination to which the mind will afterwards recur with pleasure ; so, based upon the same great principle by the same instinct, if I may so call it, it is the business of the man of science to symbolize, and fix, and represent to our mind in some easily recallable shape, the order, and the symmetry, and the beauty that prevail throughout Nature. Iam not sure that any of us can go much further from the one to the other. We speak in symbols. The artist places his colours upon the wall; the colours have no relation to the actual objects, but they serve their purpose in recalling the emotions which were present when the scenes which they depict were acted. Iam not at all sure that the conceptions of science have much more correspondence with reality than the colours of the artist have ; but they are the symbols by which we are constantly recalling the order and beauty of Nature, and by which we by degrees force our way further and further into her penetralia, acquiring a greater insight into the mystery and wonder which are around us, and at the same time, by a happy chance, contributing to the happiness and prosperity of mankind.” Referring to the fact that in these days scientific men are in danger of becoming specialists, occupied with a com- paratively small field, Prof. Huxley maintained that the remedy lies in the recognition of ‘‘the great truth that art and literature and science are one, and that the foundation of every sound edu- cation and preparation for active life in which a special education is necessary should be some deere training in all three.” He concluded as follows :—‘‘ I sincerely trust, Sir, that, pondering upon these matters, vee that which — you so freely recognise here, that the three branches of art and — science and literature are essential to the making of a man, to 5 the development of something better than the mere specialist in — any one of these departments—I sincerely trust that that spirit — may in course of time permeate the mass of the people, that we ~ hy: may at length have for our young people an education which | will train them in all three branches, which will enable them to understand the beauties of art, to comprehend the literature at any rate of their own country, and to take such interest not in the mere acquisition of science, but in the methods of induc logic and scientific inquiry as will make them equally fit, what- ever specialised pursuit they may afterwards take up.. I see — great changes ; I see science acquiring a position which i We almost hopeless to think she could acquire. Iam peasy as to the future fate of scientific knowledge and scientific train- : ing ; what I do fear is, that it may be possible that we shoul neglect those other sides of the human mind, and that t tendency to inroads which is already marked may become ‘in creased by the lack of the general training of early youth to which I have referred.” ©. Tue first edition of ‘‘ Scenery of Scotland views dia exion wide its Physical Geology,” by Mr. Archibald Geikie, was pub- ; lished twenty years ago. It was one of the first books iy shir journeys all over Europe and through the western's America, and he is engaged, we understand, upon a treatise on the origin of the surface features of the land. meantime, in response to repeated requests, he has pre . new edition of his first work on the subject—the i Soon Scotland.” The book has been thoroughly revised and in great — part re-written. The illustrations are almost all new. — It is — expected that the volume will be ready in time for the visitors — who crowd into Scotland in the summer and autumn. Messrs. KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, AND Co,, will publish im- — mediately ‘‘ Three Lectures on the Anatomy of Movement: a — Treatise on the Action of Nerve Centres and Modes of Growth,” delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons by Dr. ‘Fre cis Warner, Hunterian Professor of Comparative meee D Physiology. REGULARLY during twenty- yee years, on the first Pe each queieny month, Mr. Van Voorst published a part of Hewit- son’s ‘‘ Exotic Butterflies,” containing coloured figures of ne species. The work was completed a few years ago. Since that time, material for its continuation has accumulated in a collection of Mr. Henley Grose Smith, who will now, with the | assistance of Mr. W. F. Kirby, bring out another series under — the title of ‘‘ Rhopalocera Exotica.’ Part 1 will be p aa by Mr, Van Voorst’s successors, Messrs. Gurney and as in July. In continuation of Hooker and Baker’s ‘‘ Synopsis Filict a hand-book of the other orders of Vascular Crypiogumnits 2 Mr. J. G. Baker, will be published shortly by Messrs. G. Bell — and Son. It will include Equisetaceze, Fycopodiaceze, Selaginel- laceee, and Rhizocarpez, in which, excluding the fossil types, there are eleven genera and about 700 species. vies At Mr. ARTHUR DENDy, B.Sc. of the Victoria alee « and Associate in Science of Owens College, has been appointed by the Trustees of the British Museum an Assistant in the De- partment of Zoology in the vacancy occasioned by the oe tion of Mr. Stewart O. Ridley, whose work in connexion with — * fay 5, 1887] NATURE 15 2onges and corals Mr, Dendy will continue, The vacancy e Botanical Department occasioned by Mr. Fawcett’s ntment to the Curatorship: of the Botanical Gardens in Jamaica has been gained, after competitive examination, by Mr, ‘Edmund Gilbert Baker, a son of the well-known botanist of Kew Gardens. E Council of the British Medical Association have recently d Mr. Watson Cheyne and Dr, Sidney Martin as Science s for one year. The former proposes to continue his of Bacteria in relation to disease, and the latter to researches on the vegetable albuminoses, especially with to their alleged toxic action, | Monday last, Mr. J. M. Thomson delivered the first of concluding course of Cantor Lectures at the Society of The remaining lectures of the course will be delivered on 9, 16, and 23. The subject is the Chemistry of Sub- ces taking Part in Putrefaction and Antisepsis.” ANOTHER synthesis of a natural product has just been added the long score of successes which have followed Wohler’s ve. About a dozen years ago it was observed that the coatings of walnuts collected at the end of June became with small yellow needle-shaped crystals, of a substance was found by Vogel and Reischauer in the expressed juice same, and named by them nucine or juglon. Bernthsen Semper have very recently (Ber. Deut. Chem. Ges. 1887, | proved conclusively that this substance is an a-hydroxy-a- hoquinone, C,,H,;O,(OH), and to complete the proof have lly built up the same substance directly from naphthalene- y first prepared a, ay dihydroxynaphthalene, C,,H,(OH),, by mstrong’s method, which was then oxidized by chromic acid ; brown precipitate obtained was afterwards digested with ether, and after removal of the ether by distillation, ation from chloroform yielded beautiful acicular crystals in all respects with juglon, of nutshell odour, producing sneezing. As naphthalene itself can be built up from its ‘it follows that juglon, undoubtedly a product of veget- th, has been synthetized by artificial means. ME important observations on the structure and origin i. nous sheath which invests the filaments of many Algze, also some Flagellata, have recently been published by Herr G. Klebs. Inthe Zygnemacez this sheath is composed of a abstance entirely independent of the cell-walls. It consists of © portions : a homogeneous substance which is but slightly _vefringent, and which is indifferent to the action of staining reagents ; and a portion which absorbs pigments with avidity, which is composed of minute rods at right angles to the all. This substance does not exhibit the reactions of the y mucilage of vegetable cells; it is not dissolved by The author maintains that the substance of the sheath ed directly from the cytoplasm of the cell through the it is always quite distinct from the cell-wall, and must y apposition rather than by intussusception, Similar re obtained from the gelatinous sheath of the Desmi- some other Alge. A gelatinous sheath can be ning materials ; and here, also, the sheath is due directly to the activity of the protoplasm. In Euglena sanguinea is secreted in the form of more or less curved filamentous In the social forms the gelatine consists of a funda- substance, immersed in which are denser granular cor- » The brown or black colour is due to the deposition of of iron. ae = preparations for the making of a canal between the Baltic ¢ German Ocean are so far advanced that the construction arly all the Flagellata by the use of sufficiently | ON March 17 we stated in a note that the Berlin Academy of Sciences had granted a sum of money ‘‘ for the printing of some important zoological works,” among which we mentioned Dr, Taschenberg’s ‘‘ Bibliothek.” Herr Engelmann, the publisher of the “ Bibliothek,” writes to us that the grant was made to Dr, Taschenberg personally, in recognition of his labours as editor, and that it does not in the slightest degree diminish the publisher’s responsibilities in connexion with the work. Tue Council of the Parkes Museum believe that there are many medical men who would be glad to make use of the Museum under the guidance of someone able to point out the object and advantages of the various appliances exhibited. They have therefore arranged, for the month of May, three demon- strations, which will be open to all members of the medical profession on presentation of their cards. Prof. W. H. Corfield has consented to give a demonstration on Monday, May 9; Mr. Rogers Field on Monday, May 16; and Mr. Percival Gordon Smith on Monday, May 23. The demonstrations will begin at 5 p.m. Srx years ago a seaside laboratory for the study of biology was started at Annisquam, near Cape Ann, by the American Woman’s Education Association. The Society, which does not give permanent support to any of its enterprises, has always been anxious that this institution should be placed on a secure basis; and accordingly a circular letter was lately sent to teachers of science in different parts of the United States, giving an account of the work done, and asking for opinions as to the need of such an establishment. The answers were so satis- factory that a number of naturalists met to consider the question ; and this meeting appointed a Committee with full power to establish a new and greatly improved laboratory. An appeal for 15,000 dollars has now been issued, and if the response is liberal, the laboratory may be opened in the summer of the present year. THE Italian Meteorological Society reports that its observer at Patagones (lat. 40° 49’ S., long. 62° 45’ W.), while taking observations at 2 a.m. on December 1 last—observations being then taken every two hours—was surprised by a continuous shower of innumerable shooting-stars proceeding from all visible parts of the sky. They were of varying brilliancy, the majority appearing to be of the brightness of stars of the second and third magnitude. He was unable to take an exact observation, for want of necessary materials ; but during the fifteen or twenty minutes that he stood observing them, the stupendous display constantly maintained the same intensity. M. L, TEISSERENC DE Bort has published in Cie/ et Terre a summary of his charts showing the mean amount of cloud over the surface of the globe, presented to the Académie‘des Sciences, Paris, on February 7. The paper is of interest from the fact that up to the present time the amount of cloud has not been treated in the same general way as the other meteorological elements, except for limited areas. The charts in question are based on observations made at 700 stations, and on an immense number of observations collated by the Meteorological Office in Paris. The following are the principal conclusions arrived at : (1) there is a marked tendency in all months towards a distribution of cloud in zones parallel to the equator ; (2) when disturbing in- fluences are eliminated it is seen that there is a maximum amount of cloud near the equator, that there are two belts of slight nebu- losity from 15° to 35° of north and south latitude, and two zones of greater cloudiness between latitudes 45° and 60°, and that beyond this (so far as can be judged from observations in the northern hemisphere) the sky appears to become clear towards the Poles ; (3) these zones have a marked tendency to follow the march of the sun’s declination; they are transferred towards the north in ¢ earthworks will be begun on June 18. 16 NATURE [May 5, 1887 spring, and towards the south in autumn ; (4) if the charts of nebulosity are compared with isobaric and wind charts it will be seen that the zones of clear sky correspond to the regions of high pressure which lie on each side of the equator, and which give rise on the one hand to the trade winds, and, on the other, to the westerly winds which prevail towards the temperate regions of the two hemispheres. The zones of greater cloudiness extend above the regions of low pressures, viz. near to the equator, on the one hand, and near to 60° of north and south latitude. The distribution of cloud, taken as a whole, appears therefore to be a direct result of the march of the winds, and is regulated by the distribution of the atmospheric pressures. THE new Industrial Institute at Bromley, Kent, was opened on. Saturday last by Sir Lyon Playfair. Hitherto, he said, the country had prided itself upon the practical knowledge of its artisans, but it had relied too entirely upon that knowledge, and the consequence had been that countries which nurtured the intellects of their people had stepped in, and with their superior mental education had shown the world that the competition of the day was not one of local advantages, such as the possession of raw material applicable to industries, but a competition of intellect. England was realizing her position now, and training her sons by technical schools to compete intellectually with the countries round her, from whom she had learnt her lesson. Science lately invited certain eminent American authorities on education to discuss in its columns the question, ‘‘ What industry, if any, can profitably be introduced into country schools?” Mr. Samuel G. Love writes enthusiastically on the effects which may be produced on children by industrial or manual training. It ‘‘opens a way,” he thinks, ‘‘to interest them, to develop and employ their perceptive faculties, and to make the otherwise unattractive experiences of school life cheer- ful and pleasant.” As for the particular kinds of industry that may be most advantageously introduced, he contents himself with the general statement that ‘‘there are many things that can be done with profit in any and all schools ; and, as soon as the pupil enters upon school life, one of them should be taken up, and each carried forward one after the other, just as the subjects of study are taken up and completed.” Mr. Francis A. Walker is more precise. He proposes that approved methods of the Kindergarten should be carried upwards through the primary grades ; that at the age of twelve, or thereabouts, there should be semi-weekly exercises with tools, preferably wood- working tools, and in clay-modelling ; and that at the age of about fourteen, exercises in metal-working should be begun, Mr. Charles H. Ham takes a wholly different view. He objects to the introduction of ‘‘industrial features” into courses of popular education in rural districts, partly because industrial training is very costly, but chiefly because children in the country learn so many things in their ordinary work and play that they do not seem to him to need any special industrial training at school. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two Green-winged Doves ( Chalcophaps indica) from Penang, presented by Mr. S. A. Clarke; two Alpine Newts (Aolge alpestris) from Algiers, presented by Mr. Alban Doran; twenty Ruffe or Pope (Acerina cernua) from British fresh waters, presented by Mr. T. E. Gunn; a Whinchat (Pratincola rubetra), British, two White-faced Tree-Ducks (Dendrocygna viduata) from Brazil, purchased ; two White- necked Storks (Déssura episcopus) from West Africa, two Demoiselle Cranes (Gras virgo) from North Africa, received in exchange; a Gayal (Bibos frontalis 8), a Persian Gazelle (Gazella subgutterosa 6 ), born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE ORBIT OF THE MINOR PLANET EUCHARIS.—Dr. L. de Ball has published, in Mémoires del’ Académie Royale de Belgique, tome xlix., an investigation of the orbit of Hucharis (No. 181), deduced from all the available observations made during the years 1878 (the year of its discovery)-to 1886 inclusive. The discussion of the orbit of this minor planet is of considerable interest, as in part of its path it approaches Jupiter, and its con- — sequent perturbations will afford material for a determination of the mass of that planet. To attempt such a determination at present would be premature, but a necessary preliminary to it is the determination of a sufficiently accurate orbit for the per- turbed planet, and this is furnished by Dr. de Ball in the paper before us. The perturbations due to Jupiter and Saturn, using Bessel’s values of the masses, have been taken into account, ani great pains have been taken to reduce the places of the com- parison-stars used to a uniform system—that of Auwers’s Funda- mental Catalogue. The great mass of observations discussed — in this paper are equatorial observations ; a considerable number of meridian observations made with the Washington transit- circle in 1878 are, however, also discussed. These do not — harmonize very well with the equatorial observations, and Dr. — de Ball is led to the conclusion (for which he is unable to account) that the corrections to reduce the Washington meridian — observations to the system of the Fundamental Catalogue deduced from fundamental stars are not applicable to the obser- vations of Hucharis, and gives the latter consequently a very — small combining weight, But this want of harmony it doubtless — due to the circumstance that the observations of fundamental — stars are made in a bright field, whilst those of the planet must — have been made in a dark field with illuminated threads—a — difference which is quite sufficient to account for such a system- — atic discordance as Dr. de Ball has found to exist. : ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE "WEEK 1887 MAY 8-14. i (HO8 the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, — is here employed. ) Ne. At Greenwich on May 8. Sun rises, 4h. 22m. ; souths, rrh. 56m. 20°Is.; sets, 19h. 31m. ; — decl. on meridian, 17° 5’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, — toh. 36m. pe Moon (at Last Quarter on May 14) rises, 7h. 24m.*; souths, — oh. 26m. ; sets, 5h. 19m, ; decl. on meridian, 13° 41’ S. Peps Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. — i. h. m. h. m. 2 iy) gee a Mercury 3 56 10 43 17 30 8 29 N. Venus ... 6 1 14 30 22 59 25 10' Ne Mars omg 26 II 44 19 12° 5) SO ee Jupiter... ... 17.30 ... 22 44 3 58* 3...) eae Saturn... Bk Oe ae aa oO 21%. 3" Be ae erage ; ri * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening and the setting — that of the following morning. : Variable Stars. es Star. R.A. Decl. i h. m. e ‘ h. m. BA U Cephei O 52°3.... 81 16 N. i... May 0) 3 10 7 » 14, 2 59 m U_Monocerotis. ..6°°9 25°4:..5 ©9033 5.7 sae M W Virginis ... . 13°20:2::. 2 48S. ..5-- 559 92 eee § Libre « 14 54°9%... 8 45S. .... os.) EA ae U Corone ... ... 15 136... 32 4N.... 5, Ee) epee S Libre a TS 1495. 20 59 Os. a ee as, Pe U Ophiuchi:..°... 17 1o°8... 1°20 N. ... 5) ga ee and at intervals of 20 8 U Sagittarii... ... 18 25°2... 19 12S, ... May 8, 20° 0 me R Scuti << FO 413)..." 5 -5§0.9,-525 ae ADS n Aquilze .- 19 46°7 ... 0 43 N. .. sp ee ee S Sagittee ». 19 50°9 ... 16-20 Ni 2. ee U Cygni aes 20 1O°D 247 Soe Pin ee W Cygni .-» 21 31°38... 44 52 N POE M S Cephei , 21 36'6.... Josey ee. § m § Cephei . 22. 25'0'... SF eae 9, 10, O OM | M signifies maximum; #7 minimum, . NATURE 17 ecultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). Corresponding angles from ver- Star. Mag. _Disap. Reap. tex to right for “ae ; inverted image. a ; h. m. h. m. ° «- y Libre .. ... 44... I 4 near approach 168 — m Capricorni ... 5 Ee ae ae! Ae 93 274 GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. [IN the new number (iv.) of Petermann’s Mitteilungen we find eresting note by General Tillo on what he calls the chief partings of the earth. He points out that it is usual to e for each region the great water-partings, and to come m that to what are considered as smaller or subordinate artings. But it seems to him that, from a general con- on of the earth’s surface, the idea of a great world-water- may be worked out. This he illustrates by a Polar pjection map in which the Old and the New World continents : brought face to face. On this he lays down one continuous e, broken only by Bering’s Straits, extending from the south int of America, north along the west side of South and North merica, in an irregular diagonal across Asia to the Isthmus of ez, and down Eastern Africa to the Cape. No doubt there h to be said for this general conception, especially as Tillo admits that there are special continental water- zs which do not quite conform to the line of the great though, as a matter of fact, nearly all the great rivers of orld are divided by this parting into two directions. It out strikingly the fact that the greater portion of the land- ass of the Old World, and by far the larger portion of the sw World are drained into the Polar Atlantic basin. MONG the other papers in the new number of Petermann is ne on the caravan routes between Suakim and Kassala, by Menges. Dr. Ed. Petri contributes a paper of great terest containing some fresh and curious data on the Yakuts, of hose persistence, activity, and culture, he, like others, has ' a high estimate. Dr, Posewitz contributes a first paper geological condition of the Island of Billiton, with special ce to mining. CHAFFAUJON has completed his exploration of the o and returned to Ciudad Bolivar. He states, in a letter March 15 last, that he has discovered the sources of the oco, and found that the River Cassiquiari is only a branch of river, uniting its basin with that of the Amazon; which ems pretty much what we knew before. M. Chaffaujon has ent a complete report of his exploration to the French Minister f Public Instruction, as well as some ethnographical curiosities, ind a fairly complete collection of the fishes of the Orinoco. _AT a recent meeting of the Hungarian Geographical Society, Terr Moriz Von Déchy gave an account of his exploration of e Caucasus last year, in company with the geologist Dr. chafurzik. The exploration has been rich in scientific results. esides taking numerous observations on glaciers, measurements heights, and many fine photographs, the explorers have ght back with them large collections, which have been de- ed in the Museum of the Society, the University of Buda- , and the Hungarian Geological Institute. There are n boxes of rocks and minerals. There is a small collec- of beetles, and several highly interesting and valuable ocephalic skulls. These, with the large collection of plants ed in the Expedition of 1885, will be of the highest value writers on the geology and natural history of this interesting Tr is stated in Copenhagen that an Expedition will be de- : cay a late this summer by Herr A. Gamil, the equipper of the Dijniphna Expedition of 1882, to the north-east coast of Greenland. It is hoped that the explorers may reach a higher - latitude than that attained by Lieut. Holm in 1884, and discern *Sound” described by the East Greenlanders as running the east to the west coast, somewhere in latitude 78° N. _ The Expedition will, if it starts, be commanded by Lieut. Hovgaard, who in 1882 commanded the Dijmphna. NCE has succeeded in moving the eastern boundary of her so territory from the somewhat uncertain River Licona to ae magnificent Mobangi. According to the Zimes Paris Corre- pondent, the 7/alweg of the Mobangi is to be the boundary between the French territories and the Congo Free State ; but how far up the Mobangi the boundary goes we are not informed. As, by the Berlin Treaty, we understand France cannot go farther north than 4° N. lat., we do not see that she gains much by this new boundary, should the Mobangi turn out, as is probable, to be identical with the Wellé. Had the Paris Correspondent taken the trouble to look at a map, he would not have told us that by this new advance France becomes mistress of the greater part of the Congo basin ; the statement is absurd. WE are glad to learn of the safety of Mr. Carey, to whose extensive journeys in Central Asia we referred in a previous number. He has wintered at Hami, and is by this time probably well on his way to India. THOsE interested in Dr. Junker will find a very full statement of his work, with a map, in the new number of the Proc. R.G.S., by Mr. J. T. Wills. Dr. Junker’s travels in the Soudan and Central Africa have lasted from the spring of 1876 to the end of 1886, with the exception of about a year and a half in 1878- 80. In his first journey he found the sources of the Wellé- Makua near Lake Albert Nyanza. In 1880-83 he explored the basin of the Makua and Kuta (probably the Upper Mobangi). THE Government of Victoria are preparing to send out a well- equipped expedition to explore the Owen Stanley Range of New Guinea, from Port Moresby, and have, we learn from the Proc. R.G.S., offered the leadership to the man of all others best able to carry out so difficult an undertaking to a successful issue—the Rev. J. Chalmers. A FURTHER step has been taken in promotion of an expedi- tion towards the South Pole, by the colony of Victoria. Acting on an offer made by Sir Allen Young to lead such an expedition, it is stated that Sir Graham Berry has brought the question of a Government grant towards the cost of the enter- prise before the Victorian Cabinet, and that the matter is being urged forward with a view to the expedition starting from Hobson’s Bay in October or November next. THE WORK OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. Tt. WH ILE extolling the comprehensive and well-organised sytems of technical education existing in all parts of the Continent and the United States, let us not undervalue the great progress which has been made in recent years in Great Britain in the advancement and extension of technical instruction. The Royal Commission on the Depression of Trade and Industry state, as the result of evidence collected by them, that ‘‘It would be difficult to estimate the extent to which our industries have been aided in various ways by the advance of elementary, scientific, and technical education during the last twenty years.” The important influence exercised by the admirable work which the organisation of the Science and Art Department has accomplished, upon the intellectual and material progress of the nation, is now thoroughly recognised. Prof. Huxley, the Dean of the Normal School of Science, in his recent important letter ‘‘On the Organisation of Industrial Education,” has reminded us that ‘‘the classes now established all over the country in connexion with that Department, not only provide elementary instruction accessible to all, but offer the means whereby the pick of the capable students may obtain in the schools at South Kensington as good a higher education in science and art as is to be had in the country,” and ‘‘ that it is from this source that the supply of science and art teachers is derived, who in turn raise the standard of elementary education”’ provided by the School Boards. The extension of facilities for the education of those engaged in art-industries is constantly aimed at, as was recently demonstrated by the creation of free studentships for artisans in the Art Schools at South Kensington. The necessity which has gradually made itself felt in the manufacturing towns of the United Kingdom for encouraging the study of science in its application to industries, by those who intend to devote themselves to some branch of manufacture or trade, has led to the establishment in about twenty-five towns in England and Scotland, and in two or three in Ireland, of colleges of science corresponding more or less to the Continental t Lecture (abridged) delivered at the Royal Institution, on Friday, April 22, by Sir Frederick Abel, C.B., F.R.S.; H.R.H. the Prince of ales, K.G., F.R.S., Vice-Patron, in the Chair. Continued from vol. xxxv. /p. 621. 18 NATURE polytechnic schools, and accomplishing important work in train- ing students in the different branches of science in their applica- tions to manufactures and the arts. The wealthier of the City Companies, some of which had long been identified with important educational establishments, associated themselves with the Corporation of the City of London nearly ten years ago to establish an organisation for the advancement of technical education, which has already carried out most important work. The Society of Arts, which initiated the system of examinations, afterwards so successfully developed by the Science and Art Department, set on foot and conducted for several years examinations of artisans in a few branches of technology. This useful work was relinquished in 1879 to the City and Guilds Institute, and its gradual extension since that period has been attended with most satisfactory results. The beneficial influence exercised by the examinations upon the development and extension of technical instruction in the manu- facturing districts throughout the country being already very marked. The adoption of the system, originated by the Science and Art Department, of contributing to the payment of teachers in proportion to the successes attained by their pupils, is operat- ing most successfully in promoting the establishment and extension of classes for instruction in technical subjects, in connexion with Mechanics’ Institutes and other educational establishments in various centres of industry. The Technical College at Finsbury was the first great practical outcome of the efforts made by the City and Guilds Institute to supplement existing educational machinery, by the creation of technological and trade schools in the metropolis, and the results, in regard to number and success of students at the day and evening schools of that important establishment, have afforded conclusive demonstration of the benefits which it is already conferring upon young workers who, with scanty means at their command, are earnest in their desire to train themselves thoroughly for the successful pursuit of industries and trades. The ‘evening courses of instruction are especially valuable to such members of the artisan classes as desire, at the close of their daily labour, to devote time to the acquisition of scientific or artistic knowledge. Another department of the City and Guilds Institute, of a somewhat different character, is the South London School of Technical Art, which is also doing very useful work, while the chief or Central Institution for Technical Education, which com- menced its operations about three years ago, if it but continue to be developed in accordance with the carefully matured scheme which received the approval of the City and Guilds Council, and with that judicious liberality which has been displayed in the design and arrangement of the building, bids fair to become the Industrial University of the Empire. As one of the first students of that College of Chemistry which became part-parent of our present Normal School of Science, and the creation of which (forty-two years ago) constituted not the least important of the many services rendered towards the advancement of scientific education in this country by His Royal Highness the Prince Consort, most vividly I’ remember the struggling years of early existence of that half-starved but vigorous offspring of the great school of Liebig, born in a strangely unsympathetic land in the days when the student of science in this country still met on all sides that pride of old England, the practical man, inquiring of him complacently : ca bono? quo bono? That ardent lover of research and instruction, the enthusiastic and dauntless disciple of Liebig—my old master —Hofmann, loyally supported through all discouragement, and in the severest straits, by a small band of believers in the power of scientific research to make for itself an enduring home in this country, succeeded in very few years in developing a prosperous school of chemistry which soon made its influence felt upon British industry; and it is not credible that less important achievements should be accomplished, and less speedily, in days when the inseparable connexion of science with practice has become thoroughly recognised, by an Institution created, and launched tinder most auspicious circumstances, by those powerful representatives of the commercial and industrial prosperity of the Empire, who, before all others, must realise the vital necessity for ceaseless exertions, even for much self-sacrifice in the immediate present, to recover our lost ground in the dominions of industry. One of the most important functions of the Central Technical College should consist in the thorough training of teachers of applied science. The statistics furnished by the technological [May 5, 1887 examinations show that, while their successful organisation has led to the establishment of classes of instruction, supplementary to the general science teaching in every large manufacturing centre, the increase in the number of candidates examined has been accompanied by an increase in the percentage of failures to pass the examinations, and that the supply of a serious deficieney in competent teachers was essential to a radical improvement in technical education. The work of the City and Guilds Institute in this direction has already been well begun, and it is in the furtherance of this, by the organisation of arrangements facilitating the attendance of science teachers for sufficient pe: at the Central Institute, or at more accessible provincial tec cal colleges, that the Imperial Institute may ae to do work. ie Without taking any direct part in the duty of educatio: contemplated that the Imperial Institute will actively assi the: thorough organisation of technical instruction, and maintenance on a footing, at least of equality, with tl vided in other countries, by the system of intercommun which it will establish and maintain between techn science schools ; by the distribution of information re the progress of technical education abroad, to the development of industries, and the requirements of those — intend to pursue them; by the provision of resources in way of material for experimental work, and i a new industrial achievements, and by a variety of other 1 The provision of facilities to teachers in elementary s to improve their knowledge of science and their power parting information of an elementary character to the constitutes another direction in which impor gress may be made towards establishing that continuity elementary and advanced education which is so well | on the Continent. The organisation of facilities, bin material aid, to be provided to young artisans who some legitimate evidence of superior natural intellig striving after self-improvement, to enable them to aban time the duty of bread-winning, and to work at one or : the technical schools in London or the provincial centres, ¥ be another object to which the resources of the Imperial tute should be applied very beneficially. Not only 1 intelligent workman’s knowledge of the fundamental of his craft or trade be thereby promoted ; his asso work and study with others who are pursuing the acquisition of knowledge in different directions, which Ps first seem tc hi alien to his personal pursuits and tastes, but come in acquire interest or importance in his eyes, will bring ho him the advantages of a wider and more co lensive | of instruction, and the enlargement of his views regarding value and pleasure of knowledge will, in turn, exercise a fay able influence in the same direction upon those with afterwards comes into contact. The cramping inf the great subdivision of labour, resulting from the d of mechanical, physical, and chemical science, is cal favour, must thus become counteracted, and the workman realise that if he is to rise above the level of the ordinary s! labourer, mere dexterity in the particular branch of that which he has made his calling must be supplemented acquaintance with its cognate branches, by some know the principles which underlie his work, and by some famil with the trades allied to his calling. pe The importance of bringing technical instruction within # reach of the needy scholars of the lower middle class need n be dwelt upon, and there can be no question that one of most powerful means of promoting the extension of te education will be the well-organised administration of comprehensive system of scholarships, to be judiciously in connexion with the well-established colleges and schools science and technics throughout the country, in such prop as to meet local requirements and changing conditions. good foundation for such a system of scholarships is * long to emanate from the resources of the Royal Comm 1851, has already been officially indicated in one of its may we not also hope that many will be found in our ready to follow the example of the late Sir Joseph Whit: and to act in emulation of the patriotism of those men who, munificent donations or endowments in aid of the work bringing industrial education within the reach of all classes the United States, have helped to place our cousins in position to hold their own and aspire to victory, in the industry? The thoroughly representative character which May 5, 1887 | NATURE 19 x: intended to maintain for the governing body of the Imperial Institute. will secure the wise administration by it of funds of this kind, dedicated to the extension and perfection of national establishments for technical education, and to the encourage- ment of its pursuit, in the ways above indicated, by those whose cumstances would otherwise prevent them from enjoying the vantages secured to their fellow-workers in other countries. veral other directions readily suggest themselves in which the . training of eligible men of the the artisan class could well form part of the organised work of the Imperial Institute. _ By the establishment of an Education branch of the Intelli- gence Department, which will form a very prominent section of the a Institute, the working of the colleges and schools of applied science in all parts of the United Kingdom will be larmonised and assisted, and the information continuously col- lected from all countries relating to educational work and the application of the sciences to industrial purposes and the arts will be systematically distributed. A well-organised Inquiry ‘Department will furnish to students coming to Great Britain from the colonies, dependencies, and India, the requisite infor- “mation and advice to aid them in selecting their place of work and their temporary home, and in various other ways. The tions of natural products of the colonies and India, main- id up to the day by additions and renewals at the central ablishment of the Institute, will be of great value to students the immediately adjacent educational institutions, and will, reover, be made subservient to the purposes of provincial strial colleges by the distribution of thoroughly descriptive erence catalogues, and of specimens. Supplies of natural pro- ducts from the Colonies, India, or from other countries, which are either new or have been but imperfectly studied, will be naintained, so that the material may be readily provided to the rker in science or the manufacturer, either for scientific estigation or for purposes of technical experiment. The existence of those collections and of all information re- ing to them, as well as of the libraries of technology, inven- ns, commerce; and applied geography, ‘in immediate proximity to the Government Museums of Science and Inventions, Art, and Natural History, to the Normal School of Science, and to the Central Technical Institute, present advantages so obvious as to it some fair consideration by those who have hitherto de- ned to peognioe any reason in favour of the establishment of Imperial Institute at South: Kensington. ; In the powerful public representations which have of late en made on the imperative necessity for the greater dissemi- tion and thorough organisation of industrial education, the portance of a radical improvement in commercial education, distinguished from what is comprehended under the head of } technical training, has scarcely received that prominence which merits. It is true that, in some of our colleges, there are ses of instruction framed with more especial reference to the tirements of those who propose to enter into mercantile uses, or in other ways to devote themselves to commercial ursuits; but asa rule the mercantile emfployés, embraced under comprehensive title of clerks, begin their careers in life but prepared to be more than mechanical labourers, and remain atly dependent upon accident, or upon their desire for self- rovement which directs them in time to particular lines of dy, for their prospects of future success in commercial life. This impressed itself strongly upon the Royal Commission on Depression of Trade and Industry, who state as the result evidence collected by them that our deficiency in the matter of education as compared with some of our foreign competitors relates ‘‘not only to what is usually called technical education, but also to the ordinary commercial education which is required | in_mercantile houses,” The ordinary clerk in a merchant’s colleague, not merely in regard to his lamentable deficiency in the knowledge of languages, but in respect to almost every branch of knowledge bearing upon the intelligent performance | of his daily work and upon his prospect of advancement. The reliminary training for commercial life on the Continent is far ‘more comprehensive, practical, and systematic than that which s attainable in this country, and the student of commerce oad has, afterwards, opportunities for obtaining a high scien- ¢ and practical training at distinct branches of the polytechnic ools and in establishments analogous to the technical colleges ich as the High Schools of Commerce in Paris, Antwerp, and ‘Vienna. licious administration of resources in aid of the technical’ office is too often made to feel his inferiority to his German — It will be well within the scope of the Imperial Institute, as an organisation for the advancement of industry and commerce, to promote a systematic improvement and organisation of com- mercial education by measures analogous to those which it will bring to bear upon the advancement of industrial education, The very scant recognition which the great cause of technical education has hitherto received at the hands of our administrators has, at any rate, the good effect of rousing and stimulating that power of self-help which has been the foundation of many achievements of greatest pride to the nation, and we may look with confidence to the united exertions of the people of this country, through the medium of the representative organisation which they are now founding, for the early development of a comprehensive national system of technical education, of the nature foreshadowed not long since by Lord Hartington, in that important address which has raised bright hopes in the hearts of the apostles of education. In connexion with some of the views which have been of late put forward regarding the possible scope of the Imperial Institute, the antagonism which has been raised and fostered against its location in the vicinity of some of our national establishments most intimately connected with the educational advancement of the Empire, has developed a tendency to circumscribe its future sphere of usefulness, and to place its functions as a great establishment of reference and resort for the commercial man in the chief foreground. I have endeavoured to indicate directions in which its relations to the Colonies and India, to the great industries of the country, and to the advancement of technical and commercial education, cannot fail to be at least as important as its immediate connexion with the wants of the commercial section of the community, and those are most certainly quite independent of the particular locality in which it may be placed, excepting in so far as the command of ample space, and the advantages to be derived from juxtaposition with the great national establish- ments to which I have referred, is concerned. At the same time, there is not one of the directions in which the development of the resources and activity of the Institute has been thus far indicated, which has not an immediate and important bearing upon the advancement of the commerce of the Empire. There are, how- ever, special functions to be fulfilled by the Institute, which are most immediately connected alike with the great commercial work of the City of London and with that of the provincial centres of commerce. The provision, in very central and readily accessible positions, of commercial museums or collections of natural or import products, and of export products of different nations, combined with comprehensive sample-rooms and facilities for the business of inspection, or of commercial, chemical or physical examination, is a work in which the Institute should lend most important aid. The system of correspondence with all parts of the Empire which it will develop and maintain will enable it to collect and form a central depot of natural products from which local commercial museums can be supplied with complete, thoroughly classified economic collections, and with representative samples of all that, from time to time, is new in the way of natural products from the Colonies and Dependencies, from India, and from other countries. In combination with this organisation, the distribution to commercial centres of in- formation acquired by a central department of commercial geography will constitute an important feature in the work of the Institute, bearing immediately upon the interests of the merchant at home, in the Colonies, and in India. The formation of specially commercial institutions, of which inquiry offices, museums, and sample-rooms with their accesso- ries, will form a leading feature, and which will supply a want long since provided for by the nations with whom we compete commercially, is already in contemplation in the Cities of London and Newcastle; other great commercial centres will also doubtless speedily take steps to provide accommodation for similar offshoots from the central collections of the Institute. So far as the Indian Empire is concerned, the organisation of correspondence by provincial committees which already exists in connexion with economic and geological museums established in the several Presidencies, affords facilities for the speedy elabora- tion of the contemplated system of correspondence in connexion with the Institute; and the establishment of similar organisations in the different Colonies will, is is hoped, be heartily entered upon and speedily developed. The system of correspondence to which I have more than once alluded in indicating some of the work of the Institute, in relation to technical education and industry, and which will form 20 NATURE [May 5, 1887 4 a most important part of the main groundwork of its organisa- tion, is not in the least theoretical in its character. Its possible development has suggested itself to many who have given thought to the future sphere of action of the Institute in connexion with commerce and industry; to myself, who for many years have been, from time to time, officially cognisant of the work per- formed by what are called the Intelligence Departments of the Ministries of War abroad and at home, the direct and valuable bearing of such a system upon the work of the Institute, suggested itself as soon as I gave thought to the possible future of this great conception, and to Major Fitzgerald Law belongs the credit of suggesting that the well-tried machinery of the War Office Intelligence Department should serve as a guide for the elaboration of a Commercial Intelligence Department. This Department, which will, it is hoped, ere long commence its operations by establishing relations with the chief colonies and India, will be in constant communication with the Inquiry Offices to be attached to the local commercial establishments and to other provincial representations of the work of the Institute, systematically distributing among them the commercial informa- tion and statistics continually collected. It will be equally valuable to the colonies and India by bringing their requirements thoroughly to the knowledge of the business men in the United Kingdom, and by maintaining that close touch and sympathy between them and the people at home which will tend to a true federation of all parts of the Empire. In no more important direction is this system destined to do useful work than in the organisation of emigration, not only of labour, but also of capital. The establishment of emigration inquiry offices at: provincial centres in connexion with a central department at the Institute, will be of great service to the in- tending emigrant, by placing within his reach the power of acquiring indispensable information and advice, and by facilitating his attainment of the special knowledge or training calculated to advance his prospects in the new home of hischoice. Similarly, the capitalist may be assisted in discovering new channels for enterprise in distant portions of the Empire, the resources of which are awaiting development by the judicious application of capital and by the particular class of emigration which its devotion to public works or manufacturing enterprise in the Colonies would carry with it. The extent to which the State may aid in the organisation of systematic emigration, and the best mode in which it may, without burden to the country, promote the execution of such public works in the Colonies as will open up their dominions to commerce and at the same time encourage the particular class of emigration most advantageous to the Colonies themselves, are subjects of great present interest ; but, in what- ever way these important questions may be grappled with, such an organisation as the Institute should supply cannot fail to accelerate the establishment of emigration upon a sound and systematic footing, and to co-operate very beneficially in directing private enterprise into the channels best calculated to advance the mutual interests of the capitalists and the colonies. Ihave already indicated that it is not only in connexion with purely commercial matters that the Intelligence Department of the Institute will occupy itself. The prospects of its value to the Colonies and to India in promoting the development of their natural resources and the cultivation of new fields for commer- cial and industrial activity are well illustrated by the valuable work which has been accomplished upon similar lines by the admirably directed organisation at Kew. By the systematic collection and distribution of information relating to industries and to education from all countries which compete with ourselves in the struggle for supremacy in intellec- tual and industrial development, the Institute will most importantly contribute to the maintenance of intimate relationship and co- operation between educational, industrial, and commercial centres, between the labourer in science and the sources through which his work becomes instrumental in advancing national prosperity; between the Colonies and the Mother Country, between ourselves and all races included in the vast Empire of Her Majesty. In conclusion, I venture to express the belief that the organisation which the Imperial Institute will have the power of | developing, with a wisely constructed governing body at its head, | may accomplish, and at no distant date, other most useful work, which has been already publicly indicated as destined to have an immediate bearing upon the federation of England and her colonies. Prof. Huxley, in his last Presidential Address to | the Royal Society, uttered most suggestive words, indicative of the value and the possibility of a scientific federation of all English-speaking peoples ; and this subject is now receiving the careful consideration of that Society. It is firmly believed by leading men of science that such a federation of at any rate the Colonies and Dependencies with us will be brought about, and it is in harmony with that belief that the Imperial Institute should be expected, through its organisation, to afford important aid i the application of the principle of federation to the geolog and topographical survey of the Colonies, in the establishme: a system of interchange of meteorological and scientific obs tions, and in the promotion, in various ways, of pre operation between particular Colonies, or groups of Color for applying the results of scientific research to the m development of their natural resources. me It may be that the programme of which I have given a imperfect exposition, as indicative of the work which the Im Institute may be called upon to accomplish, will be by some as almost too ambitious in its scope for practi ment. The outline of this programme has been drawn combination of abler hands than mine; I have but ventui sketch in some of the details as they have presented th to my mind, and to the minds of others who have given th to this great subject ; but I dare to have faith in its real and to believe that, if the work be taken in hand system and progressively, the nucleus being first thoroughly esta’ from which fresh lines of departure will successively e1 the Imperial Institute is destined to become a glory of the I: And, as one whose mission it has been, through ere? year: arduous work, to assist in a humble way in the app. the resources of some branches of science to the mainten the country’s power to defend its rights and to hold its may perhaps be pardoned for my presumption in giving sion to the firm belief that, by the secure foundation and c development of this great undertaking, and by its wise dit by a government truly representative of its founde: Nations and Classes composing the Empire—there secured in it one of the most important future defences Queen’s dominions ; one of the most powerful instruments the maintenance of the unity, the strength, and the prosperi her realms. SS era u a THE LOCOMOTOR SYSTEM OF STAR- PROF. PREYER, of Jena, has recently concluded an el research ‘‘ Ueber die Bewegungen der Seesterne. paper, which contains over thirty illustrations, appears i Publications of the Zoological Station at Naples (vii.), ” the investigation was carried on during a period of ne: months. This investigation was exclusively physiol a confined to the star-fish—the Holothurians, Echini, &c., having fallen within its scope. Considering that Prof. Pr thus selected a line of experimental inquiry which had already pretty well worked out, he deserves to be co ul, on the everywhere interesting and frequently novel ch: his results. The most important of these results, in they are new, appears to me—as also to himself—to be monstration that a severed ray of a star-fish exhibits much co-ordination in the management of its tube-feet, if the has been arranged so that two or more of the central gan; the disk are left in connexion with the ray, than if only these ganglia be so left. It was previously known that any circumstances the severed ray of a star-fish would not crawl about, seek the light, &c., but also right itself when over on its back. In order to execute this manceuvre co-ordinated action on the part of the tube-feet is required, therefore the interest attaching to Prof. Preyer’s observation sists in its having shown that this co-ordination cannot be so well effected by one of the central ganglia as it can be by or more of them. Or, in his own words, ‘* Also leisten 2 tionell gleichwerthige Theile des Nervensystems zu qualitativ mehr als jeder fiir sich. Man kommt auf die thung, dass auch bei den hoheren Thieren, und vielleicht dem Menschen, es nicht allein die qualitative Beschaffe der Ganglienzellen, sondern auch ihre Anzahl und Verbi ist, welche héhere psychische Leistungen erméglichen.” — Highly interesting also are the results of numerous ing experiments devised with a view of testing whether the ad movements of star-fish can be explained as due to me reflexes alone, or require us to suppose something of the na May 5, 1887 | NATURE 21 of a rudimentary intelligence. These experiments consisted in placing the animals in various unnatural circumstances, and _observing the means which they adopted in order to extricate themselves. For instance, a piece of narrow tube was pushed over one of the rays of a brittle-star, so as to tightly inclose that _ray from its base to within arinch or two of its apex. In order to get rid of such an obstruction the star-fish did not always adopt the same method, as we should have expected if the adaptive actions were of a purely reflex kind. Sometimes they _ rubbed the tube off by friction on the ground ; but if the tube were too closely fitting to admit of this mode of removing it, they would adopt sundry other devices—such as holding the tube _ firmly down by the other rays while drawing the imprisoned ray _ through its cavity ;.or by means of the serrated edges of the two _adjacent rays progressively pushing the tube upwards over the _ end of the imprisoned ray ; or, lastly, failing every other means, _ by amputating the imprisoned arm. Various other experiments were tried in the way of pinning down the star-fish in unnatural positions, and the expedients to which they resorted in order to regain their liberty appeared to Prof. Preyer amply to prove the presence in them oF psychical as distinguished from merely _ physiological functions. Although these are the results of most importance, many others are full of interest to the working physiologist. To me individually this is especially the case, seeing that the research has everywhere proceeded upon the same lines as those which Prof. Ewart and myself adopted while working out the physio- logical a yest of our inquiry concerning the locomotor system of _ Echinodermata. [It is satisfactory to note that in almost every ‘eeioiaaaad Prof, Preyer has corroborated our results. There are, owever, four or five points—mostly of subordinate importance —with regard to which he expresses disagreement with these results. I have, therefore, carefully considered these points, and have come to the conclusion that the discrepancies admit of being explained, either (1) by our not having worked with the same species of star-fish ; (2) where we did work with the same species, by our not having employed precisely the same methods of stimulation; or (3) by the temperature of the water at Naples being higher than that with which we worked in the north of Scotland. This explanation refers to the few, and comparatively unimportant, disagreements upon matters of fact. But Prof. Preyer’s principal disagreement with us is upon a matter of inference. He objects to our over-caution in expressly refusing to credit the Echinodermata with any psychical faculties, remarking that many of our own results are sufficient to show that there must be something more than simple reflex mechanism concerned in the adaptive movements of these animals. Here, however, Prof. Preyer has misunderstood our meaning. We did not ‘‘expressly declare” that the star-fish are destitute of any psychical faculty: we merely excluded the question from our paper as one very difficult to answer, and as not strictly apper- taining to a physiological research. But if Prof. Preyer will turn to a subsequent publication of my own, where this question does require to be considered, he will find that my views upon the subject are in very much closer agreement with his than he at present supposes,’ Indeed, although I am perhaps less confident in attributing to them any psychical faculties other _ than that of a short-lived memory (which I argue admits of being _ proved), I think that the level in the psychological scale to which _I do assign them in my book is just about the level to which, in his opinion, they ought to be assigned. It only remains to add that for my own part I hope Prof. Preyer will next extend his researches to the Echini, which pre- sent even more abundant material for physiological investigation ‘than the star-fish, and out of which, therefore, his observant mind may be expected to evolve even{more interesting results. GEORGE J. ROMANES. * THE REPORT OF THE SELECT COMMITTEE k ON ENDOWED SCHOOLS. P)URING the present week the Report of the Committee, to j the main results of which we were able to refer in our last issue, has been printed. It is a document of first-rate import- ance. Reserving a more detailed examination of some parts of it for a future occasion, we give this week an extract from the ® ** Mental Evolution in Animals,” pp. 76, 342, 348-49. general conclusion of the Report, and also a summary of some of the opinions formed, and recommendations made. Conclusion. A pressing need now seems to be that we should not forget, in the search for more immediate advantages of an obvious nature, the importance of preserving, even at some cost, a high ideal of secondary education, both on its own account and in its connexions either with the Universities or with the excellent Colleges which have been recently established in our large towns - with the special object of education in relation to the needs of manufacturing and commercial communities. Your Committee find that the work done by the Charity Commissioners under the Endowed Schools Acts, while it has not lost sight of this ideal, has done much to bring higher instruction, in popular and necessary forms, within the reach of classes which otherwise would have been shut out from it. It has thus fulfilled a double function : to promote in all classes the creation of trained intelli- gence, and to build up a system under which, when created, it may find a free and prosperous scope. With such improvements as your Committee have recommended in future schemes, it is to be hoped that the intelligence of the working-classes will be trained in a direction which, while it develops their intellectual faculties, will at the same time enable these faculties to be more readily applied to the needs of productive industry. Summary. The great extension in elementary education under the Edu- cation Acts having, to a certain extent, altered the position and objects of elementary endowed schools, in any scheme for re- modelling them, special attention should be directed to provid- ing, as far as possible, for the children of the working-classes a practical instruction suitable to their wants in the particular circumstances of each locality. The policy of the Commissioners has been to establish scholar- ships in elementary schools and exhibitions from them to schools of secondary education. On the whole these have worked well in large towns, but they are less adapted to the circumstances of a scattered rural population ; and in any case scrupulous care should be taken where endowments have been appropriated to the poor, that the paramount interests of the poor should be secured in the application of scholarships or exhibitions provided out of the trust funds. : The abolition of gratuitous education in elementary endowed schools is generally opposed to the wishes of the poorer classes in the localities. It is only justifiable when the imposition of fees gives a higher and more useful character of education to the working-classes than they formerly enjoyed, and after provision made for payment of school fees of children whose parents stand specially in need of such assistance. The application of non-educational endowments to educa- tional purposes under Section 30 of the Act of 1869 has been beneficial, but the veto now possessed by the trustees of such endowments is, in some cases, a hindrance to reforms and an inadequate protection for the poor. It would be expedient to substitute, for the consent of the trustees, the concurrence of some local representative body. The diversion of educational endowments from one locality, decreasing in population, to a neighbouring populous locality, is sometimes necessary, but should only take place after the requirements of the locality have been met. The diversion of an endowment, partially or entirely, from the education of boys to that of girls, has been successful in numerous instances, but when opposed by the localities it requires discretion in its exercise. The extension of technical and higher commercial education has risen to much importance since the Act of 1869, and should be carefully kept in view by the Commissioners in framing their schemes. When the value of the endowment is too small to provide laboratories and workshops for technical or scientific teaching, the local authorities might be empowered to initiate and aid them by local rates. But before applying local rates in aid of technical or scientific teaching, endowments, the purposes of which have failed, should, as far as practicable, be utilised. The examination of endowed schools and inspection of the state of the buildings and apparatus, and of the discipline and general working, are subjects of urgent importance. Reports upon the actual condition of the schools should be periodically laid before Parliament. Those reports should be published in the locality in a cheap and convenient form. 2% NATURE , [May 5, 1887 io UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE.—Applications to occupy the Cambridge table at the Naples Zoological Station should be sent to Prof. Newton on or before May 26. Mr. S. F. Harmer has been approved by the Senate, on the recommendation of the Special Board of Medicine, as a teacher of Comparative Anatomy for the purposes of medical study. The reports of Mr. H.-Gadow, M.A., of King’s College, and Mr. M. C. Potter, M.A., of Peterhouse, to whom grants were made from the Worts Travelling Scholars Fund last year, have just been published. Mr. Gadow states that he began his researches on July 2, 1886, with the exploration of several caves on the Monte Junto and in the Serra de Athouguia, Province of Estremadura, In the caves were found a considerable number of human and other bones, many of which show unmistakable signs of being worked and cut by prehistoric man ; they are now in the Museum of Zoology, awaiting further investigation. Fourteen celts, some worked flakes, and a flint arrowhead, collected in the caves or in the neighbourhood thereof, are now in the Museum of Archeology. Mr. M. C. Potter jomed Dr. Gadow on August 14 at Porto, and immediately went in search of Clemmys caspica (the water tortoise which bears the Alga) ; finding this tortoise was scarce in the North of Portugal, they went to Santarem, where it also was not procurable in sufficient numbers. They therefore proceeded to the Eastern Alemtejo to the mines of Sio Domingos; here, during several successful expeditions, they succeeded in obtaining a great number of Clemmys caspica, and with them a good supply of the parasitical"Alga. At the mines of Sao Domingos, Mr. Potter was able to carry on his investigations through the kindness of his friend Mr. T. Warden, who placed his house at his disposal. The results have already been published in a preliminary form in the Proceedings of the Cambridge Philo- sophical Society, and will probably be published in full by the Linnean Society of London. To this Alga, hitherto undescribed, he has given the name of E£piclemmidia lusitanica, thus describ- ing its nature and to some extent its geographical distribution. The expedition was of great value in enabling him to study the geographical distribution of many plants, and to collect specimens for the Botanical Museum, especially at Coimbra, where the Scientific Staff of the University presented both gentlemen with many valuable specimens. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Botanische Fahriticher (A. Engler), vol. viii. Part 3.—On the history of development of form in the Roburoid Oaks, by Franz Krasan (two plates). The author points out, among other conclusions drawn from a comparison of ancient and modern forms, that the developmental series of forms of Oak extending continuously over immeasurable periods of time is compendiously summarised before our eyes in the development of the individual, z.e, that the ontogeny is an epitome of the phylogeny.—On Zria chonéana, a new species, by Fr. Kranzlin. —Descriptions of Lehmann’s collections in Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Columbia: Cyperacez, by O. Bockeler ; Liliaceze, Hemodoracez, Amaryllidaceze, Dioscoreacez, and Iridaceze, by J. G. Baker; Passifloraceze and Aristolochiacez, by Max- well T, Masters ; Lythracee, by E. Koetner.—The Hungarian species of /wu/a, especially those of the Zxula group, by Vin- centius de Borbas,—The remainder of this number is taken up by the continuation of Dr. Winter's excellent epitome of the recent literature on the classification and geographical distribution of fungi, and by Dr. F. von Herders’ article on new contribu- tions to the geographical botany of Russia.—Notice is also given in this number of the joint work by Profs. Engler and Prantl, to be entitled ‘‘ Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien.” This will be avery comprehensive, profusely-illustrated work, while the names under which it is to be issued will be sufficient guarantee of its excellence. THE principal article in the current number (vol. v.’Part ii.) of the Folk-Lore Fournal is the continuation of Miss Courtney’s paper on Cornish folk-lore, which is very exhaustive, Mr. Kirby calls attention to five tales in the ‘‘ Arabian Nights,” which, though differing greatly from each other, are all based upon two simple fundamental ideas, viz. a door which it is forbidden to open, and the hero falling in love with a woman seen from a house-top. The five tales which are examined lead by curious gradations from the simplest form of the story to the most complex. In response to an appeal issued by t local Secretary in Hong Kong to dwellers in the Far East, get several Chinese and Japanese contributions. The | important of these relates to the folk-lore of aboriginal Form and is written by Mr. G, Taylor, whose papers on Formosa its aborigines in the Chima Review were noticed several — last year in these columns. From Formosa, as elsewh the world, the cry comes that the aborigines are either ¢ ing, or are becoming sophisticated by their contact with ci races. ‘‘Come quickly, or you will be too late,” says Taylor to inquirers. He is certainly losing no time in n the most of his opportunities as a resident, and it is to’ he will continue his researches. Mrs. Mansfield supplies interesting Chinese superstitions respecting children ; ; Hartland writes on the somewhat hackneyed subject of Ja: New Year clecorations. The late Mrs. Chaplin Ayrton exhausted this subject in a paper read about ten years ago the Asiatic Society of Japan, and reproduced by | few years later in a charming book on child-life in The other papers, dealing with Negro songs in Barba American song-games and wonder-tales, show that this esting Society is extending the area of its activity so include all parts of the globe. Cornwall, Arabia, F Barbados, the United States, Japan, do not form a bad ment for a single number of this journal. eee SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Bidet Physical Society, April 23.—Prof. W. G. Ada President, in the chair.—The following papers were delicate calorimetrical thermometers, and on expansion meter-bulbs under pressure, by Prof. Pickering. ‘ of a delicate mercurial thermometer, when placed i constant temperature, is found to depend on whether meter was at a higher or lower temperature thi before immersion. Capillarity was suggested as an but experiment showed that the effect was not alwa at the narrow parts of the tube, and hence this idea carded. By using the same tube with different bulbs 7 the differences varied, and eventually the effect was foun caused by exposing the inside of the tube to air and for when bulbs were attached to new tubes, without exposed, the differences between the rising and fallin disappear. Hence, for very delicate thermometers should be taken not to expose the bore of the tube, : tion of a tube before attaching the bulb must not be Even in the best tubes, after every possible precauti taken, the author finds some parts about which appears to stick, and in delicate observations these tube are to be avoided. He also finds it neces tap the top of the tube to relieve any friction, anc a clockwork arrangement for performing the operation In the second part of the paper the author describes of concordance between the thermometers which compared with the same standard, and finds it due to sion of the bulbs not being in all cases proportional difference of pressure between the inside and outside. meters with large thin bulbs show greatest discrepan the remedy is found to be in making the bulbs more This is done by having a double bulb, making them cylindrical tube instead of by blowing, and increasing the tl ness of the walls of the bulb. A knife-edge arrangem the upper part of a thermometer is described, by which the part of the graduated tube can be used, whatever the ture (about which small changes are to be observed) be The proper amount of the mercury column can be cut off wit the greatest nicety by its use. Mr. Naber remarked t phenomena similar to those described in the paper were stantly coming under his notice, and mentioned the p corrections they were applying to thermometers used 7 during some pendulum experiments at present being carried o1 He also described the Kew method of detérmining the p correction in deep-sea thermometers, which are protected outer glass jacket filled with alcohol. Mr. Lant Carp described the first comparison e iments made at sea wi protected and unprotected bulb thermometers. In answer t questions, Prof. Pickering said the range of pressure used | May 5, 1887] NATURE 23 rom © to 3 atmospheres, and in his most delicate thermometer, where 200 millimetres correspond to 1° C., the difference between eadings taken in horizontal and vertical positions amounts to s0 millimetres. —Note on magnetisation ; on sequences of rever- ils, by Mr. R. H. M. Bosanquet. Some experiments have cently been made on an iron bar whose magnetic properties nder reversals with ascending values of current were first stermined some years ago. The magnetic resistances have fain been determined, first with ascending values of current, d afterwards with descending values. In all cases the induc- on was measured by reversing the current. The results gener- lly show a greater magnetic resistance for descending values of rent, except for small inductions where the resistance was ss, when the experiments were performed in the above order. The paper concludes with a molecular hypothesis to explain the bove results. —On a thermo-dynamical relation, by Prof. Ram- wy and Dr. S. Young. The paper is an extension of one esented to the Society on February 26, and of which an act was read by the Secretary. The numerical results are piven, from which the authors deduce the relation f = 47 — a, for constant volume, and additional reasons are given for believing acetic acid (whose vapour-density at ordinary tem- peratures is abnormal) to be a mixture of C,H,O, and CyH,O,, the former preponderating as the temperature rises. The authors ask the Society for a name to designate lines connecting pressure and temperature at constant volume, and for which they suggested isochor”’ in their previous paper. Zoological Society, April 19.—Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., ice-President, in the chair.—The Secretary called attention to . set of eleven photographs representing the principal objects of Matural history collected by the celebrated traveller Prjevalsky, furing his four expeditions into Central Asia, and to an accom- Danying catalogue of them which had been presented to the Society’s library by Dr. A. Strauch, of the Imperial Museum, St. Petersburg.—Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell exhibited and made remarks on some specimens of rare British slugs taken at Isle- rorth, Middlesex.—The Secretary read some extracts from a etter addressed to him by Mr. A. A. C. Le Souef, giving an recount of a successful attempt to keep the duck-billed Platypus, br water-mole, alive in captivity in the Zoological Gardens ut Melbourne.—Mr. J. Bland Sutton exhibited some specimens pf diseased structures taken from mammals that had died in the Bociety’s Gardens, and made comments thereon.—Mr. J. Bland utton read a paper on the singular arm-glands met with in arious species of the family Lemuride.—Mr. F. E. Beddard ead a paper on the anatomy of earthworms, being a further rontribution to his researches on that subject.—A communication was read from Mr. A. D, Bartlett, Superintendent of the Bociety’s Gardens, containing remarks upon the mode of moult- ng of the Great Bird of Paradise (Paradisea apoda), as observed iM a captive specimen.—A communication was read from Mr. J. Douglas Ogilby, of the Australian Museum, Sydney, containing fhe description of a rare Australian fish (Girel/a cyanea).—A econd paper by Mr. Ogilby contained the description of an ndescribed fish of the genus Priexurus, obtained in Port jackson, which was proposed to be called Prtonurus maculatus. | Chemical Society, March 30.—Annual General Meeting. — Dr. Hugo Miiller, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The President delivered an address, some extracts from which we ave already printed.—Prof. Odling proposed that the thanks of ihe meeting be given to the President for his address, and that he be requested to allow it to be printed. This motion was leconded by Dr. Gladstone, and accepted with acclamation by he Fellows present. The President acknowledged the compli- ment.—Dr. A. K. Miller and Dr. Rideal were appointed Icrutators, and a ballot having been taken, the following were leclared elected as Officers and Council for the ensuing year :— #President : W. Crookes, F.R.S. Vice-Presidents who have Filled the office of President: Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S.; @Warren De La Rue, F.R.S.; E. Frankland, F.R.S. ; J. H. silbert, F.R.S. ; J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S. ; A. W. Hofmann, r.R.S.; H. Miiller, F.R.S.; W. Odling, F.R.S.; W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.;. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Sir H. E.! Roscoe, F.R.S.; A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Vice- I i. fr j | } } Presidents : J. Dewar, F.R.S. ; David Howard ; H. McLeod, | P.R.S.; Ludwig Mond; C. Schorlemmer, F.R.S.; W. A. Plilden, F.R.S. Secretaries: H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; J. Millar Thomson. Foreign Secretary: F. R. Japp, F.R.S. freasurer: W. J. Russell, F.R.S. Ordinary Members of Council: Messrs, T. Carnelley, M. Carteighe, A. H. Church, Frank Clowes, P. F. Frankland, R.'J. Friswell, E. Kinch, R. Messel, H. F. Morley, J. A. R. Newlands, W. Ramsay, Thomas Stevenson. April 7.—Mr. William Crookes, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—Researches. on the constitution of azo- and diazo-derivatives ; II. Diazoamido- compounds (continued), by Mr. R. Meldola, F.R.S., and Mr. F. W. Streatfeild.—Conjugated sulphates and isomorphous mixtures of the copper-magnesium group, by Mr. P. C. Roy.— Suboxide of silver, Ag,O, by Mr. G. H. Bailey and Mr. G. J. Fowler.—Action of trimethylenebromide on the sodium com- pounds of ethylic acetoacetate, benzoylacetate, paranitrobenzoyl- acetate, ancl acetonedicarboxylate, by Dr. W. H. Perkin, Jun. Institution of Civil Engineers, April 19.—Mr. Edward Woods, President, in the chair.—Four papers were read on the subject of obtaining water-supply from wells, namely, chalk springs in the London Basin, by Mr. J. W. Grover ; borings in the chalk at Bushey, Herts, by Mr. William Fox ; on a borehole in Leicestershire, by Mr. T. S. Stooke; and the wells and borings of the Southampton Waterworks, by Mr. William Matthews. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, April 25.—M. Janssen, President, in the chair.—Remarks on M. Colladon’s note of April 18, by M. Faye. In reply to M. Colladon’s statement that his obser- vations had reference to whirlwinds and waterspouts and not to cyclones or tornadoes, the author points out the great analogy that exists between these two orders of phenomena, both being descending vortices with vertical axis originating in the upper atmospheric regions. The essential difference is that the cyclones are much larger, and that their movement takes its rise at a much higher elevation ; but both are subject to the same laws, while it is quite: impossible to separate swaterspouts from tornadoes.— Experiments for determining the coefficient of nutritive and respiratory activity of the muscles at work and in repose, by M. A. Chauveau and*M. Kaufmann. Here a solution is attempted of the physiological problem, to determine for a given weight of living muscular tissue and for all the normal and regular physiological conditions of such tissue (1) the quantity of blood flowing through it in a given time for purposes of nutri- tion ; (2) the weight of oxygen absorbed by this tissue, and of the carbonic acid secreted by it in the same time ; (3) the weight of the substances which supply the carbon contained in the carbonic acid gas.—On a new species of truffle, by M. Ad. Chatin. It is shown that the truffle produced in Champagne and Burgundy is not the common species known as Zuber rufum and 7. estivum, but another hitherto undescribed variety here specified and named Tuber uncinatwm.—Remarks on a thunder- bolt of an unusually destructive character, by M. Daniel ‘Colladon. An electric discharge is described which occurred on April 7 at Schoren in the Canton Bern, and which, after striking a large poplar, spread havoc for some hundreds of metres around, com- parable to the effects caused by the explosion of a powder magazine. . The shock was felt in Langenthal, three-quarters of a mile off, where several windows in a house were smashed.— On acute pneumonia, by M. Jaccoud. The observations here described establish the fact that true pneumonia is due not to the accidental penetration of specific microbes into the system, as is usually supposed, but to the development under favourable conditions of microbic germs permanently present. in the system. A chief condition of such development is a sudden chill, which explains the frequent coincidence of lung affections with abrupt changes of temperature.—Note on the method of research for determining the correlation between two orders of facts, by M. de Montessus. The reference is to M. de Parville’s recent paper on the correlation between earthquakes and lunar declina- tion. The difficulty of correlating such phenomena is commented upon, which sufficiently accounts for the failure of the numerous attempts hitherto made to establish a distinct relation between the movements of the moon and those of the terrestrial crust. Such a relation would be equivalent to an experimental demon- stration of the hypothesis which assumes that the centre of the earth is in a fluid state.x—On the earthquake of February 23, 1887, by M. Albert Offret. ‘With the data supplied from the various localities affected, an attempt is here made accurately to determine the moment when the shock reached the different points in the central part of the seismic area. The results are shown in two separate tables for France and Italy.—Expansion 24 NALIURE [May 5, 1887 and compressibility of water, and displacement of the maximum of density by pressure, by M. E. H. Amagat. The author has carried his experiments on water as far as 3200 atmospheres, operating between 0° and 50° C. as limits of temperature, with the general result that a sufficient increase of pressure and tem- perature tends to bring water within the normal condition of other fluids. Towards 3000 atmospheres the last traces dis- appear of the perturbations of the general laws resulting from the existence of the maximum of density.—Isogonic magnetic curves, by M. C. Decharme. The author endeavours to show by a series of diagrams the double magnetic influence to which the needle is subjected in the vicinity of a magnet.—A study of the alkaline vanadates (continued), by M. A. Ditte. Here are ex- amined the vanadates of lithine, to which is appended a general table of the well-defined crystallized salts yielded by potassa, soda, ammonia, and lithine.—Artificial production of magnetite, by M. Alex. Gorgeu. By the process here described a magnetic oxide is obtained apparently identical with natural magnetite. It is attracted by the magnet, shows a metallic lustre, and affects opaque’octahedral forms, sometimes modified by minute facets of the rhomboidal dodecahedron, with hardness from 6.to 6°5, and density 5'21 to 5°25.—Qualitative study of the sulphites in the presence of the hyposulphites and sulphates, by M. A. Villiers. A convenient and rapid process is described for the research of the sulphites in the presence of the hyposulphites, which, like the former, liberate sulphurous acid by the action of the acids. — On the various sulphurous waters of Olette, Eastern Pyrenees, by M. Ed. Willm. Venus. is (3) Colour: decidedly green. : ae (4) Path: it was first seen somewhere near y Geminorum, and in two or three seconds disappeared slowly behind the houses in the direction of Aldebaran. a oe (5) Time of disappearance: 20h. 22m. 19s. May 8. a The time can be relied upon, as my watch was compared on Saturday and again this morning with G.M.T. et Saturn was just visible, and Venus, therefore, must have been very bright, yet she seemed quite dull and yellow by the side of the splendid fireball. MaurRES HORNER. | 28 Upper Montagu Street, W., May 9. om of course invisible, and Aldebaran 4 P.S.—y Geminorum was behind the houses. On Sunday, the 8th inst., at 8.23 p.m., a very brilliant meteor was seen here by a party of four persons, of whom I was one. When I first saw it, it was almost in the zenith, and appeared considerably larger and more luminous than Venus” (which had been visible for some time), though of much the same colour. It crossed the sky in a north-westerly direction, and became invisible about 17° above the horizon. As it tra- velled, a brilliant trail of red light appeared behind it, which increased in length and brightness as it descended, being fully ~~ times longer than the head, when it attained its greatest ength. x a The meteor was one of striking brilliance, and must have been specially so, as the sky which it crossed was still bright with the _ yellow glow of sunset. - IsABEL FRY. ’ 5 The Grove, Highgate, May Io. we ia Residual Affinity. a I wAs greatly interested in Prof. Armstrong’s recent articles on “ Residual Affinity,” as it is a subject I brought before the Royal Society of Edinburgh fully nine years ago, as one of the main causes of solution, molecular compounds, &c. I was, how- ever, somewhat disappointed with the conclusions he came to, : and was tempted to exclaim in Scriptural language, ‘‘Ye did run well ; what did hinder you that you are again entangled in the yoke of dondage?” Prof. Armstrong comes to the conclu- sion that HCl and NH, combine owing to the residual affinity of Cl for N. Now howcan this be? If we regard it froma thermal point of view, we find that, in the combination of HCl with NH, 41,900 units of heat are given out, while the com- __ binations H with Cl and N with H, give out 22,000 and 11,890 units respectively ; that is, the residual affinity of N for Cl, as measured by heat, exceeds by about one-third the sum of the affinities of H for Cl and Hg, for N ; and yet, under ordinary __ circumstances, Cl has very little affinity for N. Isitnot more rational to conclude that the residual affinity isnot confinedtothe negative elements, but extends to both, and that the combination _ of HCI and NH, is due mainly to the residual affinity of Cl and N for H? It is easy to understand that this residual affinity is so lowered in intensity that neither Cl nor N can retain unassisted more than one and three atoms; but when the energy of the H is reduced by combination with another — body, each of them can then act upon it. That residual affinity exists in both positive and negative elements seems to me evident from the fact that the heats of solution of salts in’ water vary directly as the affinity of the metal for the O of the water and also directly as the affinity of the negative element for the — H, as I have pointed out in my letter on ‘‘Laws of Solution,” — in NATURE, vol. xxxiv. p. 263. It seems strange to me that chemists will search out for occult causes of phenomena which can much more easily be explained by what is already known of Lj May 12, 1887] MATURE 31 the actions of one element on another rather than abandon the assumption that chemical affinity acts in definite units. Portobello, April 28. Wo. DURHAM. [Without discussing the general question, I may point out that unfortunately we are at present unable to base any argument on the thermal behaviour of elements, as the fundamental values are entirely unknown: we do not know, for example, what amount of heat would be given out on combination of H and Cl; the value deduced for H,,Cl, by Thomsen being the alge- braic sum of several values, some of which are negative, some positive. —H. E, ARMSTRONG, ] The Spherical Integrator. I FIND that my name has been alluded to in a letter by Prof. Hele Shaw, in your last number (vol. xxxv. p. 581). I shall be glad if you will kindly permit me to state that the idea of reducing the moment of inertia of the sphere in a spherical integrator, by making it hollow, occurred to me while abroad in eria. An account of the modified form is given in the Phd/. Mag., August 1886, p. 147. I now find, from a letter from Prof. Shaw, of this month, that exactly the same method of dealing with the difficulty had occurred to him. At the end of Prof. ‘Shaw’s letter in your last issue the following words are used: ‘* Now in the ‘ sine’ form, of which this integrator is an example, this pin should move in the arc of a circle, and it would be interesting to know if approximately correct results have been obtained with what is in some respects a more convenient device.” From this it would appear that the principle of the instrument is not correct. This morning I received a post-card from Prof. Shaw in which he writes that he had misunderstood the diagrammatic outline in the PA2/. Mag. His wordsare: ‘*You are ap right as you use it ; I was thinking of a contrivance in which the sphere and frame move together.” With respect to M. Ventosa’s letter on the subject, in your paper of a month ago, (p. 513) in which he speaks very favourably of the method of using a hollow sphere, although M. Ventosa used a spherical integrator in a certain form of anemometer at an early date, yet I think _ that all who have seen and read Prof. Shaw’s work will admit that he has expanded the use of the spherical integrator and its mathematical importance in a way which is both masterly and original. FREDK. SMITH. 28 Norham Gardens, Oxford, April 25. THE HENRY DRAPER MEMORIAL. R. HENRY DRAPER, in 1872, was the first to photograph the lines of a stellar spectrum. His investigation, pursued for many years with great skill and ingenuity, was most unfortunately interrupted in 1882 by hisdeath. The recent advances in dry-plate photography have vastly increased our powers of dealing with this subject. Early in 1886, accordingly, Mrs. Draper made a liberal provision for carrying on this investigation at the Harvard College Observatory, as a memorial to her husband. The results attained are described below, and show that an opportunity is open for a very important and extensive investigation in this branch of astronomical physics. Mrs. Draper has accordingly decided greatly to extend the original plan of work, and to have it conducted on a scale suited to its importance. The attempt will be made to include all portions of the subject, so that the final results shall form a complete discussion of the con- stitution and conditions of the stars, as revealed by their spectra, so far as present scientific methods permit. It is hoped that a greater advance will thus be made than if the subject was divided among several institutions, or than if a broader range of astronomical study was attempted. It is expected that a station to be established in the southern hemisphere will permit the work to be extended so that a similar method of study may be applied to stars in all parts of the sky. The investiga- * “ First Annual Report. of the Photographic Study of Stellar Spectra,’”’ Conducted at the Harvard College Observatory.” Edward C. Pickering, ng fo Plate. (Cambridge: John Wilson and Son, University scope, and is again being used as described below. tions already undertaken, and described below more in detail, include a catalogue of the spectra of all stars north of —24° of the sixth magnitude and brighter, a more extensive catalogue of spectra of stars brighter than the eighth magnitude, and a detailed study of the spectra of the bright stars. This last will include a classification of the spectra, a determination of the wave-lengths of the lines, a comparison with terrestrial spectra, and an application of the results to the measurement of the approach and recession of the stars. A special photo- graphic investigation will also be undertaken of the spectra of the banded stars, and of the ends of the spectra of the bright stars. The instruments employed are an 8-inch Voigtlander photographic lens re-ground by Alvan Clark and Sons, and Dr. Draper’s 11-inch photo- graphic lens, for which Mrs. Draper has provided a new mounting and observatory. The 15-inch refractor be- longing to the Harvard College Observatory has also been employed in various experiments with a slit spectro- Mrs, Draper has decided to send to Cambridge a 28-inch re- flector and its mounting, and a 15-inch mirror, which is one of the most perfect reflectors constructed by Dr. Draper, and with which his photograph of the moon was taken. The first two instruments mentioned above have been kept at work during the first part of every clear night for several months. It is now intended that at least three telescopes shall be used during the whole night, until the work is interrupted by daylight. The spectra have been produced by placing in front of the telescope a large prism, thus returning to the method originally employed by Fraunhofer in the first study of stellar spectra. Four 15° prisms have been constructed, the three largest having clear apertures of nearly I1 inches, and the fourth being somewhat smaller. The entire weight of these prisms exceeds a hundred pounds, and they fill a brass cubical box a foot on each side. The spectrum of a star formed by this apparatus is extremely narrow when the telescope is driven by clock- work in the usual way. A motion is accordingly given to the telescope slightly differing from that of the earth by means of a secondary clock controlling it electrically. The spectrum is thus spread into a band, having a width proportional to the time of exposure and to the rate of the controlling clock. This band is generally not uniformly dense. _ It exhibits lines perpendicular to the refracting edge of the prism, such as are produced in the field of an ordinary spectro- scope by particles of dust upon the slit. In the present case, these lines may be due to variations in the trans- parency of the air during the time of exposure, or to in- strumental causes, such as irregular running of the driving clock, or slight changes in the motion of the telescope, resulting from the manner in which its polar axis is supported. These instrumental defects may be too small to be detected in ordinary micrometric or photo- graphic observations, and still sufficient to affect. the photographs just described. A method of enlargement has been tried which gives very satisfactory results, and removes the lines above mentioned as defects in the negatives. A cylindrical lensis placed close to the enlarging lens, with its axis parallel to the length of the spectrum. In the apparatus actually employed, the length of the spectrum, and with it the dispersion, is increased five times, while the breadth is made in all cases about 4 inches. The advantage of this arrangement is, that it greatly reduces the difficulty arising from the feeble light of the star. Until very lately, the spectra in the original negatives were made very narrow, since otherwise the intensity of the starlight would have been insufficient to produce the proper de- composition of the silver particles. The enlargement being made by daylight, the vast amount of energy then available is controlled by the original negative, the action 32 NATURE [May 12, 1887 of which may be compared to that of a telegraphic relay. The copies therefore represent many hundred times the original energy received from the stars. If care is not taken, the dust and irregularities of the film will give trouble, each foreign particle appearing as a fine spectral line. Other methods of enlargement have been considered, and some of them tried, with the object of removing the irregularities of the original spectra without introducing new. defects. For instance, the sensitive plate may be moved during the enlargement in the direction of the spectral lines ; a slit parallel to the lines may be used as the source of light, and the original negative separated by a small interval from the plate used for the copy ; or two cylindrical lenses may be used, with their axes per- pendicular to each other. In some of these ways the lines due to dust might either be avoided or so much reduced in length as not to resemble the true lines of the ‘spectrum. The 15-inch refractor is now being used with a modifica- ‘tion of the apparatus employed by Dr. Draper in his first experiments,—a slit spectroscope from which the slit has been. removed. A concave lens has been substituted for the collimator and slit, and, besides other advantages, a great saving in length is secured: by this change. It is proposed to apply this method to the 28-inch reflector thus utilising its great power of gathering light... ... — The results to be derived from-the large number of photographs already obtained can only be stated after a long series of measurements and a careful reduction and discussion of them. An inspection of the plates, how- ever, shows some points of interest.. A photograph of a Cygni, taken November 26, 1886, shows that the H line is double, its two components having a difference in’ wave-length of about one ten-millionth of a milli- metre, A photograph of o Ceti shows that the lines G and & are bright, as are also four of the ultra- violet lines characteristic of spectra of the first type. The H and K lines in this spectrum are dark, show- ing that they probably do not- belong to that series of lines. The star near x! Orionis, discovered by Gore ‘in December. 1885, gives a similar spectrum, which affords additional evidence that it is a variable of the same class as o Ceti. Spectra of Sirius show a large ages _of faint lines besides the well-known broad mes. = The dispersion employed in any normal map of the Spectrum may be expressed by its scale, that is, by the ‘ratio of the wave-length as represented to the actual wave-length. It will be more convenient to divide these ‘ratios by one million, to avoid the large numbers other- wise involved. If one-millionth ofa millimetre is taken as the unit of wave-length, the length of this unit on the map in millimetres will give the same measure of the ‘dispersion as that just described. When the map is not normal, the dispersion of course ‘varies in different parts. “It increases rapidly towards the violet end when the spectrum is formed by a prism. Accordingly, in this case the dispersion given will be that of the point whose wave-length is 400. This point lies near the middle 6f ‘the photographic spectrum when a prism ‘is used, and is ‘not far from the H line. The dispersion may accordingly be found with sufficient accuracy by measuring the interval between ‘the H and K lines, and dividing the result in millimetres by 3°4, since the difference in their wave- lengths equals this quantity. The following examples serve to illustrate the dispersion expressed in this way : Angstrom, Cornu; 10; Draper, photograph of normal solar spectrum, 3'1 and 5:2; Rowland, 23, 33, and 46; Draper, stellar spectra, 016; Huggins,‘ o'1. . Fig. 1, 006 ; Fig. 2, o'10; Fig. 3, 0°63; Fig. 4, 1°3; Figs. 5 and 6, 6°5. The most rapid plates are needed in this work, other considerations being generally of less importance. Ac- | last for five minutes, and the rate of the clock is su that the spectra have a width of about ol cm. The length of the spectra is about 1°2 cm. for the brighter, -cycle of. observations, which has already been — -been measured, and a large part of the reduction cordingly the Allen and Rowell Extra Quick plates have been used until recently. It was found, however, that they were surpassed by the Seed Plates No. 21, which were accordingly substituted for them early in December. Recognising the importance of supplying this demand for the most sensitive plates possible, the Seed. Company have recently succeeded in making still more sensitive plates, which we are now using. ld a structed. . sea The progress of the various investigations which are to form a part of this work is given below:—- (1) Catalogue of Spectra of Bright. Stars.—This is a continuation of the work undertaken with the aid ofan — appropriation from the Bache Fund, and described in the ‘Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. xi. p. 210. - The 8-inch telescope is used, each photograph covering region 10° square. The exposures for 4 and 0°6 cm. for the fainter. stars. The dispersion on th scale proposed above is o'1. The spectra of all stars of the sixth magnitude and brighter will generally be found upon these plates, except in the case of red stars. Many fainter blue stars also appear. Three or four exposures are made upon a single plate. The entire sky north of — 24° would be covered twice, according to this plan, with 180 plates and 690 exposures. It is found preferable in some cases to make only two exposures ; and when the é plate appears to be a poor one, the work is repeated. The number of plates is. therefore increased. — “Last — summer. the plates appeared. 10 Re 0s a. ar Dust on the prisms seemed to be. the explanation of this difficulty. Many regions were re-observed on this account. The first cycle, covering the entire sky from zero to twenty- four hours of right ascension, has been completed. The — ‘work will be finished during the coming year by a second ~ The first cycle contains 257 plates, all of which have B pleted. 8313 spectra have been measured on them, aces -nearly all of which have been identified, and the pl of a greater portion of the stars brought forward to the year 1900, and entered in catalogue form. . In the second cycle, 64 plates have been taken, and about as many more will be required. . 51. plates have been measured and identified, including 2974 spectra. A study of the photo- graphic brightness and. distribution of the light in the — spectra will also be made. : The results will be published in the form of a catalogue _resembling the Photometric. Catalogue given in vol. xiv. of the Annals of Harvard College Observatory. It will contain the approximate place of each star for 1900, its designation, the character of the spectrum as derived from each of the plates in which it was photographed, Fa, in gl ee aa yee | SWSIYq p SINONI/ SINVD 2% Q = S) Ky NX = 34 NATURE | May 12, 1887 - . the references to these plates, and the photographic brightness of the star. (2) Catalogue of Spectra of Faint Stars.—This work resembles the preceding, but is much more extensive. The same instrument is used, but each region has an exposure of an hour, the rate of the clock being such that the width of the spectrum will be as beforeo'rcm. Many stars of the ninth magnitude will thus be included, and nearly all brighter than the eighth. In one case, over three hundred spectra are shown on a single plate. This work has been carried on only in the intervals when the telescope was not needed for other purposes. 99 plates have however been obtained, and on these 4442 spectra have been measured. It is proposed to complete € equatorial zones first, gradually extending the work northward. In all, 15,729 spectra of bright and faint stars have been measured. (3) Detatled Study of the Spectra of the Brighter Stars.— This work has been carried on with the 11-inch photo- graphic telescope used by Dr. Draper in his later re- searches. A wooden observatory was constructed about 20 feet square. This was surmounted by a dome having a clear diameter of 18 feet on the inside. The dome had a wooden frame, sheathed and covered with canvas. It rested on eight cast-iron wheels, and was easily moved by hand, the power being directly applied. Work was begun upon it in June, and the first observations were made with the telescope in October. Two prisms were formed by splitting a thick plate of glass diagonally. These gave such good results that two others were made in the same way, and the entire battery of four prisms is ordinarily used. The safety and convenience of handling the prisms is greatly increased by placing them in square brass boxes, each of which slides into place like a drawer. Any combination of the prisms may thus be employed. As is usual in such an investigation, a great variety of difficulties have been encountered, and the most im- portant of them have now been overcome. (4) Faint Stellar Spectra —The 28-inch reflector will be used for the study of the spectra of the faint stars, and also for the fainter portions near the ends of the spectra of the brighter stars. The form of spectroscope men- tioned above, in which the collimator and slit are replaced by a concave lens, will be tried. The objects to be examined are, first, the stars known to be variable, with the expectation that some evidence may be afforded of the cause of the variation. The stars whose spectrum is known to be banded, to contain bright lines, or to be peculiar in other respects, will also be examined system- atically. Experiments will also be tried with ortho- chromatic plates and the use of a coloured absorbing medium, in order to photograph the red portions of the spectra of the bright stars. Quartz will also be tried to extend the images towards the ultra-violet. (5) Absorption Spectra.—The ordinary form of com- parison spectrum cannot be employed on account of the absence of a slit. The most promising method of deter- mining the wave-lengths of the stellar spectra is to inter- pose some absorbent medium. Experiments are in pro- gress with hyponitric fumes and other substances. A tank containing one of these materials is interposed, and the spectra photographed through it. The stellar spectra will then be traversed by lines resulting from the absorp- tion of the media thus interposed, and, after their wave- lengths are once determined, they serve as a precise standard to which the stellar lines may be referred. The absorption-lines of the terrestrial atmosphere would form the best standard for this purpose if those which are sufficiently fine can be photographed. (6) Wave-Lengths.—The determination of the wave- lengths of the lines in the stellar spectra will form an important part ofthe work which has not yet been begun. The approximate wave-lengths can readily be found from a comparison with the solar spectrum, a sufficient number _an opportunity to erect to the name of Dr. Henry Draper — of solar lines being present in most stellar spectra. Asa difference of one ten-millionth of a millimetre in wave- length exceeds half a millimetre in Figs. 5 and 6 of the accompanying plate, the readings may be made with considerable accuracy by a simple inspection. For greater precision special precautions are necessary on account of the deviation caused by the approach and recession of the stars. The deviation found by Dr Huggins in the case of Sirius would correspond to a change in the position of the lines of Figs. 5 andGof about half a millimetre. If, then, satisfactory results are obtained in the preceding investigation, the motion of the stars can probably be determined with a high de 4 of precision. The identification of the lines with .. a of terrestrial substances will of course forma part ofthe work, but the details will be considered subsequently. — 4 From the above statement it will be seen that photo graphic apparatus has been furnished on a =~ = equalled elsewhere. But what is more important, Mrs. Draper has not only provided the means for ke ‘ping sia these instruments actively employed, several of them during the whole of every clear night, but also of reducing the results by a considerable force of computers, and of publishing them in a suitable form. .A field of work great extent and promise is open, and there seems to | a memorial such as heretofore no astronomer has received. — One cannot but hope that such an example may be imi- © tated in other departments of astronomy, and that here- after other names may be commemorated, not bya need- less duplication of unsupported observatories, but by the more lasting monuments of useful work accomplished. EDWARD C. PICKERING, ~~ Director of Harvard College Observatory. Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A., March 1, 1887. ~~ 9 2 SCIENCE AND GUNNERY: I [% the last lecture which Prof. Tyndall delivered at the Royal Institution, he expressed a doubt as towhether extensive reading and study had nota tendency ae a original genius, whether doctrines handed down for — generations as articles of faith, which it would be heresy © to dispute, had not materially checked the of — science. Had he wished to illustrate his theory, he could not have had better examples than are to be found inthe administration of our naval and military systems. Ithas been a reproach to us, as by far the greatest maritime nation of the world, that we have no School of Ship- __ building, that, until quite recently, naval officers havehad no instruction except such as they could get in the practical execution of their duties, and no method existed of testing their knowledge except such rough-and-ready examina- __ tions as their superior officers could administer. Yet under these seeming disadvantages the Navy and the -merchant service have kept in the forefront of progress, and have adopted all the newest discoveries of science, or of practical skill, as fast as they have been brought to — li: ht. ; isa eon the other hand, the officers of Artillery and ppm stor ‘ have long been considered as belonging to the scientific branches of the service ; they have been regularly trained in schools in which theory and history have been taught, and the consequence seems to be that it is most difficult to make the departments with which they are connected move with the times. How else can it be explained that = we have adhered to wrought iron as a material for guns, — and to muzzle-loaders, long after nations esteemed semi- barbarous have used steel and constructed breech- loaders? or how can we explain the waste of millions in constructing fortifications of patterns long obsolete, and which show no more originality than that exhibited in using Ph Cea ee May 12, 1887] NATURE 35 im some places‘iron instead of stone to resist the greater energy of modern projectiles? Not but that there have been many men both in the Artillery and Engineers who _ have seen the unfitness of what we have been doing, and __ have energetically protested against it, but they have not _ had force enough at the War Office to overcome the _ inertia due to the complacency derived from, perhaps, just _ pride in a profound knowledge of books. __We do not go quite the length of Dr. Tyndall’s opinions, though we admit that there is much truth in them; we recognise the difficulty of teaching in advance, if we may use the expression; but there can be no doubt that precedent and routine have much to answer for, and account for the reluctance of Professors to admit that _ many of the old methods of fortification and artillery are as dead and useless as the matchlock or the old castle. _ Besides these considerations derived from experience of the services, we have the fact that most of the original inventions in the construction of guns and carriages have been the work of civil engineers and mechanics, who have been unhampered by precedent and unchecked by authority, and this circumstance must be our apology, as a non-professional paper, for devoting some space to a discussion of the present state of the science of fortifica- tion, especially with regard to our own coast defences. It cannot be disputed, in the first place, that the pro- jectiles delivered by modern guns are distinguished by greatly extended range, by much greater accuracy of flight, by immensely greater weight and destructive power, and at increased rapidity and precision of firing ; but on the other hand it must also be admitted that in fighting at long ranges there will be greater waste of ammunition, and that, to put it plainly, excitement and fright go far to neutralise the advantages gained by our improved weapons, and that, consequently, defensive works should be planned so as to give the utmost possible security and sense of safety to the garrison. It is only necessary to study the records of recent naval actions, such as those during the War of Secession in the United States, the bombardment of Alexandria, or fights with dense hordes of savages in the Soudan and elsewhere, to be satisfied of the fact that the amount of destruction caused is small compared with the terrific fire employed. In the case of attack by artillery on shore the results are not so unsatisfactory, the steadi- ness of the platform, the accurately known range, the immovability of the gun and object fired at, the fact that the best and steadiest soldiers can be selected to aim, and that any nervousness in the gunner does not unsteady the gun, makes the fire of field and siege artillery approach much more nearly to what can be attained in times of peace; but even then, as in the Navy, smartness and rapidity of fire, the descendants of time-honoured drill, lee 9 by excitement, are often the cause of a lament- able sacrifice of accuracy. To make good shooting it is imperative that the men should be reasonably safe, especially against wholesale slaughter such as is caused by the bursting of a shell in a casemate, and this necessity is all the more imperative at the beginning of a war, when most of the soldiers have as yet never heard the shriek of a shell at their ears, or witnessed its terrifying effects. The shooting should be slow and deliberate in order to be effective, the result of each shot should be ascertained, for it must be remembered that the costly charges now fired are no more effective than those of the old smooth-bore artillery unless they reach their destination. Next, the advantage of longrange,accuracy, and rapidity of fire is in a great degree neutralised by the dense volumes of smoke produced by the modern large charges of powder, and although smoke may prove a valuable protection against the accuracy of an enemy’s fire, it undoubtedly limits one’s own offensive power except under certain conditions to which we will refer again. In the last place, it may be conceded that an object which you cannot see you cannot aim at; that to be invisible is better than to be protected by armour, and this desirable condition of safety is easily attained in the case of coast defences against ships, because a ship, being always more or less in motion, even when at anchor, can never mark accurately any object of which it can get only an occasional peep. Thus, at the bombardment of Alexandria, one of the un- doubted advantages on the side of the defenders was that some of their batteries were not to be distinguished from the irregular features of the rocky coast, and their pre- sence could only be detected by the puffs of smoke from their guns. Even the old-established rules relating to fortifications admit the necessity of concealment; the greatest secrecy is maintained as to the internal economy of forts; access to them cannot be obtained without great difficulty, although we believe that little or nothing is to be gained by such precautions. What should be concealed is the fort itself, and its construction should be of such a nature that the fire of an enemy could not reach the essential mountings and stores it is intended to protect. Even Nature teaches us a lesson in this respect : animals liable to be the prey of others construct their nests of a form and colour and dispose of them so as to be invisible from a short distance, and even the colour of their plum- age or their fur is made to assimilate to the tints which surround them; and the tactics they employ when in _danger are to lie still so as not to attract attention. The propositions which we have laid down, and which we do not imagine can be disputed, are of a nature to condemn at once the old systems of fortification, which appear to us to be specially contrived to afford the peculiar advantages which an enemy would desire ; nor are alter- native and more rational methods wanting, for as far back as May 7, 1869, at the Royal Institution of Great Britain, a paper, describing a new system of coast fortification calculated to meet the changes in artillery and the modern conditions of naval attack, was read by Colonel Moncrieff. In that paper the principle of concealment was laid down, the manner of carrying out the system explained, and the first workable disappearing gun-carriage, which made the realisation of the principles enunciated practicable, was described. The time for bringing the matter before the public was also opportune, because the loan which had been con- tracted for strengthening the defences of the country had not all been expended, while the advance in the range and power of artillery was beginning to be fully realised. The authorities, however, were blind to the principles involved ; they accepted, indeed, the disappearing gun, but they rejected the system of which it was only a detail. It would have been better had they accepted the system, and rejected the gun-carriage. The consequence of this incredible want of common-sense and discernment has been that a series of misapplications of the methods advocated by Colonel Moncrieff have been perpetrated by the War Office, as, for example, at Milford Haven, Hubberston, Newhaven, Popston, &c. In some of these forts the emplacements for the disappearing guns are actually formed on the top of casemates, crowded into the most conspicuous positions possible. : Those who have had an opportunity of witnessing the trials of guns and their carriages at the Royal Arsenal, must have been struck with the marvellous resistance which a heap of earth opposes to the proof shots fired into it. An insignificant mound stops the heaviest pro- jectiles fired at a few yards’ range from the most powerful guns loaded with proof charges, the mound remains unin- jured, though daily subjected to blows which would soon wreck any structure mace of the most solid materials. The Moncrieff system is specially adapted to take advantage of this stubborn resistance of earth, and that circumstance alone should have commended it to the official mind long years ago, especially as, in addition, the necessarily slight 36 [May 12, 1887 inclination of the slopes affords the farther protection derived from the shot glancing off them. . But even the partial recognition of the principle of concealment, the principle of opposing a bank of earth rather than walls of masonry or iron to the tremendous missiles of the present day, flickered and died out ; and the War Office, returning to its evil ways, has, within the last few years, erected at enormous cost batteries made as con- spicuous as possible, often more than one story high, and has sought to keep out the fire, which these arrangements are calculated to draw, by clothing the batteries with more iron armour, or protecting the embrasures with stronger iron shields ; while to make the work of the enemy more easy, and our defence more difficult, the guns have been massed together in the orthodox style, so that but a portion of them are ever likely to come into action, while the men in the whole battery will be “demoralised”—this, we believe, is the technical expression—by a shell bursting in any one of the convenient funnel-shaped openings considerately presented for their reception. The smoke, likewise, of so many guns is certain to prove most prejudicial to good shooting, and within the forts themselves are generally placed the barracks, which must necessarily soon be reduced to ruin, either by direct or by curved fire, and thus increase the confusion and loss of life in action. No human being, it seems to us, can with impunity stand the constant strain of such conditions on the nervous system. When off work, the garrison of a fort should be safe, their lodging should be secure, their meals should be eaten in peace and security, and the sick and wounded should not be harassed by noise and turmoil. For these reasons the barracks should be at a distance from the battery, and should be hid away out of the enemy’s sight, and connected with the battery by covered or screened ways. In elevated positions, such as are occupied by some of the forts in the Isle of Wight, the natural features of the ground should have been taken advantage of, so as to render them invisible, the guns mounted in open barbette should be painted such a colour as to render them incon- spicuous, instead of the uniform black now adopted, and Nature should be allowed to obliterate as much as possible, by the growth of brushwood and grass, the changes which the Engineers may have been compelled to make in the contour of the country. The Inspecting-General and the public generally, would, no doubt, not be able to gaze with delight on the trim slopes, the regular lines, and the frowning cannon, but ample compensation for this will be found in the circumstance that, in time of need, the enemy would be equally at fault. Again, in coast defences near to the water, the guns, instead of being concentrated, should be dispersed, each gun should have a wide lateral range, the guns should retire out of sight and of exposure, except for the few moments required to lay and fire them. The emplace- ments should be connected with each other and with the barracks by screened roads, and bomb-proof rooms should be provided for the use of the men on duty when not required to work the guns. The screened roads, having parapets towards the sea, and towards the land also if necessary, would serve the triple purpose of intrenchments, interior lines of communication, and em- placements for light artillery to repel landings. It may be urged that such work would prove costly on account of the large area of land required, but that would not be the case. The strips of land for roads or military tramways, and the small plots for emplacements, would be as cheaply obtained as for a railway, and by virtue of similar powers ; in most places the cost of land would not be greater than that of armoured structures, the slopes and glacis would be just as available after as before for cultivation, and need not even be purchased, while, if definite plans could at once be adopted for our extensive coasts, a most useful class of work would be available in NATURE bad times, such as now press upon us, for the unemployed, and the relief would be widely felt because works are ~ needed all over the kingdom. The recent experiments at Portland have proved beyond all question that it is next to impossible for a ship at even so small a range as 800 yards, to hit a gun appearing out of a pit for three minutes, when the pit is so arranged, as it is the essential feature of the Moncrieff system that it should be, that its position cannot be detected from the sea. But three minutes is at least six times as long an exposure as is necessary ; indeed, the art of determining the exact position of ships approaching coast batteries has been brought to such perfection that the officer in command of each gun would receive from the observing station messages as to the exact position of the enemy, the training and elevation to be given to the gun, the proper moment for raising it into action, and even, by means of electric fuses, the guns may be fired by the observing officer without risk to a single man, and with an exposure of the guns of less duration than the time required for the flight of a projectile at long range. Contrast such arrangements as these with the open barbette battery at Inchkeith, constructed as if on purpose a to offer a conspicuous target, and which recent experi- ments have proved to be correspondingly vulnerable ; or as with the quite recently constructed turret, mounting a 1o0- inch gun at Eastbourne, where the projectile of a machine- gun disabled the 27-ton cannon, and one shot from a — 6-inch breech-loader knocked off several feet of its barrel. A careful study of the numerous papers on coast a defence read before the United Service Institution, and the discussions, in which many eminent officers of all branches of the service took part, convinces us of the correctness of the views we are maintaining, and the need which exists for laying down organised plans of — defence not only for places already protected, but forour long, and in many éases easily accessible, coast-lines. The smoke, which all the speakers agreed in recognising as a great evil in concentrated batteries, would scarcely be any impediment when the guns are scattered, partly because, under most circumstances, the smoke would blow away from each emplacement without obscuring its own gun, or the others, and partly because the observing — officer would be above the smoke, and could always make out the enemy. The smoke itself offers a very feeble indication of the precise locality of the gun which produced it, partly Because it is projected a good way from the emplacement at once, partly because the wind in most cases will blow ‘ it away to one side or the other. This was fully proved at Portland, when the puffs of smoke sent up as the gun - 4 disappeared proved of no assistance to the attack. . But it may be urged, by those unacquainted with the subject, that so formidable a work as raising a heavy gun into the firing position, and checking its recoil and its fall at the same time, would involve cumbersome machinery _ and the employment of steam or other power. The answer is, that the energy of the discharge itself has been utilised to do all that is required. The public has been. much interested of late in the beautiful mechanism by means of which Mr. Maxim has utilised the energy of recoil, not only to run out the barrel of his gun at every shot, but also to perform all the opera- tions of loading and firing automatically, and that at a rate which almost baffles the imagination. shots per minute can be fired without any external power being used. The energy imparted to the shot must have its counterpart in the movement of the gun and carriage in the opposite direction ; and Colonel Moncrieff, twenty years ago, showed how, by suitable mechanical arrange- ments, guns of all sizes could be made to recoil under cover and be raised again into the firing position without the application of external force. There are two systems by which this is accomplished, by means of counter- Six hundred — wh Na TO ala ge A ala ta eee in May 12, 1887] NATURE R94 weights and by means of metallic or air springs. In the former case it is easy to see how the counterweight can be so arranged that the work represented by the falling of the gun may be exactly balanced by the work of lifting the balance weight; the energy of recoil, therefore, need only be drawn upon to overcome the friction of the descent and the subsequent friction of ascent, together with the accelerating force necessary to start the gun into smart upward movement. The total amount of work expended in friction does not probably exceed 20 per cent. of the work of raising the gun, and consequently the old muzzle-loaders, with their comparatively small charges and low muzzle velocities of projectile, yield ample power to allow the guns to be lowered completely beyond the reach of hostile shot. This is a consideration of great importance, because year by year a large number of excellent muzzle-loading guns of all calibres will be returned into store from the Navy, and may at once be utilised for strengthening our coast defences, for they are quite powerful enough to act against unarmoured vessels, light-draught transports, and such like, as well as against the unprotected parts of ironclads ; while as howitzers they would be invaluable for preventing landing from boats, and for this service would be quite as effective as the longer, more costly, and more delicately-made breech-loaders, which, however, should be associated with them to resist ironclads. It so happens, also, that the short muzzle-loader is particularly well suited to the Moncrieff carriage, because the men engaged in loading, training, and elevating, working com- pletely under the parapet, are in absolute safety from the enemy’s fire, and the only man exposed is he who lays the gun, and even that exposure, as we have already remarked, can often be dispensed with. The muzzle-loaders are also much more simple weapons to manage than the modern, more powerful guns, and would therefore be better fitted for coast batteries, which would undoubtedly have to be manned and worked by Volunteers and men not so highly trained as the Artillery of the regular army. Some years ago, the War Office definitely adopted the Moncrieff counterweight carriage, and mounted, success- fully, guns as large as the 9-inch of 12 tons weight ; but after a time evil counsels prevailed, inveterate prejudice triumphed, and the nation has been saddled with a vast expenditure on forts, which are already obsolete, for by no sort of ingenuity can they be made to carry artillery - fitted to cope with that which will be opposed to them. Not that the system was ever rightly applied: Colonel Moncrieff, though attached to the War Department for the express purpose of developing his views, does not appear to have been consulted as to the arrangement of his batteries, or, if consulted, his views were ignored, and the consequence is that, in the case of the comparatively few guns which have been mounted, most of the em- placements are made as conspicuous as possible, and in that way the inestimable advantages of concealment have been thrown away. The counterweight system, however, becomes very cumbersome when guns exceed some 20 tons in weight. Recourse can then be had to compressed air as a means of storing the energy of recoil. But the work done in com- pressing air reveals itself in the form of heat, which raises its temperature, and is slowly dissipated as it cools. Again, the air, in expanding to raise the gun, is cooled by the amount of heat converted into work, and its pressure is thereby reduced, so that the losses on these two accounts, added to the somewhat increased friction of the machinery, set a limit to the height to which the stored energy of recoil can raise the gun: the increased charges used in modern artillery, however, compensate for these losses, and it is possible by hydro-pneumatic arrangement to give efficient cover to the heaviest guns. The natural fear arises lest the introduction of water _ and compressed air may not add elements of danger in the facility with which dirt and debris, not sufficient to injure an ordinary mounting, may affect the more com- plicated arrangement. There is no doubt that a breech- loading gun requires more care in its use than a muzzle- loader, and a hydro-pneumatic mounting is not so simple as a carriage with an ordinary friction or hydraulic compressor, but experience with the 6-inch hydro- pneumatic siege carriage has shown that the system is capable of enduring very rough usage, and is by no means easily deranged. The Australian colonies, acting under the advice of the late General Scratchley and General Steward, seem to be more intelligent and far-seeing than the mother country, and have acquired a considerable number of breech-loading guns, mounted on the system recom- mended, and carried out completely in all its details. It is difficult to see how official opposition can long brave the assaults made on it by common-sense, and the glaring defects of the old methods. (To be continued.) THE TEMPERATURE OF THE CLYDE SEA-AREA. if be the spring of 1886 a regular system of temperature observations was commenced in the water of the Clyde sea-area, by the staff of the Scottish Marine Station, under the personal superintendence of Mr. John Murray of the Challenger Commission. The work has since proceeded steadily, and will probably be continued to the close of the present year. Previous to 1886, few temperature observa- tions had been recorded dealing with the deep water on the west coast. of Scotland ; these were almost entirely the work of Mr. J. Y. Buchanan on occasional summer cruises. The scope of the present investigation is limited chiefly by the capabilities of the Marine Station’s steam-yacht Medusa. She is a vessel of 30 tons, yacht measurement, steaming 6 knots in ordinary circumstances ; but not adapted for working amongst the tremendous tidal currents of the North Channel except in the calmest weather. On the other hand, her small size, and the convenient arrangement of a steam-winch for working the sounding-line enables observations to be made with great rapidity in quiet water. Inside of Cantyre, soundings have been obtained in almost every kind of weather, and the present article will deal with this part of the west coast only. The Clyde sea-area} comprises all the connected water- system, 1300 square miles in extent, lying to the north of a line drawn from the Mull of Cantyre to Corsewall Point in Wigtownshire. This line corresponds nearly to the 50-fathom contour ; outside it the depth increases rapidly to over 80 fathoms ; towards the inner or northern side it diminishes at first, and then remains at about 27 fathoms over an area of 270 square miles. This bank is termed the Clyde Barrier Plateau; it crosses from Cantyre to Ayrshire, past the south end of Arran, and around Ailsa Craig. The shallowest water covers a ridge at a depth of about 20 fathoms from the surface. The water deepens on the inside of the Plateau to form the Arran Basin, which in form resembles the letter \, surrounding Arran on the west, east, and north, and running up into Lower Loch Fyne. The depth in this basin exceeds 50 fathoms over 100 square miles ; the deepest water, 107 fathoms, occurs off Skate Island, near Tarbert. A much smaller depression runs in a straight line from the Cumbraes to Dog Rock at the mouth of Loch Goil. It is known as the Dunoon Basin, and has an average depth of 40 fathoms and a maximum of 56, Of the numerous lochs, reference will be made to two only, Upper Loch Fyne and Loch Goil. The former measures 25 miles from Otter Ferry to the head ; it consists of a basin 30 fathoms deep, bounded by channels having an For detailed description and map see Scottish Geographical Magazine for January 1887. 38 NATURE [May 12, 1887 average depth of less than 15 fathoms at Otter Ferry and Minard Narrows, and of a much longer and deeper basin beyond ; the maximum depth of the latter (80 fathoms) is found off Strachur. Loch Goil, only 7 miles long and 47 fathoms deep in the centre, is cut off from the Dunoon Basin by a barrier rising to within 1o fathoms of the sur- face, and is thus exactly similar in its situation to Upper Loch Fyne. The average depth over the whole Clyde sea- area is 31 fathoms, and it contains approximately 150,000 million tons of sea-water. The estuary of the River Clyde is both narrow and extremely shallow, and the river does not appear to affect the Firth to such an extent as the Forth does the firth bearing its name. The submarine features of the Clyde sea-area are varied and complicated ; and this character is shared by the surface of the intervening land, producing a diversity of mountain, glen, and plain, and corresponding effects of sunshine, cloud, and mist, that lend to the temperature cruises a picturesque charm such as rarely invests physical research. The cruises take place at intervals of about 50 days, and each occupies a little more than a week. Observa- tions are repeated at about sixty stations, distributed over the whole area. The temperature is ascertained at the surface, at 5 and 10 fathoms, and at distances of 10 fathoms down to the bottom. Whenevera considerable difference is noted in the readings of two adjacent thermometers, observations are repeated at close intervals between them, so that when the curve of vertical distribution of tempera- ture is drawn, points are most numerous where they are most wanted, at the regions of change of curvature. All temperature observations are made with Messrs. Negretti and Zambra’s patent standard deep-sea thermometers. These are mounted in the Scottish frame, and are re- versed by the fall of a brass-messenger. Three thermo- meters are used on the line at once. The readings may be relied upon to one-tenth of a degree Fahrenheit, except when the sea is rough ; then the very lively motion of the Medusa introduces a little uncertainty, on account of the difficulty of reading. A slight correction for change of volume of the detached column of mercury is necessary when the temperature of the water differs more than 5° F. from that of the air; the air-temperature being observed by the wet-bulb sling-thermometer. A slip water-bottle is used on the line along with the thermometers, and samples of water are secured from various depths. The entire set.of observations made on the Clyde sea- area, up to November 1886, have been published in the last number of the Scottish Meteorological Society’s Journal ; and for the purpose of giving a general idea of the main results as yet ascertained, it will suffice to de- scribe the varying seasonal conditions in three typical regions, and then to indicate the general distribution of temperature in the whole area throughout the year. In the Worth Channel, near the Mull of Cantyre, observa- tions could only be made on five cruises, and of these only two could be extended far enough to reach deep water, that of April 16, when the weather was remarkably fine, and that of September 22, when Mr. Mathieson, of Liverpool, was kind enough to give the use of his large steam-yacht Ozmara for the purpose. The result of all the observations is shown graphically in Fig, 1. The distribution was always uniform from surface to bottom (except for a variation of not more than 1° in the superficial layer) ; and, as the accompanying figures show, there was a steady rise of temperature from April to Sep- tember, while by December there had been a marked fall. It is noticeable that in all cases except December the surface water was a little warmer than that beneath; in December it was a little colder. Temperature :— April 16 June 19 ° 47 4 August 12 52°5 September 22 54°5 December 25 42'0 48°5 The annual range, so far as observations go, appears to be about 12°5 F.. The uniformity of temperature through- out the mass of water continues over the Plateau, but gives place to a slightly different distribution in the deep Arran Basin. Off Skate Island eight observations have been made between March 1886 and February 1887, and the curves presenting their results are given in Fig. 2. The actual figures observed for surface and bottom are :— March 27 April r9 June 21 Aug. ro Surface ......... 41 ‘4 43 8 43° 3 53°6 Bottom ......... 41°5 41°3 44°0 45°6 Sept. 26 Nov. 16 Dec. 29 Feb. 7 | ° ° ce) ° Surface: ...4..<.. 54°7 49°3 46°6 43°7 Bottom ......... 47°4 51‘l 47°4 44°3 The range of temperature on the surface thus appears to be 13°°3, and on the bottom 9°°8. The maximum surface Fic. 1.—Channel. temperature was observed in September, the maximum bottom temperature in November. The continuous curves (Fig. 2) show the course of heating ; the broken lines that of cooling. They illustrate the development of conditions hinted at in the curves for the Channel. Starting with a practically uniform temperature of 41°°4 in March, the water had heated considerably on the surface, and cooled very slightly at the bottom, by April. From that time it warmed throughout, the surface most rapidly, and a mass of water next the bottom was warmed uniformly. The depth of this mass steadily decreased, until in September there was an unbroken gradient of temperature, falling from surface to bottom. By November the surface had chilled considerably ; but at 24 fathoms the temperature was the same as in September, and below that depth higher ; there being little change from 30 fathoms to the bottom. In succeeding months the fall of tempera- ture has proceeded nearly uniformly, the curve approach- ing the form of a straight line, gradually becoming more nearly perpendicular. It will be noticed that the curves are not in all cases perfectly regular, but the deviations May 12, 1887 | NATURE 39 that they might almost be attributed to errors of observation, or to the use of slightly erroneous corrections for the thermometers. This is not the true explanation, as the next group of curves illustrates. ca Strachur is near the deepest part of Upper Loch Fyne ; the water which the depression contains is cut off from communication with the outside by the double doors of are so slight _ Otter and Minard with a shallow hollow between. Eight sets of observations have been made, as follows :— April 20 June er Aug. 11 Aug, 25 Surface ......... 2°6 49°2 54°1 53°5 BOLLOM). ..,...... 41°9 44° 44°2 44°2 Sept. 27 Nov. 17 Dec. 29 Feb. 4 ; ° ° ° o DUrtAce %..... 52°4 46'4 4I‘O 43'0 Bottom .......:. 44°1 44°2 44°7 45°9 Fic. 2,—Skate Island. the range of temperature on the bottom has as yet been only 4°; but it is impossible, until further observations have been made, to speak definitely about this. The most re- markable thing apparent from the above figures is that from June to December there should only have been a change of half a degree Fahrenheit in bottom temperature ; but an examination of the curves in Fig. 3, will bring out some other curious relations. In April a uniform tempera- ture of 41°°9 was found under Io fathoms, and this was quite analogous to all the other April observations, In June the surface was found greatly warmed, but at 15 fathoms the temperature was only half a degree higher than it was two months before (42°°5): beneath that point there had been considerable rise of temperature (to 44°'1), so that the phenomenon was presented of a layer of cold water with warmer water above and beneath. It may be men- tioned in passing that but for Negretti and Zambra’s outflow thermometers this singular distribution could not have been traced out, perhaps not even detected ; as, using the deep-sea thermometers on Sixe’s principle, the natural induction would have been that below 15 fathoms the temperature was uniform at 42°°5. In August this mini- mum had almost disappeared, though a trace of it remained at 35 fathoms, the point where the August curve merges with that for June. By September surface cooling had begun, but below 2 fathoms and downto 50 there was Fic. 3.—Strachur, a rise of temperature. At the latter depth the temperature became constant to the bottom at 44°'2 as before. Novem- ber and December showed the gradual cooling of the surface, and the still more gradual motion downwards of the point of maximum temperature. In December the bottom water had begun to warm, and in February the much attenuated maximum had reached to 45 fathoms, and the remains of summer heat had fairly influenced the bottom temperature. Many more very interesting relations will become apparent from the study of the interlacing curves of Fig. 3, which, with some modifications, are applicable also to Loch Goil, a rock basin “ similar and similarly situated” to Loch Fyne. HuGH ROBERT MILL. (To be continued.) DR. JUNKER. N OT since Greely told his story to the Royal Geograph- ical Society has there been so crowded and enthusias- tic an audience at Burlington Gardens as assembled on Monday night to welcome Dr. Junker, who, during the last ten years, has done so much good work for geography and science in the important region between the Upper Nile, 40 NATURE — [May 12,1 887 the Congo, and Lake Chad. Dr. Junker said little of himself and his own work on Monday night ; he spoke mainly of the Mahdi rebellion and of his friend Emin Pasha. By the aid of the fine large maps which were shown (one of them drawn by Schweinfurth), and the few details which Dr. Junker did give, the audience ob- tained a fair idea of the extent and value of his work, Dr. Junker, who was born in 1840, and had an excellent scientific training at St. Petersburg, G6ottingen, Berlin, and Prag, first went to Egypt in 1875, and between that and 1879 travelled extensively in the region of the Western Nile tributaries, as far as the Tondi and Wau affluents of the Bahr-el-Ghazal. On Monday night, however, he confined himself to the journeys of the last six years, which have been spent in exploring the Niam-Niam and Monbuttu countries, set- tling the problem of the course of the Wellé-Makua, and endeavouring to ascertain the watershed that divides the basin of the Congo from that of the Nile and Lake Chad. Dr. Junker’s journeys have gone far to solve this problem, and to settle that the Wellé-Makua dis its waters into the Congo through the Mobangi, y has been explored by Mr. Grenfell. As will be from the map, the region traversed by Dr. Junke a complicated network of rivers, which it will many journeys to unravel and chart with accuracy. reach the field of his last six years’ exploration, Junker went up the Bahr-el Ghazal to Djur Ghatta, hence across the various southern affluents of the G to Dem-Zebehr, and then southwards to the tow Ndoruma, the powerful prince of the Niam-Ni Junker’s considerate and generous treatment of natives gained for him a welcome wherever he Ndoruma may be said to have been his head-qu where he built his houses and planted his ge though he himself could not rest there for many we z ett ete ser en, a laa % ‘ SCALE OF MILES ge "O 50 100 {0 200 250° SN f' uta 20| 2a 28 Nzige Dem Idris ore enh > {Dem Zibér \ \ Dem), Bekir, 4. Grenfell 1885 Abdall SEBI e . (98, Maloear . Co Meg ‘ oS 28 UA Bakangaiy NS eu we , 18 5. i Bea Pete Q fi \o teen ° A LA See = < £° is com iyere or ime ‘fe Biyere Or Acuwimi Stanley 1885 \ DO! Junker’s routes....---- Stanley Falls he was always eager to be on the march into new fields. While he was away exploring, his assistant Bohndorff occupied himself in preparing the natural history specimens collected; and it is sad to think that all this labour has been lost, as, partly owing to a fire and partly owing to the depredations of the Mahdi’s people, none of these collections have reached Europe. After being established at Ndoruma, Dr. Junker made a journey of four months to the southwards, to the Monbuttu country, crossing the Wellé at two points. The details as to his discoveries on this and on subsequent journeys he reserves for the book which he hopes to write when he finds leisure. His next journey was in the same direction, to the country of the A-Mahdi, on the Upper Wellé, where he was detained several months. In November 1881, Junker was able to carry out his project of visiting the country of the Bakangai. From this time he was almost constantly on the march, and until June 1882 he was exploring the countries on the south of the Wellé. He made the acquaintance of n peoples whose language, manners, and customs diff essentially from those whom he had previously know1 He was well received by the Niam-Niam_ prince Bakangai and Kanna, to the south of the large Bomokandi. Women are very differently treated am the Niam-Niams or A-Sandeh from what the among the Monbuttus ; among the former they are sir slaves, whereas among the latter they are in many spects treated on a footing of equality with the n The Monbuttu women paint and tattoo their bodies 1 most elaborate fashion, which Dr. Junker describe detail. When he left Prince Kanna and the sou A-Sandeh, Junker returned to the Monbuttu co and spent some days at the station of Tangasi the Italian traveller Casati. He then traversed A-Bangba and Momfu countries to the south of t Wellé, crossed again the Bomokandi, and disco the Nepoko, which he is inclined to identify with May 12, 1887 | NATURE 41 ruwimi of Stanley. Here, while detained for months y a Monbuttu chief, A-Sanga, Dr. Junker suffered much om want of proper food and other causes. On the suth of the Bomokandi he met with the pygmy people own as Akka or Tikki-Tikki, whom he found clever unters, leading a nomad life. He was glad to get back . Tangasi to recruit. Crossing the Wellé in a north- est direction, he reached his new station at Semio’s in eptember 1882. Setting out in December, he pushed outhwards and westwards, touching the Wellé again at yo different points, one of them being his farthest west oint on this river. _ The remainder of Dr. Junker’s paper was occupied with troubles caused by the Mahdi insurrection to his friends ‘min Pasha and Lupton Bey. These troubles prevented unker himself from proceeding to Europe northwards. He spent much time at Lado, where, under great diffi- bulties, he constructed a large and beautiful map of his explorations. After being with Emin Pasha at Dufilé and Wadelai, and being detained for some time in Unyoro und Uganda, he at last persuaded King Mwanga to let 1im go. Crossing the Victoria Nyanza, he proceeded by me of the caravan routes to Zanzibar, and thence to Cairo, and so to Europe, where he arrived only a few weeks ago. Besides Dr. Junker’s own paper, the only records of his ten years’ work are a few letters which appeared at intervals in Petermann’s Mitteilungen, so that his forthcoming work will abound with novelty. Its scientific value will be unusually great. NOTES. THE Royal Society’s first soirée of the session was held last night. More trouble than usual had been taken to bring inter- esting things together, and the result was most satisfactory. We shall refer to some of the most striking objects next week. % _ WE print this week the firstfruits of a new organization for the furthering of astronomical research, which Mrs. Draper has established at the Harvard Observatory in memory of her husband. We do not think that a more noble memorial has ever been suggested to perpetuate the memory of any man, and certainly, if the fair promise of the opening work is kept up, Draper’s name will go down to long distant ages. In addition to the first memoir, which’ we reprint, we have received from Prof. Pickering several enlarged copies of the stellar photographs already obtained. The scale of these photographs and their perfection will be gathered from the illustration which we give, and it does not seem too much to hope that within no very great number of years we shall possess photographs of the different orders of stars, with photographic spark comparisons, in which it may be quite easy to trace the lines due to the absorption of any particular element, and have, in fact, for stars of the various classes an exact equivalent of Angstrém’s sfectre normal of the sun with the metallic coincidences. The friends of the late Henry Draper, and they are many in this country and on this side of the Atlantic, will thank his widow for the noble memorial she is erecting to his memory. TuE foundation-stone of the Imperial Institute will be laid by the Queen on Monday, July 4. _ Tuuisafternoon the Croonian Lecture will be delivered before the Royal Society by Prof. H. G. Seeley, F.R.S. The subject is ‘* Paricasaurus bombidens (Owen), and the Significance of its Affinities to Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals.” On Thurs- day, May 26, the Bakerian Lecture will be delivered before the Royal Society by Prof. J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. ’ AT the general monthly meeting of the Royal Institution on Monday last, Prof. Tyndall was elected Honorary Professor of Natural Philosophy. Lord Rayleigh was elected Professor of Natural Philosophy. THE visitation of the Royal Observatory at Greenwich takes place this year on June 4. Mr. Woops, the President of the Royal Institution of Civil Engineers, and Miss Woods, have issued cards of invitation to a conversazione to be held at the South Kensington. Museum on the 25th inst. THE general meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers will be held on Monday evening, May 16, and Tues- day afternoon, May 17, at 25 Great George Street, Westniiiiigter. The President, Mr. Edward H: Carbutt, will deliver his inaugural address on Monday evening. The following papers will be read and discussed, as far as time permits :—‘‘ On the Construction of Canadian Locomotives,” by Mr. Francis R. F, Brown, Mechanical Superintendent of the Canadian Pacific Railway ; ‘‘ Experiments on the Distribution of Heat in a Sta- tionary Steam-Engine,” by Major Thomas English, R.E., of the War Office ; and ‘‘ On Irrigating Machinery on the Pacific Coast,” by Mr. John Richards, of San Francisco. On Saturday evening next a lecture on “‘ Savages” will be delivered by Sir John Lubbock in the New Schools, Oxford. THE Deutsche Seewarte at Hamburg has published a chart showing the positions of the icebergs in the North Atlantic, compiled from reports received up to the middle of April. The chart is issued without charge to captains applying for it. As early as the first half of March several icebergs were met with south of 42° N. lat., and one even south of 41°. In drifting southwards, the icebergs, as always, are found between the meridians of 46° and 52° W. THE fifth Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, issued from the Royal Gardens, Kew, gives an account of bowstring hemp. This is not at present an article in commercial use, but Mr. J. G. Baker, the writer of the paper, thinks attention may well be directed to the capabilities of numerous species of Sansevieria for producing fibre of great value. Plants of Samsevieria, of which there are ten or twelve species, are very abundant on both the east and west coasts of tropical Africa, which, indeed, may be looked upon as the head-quarters of the genus. One well- known species (.S. zey/anica) is indigenous to Ceylon ; and this and others are found along the Bay of Bengal, extending thence to Java.and to the coasts of China. The leaves of these plants are more or less succulent, and abound in a very valuable fibre, remarkable alike for fineness, elasticity, and for strengh. Mr. Baker gives a description .of those species which are now under cultivation at Kew. THE other day Dr. Robert W. Felkin, of Edinburgh, received three letters from Emin Pasha. The latest of them is dated Wadelai, October 26, 1886, and no more recent news from the writer has reached this country. Before starting for the coast from Uganda, Dr. Junker had collected a caravan and obtained permission,from King M’ Wanga to send it to Wadelai. ‘‘ Besides bringing me a good quantity of cloth,” writes Emin Pasha, ‘*there were many presents from yourself, as well as newspapers from 1884 to 1886, a few books, Graphics, and, what pleased me most and will prove most valuable, a good many numbers of NATURE, so that at last Iam permitted once more to see what is taking place in the scientific world.” Along with this letter Dr. Felkin received a scientific paper which will be published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine. It is an account of a tour to the Albert Nyanza. Ir has been decided to remove the Royal Observatory of Brussels to Uccle, about 34 miles to the south-west of its present position. The new buildings were commenced in September 1883, and are now so far advanced that the transfer of the instru- ments, &c., is arranged to take place next year. Observations 42 NATURE [May 12, 1887 nates already been taken at the new Observatory for about a year for the purpose of deducing corrections to be applied to the temperature-observations made in the town since 1833, to reduce them to the temperatures taken in the country. A GERMAN mathematitian has, from certain measurements effected, calculated that the quantity: of snow which fell in Central Germany from December 19to 23, between 50° and 52°'5 N. latitude and between 7° and 18° E, longitude, weighed no less than ten million tons, Tue Lord Mayor, sometime a member of the school, has arranged to be present at the opening, on May 24, of the new science and art buildings of Sir Andrew Judde’s School, - Tunbridge. Dr. F. Day, F.R.S., author of ‘‘ The Fishes of Great Britain and Ireland,” will shortly publish with Messrs. Williams and Norgate his monograph on the Salmonide. It will be illus- trated by coloured plates, and, in the first instance, be published for subscribers. It will be ready in July. Messrs. MACMILLAN will publish immediately a volume of ‘Essays and Addresses,” by the Rev. J. M. Wilson, Head Master of Clifton College. The writer discusses the relation between ethical and theological questions and the ideas of modern science. : THE Council of the London Mathematical Society have sanc- tioned the issue of a complete index of all the papers printed in the Proceedings of the Society since its foundation. Seventeen volumes have been published, All persons who take an interest in mathematical researches and who wish to know what has been done by the Society in their respective branches are invited to apply to the Secretaries (22 Albemarle Street, W.) for a copy of the index. The Clothworkers’ Company of London have shown lately that they thoroughly understand the necessity for an improved system of technical education. At Dewsbury the Jubilee is to be celebrated by the establishment of a technical school, and the Clothworkers’ Company have agreed to raise the local fund for the building and equipment of the institution from £10,000 to £11,000. In addition to this they have promised an annual subscription of £50 towards the maintenance of the school. The same Company, having contributed £3,500 to the fund for the erection of the Bradford Technical College, as well as £500 per annum towards its maintenance, have now promised to con- tribute £500 to a fund which is being raised to pay off the debt still remaining on the building. The additional buildings of the Textile Industries and Dyeing Departments of the Yorkshire College, now completed and. equipped, were erected by the Clothworkers’ Company at an expense of £30,000 WE regret to learn that the amount of support given to the proposed memorial to the late Thomas Edward, the Banff naturalist, has been so small that the project is in abeyance ; and the Committee are contemplating the return of the subscriptions received. It will be much to be regretted if some means of commemorating Edward cannot be found, similar to the John Duncan Prizes in the Vale of Alford. It will be remembered that a considerable proportion of the sum subscribed for Duncan in his old age was placed by him in the hands of trustees just before his death to found prizes for the encouragement of the study of botany in his own locality. Edward accomplished much more for science than Duncan, and it will be lamentable if no memorial of him can be established. Any persons who may wish to prevent the threatened abandonment of the memorial should communicate at once with Mr. John Allan, Town Clerk of Banff. | oxygen layer was 7mm. thick, and on increa ‘12mm. two more bands made their appearance ; 3 nam Tn the AZonatsheft of the Berlin Chemical Society ( Dr. K. Olszewski has a paper on the ‘‘ Absorption-Spe Liquid Oxygen and of Liquid Air.” On examining the tion-spectrum of liquid oxygen with the help of a ‘small vision spectroscope—employing solar light—two stro: lines were noticed in the orange and yellow portions spectrum, and these did not completely disappear volatilization of the oxygen. They were in fact fou present in the ordinary solar spectrum, being faint at but very distinct towards sunset. On employing greater persion, the oxygen absorption-lines expanded to bands Ii telluric bands of the solar spectrum, and they were notic only when solar light was employed, but also when the arc or the lime-light was made use of. In these ex Band in orange... >> 99 yellow... 9) 39 S BRROT ae thay 23 ? Line 628 is distinguished by its bredatti: ‘at and intensity ; the more feeble bands, 535 and eet absent from the solar spectrum. With the view to d the spectrum of the other main constituent of the < pure nitrogen was not employed, but merely air ca from moisture and carbonic acid. The spectrum of air was examined under the same conditions as in tl oxygen, but no new bands made their appearance. trum consisted merely of the bands 628 and 577 above, and these were but faint ; they became stron air became richer in oxygen through the volati nitrogen, but were still far‘less intense than in the s pure oxygen. The determination of the absorption liquid oxygen is of importance in connexion with the of the origin of the telluric lines of the solar spectrum. and Secchi have shown that most of these are due to vapour, and, according to Angstrém, the bands ni account of their stability cannot well be due to’ “aqueous vE are A, B, a, and 3, the two latter coinciding wi strongest oxygen bands. According to Egoroff, wh examined the spectrum of compressed gaseous oxygen, luric bands A, B, and probably a, are due to oxygen. obtained similar results, but found also some other bands spectrum of compressed oxygen. Olszewski canno' either the presence or absence of the groups A and | absorption-spectrum of liquid oxygen, as he has been une make exact observations in this part of the Spiers ANOTHER paper by Dr. K. Olszewski in the J fon (viii. 69) is on the ‘‘ Determination of the Boiling-P. Ozone.” It has been shown by Hautefeuille and Chappuis when ozonized oxygen is exposed to a pressure of 125 spheres and to the temperature of boiling ethylene the ozone is obtained in the form of a dark-blue liq retains the liquid form for a short time at the above temp after the removal of the pressure. It seemed, therefore, boiling-point of ozone could not be much below that of e and attempts were therefore made by Olszewski to angie at the atmospheric pressure merely by the application of At a temperature of —150° no liquid was obtained, the 1 proportion of oxygen present probably hindering the condensa- tion of the small percentage of ozone. When a lower — ture (—181°'4) was employed—that of boiling oxygen—the ozone readily condensed to a dark-blue liquid. At this se r pens: i 12, 1887] NATURE oe re it is transparent in very thin layers, but is almost opaque layers 2mm. thick. In order to determine its boiling-point, ‘tube containing it was introduced into a vessel containing ethylene cooled to about — 140°. The ozone still retained liquid form, and only began to vaporize when the tempera- the ethylene had risen to near its boiling-point. The ture of the ethylene was determined by means of a bisulphide thermometer, which at the moment of incipient n of the ozone indicated a temperature of — 109°, this ing to —106° of the hydrogen thermometer. The point of pure ozone is therefore approximately — 106°. ents with liquid ozone require great caution on account readiness with which explosions occur. If, for instance, aid ozone comes into contact with ethylene gas, an extremely explosion occurs in spite of the low temperature. It is necessary to exclude the inflammable gas from contact ozone, and then explosion need not be feared. ss interesting than syntheses of vegetable or animal are the attempts which are made from time to time to minerals of the same crystalline form and chemical mn as those occurring upon the surface of our planet. ¢ most widely distributed minerals—the historic mag- ind so universally throughout the whole of the more ede ep ba ee ek e| zis d¢ | sa.| 3s eae 8) 8 )se| 58 |<8k) gy | <2 =a ae eee es) days | | millions | millions April... -| 13th | 2st | — | = at =. _ June ... 16th 2end| 63 | +371 +0'05 +465,000| + 7,000 August 4th | rath 50 +379 | +0%08 | +585,000} +11,600 September s+) 22nd | 2gth | 49 +3°3 +0'07 ) +495,000 | +10,000 November ....| rith | rgth 50, =r — 0°03 | —210,000 — 4,000 December. ...) 23rd | 31st 2 | =3°9 -0°09 — 585,000 | —14,000 February ...... 3rd | r2th | 42 =2°7 —0'07 | —405,00e| — 9,600 To summarise the above and give an account of heat transactions, it is sufficient to say that from April to | 10°3; while from September to February there was a | loss of 1,200,000 million ton-degrees, corresponding to a / fall in average temperature of 8°:0, thus leaving 343,000 _ million ton-degrees of heat to be expended by April next, | supposing the water to return to the state in which it was | 1886 1887 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. ee | | : eas 600 —OXSR———————r Annual march of temperature. | Fic. 4.—Clyde Sea-Area. | in April last. These numbers for heat are of course based | to a considerable extent on assumptions, and must only be | taken as part of the preliminary discussion of the exact ) observations already recorded. | Observations made from March 25 to April 3, since the ' greater part of this paper was in type, show a general 58 NATURE ay ee [May 19, 1887 temperature of about 43°°5 over the whole area, and con- firm all the provisional conclusions stated above. The figures observed in the three typical positions are as follow :— Place ... Channel. Off Skate Island. Strachur. Date .. March 30. March 28. March 29. Temp. surface 44°7 43°8 44°9 », bottom 44°2 43°9 45°5 From the forms of the curves the spring minimum ap- pears to be past, and over all the temperature is about 2°°5 higher than at the same period last year. The water in Upper Loch Fyne is now cooling at the bottom and heating again on the surface, the range forthe year at great depths having been only 4°. The actual change of temperature in the sea-area between the beginning} of February and the end of March is very slight, but it is significant in showing by its direction that the period of minimum lay between the two. One interesting application of the observations may be made to climatology. A great proportion of the heat gained is derived not from solar radiation, or the contact of heated air with the surface, but from the warm Atlantic water entering by the tides. Since the water on the Plateau appears to remain warmer than that inside all the year round, no heat is lost to the Atlantic in winter; but all must be radiated off from the surface or employed in evaporating water or heating air by contact, and in this way more heat is returned to the air of the Clyde sea-area in winter than was received from it in summer. Another observation may be mentioned which serves to show how important a bearing temperature observations may have on biology. On February 4, four tow-nets were used off Strachur at different depths: one at 70 fathoms, one at 50, one at 30 fathoms deep, and the fourth at the sur- face. There was nothing in the surface-net, and the surface temperature was 43°. The contents of the other three nets were examined by Mr. David Robertson, of Millport, who reports :—“ In all three nets Copepoda were moderately abundant. The nets at 70 and 30 fathoms contained one and the same species ; but the contents of the net at the middle depth were different, confined to an abundant species of copepod loaded with ova (Eucheta norvegica). With them there were two or three adult schizopods (Wyctiphanes norvegica).” At 70 fathoms the temperature was 45°9, at 30 fathoms 45°°6, and at the position of the middle net 46°3. Mr. Robertson con- cludes: ‘As the middle water of the loch at this time is shown to be warmer than either the layer above or below, we may reasonably assume that the species in ova sought the warmer layer.” Similar observations repeated at many different places during the March trip showed the same result, the minute Crustacea being most abundant where the temperature was highest. The work is being carried on meanwhile, purely as a piece of physical and meteorological research, and a con- siderable time must necessarily elapse before all the latent meaning of the great mass of figures now being accumulated can be brought to light. There is no doubt that when the problem of the interchanges of heat in com- paratively deep water has been made out, important practical applications to other sciences, and to some arts and industries, will be discovered. HUGH ROBERT MILL. SCIENCE AND GUNNERY. II. i Hepa! week we pointed out the great advantages which accrue from retiring guns behind inconspicuous parapets, and mentioned that the energy of the discharge had been utilised to raise the guns again into the firing position without the aid of extraneous power. * Continued from p. 37. The theory of the discharge of cannon involves many — interesting considerations, not only with respect to the — strength and structure of the guns but also with reference to the force required to control the recoil. A gun maybe considered as a heat engine of the simplest construction, performing its work in one stroke. The fuel used is gun- powder, and the energy developed is, as in other engines of this class, in proportion to the weight of fuel used ant to the heat it is capable of developing. The main differ ence between explosives and most other fuels is that explosives are complete in themselves ; that is to say, they burn independently of the presence of extraneous — bodies, and that consequently the chemical union which ft causes the explosion takes place simultaneously through- out the mass and in an exceedingly shorttime. = = Fuel in large masses burns slowly because the air, © which forms its complement, can come into contact with — only limited surfaces, but if reduced to fine powder the combustion may be made to assume almost the intensity — of an explosion, as for example in the dust-fuel used in — Crampton’s furnace, and the dusty atmosphere of coal- 4 mines and flour-mills. i - The materials in gunpowder, intimately mixed through- — out, are in a state of unstable equilibrium with respect to — each other ; a very moderate increase to the thermal move- — ment of the molecules causes them to clash together with — sufficient energy to insure combination, and if such increase — of motion be communicated to one portion of the explosive by the application of percussion or of a hot body, it is” carried through the mass by the luminiferous ether with all the rapidity with which radiant energy travels, and the increase of motion, sufficient to cause combina- — tion, is communicated to every molecule nearly simul-— taneously, the consequence being a change of form and volume produced with the suddenness which marks an — explosion. We believe that Mr. Anderson was the first, in his lectures on heat at the Society of Arts, to ot out — that it is unfair to compare the calorific value 0 fuels in 4 their incomplete form ; that is to say, that such fuels as — require air for combustion should have the necessary _ weight of air added to them, and when that was done the singular fact appeared that the quantity of heat evolved by — most combustibles per unit of weight was pie beers e same ; thus in nine cases cited, which included coal, coke, — wood, petroleum, illuminating gas, and gunpowder, t 4 extreme variations from the mean calorific value did not — exceed 9 per cent. ; os In the same lectures it was shown ~ that in guns, as in most heat-engines, a very large propor tion of the thermal energy of the fuel was dissipated in a useless manner ; in the case of cannon more t If was wasted in heating up the gun, and about one-third — only in producing recoil, which was the reaction to th energy communicated to the shot, to that imparted to th powder gases, and to the work of displacing the atmo-— sphere. Of these three effects only the energy imparted — to the shot was known with precision, for by means of ~ sufficiently simple apparatus it was possible to determine ~ with great accuracy the velocity with which the projectile © left the gun, and the energy therefore was easily deter-— mined by multiplying half its mass by the square of that — velocity. Ea The determination of the work done in expelling the powder gases was more difficult to estimate. In the first’ place, only about 43 per cent. of the products of the combus- — tion of gunpowder are in the state of gas, the remaining 57 — per cent. are in the form of very finely-divided solids ; next, © the combustion goes on nearly all the time that the shot — is travelling out of the gun, the pebbles of powder ‘ignit- ing in succession, a fact which is proved by the circum- stance that in short guns a good deal of powder is blown ~ out without being consumed at all, and it is doubtful even — whether in the modern long guns combustion is always — complete. While the shot is travelling along the chase, the centre of gravity of the powder charge is moving also — NATURE 59 t an uncertain rate, but the moment the shot leaves the in the whole of the products of combustion appear to s out with a velocity equal to, if not greater than, of the shot. The evidence of this supposition is nd in the fact that in the case of disappearing guns with their muzzles close to a masonry parapet, and which the recoil below it is completed in a small fraction "a second, no blackening of the masonry is noticeable. tion of the gases follow the shot and keep up with for a considerable distance, as is shown by the circum- e that smoke issues plentifully from the earth banks which proof shots at short range are fired, proving the smoke of the discharge must have followed the into the tunnel momentarily made and as quickly erated by passage of the projectile through the earth. S evident that the velocity with which the gases issue ist depend upon the pressure in the gun at the moment _of the shot leaving the muzzle, and this pressure again depends upon the volume of the bore, the weight of powder consumed, and the final temperature, the latter depending partly upon the expansion and the consequent heat converted into work. ‘The final temperature of the gases can only be conjec- tured: it probably does not exceed a bright red heat, or between 1200° C. and 1400° C. absolute; and knowing that one pound of powder at o° C. and standard baro- meter develops about 4°48 cubic feet of gas, it is possible to estimate what the final pressure in the gun should be. Given, however, a barrel full of gas at a definite pressure, we are not in a condition to say what energy its expulsion would generate; and the assumption that the mean velocity will be that due to a body falling from a height _ €qual to that of a column of gas of uniform maximum density which would correspond to the observed pressure would probably be as accurate as any other. On that _ assumption the velocity of the gas would be 4544 times _ the square root of the product of the final pressure in the } in tons per square inch into its volume in cubic feet by the weight of the powder in pounds, and, this ity determined, the energy is, of course, at once at. : "he displacement of the atmosphere also forms a y considerable item. The expansion on leaving le gun being instantaneous, the pressures and tem- eratures fall approximately as in adiabatic expansion ; ; ce it is easy to calculate what probable temperature and consequent volume the gases will assume as they stream out of the gun, and this temperature is com- paratively low; otherwise powder smoke would be in- _ supportable to those feeling its influence close to a gun. _ The work done in displacing the air is found by multi- _ plying the volume pushed aside by the atmospheric _ pressure. A small portion of this work is performed as e shot travels along the chase, but the greater part is one after it leaves the muzzle. The energy of the reac- tion to the sudden liberation of gases under high pressure is but too familiar to us in the case of boiler explosions, in which it commonly happens that great masses of material are hurled with destructive force and often to great distances. __ The pressure-curve inside the gun is still very ill- defined ; the forms commonly given are certainly a long way from the truth, because the areas included, which form indicator diagrams representing the work done, will not account for the energy developed. The pressure © gece falls in proportion to the distance travelled by e shot, and the time in which the discharge takes place may be calculated on that assumption, or even 1 sufficient accuracy on the supposition that the velocity of the shot is uniformly accelerated as from he action of a constant force equal to the mean pressure oducing the known velocity of the shot in a known istance. The easiest way to take account of all the feces causing recoil is to ascertain the velocity of the combined powder and projectile which will possess the total energy of discharge calculated, and then to equate the momentum of the gun and moving parts of the carriage to that of the shot and powder. In the case of a carriage receding along a slide, this operation is a very easy one, but when a Moncrieff mounting has to be dealt with, the case becomes very complicated, the gun moves along a curved path, the sides and counterweights have a rolling motion, and it becomes necessary to calculate the path of the centre of gyration, and determine the virtual weight concentrated in the gun, and a similar process has to be followed in the case of the massive levers which carry the guns in hydro-pneumatic mountings. Recoil consists of two parts: first, the period, a very brief one, in which the velocity of recoil is got up; and secondly, the period in which the energy so acquired by the parts in motion is more slowly absorbed or dissipated. The first part of recoil must necessarily occupy the same time as the discharge, that is to say, a small fraction of a second, because acceleration can only go on so long as the accelerating force is acting, but that force is the pressure of the powder gases on the base of the bore, and the pressure only lasts while the discharge is taking place. The motion of the whole system of gun and carriage does not, however, coincide with the motion of the shot. In all but very long guns the shot has left the barrel before the motion of the muzzle commences ; during the time of discharge, perhaps the 1/50 part of a second, the gun is being stretched by the inertia of its forward end and of the carriage resisting the tendency to put them into motion, but the reaction to this stretching carries on the acceleration of recoil a little after the shot has left the gun. The pressure on the parts during this period is very severe, the work done being exactly the same as that performed by the shot, the powder, and the displacement of the atmosphere. The full speed of recoil is attained, not only in a _ very short time, but in a very restricted space, rarely more than 3 inches, and the difficulty in constructing carriages may be said to lie in providing for the violent strains which produce a velocity of some 20 feet a second in the great mass of the gun and carriage in the exceeding short time and space named. The momentum of the moving parts of the system being equal to that of the ejected charge, the velocity is readily calculated, and generally ranges between 16 and 30 feet per second, and their energy is then easily ascertained. In the counterweight Moncrieff carriages, which have been made for short muzzle-loaders up to 9-inch calibre and twelve tons weight, the whole mass set in motion is so great compared with the energy of the discharge, that the gun sinks below the parapet with a comparatively slow and stately movement; but, with the long breech- loaders and heavy charges, with the comparatively light moving parts which characterise hydro-pneumatic mount- ings, the motion is very violent, and requires great strength in the parts to resist the strains. In addition, the gun describes a circular path, and by the time the maximum velocity of recoil is attained, sufficient centri- fugal force is engendered to produce a sudden upward pull, which has to be met by arrangements for holding the carriage down tothe masonry of the emplacements. The longer the arms which carry the gun, the less this tendency is, because the pull of centrifugal force is in- versely as the length of the radius of the curve described by the trunnions. The front of the carriage has generally to be held down for another reason. The gun, when fired, is high above the base of the mounting ; the mechanism, self-contained in the carriage, for absorbing recoil, offers a certain amount of resistance to the backward move- ment of the gun, hence a couple is established which tends to turn the carriage over on its rear wheels, and this tendency varies with the height of the gun and the length of the base. 60 NATURE Fa In the hydro-pneumatic system the fall of the gun actuates a ram or piston working in a cylinder full of water, and communicating by an automatic valve, opening outwards from the cylinder, with an air-vessel about two and a half times the capacity of the ram, and filled with air compressed to a degree sufficient not only to support the weight of the gun, but also to raise it quickly into the firing position. When the gun is up, the air-vessel is nearly empty ; when down, a volume of water equal to that of the ram displaces the air and increases its pres- sure, and the ratio of the fall of the gun to the stroke of the ram, and the relative velocities of the two, are so ad- usted that the increase of air-pressure corresponds to the increasing leverage which the gun acquires as it descends. It is possible to provide sufficient air-pressure not only to arrest the fall of the gun, but also to absorb the energy of recoil; but unless the gun is allowed to fall a very great distance this is not necessary, and any excess energy can be more conveniently absorbed by regulating the opening of the recoil-valve so as to throttle the water in its passage from the cylinder into the air-vessel. At first sight it might be assumed that, saving friction of the mechanism, the air-pressure which would suffice to check the fall of the gun would be sufficient to raise it again ; but a little consideration will show that this is not the case. To allow the gun to fall in the short space of time during which recoil takes place, the pressure of the air must be less than that necessary to support the gun, because its pressure rises nearly according to the ordinates of an adiabatic curve, the temperature rising in exact propor- tion to the work done. During the time the gun is being loaded, the heat developed in the air is dissipated, so that when the gun requires to be raised the store of heat is gone, and the air, expanding, falls in temperature by the amount of heat converted into the work of raising the gun ; the pressure consequently falls. To meet these two sources of loss, amounting to the heat corresponding to the work of the gun falling twice the height to which it rises and falls, the energy of the discharge has to be drawn upon ; it compresses the air far above its isothermal line, although that line is so fixed as to yield sufficient heat for conversion into the work of raising the gun. In addition, the energy of discharge has to provide the means of overcoming the friction of the machinery which resists the falling of the gun, and again resists its rising, so that, taking all the sources of loss enumerated together, the energy of recoil of even our most powerful guns is not adequate to do more than allow them to fall some 8 or 9 feet, an amount, however, sufficient for the most ample protection. It will be readily seen that the construction of a dis- appearing carriage offers a number of problems of great scientific as well as practical interest. We have only dwelt upon some of the most prominent points. There remain the strains on the elevating gear, which is arranged so as to bring the gun into the same loading position, irrespective of the angle at which it is fired, and has, therefore, to communicate a sudden rotatory motion to the gun; the resistance of the levers and elevating- bars to the cross strains caused by their own inertia when brought into sudden motion sideways; the resistance offered to the water in its passage at variable velocities from the cylinder to the air-vessel, the accelerating force to be provided to raise the gun in a given time, and many minor problems which tax to the full the application of mathematics to the design of machinery. THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF AUGUST 19, 1887. ‘THE total eclipse of the sun which will occur on " August 19 next, though only of average duration, will offer exceptional Opportunities for observation from the circumstance that the track of the moon’s shadow [May 19, 1887 © will be almost entirely a continental one, in striking con- trast to the eclipses of the last four years, in all of whi the shadow has followed a course which has been princi- pally over the great oceans. The eclipse is technically ; partial one for the principal part of Great Britain, but it will be nearly over before sunrise, it will practically be visible here. The middle phase will have been reach at sunrise, for places a little to the west of Berlin : and city lying within the path of the shadow, itis just po: that it may be favoured with a sight of the phenomena totality, though with a sun close to the horizon; for sun will be largely obscured as it rises, and will no quite 3° high at the end of the total phase. From P the shadow track passes into Russia, and the central lin does not leave the borders of the Russian Empire until reaches East longitude 112°. It then crosses Manchu and the Sea of Japan, and cuts the principal island of Japanese group a little to the north of the capital. T final portion of its course lies over the North Paci Ocean, and except for the little island of Rico de O does not touch land again. But the path of totality n only lies mainly over land, a large number of importa towns are either actually included within, or lie vé toits limits. K6nigsberg lies just outside. Kovno, and Vitebsk, are well within the shadow; Wilna bein nearly on the central line. At these towns, however, the sun will still be too low for them to afford desirable stations for observations, and probably the neighbo Ye of Moscow will be the nearest district which will be o pied by astronomers. At Moscow itself, the eclip not be quite total, since that city lies just outs southern edge of the shadow-track, but three lines of way radiating from Moscow will afford easy access places actually on the central line. The most westerly these three railways is that which unites St. Petersburg ith the older capital, and which passes through Twer. Twer is nearly on the central line, but a little to the north of it. The sun will have an elevation of about 16° in this neigh- bourhood, and the maximum duration of totality is not quite two minutes and a half. At Twer itself it will be only 124 seconds. Three parties, two German, and one French, will take up positions within the Gove: ment of which Twer is the capital. The secon line runs from Moscow to Vologda, passing throw; Jaroslavl, which lies within but near the edge of © shadow. Petrowsk on this railway is very near central line, and here the sun will be 2° higher than 1 Twer, and the duration 152 seconds. The third line to Kineshma, which is itself very near the central lir Here the sun will be about 20° high, and the tot eclipse on the central line will last 156 seconds. It w not, however, be difficult to proceed to yet more favour- able positions further east. From Moscow there is a line through Nijni Novgorod to Kazan, and a service of river steamers runs thence upthe River Kama to Perm. Perm lies to the south of the central line, but the totality lasts - there 173 seconds, whilst the sun is 28° high at mid eclipse. If the weather should be favourable, Perm would be there- fore a very suitable station for those astronomers who spare the time to journey so far; for others the neigh- — bourhoods of Petrowsk and Kineshma will afford road accessible sites. Prof. Bredichin, Director of the Mosco Observatory, has his own private observatory only tw kilometres from Kineshma, and very close to the central line ; and he has generously offered the hospitality of ] house to the Royal Astronomical Society for two English astronomers, an offer which has been gratefull accent by the Society, on behalf of Dr. Copeland and the Rey. S. J. Perry. Prof. C. A. Young also will have his sta’ here, and a strong party of Italian and English nomers, consisting of Profs. Tacchini and Riccd, an Messrs. Common and Turner, will be located at no great distance away, in the neighbouring Government of Vladimir. ’ Bay 19,1887) NATURE 61 The eclipse a visible in Europe and from places so readily accessible from England, no Government Expe- _ dition will be sent out to observe it. It is not probable, _ therefore, that any English astronomers will go so far east as Siberia. It may be hoped that Russian astronomers will _make good this defect, especially as four of the principal towns of Siberia lie on the shadow-track—Tobolsk, Tomsk, _ Krasnoiarsk, and Irkutsk ; the first and third being close to the central line, and the sun being eclipsed when nearly on the meridian at Irkutsk. A series of Siberian sta- _ tionsis the more to be desired, since, as Prof. D. P. Todd has pointed out in the American Fournal for March, this eclipse offers an exceptionally favourable opportunity for a concerted scheme of observation. The path of totality _ coincides in a most remarkable manner with the lines of _ the Russian overland telegraph, so that it will be per- ' fectly possible to select a series of stations in telegraphic _ communication with each other, and extending over a _ line of 100° of longitude, with an extreme difference in the absolute time of totality of more than an hour and a half. It appears, Prof. Todd learns from a letter from -» Dr. S. von Glasenapp, that the Russian telegraph service _ may be expected to give the use of its lines at the time for astronomical purposes. It is certainly to be hoped that so unique an opportunity may not be lost ; for it might well happen that some discovery, either in solar research, or of a comet or intra-Mercurial planet, might receive in this manner the most satisfactory confirmation and development. The eclipse may also be well observed in Japan. On the west coast, Niigata, one of the Treaty ports, lies well within the shadow on the north, and Takata, a large manufacturing town, on the south, the central line passing through the large fishing-village of Idzumosaki, on the high road between the two. The Island of Sado, opposite to Niigata, which is free to foreigners, is wholly within the shadow, the central line crossing Sawa Umi Bay. The totality here lasts 198 seconds, with a sun 37° high. On the east coast the important town of Mito lies almost precisely on the central line. The duration here will be 192 seconds, and the sun 35° high. Japan, indeed, offers advantages for observing stations superior to those of Perm, as the sun will be considerably higher, and the duration 20 to 25 seconds longer. The following formule, computed by Woolhouse’s method (Nautical Almanac, 1836), from the elements of the eclipse given in the Arztish Nautical Almanac, will supply the means for the computation of the beginning : 15 30 35 60, i ey 6 | f 0) » nt ny 2 ee “ot °: 9 toe “StS. i. z YG 2k ( | ‘ 5 G SHE wa English Miles Fd o 50 100 200 ; See eerie va 55 30 Longtude East SB of Greenwich and ending of the total phase for any place not far from Perm, lat. 58° 8’ N., and long. 55° 12’ E. :— Cos w = 52°926 — [1°89540] sin 7 + [1°42842] cos 7 cos (Z — 68° 25’"1); ¢# = 17h. 4om. 13’0s. + [1°94168] sin w — [3°20536] sin 7 a — [3°85031] cos 7 cos (ZL — 19° 47’'9). And for determination of the latitudes of the central line, and of the north and south limits of totality in the longi- tude of Perm :— ncos(N + 7) = — [1°73180] for N. limit ; — [1°72367] for central eclipse ; — [1°71538] for S. limit. n cos NV = [1°42842] cos (Z — 68° 25’"1) ; nm sin V = [1°89540]. As in similar formulz given in NATURE for previous eclipses / is the geocentric latitude, Z the longitude from Greenwich counted positive towards the east, and ¢ results _ in Greenwich mean solar time. Quantities within square __ brackets are logarithms, not simple numbers. Similarly for places near Idzumosaki, lat. 37° 38’ N., and long. 138° 49’ E., we have :— Cos w = + 53°9763 — [1°84932] sin 7 a + [1°53239] cos 7 cos (Z — 24° 51’"1); _ #= 17h, 32m. 24°9s. [1°99243] sin w — [3°45091] sin / ° — [3°85537] cos 7 cos (Z + 10° 4'°7) 4 60 And for central line and limits :— — [1°74018] for N. limit ; — [1°73220] for central eclipse ; ncos (NM + 7) - — [1°72408] for S. limit. THE STEERING OF H.M.S. “ AFAX” wis H.M.S. Ajax was first sent to sea, her steer- ing qualities were found to be very defective, especially at high speeds, the most objectionable and per- plexing characteristic of her behaviour being a tendency to require a large angle of helm to keep her on a straight course. This helm tendency was sometimes on one side and sometimes on the other, generally remaining the one or the other for some time unchanged, but occasionally changing sides without warning or apparent cause. On such occasions, at full speed, the ship had been found to fly off her course at a right angle before she could be mastered by reversing the helm. In a lecture on this subject, lately delivered before the Royal United Service Institution, Mr. R. E. Froude sum- marisedas follows the causes to which such behaviour might be colourably attributed in ships of the type of the Ajax, namely, flat-bottomed and full-ended, particularly in the run: (1) want of “directive character” (as he phrases it) 62 NATURE of hull, from the flatness of bottom and fullness of ends ; (2) weakness of action of rudder, from its position in the dead-water ; (3) an active turning force, consisting in a one-sided pressure on the stern arising out of a one- sided system of flow in the water closing in behind the full run. It was principally to the last-mentioned cause that Mr. Froude, when called upon to investigate the case of the Ajyax, was inclined to attribute the behaviour of the ship, such a phenomenon having been some years since incidentally observed in the course of experiments made in the experiment tank at Torquay on the resistance of a model having a full run. In this case a lateral force was found to be developed upon the stern of the model, accompanied by a trailing away of the wake to one side, and a transverse flow of the water across behind the stern, in the opposite direction to that in which the lateral force was developed. This one-sidedness of flow, and consequent force (like the helm tendency of the Ajax), was sometimes in one direction, and sometimes in the other, and occasionally reversed its direction during any experiment ; but was generally more or less persistent in direction when initiated, although the direction in which it was initiated was apparently a matter of accident. It was Mr. Froude’s belief, founded on these and many other experiments of various kinds, that this species of, so to speak, spasmodic one-sidedness of flow, and con- sequent one-sided force, attends the motion of all, even perfectly symmetrical, bodies through water, when- ever their leaving lines are blunt enough to cause a large eddy behind them. By way of a method of experiment suitable to test the effect of remedies designed to mitigate or remove either of the three presumable causes of the behaviour of the ship, which have been enumerated above, Mr. Froude towed a model of the Ajax in the experiment tank at Torquay, the model being attached to the towing carriage in such a way that, while the model was free to sheer out of the straight course, any such attempted sheering motion actuated a working rudder fitted to the model, in the proper direction for frustrating the attempt. By this contrivance the model was made to steer quite straight, and the criterion of the badness of the steering qualities of the model in the several conditions of trial subjected to experiment, was the amount and the degree of un- steadiness of the helm angle administered, this helm angle being continuously recorded throughout each experiment by an automatic apparatus. Thus tested, the model was found to exhibit conspicuously what has been referred to as the predominant characteristic of the behaviour of the ship, viz. the large helm angle, sometimes persistently on one side, sometimes on the other, and occasionally changing from one side to the other. _The principal remedies tentatively applied to the model with a view to identifying the main source of the evil, and indicating the direction in which improvement was to be sought, were these : (1) a deep keel, to supply “the directive character” in which the hull itself was presumably lacking ; (2) placing the rudder altogether below the keel, so as to be quite clear of the dead-water ; (3) an extensive dead- wood (or fixed rudder) behind the stern-post, (the working rudder being still below the keel), to frustrate the one- sided flow behind the stern, and do away with the con- sequent turning force. Of these three kinds of remedy the last-named proved much the most effective, proved indeed an almost perfect cure, thereby confirming the surmise that the one-sided flow at the stern was the chief source of the evil. A minor modification of this dead-wood, with the rudder in its proper place, such as could be practically applied in the ship, likewise proved very toler- ably effective, the average helm angle required being reduced to one-third of its amount. On the strength of the results of these experiments, the Admiralty added a structure of this kind to the stern of the ship, with a result which, while it was a remarkable corro- boration of the model experiments, was also on the wh a decided ‘success from a practical point of view, | reduction effected in angle of helm being quite suffic to qualify the ship to steam at full speed in a sq and keep station satisfactorily. EDWARD T. HARDMAN. BY the unexpected death of this geologist, on th ult., Irish Science has been deprived of one ¢ most promising followers. Mr. Hardman was born Drogheda in 1845, and distinguished himself by the posi- tion he took at.the Grammar School there, gai Government Exhibition and an entrance to the College of Science in Dublin. He soon display: strong natural bent towards scientific pursuits, and he quitted the College he had gained its « Associate and taken a prominent place among it most students, more particularly in the departm chemistry and geology. In 1870 he was appointed Geological Survey, and threw himself with cha ardour into the prosecution of field-work, while his ledge of chemistry and mineralogy led to his bei ployed in special services where this knowle made available in the work of the Survey. His on the Tyrone and Kilkenny coal-fields are good exe of the extent of his knowledge and of his powers literary expression. He also made his mark publication of papers outside the limits of official His interesting and suggestive memoir on the o1 Lough Neagh and his papers on anthracite and chert well known. = _In 1883 the Government of Western Australia to the Colonial Office for the services of a trail logist to examine and report on the mineral and geological structure of the colony. Mr. was selected for the post, and obtained leave of from the Home Government to enable him to unde: the duties. He was absent upwards of two years, which time he effected a preliminary survey of a tract of unexplored country, and made known > logical structure. In particular, he indicated the pres of gold, and pointed out the areas where gold-field be looked for. After enduring great hardshi bush, he returned to this country, and resumed in the Geological Survey. But the exposure i Australian climate seems to have told upon his he. He had not been quite well during the spring, and fever. he rapidly fell a victim to an attack of typhoi understand that arrangements had been nearly co for recalling him permanently to take charge of mineral surveys of Western Australia, when his s death occurred. He has left a widow and two with no adequate provision, and his friends have a begun to take steps for collecting subscriptions for behoof. Prof. V. Ball, of the Science and Art Mu Dublin, and Dr. Henry Woodward, of the — History Department of the British Museum, Crom’ Road, S.W., have kindly undertaken to receive sub tions. NOTES. a THE Natural History branch of the British Museum in C well Road has just received a most important donation Lord Walsingham, consisting of a collection of Lepid with their larvz, mainly British butterflies (Rhopalocera) certain families of moths (Heterocera), including Sphé Bombyces, Pseudobombyces, Noctue, Geometride, and Py; There is also a fine series of Indian species, collected and served at Dharmsala, in the Punjab, by the Rev. John Hocking, and specimens of exotic silk-producing Bombyces NATURE 63 t life-like appearance, and are placed upon models is upon which they feed, have been prepared and by ‘Lord Walsingham himself; the process adopted \ inflation of the empty skin of the caterpillar by mp guarded by wire gauze. Tia Sina thiea Yoond:0 ‘icker process, and one admitting of more satis- ation, than the alternative system of baking by ited metal plates or ovens. The specimens have d their natural colour, but in the case of the bright sit has been found necessary to inrodue «tle ge of those who would like to see it without any : be placed i in the entrance hall of the Museum “tele di ‘ Soirée at the Royal Society will be held on owing men of science have been elected Foreign of the Linnean Society :—-(Botanists) Dr. George nfurth, Professor of Botany, Cairo, Egypt, whose nd botanical researches in Central Africa are widely Count H. Solms-Laubach, Professor of Botany, Uni- gen, whose observations on the Corallines, Gulf of tigations in plant anatomy, especially that of s, &c., are acknowledged biological contribu- _M. le Dr. Melchior Treub, Director of the Buitenzorg, Java, whose studies among the -Lichens, &c., and whose labour in editing Jardin de Buitenzorg ” are highly appreciated : Franz Steindachner, Conservator of Herpeto- ogy, Royal Museum, Vienna, distinguished for us and important memoirs on fish and reptiles _ Dr. August Weismann, Professor of Zoology, Freiburg, Baden, noted for his studies on the , and embryological researches on insects and Villiam H. Beebyand Mr. Adolphus H. Kent, and Mr. J. Medley Wood, of Durham, Natal, all ny workers in various departments of botany, have Associates of the Society. N herbarium has just been presented to the Upsala Prof. H. Sétherstrand, by whom it was inherited. nd by comparison of names to be a duplicate of by the Linnean Society of London. in traveller, General Prjevalsky, is shortly to be i medal by the Imperial Scientific Society which has been specially struck, by order of honour, The medal bears on the obverse recipient, and on the reverse the inscription nt of the Natural History of Central Asia,” iety of Civil Engineers offers a prize of 3000 the best Yoge of Henry Giffard, the well-known inventor of the injector. This competition is open but the papers must be written in French, mday evening the session of the Institution of a = oe al was opened at the Institution of Civil , Great George Street, Westminster. The President, Carbutt, delivered the inaugural address, taking as Fifty Years’ Progress in Gun-making.” THE sixtieth meeting of the German Association of Naturalists will be held at Wiesbaden on September 18-24 next. A number of new scientific instruments and preparations will be shown, _All inquiries are to be directed to Herr Dreyfus, 44 Frankfurterstrasse, Wiesbaden. Tue County of Middlesex Natural History and Science Society will hold their first annual soirée on Monday, the 23rd inst., at 11 Chandos Street, Cavendish Square. The chair will be taken at 8 p.m. by Lord Strafford, Lord-Lieutenant of Middlesex, and President of the Society. Objects of scientific interest will be exhibited, Tue total value of the fish landed upon the coasts of Scotland during the four months ended April 1887 was £343,337, being a decrease of £10,591 upon the corresponding period last year. A COLLECTION of Indian cocoons is about to be sent by the Indian Government to Manchester, where it will be open for inspection. Infected cocoons are to be despatched to France for examination by M. Pasteur’s pupils, who, it is hoped, will be able to suggest means for checking the disease which has nearly ruined the silk industry of India. THE largest piece of amber ever discovered was recently dug up near the Nobis Gate, at Altona. It weighed 850 grammes. THE ravages of the May-bug in Denmark have become so serious that a Bill is now under the consideration of the Danish Parliament. proposing that the cost of the destruction of these insects shall be borne half by the State and half by local authorities. Tue Dutch Government intends to construct a railway in Sumatra, the cost of which will be nearly £1,400,000 (16,000,000 florins). The object is to facilitate the working of the coal-fields near the River,Umbili. The coal deposit in these fields is reckoned to consist of about two hundred millions of tons, AN interesting paper on “An Ideal Natural History Museum,” read lately by Prof. W. A. Herdman before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool, has been issued as a pamphlet. Prof. Herdman calls attention to the strange fact that the Darwinian theory of evolution has had, as yet, little or no effect upon the structure and arrangement of museums of natural history. He urges that a phylogenetic arrangement would have the following advantages over the linear arrangement now em- ployed in our museums :—(r) A phylogenetic arrangement | would give a much more accurate representation of Nature. (2) While being more intelligible and instructive to the general public, it would be more in accord with the present state of biological knowledge, and could very readily be slightly altered from time to time so as to keep abreast with the progress of science. (3) It would be a perpetual illustrated lecture, of the best kind, demonstrating to everyone with ordinary intelligence the great doctrine of organic evolution. On April 14 about 9.15 p.m. a large meteor was observed at Throndhjem, in Northern Norway. It went in a direction from north to north-east, and during its passage the light was so brilliant that the smallest objects in the snow were visible. It burst, as it seemed, into thousands of fragments, but there was no sound or report. Before bursting, the meteor was green, but during that process it displayed colours of red, yellow, and green, chiefly the latter. M. E. FERRIERE has published a book called ‘‘ La Matiére et l’Energie,” summarising the latest results of physical investi- gation concerning matter and force. Tue second number of the “‘ Jahrbuch der Naturwissenschaf- ten” (a volume of nearly 600 pages) has just been issued. This useful periodical is edited by Dr. Max Wildermann, and pub- 64 NATURE a [May 19, 1887 lished by Herr B. Herder, of F reiburg-im-Breisgau. The pre- sent volume contains a clear and popular account of the work done in each of the sciences in the year 1886. We understand that the second part of the ‘ Manual of Practical Botany,” by Prof. Bower and Dr. Sydney Vines, will be published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co. in the course of a few weeks, It will include the Bryophyta and the Thallophyta ; among the chief types. used being Polytrichum commune, Mar- ehantia polymorpha, Polysiphonia fastigiata, Fucus serratus, Coleochate scutata, Volvox globator, Agaricus campestris, Claviceps purpurea, Eurotium Aspergillus, Pythium de Bary- anum, and Mucor mucedo. Besides these a good many subsidiary types are used to illustrate special points. «* A CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS,” drawn up by Mr, E. T. Newton for Mr. H. B. Woodward’s ‘‘ Geology of England and Wales,” has now been issued separately, It is founded on the classifications proposed by Prof. Huxley, with such modifica- tions as are, in the author’s opinion, rendered necessary by recent discoveries. Tue Annual Report of the Royal Alfred Observatory, Mauritius, for the year 1885, has been issued. The mean temperature for the year at the Observatory was 73°°6. The highest reading was 86°°7 in February, and the lowest 57°°4 in July. Rain fell on 200 days, and amounted to 44°61 inches ; the fall was below the average in the usually wet months of January to April, but above the average in the usually dry months of May to October. The island has not been visited by a hurricane since March 1879, although several cyclones have passed not far from it. The Report contains observations made at various stations in the island and at the Seychelles, and notices of storms in the Indian Ocean, collected from ships’ logs. Photo- graphs of the sun were also taken daily, when the weather per- mitted. There were 354 days on which it is certain that spots were on the sun’s disk, and eight days on which it is certain that there were none. The number of spots in May was unusually great. In a recent book, ‘ L’Enseignement actuel de l’Hygiene dans les Facultés de Médecine en Europe,” Prof. Loewenthal, of Lausanne, shows that the time allowed per year for the teaching of hygiene varies from 20 minutes per week in England to 9 hours per week in Spain. The other countries range between these two extremes. The average is from 2} to 3 hours per week for the whole year. In the May number of the American Fournal of Science will be found a paper by Mr. Carey Lee, of Philadelphia, in which are described a remarkable series of salts of silver, which the author is attempting to make use of in obtaining photographs of objects in their natural colours. It is first shown, by an ex- haustive series of experiments, that when light acts upon ordin- ary silver chloride, AgCl, in presence of hydrochloric acid, the darkening is due to the formation of a small quantity of sub- chloride, Ag,Cl, which enters into combination with the un- altered silver chloride to form a reddish compound of a nature similar to that of a ‘‘lake.”” This red chloride of silver is termed protochloride, and is found to be, unlike subchloride, unattacked by cold strong nitric acid. After a certain amount of this sub- stance is formed, the action of light appears to cease—a pheno- menon which has been frequently noted by other observers. Successful efforts were then made to prepare protochlorides, bromides, and iodides of this nature, and a full description of the very numerous methods and analyses is given in the memoir. The startling fact was discovered that all varieties of tints from one end of the spectrum to the other could be obtained under suitable conditions. Normally, the protochloride of silver is red, even one-half per cent. giving to ordinary silver chloride a strong coloration; but on exposure to diffused sunlight it q changes to purple. On addition of mercuric chloride it gray, potassium bromide changes it to a permanent lilac, sium iodide toa bluish tint, while a mixture of potassium and hydrochloric acid causes it to pass through pink and colour to pure white. Heat, on the contrary, causes it to: its red coloration, and on exposure to various parts of the trum it affects lovely; shades of the most varied hues. important observation was made that, in presence of § quantities of lead or zinc chloride, white light (which dar the pure protochloride) bleaches it, thus producing white portions of the image which ought to be white ; and it found that the addition of a little sodium salicylate enha: sensitiveness threefold. The experiments are being contin and appear likely to lead to important results in ¢ photography. THE current number of the Aw (vol. iv. Part 2) co some interesting papers, but none of great importance. e want of finality in the system of nomenclature now pra by the American ornithologists is as marked as ever. — Dr. Stejneger, having previously settled the synonymy of redpolls, by the confounding of all received nomenclature, the introduction of nine new synonyms into the alread; burdened literature of six species, here furnishes a tenth unrecorded title for our British redpoll ; and Mr. Brev lows suit by adding another synonym to one of the species of the same group. It might be well for ornit to consider whether the best plan would not be, as Mr. advises, to simplify matters by accepting in every case th: that happens to have been for a long time most in vogue. IN an interesting paper on the Ailsa Craig Lighthous lately before the Scottish Institution of Engineers a builders, Mr. G. M. Hunter drew attention to the adr able system of illumination and signalling in the Firth « Clyde. There are Corsewall Point light, alternating white a red, at the entrance to Loch Ryan, distant from the C miles ; Sanda Isle light, off the Mull of Kintyre, distant 18 Turnberry light, off the Ayrshire coast, distant 12 miles Fae light and fog-signals, off the southern end of Arran, dis miles ; and Holy Isle green and red light, distant 18 mi of which are revolving lights, with the exception of tl lights at Pladda and Holy Isle. These lights are all 1 ordinary circumstances visible from Ailsa Craig. pepe In the Zzvestia of the Russian Geographical Society ther some interesting remarks, by A. N. Krasnoff, on the hist the valley of the Ili River in Russian Turkestan. The Rt traveller considers that during the post-Pliocene age valley of the Ili was nearly all occupied by water, and thé vegetation on the shores of this basin was quite diffe that which exists now. It resembled, he thinks, the p vegetation of Middle Russia. There were forests of deci trees, among which maples, elm-trees, and apple-trees pre and black-earth steppes occupied wide areas. Relics o vegetation survive only at the foot of the snow-clad moun where they find the necessary moisture. Several of the 5 have there undergone remarkable adaptations, which permit to support the rigorous continental climate. Deprived moisture of the snow-clad peaks, the vegetation of the ridges has completely changed since the recent desiccati those parts of Asia. These ridges are covered now \ purely Central-Asiatic flora. As to the shores of Lake khash and Ala-kul, they are either stony deserts with small plants, or shifting sands covered with the characteristic Caspian bushes nearly destitute of leaves. The Balkha: formerly a much greater lake than it is now, and it isr becoming smaller. The depth of the Ala-kul Gulf has so f ay 19, 1887] NATURE 65 shed that the Kirghizes already ford the strait which con- with the lake. None of the rivers given on our maps g into the Ala-kul Gulf and Lake Balkhash from the est were found by M. Krasnoff. They have all dried up. additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the week include an Alexandrine Parrakeet (Palgornis alex- from India, presented by Miss Ada Marshall; two Geese (Anser cygnoides) from China, presented by Miss 3 four Midwife Toads (Alytes obstetricans), South n, purchased ; a Blue-cheeked Parrakeet (Platycercus ‘S) from North Australia ; a Pied Crow Shrike (Strepera a) from Australia; a Sun Bittern (Zurypyga helias) South America, received in exchange; a Blood-breasted n (Phlogenas cruentata); two Dwarf Chameleons (Cia- pumilus) bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. | MICROMETRIC MEASURES OF JUPITER AND SATURN.—In jhe recently-published ‘‘ Observations,” made at the Hong Cong Observatory during 1886, Dr. Doberck gives some mea- ures of Jupiter and Saturn made with the 6-inch Lee equatorial .ow at Hong Kong. The measures of Jupiter, extending from \ugust 29, 1879, to April 7, 1886, include the position-angle of he polar axis, the apparent equatorial and polar diameters, the wreadth of the equatorial belts and of the red spot, and the ength of the latter when on the central meridian. Dr. Doberck soncludes that the equatorial and polar diameters at the mean listance of Jupiter are 38’'207 and 35’'942 respectively, and hat the equatorial semi-diameter at the mean distance of the sarth from the sun is 99°39. The measures of Saturn extend rom January 3, 1879, to April 5, 1886, and include the position- ingle of the axis, the external diameter of the ring, the diameter of Cassini’s division, the internal diameter of the ring, a the equatorial and polar diameters of the planet. The educed dimensions at the mean distance of Saturn are :— External diameter of ring 40'28, diameter of Cassini’s division 34°42, internal diameter 26’°82, equatorial diameter of Saturn (7°22, and polar diameter 16”°53. The equatorial semi- a at the mean distance of the earth from the sun is ai og PRESENT APPEARANCE OF SATURN’s RinG.—M. Stuyvaert, Assistant-Astronomer at the Royal Observatory, Brussels, has ecently — a couple of drawings of Saturn to the Royal Belgian Academy. These were made on February 8 and 15 in he present year, and show the Cassinian division as encroaching m the outer ring, A, in a remarkable series of shaded indenta- fons. Ring B is nearly broken up into a series of bright white pots by a number of dusky indentations on its inner border of a imilar shape, and the dusky ring, C, likewise shows two dark 10tches on the inner side of the following ansa. Struve’s division yetween B and C was also seen, and appeared on February 8 to e formed by a succession of dark gray spots. These observations largely x Lip tie by those of Dr. Terby and Mr. Elger, ished in the Odservatory for March and April. Mr. Elger erved three or four ‘‘large re-entering angles like the teeth asaw”’ on the inner margin of the dusky ring. This was on ¢ preceding ansa, and not the following, as in M. Stuyvaert’s ybservations, but the rotation of the ring would account for the hange. Mr. Elger also noticed on February 25 that the pre- ding ansa of the dusky ring was unequally black, certain parts f its surface appearing quite black. ‘These black spots were so noticed and drawn by Dr. Terby, who likewise remarked he unusual distinctness and breadth of Struve’s division, It vould appear, therefore, from these and other recent observations hat the matter composing the ring system is at present much less y) ically and evenly distributed than usual. Irregularities a the inner borders of the various rings, such as the above bservers describe, have indeed been observed before, Trouvelot, or example, having remarked notches in Ring A, and Jacob imilar indentations in the dusky ring, but they are not ordinarily Tue RED Sport UPON JUPITER.—From some recent observa- ions of this object published by Mr. Stanley Williams in the May umber of the Observatory, it appears that the ephemeris given fi by Mr. Marth in the Monthly Notices for November 1886, is about a quarter of an hour too late. The red spot may therefore be expected to be on the central meridian at about the following times :— h. m. h. m. h. m. May 24...21 33 June 7...23 6 June 19...23 0 Ga, State 45 2 L020) 35 992 20s 2030 9, 29... O 49 pa CEB 22 TA ig) 2422S 93) 3Es22e40 EAS. (23°53 te: 20-23: 40 June 2...23 57 HERS AD 43 49 (DF 268Qe 35 53: BS Speeey Se Yess S022 3080 al 10 The above times are expressed in Greenwich civil time, and are reckoned from midnight to midnight. DIscOVERY OF A NEW ComMET.—A new comet was dis- covered on May 12, by Mr. E. E. Barnard, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S.A. Place, May 12, 16h. 57m., R.A. 15h. 10m. 58s., Decl. 31° 25'S. The comet was only faint. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887 MAY 22-28. (}, 08 the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on May 22. Sun rises, 4h. Im, ; souths, 1th. 56m. 24°6s.; sets, igh. 52m. ; decl. on meridian, 20° 23’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 1th, 52m. Moon (New'on May 22) rises, 4h. 18m. ; souths, 11h. 38m. ; sets, 19h. 9m, ; decl. on meridian, 14° 17’ N. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. h. m. h. m, h. m. : Mercury 3 47 II 31 19 15 18 38 N Venus ... 6 17 14 47 23 17 25 14N Mars ... 3 43 II 29 19 I5 18 56 N Jupiter... 16 26 2I 43 sor 9 148 Saturn... 7 16 Peet ce ae Se 22 8N * Indicates that the setting is that of the following morning. May h. BS a ae Venus in conjunction with and 5° 18’ north of the Moon. 26 17 Saturn in conjunction with and 2° 45’ north of the Moon. 27 14 Mercury in superior conjunction with the Sun. Variable Stars. Star. R.A. Decl. h. m. ‘ h. m U Cephei O 52°3... 81 16 N.... May 24, 2 18 m U Canis Minoris... 7 35'2... 8 39 N. phe 73 > m 5 Libre Ze 14. 54°9 ai? 8. ‘4:8. 5 Soy 2 Aa U Ophiuchi... iy a GR Sem ae Be ess ae and at intervals of 20 8 W Sagittarii 17 57°8 ... 29 35 S. ... May 28, 21 of n Aquilze 19 46°7 OUABIIN ie 520 278mm R Sagittze Be Oise TO. SHUN a geek m R Vulpeculze 20750°4 is 23) 222NG ne gy 22, m 5 Cephei AQ Oy ac 5h GONG as yy) Hh BOyes 3 Orme M signifies maximum ; 7 minimum. Meteor-Showers. R.A. Decl Near o Draconis 280 54 N y Cygni 301 37 N From Lacerta ... 329 48 N GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. THE new Erginzungsheft (No. 86) of Petermann’s Mitteil- ungen contains a monograph of great importance in scientific geography by Dr. Rudolf Credner, Professor of Geography at Greifswald, on ‘‘Die Reliktenseen,” which he defines broadly so as to include all lakes of marine origin, whether they do or do not now containremains of marine fauna. The author con- siders such lakes of so great importance in connexion with the evolution of the earth, that he thinks it the duty of physical geography to critically examine all data concerning lakes which may have a claim to be regarded as of marine origin, and 66 NATURE i [May 19, 1 88 decide whether such claim is justifiable. He discusses, the evidences on which lakes may be regarded as of marine origin— historical, morphological, biological, and with regard to exist- ing names. He then devotes considerable space to the dis- cussion of the claims of lakes in all parts of the world to be regarded as of such origin; to the relations between salt- and fresh-water fauna ; and to a critical examination of the faunistic argument for the marine origin of existing inland lakes. He concludes that none of the arguments derived from the con- siderations referred to have a convincing importance in deciding as to the marine origin of lakes. Dr. Credner is of opinion that the question can only be satisfactorily solved on the geo- logical evidence furnished by the various lake regions; and this argument he means to develop in a second part of this very valuable monograph. DETAILS are to hand of the recent exploration of the Mobangi tributary of the Congo, by Capt. van Géle, which add some- thing to the results obtained by Mr. Grenfell. Capt. van Gele’s journey was made at the end of 1886, at the time when the river is in flood, and when the current of the rapids is most powerful. At no part was the water less than 1°80 metre in depth, and the deepest did not exceed 11 metres. Not far from the embou- chureof the Mobangi, onthe left bank, 8’ 30'S. lat., 17°35’ E. long., there isa French station. Above this part the Mobangi measures 2500 metres in breadth, 11 metres in depth in the centre, with a current at the rate of I metre per second. At the 4th degree N., just below the rapids, there is a breadth of 1200 metres, a depth of 7°50 metres, and a current of 1°50 metre per second. Between these two points the breadth of the Mobangi constantly varies, never exceeding 40co metres. brown colour, and its general aspect much the same as that of the Congo, its channel studded with islands, and its banks wooded. The right bank is often marshy, while the left bank is frequently steep, and the neighbourhood hilly. The left bank is much more densely peopled than the right, which never has but a scanty population. Onthe left bank, especially above the 2nd degree of latitude, there is a rapid succession of villages, belonging to the Baati, the Monyembo, and the Montumbi. The people are well made and tall (mean height of men 1°80 metre), they are industrious, but at the same time inveterate cannibals. In all the course of the river which has been observed, Capt. van Géle did not notice any affluent of importance ; the only three worth mentioning are the Nghiri on the left bank, and the Ibenya and the Lobay on the right. The Nghiri winds through a very marshy country, which probably occupies the place of the con- jectural lake of that name. About 4° N. lat., a mountain mass is met with, running in a north-east and south-west direc- tion, through which the Mobangi must penetrate in making its way to the Congo, and here it is, as might be expected, that rapids are found. The river here is narrowed into a gorge, impassable at high water, but, Mr. Grenfell assures us, quite passable at low water for a suitable steamer. _ THE Argentines have been very active recently in the explora- tion both of Patagonia and of their section (the eastern) of Tierra del Fuego. In a communication which appears in Fefer- mann’s Mitteilungen, Ramon Lista gives some details of a journey which he made [through the centre of the large eastern island from Sebastian Bay to the Strait of Le Maire. He states that our notions of the surface and climate of this island have hitherto been entirely erroneous: it has been re- garded as inhospitable, barren, and uninhabitable; its rocky mountains covered with everlasting snow. This may be so with the west part of the land, but M. Lista gives a different account of the region traversed by him. From Cape Espiritu Santo to Cape Penas he found valleys of varying breadth, covered with luxuriant fodder plants, and abounding in rivers, some of which are navigable, and which come from a snow-covered region in the interior. South of this is found the region of Antarctic forests. Though not so rich in grass and water as the northern region, M. Lista states that it made a favourable impression on him. He saw a good deal of the native population, and collected considerable data as to their anthropology. Many other scienti- fic observations were made by him on the geology, fauna, and flora of the country. THE Carniola section of the German and Austrian Alpine Club has resolved to put up on the Old Posthouse at Wurzen, the favourite head-quarters of Sir Humphry Davy, a tablet to commemorate his services in making known the South-Eastern Alps of Austria, and in attracting visitors thither. Its waters are of a clear = THE ROYAL SOCIETY CONVERSAZIO. Society, held on Wednesday, the 11th inst. | best which has been given for many years. A remarkable objects were exhibited, and an account of most important of them may be of interest to our ree Prof. A. W. Riicker exhibited lecture apparatus to the measurement of coefficients of expansion b Newton’s rings. The rings are formed between a and the convex end of a glass cylinder. These are gether by a metal frame, the front and back of which nected by tubes through which a current of water i The rings are projected on a screen and expand or co the temperature of the water is altered. The app shown in operation. a Maps to illustrate the present state of the magne’ the British Isles now in progress, with a set of instrur Kew pattern, which have been used in the survey, y by Profs. Thorpe and Riicker. (1) Large map sho stations at which observations have been made, and ° of three magnetic: elements, viz. the inclinatio tion, and total force at all places for which the ~ the observations has been completed. The epoch of is to be January 1, 1886, but the values given are yet, corrected for secular change, except in the stations in Scotland.. (2) Three maps of Scotland the lines of equal dip and equal total force for 18. 1886, and the lines of equal declination for 1858" Mr. C. V. Boys exhibited a radio-micrometer and spinnin which is probably the most sensitive instrument for me: radiant heat yet made. It consists of a movable circuit per, antimony, and bismuth hung by a quartz fibre magnetic field. One-hundred-millionth of ad is the possible limit of such an instrument. Prof, made an instrument essentially the same in princi This radio-micrometer was devised by the exhi knowledge of M. D’Arsonval’s, from which, howey in important details. The one exhibited is an exp instrument only ; but it is about one hundred times as as athermopile. The spinning-pile is peculiar i start itself and turn either way indifferently when a sp: on one side, and will at once stop when the spark is helc other. Mr. Boys also showed an apparatus for shooting of glass, emerald, quartz, &c. A thin rod of the material ened to the tail of an arrow and heated at the end by hydrogen flame. The trigger of a cross-bow is i pulled, and the arrow shot, when a thread of extreme drawn out. These threads are far finer than spun g many are finer than spider-lines. Threads of quartz tically free from elastic fatigue, and are most suitable torsion threads of instruments of precision. Quart: drawn so fine that the thinnest parts are beyond the p: possible microscope to define them, Experiments were showing the discharge by flame of electrically-spun Sir John Fowler and Mr. B. Baker exhibited a series marvellous photographs of the 1700-feet span cantilever now in course of construction across the Firth of Forth. of these photographs will be exhibited to-morrow at Institution. Specimens of wire and other articles ‘¢ platinoid,” manufactured by Mr. F. W. Martino, by the London Electric Wire Company. Platinoid is u able under atmospheric influences, and is specially suit substitute for platinum-silver, German silver, &c., for purposes, as by experiments it has proved itself unchang variation of temperature (see Proceedings of the Royal No. 237, 1885). Major H. S. Watkin exhibited a Watk aneroid invented by himself, and manufactured by M Hicks. It is well known that aneroids have been mz of sizes, from 3 feet to half aninch in diameter ; the length of tk x sions on the scale representing inches on the mercurial have also been varied to suit different purposes ; but as there was only one circle of figures, either the number and therefore the extreme height at which the instrum: available, had to be restricted, or the dimensions of t contracted in order to obtain a longer range. Major W: patent index gets over this difficulty, and an open scale be obtained, combined with great length of range. T. the 4-inch patent aneroid 1 inch on the mercurial be € be made to represent from 4 to 10 inches, and yet be for great heights. Pre. ih NATURE 67 aptain Wharton, H: rapher of the Admiralty, exhibited n-signalling apparatus, designed by Mr. F. Galton, F.R.S., he use of naval surveyors. The optical arrangements are ame as those described by him in the Journal of the British ociation, 1858, but the movements are new. Its advantage he facility it affords for accurate direction of the beam of t; an image of the sun appearing over the object to which desired to flash, when viewed through the telescope. ‘harton also showed a set of charts illustrating the hical conditions of coral reefs and islands that stand water; anew chart of the south circumpolar regions, ks of explorers; and a chart showing sea-surface es obtained off the north-west coast of Spain, June to 1886. An improved pneumatic tide-gauge or level- was exhibited by Capt. de Wolski. This enables the ‘apparatus to be et any distance, horizontal or vertical, : Spot in the sea below low-water mark where the tide ured, Specimen charts (of which we have already given account), exhibiting the conditions of weather over the Ocean at the four seasons of the year, were shown by eorological Council. (1) Daily synchronous charts of orth Atlantic in spring, February 27 to March 4, 1883. charts show that an anticyclone lies over Western and the neighbouring part of the Atlantic, with much d fog prevailing at its centre; whilst the predominant these islands are northerly and easterly, typical March (2) Daily synchronous weather charts of the North summer, August I to 6, 1882. These charts exhibit ing area of high barometrical pressure on the eastern rly wind at the entrance of the Channel, changing to north the coast of Portugal, and eventually merging in the north- trade. (3) Daily synchronous weather charts of the rth: Atlantic, in autumn, October 9 to 14, 1882. The merous small areas of low barometrical pressure over the these charts, which appear at the time of year region of highest pressure is about to be transferred ean to the land, seem to indicate what takes place change. Several small cyclonic systems are shown thern part of the area of high pressure which prevails antic in about 30° N. (4) Dailysynchronous weather f the North Atlantic in winter, February 9 to 14, 1883. t of the Atlantic north of 40° N. is affected by a large w pressure, of which the centre lies somewhere to the of Iceland. These conditions are usual in winter. English dialect districts, with key, by Mr. Alexander j trate his ‘‘Existing Phonology of English ’ not yet published, were exhibited by the author. Mr. Crisp exhibited carly microscopes :—(1) Campani’s . No field lens, and probably the earliest microscope 2) Pope Benedict’s microscope. Belonged to Cardinal ini, afterwards Pope Benedict XIV. Triple crown and keys inlaid in front of box. (3) Hooke microscope. This ate to the same Pope. (4) Oppelt’s microscope. ents for measuring extensions and compressions in $ subjected to stress were exhibited by Prof. W. C. (1) Apparatus to measure extensions to 1/10,000 of Two clips embrace the bar, so that the movement of e points is the mean of the extensions on both sides. = set level by sensitive levels, and the distance be- is measured by a micrometer screw. (2) Apparatus ensions. The bar is embraced by clips, so that a extensions on each side is taken. The extensions sured by a roller and mirror. Measures to 1/100,000 _ (3) Similarly arranged apparatus for compressions. \¢ strain is measured by a microscope micrometer. Measures 50,000. of an inch. Ke aratus for the drawing of automatic ress-strain- curves was by Prof. Kennedy. In this yparatus the bar to be tested is extended “in series” with a uch stronger bar of steel. This bar is used as a spring, and its astic extensions, magnified by a light pointer, are taken as oportional to the stress in the test-bar, and recorded by the 1 of the pointer on a sheet of smoked glass which has a motion right angles to that of the points, and proportional to the elonga- o! est bar. There is also a special arrangement of differen- il levers to eliminate any errors in this motion which might arise 9m the extension or “give ” of other parts of the instrument. Forty-six photographs of clouds in many parts of the orid were exhibited by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, by whom ey were photographed. These were mostly taken during two oOngeQ the Atlantic, which is related to a prevailing north © voyages round the world for meteorological research. The pic- tures illustrate very clearly the identity of cloud-forms all over the world, for similar cumulus and cumulo-nimbus forms range in latitude from London to near Cape Horn— including one actually on the equator ; and the stratus from Sweden to New Zealand ; while the mists in the Himalayas are indistinguishable in general character from those of Great Britain. In addition to illustrations from the countries above mentioned, clouds are represented from , Teneriffe, Brazil, the Falkland Islands, the Indian Ocean, and - Borneo. Model of high-speed hydraulic or steam engine for driv- ing electric light, and other purposes, was exhibited in motion by Mr. Arthur Rigg, the inventor. Reciprocation of pistons, and other moving parts, imposes an early limit to speed in engines of ordinary construction, so it has long been an unsolved problem how to produce a satisfactory engine without this evil, no rotary ~ engines having ever yielded results encouraging their adoption. The revolving engine possesses pistons and cylinders, which are the best mechanical contrivance for remaining steam tight or water tight, and these have reciprocations relative as between each other, but only rotation in relation to the earth, while the cylinders and pistons revolve each on their own independent centres. The static balance and the dynamic balance are iden- tical, and this engine therefore runs in equilibrium, without vibration, and in almost perfect silence. It is governed by varying the rate of expansion in the case of steam, or by varying the length of stroke in the case of water, and produces very economical results. It has none of that rhythmical variation in speed which occurs during each revolution of an ordinary engine. It is the only engine hitherto invented which can be driven at high speed by water pressures of considerable amount, and is found to give a perfectly steady incandescent light when making 250 revolutions per minute, driving a dynamo for 1oo lamps, and worked by 7oolbs, per square inch water. pressure. Prof, Forbes’s thermo-galvanometer, made by Messrs. Nalder Bros. and Co., was exhibited by Prof. George Forbes. This consists of a ring, half of antimony, half of bismuth, one of the soldered junctions being filed thin and blackened to receive radiations. The conductivity of the ring is increased by the addition of a block of copper. 2 at e ce,_| ? PES a eo po © (eo. © 46 eee ieee ee ee oo), al oe Tie att ae e6 © 226 6 oe 48 Sa eee NATURE 73 THURSDAY, MAY 26, 1887. TREATMENT AND UTILISATION OF SEWAGE. reatment and Utilisation of Sewage. By W. H. Cor- field, M.A., M.D. (Oxon.). Third Edition, Revised _ millan and Co., 1887.) =) F late years, discussions about sewage have occupied a large share of the proceedings of many of the Societies concerned with the practical application of science, and recent scientific discoveries have as yet done little to modify the conclusions of the last ten or fifteen years. Dr. Farr’s Report on Vital Statistics proves that increased density of population (if sanitary conditions remain constant) is itself a cause of increased ill-health and death, which can only be counteracted by increased precaution. And the prominent position occupied by England in sanitation must be ascribed to the constant efforts which have been made to cope with the increasing density of the population. A danger to health arises from density of population mainly because of the retention in our midst of the impurities which are the necessary ‘accompaniments of the act of living, that is to say, the retention of those substances which putrefy, and from the products of the putrefaction of which various matters, it may be, organisms, inimical to life, become dis- en ted through the air. The new, a third, edition of Dr. Corfield’s record of > treatment and utilisation of sewage is a valuable con- tribution to the history of the development of the “methods by which some of these evils have been coun- teracted. The first edition was the practical outcome of researches and experiments made by a Committee of the British Association, which was appointed to consider the evils arising from the unsystematic arrangements which prevailed at the inception of the water-carriage system for sewage. Before the introduction of the water-carriage system, refuse polluted the soil under and around the houses, the wells, and the air: when water-carriage was resorted to, it was thought sufficient to allow the dirtied water to flow to the nearest outfall, and the result was the pollution of our ditches, streams, rivers, and sea- shores. Our experience of the way in which these evils can be overcome has been gained slowly and tentatively ; and Dr. Corfield’s record of the various processes which have been tried and abandoned is not only useful as a means of preventing those methods that have been found unsuccessful from being brought forward again, but the account he gives of the causes of failure teaches im- portant lessons to the sanitarian—lessons that may enable him to combat the insanitary conditions which a dense population is continually developing under new and unforeseen aspects. Much as the subject of sewage disposal has been dis- cussed, the varying conditions under which towns have to dispose of their sewage make it impossible that there should be any uniform method of disposal. It is abund- _antly certain that sewage contains elements of value. VoL. XXXvI.—NO. 917. x Dr. Tidy values the sewage at 8s. or 9s. per annum per head of the population, of which the solid part is worth Is. 2d. Dr. Corfield estimates the sewage of London alone at between £1,000,000 and £1,500,000, Dr. Liebig estimated it at £4,000,000. But Dr. Hoffman, in 1857, summed up this question in the statement that the value in London sewage was like the gold in the sands of the Rhine —it amounted to millions, but it would not repay the cost of recovering it. Some of our first authorities on the sub- ject, indeed, having most strongly advocated the com- mercial value of sewage, have ended, after years of labour, by saying, “ Get rid of it in the cheapest manner ; throw it into the sea if youcan.” The assumption that, because sewage has within it manurial value, therefore its removal ought to produce a profit, has had a most unfortunate effect on the treatment of this question. The search after the philosopher’s stone of profit in sewage-disposal retarded the sanitary movement for years. But, whilst it is easy to say, “‘ Throw your sewage into the sea,” it is rarely that we can so deal with it without injuring foreshores or tidal estuaries, and many sea- side resorts are suffering from such a method of disposal. A tidal river can only be safely resorted to under excep- tional conditions. The discharge of crude sewage into a river, or, for the matter of that, on to land, is not satis- factory. For instance, the metropolitan sewage is poured into the tidal estuary of the Thames, where there is an enormous volume of water. Notwithstanding the purify- ing power of water, the sewage has seriously polluted the river beyond its capacity for purification in dry weather. On the other hand, it has been shown that the Barking and Halfway Reaches of the Thames, where the sewage is poured in, are really now better for navigation than they were before the metropolitan drainage outfalls were opened. Independently, however, of the evils of the pollution of the tidal estuary of the Thames by the metropolitan sewage, we cannot conceal from ourselves that if some method of utilisation were feasible, even though it cost as much as we now pay for disposing of the sewage without utilisation, the resulting agricultural produce would be a gain to the nation. But there is not at present any generally-accepted plan for converting the metropolitan sewage into food, nor does it seem very probable that any method of treating the London sewage as a combined whole will enable us to do so usefully. The Metropolitan Board of Works, indeed, appear to consider it more prudent to submit to the known cost of loss than to embark on the more speculative course of endeavouring to rescue the valuable contents. The most important question for the nation at the present time relates'to other towns in the kingdom—that is to say, the question how, in the case especially of inland towns, can the sewage be purified so as to pre- vent it from damaging neighbouring properties, and make it fit to be passed into rivers. The best authorities are agreed on one point, viz. that it must not be sent crude into the rivers ; and the preliminary straining off of the suspended matters is only a little less objection- able. Precipitation alone will not render the effluent water sufficiently pure; but if you let that effluent, after precipitation, flow over a small area of land, you will give the effluent the finishing touches towards E [May 26, 188 4 NATURE purification. Precipitation by chemicals implies certain | sanitary matters: each of those years has marked conditions. First, if you want to treat sewage properly | step of progress, and we continue daily to advance ‘by a precipitation process, you must treat it fresh, before active putrefaction setsin. Secondly, before you mix your chemicals with it, you should strain the sewage in some way or other. Thirdly, you should add sufficient chemicals to effect complete purification. Fourthly, there should be efficient stirring after the addition of the chemicals. Fifthly, it is essential that you should have sufficient tank accommodation, for two reasons: first, that the precipitate may subside perfectly; secondly, that the sludge may be frequently removed. If you allow the old sludge to remain in the tanks, it is perfectly certain that it will contaminate the fresh sewage when it comes in. When the sludge is taken out of the tank, the tank itself must be washed. By combining precipi- tation, which will produce a good effluent, with land treatment or prepared filters, you may produce the best effluent that is known. Intermittent downward filtration through land will ade- quately purify sewage so as to allow the effluent to pass into a stream ; but by this plan the manure which is so much wanted is almost entirely lost, the greater part escaping in solution in the effluent water in the form of nitrates and nitrites. On the other hand, if the effluent is used for irrigation farming, under necessary conditions of soil and methods of application, the sewage is purified, a certain agricultural return is obtained, and, provided the irrigated land is placed at a sufficient distance (say 500 yards) from houses, the health and comfort of the neighbourhood are not endangered. Dr. Corfield thus sums up his conclusions :— “Wherever it is possible, irrigation should be carried out, the sewage having been previously freed, by one or other of the methods described, from the offensive sus- pended matters, which must be deodorised to prevent the production of a serious nuisance. Wherever, on the other hand, irrigation is practically impossible, intermittent downward filtration through soil affords the means of satisfactorily purifying the sewage.” Drs. Corfield and Parkes say that these were the con- clusions at which they arrived seventeen years ago, and that they see no reason to alter them now; but we much doubt whether finality on this question of sewage-disposal has been arrived at. The cremation of refuse on a system- atic plan is of only a few years’ standing, and at present of somewhat limited application. Moreover, we stand on the threshold of discoveries as to the more.occult causes of infection : habits of those lower forms of life which play so large a part in putrefactive changes, and which are in some cases proved to be baneful to us under the .conditions in which they now occur, but whose action we might possibly learn to modify under enlarged knowledge. We have recently seen how the extraction of oxygen from the atmo- sphere has risen from being a toy to the position of a practical art. These discoveries may eventually have some bearing on the safe disposal of the refuse matter t which is continually being formed in the midst of dense populations. During the last twenty years we have made rapid strides in the methods of removal and disposal of refuse, which have been the result of the free development of the intelligence of the community in we are learning daily much of the history and | interesting are probably the two referable to i | group of Polyzoa, presenting characters which di widely from those met with in typical Polyzoal ic therefore to be hoped that Parliament will not accer views of those persons who seem now to be endea to stereotype by Act of Parliament our present po sanitation, as if it were perfection. Such a step r seriously check future progress. EXPEDITION. The Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S, «C, Part XXX. “Report on the Polyze Cyclostomata, Ctenostomata, and Pe George Busk, F.R.S., &c. (Published ae O Majesty’s Goverrininit 1886.) HE first and second memoirs contained in Vo of the Zoological Reports of the Voy Challenger were reviewed in NATURE two y 26). The third memoir, the subject of the pr formed the last piece of scientific work of the d naturalist to whom the preparation of the | Polyzoa had been intrusted. During a and suffering under which the energies of m would have broken down, Mr. Busk still la accomplish the task which he had unde was only a few days before his death that he v to bring it to a conclusion. The author deemed it advisable to divide on the Polyzoa collected during the great e voyage into two parts. The first of these has al: reviewed in NATURE (vol. xxxi. p. 146). It is greater number of all the Polyzoa collected. Th remained for consideration such species as aren Part, but the number of these is small in ¢ with those referable to the Cheilostomata, and t not occur among them any generic form which | regarded as new. The account of them here given it completes the Report on the Polyzoa co the expedition, is characterized by all that c: La exact work which invariably marked the scientific lab of its author. The entire number of species included in the p p Part is forty-six, of which thirteen are now descr’ the first time. Pedicellinea, and placed by the author in - Ascopodaria. The Pedicellinea form a ve b They are represented in our own seas by t species of the curious genus Pedicellina, with its pedunculated polypides destitute of the “cells” which the polypides of other Polyzoa admit of retracted. The genus Ascopodaria is rendered fu remarkable by the flask-like dilatation with mus walls which exists at the origin of each peduncle. e May 26, 1887] NATURE 75 structure of this form is worked out in the) Report with great care, and is illustrated by excellent figures depicting for the first time the anatomy of the genus as far as spirit specimens would admit of its demon- stration. The Report enters fully into the geographical and bathymetrical distribution of the species included in it. Of these the Cyclostomata attain the greatest depth, though only two of them extend to depths greater than ‘000 fathoms; namely, Crista elongata, which was ob- tained in the Australian region from a depth of 1450 fathoms, and /dmonea marionensis,, which was brought ‘up from a depth of 1600 fathoms in the region of Ker- guelen Land. It is a fact, however, by no means without ‘significance, as showing how little certain marine organ- isms of even complex structure are dependent on depth, that in the case of the last-mentioned species speci- ‘mens have been obtained from depths varying from 50 fathoms downwards. The Ctenostomata and Pedi- cellinea are all from comparatively shallow water, none having been obtained from a depth greater than 150 fathoms. _ Noone could have been found better qualified than Mr. Busk to institute a comparison between recent and fossil Polyzoa. His work on the Polyzoa of the Crag is among the most important contributions we possess to the palzeontology of this group, and gives a special value to his determination of the fossil relations of the species collected by the Challenger. To the sub-order Cyclostomata belong the oldest fossil Polyzoa as yet known, and out of the thirty-three species of Cyclostomata obtained by the Challenger Mr. Busk has been able to identify fourteen as occurring also in a fossil state, thus proving the wide distribution in time of even specific forms of this group. No fossil species has ‘as yet been identified with either the Ctenostomata or the Pedicellinea. The negative evidence, however, which is all that this statement expresses, proves but little, as these groups are destitute of structures which might be expected to continue recognizable in a fossil state. Barrois, indeed, contends that the larval stage of the Entoprocta (Pedicellinea) represents the primitive form from which the whole of the Polyzoa have descended. Of the Cheilostomata—the sub-order to which the former part of the Report is confined—no species has as yet been proved to belong to Paleozoic times, though this group is} largely represented in Mesozoic and Tertiary ‘strata. Y The ten beautiful plates which illustrate this part of the Report contain figures of all the newly-described species ot Cyclostomatous, Ctenostomatous, and Pedicellinean -Polyzoa, and bear ample evidence to the conscientious- hess and accuracy with which all the details of form are delineated. _ The purely descriptive part of the Report is marked by all that judicious selection of characters, and succinctness yet definiteness of diagnosis, which add so much to the facility of comparison and to the practical value of any work having for its object the determination and descrip- tion of specific forms. The number and variety of the Species and generic types described and figured in this and the former part of the Report give to the whole a special value, not only as a record of the species collected, but as a faithful and comprehensive picture of the external morphology of the important and interesting group of organisms to which it is devoted. G. J. A. OUR BOOK SHELF, Dynamics for Beginners. By the Rev. J. B. Lock, M.A. Pp. 178. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1887.) THIS book is an attempt to explain the elementary prin- ciples of dynamics in a manner suitable for school-work with boys of ordinary mathematical attainments. Ac- cordingly it contains a great number of easy mumerical examples, some worked out in illustration of the text, the others arranged in groups at frequent intervals. There is considerable freshness in these exercises, and they form altogether a very useful series. The work is divided into four sections. The first treats exclusively of rectilinear dynamics, thus avoiding at the beginning of the subject all purely geometrical diffi- culties. The second section introduces the notion of directed or vector quantities, and deals with the application of the parallelogram law to displacements, velocities, accelera- tions, and forces in succession. Next we have a section on applications of the preceding to projectiles, oblique impact, circular motion, and rela- tive motion, concluding with a short chapter on the hodograph. The final section deals with energy, work, and power. These. last three or four chapters read in connexion with the first section would form a-suitable first course in many cases, involving no mathematics beyond a knowledge of simple equations in algebra. The exposition throughout is remarkable for clearness: and precision of statement. The definitions of terms seem particularly well worded. The names ve/o and ce/o have been adopted for the units of velocity and accelera- tion, and are used systematically in both text and examples ; we hope these terms may win their way to general acceptance, for the language of the subject gains both in simplicity and directness by their introduction. The debt of gratitude which many teachers and students already owe to Mr. Lock will be considerably increased by this new class-book on a difficult subject, wherein-it appears to us that the skill and experience of the author are displayed with great advantage. Journals kept in Hyderabad, Kashmir, Sikkim, and Nepal. By Sir Richard Temple, Bart., M.P. ‘Edited, with Introductions, by his son, Richard Carnac Temple. With Maps and [llustrations. Two Vols. (London: W. H. Allen and Co., 1887.) THE first journal contained in these volumes was written at Hyderabad during the year 1867, when the author was Political Resident at the Court of the Nizdm. It is entirely political, and will interest only those who study somewhat minutely the course of recent Anglo-Indian history. ‘The journals kept during visits to Kashmir, Sikkim, and Nepal appeal to a larger class of readers. They deal with the physical features of these countries, and to some extent with social customs and institutions. Most of the author’s notes are too slight to be of much scientific importance ; but all of them have the merit of being written in a clear and unpretending style, and the information contained in them is, so far as it goes, thoroughly trustworthy. The introductions which the editor has contributed to the book add very considerably to its value. They are careful essays, in which Capt. Temple has brought together a great many interesting and suggestive facts that are not readily accessible to . ordinary readers. 76 NATURE [May 36 1887 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications, [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on hts space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Sunlight Colours. WILL you permit me to say, in relation to the very interesting lecture on Sunlight Colours, reported in NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 498, that Capt. Abney does not seem to have quite appre- hended my meaning, when he represents me as stating in a previous lecture at the Royal Institution, that the sun was ‘‘really blue outside our atmosphere,” for I nowhere in the lecture used those words, nor intended to convey the idea which, without qualification, they must give the reader. I recognize, however, that if my actual words conveyed it to so fair-minded a critic as Capt. Abney, they must have been open to misconstruction, and I therefore ask permission to recall in explanation an important fact referred to in the lecture, to which he does not allude. It is that the sun is surrounded by an atmosphere of its own, and that the prime modification of its actual colour at the photosphere takes place ¢heve. Only the secondary change of colour takes place in the earth’s atmosphere. ‘€ Outside our atmosphere,” accordingly, we see, not the absolute colour of the photosphere, but one already greatly modified toward white. I meant, then, when formally defining the colour of the sun outside our atmosphere, to use such qualified phrases as *‘tends toward blue,” or ‘‘ bluish,” and it was for the colour of the sun itself, 7.2. at the photosphere, and before any absorp- tion, that I meant to reserve the word ‘‘blue.” Let me hasten to add that I also tried—even to iteration—to insist that ‘blue ” here does not and cannot mean a monochromatic blue, but a combination of all the spectral colours, in which those of the blue end appear in such immense predominance that this is the dominant effect. Capt. Abney also says: ‘‘he’’ (I) ‘‘ surmised the result from experiments made with rotating disks of coloured paper. He did not, I think, try the method of using pure colours.” Capt. Abney will, I think, agree on consideration that these words may be liable to convey to most -readers a wrong impres- sion of labours which began nearly fifteen years ago, with studies on the absorption of the sun’s atmosphere, resting on direct and elaborate photometric comparisons of the light of its centre and edge. These have been followed by confirmatory measures with the bolometer, giving the relative proportions of the pure colours in the normal spectrum, and the tint has not been sur- mised, but experimentally shown by the actual combination of pure spectral colours. The solar studies were supplemented in the four years pre- ceding my lecture by almost unintermittent investigations on the absorption of the earth’s atmosphere, in which (though consider- ably over 20,000 galvanometer readings were recorded) I do not recall ever making any observation by the aid of ‘rotating disks of coloured paper.” The paper disks have been often em- ployed in explanation of my method, to roughly show the prin- ciples involved, and to c//ustrate results, but’ certainly not as means by which these results were surmised or discovered. In a communication to the British Association, published in NATURE, vol. xxvi. p. 586, after alluding to the antecedent re- searches of Mr. Lockyer and others, which show that certain rays of short wave-length are more absorbed than those of long, I ex- hibited charts showing how much each ray had grown. One of these, which suffered some curtailment at the hands of the en- graver to fit it to the height of the page, was reproduced in the report of the lecture (NATURE, vol. xxxii. p. 42), and it is possibly from this that Capt. Abney derives his impression as to my results in other respects. I can only conjecture that it may be so, since in my professional memoirs there are, not. only more accurate charts, but with them warnings that the figures representing the relation of the blue and red end in such drawings, or even in the tables whence they are taken, necessarily give minimum values of the blue, Aa The fact that this blueness was first predicated from a long careful study of the absorption of the sun’s atmosphere is tinct one, and I am entirely disposed to admit that this was not explained at sufficient length in my lecture, in w had but an hour to describe the work of twelve years. forced to confine myself to an account of some limited por this long research, I chose that part of it which dealt absorption of the earth’s atmosphere, as illustrated by th dition to Mount Whitney, but I thought the facts just about the influence of the sun’s atmosphere too important without explanation altogether, and rehearsed them subste in other words before entering at length on the subject telluric absorption. a As the observations on the sun’s atmosphere are still lished, it may be of interest if I give here, in anticipation final reductions, the approximate results of some m Allegheny in 1882, and which were supplemented by which I was enabled to make at South Kensington in th year by the kindness of Mr. Lockyer. fei This table gives the reduction to the normal spectrum points indicated in the first line, where A designates the length and w = one micron = 1/1000 of one millimetre. second line gives the approximate transmission by the atmosphere (not alluded to in Capt. Abney’s lecture), The line gives the approximate transmission by the earth’s atn alone (numbers nearly concordant with those he seems toe for this secondary effect) ; and the fourth, the combined the two. It is from such numbers as those in this that we have deduced the true colour of the sun at A methods to be presently alluded to, and which aw state that its dominant tint before any absorption is not “ bluish ” as ‘* blue.” Bh Re ee 0°40 0°45 0°50 0°55 0°60 0°65 0°70 Transmission by solar ae le atmosphere ....00- ‘16 ‘24 “30 °35 “38 “4t Transmission by ter- FEStrIAl spies eccensceesee “BE 44. 9530) 9863 ere Resultant transmission by both atmospheres ‘o5 ‘rr ‘16 ‘ar Reciprocal. of last, showing approximate brightness before any ADSOFPtiON vee see vee coe eee "43 "79° "26 "30°34 2o'2 95 63.647 39 33> eee Thus we see that of the extreme blue or violet ligt wave-length is 04m, 16 per cent. (2.2 less than %) transmitted by the solar atmosphere, and of this 16 per per cent. only is transmitted by the earth’s atmosphere. — this latter alone that Capt. Abney here takes account, consequence of the absorption by both atmospheres, onl 5 per cent. of the original violet light reaches us; or words, before the double absorption there was over twenty tin as much of this sort of blue in the sun as what we now see. the other hand, of the deep red light whose wave-length is as much as 45 per cent. is transmitted by the solar at 1er and of this again 83 per cent. by the earth’s; so that after — action of both atmospheres on this ray 37 per cent. is mitted as against 5 per cent. of the violet. If we take procal of the numbers in this fourth line we have those fifth, which evidently show the relative intensity of the colot at the photosphere (z.e. before any absorption), as compared that of common daylight. I employed in 1882 an arrangement, suggested by Mr. Very of the Allegheny O tory, by which we passed from these figures to the prod the actual resultant tint of the solar photosphere ; not b pigments or revolving disks, but by the direct combination spectral colours in the above proportions. The resultan cannot, I repeat, be exactly defined by any one spectral it was not monochromatic ; but the tint was, to my eye of others, best technically defined as that of Herschel’s lavend with perhaps a suggestion of purple ; and certainly I think as I thought then, that ‘‘blue” is the nearest familiar describe it. a It was with all these facts, and many more, in my poss that I used the language in question. : I hope after this statement that I may conclude that Abney and I have really no serious ground of difference as t propriety of the term ‘‘ bluish,” or as to what it here mear would only say that by no latitude of interpretation do I ta as meaning whzte. S. P. LANG Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., May 2. May 26, 1887] NATURE 77 The Eclipse of August 19, 1887. Hs eclipse will be seen over such an extent of territory that it lesirable to make the best use of the opportunity offered. The ronomical observations’ I do not mention, but besides them > following would be very important, and could be made by vellers alone, and those who do not take with them heavy and yublesome instruments :— Observations every ten minutes on the fressure and tem- ature of the air from the beginning of the eclipse to about if an hour after its end; and, some days before and later, ery hour, at the hours of the eclipse. The darometer might as well be an aneroid, but with large jisions ; a pocket instrument would be too small. Relative and t absolute measures are intended, and it is especially necessary at the instrument be not sluggish. The ¢hermometer preferable for the observations should be a ng-thermometer (Frowde), as one in a thermometer-stand and t swung could not follow rapidly enough the changes of tem- rature. It would be best to swing it at the height of the oulder. Observations on cloud, direction and force of wind, every lf hour the day of the eclipse and every hour before and er. Some observations on the colour of the sky, &c., and on > influence of the eclipse on animals, domestic and wild, uld be useful. The eclipse will be visible in Eastern Germany, but at so early an ur in the morning that there will be comparatively little interest meteorological observations. Russia (especially Eastern) and estern and Central Siberia give much better opportunities of servation. I give below some notices on the amount of cloud ; : stations are disposed from west to east, the mean is that of ee observations, 7 a.m., I p.m.,and 9 p.m. The conditions as to udiness will be better than those indicated here, in Eastern issia and Siberia to nearly Lake Baikal, as the eclipse will be n in the later morning hours, which have a smaller amount of ud than 7 a.m. and I p.m. Amount of Cloud. Rjev, Government of Tver... et Ret le AG Moscow ... its a ee a Bene SO _ Academy of Petrovsky, near Moscow.. 51 Rojdestwenskoye, Government of Kos- troma ... ae is vas des wre Page rer ag sy Kasan |... eee ae oe ie GO, vec 55 Viatka ... vee ae ass we i Gee eae Ekaterinburg... a ee ae 6S:ic0e 67 Nijnetaguilsk ... es ae ~ 64 Bogoslovsk By sae ae ee 57 Irbit mat = rp ee a 53 I p.m. Irbit yi ais fe a Svs 69 - Yeniseisk ad ae ie es 53 Irkutsk ... ave ay ay 5 49 ... 48 Foundry of Nertschinsk oe wes Ce ene | Niigata, west coast of Nippon... Se 55 { give a list of some places where tolerably good accommo- ion is to be found, with the time of travel from the nearest iway-station :— (ver, Torjok, Moscow,! Yaroslav,? Kostroma (three hours’ amer from latter point), Schuja, Ivanovo-Wosnessensk, neschma, Vladimir, Viatka (steamer on Volga, Kama, and itka, from Nijni-Novgorod, in three days), Perm (steamer n Nijni-Novgorod in eighty-five hours. Vijnetaguzlsk, with important foundries, malachite mines, &c., ched by railroad from Perm in fifteen hours, Tobolsk, by rail from Perm to Tjumen in about thirty hours, ace by steamer in two days, twice a week. It is well to ‘graph beforehand to retain a cabin. Tomsk by steamer from Tjumen in about eight days, by the ‘a, Tobol, Irtysch, and Ob. ‘he places eastward, the most favourable for observation, can ached by road only from Tomsk. Post-horses everywhere ilable, rapid travelling in good weather, but bad carriages. fo astronomers bringing with them bulky instruments, the ler-ways are to be recommended. St. Petersburg is in easy mer communication with British harbours, and thence Just at the southern limit, it would be better to observe somewhat to horth, See Mackenzie-Wallace’s ‘‘ Russia,’’ luggage can be sent by water to all parts of the Volga basin. So far as known at present, it is intended that there shall be observations of the eclipse at five points: (1) the observatory of General Maiewsky, Government of Tver ; (2) the estate of Count Olsuffiew, district Dmitrov, Government of Moscow; (3) the estate of Prof. Bredichin, district Kineschma, Government of Kostroma,—two English astronomers are expected ; (4) Glasov, Government of Viatka ; (5) Krasnoiarsk, on the Yenisei. A. WOEIKOF. Iridescent Clouds. THE clouds seen by Prof. Stone, as described in NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 581, may have been of the same character (though I cannot judge positively from the description) as those so ex- tensively observed in the Decembers of 1884 and 1885 ; if so, it is the only account I have read of their being seen last winter. Those described by Mr. McConnel, writing from St. Moritz, Switzerland (p. 533), are evidently of a totally different charac- ter, and I suppose simply the ordinary iridescent clouds which are common everywhere. T. W. BACKHOUSE. Sunderland. Remarkable Hailstones. May I ask for space to make a suggestion as to the possible cause of the banded structure of hailstones recently observed and recorded in NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 438? It seems to me that the phenomenon may perhaps be explained by devztrification of the ice. We are familiar with a considerable number of bodies which assume the vitreous state by rapid solidification from the liquid state ; and it seems reasonable to suppose that in the con- ditions under which hail is formed the ice may assume at first the vitreous state, the higher molecular structure of perfectly crystalline ice requiring more time for its full development (see paper by the writer read before Section C of the British Association last year at Birmingham). If such were the case (and the hypothesis is supported by the state- ment of Mr. C. S. Middlemiss in NATURE, vol. xxxv, p. 413), the observed structure (which can be actually seen to develop itself in some vitreous substances under the microscope, as a preliminary to the assumption of the full crystalline and opaque condition) would simply mark an early stage of the devitrifica- tion of the ice-glass. To bring this theory to the test of experi- ment it would only be necessary to observe closely the effect of keeping such hailstones for some time at a temperature rather below 0° C. A. IRVING. Wellington College, Berks, May 14. The Orbit of the Minor Planet Eucharis.* ON reading your note (p. 16) on the determination of the orbit of the planet Zucharis, by Dr. de Ball, and the discord- ances between his observations and those obtained with the Washington meridian instrument, I am reminded of an earlier case which seems to me to be analogous. Hansen drew attention to the very material difference between the observations of Zgeria in 1864 at Bonn and Leyden. This discrepancy between observations which otherwise harmonized well amounted to 10” in R.A., and occasioned a protracted inquiry by Argelander (Astron. Nachr., No. 1769), in which he came to the conclusion that the reason probably lay in the personal error of the Leyden observer in the observation of bright and faint stars. As I am not acquainted with Dr. de Ball’s treatise, I cannot judge whether respect was paid to such differences in isolated cases. W. VALENTINER. Karlsruhe Observatory, May 8. A Question for Chemists. Your correspondent, Mr. West, will find reference to the fact that a mixture of glycerine and potassium permanganate 1s liable to spontaneous combustion in the ‘‘ Extra Pharmacopceia ” of Martindale and Westcott, fourth edition, p. 292. Dublin. Harry NAPIER DRAPER. “ A Junior Course of Practical Zoology.” IN a recent notice of ‘‘ A Junior Course of Practical Zoology ” (NATURE, vol. xxxv, p. 506) the reviewer expresses surprise 4 78 NATURE that anyone should, in a text-book for students, ‘discard the ophthalmic somite of their seniors, and press the telson into the service,” a procedure on which he comments thus :-— The introduction of so sweeping a change into a book for juniors, without due comment is, under these circumstances, a false step, especially when it is considered that the precise converse 1s stated in all other books current.” ; Now Claus in his text-book says (I quote from the English edition) :—‘‘ The facetted eyes are borne on two movably sepa- rated stalks. These were for a long time considered as the anterior pair of appendages, while in fact they are merely lateral portions of the head which have become jointed” ; and else- where: ‘‘The last abdominal segment, which is transformed into a telson.” O28 Gegenbauer in his text-book says :—‘‘The projecting cha- racter of the eye, owing to its curvature, may lead to a stage in which the eye is stalked. When still more developed, this stalk may become movable” ; and nowhere speaks of the stalk as the homologue of an appendage. Prof. Lankester’s pupils are all taught to regard the telson as a somite and the ‘ophthalmic somite” as an erroneous inter- pretation of parts. I fail to see, therefore,-that Prof. Marshall need offer any excuse for his method of counting the segments, nor, in an elementary text-book, discuss a question on both sides of which there is avowedly much to be said. I may note with regard to one other criticism that, although there is nothing ‘‘irrelevant or absolutely fantastic” about the term commissure, it is’ convenient to distinguish between ‘*commissures connecting two ganglia of the same pair” and ‘connectives connecting ganglia of dissimilar pairs” (‘‘ Encycl, Brit.,” ed. ix. Art. ‘‘ Mollusca”), The ‘‘ word-mongerers’”’ are here marking ‘‘a turning-point in advance.” Madras, April 20. A. G, BouRNE. “On the Establishment of the Roman Dominion in j South-East Britain.” : In my article on the above subject printed in NATURE, vol. xxxy, p. 562, I have briefly alluded to the ridiculous mutiny of the Roman soldiers. I ought to have added (from Dio) the rela- tion of the following incident, which terminated the mutiny :— ‘Taking courage, because a brilliant meteor rising in the east passed across to the west, to the part to which they were making their course, they descended on the island.” That is, the Romans descended from an easterly part of Europe upon Britain. This agrees with the course which in my former letter I assigned as most probable ; namely, that the Romans sailed from the mouth of the Scheldt to Southend. G. B. Arry. The White House, Greenwich, May 18, FLORA OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND. HE Hydrographer of the Admiralty has kindly for- warded to Kew, as-he has stated in his note in NATURE for May 5, p. 12, the botanical specimens collected during the visit of H.M.S. Flying-Fish to Christmas Island.. They were unfortunately, as explained by Capt. Maclear, a mere residue of the collection which was obtained. The examination of a better preserved and more extensive one would be interesting, as the flora is evidently of a less common-place kind than that gener- ally met with in coral islands. In all, twenty-four species admitted of approximate determination. Of these five were ferns, all widely-spread species. Of the remaining nineteen flowering plants five are also probably identical with widely-distributed species, and they occur in the Cocos. or Keeling Islands between which and Java Christmas Island lies. The much more limited flora of these islands is only known from the col- lections of the late Mr. Darwin, and of Mr. H. O. Forbes. Of the remaining fourteen species at least six must be set aside, the specimens being too imperfect to be more than approximately determinable. Of the rest, two, a Vites near V. fedata, Vahl, and an Ehretia, may, in Prof. Oliver’s opinion, possibly be new; the teak (Tectona grandis, L. f.) occurs generally in the Archipelago ; Euphorbia Chamissonis is interest: Polynesian type; fruits of Barringtonia are thr universally on shores in the Malayan waters ; 7eri Catappa, L.,is found pretty well everywhere in th the remaining two suggest no special remark. The collection unfortunately throws little li composition of the dense arborescent vegetati which Capt. Maclear found it to be covered. — bably forms large trees. Cordia subcordata, L occurs also in the Cocos-Keeling Islands, and to Mr. H. O. Forbes, originally covered them a! is known there as “iron-wood,” and is no douk the iron-wood trees recognized by Capt. Christmas Island. It is widely distributed th Malayan Archipelago, and extends to the P some of the Pacific islands.? _ at On the whole, it can hardly be doubted that Island has been stocked with its flora by the described by Dr. Guppy, and worked out by M1 Hemsley in the “ Botany Report of the Voyag Challenger” (vol. i. part 3, p. 310): “ Wi drift to their shores the fruits and seeds of which ultimately form a belt, whilst the gorge the seeds or fruits of those often which occupy the interior.” ta i Tae ery ag FSR TY ieee oS I Zircons in recognisable crystals. ss. se see ane Bx. 2 Grains, more or less opaque, probably zircons... .» me 3 Rutiles Med pani once ipukis linea GLetvirn Seeukouka oad a t MUTT OMPPIIROR cc use ee sass nae eves cds. = doe, Seay to ats mi Yo In addition to the above, there were about 1 per cent. of grains over the density of 3°2, in regard to the composition of which I cannot at present say anything. A few appeared to be cleavage flakes of cyanite, but the majority were opaque earthy-looking bodies of various colours. Feldspars.—These were nearly all of density equal to or lower than that of quartz. The majority were more or less cloudy, but some were quite transparent, showing the structure of microcline. A few showed the banded structure of plagioclase. Owing to the small size of the particles, and to their cavities and inclosures, I found it impracticable to get a satisfactory separation by dense solutions ; and. as it was impossible to distinguish the grains in all cases under the microscope, recourse was had to analysis of grains (consisting principally of quartz and feldspar) floated off from the denser minerals in a solution in which quartz floated and anorthite sank. It was found that they contained 94 per cent. of silica and 4°6 of alumina, with an unweighable trace of lime. The alkalies were not determined. This would corre- spond to about 20 per cent. of feldspar, but the estimate is perhaps rather high, as amongst the matter floated by the solution were. found some particles which looked like glauconite covered by a transparent covering of varying thickness; also a little mica and some opaque grains of doubtful origin. It was interest- ing to note how the small fragments of feldspar have remained unchanged since the parent rocks were formed, and as they sur- vived the disintegration of. those rocks so they have continued unchanged in the sands. I saw several. containing each.a small zircon, and some contained what I think were microliths of apatite. The feldspars were mostly in angular fragments like the quartz. The zircons are generally transparent and colourless. prisms. with double terminations of various kinds ; many are more or less rounded and some wholly rounded as by attrition. The rutiles are oblong and rounded grains, but many are sharply edged prisms, and a few have double terminations. Twins are not common, but both knee-shaped and kite-shaped twins occur. These rutiles resemble those of the metamorphic rocks, in which rounded grains and sharply defined crystals are met with side by side. The tourmalines are generally in flat plates, more or less rounded, but some are perfect crystals with double terminations. They vary much in colour and power of absorption. Various methods of concentrating the zircons were tried. The simplest found was to sift the sand in air or water through a sieve with 120 holes to the inch, that being the smallest mesh I could meet with. In coarse-grained sands, such as the drift sand of North Wales, a considerable enrichment is thereby at once effected, but only a partial enrichment takes place in working with sands so small-grained as to pass entirely through the sieve. Thus when 8 ounces of the Hampstead sand were sifted till 4 ounces had passed, it was found that the zircons and rutiles, being smaller, smoother, and heavier than the sand, passed 92 _— NATURE {May 26, 1887 through the sieve faster. By again sifting the 4 ounces which had passed till 2 ounces passed, a further enrichment was found to have taken place. The 2 ounces were again sifted on the same sieve till 1 ounce had passed, which was again sifted till 4 of an ounce passed. This was examined quantitatively, and found to consist of 54 per cent. of quartz and feldspar, and 46 per cent. of dense minerals. By vanning and submitting the residue to the action of a strong magnet, almost nothing but zircons and rutiles remained. It is needless to say that much remained with the sand, especially in the latter parts of the operation. A current separater was tried, but it seemed more difficult to work, though perhaps it might answer better on a larger scale, where it might be set to work automatically. There was no difficulty in getting a considerable enrichment, but it was evident that a great deal of care would be required in ‘‘sizing”’ the particles before a good separation could be effected. The most hopeful method seemed to be that of washing away the medium- sized grains of sand and afterwards sifting the sediment. Perhaps in some of the streams running through the Bagshot or other sands natural eddies may be found or formed artificially from which enriched sand may be dredged, or it may be got on the sea-shore under sand-cliffs. The object of the present communication is to draw attention to the matter in hopes that some deposit richer in zircons than the Hampstead sand may be found. Much care must be taken in sampling, because the sands, having been deposited from currents, must vary in composition. A trial is easily made by anyone accustomed to use a microscope and who knows the minerals by sight under such circumstances. A thimbleful of such sand as exists at Hampstead is enough for atrial by vanning, but if one of the dense liquids be used, from 10 to 20 grains by weight of the sand will give a good microscopic slide of the dense minerals. It may of course prove that the Hampstead sand is a residue of denudation in which the denser minerals have accumulated. In that case it is not improbable that other similar deposits may be found, some, perhaps, much more zirconiferous. On the whole it appears that the matter is worthy of further attention. In some future communication I hope to be able to give an account of the composition of the matter attracted by a strong magnet, and also of the grains of earthy-looking minerals over the density of 3°2, and ofany richer deposit of zirconiferous sand of which I can obtain reliable samples. : ALLAN B. DIckK. THE ROLLING CONTACT OF BODIES. WHEN two soiid bodies roll upon each other, points in the surface of one successively come into contact with corre- sponding points in the surface of the other in a way which differs essentially from that which occurs in sliding contact, and it is the nature of this rolling-contact that the lecturer proposed to discuss in an experimental manner, In the first place, it is well to understand clearly the nature of the relative motion of the two points which come into contact when the surfaces are such that no appreciable distortion of them takes place, and for this purpose one of the two bodies must be at rest. These may respectively be taken as the plane surface of the ground and a circular disk rolling upon it. An approxi- mate representation of this motion is given by the end of the spokes of a wheel without its tyre. In this case it is seen that a point of the rolling body, when it isjust coming into contact with the fixed surface, does so in a direction at right angles to the surface at rest, and also leaves it in the same direction. This action is very similar in kind to that which occurs with the con- tinuous circle formed by the tyre. The path of a point in the rim can be drawn in a way visible to the audience by means of a piece of apparatus consisting of two circular glass plates held together by a hollow brass spindle in which slides an arm carry- ing a brush. The brush traces the well-known cycloid, of which the only portion now to be considered is that where it directly approaches the surface beneath. This part is perpendicular to that surface, and when epicycloids are drawn, by rolling the disk upon the arc of a circle, the same fact is brought out. One body may, however, not merely roll upon another, and a normal pressure be exerted, but they may exert a tangential force upon each other. It is convenient to keep these two cases separate ; examples of them being respectively the wheels of a * Abstract of Lecture deli ituti _ Shaw, on April 29. re delivered at the Royal Institution, by Prof. Hele railway carriage and those of the locomotive which draws it along. It is to be noted that the object in the former case is to © permit one body to move relatively to another without permitting — sliding contact of their surfaces, whilst, in the latter case, in — addition to this, the object is to obtain such motion. There are, — however, many cases in which it is merely the motion of a body about one point which is required, such as when motion is trans- mitted from the edge of one rotating disk to another, and then — this distinction still more closely holds, as the normal pressure — is only obtained so as to insure the necessary tangenti resist- ance. Thus the objects of rolling motion may be classed as ~ being — (oe (1) To allow the relative motion of one body to another with — which it is in contact without permitting relative motion of that part of their surfaces in actual contact. ee (2) To obtain the relative motion of such parts of the surfaces of bodies as are not in contact by means of statical contact of the parts which are. i ee. The lecturer then proceeded to consider the practical proofs — of the smallness of the resistance to rolling in cases where the distortion of the surfaces in contact is very small, as illustrated — by the small tractive force required for heavy bodies properly © mounted on wheels or on roller-bearings ; mentioning the case of a 12-horse-power engine, the shaft of which continued to rotate for three-quarters of an hour after the motive power was withdrawn ; and another case, of a turntable weighing 14 tons, — which was kept in motion by a weight of 34 pounds acting © upon it by means of a cord passing over a pulley. The small — distortion of such surfaces when transmitting motion requi expenditure. of energy to maintain, was next made clear giving certain facts as to the accuracy with which one sur was developed or measured out upon another. An account given of experiments made with apparatus specially prepared the lecturer to investigate this point. This apparatus consi of two accurately turned brass disks properly mounted upc frame, and the relative positions of these disks could be inte changed so that any minute differences in their peripheri could be detected. The experiments, which were very dif cult to carry out accurately, showed that under the best ci cumstances, motion with an error of only 1 in 300,000 of the © distance passed over could be obtained. This accurate measur- — ing out of the surfaces one upon another was employed in various — ways for purposes of measurement, and these, by means of a models and diagrams, were briefly explained. : Although the foregoing facts prove that, under suitable con- ditions, distortion at the points of contact is very 1, yet some resistance at these points a/ways occurs, because no bodies are perfectly hard ; and the nature of this distortion and conse- quent resistance was next discussed. Se The explanation of the resistance opposed by a soft surface to a hard body rolling upon it, as first given by Prof. Osborne — Reynolds, was applied by the lecturer to account for a very remarkable effect produced in the disk, globe, and cylinder inte- grator of Prof. James Thomson. This effect, which was the turning of the cylinder when the sphere was rolled along it in a horizontal direction, was reproduced by means of a large model. The action of a soft body rolling upon a hard surface was next considered, with the result of showing that the same — reasoning would not account for the turning of the cylinder in — the same direction as before with the above model, and the © lecturer then proceeded, by means of diagrams, to offer an explanation of this and other phenomena. The various effects obtained with bodies of different relative degrees of ness were discussed at length, but figures would be needed to make — these points clear. Finally, an explanation was given of the cause of an error which always appeared in a certain na % class of integrators caused by the slipping of the edge of a disk — over a surface on which it rolled in circumstances under which — it had apparently never been suspected that slipping did actually — take place. This the lecturer had been enabled to discover pe measure by means of a special piece of apparatus, a model of which was exhibited and the effects shown by its means. aoe The facts and reasoning, which were given in the lecture, all related to the rolling contact of bodies, and the lecturer ventured — to think that, imperfect as the treatment of the subject had been, it was one of such importance, not merely from the point of view _ of the practical applications he had mentioned, but in its scien- — tific aspect, dealing as it did from a novel point of view with the — 4 : nature and properties of solid bodies, as to be worthy of being — | thus brought before the Royal Institution. 7 meteor, - by 500 persons.” A a. ie SS i te anil ; May 26, 1887] NATURE 93 A REMARKABLE METEOR. March 17 last, about 4.15 p.m., the track of a brilliant ON O meteor in the southern heavens, at an altitude of 30°, was observed by Mr. R. Brough Smyth, of Sandhurst, Victoria, _ Australia. Writing to us on March 19, Mr. Smyth says :— **The line was silver-white- and of considerable breadth. _ The sun was shining in a clear sky. Owing to the view being intercepted by large gum-trees growing in the grounds around -my house, I could see only a portion of the are described. iu uently, a little after 5 o’clock p.m., the sky was obscured by a kind of mist or vapour at a great height—in colour between steel-grey and lead-grey, and with tints similar to those of the _ metal bismuth over the whole. All objects looked green or green- _ ish in the strange light. The meteor was observed at Salisbury in South Australia, at Coleraine in the extreme west of Victoria, ES aay at various places eastward—say over a distance of 400 miles. | known was visible in the southern part of Australia only. In _ some places it presented the appearance of a blood-red ball, It travelled apparently from east to west, and as far as and at Beaufort the ball is said to have exploded with a loud report, sending up a streak of fire, accompanied with the i seni of escaping steam, as from an engine. greyis It left a cloud of smoke, This smoke-like cloud was observed in other places. At Warrnambool on the west coast, and at Terang, twenty-five miles north-eastward, shocks of what were supposed to be earthquakes were felt at the time of the disappearance of the Cattle and horses galloped about in alarm, houses were shaken, windows rattled, and the wild fowl in the lakes were disturbed, and took wing. I inclose cuttings from the Argus containing accounts of this phenomenon.” The ‘‘ cuttings ” inclosed by Mr. Smyth are a series of tele- grams, describing the phenomenon as seen in various parts of Australia. At Coleraine, “a brilliant ball of fire shot from the zenith in a clear sky to 30° above the horizon, and then disap- peared as it exploded, leaving a large cloud of white smoke, which was visible for half an hour. Exactly six minutes subsequently, two distinct shocks like cannon reports were heard, with a percept- ible tremor of the atmosphere. The phenomenon was witnessed At Merino, ‘‘a most unusual phenomenon appeared in the eastern sky. A streak like smoke from a vol- cano appeared. Immediately after the appearance, a report like distant thunder was heard from the same direction. It was thought that an aérolite of immense size had fallen between Merino and Hamilton.” At Stawell the ‘‘meteor appeared to burst just beyond the town in a cloud ‘of smoke, which was immediately followed by a loud crash like thunder.” From Terang it is reported that at Lake Keilambete ‘‘ the black swans were noticed to rise suddenly off the lake. A rumbling noise ee to pass under, causing the cattle grazing on the banks of the lake to scamper away, and on gaining some distance they were seen to look back. The noise was heard in other places, and seemed to pass to the south-west.” At Port- land, ‘‘ three distinct reverberations like the booming of artil- lery were heard about 4 p.m.” The people at Warrnambool, hearing, shortly after 4 o’clock, loud detonations like a volley of musketry, with subsequent dropping shots, rushed out of their houses ; and ‘‘the cattle were paralyzed with fear at the sounds.” The disappearance of the meteor over Beaufort, where it is said to have exploded, ‘‘ was followed by earth tremors and a rumbling sound as of the firing of heavy artillery. The vibrations lasted for ten seconds. Several houses were shaken severely. No substance appears to have fallen to the SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. THE contents of vol. lv. part 2, No. 4, of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, are varied. They commence by a memoir on the land shells of Perak, by Dr. O. F. v. Mollen- dorff, in which 58 species (many new) are enumerated or de- scribed. Then follows an account of solar thermometric ob- servations at Allahabad, by S. A. Hill, Meteorological Reporter to the Government of the North-West Provinces. The third memoir is an historico-geographical study on probable changes he Punjab and its rivers, by R. D. Oldham, of the Indian logical Survey, a paper on which much research has been expended, tending to prove that a second large river, ‘independent of the Indus, once existed in the Punjab, and that the geological changes which converted a once fertile district into a desert probably date so recently as the early centuries of the Christian era. The next is a very important entomological investigation of the butterflies of Cachar, by Prof. Wood-Mason and Mr. L. De Nicéville, enumerating no less than 247 species obtained between the end of March and the beginning of October. A remarkable feature is the large number of Hlesperiide, of which 53 distinct species were obtained. There are valuable notes on seasonal and local variation, and a con- siderable number of new species are described, and mostly figured on four plates, one of which is a chromo-lithograph executed in London, the others ‘‘autotype,” and apparently very successful examples of what may be produced by the process as applied to natural history subjects. Dr. King follows with a short paper on some new species of Ficus from New Guinea, in which the author largely quotes from and anticipates a monograph on Indo-Malayan and Chinese figs prepared for the Linnean Society ; the remarks are worthy of very careful study, and open up much new light on the somewhat obscure subject known as ‘*caprification.” The concluding paper is a very short one by Mr. J. S. Baly on a new species of Hzsfa destructive to the ‘*dahn” crops in Chittagong. On the whole this part is one of the most valuable that have been issued by this long-established Society. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, 2nd series, vol. i., part 4, February 22, 1887 (Sydney), contains :— Zoology ; George Masters, catalogue of the described: Coleo- ptera of Australia, part 6.—E. Meyrick, descriptions of new Lepidoptera. A large number of new species and several new genera are described ; a new species of Thalpochares is given the name of Coccophaga, from the singular habits of the larva, | which feeds solely on a Coccus infesting a Macro zamia.—E. P. Ramsay, notes on the eggs of various Australian birds ; list of Western Australian birds collected at Derby; on the nest of Pycnoptilus floccosus (plate xx.) ; on a new species of Hapalotis (A. bower) (plate xviii.),—E. P. Ramsay and J. Douglas-Ogilby, on a new species of Apogon (A. rosetgaster).—William Mac- leay, on a new species of Hoplocephalus (Z. collaris).—C. W. De Vis, on new or rare vertebrates from the Herbert River ; describes a new Pseudochirus (P. mongan), a new Dromicia (D. frontalis), and records the occurrence of some rare species. —A. J. North, notes on the bower birds, and some references to authentic descriptions of Australian birds’ eggs.—Botany : E. Haviland, flowering seasons of Australian plants.—J. Stirling, on the Rutacez of the Australian Alps.—Baron von Mueller, on some hitherto undescribed plants of New South Wales. Grevillea renwickiana is described as quite procumbent, with elongated branches, being in this respect like G. /aurifolia and G. repens, but differing from both in the larger and much less numerous flowers ; also new species of Melaleuca, Bossiza, and Pultenzea.—Palgontological:. F. Ratte, notes on Australian fossils.—W. J. Stephens, on some new Labyrinthodonts — xiv. and xxii.).—J. Mitchell, on the geology of Bowning, Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, vol. lv. Part 2, April 13, 1887, contains :—Dr. O. Schultze, researches on the ripening and the fertilization of the amphibian ova, part I (plates xi. to xiii.).—Dr. Wilhelm Roux, on a fungus living parasitically in bones (AZycelites ossifragus) (plate xiv.). The author gives an account of the filaments of this fungus occurring in the bones of a large number of extinct forms of mammals, reptiles, and fishes.—Dr. Otto Zacharias, contributions to the pelagic and littoral fauna of the German Ocean. In this paper are described a large number of Entomostraca, Rotatoria, Hydrachnida, and Turbellaria, some new. Inan appendix, S. A. Poppe describes a new species of Temorella from Holstein and Mecklenburg (plate xv.).—Dr. H. Strahl, on the walls of the yolk-sac and on the parablast in lizards (plate xvi.).—Dr. Joseph Heinrich List, on the glandular structures in the foot of Tethys timbriata, L. (plate xvii.). These glands are found both on the upper and under side of the feet, and are of four different sorts ; while some are slime organs, others may be phosphorescent organs.—Dr. Eugen Korschelt, on some interesting phenomena in the formation of the eggs of insects (plates xviii., xix.). SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, April 28.—‘‘On the Homologies and Suc- cession of the Teeth in the Dasyuridz, with an Attempt to 94 NATURE : trace the History of the Evolution of Mammalian Teeth in general.” By Oldfield Thomas, British Museum (Natural History). Communicated by Dr. Albert Giinther, F.R.S. _ The true homologies of the different teeth in the Marsupialia, and especially in the Dasyuride, have long been in a state of confusion, a confusion that has been chiefly in regard to the premolars, of which some members of the family have two, others three, while generalized Placentals have four, and it is therefore necessary to prove which teeth have been successively lost in order to find out the correct homologies of the remainder, Firstly, as to which of the three premolars of ordinary Marsu- pialia has been lost in Dasyuwrus, with only two, it is shown that it is the last premolar, or pm.4, that is missing in this genus. Next, it was necessary to find out which of the original four premolars had disappeared in the ordinary three-toothed genera of the Polyprotodonts, and this has been able to be done by the fortunate discovery of a specimen of Phascologale in which there are four premolars on one side, the additional tooth being inserted behind the first premolar. The missing premolar is therefore pm.*, the resulting premolar formula of Phascologale and Thylacinus being P.M. oo oe : a and of Dasyurus pM, 1:9:3:9 Se TER Ty ae The milk dentition in several of the Dasyuride is then described, and also that of the Mesozoic 7riacanthodon serrula . (Owen), which is definitely proved to haye a true Marsupial milk dentition. An attempt is then made to trace out the history of the evolution of mammalian teeth in general, and it is suggested that the process by which a milk tooth was developed consisted of two stages, firstly, a preliminary retardation of the permanent tooth, and secondly, of the development of a temporary tooth in the gap in the tooth-row caused thereby ; the retardation in the first case being useful for packing purposes in a large-toothed animal, while in a small-toothed form the same retardation, if present by inheritance, would cause a more or less disadvant- ageous gap, best filled by the assumption of a milk tooth. Following out this idea, it is shown how easily the transition from the Metatherian to the Eutherian state of tooth-change may have taken place, a transition by the help of which a complete series of diagrams can be drawn up, following the history of each individual tooth, from the dentition of the earliest mammals, homodont and monophyodont, down to the varied forms .of dentition, heterodont and diphyodont, existing at the present day. For the Edentates alone it is necessary to draw up a special branch of tooth development arising directly from the Proto- theria, a branch for which the name of ‘Paratherian” is pro- posed. ‘Physical Society, May 14.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Vice- President, in the chair.—Mr. T. Mather was elected a member of the Society.—The following papers were read :—On a modifi- cation of a. method of Maxwell’s for measuring the coefficient of self-induction, by Mr. E. C. Rimington. The method referred to is given in Maxwell’s ‘‘ Electricity and Magnetism,” § 778, vol. ii., and is called ‘‘ comparison of the electro-static capacity of a condenser with the electro-magnetic capacity of a coil.” The apparatus used consists of a Wheatstone’s bridge having the coil in one, and the condenser as a shunt to the opposite, arm. In order that no deflection may be produced, either for steady or unsteady currents, a troublesome double adjustment of the resist- ances is necessary, and to obviate this the modification was de- vised. It consists in placing the condenser as a shunt to only part of the arm, and this part can be varied by sliding contacts without altering the whole resistance of the arm. .An ordinary resistance balance for steady currents is first obtained, and the sliders are then adjusted until no deflection is produced on break- ing the battery circuit. Under these circumstances it is shown D that L = are where K is the capacity of the condenser, ~ the resistance between the sliders, and D.and B :the resistances of the arms in which the coil and condenser are placed. The conditions of maximum sensibility are investigated, and also those under which a telephone may replace the galvanometer ; in the latter it is shown that the only possible solution is when r = B, 1.6. Maxwell’s arrangement. The author believes his modification would be made much more sensitive by adopting the ‘‘cumulative” method used by Profs. Ayrton and Perry in -read:—Further observations on Ayferodapedon [May 26, 1887 their secohmmeter ; and in his case neither the speed nor ‘lead’ need be known. Mr. W. N. Shaw asked whethe: serious difficulties were experienced with telephones, owi electro-static capacities of wires, &c., and Mr. W. E. Sur pointed out that the particular arrangement given in Ma not always the most sensitive, as was shown in his ren the last meeting of the Society of Telegraph-Engineers. Bosanquet thought the method a valuable one, and hoped experiments would be made on coils whose coefficie calculable, in order to find out the differences between ca and observed results. Prof. Ayrton referred to the by Prof. J. J. Thomson in the Philosophical Transacti pointed out that the formula ‘there given for the capac condenser in electro-magnetic measure, is identical w given in Maxwell, § 776, when the printer’s error terchanging @ and «@ in the denominator for Rg is co On the production of sudden changes in the tors by change of temperature, by Mr. R. H. M. Bosanquet fine hard-drawn platinum wire, four or five feet long, as a suspension for a ballistic galvanometer, and liar phenomena. The steel needles were replaced and the peculiarities investigated. When the room the needles swung round nearly 70° fur a few degrees temperature, and remained in about the same pe further rises. If it was now cooled a few degrees (3° they quickly returned to their initial position. The not found a complete explanation, but believes it unequal expansion, and loose contact amongst mo devised a simple mechanism to illustrate his meaning. and suggestions were made by Prof. Perry, Mr. Lant and the Chairman.—On a magnetic potentiometer, Chattock, read by Prof. Reinold. The ‘so resistance between two points on a magnetic expressed as the ratio of the difference of potential induction arieg: from one to the other (provided magnetomotive force between them). From ‘the volume iintegral of induction through a wire ‘heli cross-section is proportional to the average difference between itsends, it follows that any alteration in tl of potential will give rise to an E.M.F, in the helix prop to that alteration. Hence, if the wire be connected to a1 galvanometer, the combination may be called a me tiometer. .A helix is formed by winding wire unif piece of solid india-rubber, or canvas gas-tubing, cross-section, using an even number of layers ‘to a1 inductiveeffects, and leaving a small space between tt as to allow'the ‘tube to bend without elongating. re made to measure the difference of potential between of a magnet gave satisfactory results. One end of tl was held stationary at one end of the magnet, whilst tt was moved quickly to the other end of the magnet, sulting throw of the galvanometer observed. This done at ‘two operations, and the sum of the two thi nearly equal to the first. The results can be re measure by passing the helix through a coil of its ends together, and starting or stopping a curre coil, the resulting throw of the galvanometer being magnetomotive force used in this experiment is 4m interesting discussion followed, in which Prof. Perry,” Prof. Ayrton, and Mr. Bosanquet took part, the latter a measurement of magnetic potential made by himself years ago.—In consequence of the absence of Prof. Thompson, his paper on secondary generators was post next meeting. Geological Society, May 11.—Prof. J. W. Judd, President, in the chair.—The following communic: Prof. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S. The author briefly circumstances under which he first described the Lacertilian and Crocodilian fossils in the Elgin sa the confirmation which his views as to the Mesozoi remains had received from the discovery of Hyperod English Triassic rocks and in India. The original LHyperodapedon gordoni from Elgin was, however, i dition, and the receipt at the British Museum ofa sé better preserved skeleton, found in the Lossiemouth ¢ the same neighbourhood, had enabled him to.add con to the known characters of the genus, and to compare thoroughly both with the recent Sphenodon (or Hatteria Zealand and with the Triassic Rhynchosaurus articeps, May 26, 1887] NATURE pecimens of which are in the British Museum paleontological collection. The recently discovered Hyperodapedon skeleton of nearly the same size as that formerly described, and must belonged to an individual about 6 or 7 feet in length. ecimen was exposed by the splitting of a large block of tone, and comprised the skull, the vertebral column as far the root of the tail, all the bones of the left and of part of the fore-limb, and those of the right hind-limb, the whole t in their original relations. The bones were described in and compared with those of Sphenodvn, the most important nces in Hyfersdapedon being the following :—(1) The of the presacral vertebree are ossified throughout and more s opisthoccelous, especially in the cervical region. (2) The or cervical vertebree have long and strong ribs. (3) The nares are not separated by bone. (4) Conjoined pre- lary bones form a long, conical, curved, pointed rostrum, is received between the rostral processes of the mandible. hese were devoid of teeth and probably sheathed in horn. The palatal area is very narrow in front and wide behind, with strongly curved lateral boundaries. (6) The posterior - maxi and palatal teeth are multiserial. (7) The rami of - the mandible are united in a long symphysis, behind which they iverge widely, and the dentigerous edges are strongly concave rds as well as outwards, (8) The mandibular teeth in it are set into a close, apparently continuous palisade, and ecome distinct and conical only at the posterior end of the ries. (9) The fore-foot is remarkably short and stout, with acarpals ofequal length. The relations of Rhkynchosaurus to yperodapedon and Sphenodon were then dealt with, the first- named being shown to occupy in some respects an intermediate _ place between the two others. The skull of Rhynchosaurus resembles that of Hyferodapedon in its single anterior nasal aperture, its premaxillary and mandibular rostral processes, and in having more than one series of palatal teeth ; but in general form and in the shape of the maxillz, palatal bones, and rami of the mandible it departs far less from Sphenodon than Hyfero- dapedon does. Some comparisons of the limb-bones were also made. The three genera mentioned were shown to form a articular group, which, however, hal no claim to ordinal dis- ion, and appeared to form a family, Sphenodontide, of the srtilia, comprising two sub-families, Khynchosaurinz (in- g Rhynchosaurus and Hyperodapedon) and Sphenodon- The fact that in this Lacertilian group the highest known of specialization, as shown in Hyfervdapedon, was attained y as the Triassic epoch, showed that in Permian times, or , Lacertilia existed which differed less from Sphenodon either of the Rhynchosaurinze did. Not only was the acertilian type of organization clearly defined in the Triassic epoch, but it attained a degree of specialization equal to that hibited by any modern lizard. The reading of this paper was followed by a discussion, in which the President, Dr. Geikie, Prof. Seeley, Mr. Lydekker, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, and others ik part.—On the rocks of the Essex drift, by Rev. A. W. ve.—On Tertiary Cyclostomatous Bryozoa from New Zealand, Mr. > W. Waters. cLLV' EDINBURGH. toyal Society, April 18.—Sir W. Thomson, President, in chair.—Prof. Rowland’s photographs of the solar spectrum exhibited.—The President read a paper on ship-waves, another on the instability of fluid motion. Both papers rin the PAil. Mag.—Mr. D. S. Sinclair gave a communi- ation on an experimental research in magnetism.—A paper by _ A. H. Anglin on the summation of certain series of altern- ; was submitted. —Prof. Crum Brown read a paper by Mr. H. farshall on cobaltic alums.—Mr. G, N. Stewart submitted a | synopsis of researches on the effect produced on the polarization | of nerve by stimulation. | May 2.—Sir Douglas Maclagan, Vice-President, in the chair. -Prof. J. B..Haycraft read the third part (on the sense of nell) of a paper on the objective cause of sensation.—Prof. m Brown read a paper on the physics of noise. His object is vestigate the various components which make up ordinary ,such as a hissing sound.—Prof. Dittmar and Mr. C, A. itt communicated a paper on the physical properties of | alcohol. —Prof. Dittmar also discussed the instability of ouble salts of M”SO,.R’,SO, + 6H,O of the magnesium —Mr. J. Rattray described a diatomaceous deposit found h Tolsta, Lewis. PArRIs. Academy of Sciences, May 16.—M. Janssen in the chair. —Obituiry notices of the late M. Boussingault, member of the Section for Rural Economy, who died on May 11, by MM. Schloesing, Troost, and the President.—On some deviations from the normal direction of sound calculated to render in- effective the fog-signals and similar appliances employed in navigation, by M. H. Fizeau. The paper, written with refer- ence to some recent shipping disasters during foul weather, shows on theoretical grounds that, the surface of the sea being at times warmer than the surrounding atmosphere, the aérial — strata must in calm weather decrease in temperature upwards to a certain height above sea-level. This occurs not only at night, but also frequently during the day in foggy weather. Hence the sounds of the fog-signals, intended to be propagated hori- zontally, are necessarily affected by the differences of atmo- spheric temperature, those nearest the surface of the water acquiring greater velocity than those traversing the higher strata. Thus is at times produced a sort of ‘‘sound mirage,” perfectly analogous to the well-known corresponding phenomena of light. Once the cause of the deviations is understood, the means of counteracting them will easily suggest themselves. — Effects of earthquakes on magnetic instruments, by M. Mascart. The reports of magnetic disturbances received from various sta- tions in France, England, Germany, Russia, and other European countries, show great discrepancies as to the time and intensity of the shocks ; but whether these discrepancies are to be attri- buted to possible errors of observation, to the difference in the character of the instruments, or to physical causes, cannot at present be determined. If the cause of the disturbances is really electric, its very mechanism is absolutely unknown.—Observa- tions of Barnard’s new comet, ¢ 1887, made at the Paris Observa- tory (equatorial of the West Tower), by M. G. Bigourdan. This comet, discovered on May 12, at Cambridge, in the United States, was seen at Paris on May 14, when it presented the appearance of a round nebulosity of 1’ diameter, and of the thirteenth magnitude, with considerable central condensation, notwithstanding its slight altitude above the horizon.—On the direct determination of the differential coefficient “2 , relative to saturated vapours, by M. A. Perot. It is shown that the mechanical equivalent of heat may be determined by the well- known relation— te Pra Se E dt which is obtained by applying to a liquid mixture and its vapour the principle of equivalence, and that of Carnot. In order to approximately determine this quantity, the author has under- taken to measure on the same: sample of pure ether, at a tem- perature of 30°, the different parameters entering into the pre- ceding relation—v’, wz, L, and 2. To determine 4? he employs aspecial method, which enables him to measure separately the two corresponding quantities @f and d¢. The determinations have been made for the temperatures 29° to 31° inclusive, within which interval they may be represented by the formula— of = 2°2750 + (¢- 29) 0°0834. —lIntertropical diurnal and annual variations of terrestrial mag- netism (second note), by M. Ch. Lagrange. By comparing the observations recorded at two stations on either side of and equidistant from the equator, such as Bombay and St. Helena, Hobartown and Toronto; the author finds that there exists in the atmos phere and in the earth a system of currents moving east an d west, whose strata of greatest intensity penetrate the atmo- sp here, descending in the hot season below the surface of the earth and again rising in the cold season. This system seems to prove the reality of Ampére’s general system of currents extended to the earth and the atmosphere. From this it also follows that the existence of these aérial magnetic currents involves a diminu- tion of temperature with elevation. Consequently these currents are one of the factors, possibly the chief factor, in the thermic system of the globe, so that a fundamental connexion exists between meteorological phenomena and those of terrestrial mag- netism.—On the reproduction of alabandine, by M. H. Baubigny. By the process here described the author has obtained some beautiful octahedric crystals, presenting all the characteristics of alabandine (MnS): ‘the same crystalline form, colour, and 96 NATURE density, about 4.—Contribution to the study of the alkaloids, by M. Oechsner de Coninck. Having in a previous paper described the reaction of potassa on a combination of the iodide of ethyl with nicotine, the author here confirms by a fresh line of observation the relation of nicotine to the pyridic and dipyridic series. —On some fossil woods found in the Quaternary formations of the Paris basin, by M. Emile Riviere. These specimens were found associated with the animal remains already frequently described by the author. A microscopic study has enabled him to determine three different vegetable species : Palm, Cedroxylon, and Taxodium. The last-mentioned was especially abundant in the Miocene epoch, and appears to be older than the non-fossilized specimens from time to time dis- covered in the boggy districts of Switzerland, BERLIN. Physical Society, April 22.—Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Gross explained his theoretical views on the heat of solution of magnetised iron, and showed why, in accordance with these, the heat of solution of magnetised iron must be greater than that of unmagnetised. One result of these views was that a piece of magnetised and unmagnetised iron in a conducting fluid capable of dissolving the iron must give a current ; this he has already demonstrated two years ago (see NATURE, vol. xxxi. p. 596). The current in such an element as this flows across the fluid from the magnetised to the unmag- netised pole, and is independent of the nature of the magnetisa- tion. Thesource of the electric current is in this case, according to the views of the speaker, to be sought for in the loss of specific magnetisation which the molecules of iron undergo as they pass from the solid to the fluid condition. Of the various solutions of salts of iron which were used in these experiments, only neutral salts of ferric oxide were found to yield a result, while the salts of ferrous oxide gave no current. The cause of this is, according to the speaker, that only the ferric salts lead toa solution of the magnets. Dr. Nichols has quite recently carried on some experiments on the heat of solution of magnetised iron, and has obtained the same experimental results, namely that the heat of solution of magnetised iron is greater than that of un- magnetised, although he starts with theoretical views respecting the magnetic potential of solid iron and iron in solution which are diametrically opposed to those of Dr. Gross.—The President exhibited a Bourdon’s manometer, and explained its use for the measurement of alterations of blood-pressure in living animals. In connexion with this the President gave a full account of the physical portions of the research which Dr. Grunmach has carried out on the influence of elasticity on the rate of progres- sion of the pulse-wave. The most important points of this research have already been communicated in the report of the last meeting of the Physiological Society on April 15 (NATURE, May 12, p. 48). Physiological Society, April 29.—Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Onodi, of Buda-Pesth, gave an account of the anatomical investigations which he carried on during his two visits to the Zoological Station at Naples. In the first place he busied himself with the anatomy of the ciliary ganglion, which he examined microscopically in twenty-five different species of Selachians. From what he found in these lower vertebrates, as well as from observations which he had an opportunity of making on the embryos of cartilaginous fishes and chicks, he has come to the conclusion that the ciliary ganglion must be reckoned in with the sympathetic plexus. In addition to the above researches Dr. Onodi was occupied with | investigations on the roots of the vagus, and he communicated a number of interesting details on their relations in the Selachians. —Dr. Konig spoke on Newton’s law of colour-mixing, explain- ing its principle, and illustrating it with the aid of a Newton’s colour-chart. He then developed the three propositions which Grassmann has deduced from the Newtonian law, and which, as is well known, are as follows: (1) when two spectral colours are mixed the resulting compound colour is a spectral colour lying between the other two, but mixed with white ; (2) when one of the two colours which is being mixed is continuously changing, then the resulting compound colour also changes con- tinuously ; (3) similar colours when mixed give similar compound colours. Of these three propositions the first has not been con- firmed by later experimental researches, but this does not diminish the value of Newton’s law of the mixing of colours: it only becomes necessary to substitute a triangular colour-chart .Bernard Studer .... [May 26, 1887 for the circular one put forward by Newton. The second pro- position was fully confirmed by experience. The third proposi- tion, which may also be expressed by saying that the compound colour is independent of the intensity of its separate ona was not confirmed by experiments. The speaker has alone, an in conjunction with Herr Breduhn, carried out careful measure ments on trichromatic and dichromatic eyes, and has alway observed a difference in the compound colour as the result marked differences in intensity of the compounded colour: The validity of Newton’s principle in its general form is thereft considerably shaken by this discovery, and must be confined narrow limits of variations of intensity. i BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIV! The Agricultural Pests of India: Surgeon-General E. Balfour (Que —Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in pete, danz Storage of Electrical Energy: G. Planté (Whittaker).—Manual of | riology: E. M. Crookshank (Lewis).—Chance and Luck: R. A. P. (Longmans) —Manual of Scientific Inquiry, 5th edition : edited by Sir Ball (Eyre and Spottiswoode).—Elementary Trigonometry: Rev. T (Clarendon Press, Oxford).—Our Bird Allies: L. Wood (S.P.C.K.). delion Clocks : J. H. Ewing (S.P.C.K.).—Agriculture in some of its” tions with Chemistry, 2 vols. : F. H. Storer (Low).—The Fungus-Hu Guide : W. D. Hay (Sonnenschein).—Forestry of West Africa : A. Mo (Low).—Shores and Alps of Alaska: H.W. Skarr (Low).—The Races ¢ the British Isles (Quaritch).—Rousdon Observatory, vol. iii., Meteorologic Observations for the Year 1886: C. E. Peek.—Transactions of the logical Society, vol. x. (Yokohama).—New Commercial Plants and No. to: T. Christy.—Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, vo! part 2, No. r70(Longmans).—Bulletin of the American Geographical 1886, No. 3 (New York). CONTENTS. Treatment and Utilisation of Sewage ....... The Polyzoa of the Challenger Expedition . . Our Book Shelf :— Lock: ‘‘ Dynamics for Beginners”... . Temple: ‘‘Journals kept in Hyderabad, Sikkim, and Nepal” .. . Letters to the Editor :— Sunlight Colours.—Prof. 8. P. Langley ..... 7 The Eclipse of August 19, 1887.—Dr. A. Woeikof .— Iridescent Clouds.\—-T. W. Backhouse aS Remarkable Hailstones.—Rev. A. Irving .... . The Orbit of the Minor Planet Eucharis.—Dr. W. Valentiner. . .... 2... 36 rr A Question for Chemists.—Harry Napier Draper . ‘* A Junior Course of Practical Zoology.” —Prof, A. G. — Bourne 20. foe oe Ss a ‘On the Establishment of the Roman Dominion in South-East Britain.”—Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., FR OS. a ee ee Flora of Christmas Island. By W. T. Thiselton Dyer, C.M.G., F.R.S._. ee ee The Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society— — Retrospective and Prospective. . ........~ Bridging the Firth of Forth. By B. Baker. (///ws- — trated) . Re | . 28 @ hey: Kashmir, a eo 8 © @ - G2 ee Ls, Mee ioe nS Upper Wind- ‘urrents near the Equator, ‘and the ‘ Diffusion of Krakatdéo Dust. By Abercromby. (Jlilustrated) ..... Wotes, . se ee Our Astronomical Column :— Photography the Servant of Astronomy . iis A New Minor Planet... 3s. cS Comet 1887 e (Barnard, 1887 May 12) ...... Astronomical Phenomena for the Week May 290—June 4... 6 6 a. chs Geographical Notes... . . 5's 0.0 On Zircons and other Minerals contained in Sand. By Allan B. Dick . . . pee Nowe eee ea ae The Rolling Contact of Bodies. By Prof. Hele Shaw (00. oS re ee Siglo gee A Remarkable Meteor ..:. 244354 Gs sem Scientific Serials... 2 2 23a Oath Oe eee Societies and Academies . i2. 400 4 Ss ss se aoe Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received ...... NATURE 97 THURSDAY, JUNE 2, 1887. THE PRE-HISTORY OF THE NORTH. 7 The Pre-History of the North, based on Contemporary _ Memorials. By the late Chamberlain J.J. A. Worsaae, &c. Translated, with a brief Memoir of the Author, _ by H. F. Morland Simpson, M.A. (London: Triibner ~ and Co., 1886.) ig was a happy thought to offer as a tribute of respect ; to the memory of one who had done so much for English history and archeology as the late Mr. Worsaae, an English translation of one of the latest, as well as one of the most important, of his archzological essays. The Danish original, of which the volume before us is a anslation, is prefaced by an introduction dated De- mber 1880, but a still later work of Worsaae’s, and one hich may practically be regarded as his last, required translation, as it was originally written by him in e English language, and published in 1882. This work entitled “ The Industrial Arts of Denmark, from the _ Earliest Times to the Danish Conquest of England,” and _forms one of the series of hand-books issued in connexion with the South Kensington Museum. A fellow volume on “The Industrial Arts of Scandinavia in the Pagan Time” appeared in 1883 from the pen of Dr. Hans Hildebrand, of Stockholm. But not only did one of Worsaae’s latest works make s first appearance in the English tongue, but thirty “years previously, in 1852, one of his earliest works—in- deed one of his most important independent works— peared in an English garb almost at the same time as did in the Danish and German languages. This, his Account of the Danes and Norwegians in England, Scotland, and Ireland,” was partly the result of a length- ened stay in the British Isles, and contains a vast store of historical information, to which perhaps too little re- course has been had by English students. It was, however, | as anarchzologist ratherthan as an historian that Worsaae ‘merited and obtained the highest distinction. A remark- able linguist, a man of high organizing power, of inde- fatigable industry, and endowed with the most amiable disposition and the most charming manners, the record all that he was able to accomplish is absolutely azing. At the age of eighteen he had already begun _ write on archzological subjects, and his important ork on the “.Primzeval Antiquities of Denmark,” written | was translated into English by the late Mr. Thomas, and published in 1849. From that date to the day of his sath his pen was never idle. This, however, is not the ace to attempt an account of Worsaae’s contributions to archzology. They have already been recorded by Dr. Sophus Miller in the Mémoires of the Society of Northern Antiquaries. Those who, from time to time, ave attended the Congresses of Prehistoric Archxology enborg Castle at Copenhagen will have been im- VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 918. by him at the age of twenty-two, and published in 1843, Anthropology will have been able to form some idea | the versatility of Worsaae’s mind and the vast extent | his archeological acquirements ; and those who have ed the Museum of Northern Antiquities and the - pressed with his wonderful powers of organization and arrangement. The formation of an historical museum like that of Rosenborg was the result of a happy inspira- tion, and the difficulties that attended it were by no means slight. Worsaae’s own account of them in his “ Optegnelser om Rosenborg-Samlingen i 25 Aar” is of the highest interest, though perhaps it would have been wise on the part of his executors to have postponed the publication of this autobiographical memoir for a few years. His relations to the Court of two successive Kings of Denmark were of an intimate kind, and o6cca- sionally great tact had to be exercised in carrying out his views as to the requirements of the Rosenborg Museum, which illustrates in such a remarkable manner the succes- sive reigns of the Danish monarchs from the fifteenth century downwards. The estimation in which he was held in his own country was evinced in 1874 by his being appointed Minister of Worship and Public Instruction, but, fortunately for archzeological science, his tenure of office was not of long duration. It is, however, time to turn more immediately to the work the title of which heads this notice. Its object is to trace the prehistoric settlements and the development of civilization in the Scandinavian North; and the phases under which these are considered, and the approximate chronology assigned to them are as follows :— I. The early Stone Age, at least 3000 B.C., when por- tions only of Southern Scandinavia seem to have been inhabited. . II. The later Stone Age, about 2000 to 1000 B.C., con- temporaneous with the Bronze Age on the shores of the Mediterranean. III. The early Bronze Age, about 1000 to 500 B.C., when a Stone Age existed to the north, and an Iron Age had aiready come in to the south. IV. The late Bronze Age, about 500 B.c. to the time of Christ’s birth, when a pre-Roman Age of Iron was deve- loped in Central and Western Europe. V. The early Iron Age, from A.D. I to 450, when bronze was still in use in parts of the Scandinavian peninsula. VI. The middle Age of Iron, about A.D. 450 to 700, when foreign Romano-German influence predominated. VII. The later Iron Age, or Viking Period, about A.D, 700 to 1000, when a Stone Age still lingered in the extreme north of Finland and Lapland. The characteristic relics of all these stages of culture are discussed, and their extension in time and space and the sources whence the various phases of civilization were more immediately derived to the north are indicated With regard to these general considerations not much need be said, unless it be to observe that, with regard to the Danish shell-mounds, or Kjékken-méddings, all antiquaries and naturalists are not of one accord in assigning to them an antiquity beyond that of the ordinary forms of polished stone implements. Two principal points on which Worsaae insists are the religious origin of many of the deposits of prehistoric periods, and the religious signification of many symbols, which at first sight would seem to be but of a conventional character. The two remarkable golden horns found in 1639 and 1734 at Gallehus, in Slesvig, buried but a few yards apart, belonged apparently to the middle Iron Age ; F 98 NATURE [¥une 2, 1887 _ and though they were stolen and melted down in 1802, faithful representations of them have been preserved. The horns were divided by projecting rings into a series of compartments, in nearly all of which there were groups » of human and animal figures accompanied by various symbols. The meaning of these, Worsaae, by the light of northern mythology, has undertaken to interpret ; and though it is impossible here even to attempt to reproduce his interpretation, it may fairly be said that it is one that commends itself for its consistency, and which the corre- spondence between the subjects on the two horns tends strongly to corroborate. There can, as he says, be scarcely a doubt that these gold horns, unique both in size and embellishment, originally formed a pair, and that, like other heathen representations in metal, stone, bone, or wood, they were a sort of sacred picture-book kept in a temple and intended to preserve the kernel of the old theology for the people. Accepting the view of certain marks and symbols being especially those of Thor, Odin, Frey, and other divinities, it is found that not only in later times did the Northmen cling with tenacity to their ancestral reverence for the images and sacred marks of their gods, but that in early times, even in the Bronze Age, traces may be discovered of similar objects of rever- ence, and that the whole system of northern mythology, such as it existed at the time of its supersession by the Christian faith, was but the development of religious ideas that had subsisted in the same regions in remote pre- historic times. Some speculations with regard to these sacred signs will also be found in our author’s “ Danish Arts” (p. 65 e¢ seg., p. 114). The same may be said as to his views with regard to many of the deposits of arms and implements, both of stone and bronze, having originated from religious motives (“D. A.” p. 63). It is certainly the case that considerable hoards of large flint axes, crescent-shaped knives of flint, and lance- or spear-heads of the same material, have been found deposited under large stones in fields and bogs, the uniformity of the objects in the deposit raising a presumption that it was not due to the mere hiding away of the private property of one individual, but rather to the fact that some offering to the gods was intended. In the case of hoards of bronze objects, there are some which comprise lumps of rough metal, old and worn-out inplements, and even moulds. Such must, with all prob- ability, be regarded as the property of bronze founders, hidden in the ground for the sake of security, and, from some cause or other, never afterwards recovered by the -owners. There are, however, other deposits which, like those of stone already mentioned, would appear to have been due to a religious motive. In some instances the objects have been purposely broken and rendered useless, in the same manner as the gold Gaulish coins found in the Seine, which appear to have been offerings to the Dea Seguana, have been so constantly defaced. Such offerings to the divinities of springs and rivers were not unfrequent in Roman times, and continued in vogue even in later ages. The subject of the religious rites of the early pre- historic ages is, then, one the investigation of which has been fairly started by Worsaae, and offers a field in which future research may profitably be prosecuted. The meaning and derivation of the devices on Scandi- navian bracteates, which to a certain extent correspond with the du//@ of the Romans, is also discussed in the book before us, which, though extending to little more than 200 pages, contains the result of much thought on the part of the author, and is suggestive of much more for the attentive reader. It remains to say a few words with regard to the translator, who on the whole has done his work in a satisfactory manner, though probably a more intimat acquaintance with the Danish language and with Scandi navian archeology would have been advantageous. Sv terms as grave-heights for. barrows, or grave-mound: and the mention of a Society of Ancient Northern and the account of a discovery of relics of a primitive Stone Age in ancient chalk deposits under the earth’s” surface might have been avoided. But the most pro- voking part of the book is the author’s or printer’s placed economy in the matter of commas. Such a tence as the following may serve as an example (p.1 “Many other objects have been discovered in bogs fields as well as in skeleton-graves from the close of early Iron Age and from the middle Iron Age in D mark, as for instance an angel of gold in deacon’s ro an armlet with Christian symbols a ball of crystal jewel carved with Christian Gnostic inscriptions in Gr (“ Ablanathanalba,” ze. Thou art our Father) brooch mountings with barbarized semi-Christian ornar known also in other countries, and many others.” — with all these slight defects the work of Worsaae retains its full value, and English archeologists sho gladly welcome its appearance in what Prof. Step of Copenhagen, would call their “mother-tung.” ; JoHN EVANS, — PROFESSOR STOKES ON LIGHT, Third Course: On the By G. G. Stokes. 1887.) HIS volume completes the course of the Burnett Lecturer on the New Foundation, have already (vol. xxix. p. 545, and vol. xxxii. p. noticed the first two volumes; and we are now in position to judge of the work as a whole. But we m first speak of the contents of the present volume. __ The author commences by extending the term “ Light to radiation in general, and proceeds to a conside of the effects which (unlike vision) are not merely | ficial to living things, whether plants or “animals, b b absolutely essential to their existence. Here, so least as matters suitable for an elementary work are cerned, there is not much room for novelty :—for subject has of late been pretty well threshed ow various writers. Still, the mode of treatment adopt of interest, especially ‘that of marshalling our reasons regarding ‘all forms of radiation as due to one and t same agent, “When we stand by some mighty waterfall, such fc example as Niagara, and are struck by the grand ¢ tion of power that we see before us, we do not perl reflect that while it is through light that we are enab to see what is going on, it is from light also that energy is derived that we thus see in action.” Burnett Lectures. Effects of Light. Macmillan and Co., Den _ the observed facts. t Sune 2, 1887] NATURE 99 Next comes a curious suggestion of analogy between the behaviour of fluorescent bodies (which always degrade the refrangibility of the light they give off) and the heat- radiation from bodies which have been exposed to sun- light. Sunlight, as it reaches us after passing through the atmosphere, is less rich in ultra-red rays than is the _ radiation from the majority of terrestrial sources ; while _ the radiation from bodies which have been heated by _ direct sunlight is entirely ultra-red. Here we have, for the terrestrial atmosphere, the “green-house theory ” which, _ in the second course, was applied to explain some of the singular phenomena exhibited by comets. This is followed by an extremely interesting discus- sion of the functions of the colouring-matters of blood and of green leaves :--with the contrasted effects, upon plants, of total deprivation of light, and of con- tinuously maintained illumination. A particularly valu- able speculation, as to the probable nature of the behaviour of chlorophyll, is unfortunately too long for extraction. - So far, radiation has been treated without any special reference to vision. But the author proceeds to describe _ the physical functions and adaptations of the eye:—with particular reference to the arrangements for obviating such of the theoretical defects as, while involved in its general plan, woudd also tend to diminish its practical usefulness. The introduction of this obviously natural proviso, one which we do not recollect having seen pro- minently put forward till now, exhibits in a quite new light the intrinsic value of those objections to the “argument from design” which have been based upon the alleged : — of the eye as an optical instrument. _ The analogy of fluorescence is once more introduced, but now for the purpose of suggesting a mechanical ex- planation of the mode in which the sense of vision is produced. This is brought forward after the modern photo-chemical theory of vision has been discussed. The latter is not altogether dismissed as improbable, but some of the more important difficulties which it raises are pointed out. The triplicity of the colour-sense, and the mechanism of single vision with two eyes, are treated at some length. But throughout this part of the work it is frankly confessed that there are many elementary ques- tions, some of fundamental importance, which we are still unable even approximately to answer. In his final chapter, the lecturer, in conformity with the terms of his appointment, discusses the argument Srom design. ‘The origin of life, and the origin of species, are boldly (though all too briefly) treated :—next comes the question of the adaptation of physical structure, specially of course that of the eye, to the modes of life and the wants of animals. “There is some very intimate connection between thinking, as we know it in ourselves, and the condition of the brain. So close is the connection that some have supposed that thinking is a mere function of the material organism, conditioned by nothing more than the motions of the molecules of which that organism consists. But surely this is going far beyond a legitimate inference from The body of a living animal is obe- _ dient to the laws of motion, the law of gravitation, and similar laws of the kind which belong to dead matter. But that does not prove that life is nothing more than a “process depending on such laws. So if thinking be | accompanied, as we know it in ourselves to be accom- panied, by a state of activity of the material organism of which the body consists, that does not prove that think- ing is nothing more than an action of the material organism. We have seen that life can only proceed from the living ; may it not be in a similar manner that mind can only proceed from that which has mind? See what the contrary supposition leads us to. Here is man, in a geological sense a creature but of yesterday, utterly incapable of accounting for his own existence by any play of mere natural forces, and yet ignoring the existence of any mind higher than his own mind, though ready enough to admit the existence of unintelligent law, and that without lim‘tations of time or space.” No higher praise need be bestowed on the scientific part of this third volume than is involved in saying that it is a worthy successor to the other two. Together, they form a singularly instructive, and yet (in the best sense) popular, treatise on a fascinating branch of natural philo- sophy. Were this their only aim, no one could deny that it has been thoroughly attained. But their aim is of a loftier character. Here and there throughout the work there have been occasional refer- ences to the main purpose which has determined the author’s mode of arranging his facts and his deductions from them. In the few closing pages this purpose is fully developed, and a brief but exceedingly clear state- ment shows at once how much in one sense, and yet how little in another, can be gathered as to the personality and the character of the Creator from a close and reverent study of His works. These closing pages point out distinctly the danger alike of totally neglecting, and of too exclusively study- ing, the grandeur of nature. The first holder of this new post has set a noble example to his successors. He has supplied, not only to them but also, and we hope espe- cially, to the rapidly-changing quaternion of neo-teleo- logists who will soon be set at work in the Scottish Universities, a warning which they will do well to lay to heart :— “ If we confine our attention to the study of nature in all its immensity, our conceptions of its Author are in danger of merging in a sort of pantheistic abstraction, in which the idea of personality is lost.” P. G. TAIT. OUR BOOK SHELF. Our Bird Allies. By Theodore Wood. (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1887.) THE author of this little book holds that no British bird is utterly and wholly destructive, but that the misdeeds of even the most mischievous are atoned for in some degree by services rendered to us in other ways. Birds aid us, he points out, in three ways—first, by acting as sca- vengers, and destroying putrid matter; secondly, by devouring the seeds of the various wild plants which are so troublesome upon cultivated land; thirdly, and most important, by the slaughter of insects. The limitations of space have prevented Mr. Wood from mentioning all the birds he would have liked to describe, but he has found room for an account of most of the British birds which are especially beneficial. He writes simply, clearly, and with adequate knowledge ; and there are probably few farmers who would not profit by studying what he has to say on a subject in which they ought to be strongly interested. He expresses his firm conviction that agriculture, as a profitable undertaking, is absolutely 100 [Sune . 1887 2 dependent upon the preservation of the “ feathered race,” and in support of this opinion he has brought together much solid evidence. Two of the best chapters in the book are on the sparrow, which he admits to be, during harvest, an unmitigated nuisance. He thinks, however, that even at such times “the farmer best consults his own interests by merely scaring the bird away in place of destroying it, and that sooner or later he will reap his reward for his wise forbearance.” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. [Zhe Lditor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Thought without Words. THE following correspondence has passed between Prof. Max Miiller and Mr. F. Galton with reference to Mr. Galton’s letter on ‘‘ Thought without Words,” printed in NATURE on May 12 (p. 28) :— All Souls’ College, Oxford, May 15, 1887. DEAR MR. GALTON,—I have to thank you for sending me the letter which you published in NaTuRE, and in which you discuss the fundamental principle of my recent book on the **Science of Thought,” the identity of language and reason. Yours is the kind of criticism I like—honest, straightforward, to the point. I shall try to answer your criticism in the same spirit. You say, and you say rightly, that if a single instance could be produced of a man reasoning without words, my whole system of philosophy would collapse, and you go on to say that you yourself are such an instance, that you can reason without words. So can I, and I have said so in several passages of my book. But what I call reasoning without words is no more than reasoning without pronouncing words. With you it seems to mean, reasoning without possessing words. What I call with Leibniz, symbolic, abbreviated, or hushed language, what savages call ‘‘ speaking in the stomach,” presupposes the former existence of words. What you call thinking without words seems to be intended for the thinking of be!ngs, whether men or animals, that possess as yet no words for what they are thinking. Now let us try to understand one another ; that is to say, let us define the words we are using. We both use thinking in the sense of reasoning. But thinking has been used by Descartes and other philosophers in a much wider sense also, so as to include sensation, passions, and intuitive judgments, which clearly require no words for their realization. It is necessary therefore to define what we mean by thinking, before we try to find out whether we can think without words. In my book on the ‘‘Science of Thought” I define thinking as addition and subtraction. That definition may be right or wrong, but every writer has the right, nay the duty, I should say, to explain in what sense he intends to use certain technical terms. Though nowadays this is considered rather pedantic, I performed that duty on the very first page of my book, and it seems somewhat strange that a reviewer in the Academy should accuse me of not having defined what I mean by thinking, for most reviewers look at least at the first page of a work which is given them to review. Now, the cases which you mention of wordless thought are not thought at allin my sense of the word. I grant that animals do a great deal of work by intuition, and that we do the same, nay that we often do that kind of work far more quickly and far more perfectly than by reasoning. You say, for instance, that you take pleasure in mechanical contrivances, and if something does not fit, you examine it, go to your tools, pick out the right one, set to work and repair the defect, often without a single word crossing your mind, No doubt you can do that. So can the beaver and the bee. But neither the beaver nor the bee would say what you say, namely that in doing this ‘‘ you inhibit any mental word from presenting ot What does that ‘ if not that the fmental words are there, the most complica d thought-words, such as /ool, defect, fit, are there? only you do not pronounce them, as little as you pronounce ‘‘two shillings and sixpence,” when you pay a cabman half-a-crown. The same applies to what you say about billiards and fencing. Neither cannoning nor fencing is thinking. The serpent coiling itself and springing forward and shooting out its fangs doe neither think nor speak. It sees, it feels, it acts, and as I stated” on p. 8 of my book, that kind of instantaneous and thoughtles action is often far more successful than the slow results of reaso ing. Well do I remember when I was passing through my an as a Volunteer, and sometimes had to think what was right and what was left, being told by our sergeant, ‘‘ Them gentlemen as thinks will never do any good.” Iam not sure that what we call genius may not often be a manifestation of our purely animal nature—a sudden tiger’s spring, rather than wwe longue patience It is different, however, with chess. A chess-player may bi very silent, but he deals all the time with thought-wor word-thoughts. How could it be otherwise? What would the use of all his foresight, of all his intuitive combination, if did not manipulate with king, queen, knights, and castles? what are all these but names, most artificial names too, 1 agglomerates of ever so many carefully embedded thoughts? An animal may build like the beaver, shoot like the serpen fence like the cat, climb like the goat ; but no animal can pla chess, and why? Because it has no words, and therefore thoughts for what we call king, queen, and knigh ite names a concepts which we combine and separate according to t tents ; that is, according to what we ourselves or our have put into them. meen You say, again, that in algebra, the most complicated of thought, we do not use words. Nay, you go on to say in algebra “the tendency to use mental words should be witl No doubt it should. The player on the pianoforte should wise withstand the tendency of saying, now comes C, comes D, now comes E, before touching the keys. But h could there be a tendency to use words, or, as you sayin anot place, ‘‘ to disembarrass ourselves of words,” if the words wer not there? In algebra we are dealing, not only with words, bu with words of words, and it is the highest excellence of la if it can thus abbreviate itself more and more. If we had to | nounce every word we are thinking, our progress woul: extremely slow. As it is, we can go through a whole train thought without uttering a single word, because we have not only for single thoughts, but for whole chains of th And yet, if we watch ourselves, it is very curious that often feel the vocal chords and the muscles of the mouth m as if we were speaking; nay, we know that during efforts intense thought, a word will sometimes break out against will ; it may be, as you say, a nonsense word, yet a which, for some reason or other, could not be inhibited presenting itself, pare You say you have sometimes great difficulty in finding priate words for your thoughts. Who has not? But. prove that thoughts can exist without words? Quite the c trary. Thoughts for which we cannot find appropriate are thoughts expressed as yet by inappropriate, very oft very general, words. You seea thing and youdo not kno it is, and therefore are at a loss how to call it. Thereare who call everything ‘‘that thing,” in French ‘‘ chose,” they are lazy thinkers, and therefore clumsy speakers. even “‘thing” and ‘‘ chose”? are names. The more we guish, the better we can name. A good speaker and — will not say ‘‘that thing,” ‘‘that person,” ‘‘ that man soldier,” ‘* that officer,” but he will say at once ‘‘ that general of Fusiliers.” He can name appropriately b knows correctly, but he knows nothing correctly or ¥ except in a string of names from officer down — Embryonic thought, which never comes to the birth. thought at all, but only the material out of which thon spring. Nor can infant thought, which cannot speak as y: called living thought, though the promise of thought is it. The true life of thought begins when it is named, has been received by baptism into the congregation of liv words. You say that ‘‘after you have made a mental step, the appro- priate word frequently follows as an echo; as a rule, it does n Fune 2, 1887] NATURE IOI accompany it.” I know very well what you mean. But only ask yourself what mental step you have made, and you will see you stand on words ; more or less perfect and appropriate, true ; but nevertheless, always words. You blame me for having ignored your labours, which were intended to show that the minds of everyone are not like one’s own. You know that I took a great deal of interest in your researches. They repre- sented to me what I should venture to call the dialectology of thought. But dialects of thought do not affect the funda- mental principles of thinking ; and the identity of language and reason can hardly be treated as a matter of idiosyncrasy. You also blame me for not having read a recent book by - Monsieur Binet. Dear Mr. Galton, as I grow older I find it the most difficult problem in the world, what new books we may safely leave unread. Think.of the number of old books which it is not safe to leave unread ; and yet, when I tell my friends that in order to speak the /ingua franca of philosophy, they ought at least to read Kant, they shrug their shoulders, and say they have no time, or, horridile dictu, that Kant is obso- lete. I have, however, ordered Binet, and shall hereafter uote him as an authority. But who is an authority in these days of anarchy? I quoted the two greatest authorities in Germany and England in support of my statement that the genealogical descent of man from any other known animal was as yet unproven, and I am told by my reviewer in the Academy that such statements ‘‘deserve to be passed over in respect- ful silence.” If such descent were proved, it would make no difference whatever to the science of thought. Man would remain to me what he always_has been, the perfect animal ; the animal would remain the stunted man. But why waste our thoughts on things that may be or may not be? One fact remains, animals have no language. If, then, mancannot think, or, better, cannot reason, without language, I think we are right in contending that animals do not reason as man reasons ;—though, for all we know, they may be all the better for it. Yours very truly, F. MAx MULLER. Francis Galton, Esq., F.R.S. . * ~~ 42 Rutland Gate, S.W., May 18, 1887. DEAR PRoFEssoR,—Thank you much for your full letter. I have not yet sent it on to NATURE because it would have been too late for this week’s issue, and more especially because I thought you might like to reserve your reply, not only until you had seen my own answer to what you have said in it, but also until others should have written, and possibly also until you had looked at Binet, and some of the writers he quotes. So I send you very briefly my answer, but the letter shall go to NATURE if you send me a post-card to send it. In my reply, or in any future amplification of what is already written, I should emphasize what was said about fencing, &c., “with the head,” distinguishing it from intuitive actions (due, as I and others hold, to inherited or personal habit). The inhibition of words in the cases mentioned was, I should explain,*analogous to this :—There are streets improvements in progress hereabouts. I set myself to think, by mental picture only, whether the pulling down of a certain tobacconist’s shop (.é. its subtraction from the row of houses in which it stands) would afford a good opening for a needed thoroughfare. Now, on first perceiving the image, it was associated with a mental perception of the sme// of the shop. I inhibited that mental smell because it had nothing to do with what I wanted to think out. Sowords often arise in my own mind merely through asso- ciation with what I am thinking about ; they are mot the things that my mind is dealing with ; they are superfluous and they are embarrassments, so I inhibit them. I have not yet inquired, but will do so, whether deaf-mutes who had never learnt words or any symbols for them, had ever been taught dominoes, or possibly even chess. I myself cannot conceive that the names—king, queen, &c.—are of any help in calculating a single move in advance. For the effect of many moves I use them mentally to record the steps gained, but for nothing else. I have reason to believe that not a few first-rate chess-players calculate by their mental eye only. In speaking of modern mental literature, pray do not think me so conceited as to refer to my own writings only. I value modern above ancient literature on this subject, even if the modern writers are far smaller men than the older ones, because they have two engines of research which the others wanted :— (t) Inductive inquiry, ethnological and other. The older | authorities had no vivid conception of the different qualities of men’s minds. They thought that a careful examination of their own minds sufficed for laying down laws that were generally applicable to humanity. (2) They had no adequate notion of the importance of mental pathology. When by a blow, or by a disease, or, as they now say, by hypnotism, a whole province of mental faculties can be abolished, and the working of what remains can be carefully studied, it is now found that as good a clue to the anatomy of the mind may be obtained as men who study mangled limbs, or = systematically dissect, may obtain of the anatomy of the ody. I add nothing about the advantage to modern inquirers due to their possession of Darwinian facts and theories, because we do not rate them in the same way. Very truly yours, FRANCIS GALTON. Professor Max Miiller. Oxford, May 19, 1887. My DEAR Mr. GALTON,—If you think my letter worth pub- lishing in NATURE, I have no objection, though it contains no more than what anybody may read in my ‘‘ Science of Thought.” Nothing proves to my mind the dependence of thought on language so much as the difficulty we have in making others understand our thoughts by means of words. Take the instance you mention of a shop being pulled down in your street, and suggesting to you the desirability of opening a new street. There are races, or, at all events, there have been, who had no name or concept of shop. Still, if they saw your shop, they would call it a house, a building, a cave, a hole, or, as you suggest, a chamber of smells and horrors, but at all events a thing. Now, all these arenames. Even “ ¢hing” is a name. Take away these names, and all definite thought goes; take away the name ¢Aing, and thought goes altogether. When I say word, Ido not mean /latus vocis, I always mean word as in- separable from concept, thought-word or word-thought. It is quite possible that you may ‘¢each deaf-and-dumb people dominoes ; but deaf-and-dumb people, left to themselves, do not invent dominoes, and that makes a great difference. Even so simple a game as dominoes, would be impossible without names and their underlying concepts. Dominoes are not mere blocks of wood ; they signify something. This becomes much clearer in chess. You cannot move king, or queen, or knight as mere dolls. In chess, each one of these figures can be moved _accord- ing to its name and concept only. Otherwise chess would be a chaotic scramble, not an intelligent game. If you once see what I mean by names, namely that by which a thing becomes notum or known, I expect you will say, ‘*‘ Of course we all admit that without a name we cannot really know anything.” I wonder you do not see that in all my writings I have been an evolutionist or Darwinian pur sang. What is languaze but a constant becoming ? What is thought but an Zwiges Werden ? Everything in language begins by a personal habit, and then becomes inherited ; but what we students of language try to discover is the first beginning of each personal habit, the origin of every thought, and the origin of every word. For that pur- pose ethnological researches are of the highest importance to us, and you will find that Kant, the cleverest dissector of abstract thought, was at the same time the most careful student of ethno- logy, the most accurate observer of concrete thought in its endless variety. With all my admiration for modern writers, I am in this sense also a Darwinian that I prefer the rudimentary stages of philosophic thought to its later developments, not to say its decadence. I have learnt more from Plato than from Comte. But I have ordered Binet all the same, and when I have read him I shall tell you what I think of him. : } Yours very truly, F. Max MULLER. A Use of Flowers by Birds. SoME years ago you allowed me to describe in NATURE the pretty doings of a pair of goldfinches, who, having built their nest on a bough overhanging a garden path, proceeded to make it more like the sky above, and therefore less visible from below, by hanging it round with wreaths of forget-me-nots. This year, in the same garden, some sparrows have shown equal ingenuity. ‘They began a nest in a Pyrus japonica against 102 NATURE [ Fune 2, 1887 the white house, whilst the tree was still almost bare of leaves. Not wishing for the noise and dirt so near the windows, I removed it, and they began another ; again it was removed, and this time, though apparently little more than a flat beginning, it had eggs upon it. They tried again, and on removing it the third time I found that the birds were overlaying it on all sides with the flowers of some sweet Alyssum that was growing below ; the intention being, evidently, to render it more like the back- ground of white wall, and therefore less conspicuous. Sidmouth. Ja Mi EL: Earthquakes and the Suspended Magnet, DuRING the afternoon of May 3 at Lyons, N.Y., a peculiar quivering motion of the suspended magnet was noted, especially at about I o’clock p.m., and a strong westward deflection con- tinued during the afternoon. Similar phenomena have been noted repeatedly when earthquakes were in progress, in this case the shock being quite severe, and occurring at 3.8 p.m. at E] Paso, Texas. M, A. VEEDER. Lyons, N.Y,, May 4 Units of Weight, Mass, and Force, THE letter of Prof. Greenhill (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 486) is both timely and suggestive. Herbert Spencer’s chapter on space, time, matter, motion, and force, supplemented by his chapter on the persistence of force, in ‘‘ First Principles of Philosophy,” gives all that can be desired by the student for a complete comprehension of the subject. One who assimilates the basic truths there so clearly given need never be perplexed by any statement found in the mechanical and mathematical text-books. It is simply impossible to use language in regard to these matters without employing expressions that are true only in a certain sense. We say that ‘‘the sun rises” and “the sun sets,” and that ‘‘the heavens revolve.” If these words are used to indicate the cause of the progressive shadows on a sun-dial, or the time of day, they serve a practical need as well as if they” were true. But.astudent who should infer the constitution of the solar system from such phrases would go far astray. When the significance of Spencer’s explanation of motion is grasped, a great part of the ambiguity will have vanished. We constantly think of motion as an entity, which is a pure delusion. We also say of force that it is the cause of motion. Nothing cau be more untrue. Force is the cause of change of motion only. There is not a conceivable difference between rest and motion otherwise than as the expression of a relation. Whether a body be at rest or in motion depends wholly upon the body to which it is related. When the student sees that motion is no entity, and is familiar with the process by which the conceptions of matter, force, Space, and time, are built up from sensations, he will be in no danger of mistaking the sense in which certain text-book state- ments are to be taken, much less will he be captured by those in which the errors are unpardonable. I, LANCASTER, Chicago, Ill,, April 28. WiTH regard to Mr. Geoghegan’s letter in your issue of April 7 (vol. xxxv. p. 534), my experience in teaching physics long ago led me to the same conclusions. For three years I have used in my classes in this the oldest existing University in Ontario, and with the greatest advantage, the terms ¢ach, gram- tach, prem, and dyntach for the units of velocity, momentum, pressure-intensity, and rate of working respectively, in the C.G.S. system of units. These-may be found in my ‘ Intro- duction to Dynamics,” which was printed last year for my junior class. rem was chosen after failure to get a euphonious mono- syllable from the Greek. A name for the unit of acceleration I have not found to be necessary. Ve/ seems to me to be a good word for the unit of velocity in the F.P.S. system of units, but, for fear of hanging on a sour apple-tree, I would shudder to mention Jound-vel and poundal-vel, The term sgueeze would be Suitable in several respects for a puundal per sgusre foot, but in mixed classes, such as we have here, it might lead to disorder. ‘ Pas D. H. MaRsHALL. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada, April 27. Remarkable Phenomenon seen on April 26, 1£87. — A PHENOMENON was seen here this evening quite distinct from anything I have before observed. It was an exact copy of streams of aurora borealis rising from a low arch, but instead of being in the northern heavens it was near the south horizon. © The sky was cloudless, except a long thundercloud which extended from near south-south-west to almost south-south-east, the ae portion of this cloud being about 12° above the horizon. From this cloud issued from one to three streams of conspicuous white light, the north-easterly stream being the largest and brightest, and this continued visible from 9.40 until 10.5 (the others were o1 seen for five minutes), The streams were at an angle about 53°, and moved slowly easterly (the cloud moving in th same direction). The longest stream reached an altitude of 2 and at 10 o’clock exactly (G.M.T.) the base was immediately over the Avonmouth Lighthouse. ‘The light of the streams was more persistent and less flickering than is usually the case with aurora borealis. BaP aris: There was also a confused luminosity behind the cloud, which variel considerably in brightness ; this made the outline of the cloud at one time distinctly visible, and at another scarcely discernible ; this als» gave the clouds. a black appearance. After 10 p.m. other clouds rose above the cu nul>-stratus, and the streams; became hid. Three hours afterwards there was'a snow storm, and the ground was white till 7 a.m. Reports from Somerset, Dorset, and Devon would be valuable. Shirenewton Hall, near Chepstow. E. J. Lowe. Pear-shapei Hailstones. _—_. aa ARE pear-shaped hailstones*as uncommon as some of ‘your correspondents suppose ? sm" We have had here to-day a succession of heavy showers rain and hail together, the hailstones being small, but many of © them pear-shaped, and the rest of shapes which might easily have been derived from that form by attrition or partial melting. — About half-past six this evening we had a storm of hail only, heavier than any that preceded it, in which nearly or quite < the stones were pear-shaped, from a fifth to a third of an inch in diameter. B. WoopD SMITH. Penmaenmawr, N. Wales, May 20. Been Ni P.S.—May 21. At 9.30 this morning we had another shower of hail and rain, in which the stones showed no sign of a! 2 pear-shape, but were of irregular rounded forms. ED “A Junior Course of Practical Zoology.” In the review of Messrs. Marshall and Hurst's book referred to in my friend Prof. Bourne’s letter, I sought to compare that. work with others devoted to the familiar type-system, to which © alone the words ‘‘all other books current’”’ were meant by me to refer, to the exclusion of general text-books such as those fron which he quotes. I admit that I might have made my meaning - somewhat plainer than I did, and would beg to be allowed to. state that I had it in my mind, at the time of writing, to refer the reader to the impartial statements made on the subj in question by Prof. Rolleston in his *‘ Forms of Animal cae cy the first of the series of what we are now pleased to term ‘‘ type or ‘‘ junior course ’’ books. Moths With respect to my critic’s second objection, I would ask the readers of NATURE to judge for themselves how far the quota- tions which he so'skilfully weaves into his letter do justice tomy contention. His view is, like my own, but an expression of — opinion, and time alone can show which of the two-will come nearest the truth, G. By tae South Kensington. pee Bishop’s Ring. 5s) THE letter by Prof. G. H. Stone in NaTuRE, vol. xxxv. p. 581, is interesting, as showing the disappearance of. ‘‘ Bishop’s ring” in Colorado. It has not wholly disapp-ared here, bemg still plainly visible about sunset. In the middle of the day, however, I have rarely seen any trace of its red colour since May last year; but up to that time, although growing much fainter, it was still frequently plain here, and I also saw it in the south of England, both in May and June 1886, but only feebly. Since then, when there has been a slight tinge of red, it has usually Fie . ar “y BS fv Fune 2, 1887] NATURE 103 a foe of a dirty brown colour, very different from what o ishop’s ring ” ced to be, and I Beg thought that often it has not been in the upper atmosphere, but at a lower altitude, and most visible when there has been moré or less smoke ; so that it seemed not improbable the snioke was the cause of it. Has anyone else noticed such a phenorienon connected with smoke? ‘‘Bishop’s ring,” as still seen at sunset, is evidently not caused by smoke, but doubtless atises from the same cir- cumstances as made it so conspictious an object at its first ein in November 1883, and gradually less so since. whitish wisps occurring in and near the ring about sun- tise and sunset continued visible at intervals, and varying greatly in distinctness, up to the 31st ult. I have not seen them since, but they have been invisible for longer periods before. T. W. BackHOUSE. Sunderland. A REVIEW OF LIGHTHOUSE WORK AND ECONOMY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS ¥ 7 may be useful to recapitulate very briefly the various steps of progress in this important branch of engineer- ing and optical enterprise since the beginning of the Queen’s reign. And a few words may be added on the statistics and economics of the subject. A lighthouse or lightship is naturally to be considered under four heads: (1) tower or hull and its lantern; 2) optical apparatus and its mechanical accessories ; ) lamps and illuminants ; (4) auxiliary sound signals. In 1837 a high degree of excellence had been attained in the first division, at least as regards stone towers and wooden vessels, but in the others stave super antiguas wias was a practice largely submitted to. The number also of established lights was comparatively small, about a tee ree Tee se eee ee ~ seventy of all kinds being in England and Wales, less than one-fifth of the present number. France, where there had been from 1824 to 1827 an active movement in the direction of coast illumination,possessed in 1836 about Ioolights. In 1822, and again in 1834 a Parliamentary Committee had inquired into the character and management of our light- with results to be noticed by and by. In 1837 the old working Phari of Greece, Carthage, and Rome, from Alexandria to the Pillars of Hercules, had long since disappeared, leaving only a few vestiges, chiefly on the shores of France, Spain, and Britain. Of modern times the most notable towers were, on the Continent, the imposing Cordouan at the mouth of the Garonne (1610), -and the tourist-haunted Lanterna of Genoa, the latter still being the tallest lighthouse structure in the world ; while at home Smeaton’s Eddystone (1759), prototype of British _ towers, the Bell Rock (1811), the Tuskar (1815), and the Carlingford, on Haulbowline Rock (1823), stood as the most striking examples of such edifices. But in 1838 the great tower of Skerryvore was begun by Alan Stevenson, - whose father, Robert, had built the Bell Rock Lighthouse. These accomplished engineers have respectively left a graphic and instructive narrative of their work, which may be fitly classed with Smeaton’s memorable account of the third Eddystone. Skerrymhore or Skerryvore(ysgar-mawr = great divided cliff, or rocky islet, as in scar, or the hills Skerid Fawr, and Skerid Fach) is a nearly submerged reef adjacent to the Island of Tyree, exposed to the full force of the Atlantic, and surrounded by innumerable rocky points | constituting “foul ground” along a line of seven miles. | It is thus perhaps the most dangerous of all the skerries in British waters, and differs essentially from. the Eddy- stone, which, though formidable in itself, rises from the deep sea, and can be approached more nearly in calm weather. Obviously, then, the 72 feet of elevation of the Eddystone lantern-centre, and even the 93 feet of the Bell Rock, could not afford the necessary range to a light intended to give timely notice to mariners of the outlying perils, and a height of 136 feet was adopted for the Skerryvore edifice, which, permitting one of 150 feet from focal plane to high water, insured a geographical horizon fof about fourteen nautical miles, or eighteéti miles to a veSsel’s deck. The mean diameter givéti to this tower was 29 feet, slightly greater than that of Bell Rock, that of Smeaton’s Eddystone being’ 21 feet. The cubic contents are more than four times those of the Eddystone, and more than double those of Bell Rock. There are ten stories below the lantern, for water, fuel, keépers’ rooms, and other purposes. The work was completed early in 1844, after extraordinary difficulties and perils, and it is a splendid monument to the energy arid skill of Alan Stevenson. Its cost was £87,000. Yet perhaps some of the towérs of the gréat nation which charges no dues for its lights, but présents theti a noble offering to the world, are fully as remarkable, Minot’s Ledge (1859) on the Massachusetts coast, and Spectacle Reef, Lake Huron, are examples. The latter structure was begun in 1871, and, though for an inland water, cost £60,000, the special difficulty having been ice, and the laying, by means of a cofferdam, of the lower courses of masonry on a jagged slope of dolomitic lime- stone 12 feet under water, and eleven miles from land, like the Eddystone. So in the case of Minot’s Ledgé Tower, the foundations of which were laid on a rock barely visible at extreme low tide, and in the full swell of the ocean, the distinguished engineer General Alexander was able to secure but thirty hours of work in the first year, and 157 in the second. The Bishop Lighthouse, on the south-westernmost rock of the Scilly Islands, was completed in 1858 at a cost of 434,560. After a quarter of acentury’s service it has been found expedient to increase the height, and to erect a more powerful optical apparatus, which will be ready dur- ing the present year. Other notable towers of the Trinity House are the Smalls (entrance of Bristol Channel), the Hanois (west end of Guernsey), the Wolf, and the new Longships ; all being generally alike in design, and not differing widely in dimensions and cost. The Wolf Towet received its light in January 1870, having been begun in March 1862. It was planned by Mr. Jaiues Walker, then Engineer to the Trinity House, but carried out by his sue- cessor, Mr., now Sir James, Douglass, and by his brother, Mr. William Douglass. This lighthouse is situated seventeen miles from Penzance, and twenty-three west- north-west of the Lizard. It has a mean diameter of nearly 30 feet, and a total height of 110 feet from high water to lantern-centre, being solid for 39 feet from the base, and containing 44,500 cubic feet of granite, weighing 3300 tons. Each face-stone is dovetailed vertically and also horizontally—the latter was not done in the Eddy- stone tower—and the courses further secured together by metal bolts. Roman cement was used for the work below water, and Portland. cement for that above, the whole mixed with a peculiar granitic sand from a Cornish tin- mine. Very great difficulty, as with all these exposed towers, was experienced in the erection of the Wolf and the new Longships, owing to the terrific seas that assaulted the rocks. The Longships, so conspicuous an object from the Land’s End, and so well known from Mr. Brett's luminous pictures, with an original elevation of 79 feet above high water, was so drowned by the waves that the character of the light could hardly be discerned, and a granite column of 110 feet was adopted. In Scotland the sea-tower of Dubh Artach, or, less cor- rectly, Dhu Heartach (1872), and in the Isle of Man that on the Chicken Rock (1875), may be named and the list of the chief structures of this type may be summed up in the Eddystone of Sir James Douglass, from which a light was first shown in 1882. The rapid disintegration of that part of the reef on which Smeaton’s tower stood made it ab- solutely clear in 1877 that a new tower must be built if a 104 NATURE [une 2, 1887 disaster (such as that which befell the Calf Rock Light a few years later) were to be avoided. It had been suggested to destroy the reef by blasting, as it had been persistently suggested since 1844 to remove the Goodwin Sands. But in either case not only would such a thing be impractic- able on account of the enormous expenditure of money and time ; but also there is a positive advantage for navi- gation in retaining a lighthouse or a lightship on these sites. The new Eddystone tower replacing that of Smeaton, which had made the name memorable for 123 years, has an elevation from lantern-centre to high water of 133 feet, commanding a horizon of seventeen and a half nautical miles (to a vessel’s deck). The corresponding horizon of the old tower was about fourteen miles, with an elevation of 72 feet. The extended range is ample for all maritime needs. The structure contains 63,020 cubic feet, or 4668 tons, of Cornish and Dalbeattie granite. The tower springs from a solid cylinder of granite about 45 feet in diameter and 20 feet high, set indissolubly on the rock. The mean diameter is about 30 feet. It is solid up to 254 feet above high water, except as regards space for a water-tank which holds 3500 gallons. It has seven chambers for stores and keepers’ use, and a room for exhibiting a small light 15°in azimuth to denote a danger called Hand Deeps. These chambers all havea diameter of 14 feet. There are besides two others below them of less size. Two massive fog-bells are fixed under the lantern-gallery. Very little inflammable material is used. The doors, window-frames, and other fittings are of gun- metal, and every modern resource has been employed to make the building weather-proof and enduring, and to insure the comfort of the three men confined in it, and the unfailing exhibition of the powerful light which crowns it. The time occupied in the work was about three years and a half, the cost less than £80,000. It is unnecessary to refer to the numerous land towers erected by lighthouse authorities during the half century, because these, being reared for the most part on cliffs, and little exposed to stress of sea, present no difficulty of construction or novelty of type. All the towers hitherto named are of stone, but iron has not been overlooked as in some circumstances a practicable material for a sea structure. The designs of the late Mr. Alexander Gordon, C.E., in cast and wrought iron, for the towers of several West Indian and South African lights are well worthy of attention, as are also those of Messrs. Grissell for Russia, &c.; and, more recently, the tall iron towers designed and made by Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, for Australasian sites, are not less remarkable. At home, the Fastnet may be taken as a successful instance of the application of iron. The rock so called is four miles south-west by west of Cape Clear, and has been symbolised as the “ Tear-drop of Ireland,” being the “‘ last of the old country seen by emi- grants.” This tower was begun in 1848, and completed in 1853. It is composed of a casing of cast-iron plates with a central column and girder floors, forming five chambers 12 feet high. The lowest story is partly filled in with masonry, leaving space for a coal-vault. The other stories are lined with brick. Theinternal diameter of the tower is 12 feet, the height from base to gallery 64 feet. The focal plane is 148 feet above the sea. The cost of the work was £19,000.. The engineer and designer was the late Mr. George Halpin. The lightships established in British waters are of great interest. There are now about seventy-five, sixty being on the English coast, of which the larger number date from since 1837. Several of these peculiarly English vessels were placed on their stations in the last century, the historical Nore, for instance, in 1732. Iron had been in use for light-vessels in the Mersey before 1856. In 1843 it had been discussed by the Trinity House as a possible material, but was not then deemed desirable. The first Trinity iron vessel was stationed in 1857 on the Goodwin Sands, the next in Cardigan Bay in 1860, The usual length of a Trinity lightship is 80 feet when constructed of wood, and about go feet when of iron, the width is 21 feet, the average tonnage 155 to 160 tons when of wood, and 180 tons when of iron. The focal plane of a light is generally 38 feet above high water. The cost averages £3600 for wood, and £5000 or £5500 for iron. An immense service is rendered by these modest and vigilant sentinels of the deep which surround our coasts in positions impossible for a lighthouse, and for the most — ; part close to the dangers of which they give warning, or to the channel of approach which they indicate. It has long been’ proposed to connect these vessels, as also rock and pile lighthouses, with the shore, and (in some cases) with one another, by an electric cable ; and a Committee is now engaged on the subject. In this way com- munications may be made as to the safety and require- ments of the station, and as to the passing shipping, and __ to wrecks and other casualties, though it is doubtful whether reports on the last heads are a proper addition to the functions of a light-keeper, or one that is likely to be satisfactory in the result to the persons concerned. A curious and ingenious plan of combining the light- house with the lightship was conceived by Mr. George Herbert in 1853, and much discussed and recommended at the time. On the assumption that the form of a ship is not the best for a stationary floating body, he proposed a circular vessel, moored from its centre of gravity, and supporting a central tower of about 4o feet high, with lantern, gallery, &c., of the usual kind. A candlestick set in a wash-tub may not be too familiar an illustration. A position north of the Stones Rock, on-the Cornish ~ coast, was suggested, at an expense of about £10,000, The Trinity House did not adopt this plan, but in 1859 two beacon buoys on the same principle were successively placed off the Stones, and after a few weeks’ service were driven from their moorings and destroyed. The use of screw piles for the foundation of a lighthouse in sand was first demonstrated at Fleetwood in 1840, and © Maplin in 1841, and afterward at the Chapman, Gunfleet, and other stations. The method is- that of Alexander Mitchell, improved by Mr. George Wells, who has erected many such structures in various shallow seas. The lantern, that is the framework of glass and metal, which contains the illuminating apparatus, whether in land or floating lights, has been much modified during the past - fifty years. At the accession the lantern of a first-class light was from 10 to 12 feet in diameter, with perhaps 8 feet of glazing in polygonal panes. The bars were heavy and intercepted much light, the ventilation defective, the construction more or less weak and unequal. Succes- sive improvements have been effected by the engineers of — the Trinity House and Northern Lights Commission, and by Chance, of Birmingham. In its highest type, that of Sir James Douglass, as in the Bishop Rock example, the lantern of to-day for a first order lighthouse is well worthy _ of the perfected optical instrument which it protects. It has a diameter of 14 feet between the glass surfaces, a height of glass of 15 feet, and a height from base to vane of about 32 feet. It is cylindrical in form, with solid gun-metal bars, helically inclined and of wedge- like section towards the flame, comprising sixty-four openings of diamond and sixty-four of triangular shape. — The polished plate-glass is three-eighths of an inch thick, and bent accurately to fit in these openings. Nine-tenths of the incident light from the lamp is transmitted through this glass. Not more than ;%, of ‘light is stopped by the lantern framing. Thus the maximum of stability and the minimum obstruction of the rays are obtained. At the same time every expedient to promote perfect ventila- — tion, from the tubes of Faraday to the longitudinal valves - and the roof-cylinders of Douglass, has been adopted, — this being indispensable for the combustion of the great lhe rll a BP a ees er ee eee ee ee OE et, ney Ee een ers hoe TS eee 222) TORO a : - . Fune 2, 1887] NATURE 105 concentric flames now employed. The dome is of rolled copper, the plinth or base of massive cast-iron lined with iron sheets. The cost of such a lantern is about £1700. The lantern of recent lightships has been treated in the same way, having regard to its lightness, mobility, and smaller dimensions. The diameter has been extended to 8 feet, the height of plate-glass to 4 feet, the _ cylindrical form substituted for every other. It does not seem possible to construct lighthouse towers and lanterns of better designs and materials than those which have been described. An important amplification of the dimensions may, however, be resorted to in the = future to meet the increasing radii of the lenticular appar- _ atus, and the increasing size and height of the central flames. This is on the assumption that electricity does not displace petroleum and gas as illuminants. It may be counted as an additional claim of the arc to be the light of the future that it requires no apparatus larger than Fresnel’s first order of 920 millimetres focal dis- tance, and that therefore no lantern exceeding 14 feet in diameter with 10 feet of glazing, and no tower with a diameter of platform greater than 23 feet, would certainly be needed. The merits and prospects of the rival illuminants will be discussed in a subsequent article. J. KENWARD (To be continued.) CONDENSATION OF GASES. A MONG the numerous subjects which have en- grossed the attention of the knowledge-seekers of the present century, probably none have surpassed in fascination and in the wealth of results which have followed persistent effort the question of the possibility of liquefying those gases which for ages had been con- sidered permanent. Immediately after that epoch-making eriod in chemistry and physics, when Faraday, followinz in the footsteps of Northmore who in 1806 had succeeded in liquefying chlorine, announced to the world the fruitful results of his experiments upon the liquefaction of gaseous | sulphurous, carbonic, and hydrochloric acids, nitrous oxide, cyanogen, and ammonia, came a long interval, during which all attempts to induce hydrogen, oxygen, nitric oxide, marsh gas, and carbon monoxide to take up the liquid state yielded little more than negative results, and the subject appeared almost without hope. When one looks back to the end of the year 1877 and remembers the thrill of excitement which ran through the civilized world when the double announcement was made by the French Academicians that oxygen had been independently liquefied by Cailletet and Pictet, and then, in the mind’s eye, reverts to the long years of trial and experiment during which these and other workers were slowly but surely building up future success on present failure, one cannot but be cheered by the thought that tient work inevitably brings its own reward. The damental principle upon which both based their ex- periments was, that the gases must be simultaneously exposed to very high pressures and to temperatures lower than their critical points. Pictet, whose apparatus was a triumph of mechanical skill, evolved his gas to be liquefied from a strong wrought-iron cylinder, from whence it passed’ into a closed copper tube surrounded by a cold bath of rapidly evaporating liquefied carbon dioxide, which re- duced the temperature to —130° C. Cailletet arrived at the same end by using a-hydraulic press to compress his gas, but instead of using a very cold bath he caused the gas to effect its own reduction of temperature by suddenly releasing the pressure, causing rapid evaporation, and hence such a considerable cooling that the gas condensed in drops of liquid. Pictet, on January 10, 1878, further succeeded in crowning his results by liquefying hydrogen at a pressure of 650 atmospheres and at a temperature of — 140°, and finally, on releasing the pressure, by actually solidifying the hydrogen, which fell “ like so many drops of steel” upon the ground. But now came the question of the possibility of pro- ducing still lower temperatures, so as to effect the same result at correspondingly lower pressures, and so success- ful have efforts in this direction been that the more per- manent gases have at last been liquefied at pressures nearly approaching atmospheric, and retained in the liquid form under even less than atmospheric pressure. This is a great leap in advance, for it not only enables us to determine the boiling-points of the liquefied gases at ordinary pressure, but also to determine their densities in strictly comparable numbers, This happy consummation we mainly owe to the untiring efforts of Dr. K. Olszewski, whose latest results have just been given to the world, and a short description of whose work will probably be of general interest. The most critical portion of any apparatus for such a purpose is of necessity the glass tube in which the lique- faction is to occur, the capacity of which for withstanding rapid changes of both temperature and pressure is put to the severest test. Olszewski paid particular attention to the preparation of his tube, heating it for some time almost to redness in an iron tube packed with calcined magnesia, and allowing it to cool slowly beneath a thick layer of hot ashes, thereby obtaining a tube in which more than a hundred experiments were performed without a single explosion. The open end of this tube, a, was attached to a brass flange, 4, the upper part of which was furnished with two openings, one for the hydrogen thermometer, whose bulb reached to the bottom of a, the other uniting the tube @ with a branched copper tube eg, by means of which connexion could be made at pleasure with (1) the manometer /, for use with pressures smaller than atmospheric, (2) an air-manometer, g, for use with — higher pressures, (3) a large air-pump for reducing the pressure upon the liquefied gas, (4) an aspirator, 7, used as afterwards described in the density determinations, and (5) an iron Natterer cylinder, z, in which the gas to be liquefied was stored up under a pressure of 60-80 atmospheres. A caoutchouc stopper, 4, held the lique- faction tube within a system of glass cylinders designed for the reception of liquid ethylene, which was used to effect the reduction of temperature, and for preserving the same from the warming influence of the surrounding air. The four vessels were held within each other without touching by pieces of cork and felt rings, so that the ethylene was separated from the surrounding air by badly conducting layers of air, and the evaporated ethyl- ene, passing in the direction of the arrows between the walls, still further counteracted the influence of radiation from warmer surroundings. In the outer cylinder were placed a few pieces of chloride of calcium in order to dry the air and prevent the deposition of hoar frost. The liquid ethylene was supplied from a second Natterer cylinder, Z, fitted with a siphon arrangement and placed in a mixture of ice and salt; on the way to its receptacle the ethylene passed through a spiral copper tube sur- rounded by a freezing mixture of solid carbon dioxide and ether contained in a double-walled vessel, #7. On connecting the vessel with the air-pump and reducing the pressure, the temperature of this freezing mixture sank to —100°, and 150 c.c. of liquid ethylene were obtained, which remained perfectly quiet for hours under atmo- spheric pressure. ‘The glass tube 7 was then connected with the air-pump, by means of which the pressure was reduced until the ethylene began to boil ; here however a _ difficulty, for a long time insurmountable, presented itself ; for it was found that inequalities of temperature in the ethylene column caused violent disturbances, and the liquid rapidly disappeared out of the vessel. A simple expedient, however, that of forcing a regulated ‘stream of dry air through the ethylene, was eventually hit upon and TOO NATURE found to work admirably, keeping the whole column in constant agitation and at a measurable temperature. The pressure over the ethylene was maintained by use of the air-pump at about 1o millimetres of mercury. By this means such a diminution of temperature was effected that all gases, with the exception of hydrogen, could be liquefied at pressures not exceeding 40 atmo- spheres. As soon as the manometer of the air-pump indicated 10 mm., the valves fand / were closed, and ¢ of the Natterer cylinder opened, admitting the gas to be liquefied into the tube a@ at 40-60 atmospheres pressure, as indicated by the manometer g, when a considerable quantity of the liquefied gas was readily obtained. And now Olszewski elaborated a most ingenious device, by means of which the liquid could for some time be retained as such on releasing the pressure, and even—which is almost incredible, and a striking example of the truth of the adage “fact is stranger than fiction”—77 uv The addition to the apparatus consisted of the introdi tion in the liquefaction tube of a second thinner-walled tube, about half the length of the former and of smal diameter, so that, when in position, the distance of walls from those of @ was about 1 millimetre. On p forming the experiment as before, the liquid first collect only in this interspace, after a short time also in inner tube, thus exhibiting two meniscuses; even the liquid in the interspace flowed over into thei tube, and finally the levels equalized at its edge. — liquid was now gradually freed from pressure by shut off the Natterer cylinder and its manometer and op the valve 4, and consequently reduced in temper still further by the evaporation produced, hence the liqu fied ethylene became relatively warmer and caused tl liquefied gas contained in the interspace to evap: entirely away, leaving a badly conducting layer of gas, whose eminent isolating action was found sufficient to keep the remainder in the inner tube in the liquid state at normal atmospheric pressure. One step further: on closing the stopcock 0, and connecting # with s by means of lead and caoutchouc tubing, communication was effected between the liquefaction tube and the air-pump, and, owing to the before-mentioned action of the layer of gas, a notable quantity of the liquefied gas still remained at pressures below 100 millimetres of mercury, as shown by the manometer / The temperature of liquefied oxygen under these circumstances sank to — 198° C., that of air to — 205°, and that of nitrogen to — 213°. _ In his latest work Olszewski used two such little isolating tubes, and was enabled to reach in case of oxygen - 211°; at —207° and 100 millimetres pressure, carbon monoxide solidified, as did aiso nitrogen at and 60 millimetres. i, By lowering the pressure over the solid nitrog mm., Olszewski succeeded in penetrating the dar approaching absolute zero as far as —225°C. ‘It remembered that Pictet found a pressure of 650 at spheres necessary at —140° to liquefy hydrogen, bu combining the above apparatus with one simil: Cailletet’s, so that the gas could be subjected to 1 atmospheres pressure at —213°, Olszewski has effect the same result, which was also independently obtair by use of liquefied nitrogen boiling 2 vacuo (Compt. ren xCViii. 913, 1884). fe The chief importance of these experiments lies in fact that it now becomes possible to determine severa the physical constants of liquefied gases at ordin Fune 2, 1887 | NATURE 107 3 pressure, and a short description of how this has been done may not be uninteresting. In order to determine the boiling-points, about 15 cubic centimetres of the liquid were obtained as above, gently _ freed from pressure, and communication with the air established by opening the valve %. Marsh gas, nitric _ oxide, and oxygen behaved under these circumstances _ perfectly quietly, evaporating only from the surface, _ necessitating shaking of the apparatus. to prevent super- _ heating ; while in the case of carbon monoxide and _ nitrogen the evaporation proceeded with gentle ebullition. _ It required 5 to 15 minutes for the liquid to escape com- _ the boiling-point with a hydrogen thermometer. y out of the apparatus, affording ample time to poo ist the boiling-points obtained is given in the table. It is i ory that Wroblewski has completely confirmed accuracy of Olszewski’s temperatures by thermo- electric measurements, and he asserts that a hydrogen thermometer affords correct indications as far as — 193°, but the latter gentleman proves that the error must be very small, as all the boiling-points are above — 220’, the critical temperature of hydrogen, and he shows that oxygen and nitrogen thermometers are not influenced by error exceeding 2° even at several degrees below their tical points. From an inspection of the critical points given in the table we can at once see why the earliest attempts to liquefy these gases so utterly failed, for no amount of pressure would liquefy nitrogen for instance, unless its temperature could be at the same time reduced to —146°, a temperature not procurable by the means wn to the earlier experimenters. . _ For the purpose of the density-determinations the inner tube within the liquefaction tube was calibrated, the thermometer removed, and the hole in the stopper with glass rod and sealing-wax. About 15 cc. the liquefied gas were obtained as before, freed gra- ‘ from pressure, and, as soon as all the liquid in the interspace had evaporated, the height of the liquid column left under atmospheric pressure was read off. the moment of reading off the valve was connected a caoutchouc tube with the aspirator 7, and when the gas was completely volatilized, water was run out until e levels in the tube and respirator were again equalized. The volune of water received in the measuring-flask was of course equal to that of the gas formed by evaporation of the known volume of liquid, and, after applying cer- tain corrections dependent upon the nature of the tus, was reduced to 0° and 760 mm. As the es under which the densities of marsh gas, oxygen, and nitrogen were determined were nearly identical, the numbers obtained are strictly comparable. ) Boiling- Melting-" Criti ; | maine pain “prices Demy CG = mm, gas —164 o'415at —164 and 736 ; —181°4 o ~rr8'8 rr2qgat - 181'4and 743 -194'4 -214 -146 0°885at —194'4and 741 pmacaeeS }— 190 -207 —139°5 CES Nitricoxide — 153°6 It is a subject for sincere co ion that these ; experi should have been so far free from accident, but this immunity was not to last ad infinitum, for, just as the last-experiment with nitrogen was in pro- gress, the liquefaction tube suddenly flew to pieces and so deranged the apparatus that the densities of carbon monoxide and nitric oxide could not be determined. - _ These researches, taken in conjunction with those of Victor Meyer on the dissociation of the molecule of and of Lockyer, Liveing and Dewar, and other workers on the effect of high temperature generally in simplifying the structure of molecules, have assisted, and will in the future assist us still more, in arriving at much more accurate views respecting the ultimate structure of matter itself.. On the assumption that. the molecule of iodine consists of two atoms, which, according to the view now becoming more and more accepted by thinkers on this subject, may themselves consist of aggregations of a still simpler substance—aggregations which, at tempera- tures obtainable in the laboratory, we have not been able to break up—the classical experiments of Victor Meyer have shown that at a temperature of about 1500° C. the molecules are dissociated into single atoms, that is to say, the intensity of the heat-vibrations is so great that the attraction between the two atoms in the molecule is over- come, and they are torn asunder. At still higher tem- peratures there is a possibility that the atom itself could be resolved into something simpler still. Reasoning on the same lines, there is great probability that even hydrogen, oxygen, and other more permanent gases could, by a sufficiently high temperature, be resolved first into single atoms and then into something simpler still. Now, taking the opposite extreme, on reducing the temperature sufficiently to liquefy and even to solidify these gases, we ought to find that as the atoms im the molecule are allowed to approach more closely, and conse- quently to attract each other more strongly (according to the law of inverse squares), the difficulty of breaking up the molecule into its constituent atoms is more and more increased. This, in the case of liquefied oxygen, has been directly proved to be the case by a series of very beautiful experiments performed by Prof. Dewar, who has shown that liquefied oxygen at —160° C. has not the slightest chemical. actiom upon, among other substances, the alkali metals and phosphorus, which in ordinary air or oxygen are rapidly converted to oxides. Chemical action, if such there had been, would have shown that the force of the attraction of atoms of phosphorus or potassium for those of oxygem exceeded that of the atoms of o for each other; but the result proved that at this low temperature the force (whatever force may mean) exerted between the atoms of the molecule of oxygen was greater than that between the atoms of potassium and oxygen. What the possibilities are as we approach absolute zero form an interesting subject for the “scientific use of the imagination,” but, reasoning from analogous phenomena of polymerization, of which organic chemistry furnishes so many examples, and from the antilogous effect of high temperature, we have some reason to suppose that the condensation will continue until molecules more complex than those consisting of the ordinary two atoms are built up. However this may be, the main result of these im- portant experiments has certainly been to show in the clearest possible light how completely the state of matter depends upon the temperature under which it exists. A. E. TUTTON. A RECENT JAPANESE EARTHQUAKE. Pearesor SEKIYA, of the Imperial University, Tokio, has lately sent to this country a remarkably interesting and complete record of earthquake motion obtained by him during a severe shock which occurred at 6.52 p.m. on January 150f this year. The most important portion of the record is shown in Fig. 1, reduced to a little more than one-third of the original size. The motion is recorded (by means of the writer's: horizontal pendulum and vertical motion seismographs) in three rectangular components—two horizontal and one vertical—on a plate of smoked glass which is caused to revolve uniformly by clockwork. The plate is started by an electric seismo- scope at the beginning of the disturbance, and for one or two seconds its motion is consequently slower than the uniform rate it afterwards attains. On this occasion the plate made one revolution in 126 seconds, and the hori- 108 + ae et zontal motion continued during several revolutions. To avoid confusion only the first of these is reproduced in the figure: the motions which occurred subsequently were smaller, and, as usual, tte disturbance subsided very gradually. The circles in which the three com- ponents are recorded have been arranged so that simul- taneous motions are on the same radius. NATURE Radial straight | [¥une 2, 1887 lines, where they are drawn, mark seconds of time. The disturbance begins at a, é,andc in Fig. 1. In its early portion it is marked very conspicuously by a feature which has been noticed (also at the beginning) in previous records—the presence of short-period oscillations super- posed on larger and slower motions. These are particu- larly well defined in the horizontal motion, where they Fic, 1.—Earthquake recorded at the University, Hongo, Tokio, Japan, January 15, 1887, 6.52 p.m., by Prof. Sekiya. The horizontal motion is magnified 1°8 times ; the vertical motion is magnified 2’9 times ; the radial lines mark seconds of time. occur, during the first part of the disturbance, with a period of about one-sixth of a second, or with about twelve times the frequency of the principal motions. The greatest amplitude of horizontal motion is found when these small oscillations have nearly died out, at the place marked a, By that time the vertical motion has become comparatively small, A few seconds later two considerable vertical oscillations appear on the record ; but the vertical component is, by a long way, the first to vanish. In the original record the horizontal components are each magnified five times, and the vertical component eight times:* the same ratio between horizontal and vertical multiplication is of course maintained in the figure given here. At three places, A, B, and C, the Sune 2, 1887] So ape See Seem eters See woes vee \ NATURE 109 eC: S oe kK < w” Qo mm Ss S ly ey i] © NDS. ATA. S \i \ \ | | R: I 4. SEco Fic. 2.—Compounded Horizontal Motion. horizontal motion has been compounded during intervals of 4,64, and 6% seconds respectively: the results are shown to a magnified scale in Fig. 2, and illustrate well the complex character of earthquake motion. The greatest extent of horizontal motion is from one to the other extremity of the figure-of-eight in the first of these diagrams: its actual amount (on the ground) was 7°5 millimetres. The greatest vertical motion was 1°5 millimetres. Other records obtained by Prof. Sekiya lead him to conclude that the greatest vertical motion in Tokio earthquakes is about one-sixth of the greatest horizontal motion. In former examples published by the writer the record was in all cases taken on the soft alluvial soil on which the greater part of the city of -Tokio is built. In this instance the record was taken (at the site of the new University buildings, Kaga Yashiki, Hongo) on the much harder ground which here and there rises above | the alluvial plain. From a comparison of records taken at the old and the new sites of the Seismological Obser- vatory, Prof. Sekiya concludes that the motion of the alluvial plain is generally greater than that of the higher and stiffer soil in the ratio of two or three to one. J. A. EWING. NOTES. On Tuesday, Congregation at Oxford declined, by a majority of 106 votes to 60, to sanction the lending of books or manu- scripts from the Bodleian Library. This decision is, no doubt, greatly regretted by a number of resident graduates, but it has the cordial approval of most other persons. Had the proposed change been made, it is certain that sooner or. later many valu- able books and manuscripts would have been lost or injured, and scholars would constantly have found that the works they wanted were ‘‘out.” It would have been a serious mistake to transform one of the most magnificent collections of books in the world into a lending-library for the benefit of a small class of students. In celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of Her Majesty’s reign, the general meeting of the Zoological Society of London on June 16 will be held, at 4 p.m., in the Society’s Gardens on the lawn, which will be reserved for this occasion. After the usual formal business, the silver medal awarded to the Maha- rajah of Kuch-Behar will be delivered to His Highness. The President will then give a short address on the progress of the Society during the past fifty years. After the conclusion of the general meeting, the President and Council will hold a reception of the Fellows of the Society and other invited guests. THE new University of Upsala was opened with great cere- mony on May 17. There were present the King and Crown Prince of Sweden, a number of delegates from foreign Universi- ties, the leading Swedish men of science, and some 1500 students. The building is very handsome, and has cost nearly £250,000. In the Report of the Royal University of Ireland for 1886, just issued as a Parliamentary Paper, it is stated that last year 2933 persons presented themselves at the various examinations, an increase of 43 on the previous year. The degree of Bachelor of Arts was conferred on 9 women, of whom 4 took honours. One lady was admitted to the degree of Master of Arts, and another, Miss Mary Story, obtained the first place in the first-class honours in modern literature, and won a first-class exhibition. Of the 78 women who presented themselves for matriculation, 71 passed, 27 of them with honours. Speaking of the exhibi- tions founded by the Drapers’ Company and the Irish Society for the promotion of education among women in Londonderry, the Vice-Chancellor says :—‘‘It would be most useful that the example thus set should be followed by others. There are other Companies of the Corporation of London who also hold IIo NATURE [¥une 2, 1887 property in the district of Londonderry. Surely they could not employ the income, which they hold as a public trust, in a more advantageous manner than in facilitating the education of deserving persons, hindered by straitened means from securing for themselves the benefits of higher education.” AT the last examination of students of medicine at the Nicholas Hospital, in St. Petersburg, fifty-four ladies out of ninety-two obtained their degree. THE first Danish lady physician, Miss Nielsen, has just begun to practise at Copenhagen. She took her degree with the highest honours. In a lucid and interesting article in the Scotsman, on ‘‘ Tem- perature of the Western Lakes and Lochs,” Dr. H. R. Mill sums up the results of various recent observations made by him- self and by Mr. John Murray, of the Challenger Commission. The eastern fringe of the North Atlantic brings between the western islands water at a uniform temperature of 46°. An equal temperature prevails on the surface, exeept in the vicinity of land, where it is higher. In nearly land-locked sea lochs and basins the temperature of the mass of water is determined by the configuration, and varies from 47°°5 to 43°°8, according to certain definite laws. In fresh-water lakes, those that are shallow are at a temperature of about 45°; those that are deep are colder, varying from 43° to 41°, and showing hardly any difference in temperature between surface and bottom. ON May 19, at 22h. 37m. (Greenwich time) a shock of earth- quake was felt in the Alpes Vaudoises, at Sion, Bex, Aigle, Vevey, Rougemont, Gessenay, and other places. On May 20, 3h. 5m., a slighter shock was felt at Rolle (Vaud). ON May 30, about 3 o’clock in the morning, heavy. shocks of earthquake were felt at the city of Mexico. The earth tremor was of a violent kind, and had a lifting motion lasting five seconds. This was followed by a low roar and a strong vibration of the earth from east to west, lasting thirty-nine seconds. The houses rocked, and thousands of people left their beds. It was afterwards found that shocks of earthquake had been general in the States of Hidalgo, Mexico, Morelos, Puebla, Tlascala, Vera Cruz, and Oajaca. The force of the earthquake caused bells to ring and walls to crack. One of the aqueducts bringing water into the city of Mexico was damaged. On the same day a severe shock of earthquake occurred at Benton, Arizona, at noon, and at Nogales, Arizona, at I t o'clock in the afternoon. ACCORDING to a telegram from New York, dated May 31, shocks of earthquake have been felt in the islands of St. Lucia, St. Vincent, and Grenada. A CYCLONE of unusual severity passed over the northern portion of the Bay of Bengal last week. The Calcutta Corre- spondent of the Zimes says that at the beginning of the week the Meteorological Department reported that a storm had formed near Diamond Island, and was slowly advancing towards the Madras coast. At first the storm appeared likely to strike land near Vizagapatam, but on Wednesiay morning it took a more northerly direction, and during the following night - passed between Saugor Island and False Pvint, and thence inland, wd Midnapore and Chota Nagpore. At Saugor Island the wind’s rate was sixty-seven miles an hour, when the anemometer and storm signals were blown away. It is believed that the wind attained greater force later. THE New England Meteorological Society has two special investigations on hand for the coming summer, in addition to its regular work of temperature and rainfall observation, The first special subject (which has been investigated during the last two summers) is thunder-storms in New England ; the second is the _ graphs of projectiles, fired from a Werendler gun, - a velocity of 1300 feet per second. The projectiles ¢ on the impressions enveloped in a layer of air form. . ' Society, M. Krasnoff has described the formation, a The rains which wash this clay take away its finest _is deposited i in layers, but accumulates slowly on a small amount of rain. M. Krasnoff supposes with ability | that the yellow loess of China originated in this way. ‘to the flora of the Tian-Shan, M. Krasnoff points out that formerly held a place between that of the Altai and that of _Alps, and resembled the present vegetation of the Caucasus. | The desiccation of the country caused the retreat of the glaciers sea-breeze on the eastern coast of Massachusetts, now u taken for the first time. The Society would be unable on these inquiries but for the aid received from the U.S. Service, the Bache Fund of the National or | Ha rvard College Observatory. Guneras GREELY, the new Chief Signal Officer of th States, has made a laudable effort to publish the Monthly” Reviewas nearly as possible up to time. The Reviews for Ji and February last have lately been issued—leaving s months of arrears to be worked up subsequently. Reviews are published regularly, soa quickly, the formation contained in them will be of much v not only complete data for the whole of the Canada, but also details of the storms, Atlantic Ocean. The Reviews in question are a number of very clear charts, one of which shows. the areas of low pressure over the ocean in each appendices contain particulars of miscellaneous ; various notes. Among the latter may be specially THE Oficina Meteoroldégica Argentina has just v. of its Anales (620 pp. 4to, Buenos Aires, 18 the monthly and yearly results of observations stations during the year 1884, together with e on the divabe of four places i in the Republic, tions taken between the years 1855 and 1886. Thi which is undoubtedly the most. completely organ existing in the South American States, is m superintendence of Mr. W. G. Davis, who has. A. Gould, the former Director. with which it has been hitherto connected, Ram institution, Several new stations have been in remote places, including an important one (54°-55° south latitude), The-service is under th Public Instruction. AT a recent meeting of the Canadian Institute, Dr. of Toronto, read a paper on and presented some : the photography of the interior of the living eye. Twos photographs were shown. The first simply pres 4 the optic nerve and retinal blood-vessels. The showed not only the retina of the eye, but also picture of objects to which the eye was directed, the retina. : fey PHOTOGRAPHER at Pesth has sce in ta’ IN a recent communication to the uae time, of loess from the glacial gravelly clay in the Tian- . Sune 2, 1887 | NATURE IIt the formation of the debris-covering on the mountain slopes, and e decrease of the lakes. The loess was deposited, and, as desic- ion proceeded, the stony and sandy steppes by and by made ir appearance. The process of desiccation went on first on he southern slopes of the mountains, where the dry steppe now ses to the limits of perennial snow. With the exception of a few species which accommodated themselves to the new condi- ns, all plants of an Alpine character and those that grow in ist climates disappeared, as also did the forest vegetation on the dry slopes of the hills. The place of the old flora was taken y immigrants from the drier parts of Asia. ‘THE death is announced, at the age of seventy-six, of the dish botanist, Prof. J. E. Areschong. His best-known :s are ‘‘Symbola Algarum Flore Scandinavie,” ‘* Icono- hia Phyctologia,” and ‘‘ Phyceze Marine.” _ THe Norwegian Storthing has granted £100 to Herr Dahll, ‘0 enable him to issue a short popular scientific work on the ology of Northern Norway. The Assembly has, however, refused at present to grant £450 to Prof. W. C. Brégger, who is anxious to complete a work which he has had in hand for _ several years on the syenite and granite rocks of the mountains _ around the Christiania fjord. PERSONS interested in the fisheries of Sweden have often urged that oyster-beds should be formed on the south-west coast of the country, similar to those which have been so successful on the opposite coast of Norway. This is now being done by a Swedish naval captain, Miilenfels, who is founding two oyster-beds on the coast of the province of Bohus. The young oysters to be laid down will be taken from the bed at -Ris6r, in Norway. The oysters cultivated there are said to equal ‘‘natives” in flavour. meeting in Boston. The number of papers read at the meeting was unusually large. The paper which seems to have attracted most attention was one by Dr..W. Hayes Ward, who offered a _ few interpretation of a scene presented on a number of _ Babylonian seals. The late Mr. George Smith thought the design represented the Tower of Babel. Others have held that it is arepresentation of the underworld opening to receive the dead, and of a porter leading the soul into the presence of a deity. Dr, Ward’s theory is that certain prominences invariably found on the seals stand for mountains, as they undoubtedly do in Assyrian art, and that the deity surrounded by rays is the sun-god Shamash. During the night he has been under the earth, and in the morning the porter opens the gate to let him out. In the discussion which followed the reading of the paper, Prof. Lyon, of Harvard College, and Prof. Jastrow, of the University of Pennsylvania, took part ; and some evidence was brought forward to show that Dr. Ward’s ideas are confirmed by references to sunrise in cuneiform texts. A FINE series of new colouring-matters has recently been discovered by Dr. J. H. Ziegler (Berichte der Deut. Chem. Ges., No. 8, 1887), by employment of the hydrazine reaction upon amido-derivatives of triphenylmethane. Rosaniline hydrochloride was first converted by nitrous acid into its diazo- derivative, which was then reduced with tin and hydrochloric acid, yielding brilliant green crystals of a hydrazine salt. This new hydrazine, which, in contradistinction to rosaniline, the discoverer terms roshydrazine, is itself a colouring-matter of a ~somewhat bluer shade than fuchsin, and forms the nucleus of the series. By treatment with aldehyde, acetone, or benzophenone, condensation products are obtained possessing brilliant colours, “varying from red to violet ; benzaldehyde and aceto-acetic ether, on the other hand, yield beautiful blues, while grape-sugar forms _ with roshydrazine a dye of agreenish-blue tint. Very numerous ™ ‘On May 11 the American Oriental Association held its spring: }: shades are further produced by action of many other reagents, and, moreover, the sulpho-derivative of roshydrazine appears to form a second series of coloured substances quite as numerous as those of the nucleus itself. Indeed, the discovery will, in all likeli- hood, prove a very rich one, and will afford another instance of the immense assistance which pure chemistry so frequently furnishes to the commercial world. The fact of most vital importance about these new colours, which are practically insoluble in water, is that they may be readily prepared im situ upon the fibre, it being only necessary to immerse it first in a bath of roshydrazine, and afterwards in a second bath containing the condensing reagent. Messrs, LONGMANS are preparing for publication ‘‘ Modern Theories of Chemistry,” by Prof. Lothar Meyer, translated from the fifth edition of the German by Prof. P. Bedson and Prof, W. C. Williams ; “‘ Electricity for Public Schools and Colleges,” by W. Larden ; ‘‘ A Text-book of Elementary Biology,” by Prof. R. IL. H. Gibson ; ‘‘ The Testing of Materials of Construction,” by W. C. Unwin, F.R.S.; and ‘‘ Astronomical Work for Amateurs; a Practical Manual of Telescopic Research adapted to Moderate Instruments,” edited by I, A. W. Oliver, with the assistance of Messrs. Maunder, Grubb, Gore, Denning, and others. : Many of the beautiful Alpine flowers, especially the edelweiss and the Alpine rose, are in danger of becoming extinct. The Government of Valais and the Monte Rosa section of the Alpine Club, have caused gardens to be laid out and inclosures to be made for the cultivation and protection of these plants. The station on the Téte de Mouton, near Vissoye, in the Einficht Valley (Valais), situated at the height of 2300 metres, cultivates not only plants belonging to the Alps, but some from the Pyrenees, the Himalayas, and the Caucasus. In the Report of the Rugby School Natural History Society for 1886, just issued, the editors are able to congratulate the Society on the number of its members and associates being greater than in any previous year. Among the contributions printed with the Report are papers on the motion of stars in line of sight, the dispersion of seeds and spores, Danes’ Blood, and the protective colouring and form of animals. Tue Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia, eldest son of the Grand Duke Michael Nicholaievitch, has, it is said, written a book on the entomology of the Ciucasus. His Highness is an ardent student of natural history, and studies every new work on the subject published in England, France, and Germany. AT a recent meeting of the Natural History Society of . Wisconsin, Dr. Peckham, the President, read an interesting paper on wasps, presenting the results of many experiments made in 1886 on the mental habits and peculiarities of these insects. In the section entitled “ Emotions,” Dr. Peckham discusses the question whether wasps have much sympathy with the suffering of their fellows. ‘‘ To be sure,” he says, ‘‘ when we caught numbers of them, and painted them within the cage, they at once went to work to clean each other, and this seems to show that they have some desire to aid and comfort their friends. But we have often seen them continue to eat, with entire composure, near the body of one of their number that had just been crushed to death; and they fre- quently fall upon a dead relative, cut it up, and carry it into the nest to feed their young. An overpowering sense of utility is probably the cause of this cannibal propensity ; as was the case in Tierra del Fuego where the natives. were frequently forced, through stress of weather and scanty food-supply, to eat their old women.” 12 NATURE [Yune 2, 1887 In the number dated April 19, Science publishes an excellent ethnographic map, by Mr. A. S. Gatschet, representing the linguistic families of the Indian dialects in the south-eastern parts of the United States, so far as they can be traced by the study of actual remnants of tribes still lingering in or near their old haunts, and by historic research. Of all the families repre- sented on the map, the Maskdki were at one time most import- ant. Itis said that in former times the tribes of this family extended from the Atlantic to the country beyond the Missis- sippi, and from the Appalachian Range to the Gulf of Mexico. The majority of the Maskoki tribes now live in the eastern parts of the Indian Territory. Pror. G. PoucHET has recently published a long and interest- ing paper concerning the life and work of Ch. Robin, the late Professor of Histology in the Paris Medical School. A complete list of Robin’s works adds greatly to the value of the paper. THE fourth number of the Aznales de? Institut Pasteur con- tains many interesting papers, among which are one by Duclaux, on the general biological phenomena of micro-organisms, and one by Bardach, Perroncito, and Carita, on the presence of the Bacillus of rabies in milk, _ AN explosion of natural gas, which had leaked from pipes and mixed with the atmosphere, took place lately at Youngstown, Ohio. The result was a fire, which burned down a church and a large number of new buildings. The cause of ignition was the lantern of a watchman, who narrowly escaped death. The use of natural gas as an illuminant and fuel is attended by con- siderable danger, because, being inodorous, it may leak without anyone noticing the fact until a disaster occurs. IN a pamphlet issued lately by the U.S. Hydrographic Office, Lieut. Underwood says that mineral oils are not so effective for use at sea as vegetable or animal. A comparatively small amount of the right kind of oil, say two quarts per hour, properly used, is sufficient, he asserts, to prevent much damage, both to vessels and to small boats, in heavy seas. The greatest result from oil is obtained in deep water. In a surf, or where water is breaking on a bar, the effect is not so certain ; but, even in this case, oil may be of benefit, and its use is recommended by Lieut. Under- wood. He advises that, when an attempt is about to be made to board a wreck, the approaching vessel should use the oil after running as close as possible under the lee of the wreck. The wreck will soon drift into the oil, and then a boat may be sent alongside of her. ACCORDING to an official notification of the Trustees of the Schwestern Frohlich Stiftung, at Vienna, certain donations and pensions will be granted from the funds of this charity this year, in accordance with the will of the testatrix, Miss Anna Frohlich, to deserving persons of talent who have distinguished themselves in any of the branches of science, art, or literature, and who may be in want of pecuniary support either through accident, illness, or infirmity consequent upon old age. The grant of such aid is primarily intended for Austrian subjects ; but foreigners of every nationality, if resident in Austria, may benefit by the Trust. Austrian subjects residing in England may also make application for a grant. Applications addressed to. the Trustees (das Curatorium) must be transmitted to the Presi- dent’s office of the Common Council of the City of Vienna (an das Prasidial-Bureau des Wiener Gemeinderathes Neues Rath- haus) before August 31, 1887, through the Austro-Hungarian Embassy in London, 18 Belgrave Square, S.W., where particu- lars as to terms and conditions may be obtained. THE Gold and Silver Commissioners have requested Mr. Henry Dunning Macleod to investigate the relation between money and prices, ~Mouchez’s Report for the year 1886, which was presented ii: In Mr. Abercromby’s article last week on equatorial y currents and Krakatdo dust, the end of the last paragraph two (p. 87) should read thus—‘‘ and though the highest curr over the Polar limit of both the south-east and north-east are from north-west and south-west [not south-east] respective &e. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during t past week include a Rhesus Monkey (A/acacus rhesus $) India, presented by Mrs. C. J. Fisher; a Bonnet Mon (Macacus sinicus 6) from India, presented by Mrs. Yes Lesser White-nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus petaurista) West Africa, presented by Mr. T. H. Kenyon, R.N.;a Bear (Ursus arctos) from Northern Europe, presented by John Rhind; a Common Squirrel (Sccurus vulgaris), Bril presented by Miss Muriel Reed ; a Blyth’s Tragopan (Cerior, blythi) from Upper Assam, presented by Mr. W. Brydon King Vulture (Gyfagus papa) from Tropical America, pres by Mr. W. Allen Sumner ; two Little Guans (Ortalis 7 from Guiana, presented by Mr. W. Thomson ; six Eurof Tree Frogs (Hy/a arborea), European, presented by M Wroughton ; a Larger Hill Mynah (Gracula intermedia) Northern India, four Tuatera Lizards (Sphenodon punct. from New Zealand, deposited ; a Patagonian Conure (Cons patagonus) from La Plata, two Dark-green Snakes (Zam atrovirens) from Dalmatia, four Axolotls (Sivedon m from Mexico, purchased; a Common Rhea (Rhea ame: from South America, received in exchange; a Molucca (Cervus moluccensis); a Japanese Deer (Cervus stka) bo the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE PARIS OBSERVATORY.—We have received Adm the Council of the Observatory on February 4, 1887. Adm: Mouchez first refers to M. Loewy’s. proposed new methods determination of the constant of refraction and of the cor of aberration, the principles of which have already been expl in this column. With regard to refraction, it is pointed ow the exact determination of its amount at different altitudes under varying conditions is of peculiar interest for an Obs tory situated as that of Paris is, on the southern borders ¢ large city, so that the temperature of the strata of air to north and to the south will probably. differ considerably. Mouchez hopes that during the current year it will be pos to attack these fundamental problems with an instrument ¢ structed on M. Loewy’s plan. The great meridian inst and the Gambey circle have been actively employed dw year, a grand total of 16,505 observations having been ob 798 of which refer to planets, including 148 of the sun and of the moon. The principal meridian work continues, a: recent years, to be the re-observation of Lalande’s stars. equatorials have been employed in the observations of co minor planets, nebule, eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites, occultations, It is almost unnecessary to remind our readers the magnificent work in astronomical photography which 1 been carried on by the MM. Henry, and which embraces planet and their satellites (Hyperion has been photographed with exposure of thirty-five minutes), the moon ee stars, inclu clusters and double-stars. .M. Mouchez reports that he is sidering how the stellar photographs may be most conve utilized for the formation of a catalogue, and states that, b final decision, he awaits the results of the then appro meeting of the Astronomical Congress. The macro-micromete devised by MM. Henry for measuring the relative positions stars on the photographic plates is described in detail, and results of double-star measurements made with this instrument are appended. It appears that these are of considerable ac- curacy, the mean error of a single measure for the double-star ¢ shh Majoris being 0"°077 in distance and 0°°55 in position- angle. ie ky NATURE 113 | Sune 2, 1887] _ ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY.—T.e Mew Prince'on Re- wiew for May 1887 contains an interesting article, by Prof. C. A. Young, withthe above title. The article is, of course, of quite a opular character, but none the less is it deserving of perusal by astronomers—professional as well as amateur. In arapid survey f the history of astronomical photography, Prof. Young refexs jefly to the labours of J. W. Draper, Bond, Rutherfurd, , Henry Draper, and Pickering, in America; of De la ue, Common, and Roberts, in England; of the Brothers enry, in France ; of Vogel, in Germany ; and of Gill, in South a. He then goes on to discuss the relative advantages and tages attending the employment of the reflector and of actor respectively in this particular department of astro- mical science ; pointing out, in the case of the refractor, the fo directions in which, at the present time, efforts are being to overcome the difficulties arising from the want of per- achromatism of the object-glass, viz. Prof. Abbe’s re- hes on the production of glass which shall be perfectly matic, and Herr Vogel’s investigations on a new sensitizing am which may be as sensitive to the yellow and green rays ‘salts of silver are to the violet rays. In the remaining mn of the article Prof. Young distinguishes two classes of onomical photographs : those in which the end is to produce a ure of the object ; and those which are made for purposes of irement, and the determination of precise numerical data. gives various examples of each class, with a brief account of e progress which has been made in solar, lunar, planetary, Har, and nebular photography, as thus classified, concluding with an account of the very remarkable results which have ecently been obtained by Prof. Pickering in the photography of stellar spectra. | Comer 1887 ¢ (BARNARD, MAY 12).—Dr. H. Oppenheim (Astron. Nachr. No. 278) has computed the following elements jand ephemeris of this comet from an observation made at \Cambridge, U.S., on May 12, and from two others made at Rome on the 15th and 17th :— T = 1887 June 24°5559 Berlin M.T. Pw tome 24 ZI 30 B= 244 54 327 Mean Eq. 1887'0. . 97” .Q : 2E log g = 0711510 hag Ephemeris for Berlin Midnight. 1887. R.A. Decl. os LOE Bs Log ». _ Bright- oe bm. Ss. PfetetnlF ness. ame £91549 55 16 12°35. 9°5323 0°1299 .. 2’0 ms 16-0, 2 12 r9'r 95185 0°1253 2°2 - 9 16 Io 46 8 17°! 9°50907 O'12I6 2°53 ir 2a 22 f°’ 4 13'9 9°5062 o'1186 = 24 he brightness on May 12 is taken as unity. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOVENA FOR THE ve WEEK 1887 JUVE 5-11. FrOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at _ Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, s here employed. ) Bie, At Greenwich on June 5. an rises, 3h. 48m. ; souths, 1th. 58m. 10°2s.; sets, 20h. $m. ; -decl. on meridian, 22° 33’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 13h. 4m, Moon (Full on June 5) rises, 19h. 31m. ; souths, oh. 4m.*; sets, 4h. 32m.* ; decl. on meridian, 18° 7’ S. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. San h. m. h. m h, m. Bye oes é 15 eM 5 EC E40 1b, ay. ON; : Pies SB cde" 23°25 23 8N. oor aes MR se 19:16 21 13 N. eae e Gg 20 saat soe gt gm 8 56S. sm 6 29 ... 14°35 ... 22 41 21 56N. that the southing and setting are those of the following morning. Variable Stars. R.A. Decl. err Wa ° ‘ bs fa @ §2°3 5a. A I6N.... June 8, 116 es TH 589" Si MO ie gy RE, 0 52 me ioe, SR ESO Se ae ey oy ad a P16: $2 8g SES GL: 9; M Bay as, 87 10°C...” FSO NG..." , 10, O° TA | M signifies maximum ; 7 minimum. Occultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). Corresponding angles from ver- June. Star. Mag. Disap. Reap. tex to right for inverted image. h. m. h. m. a o §; ves 29 Ophiucht. 06 »..:20: §2 .,. 21 §9 60 224 G.5,. 3B. Ashe BORE 35° G a0 90.40.... 21.30 20 258 10 ... 45 Capricorni ... 6 ... 23 49 ... 0 53t .... 42 275 10 ... 44 Capricorni... 6 ... 23 58 near approach 156 — t Occurs on the following morning. Saturn, June 5.—Outer major axis of outer ring = 38’'1; outer minor axis of outer ring = 15’*2 ; southern surface visible. Meteor-Showers. R.A, Decl. Near Antares ... ... 249 20 S. 8B Ophiuchi ~... 261 5 N. Rather slow. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. THE Expedition which went out to explore the New Siberian Islands, has returned to St. Petersburg with interesting results. The Expedition was organized by the Academy of Science, St. Petersburg, 26,000 roubles being contributed by the Emperor Alexander. Operations commenced in 1885, and considerable preparations had tobe made. A winter retreat was chosen ia the district of Kasachje (under 71° N. lat.), 30 kilometres south of Ustjansk at the mouth of the Jana. About 270 kilometres. distant from Kasachje, were discovered the remains of a mam- moth. At the end of March 1886, Dr. Bunge left for the Swatoinoss Mountains, where the real march with 240 dogs was to begin ; 19 sledges drawn by 12 dogs, led the expedition over the frozen sea. In the latter half of April, the Jakutes returned with the sledges, and reported that the journey had been success- fully accomplished. Dr. Bunge devoted his attention in parti- cular to the Liachow Island, while Baron -Toll attempted not only Kotelni Island, but also the Island of New Siberia. In May both explorers were at the Medwesh,i foothills, to the south of Kotelni Island. Liachow Island has a very uniform but rough appearance ; it is 300 kilometres in circumference, the surface being unevenand hilly. The prevailing winds are east and west. The latter is extraordinarily violent, and works great mischief ; it brings first rain, and. then frost. Winter retires about the beginning of June, although the summer is never quite free from snow, mist, storms, &c. Enormous masses of perpetual ice inclose the island; only once could Dr, Bunge make a sea passage free from ice, In clear weather, looking northwards from Kotelni Island land is visible, which appears to be only 150 kilometres distant. The possibility of reaching this land is. increased by the fact that a warm current flowing ina fixed direction prevents the sea from freezing over. ‘lhe highest observed temperature in Liachow Island was only 8° (Réaumur). The snow melted in the beginning of June, and about the middle- of the same month the first flower was found. Wild reindeer, wolves, Arctic foxes, and mice are found on these islands, as also -sea-gulls, snipe, and other birds. With the exception of the mouse, all animals on the island are merely guests; they all winter on the Jan |. Tue Canadian Government sent out at the beginning of May an Expedition for the exploration of the region watered by the great river Yukon in the north-west of the Dominion. The geology and natural history of the Expedition will be under the care oF Dr. Dawson of the Canadian Survey; while a careful topographical survey will be made by Mr. W. Ogilvy. In the new number (128) of the Zeitschrift of the Berlin Geo- graphical Society, Prof. Blumentritt has some critical remarks on the Spanish data with reference to the distribution of the native languages in the Philippines. Colonel Schelling contributes a useful abstract of the Russian Survey work up to 1885, and Dr. Emil Deckert a paper on the country and people of the Southern United States. THe German Government has appointed Lieut. Kund, who has done such good work in the Congo region, chief of the scientific station which has been established at the Cameroons ; for when the Germans undertake the development of any region. they at once recognize the nece sity for scientific observations in order to accomplish their object. A surgeon and botanist will II4 NATURE [une 2, 1887 -also be appointed, and the party will remain three years at the Cameroons. The surgeon and botanist will have charge of the meteorological station, while Lieut. Kund will devote himself | sto the exploration of the interior lying to the east of Cameroons. THE IRON AND STEEL INSTITUTE. THE annual meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute was held on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday of last week, in the “Theatre of the Institution of Civil Engineers, under the ‘presidency of Mr. Daniel Adamson. In his inaugural address the President exhaustively treated the “question of the selection and adoption of metals for various purposes in the arts. Commencing with the purest iron obtain- -able, containing only 0°08 per cent. of foreign matter, he ex- plained that it was wonderfully malleable, and welded at a ~comparatively low temperature ; a further exceptional character- istic of such a metal was that it suffered little when worked at a -colour-heat, whilst it endured percussive or concussive force without distress much better than the mildest steel. All the -alloys of iron, or the steels, were less malleable and ductile than ‘the pure metal, but were on the other hand much stronger, or possessed a much higher carrying power.. Pure irom would maintain a maximum load of nineteen tons per square inch, whilst it would set at half that amount. By an addition of o°13 ‘per cent. of carbon, 0°52 per cent. of manganese, and’ o*ro of silicon, sulphur, and phosphorus, a steel might be produced carry- ing 50 per cent. more than pure iron, whilst by a further addition -of these elements, the carrying power might be increased to sixty tons per square inch. In thus increasing the strength, the -ductility or reliability was reduced however in nearly the same ‘proportion. It thus becomes evident how important is the selec- tion of material for a given purpose, but besides this the stronger “the material the more skill is required in working it, and the more forethought has to be manifested by the constructive ~engineer. Referring specially to the subject of steel for guns, the Presi- -dent drew attention to the diversity of opinion, both in England -and the United States of America, as regarded the selection of the proper metal and its treatment for ordnance, the artillerists maintaining that a strong and consequently hard steel was desirable, whilst engineers contended that a mild tough metal ‘should be used ; this was a question which he thought might be decided by the Iron and Steel Institute, with the result that guns would be made, as they could be made, which would not burst. He referred to what had been done by the late Sir Joseph Whit- worth towards the compression and consolidation of steel, and “by the late Sir William Siemens, especially as regarded the pro- ‘duction and introduction of soft or ductile steel, which possessed -great regularity in quality by the uniformity of its composition. Another most important subject treated of was that of steel rails and weldless solid rolled steel tires. By this application -of steel, the saving to railway companies had been estimated at 1 per cent. on the dividend, and this was largely due to the efforts -of Sir Henry Bessemer ; and he thought it was quite within the province of the Institute to suggest the most suitable material ‘for the construction of railway and river bridges of moderate and large spans, by the application of which further economy would be effected. After reference to the subjects of case-hardening weldable -steel—for which, when manufactured with reliability and economy, there would be an enormous demand—cast-iron, and ~steel castings, the address concluded by drawing attention to the influence of high railway rates upon trade depression, and to the necessity of employers and employed working in unison, as by their intelligent action alone could we expect to defy the conten- tion and competition of the world. The vote of thanks for the -address was proposed by Sir Lowthian Bell, and seconded by Sir _James Kits n. A paper on the Terni Steel Works was read by Sir Bernhard Samuelson, which he prefaced with some remarks on the import- ance of testing commercial education, which was now under the consideration of the Oxford and Cambridge Joint Board for Local Examinations, and drew attention to the circumstance that ‘Chinese and Japanese were being taught on the Continent in anticipation of trade being opened out with the East. The next paper was by Mr, George Allan, on ‘ Patent Com- posite Steel and Iron.” After referring to the necessity for a «material of this character, and the various attempts that had been ' made to produce it, the author proceeded to explain the m a of its manufacture. This consisted in embedding fibrous mild steel, and subsequently rolling the ingots into bars or p as desired. ‘‘ So perfect was the union of the two mate that by an inspection of the samples when the covering of. was turned down to the strands of iron and the surface polis it was quite impossible to detect any separation between the t materials, or which was iron and which steel.” The next paper read was by Prof. Chandler Roberts descriptive of a mode of electro-deposition of iro illustrated by a medallion in iron of Her Majesty e by the process, the secret of success in which appears to employment of very feeble currents. The adherence deposited iron to the surface .of the copper gives rise to co able difficulty in detaching it; this was obviated by d nickel in the first place, allowing it to oxidize slightly, then depositing nickel and the iron on its surface. subje still under the author’s investigation. 6 se aes The first paper read on Friday was one by Sir Samuelson on the ‘‘ Construction and Cost of Blast Fu the Cleveland District,”’ supplementary of one read ‘ before the Institution of Civil Engineers. Me Mr. James Riley, to whom the Bessemer Medal for this has been awarded for his excellent work in developing | manufacture and high quality of mild steel, read a paper most elaborate character on ‘‘Some Investigatic r Effects of Different Methods of Treatment of Mild $ Manufacture of Plates.” The author compared reh soaking, or cooling gradually in pits ; hammering with cross-rolling with rolling in one direction only, and the due to different amounts of work. sa) hale It was found that the soaked ingots were slightly m factory than those reheated, the reheating having been p in a non-radiation furnace, and that the results of co hammered ingots were almost similar. Cross-rolling am rolling were also found to give almost similar results, A ‘working ” the ingot, the strength of the steel was fou ¢ crease with the quantity of work put upon it, the ductility however diminished. The author looks upon anneali corrective to damage done, and thinks that as ré ordinary operations of a well-managed works annea unnecessary. The paper relates to a very large numbe exp riments, the bending tests alone being close upon 1300, gave rise to a very animated discussion, Other papers on the programme, including one by D: Sorby, F.R.S., on ‘‘The Microscopical Structure of Steel ” were taken as read. With reference to this pz Percy, the immediate Past-President, remarked before the chair, ‘‘ For twenty years, more or less, he has been in this kind of research, in which of late much has done by foreign observers. Having carefully studied ~ has been published on this subject, my conviction is with regard to originality of contrivance, accuracy, and ir ance, the work of Dr. Sorby is as yet unrivalled. — successfully explored a comparatively new and most i field of inquiry, and has thrown much light on some of t recondite problems concerning the mechanical and p properties of iron and steel.. My first impression is th result of such researches will prove to be of the highest pi value.” Talis is =e THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANIC. <1 ais ENGINEERS oa | At the recent meeting of the Institution of Me Engineers, the President, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, address, in which he reviewed the progress made in tl facture of guns during the last half century. The guns the beginning of the present reign, in 1837, were the cast-iron smooth-bore 24-pounder and 32-pou Ss, herical shot. Now they are made of steel, anc with mechanical appliances for every movement; acc aim is insured by rifling, and the length of range iner the use of an elongated shot of small cross-section, increased powder-charges. Breechloading has 1 d to inere speed of firing, and to the use of gums 35 and 40 feet board ship. The loading:is self-acting in the smaller whilst on board ship the guns are made to revolve, load, position, and train to firing-point by hydraulic power. Such g ‘une 2, 1887] NATURE 115 110 tons, fire shot 16} inches in diameter, weighing 1800 \d costing £190 each. The advance thus shortly chronicled ‘due to several workers, prominent amongst whom may be entioned Sir Joseph Whitworth, Sir William Armstrong, and ¢ William Anderson. The production of ordnance of such a racter has been due to the introduction of steel, and the sibility of producing steel in large masses by means of the arth steel process, with which the name of Sir William will always be connected. The quick-firing machine are known by the names of their inventors, as the Gardner, denfelt, Maxim, Gatling, and Hotchkiss. The President also drew attention to the circumstance of the talent of the country having been taken advantage of id ignored in France until after the Franco-German w, however, there as here, many works have found it to t to establish gun factories which supplement the ent factories to a large extent. ae were read at the meeting on prime movers, the ie by Mr. F. Brown, of Montreal, on ‘“‘ The Construction of Canadian Locomotives,” and the other, by Major T. English, R.E., detailing experiments on the distribution of heat in a ation steam-engine. The former, as its name denotes, to details of construction ; the latter is illustrated by five figures, mainly of indicator diagrams, and distribution at diagrams showing in one view the applied and wasted ‘The series of trials extended altogether over fifty hours’ of the engine; but out of this trial, various results, ing in the aggregate twenty-eight hours’ working, were on account of doubtful measurements at some point or The remaining trials are sixteen in number, in two ts—one condensing and one non-condensing—each with nd without the steam-pipe jacketed, and each with a ut-off at approximately one-quarter, one-eighth, and one- sixteenth of the stroke respectively,*thus making twelve ferent combinations. The conclusions crawn by the author are: that, in order to obtain the best results for any given ange of temperature, there should be a definite relation between he surface of the steam passages, the diameter of the cylinder, ad the length of stroke; and that in the design of a steam- the adjustment of these proportions is perhaps the most at point to be considered as regards economy. The ed results of varying the length of the stroke of the which was experimented on—while the diameter of the the absolute clearance volume, and the clearance sur- exposed, remained unaltered—were tabulated for two t points of cut-off, and show that the same number of ‘pansions may give widely different results as regards the ratio ficiency and the water consumed per indicated horse-power hour ; and also that with the same length of stroke these are but slightly affected by doubling the number of WOTE ON THE SPECTRUM OF DIDYMIUM: ‘T is well known that the absorption spectrum usually ascribed to didymium sae oe pot lg and violet with ipproximate wave-lengths 482, 476 462, 444, 428, accord- : to Lecoq de Boisbaudran. pegs ‘ ‘he evidence that we at present possess shows, I think, that ese bands belong to at least five different fractions of Velsbach (Monatshefte, vi. 477) has shown that the band 428 sin the absence of all the others mentioned above in the trum of the fraction which he names neodymium. On the ‘hand, Crookes pe: Roy. Soc., 1886, 502, Fig. 1) has ‘that all the other bands of neodymium can be obtained absence of the band 428. “This band, therefore, belongs net fraction, and should be obtainable quite by itself. kes has shown that the band 444 varies in strength endently of all others, and is therefore distinct. The same n is arrived at by a slightly different argument. h’s praseodymium shows the bands 482, 469, and 444, with a faint band in the orange. Crookes (7did., Fig. 1) m that 482 and 469 can be got in a fraction which does vy 444. It is possible that the faint orange band of mium belongs to the same fraction as 444, since its or absence would make little difference in the appearance ? Reprinted trom the Chemical News, May 20, 1337. of the dark orange band of the ordinary didymium spectrum, one part of which it forms. The band 462 is shown to be distinct by a comparison of Crookes’s Figs. 1 and 2, taking into account that 444 and 423 have been shown to be distinct. The two bands 482 and 469 seem always to accompany each other. ‘They occur together in Welsbach’s praseodymium and in all the spectra of didymium fractions published by Crookes. They are distinct from 476, since they occur in praseodymium in the total absence of 476. They may belong to the same fraction as the faint orange band of praseodymium. The band 476 does not occur in Welsbach’s neodymium. spectrum. In fact the two bands 476 and 462 seen in the didymium spectrum are not accounted for by Welsbach at all in the spectra of praseo- and neodymium. Since 462 is distinct, 476 must also- be distinct. I have repeated Welsbach’s experiments up to a certain point, and can confirm his results as regards praseodymium in every respect. There is no indication whatever that the three main bands belong to different fractions. I have not been able to satisfy myself quite that the faint orange band of praseodymium really belongs to the same fraction as the others, even supposing that the method of fractionation is not changed. In the didymium spectrum the orange band is much darker than the green, and the difficulty of getting a really concentrated praseodymium solution, which does not show a trace of the green band, is. extreme. A small remnant of some other fraction of didymium. might there‘ore cause a faint band in the orange some time after the band in the green had disappeared. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that by Welsbach’s method the orange didymium band. is split up, for the maximum absorption with didymium is not at the point in the orange where the band of praseodymium occurs. I have not yet obtained the neodymium fraction free from praseodymium, but I have no reason to doubt that Welsbach’s. observations are correct. A study of the intermediate fractions brings out a point which Welsbach does not refer to. As we pass from the praseodymium end the bands 482 and 469 become fainter, whilst 476 and 462 first appear and then grow stronger,. till they become distinctly stronger and much broader than 482- and 469. It appears ‘then that the absorption spectrum of didymium is. splitting up just as the fluorescent spectrum of yttrium is. I have only discussed a few of the bands, but there is no doubt that the: other bands will also in time be separated. Indeed, this separa- tion has already been partially effected by Crookes for some of the bands in the red. Perhaps the most surprising result arrivel at by Crookes is. that the splitting up of the fluorescent yttrium spectrum is unaccompanied by any change in the spark spectrum. On the- other hand, Welsbazh states that the spark spectra of praseo- and neodymium are-parts of thedidymium spectrum, and that, though: similar m general appearance, they are really quite distinct.. There does not appear to be any theoretical reason for this- difference between yttrium and didymium, and it is to be hoped that the different fractions of didymium will be got pure enough to show whether the spark spectra can be still further split up. CLAUDE M. THOMPSON. University College, Cardiff. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE.—The first election to the Harkness Scholarship for Geology and Paleontology will be made in June. All. B.A.’s of Cambridge not beyond M.A. standing are eligible. The Rev. Osmond Fisher is appointed an elector to the scholar-- ship. T he report of the Council of the Senate on the teaching of: geography is to be voted upon on June 9. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Journal of Science, May.—On red and purple- chloride, bromide, and iodide of silver ; on heliochromy and the latent photographic image, by M. Caiey Lee. To this paper we have already called attention. It is the first of a series. of important papers, the object of which is to show (1) that. chlorine, bromine, and iodine may form compounds with: 116 NATURE [Hune 2, 188; | silver of beautiful peach-blossom, rose, purple, and black colora- tion; (2) that these compounds (except under the influence of light) possess great stability, and may be obtained by purely chemical means in the entire absence of light; (3) that the red chloride shows a tendency to the reproduction of colours, and may probably be the material of the thin films obtained by Becquerel and others in their experiments on heliochromy ; (4) that these substances constitute the actual material of the latent or invisible photographic image, a material that may now be obtained in any desired quantity without the aid of light. They also form part of the visible product resulting from the action of light on the silver haloids. This first contribution deals with red silver chloride, and with the relations of photochloride to heliochromy. The author considers that in the reactions here described lies the future of heliochromy, and that this beautiful red chloride may ultimately lead to the reproduction of natural colours.—On the inter-relation of contemporaneous fossil floras and faunas, by Charles A. White. A chief object of this paper is to show that successive orders of fossil floras and faunas do not necessarily correspond so absolutely with given geological epochs as is generally assumed. On the contrary, the rate of progress of biological evolution from epoch to epoch has neces- sarily been variable, some contemporary species dying out at an early date, while others live on into subsequent epochs, accord- ing to the different conditions of their environments. Living species of land mollusks, for instance, are found also associated in the same strata with those of extinct genera and families of Miocene vertebrates. It is also incidentally shown that no European paleontological and geological classifications are entirely applicable to the conditions prevailing in the American continent.—The Eozoonal rock of Manhattan Island, by L. P. Gratacap. An examination of the rock recently exposed in New York when the cisterns were being constructed for the Equitable Gaslight Company, leaves little room to doubt that here a bed of hornblende has undergone a more or less complete conversion into serpentine, the change being in some places accelerated by the elimination of lime carbonate as calcite, and probably elsewhere the double carbonate of lime and magnesia as dolomite.—Terminal moraines in Maine, by George H. Stone. The generally unequal distribution of the glacial drift in Maine is well illustrated by the detailed description here given of its chief terminal moraines.—Note on the enlargement of horn- blendes and augites in fragmental and eruptive rocks, by C. R. Van Hise. While recently studying the eruptive rocks of the Penokee-Gogebic iron-bearing series in Michigan and Wisconsin, the author met with cases of new growths occurring upon augite and hornblende, corroborating the observations made by Fr. Becke amongst the eruptive rocks of Lower Austria in 1883. In some instances the augite has been completely, in others partly, changed into hornblende, the rocks where these new growths occur being altered diabases.—The great Acadian Paradoxides, by G. F. Matthew. An almost complete specimen of this gigantic species has recently been found in the Cambrian basin of St. John, differing from any hitherto described, and mostly resembling the P. bennettii of Newfoundland and P. harlani of Massachusetts. —On the kin of Paradoxides (Olenellus ?) kyjerulfi, by G. F. Matthew. The object of this paper is to throw some light on the comparative age of the Paradoxides beds in Europe and America, and the probable position of Olenellus in relation thereto, the allies of P. £erud/fi, Linrs., being chiefly considered. —On Taconic beds and stratigraphy (continued), by James D. Dana. This second communication, which is accompanied by a large map of the Taconic region in Berkshire, Massachusetts, deals specially with the middle and northern part of that region. The author concludes generally that the limestone must be the underlying rock for the lower and narrower portions of the Taconic range, the schists of which are the same in kind, and essentially continuous. Most of the limestones are referred to the Lower Silurian age, some Cambrian also occurring. Rendiconti del R. Istituto Lombardo, March 31.—On some methods of testing .the purity of drinking-waters, by Prof. L. Maggi. Koch’s method by cultivation in gelatine is shown to be greatly inferior in efficacy to that of Fol and Dunant by cultiva- tion in meat extract, the former detecting only 5700 bacterial germs where the latter finds 100,000. The author points out further that Fol and Dunant’s is substantially the same as the method already adopted at a much earlier date (1867) by him- self and Prof. Giovanni Cantoni.—Meteorological observations made at the Brera Observatory, Milan, for the month of March, April 14.—Effects of a thunderbolt, by Prof. R. During a recent thunderstorm in Milan some planking over the mouth of a dry well and covered with cultivat was removed by an electric discharge in such a way earth was precipitated bodily into the well. A lightr ductor from a neighbouring building had its terminus well, where it is suggested that the explosion took place result described.—On the second derivatives of the functions of space, by G. Morera. A simpler method of Holder (Bettrage zur Potentialtheorie) is here prop determining the existence of the second derivatives potential function of a mass distributed in a space dimensions. —The migrations of the tunny, by Prof. Pavesi. The commonly-accepted view that the tru (Orcynus thynnus, L.) is an oceanic fish migrating p from the Atlantic through the Strait of Gibraltar ro Mediterranean basin is shown to be erroneous. This the contrary, essentially an inhabitant of the Medit where it migrates between the shallows in the spawnin and the deep waters for the rest of the year, but rarel in large numbers beyond the Strait of Gibraltar. Bulletin de [ Académie Royale de Belgique, March.— on bichlorureted alcohol, by Maurice Delacre. T: alcohol, CH,—CH,(OH), correspond the three ch derivatives of alcoholic nature: (1) CIC (2) Cl,CH—CH,(OH) ; (3) Cl;C—CH,(OH). The these having been determined by Wiirtz, and the thi zarolli-Thurnlack in 1881, the author has now su obtaining the second, resulting from the action of zinc anhydrous bichlorureted aldehyde, Cl,CH—CHO. — scription of the process adopted is accompanied by 2 data and experimental determinations leaving no do the nature of this compound.—On some derivatives 0 by C. Winssinger. “During his protracted stuc substance the author has determined, contrary to th tions of Pierre and Puchot, the existence of a hydrate o alcohol boiling at 87°C. He has also prepared in a p the sulphuret of orthopropyl with boiling-point 142° ins the hitherto accepted 130° to 135°. He her shows solution of the organic hydrosulphates in alcohol is conti decomposed during ebullition at contact with the alkaline hy sulphates, yielding organic sulphur with liberation of hy¢ sulphuric acid. Lastly, he has determined some new compout such as the oxysulphide of propyl, which is dissolved to 15°, and combines with the nitrate of calcium ; orthopropylphosphoric acid, and a_tri-orthopropylp ether. These substances are formed by the action of tl chloride of phosphorus or orthopropylic alcohol, and respective formulas, C;H,;PO,H, and (C;H,);PO4.—R on the localization and function of the alkaloids in pl MM. Errera, Ch. Maistriau, and G. Clautriau. For years the authors have been engaged with the study alkaloids, especially in Colchicum autumnale, Nicotiana phylla, Aconitum Napellus, and various species of N They have so far arrived at the general conclusion alkaloids are formed chiefly in the more active tissues albuminoids are incessantly decomposed and transformed. these tissues the alkaloids gravitate towards the where they become more easily oxidized, and serve t the plant against attack. Physiologically they are an the alkaloids developed in some animals, such as snak extraordinary degree’; and: must be regarded as the refuse of the protoplasmic activity afterwards turned t for protective purposes. April.—Discovery of instruments of the Stone Age Congo State, by Ed. Dupont. Some specimens of ru ments are described, which have recently been dis Capt. Zboinski on the left bank of the Lower C region of the cataracts below Stanley Pool. They a district covered with chips of quartzite in the nei of South Manyanga, where this rock crops out, indicating site of a former quarry or manufactory of such obje ; have frequently been found in other parts of the wor seldom in Africa. They are unpolished, belonging to lithic epoch, the presence of which along the west coast of / has also been recently confirmed by similar finds, but in in the Mossamedes district much further south.—On a ¢: chemical decomposition produced by pressure, by J. H Hoff and W. Spring. Under a pressure of 6000 atmos a temperature of 40°C. the authors have succeeded in ao . Be Meee, teo7| NATURE © 117 —- cuprico-calcic acetate which had previously been finely ized. The salt was slowly liquefied, and on the pressure removed the surface of the instrument in contact with the found covered with a coating of copper. Other experi- at lower and higher temperatures, but still much under nt of transition, showed that this substance is decomposed e action of pressure, the process being accelerated ig as the pressure and temperature are increased.—On ing the weather, by B. G. Jenkins. The author publishes her chart for London ranging over 62 years, showing, as s, that the moon not merely influences but is the actual ‘the weather, and consequently that it can be forecast ing accurate barometric and thermometric readings re- for a sufficiently lengthened period of time. He finds, nce, that the readings for London for 1887 will be y the same as those recorded for 1825, those for 1885 6 corresponding in the same way with those for 1823 and and soon. He adds that in December last he issued a it for January 1887 based on the readings for January 1825, 1 the subjoined results :—Forecast: mean bar., 29°98 ; mean 5 35°53 rain, 1°5. Result: mean bar., 29°99 ; mean ther., 9; rain, 1°3. es from the Leyden Museum, vol. ix., No. 2, April 1887, as usual, a large number of papers on entomology, and per on acollection of mammals made at Mossamedes, the pen of Dr. F. A. Jentink, the Director of the Museum. ‘Mr. P. J. van der Kellen was one of the members of an Expe- dition to the Cunene River, which was commanded by Mr. Veth. On Mr. Veth’s death, which took place very shortly on the E ition reaching Mossamedes, Mr. van der Kellen deter- mined himself to explore the district, and to make a collection of the fauna for the Leyden Museum. The country he is col- lecting in is, from a zoological point of view, unknown, and although none of the twenty-six species of Mammalia enumerated in this paper by Dr. Jentink are new to science, yet they form a most welcome addition to our knowledge of geographical distri- bution, and several of the forms are still very rare. ~ Engler's Botanische Jahrbiicher, vol. viii. part 4, contains :— A contribution to the botanical geography of South Africa, by R. Marloth. This is a description of the plants growing in the south-west Kalahari district.—Contributions to the knowledge of the Afonogetonacee, by A. Engler. The chief conclusions rrived at are that the inflorescence of Afonogeton is not axillary in position, but two leaves and an inflorescence together form a collective whole, the inflorescence not being in the axil of either of them, but opposite the margin of one of the leaves : that in 4. distachyus, which is the commonest cultivated species, the large white bract-like organ, which subtends each flower, is not a bract, but the single developed segment of the perianth : and finally that if the Aponogetonacee be united with the /unca- ginee and Potamogetonacee in the large family of Najadacee, the Alismacee should also be included in that family. —Then follows a condensed translation of the memoir on the vegetative organs of Phylloglossum Drummondii, by F. O. Bower, already pub- lished in the Trans. Roy. Soc., London: the chief result of this investigation is that as regards the vegetative organs, Phy//o- glossum appears to be a permanently embryonic form of Lycopod. —A list of plants found in West Greenland, together with re- marks on their distribution, is contributed by Th. Holm, of Copenhagen, who accompanied the Danish vessel Fy//a in its expeditions of 1884 and 1886.—The part closes with the con- tinuation of the usual extracts from current literature. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. __ Zoological Society, May 17.—Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The President read some extracts from _ @ letter which he had received from Dr. Emin Pasha, dated _ Wadelai, November 3, relating to some skulls of the Chimpanzee _ from Monbottu, to some portions of the skeleton of individuals of the Akka tribe, and to some other objects of natural history which he had forwarded (vié Uganda) to the British Museum of Natural History.—Mr. A. Thomson exhibited some specimens _ of a rare Papilio (Papilio porthaon) from Delagoa Bay, reared in _ the Society’s Gardens.—Prof. Howes exhibited a drawing of a head of Palinurus penicillatus, received from M. A. Milne- Edwards, and remarked on the assumption of antenniform characters by the left ophthalmite shown in this specimen.— A paper was read by Mr. W. F. Kirby, Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum, entitled ‘‘A Revision of the Sub-family Zise//uline, with descriptions of new Genera and Species.” The last compendium of this group was pub- lished by Dr. Brauer in 1868, in which forty genera were ad- mitted. Mr. Kirby now raised the number to eighty-eight, all fully tabulated and described in his paper, which likewise included descriptions of fifty-two new species. Mr. Kirby gave a short sketch of the characters of the Zzde//uling, and more especially of the neuration, which he considered to be of prima importance.—Mr. R. Bowdler Sharpe read the third part of his series of notes on the Hume Collection of Birds, which related to Syrnium maingayi, Hume, and to the various specimens of this Owl in the British Museum.—A communication was read from Mr. A. Smith Woodward, on the presence of a canal- system, evidently sensory, in the shields of Pteraspidian fishes. Mr. Woodward described a specimen which seemed to prove that the series of small pits or depressions upon the shields of these ancient fishes, observed by Prof. Ray Lankester, are really the openings of an extensive canal-system traversing the middle layer of the shield.—A second communication from Mr. A. Smith Woodward contained some notes on the “lateral line” of Sgualoraja, in which it was shown that the “ lateral line” of this extinct Liassic Selachian was an open groove supported, as in the Chimeeroids, by a series of minute ring-like calcifications. Anthropological Institute, May 10,—Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Prof. Flower read a letter received by him from Emin Pasha, dated Wadelai, November 8, 1886.—Prof. Victor Horsley read a paper on the operation of trephining during the Neolithic period in Europe; and on the probable method and object of its performance. The paper was copiously illustrated by photographs of trephined skulls and of implements that may have been used in the operation. The fact that most of the holes are found in that part of the skull that covers the fissure of Rolando heightens the probability that the operation was performed as a remedy in cases of epilepsy, since the curve of brain-matter around that fissure is specially connected with what is known as cortical or Jacksonian epilepsy. It seems probable that the operation was, in the first instance, performed for depressed fractures of the skull, or for the trau- matic form of epilepsy, and afterwards in other cases in which similar symptoms were observed. Mathematical Society, May 12.—Sir J. Cockle, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Prof. Anderson, Queen’s College, Gal- way, was elected a member.—The following papers were read :— General theory of Dupin’s extension of the focal properties of conic sections, by Dr. J. Larmor.—Sur une propriété de la sphére et son extension aux surfaces quelconques, by M. D’Ocazne.—On the motion of two spheres in a liquid, and allied problems, by Mr. A. B, Basset.—Second note on elliptic transformation annihilators, by Mr. J. Griffiths. Chemical Society, May 5.—Mr. William Crookes, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—A contribution to the study of well water, by Mr. R. Warington, F.R.S.—Crystals in basic-converter slag, by Mr. J. E. Stead and Mr. C. H. Ridsdale.—Note on the influence of temperature on the heat of dissolution of salts in water, by Dr. William A. Tilden, F.R.S.—The distribution of lead in the brains of two factory operatives dying suddenly, by Mr. A. Wynter Blyth. At a certain lead factory in the east of London five cases of more or less sudden death at different dates have been attributed to the effects of lead. In two of the cases the author had an opportunity of making a toxicological investigation. There has hitherto been no reasonable hypothesis to explain the pro- found nervous effects of the assimilation of minute quantities of lead, but if it is allowed that lead forms definite compounds with essential portions of the nervous system, it may then be assumed that in effect it withdraws such portions from the body ; in other words, the symptoms are produced not by poisoning in the ordinary sense of the term, but rather by destruction—a des‘ruction, it may be, of important nerve-centres.—Researches on silicon compounds and their derivatives: a new chloro- bromide of silicon, by Dr. J. Emerson Reynolds, F.R.S. In purifying a large quantity of silicon tetrabromide prepared by means of crude bromine, the author has separated a portion boiling at 140°-141°, of the relative density 2°432, which analysis shows to be the chlorobromide of the formula SiBr,Cl. 118 NATURE 19.—Mr. Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., President, in the chair. athe Sain of hyponitrites, by Prof. Dunstan and Mr. T. S. Dymond.—Ozone from pure oxygen, by Mr. W. A. Shenstone and Mr. J. Tudor Cundall.—The volumetric relations of ozone and oxygen’: a lecture experiment, by Mr. W. A. Shenstone and Mr. J. Tudor Cundall. Soret and Brodie have shown that ‘fv be the contraction produced on the electrification of a mass of oxygen, then 27 will represent the further contraction that will occur on absorbing the ozone formed by means of turpentine. If it be true that ozone completely dissolves in turpentine, this indicates that three measures of oxygen are concerned in the formation of two measures of ozone. The authors describe an apparatus which they have constructed for readily exhibiting Soret’s observations to a class. The President said that he had been accustomed to join tubes z# st¢w in the manner described by Mr. Shenstone. He added that it was possible to join together two different kinds of glass by means of a little soft white enamel, such as could be obta‘ned from Powell’s. Mr. Fairley had also joiried tubes in the manner described by the authors ; calling “attention to Brodie’s ozonizing apparatus, he remarked that the tube used by Brodie was probably thinner than was used by the authors. Dr. Armstrong thought that the results of the authors’ experiments on the action of mercury on ozone were a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the in- fluence of minute amounts of third bodies on the course of chemical change. He sugzested that it was important, if possible, to determine'the extent to which oxidation took place in presence of varying minute amounts of moisture, in order to ascertain if this exercised an influence comparable with that exhibited in Prof. H. B. Dixon’s experiments on the rate of pro- pagation of the explosive wave in a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen. Mr. Shenstone said that experiments such as were suggested by Dr. Armstrong, although very difficult with mer- cury, might probably be carried out with silver, which effected the decomposition of ozone with extraordinary facility. In reply to the question put by Mr. Page, he was quite unable to account for the peculiar condition assumed by the mercury when sub- mitted to the action of the ozone. He had not been successful in joining tubes with the aid of the enamel spoken of by the President, but on the other hand had found it easy to join even combustion tubing to soft glass by means of an oxyhydrogen jet. —On the thermal phenomena of ‘neutralization. and their bearing on the nature of solution and the theory of residual affinity, by Mr. S. U. Pickering.—The action of metallic alkylates on mixtures of ethereal salts and alcohols, by Prof. T. Purdie. Royal Meteorological Society, April 20.—Mr. W. Ellis, President, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—The storm and low barometer of December 8 and 9, 1886, by Mr. C. Harding. This gale will long be remembered as the one in which twenty-seven lives were lost in the lifeboat disaster off Formby through the capsizing of the Southport and St. Anne’s lifeboats. The violence of the storm was felt over the whole of the British Islands as well as over a great part of the Continent of Europe, the force of a gale blowing simultaneously from Norway to Spain. The strongest force of the gale in the United Kingdom was experienced in the west and south-west, and the highest wind force recorded by any anemometer over the country was a velocity of eighty miles in the hour registered at Fleet- wood, whilst at Valentia, Scilly, and Holyhead, the velocity reached seventy miles in the hour. The most exceptional feature of the storm was the extraordinary low reading of the barometer and the long time that the mercury remained at a low level. The absolutely lowest authentic reading was 27°38 inches at Belfast, and the barometer fell below 28 inches over a great part of England, Scotland, and Ireland. At Aberdeen the mercury was below 28 inches for eighteen consecutive hours, and below 29 inches for more than sixty hours, whilst in the north of England the barometer readings were equally exceptional.— Report of the Wind Force Committee, drawn up by Mr. G. Chatterton. In this Report, which is a preliminary one, the Committee have dealt maihly with that portion of the investiga- tion relating to Beaufort’s scale of wind force and the equivalent velocity in miles per hour.—A new form of velocity anemometer, by Mr. W. H, Dines. In this instrument an attempt has been made to measure the velocity of the wind by the rotation of a small pair of windmill sails, the pitch of the sails being altered automatically, so that the rate may always bear the same rates to that of the wind.—Description of two new maximum pressure registering anemometers, by Mr. G. M. Whipple. May 18.—Mr. W. Ellis, President, in the chair.—The following papers were read: —Brocken spectres and the bows that often ac- | sponds to the state of the company them, by Mr. H. Sharpe. The author has co the original descriptions of the Brocken spectre, which is shadow of the observer cast by the sun upon clouds. In so the shadow is surrounded by a bow, which the author show: the rainbow in colour and in the order of colours. Th a shadow is sometimes surrounded by another sort of phe touching the head, and which the author names the ‘‘ Results of thermometrical observations made at 4 feet, and 260 feet above the ground at Boston, Lincolnshire, by Mr. W. Marriott. These observations were made on Church tower which rises quite free from any obstructio1 very flat country, to the height of 273 feet. A Stevens with a full set of thermometers, was placed 4 feet a ground in the churchyard, a similar screen and ther was fixed above the belfry at 170 feet above the groun: Siemens electrical thermometer was placed near the tower, the cable being brought down inside and atta galvanométer on the floor of the church, where the were read off. The results showed that the mean temperature at 4 feet exceeds that at 179 feet in every the year, the difference in the summer months amounting t while the mean minimum temperature at 4 feet differs from that at 170 feet, the tendency, however, b former to be slightly higher in the winter and low summer than the latter. As the electrical thermo read usually in the day-time, the results naturally the temperature at 4 feet during the day hours was consi warmer than at 260 feet. The author, however, detailed sets of readings which had been made during the nig as the day, the results from which were of a very in character.—Snowstorm of March 14 and 15, 1887, at newton Hall, near Chepstow, by Mr. E. J. Lowe, F. During the evening the President made a presentation W. Tripe of a silver tea and coffee service, which subscribed for by the Fellows in acknowledgment of services which he had rendered to the Society during a over thirty years. aes * EDINBURGH. Be ae tac Royal Society, May 16.—Lord Maclaren, Vice-F in the chair.—Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson read a paper blood of A/yxine, and also a paper on the larynx and sto Cetacea.—Mr. W. Peddie read a paper on the increase 6 electrolytic polarization with time ; and another on tf resistance at platinum electrodes, and the action of | gaseous films. He showed that such resistance exists ; gradually increases with the lapse of time after heating the to redness ; and that it is due to the condensation of gas’ surface of the electrodes. The specific resistance of the densed gases is probably of the same order as the resistance of ordinary dielectrics.—Prof. Crum Brown municated a paper by Dr. A. B. Griffiths on the problem organs of the Invertebrata, especially those of the Le Gist.ropoda, Lamellibranchiata, Crustacea, Insecta, and O: cheta.—Mr. J. T. Cunningham gave an account of the nephr of Lanice conchilega, Malmgren.—Prof. Tait inforn meeting that M. Amagat has succeeded in solidifying tet of carbon by pressure alone. pa PARIS. es tae Academy of Sciences, May 23.—M. Janssen in the —Obituary notices of the late M. Vulpian, by M. Bertra the name of the Academy, by M. Charcot on behalf Section for Medicine and Surgery, and by M. Brown-S on behalf of the Biological Society.x—A general method determining the constant of aberration, by M. Loewy. 4 moment of observation, when the two couples of stars a the same height above the horizon, their common altitude, determined by the formula : : ae : A A sin 4 = cos : ra Then, this quantity being known, a complete answer given to the questions as to the most rational values to be adopt for A and A’ in order to obtain the greatest effect of aberrat —On the different states of tellurium, by MM. Berthelot an Ch. Fabre. It is shown that in passing from the amorphous t the crystalline state this element absorbs a certain quantity « heat ; also that the precipitated tellurium, whether in present of an alkaline liquid or an excess of hydrotelluric acid, corr crystallized tellurium, but when pr cipitated by sulphurous acid it is altogether or mainly amorphou NATURE 11g re 2, 1887 | : have been observed with sulphur, showing ism between the states of these two substances under al or chemical conditions determining those states.— for determining the specific activity of the intra- exchanges, or of the coefficients of the nutritive jiratory activity of the muscles in repose and by M. A. Chauveau. The author here de- _ the technical processes in carrying out ) nts, the results of which have already been commu- ‘The earthquake of February 23, by M. Albert Offret. ry description is given of all the seismic 2.1 oho by the disturbance. With very few exceptions all those e whole area of the earthquake yielded some indica- ne interpretation of which is reserved for future consider- On the history of the Phylloxera of the vine, by M. P. The existence is denied of the two distinct species ed and described in a recent communication by M. Donnadieu under the names of P. vastatrix and P. pemphigoides. —On Cremonian quadratic groups, by M. Autonne, Having in a previous paper considered the properties of an isolated quadra- | tic Cremonian, the author here explains how such substitutions combine together to form Cremonian quadratic groups.—On a means of te and gauging the discharge of open canals, by M. : y- A theoretic solution is given of various problems connected with the discharge of open canals, with the view of determining automatically the quantity of water supplied in a given period, the total discharge at a given moment, the rope discharge from one artery through several diverg- ing rills, and similar questions.—On a general law for the sour-tensions of dissolvents, by M. F. M. Raoult. By the esearches here described the author arrives at the general law that one molecule of a non-saline fixed substance by its solution in 100 molecules of any volatile liquid diminishes the vapour- tension of that liquid by a nearly constant fraction of about 00105 of its value. The law is completely analogous to that announced by the author in 1882 regarding the lower- ing of the freezing-point of dissolvents.—On the compressi- bility of cyanogen compared with its refraction, by MM. J. puis and Ch. Riviére. In order to complete their studies refraction of cyanogen and the comparison of the ed indices with the corresponding specific weights, the ; have undertaken the present researches on the com- bility of this gas, on which only a few imperfect data were ntally supplied by Regnault.—On the polarization of the extension of its surface in contact with a con- ucting fluid, by M. Krouchkoll, Lippmann having determined e polarization of mercury by increasing its surface in contact with a conducting fluid, the author has made a series of studies to ascertain whether the same phenomenon applies to the solid metals and to certain organic expansive substances, such as gelatine and coagulated albumen. The present note is confined to the study of copper in contact with distilled water, and with water containing 2 per cent. of ordinary sulphate of soda. The results of experiments with other ductile metals are reserved for a future communication.—Note on a stroke of lightning, com- municated by the Minister of P. sts and Telegraphs. A series of phenomena are described, which occurred during a thunder- storm at. (Orne), on April 24. Fragments of incan- descent stones fell in large quantities, some about the size of a walnut, of a grayish-white colour, which crumbled between the fingers, emitting a distinct smell of sulphur, The others, which were of smaller size, looked exactly like coke. Some plaster was also detached from the front of a neighbouring house and transferred to the window of a house on the opposite side of the street. During another storm, on May 13, great havoc was done by the electric fluid at Eza (Maritime Alps), where it made a “sal and deep fissure 20 metres long in the side of the moun- tain, detaching a solid mass measuring several hundred cubic metres. BERLIN. Meteorological Society, May 3.—Professor von Bezold, President, in the chair.—Dr. Schultz spoke on the contrast between the popular names given to meteorological phenomena and their real nature as determined by means of instruments. Thus, for instance, the sirocco wind in Italy is spoken of as ‘* heavy,” whereas the barometer indicates a diminished pressure. Summers are spoken of as wet and dry, according as they are aecompanied by much or little rain, without taking into account the usually op indications of the psychrometers ; similarly our sensations of heat and cold are often directly opposed to the indi- cations of the thermometer. The speaker further brought forward’ meteorological observations which he had made in Rome an@ the Riviera, and which showed occasionally, among other things, the anomaly that the Lap seg in the shade was higher than in the sun, especially when the thermometer in the sun was: exposed to a str ng wind. In the course of the elaborate dis- cussion which followed upon the above communication, the President explained the larger part of the anomalies which had been described, and laid stress upon the difference between physical meteorology and the influence of temperature and moisture on the living organism. Alterations of atmospheric pressure have no effect on healthy human beings, although they must on sickly people, inasmuch as a diminution of pressure must lead, as a consequence, to an increased evolution of gases from the soil, and their accompanying miasmas. The idea of sultri- ness has not as yet been defined from a physical point of view ; probably in connexion with this it should be borne in mind that the air is occasionally supersaturated with aqueous vapour, as. shown in the experiments of Robert von Helmholtz, and that in this case a commencing condensation may be accompanied by a real evolution of heat. Prof. Schwalbe explained the conditions as to dampness, which had been brought forward by the speaker. Dr. Assmann explained, in connexion with this communication, an experiment which he had made with a view to determining the real temperature of the air, and which had given good results. The bulb of the thermometer was surrounded by a very perfectly reflecting cylinder of polished silver open below and closed above, but communicating by a lateral tube with an aspirator: by this method the air was drawn past the bulb of the thermometer in a constant current, while at the same time all external heat is prevented from reaching the thermometer by means of the reflecting cylinder. This thermometer indicates exactly similar temperature, both in the sun and in the shade. In conclusion, Dr. Sklarek mentioned experiments on the radia- tion of heat from the human body, which showed, in opposition to the laws of radiation from non-living bodies, that the human body radiates more heat from exposed parts of its surface, whicly are usually covered with clothes, when the difference of tem- perature between the skin and the surroundings is less than wher it is greater. This anomalous behaviour may be explained by the supposition that, when the difference of temperature (between the skin and the surroundings) increases, the physical properties of the skin and its radiating powers undergo some change. Physical Society, May 6.— Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. K6nig spoke on Newton’s law of the mixing of colours (see report on the meeting of the Physio- logical Society of April 29). In connexion with this, Prof. von Bezold communicated the fact that he had observed during his experiments on the mixing of colours, so-called neutral points in the spectrum, not merely when working with dichromatic, but also with normal trichromatic eyes. When, for instance, the intensity of a spectrum is greatly diminished (this may be most simply brought about by inserting a diaphragm with a small opening into the collimator) and a direct-vision spectroscope is used, then only three colours are seen at all—namely, red, green, and violet : between red and green and between green and violet there are neutral points. If the intensity of the light is still further dimin- ished, then the neutral points undergo a change of position ; the red extends to beyond the line D, and the neutral point at the line F moves in the opposite direction. This last fact was no longer recollected with any great exactness by the speaker, inasmuch as the experiments had been made many years ago, but the moving of the neutral point near D towards the green he described as existing without doubt. This appearance of the spectrum of light of small intensity was regarded by Prof. von Bezold as a proof of the truth of the Young-Helmholtz theory of colours. A second observation had reference to the mixing of colours with white, According to the Newton-Grassmann theory of the mixing of colours, every spectral colour, when mixed with white, must maintain its ‘‘tone” in the sense of the word as used by the French ; this observation has, however, shown that not only red, but also violet, if mixed with white, takes on a purplish tone.—Prof. von Bezold made a further communication to the effect that Dr. Sprung had observed a series of notches on the curve of his barograph between six and seven o’clock on the morning of May 3, without any thunderstorm having taken place: the curves of a Bourdon aneroid barometer, and of the barograph at the Landwirthschaftliche Hochschule, showed the same irregularities. This irregularity of the curve of atmospheric pressure repeated itself on the morning of May 4 between 3 and 4 120 NATURE: o’clock, but this time it coincided with a thunderstorm. The irregularity of the atmospheric pressure on May 3 acquires an especial significance, on account of the telegraphic news of the serious eruptions which took place in Mexico and California on the same day, although the time of the eruption 1s not yet definitely fixed. Asa matter of fact, the barographic curve of May 3 shows a great resemblance to that observed at the time of the outbreak of Krakatdo on August 27, 1883; the speaker produced the latter curve for comparison. It is not altogether impossible that the variation of atmospheric pressure on May 3, and possibly that of May 4, may have been in some way con- nected with the eruptions in America at the same time. Physiological Society, May 13.—Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Joseph communicated the results of his anatomical researches on the physiology of the spinal ganglia. According to Waller’s older experiments, section of the nerves between the spinal cord and ganglion produces a degeneration of the central part of the nerve, whereas section of the nerve on the other side. of the ganglion leads to a degeneration of all the sensory nerve-fibres up to the section. In 1883, however, a pupil of Gudden raised an objection to these experiments, since he found that, by removal of the connecting portion (between the cord and ganglion), not only the central but also the peripheral part of the nerve degenerated. Dr. Joseph has repeated these experi- ments on cats, and has arrived at the following results, which agree with those which Krause has recently communicated to the Society (see NATURE, May 12, p. 48). Thus (1) There are a number of nerve-fibres which simply pass through the ganglion without being connected with its cells. (2) The gang- lion is the trophic centre for the larger number of sensory nerves. (3) The ganglion-cells are bipolar.—Dr. Lewin has examined a series of specimens of urine which contained blood, and were obtained from widely different cases, and found that most of them contained methzmoglobin, as shown by its characteristic spectrum. When these specimens of urine were reduced by means of sulphide of ammonium, he did not obtain the well- known spectrum of reduced hemoglobin which is always ob- tained when blood which contains methzemoglobin is reduced ; but in many cases he observed the no less well characterized spectrum of reduced hematin. It seems to follow from this that the urine of certain patients may contain hematin.—Prof. Zuntz gave an introductory explanation of an experiment which was subsequently carried out by Prof. Wolff, to show, namely, that anyone can diminish his weight by taking a deep inspiration. This experiment is most striking when the subject stands on a decimal balance which is so arranged that it can only give a kick upwards ; in this case the pan with the weights in it sinks when a deep inspiration is taken. The speaker explained this pheno- menon as being the result of the sudden straightening of the spinal column and elevation of the head which occurs when the deep inspiration is taken; owing to its momentum, the head carries the lower part of the body slightly with it, so that the latter presses less forcibly on its support. STOCKHOLM. Royal Academy of Sciences, April 13.—On the Lias of the province of Scania, in the south of Sweden, by Dr. J. C. Moberg.—A theory of unipolar induction, by Prof. E. Edlund. —Report on a visit to the United States and Canada for the purpose of studying the fisheries of those countries, by Dr. F. Trybom.—On the structure of the pericarp in the Boragineze, by Miss A. Olbers.—On the development of the secondary fibro- vascular bundles in Draceena and Yucca, by Miss H. Lovén.— A suggestion respecting the theory of the constant electric currents, by Dr. A. Rosén.—A crystallographic study of two new hydro-carbons, by Herr M. Backstrém.—Observations on natural phenomena of corrosion, and new faces of crystals in Adular from Swarzenstein, by Dr. A. Hamberg.—On tetartohedrism in tourmaline, by Dr. W. Ramsay. May 11.—Contributions to a monograph of the amphipoda Hyperiidea, by Dr. C. Bovallius; part 1, the families Ty- 1onidz, Lanceolide, and Vibilide.—On the recent Astro- photographic Congress in Paris, by Prof. Hugo Gyldén.—On a group of differential equations, the solution of which is combined with so-called small divisors, by Dr. C. Bohlin. —On the results of the determinations of the longitude be- tween Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Lund, undertaken during 1885 and 1886, by Prof. Rosén.—On the levellings conducted during 1886, by the same.—On the interior friction of dilute aqueous solutions, by Dr. S. Arrhenius, —Contributio knowledge of the changes of steel in physical respects when softened, by Herr C. F. Rydberg.—On the diffusion of r: git ing heat from spherical surfaces, by Dr. K. Angstrém.—O electric resistance against conductibility in crystals, by Her Backstrom.—On acollection of Coleoptera and Lepidopter the Congo, made by Lieut. Juhlin-Dannfelt, and by Prof. C. Aurivillius.—The following papers by | Nilsson and Dr. G. Kriiss, of Munich, were presented :- the equivalent and atomic weights of thorium.—On the e: and the niobic acid in fergusonite.—On the product of reduction of niobfluorkalium with natrium.—On the fluoride of kalium. —Studies on Taphrina, by Dr. C. J. Jo —On the species of Echinoidea, described by Linnzus i work ‘‘ Museum Ludovice Ulric,” by Prof. Sven Lovén.— some definite integrals, by Dr. Lindman.—On organic su amido-combinations, by Prof. Cleve.—On naphthydroxam a by Dr. A. G. Ekstrand.—On the crystals of some combi of zirconium, by Dr. M. Weibull.—ZLagopus bonasi hybrid between Lagopus subalpina and Tetrao bonasia, by G. Kolthoff, Conservator of the Zoological Museum of U) es - BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS REC! Cartilla de Zoologia Evolucionista: M. R. Mexia (Jacobsen, Bu Aires).—The Health of Nations, 2 vols.: B. W. ES Hiciere (Longman: Proceedings of the Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field vol. vi. No. 2 (Bath).—La Matiére et l’Energie : E. Ferriére —Life of Charles Darwin: G. T. Bettany (Scott).—Report of the C sioner of Education for 1884-85 (Washington).—Iustrations of the Flora: Fitch and Smith (Reeve).—Essays and resses: Rey. Wilson (Macmillan).—Climatic ‘Treatment of Consumption: Dr. Lindsay (Macmillan).—Elementary Practical Histology: W. F (Macmillan).—Alcyonida: D. C. Danielssen (Grondhal and Son).- Basis for Chemistry : T. Skerry Hunt (Triibner).—Sketches of Lift in. Major H. Knollys (Chapmanand Hall).—Cosmogonie: C. Braun (Miin Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Nosean-fiihrenden Auswurflinge des Laat Sees (Hélder, Wien).—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 6, (Leipzig). CONTENTS. a The Pre-History of the North. By Dr. John Evans, F.R.S epic! gee gee oe Professor Stokes on Light. Our Book Shelf :— Wood: ‘‘ Our Bird Allies” . . Letters to the Editor :— ce Thought without Words.—Prof. F. Max Miiller Francis Galton,'F:R:S. .°32, 76 a A Use of Flowers by Bird. —J. M. H. ...... Earthquakes and the Suspended Magnet.—Dr, M. A. WEEGC Re na orig fate ore Erie TS oniae Units of Weight, Mass, and Force.—I. Lancaster; — Prof. D. H. Marshall <-.°-:208 «Lee Remarkable Phenomenon seen on April 26, 1887.— — E. J. Lowe, F. RS... 2 Se eo Pear-shaped Hailstones.—-B. Woodd Smith .. . F ‘‘ A Junior Course of Practical Zoology.”—G. B. H. 1 Bishop’s Ring.—T. W. Backhouse ....... I A Review of Lighthouse Work and Economy in ~ the United Kingdom during the Past Fifty Years, — 1: By J. Kenward. ..). . <6 6 2 jen ee By A. E. Tutton. (///us- — ‘By Prof. P. G. Tait, | Sear Perch ber eis 2 Condensation of Gases. trated) A Recent ‘Japanese ’ Earthquake. , By Prof, J. A. “i Ewing. (lilustrated) .. .. s+: 4 +) Notes ssc Pee a ee o 0 8 056 ie oe Our Astronomical Column :— The Paris Observatory. ... . Astronomical Photography ......-.. Comet 1887 e¢ (Barnard, May 12) . Astronomical Phenomena for the Week © June) SH1T* Sie ee ise 5 + Oe Geographical Notes ... . . © «+ s ss ee o) The'Iron and Steel Institute «5: 7 The Institution of Mechanical Engineers .... . Note on the Spectrum of Didymium. By Dr. Claude M, Thompson. 22.00) 0 oss ae University and Educational Intelligence ..... Scientific Serials © 2%. 23572 60545 wie a Societies and Academies . . . 1... +e ete es Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. .... NATURE rai THURSDAY, JUNE 9, 1887. Be THE ZOOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE “CHALLENGER” EXPEDITION. on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. z fu ' Challenger ” during the Years 1873-76 under the Com- mand of Capt. George S. Nares, R.N., F.R.S., and of =a the late Capt. Frank Tourle Thomson, R. N. Prepared under the Superintendence of the late Sir C. Wyville _ Thomson, Knt., F.R.S., &c., and now of John Murray, one of the Naturalists of the Expedition. Zoology— Vol. XVIII. Parts 1 and 2, with a Volume of Plates. (Published by Order of Her Majesty’s Government, 1887.) OLUME XVIII. of the Zoological Reports of the Challenger Voyage well merits to be called enor- mous, as it contains no less than 1800 pages. It contains but a single memoir, “ On the Radiolaria,” by Prof. Ernst Haeckel, of Jena, and is accompanied with a volume of 140 plates. _A great work like this demands more than a passing notice, for even in this age of scientific labour one stands amazed at the physical energy, not to refer to the scien- tific knowledge, that could have accomplished such a result. Ten whole years of the author’s life were devoted to this monograph, which will ever be a worthy monument of a most enduring kind. ~ Some fifty years ago Meyen, and shortly after Ehren- berg, first described some forms of Radiolaria. Meyen has the merit of having observed and noted the first of these curious forms in a living state, but to Prof. Huxley we are indebted for the first accurate observations on some kindred forms met with by him during the voyage of the Rattlesnake in the tropical seas. Ehrenberg no doubt was the first to call attention to the exceedingly great numbers of forms that were to be found in the _ group, but although he was not ignorant of the researches of his colleague, Johannes Miiller, whose memoirs were © _ published in the same Academy’s Transactions as his own, he never seems to have paid the slightest attention _ to them, nor does he even allude to the name given to the group by Miiller, that of Radiolaria, by which they are now known. Just twenty-five years ago Haeckel published his well- known “ Monograph of the Radiolaria,” which with its splendid atlas of plates, was, and is still, an indispensable work for the student. In this all the species known either by figures or descriptions were reviewed, and arranged in 15 families and 113 genera, of which latter 46 were new; the number of forms observed alive amounted to 144, most of which are figured, in a manner that has not, we think, been equalled, certainly not surpassed. In 1862, 7ittel described the first fossil Radiolaria from the chalk; in 1876, John Murray established the family Challengerida ; and above all, in 1879, Richard Hertwig showed the essential differences in the formation called the “ central capsule,” and in accordance therewith divided | the Radiolaria into six orders. From this on, with the | exception of the various important works on the fossil | forms by Emil Stohr, Dante Pantanelli, Butschli, Duni- VOL. XXXvVI.—NY. 919. species show a wide distribution. kowski, and D. Rust, the whole record has been filled in by Haeckel, and it has been almost exclusively based on the collections of the Chadlenger. These Radiolaria, or Capsulate Rhizopoda, form a peculiar class of the Rhizopoila—Haeckel’s “ Protista.” This class is exclusively marine, and, while possessing many of the features of the Rhizopods, differs from them in the possession of a peculiar “ membrane” dividing the cell-body into two distinct parts—the “central capsule” or the internal part with the nucleus, and the external part or “ extra-capsulum ” with the calymma; the proto- plasm of both parts communicates through fine pores, which pierce the capsular membrane. The central cap- sule is composed of three essential parts, viz. the central nucleus, the intra-capsular sarcode, and the capsule membrane. Besides these elements, the central capsule contains very commonly an internal skeleton, fat and pigment granules, crystals, and vacuoli. The outer part of the Radiolarian body is also constantly composed of the calymma, or a thick extra-capsular “ jelly-veil.”. The matrix or maternal tissue of the external protoplasm and the pseudopodia again very commonly contains fat and pigment granules, the skeleton and vacuoli, and, in addition, “ xanthellz ” or “zooxanthellz,” peculiar yellow cells which contain starch, and are unicellular yellow Algz living as “symbiontes” in true symbiosis with a great number of Radiolaria. The skeleton may be either siliceous or acanthinic, and is sometimes wanting. The four sub-classes, as described in this Report, contain 20 orders ; and these, 85 families, which include 739 genera, with 4318 species, of which latter ase are described as new. Radiolaria occur in all the seas of the world, in all climatic zones, and at all depths. Probably under normal conditions they always float freely in the water, whether their usual position be at the surface or at a certain depth or near to the very bottom of the sea. Hitherto, no observation has been recorded which justifies the assump- tion that Radiolaria live anywhere upon the bottom of the sea, either attached or creeping. However able they may be to creep when they fall on a solid basis, they seem normally always to float freely in the water, with pseudopodia radiating in all directions. As regards their local distribution and its boundaries, the Radiolaria show in general the same relations as other pelagic animals. Since they are only to a very slight extent, if at all, capable of active horizontal loco- motion, the dispersion of the different species from their points of development is dependent upon oceanic currents, the play of winds and waves, &c. These passive migra- tions are here, however, as always, of the greatest signi- ficance, and bring about the wide distribution of indi- vidual species in a far higher degree than any active wanderings could do. Anyone who has ever followed a stream of pelagic animals for hours, and seen how millions of creatures closely packed together are in a short time carried along for miles by such a current, will be in no danger of under-estimating the enormous importance of marine currents in the passive migration of a marine fauna. The number of cosmopolitan species which live in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans is relatively large. In each of three great ocean basins, too, many On the other hand, G [22 NATURE [Fune 9, 1887 there are very many species which are known only from one locality, and probably many small local faunas exist, characterised by the special development of. particular groups. From the very richness of the material, Prof. Haeckel has found it impossible to work out completely the local distribution of all the species. From the tropics the abundance of species seems to diminish regularly towards the Poles, and more rapidly in the northern than in the southern hemisphere ; the latter also appears to possess more species than the former: a limit to Radiolarian life towards the Poles has not yet been found. The greater abundance of Radiolaria in the tropical seas is to be accounted for by the more favour- able conditions of existence, rather than by any difference in temperature. One station (271) of the Challenger Expedition, situated almost on the Equator, in the Mid- Pacific, exceeds all other parts of the world hitherto known in respect of its wealth of these forms; and more than 100 new species are described from it. The fauna of the Pacific Ocean exceeds that of both the Indian and Atlantic, but the fauna of the Indian Ocean is that least known. In reference to the bathymetrical distribution, it seems certain that numerous species of this class are found at the most various depths of the sea, and that certain species are limited to particular vertical zones, and are adapted to the conditions which obtain there. In this respect three different Radiolarian faunas may be distin- guished—the “ pelagic,” “ zonarial,” and “abyssal.” More than half of all the species known as recent belong to the last fauna. The chapter on the geological distribution is full of interest. Radiolaria are found fossil in all the more im- portant groups of the sedimentary rocks of the earth’s crust. Whilst a few years ago their well-preserved sili- ceous skeletons were only known in considerable quantity from Tertiary marls, very many are now known to occur in Mesozoic, and a few in Paleozoic, strata. By the aid of improved modern methods of research, it has been shown that many hard siliceous minerals, especially cryptocrys- talline quartz, contain numerous well-preserved Radio- laria, and sometimes these are composed almost entirely of closely compacted masses of such siliceous shells. The Jurassic quartzes (Switzerland), as well as the Ter- tiary marls (Barbados) and clays (Nicobar Islands), may be regarded as “ fossil Radiolarian ooze”; and, since speci- mens have also recently been found both in Silurian and Cambrian strata, it may be inferrel that Radiolaria are to be found in all fossiliferous sedimentary deposits, from the oldest to those of the present day. Among the Mio- cene Radiolaria, numerous species are not to be distin- guished from the corresponding still living forms. On the other hand, those genera which are rich both in species and individuals (recent as well as fossil) present continu- ous series of forms which lead gradually and uninterrupt- edly from old Tertiary species to others still living, which are specifically indistinguishable from them. As Chapter XI. of the introductory portion of the Report, Prof. Haeckel gives a very valuable account of the progress of our knowledge of the Radiolaria from 1862 to 1885. In his earlier monograph he had already given a critical discussion of the works which had appeared prior to 1862: we find here a full list of the -not, for all the Radiolaria in the sea, give the list of publications from 1834 to 1884, in which list a little of author’s old trenchant style of criticism breaks out ; he has heaped together in an appendix, to which he giy a somewhat needlessly offensive name, “all the absolu worthless literature, which contains either only — known facts or false statements, and which may ther : be entirely neglected with advantage.” While we wo % | 3 foul ” literature, we may relieve the reader’s mind once mentioning that the name of Ehrenberg does appear in it, and that the value of the laborious wo the great but too self-reliant German in this field m with all proper appreciation. The unicellular nature of the Radiolaria was first es blished by Richard Hertwig in 1879, and was brou him into conformity with our present histiological ; ledge and the new reform of the cell-theory. Hu: who was the first to examine living Radiolaria with accuracy, declared, so long ago as 1851, that Thal colla nucleata was a unicellular Protozoon. Late: Johannes Miiller (1858) and Haeckel (1862), reco the peculiar “ yellow cells” which occur in many laria, in large numbers, as true nucleated cells, Cienkowski (1871) and Brandt (1881) had shown th these “yellow cells” did not form part of the larian structures, but are symbiotic unicellular Al cellular nature of the Radiolaria. Fe From a morphological stand-point the individuali the unicellular elementary organism is obvious in he solitary Radiolaria (Monobia) ; and the whole body ' all its constituent parts, and not merely the ce capsule, is to be looked on as a cell. But this unicellul organisation must be noted as differing from that ‘of a a other Protista, inasmuch as an internal membrane (ca membrane) separates a central from a peripheral po The membrane of the central capsule is invariably sent at one period or another of the life of the organ Karl Brandt, indeed, has recently stated that in : forms it is absent ; bac Haeckel has recognised its sence in over one thousand species, and even in some those in which Brandt was unable to find it. It is ¢ very delicate and may easily be overlooked, though application of the proper reagents will renc der it a discernible. Those Radiolaria in which for a time absent are young of species in which the membrane is formed immediately before sporification, and Lary sts. for a short time. All Radiolaria possess a nucleus, but they prese different conditions in respect of its behaviour, their young stages they are uninuclear, and in la they are multinuclear. Before the formation of spores the nucleus divides into many nucleoli. — nucleus is pre-eminently the organ of reprodu inheritance. The division of the originally single into many small nuclei may take place at very ‘sation so that Haeckel divides me Radiolaria in “precocious ” and the “serotinous.” Into the sub the skeleton formation and that of phylogeny the sp our command will not allow us to enter; it will st to say that they are treated at great length and consummate skill. Sune 9, 188 7] NATURE 123 In such an onerous task as that of describing this mass ‘varied forms, one always, as the author observes, “ runs 1¢ risk of either doing too much or too little in the way f creating species”; but he contents himself with the eflection that in the light of the theory of descent this ger is of little consequence. n the carrying out of the troublesome duty of making ae many thousands of required measurements, the author ratefully thanks his friend Dr. Reinhold Teuscher, of for the patient and careful manner in which he per- d this part of the wors. The figures of new species, ut 1600 in number, which appear in the atlas accom- ying the Report, were nearly all drawn with the camera, partly by Mr. A. Giltsch and partly by Prof. Haeckel ; but the former has drawn all the figures on the stone in a very masterly way, so that the illustrations pre- sent a splendid series of beautiful forms, lie the stars in the firmament for number, and surpassing these in the wonderful diversity and complexity of their outlines. It was indeed a fortunate circumstance that so dis- nguished a naturalist, with such an intimate know- dge of the Radiolaria, should have been willing to undertake such a task, and exceedingly fortunate for science that he should have been enabled thus to finish it. A GERMAN TREATISE ON THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Die natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien. Von A. Engler und _K. Prantl (Leipzig: Engelmann, 1887, &c., being , ee in numbers at irregular intervals.) A JITH the first three numbers of the above-named -¥ work, which are now before us, Profs. Engler itude. The editors, having recognized the want of a mprehensive treatise, in German, on the Vegetable Kingdom, which should at once be scientifically sound, and yet be written in a style suitable for the use of those who are not professed botanists, have determined to meet hat want. With this object they have enlisted the assistance of a number of collaborators: anyone who is conversant with the literature of Botany produced in zermany in recent years will see, on reading the list of ames, that Dr. Engler has secured the co-operation of 2 very powerful staff, including many of the most pro- uinent representatives of the science in that country. With their aid the editors propose to produce a work, ‘extending to some 5000 pages octavo: the whole is to be divided into five parts, one of which will be devoted to the \Cryptogams, under the editorship of Prof. Prantl ; one will treat of the Gymnosperms and Monocotyledons, and the emaining three of the Dicotyledons, under the editorship pf Prof. Engler. The production of the several parts Will proceed simultaneously, and they will appear in fumbers, at intervals during the next five or six years : hus the distribution of the cost (which in itself is not pxcessive, considering the quality and extent of the work) pve -a lengthened period, will bring the book within the ch of a wide constituency. The first three numbers will give some idea of what will > the scope and character of the work as a whole. One these is the first instalment of the Palme, by Dr. Drude. It opens with twenty-six pages of text, illus- trated by numerous carefully chosen and excellent wood- cuts, on the morphology and anatomy of the vegetative organs, the inflorescence, fruit, and seed of the plants of this order ; then follow notes on the distribution, affini- ties, and uses of the family, and finally its classification. A detailed description of the genera succeeds this general treatment, and it is illustrated by numerous good figures representing the habit of the plants, and dissections of their flowers: this will, in fact, be soméwhat like an illus- trated and abbreviated “ Genera Plantarum,” written in German, and in a semi-popular though sound style. The second number issued contains the 7uncacee, by F. Buchenau, and the Stemonace@ and Liliacee by Dr. Engler. The subject-matter is treated in the same spirit as the above, and it may be assumed that this method will be pursued throughout the whole work. But a more special interest attaches to the number which was third in its order of issue ; and that on two distinct grounds: first, because from it we gain a more general idea of the plan and scope of the work, and secondly because it is chiefly the work, and probably the last work, of the late Prof. Eichler, a botanist whose loss will be very widely felt (see NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 493). The first pages of this number, written by Dr. Engler, give in brief the general plan of the whole work; the main lines of classification being those in common use, though some of the terms used have not as yet been generally accepted. They are as follow :— I, Mycetozoa. II. Thallophyta: (a) Schizophyta. (4) Algeze. (c) Fungi. III. Embryophyta zoidiogama (= Archegoniatz) : (a) Bryophyta. (6) Pteridophyta. IV. Embryophyta siphonogama (= Phanerogamz) : (a2) Gymnospermze (= Archispermz). (6) Angiosperme (= Metaspermz). Then followsthegeneral treatmentof the Gymnosperme, of which four classes are distinguished, the Cycadine, Cordaitinz, Coniferinze, and Gnetales. It is worthy of note that here the fossil forms are taken into account, and Cordaitinz, as well as fossil forms of the Cycadacez and Coniferz, are described in their proper places. It will be unnecessary after what has already been said to follow the mode of treatment of the Gymnosperms further ; suffice it to say that, while due prominence is given to the external morphology and classification, the results of recent investigation on the development of the sporangia and embryo find a place, eg. those of Treub and Warming on the Cycads, and of Strasburger and others on the Conifer. A peculiar interest will attach to the pages on the morphology of the female cone in the Coni- fere, since this will be the last expression of the opinion of Eichler on a subject to which he had devoted special attention. While extending a welcome to this new enterprise, we may compare it with other undertakings of a some- what similar nature. Among the comprehensive classi-- ficatory works of recent years, the most prominent is 124 NATURE [Hune 9, 1887 the ‘‘Genera Plantarum” of Bentham and Hooker ; but the most ardent admirers of that solid book could not expect it to appeal to the laity: it is designed for the use of specialists, and they alone will use it. Between this and the illustrated text-books intended for students there has been hardly any intermediate in this country, though Lindley’s “ Vegetable Kingdom,” a book which still holds its place as a classic, served in the past a part not altogether unlike that which Dr. Engler’s book -may be expected to serve in the future. It is, however, in France that the nearest approach has been made to the idea of Dr. Engler. In the “Traité de Botanique” of Le Maout and Decaisne we have a volume profusely illustrated, and dealing with the vegetable kingdom as a whole: the English translation of this, edited by Sir J. D. Hooker, is familiar to all British botanists. Again, the “ Histoire des Plantes” of Baillon, which is still in pro- gress, is a classificatory work of large size, well illustrated as regards external morphology, but somewhat deficient in description of the internal details : his “ Dictionnaire de Botanique,” which commenced in 1876, is also still in pro- gress, and covers, in dictionary form, much the same ground as his “Histoire.” These are, then, the chief illustrated and descriptive works with which Drs. Engler and Prantl will have tocompete. If we may judge from the first three numbers, the competition, though keen, will be in favour of the new enterprise, and that chiefly on the ground that the authors of it take a more general view of the subject. They do not confine their task to the description and delineation of external form, classification, and distribu- tion. While giving due prominence to these branches, they also incorporate the results of recent investigations of anatomy and development. F. 0. B: OUR BOOK SHELF. Nomenclature of Colours for Naturalists, and Compen- dium of Useful Knowledge for Ornithologists. By Robert Ridgeway, Curator, Department of Birds, United States National Museum. Ten coloured plates, and seven plates of outline illustrations. (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1887.) THIS will be a very welcome volume to naturalists in general, and ornithologists in particular. We do not know that everybody will agree with the principles laid down by the author, but he has, at all events, brought together a considerable number of colours, and given them very definite names for purposes of comparison, and a mere glance at the coloured plates will show how very important it is that every variety of green shown in Plate 10, for instance, should have its special name and admit of easy reference. The comparative vocabulary of colours, which occupies a considerable proportion of the first part, is also a very valuable combination, and should be in the hands of naturalists of all civilized countries, as we get the English, Latin, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Norwegian, and Danish equivalents of all the colours shown in the coloured plates, and a great many more. The piece de résistance in the part of the volume which has been prepared chiefly for the: use of ornithologists is a glossary of technical terms. It seems to us to have been very carefully done. A study of the plates illustrating the various feathers of birds, and the various birds’ eggs, with the attached nomenclature, is certain to lead to a gradually increasing care in description. There is no doubt that the book will prove of very great value to many naturalists. English Tobacco Culture, &c. Edited by E. J. 1 F.L.S. (London: E. Marlborough and Co., 1887 THIS little book will serve as an important guid farmers in conducting experiments in the cultiva tobacco. It gives a detailed account of the origin movement for determining whether tobacco co relied upon as a farm crop in Great Britain, and whether it could be cultivated to yield a profit grower. ‘These two questions, it is maintained, ha answered in the affirmative by the results of last ye experiments, but this conclusion is founded more up the appearance of the plants than upon actual result the production of good commercial tobacco. Seventeen varieties of tobacco were grown last this country, and a full description is given of the of each variety, with well-executed illustrations, sh the general appearance and distinctive features fully-developed plants. For each description of t grown an “ Estimated Balance Sheet” has been pre and the anticipated profit, amounting in some cases’ much as £25 and even £27 per acre, is very enc for farmers who may think of undertaking experi tobacco cultivation. eee Perhaps the most useful part of the book i devoted to directions for conducting the several ope: of tobacco culture. These include the preparation land ; the sowing of the tobacco seed ; the trans of the young seedlings ; the transferring of the the prepared ground ; and their subsequent treatm finally harvested and cured. Altogether the boo pared with great care, and its publication at the time is very opportune. Life of Charles Darwin. By G. T. Bettany. ( Walter Scott, 1887.) THIS is one of the series of volumes entitled “ Gre Writers.” It was not to be expected that Mr. Betta would be able to tell us anything absolutely new abou illustrious man of science concerning whom so mu already been written. He has, however, succee presenting in a bright and attractive style the facts of Darwin’s career, and he has done good by taking pains to show that Darwin was not only: thinker and discoverer, but a man of a singularly pu noble character. Mr. Bettany’s exposition of the of Darwin’s labours is brief, but clear and accur. he tries to mark as distinctly as possible the y stages in the process by which the theory of evolu Darwin conceived it was itself evolved. eee LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for o expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he take to return, or to correspond with the w rejected manuscripts. No notice ts taken of a@ communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to letters as short as possible. The pressure on his is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to zt appearance even of communications containing 7 and novel facts.) Thought without Words. May I demur to the Duke of Argyll’s statement that and dogs have no true reasoning powers? Long and attention given to the action of animals consequent reasoning power, has led me to an opposite conclusion. not trouble you with instances, or could give very man have frequently seen reasoning power exercised after thought over the best course to pursue. Then, ave speechless among themselves? I think not, and bel speak freely to one another at needed times, in language. And I certainly with my own domestic ani understand in a certain sense their language. I clear Fune 9, 1887] NATURE .- 125 t they ask for, or what they wish to call my attention to, 9m the tone of the voice and its modulations, and this is, I sume, language as regards them. On the main question, I ould hold with Prof. Max Miiller from my own personal ience. H. STUART WORTLEY. ‘South Kensington Museum, May 21. ‘4 HAVE just noticed in a recent number of NATURE (May 12, , 28) a letter from Mr. Francis Galton, in which he endeavours prove that thought without words is by no means an im- ibility. May I advance a small amount of confirmatory lence which must, I think, have come within the notice of t people? This evidence is to be found in that peculiar state mind produced when, as we say, we have a word ‘‘ on the of the tongue.” In this case the zdea which the word, when d, will represent is most vividly present to the mind, but it an idea only. No language is needed to make it recognizable fen though, as oftens happens, the idea may be of the most ymplicated and abstract kind. HAROLD PIcTon. May 31. Diatoms in the Thames. ‘In Nature, vol. xxxii, p. 223, you were good enough to ublish a note from me respecting the occurrence in great pro- sion of small gelatinous bodies in the water surrounding the sle of Sheppey. ‘The same conditions prevailed at about the ame time last year, and in all probability will reappear at the utter end of this month. I have now to record that since the middle of April the sea ereabout has been what fishermen call ‘‘ foul” from another ause. While the water has been unusually clear, in it have een floating an enormous quantity of diatoms. The most bundant is Coscinodiscus concinnus, the large disks of which an be seen by the naked eye in auy sample of sea: water dipped t random. Indeed in bright sunlight they can easily be bserved in the sea itself. The other forms are Rhizosolenia tigera, and Lucampia zodiacus. ' At low water the sands lying between the Thames and the edway have been coloured a rich dark brown by the diatoms +ft stranded there. The effect on marine life seems to have been somewhat varied. follusks appear to have thriven on the abundant food ; and as arimps and whitebait have been. found in abundance in their sual haunts, it may be presumed that they have not been much nnoyed by the diatoms. On the other hand, the flat fishes have een greatly disturbed, and could not be found on the banks sually frequented. Some fishermen said they had gone right way, and would not return till the water ceased to be ‘‘ foul.” “et this could hardly have been the case, as some have since een caught on the Essex flats gorged with young cockles. During the past fortnight I have examined the water at various oints around Sheppey, and have invariably found the diatoms. n using the tow-net during this period, I have been struck by ae scarcity of animal life. Besides the diatoms, a few Nocti- icze, larval Spios, and two Isopods were all that I noticed. hat at least some diatoms are obnoxious to fish was settled by Ir. Pearcey, who, in conducting tow-netting investigations in e Shetland Isles in 1884, found that in regions where large ing banks of the diatom PRizosolenia shrubsolit (Cleve) animal life was almost entirely absent ; and Mr. Isaac . Thompson, of the Liverpool Marine Biological Society, has scorded a somewhat similar experience in 1885 off the North Vales coast. It will be interesting to ascertain from which direction these puntless myriads of diatoms have reached the Thames, and ithin what limits they have been found. To this end I invite bservers round the British coast to examine the water in their sspective localities, and to publish the result. water obtained from the coast of Holland I could not etect a single diatom. I have reason Sie Venus... Y @ ie Wh Aa ee Mars ... 3 2 ws SE O Sie 19 ee ee Jupiter... TA S57. ness. 2010 eee ee Saturn... GO L.A 2 eee '* Indicates that the setting is that of the following morning. Variable Stars. Star. R.A. Decl. h. m, ° P U Cephei O 52°3... 81 16N R Crateris .. EO §5°O'... 47 43-8 U Virginis ... 0... 1245.3 6 fo R Hydree 132362.) 22 ae R Bodtis wos 14 3252... 27 ta 5 Librze oa A NO Oe Se eS U Coron *s..) <0. 8 23°02 32 | ae U Ophiuchi... ... 17 10°8... 1 20N. W Sagittarii [ORY ORT 0. .. 207 2h R Scuti i 8S ALS oe Soe B Lyre. oS oe AS 250 23s i R Delphini .:.) 1. 20°. 9% .... 8:45 N M signifies maximum 3 #2 minimum. _ Meteor-Showers. R.A. Decl. Near 8 Lyre Dy ee 32 N. ¢ Cygni 320° sch i eee 8 Piscium evicas “BASS ie ie eee GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. IT may interest our readers to know that a fulla Baron Nordenskjold’s narrative of his very interesting across Greenland has been published in German by | of Leipzig, with numerous maps and illustrations. Dou like the same explorer’s previous narratives, it will soon in an English dress. We are assured that Nordenskjéld undertake any Antarctic expedition before 1888 or 188 indeed, he undertakes it at all, which is highly doubtful, has much to do still before the publications connected Vega Expedition are complete, and he has a variety work in hand which must be finished before he en new undertaking. x THE paper read at Monday’s meeting of the Royal grapical Society was one of unusual novelty and int described the exploration which Mr. H. E. M. James, Bombay Civil Service, in company with two friends, n spring and summer in Manchuria. The region explo from the Yellow Sea to beyond 45° N., and between 122 130° E. long. A considerable section of the journey was virtually new ground, and as Mr. James is a careful observ and, we believe, a botanist, and an accurate describer, his pap of some scientific value. He has at least been able to add so precise features to our maps of the region. The paper c Sune 9, 1887] NATURE 139 a useful general account of Manchuria and its history. Mr. James calls it the Manitoba of Asia. What with the depletion of the _ country for military service and the influx of immigrants from _ China, there is little of the old Manchu population left. Nearly all special Manchu custcms have disappeared, and the language itself is now only spoken in a few remote valleys. Mr, James’s party started from Newchang and went north to Mukden. Thence they went due east up the beautiful and well-wooded valley of the Hun. This is a particularly rich region, and is being at | colonized. The first day Mr. James began to collect he found _ no less than five kinds of lilies of the valley, and it was common _ to see whole hill-sides covered with masses of that flcwer. On account of the flooded state of the rivers, it took them a month to reach Mau-erh-shan, the furthest Chinese outpost on the Yalu, at the south foot of the Lao-ling Mountains. Thence they struck northwards across the mountains to the junction of the Sungari and Tang-ho, four days march. Here they looked in vain for the snowy peaks of 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, reported by previous writers on Manchuria; they were assured no such peaks existed in all the region. An official guided them back south-east to the Pei-shan Mountains, a sort of knot in which the Yalu, the Tumen, and the Sungari take their rise. For a long distance the route was over a succession of ranges covered with dense forests, with only at long intervals a hut of a ginseng cultivator, sometimes in the crater of an old volcano. Bogs also were frequent, and gave much trouble. It was the ninth day before they actually began to ascend the mountain itself. The lower slopes are covered with birch and pine, leading to a delightful grassy plateau dotted with trees, and rich open meadows bright with flowers of every imaginable colour. As they approached the needle-like peaks of Old White Mountain, the noise of underground streams was frequently heard. The steep sides of the two-peaked upper ridge shines white with disintegrated puinice-stone, On reaching the saddle and looking over the edge, the party found themselves looking down into a crater, at the bottom of which, about 350 feet below, was a beautiful lake, of the deepest and most pellucid blue. The lake was about 6 miles in circumference. The height of the mountain is not more than 8000 feet. The party then proceeded north to Kirin and Tsitsikar, through forests and swamps, and, lastly, across Mongolian steppes. Then, proceeding eastwards and south- wards, the country to the east of the previous route was ex- plored, Mr. James learning much by the way of the country and the people. Altogether the journey has been a fruitful one, and shows how much can be done for science by our Indian officials when they have the inclination and are properly trained. WE have already referred to the remarkable journey of Mr. Carey in Central Asia. Information has now been received from him showing how the second year of his journey was passed- In May 1886 he started from Chaklik, with the object of explor. ing some of the northern regions of Tibet. He passed south, across the Altyn and Chinan Mountains, and reached the foot of a high chain, which is probably the true Kuen-lun. Here he had to travel a considerable distance eastwards, through barren and difficult country, until an opening was found leading to the valley of the Ma-chu, the head source of the Yang-tse-kiang. After falling down the river some distance, Mr. Carey had to turn north- wards again, and recross the Kuen-lun. He now found himself in the Tsaidam region, and made an interesting round journey from a place called Golmo and back to the same point, during which he saw a good deal of the nomadic Kalmucks and Mongols who inhabit the comparatively low valleys of Tsaidam. In the autumn, Mr. Carey made a second journey across the Kuen-lun,and then, again turning northward, struck straight across the Tsaidam country and the Gobi, to Sachan and Hami, whence he travelled to Urumtsi in the Tian-shan. Thence the party left for Yarkand, whence a start was made on March 7 for Ladak. A great part of the ground traversed by Mr. Carey is new, and he and his assistant, Mr. Dalgleish, are the only Englishmen who have ever travelled through the cntire length of Chinese or Eastern Turkestan. M. CONSTANTIN NOSILOFF writes to the Royal Geographical Scciety of his intention to undertake this year a summer expedi- tion to Nova Zembla. His object will be (1) to prepare a detailed map of the coasts and interior of the island ; (2) to study the hydrography of the coast, and make observations regarding the movements of the ice in the Kara Sea, and in the straits leading to it ; (3) to make meteorological observations, and to collect zoological and botanical specimens ; (4) to study the ethno- graphy of the Samoiedes. THE ANNUAL VISITATION OF THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY. “THE Report of the Astronomer-Royal to the Board of Visitors, read at the annual visitation of the Royal Observatory on Saturday last, refers to the period of twelve months from 1886 May 21, to 1887 May 20, and exhibits the state of the Observatory on the last-named day. The following are among the points of most general interest :-— I. Buildings and Grounds. Above the extended portion of the upper computing-room, a dome 18 feet in diameter is to be erected, in which it is pro- posed to mount a Cooke 6-inch equatorial, a photo-heliograph tube being attached to the same mounting. The combined instrument will command a complete view of the sun through- out the day—an important consideration, as the work of the present photoheliograph is seriously interfered with by trees and the Lassell dome. The new instrument will be available for occultations, phenomena of Jupiter’s satellites, and other occa- sional observations. 1I. Astronomical Observations. Transit-Circle.—The regular subjects of observation with the transit-circle are the sun, moon, planets, and fundamental stars, with other stars from a working Catalogue. On the conclusion of the observations for the ‘Ten-Year Catalogue at the end of 1886, a new list of some 3000 stars was prepared, to include all the stars in Groombridge’s Catalogue and in the Harvard Pho- tometry, which had not been observed at Greenwich since 1867. The Annual Catalogue of stars ob erved in 1886 contains about 1665 stars. The observations for the Ten-Year Catalogue, epoch 1880, were concluded at the end of 1886, special efforts being made in the latter part of the year to make the Catalogue as far as pos- sible complete to the sixth magnitude inclusive. It is estimated that the Catalogue will contain about 4000 stars, all of which, with very few accidental exceptions, have been observed at least - three times in R.A. and N.P.D., the total number of observa- tions being about 40,000 in each element. The following statement shows the number of observations. made with the transit-circle in the twelve months ending 1887 May 20 :— Transits, the separate limbs being counted as separate observations ... 7 i +» 6366 Determinations of collimation error 304 Determinations of level error ... ui 410 Circle-observations a ee ie Pa es 5983 Determinations of nadir point (included in the number of circle-observations... Soa uu 5 ies. 385 Reflexion-observations of stars (similarly included) .... 602 About 400 transits (included in the above number) have been ob erved with the rever-ion-prism, to determine personality depending on the direction of motion. The value found for the colatitude from the observations of © 1886 is 38° 31’ 22”'03, differing by 0”'13 from the assumed value ; the correction to the tabular obliquity of the ecliptic is +065, and the discordance between the results from the sum- mer and winter solstices is —0”'25, indicating that the mean of the observed distances from the Pole to the ecliptic is too great by +0”°12. The mean error of the moon’s tabular place (computed from Hansen’s lunar tables, with Prof. Newcomb’s corrections) is +0'029s. in R.A. and +0”°34 in longitude as deduced from ninety-seven meridian-observations in 1886, The mean error in tabular N.P.D. is —0”°66, which would appear to agree with the observations of the sun in indicating that the mean of the observed N.P.D.’s is too great. As regards the computations for the Ten-Year Catalogue, a large amount of preparatory work has been done in the applica- tion of corrections to the observations as printed to reduce them to a homogeneous system, and some progress has been made in the formation of the Catal»gue results. The proper motions actually used have been thoroughly revised for every observation in the period 1877-86, and corrections applied where, as occa- sionally happened, different proper motions had been used in the same year. A comparison has been made of the R.A.’s of clock-stars as observed in the last ten years and as computed from the Nine-Year Catalogue, epoch 1872, with Auwers’ recently published proper motions, the result of which is to show that the- Greenwich observations are better represented by these than by the proper motions in use hitherto, and it has therefore been: 140 NATURE [Hune 9, 1887 decided to adopt Auwers’ proper motions throughout. Prepara- tions have accordingly been made for reducing the observations in the Ten-Year Catalogue to the epoch 1880, with Auwers proper motions wherever available. ; > It has appeared doubtful whether the reading of the exterior thermometer placed near the north wall of the transit-circle room represents the true temperature of the external air as affecting the refraction for the sun and other southern objects in the day- time. A discussion of simultaneous readings of the exterior, front court, and meteorological standard thermometers, which is being made by Mr. Thackeray, shows systematic differences be- tween the first and last at the time of observation of the sun, the mean monthly excess of the meteorological standard over the exterior thermometer for the ten years 1877-86 ranging from +0°°7 in December to +2°°1 in May and August and +2°°6 in September. The reading of the front court thermometer (which is at a distance from any building) appears to agree closely with that of the meteorological standard, and it has been adopted, from the beginning of this year, in computing refractions for the sun, moon, planets, and stars south of the zenith observed in the daytime, the exterior thermometer being still used for northern stars as probably representing better the temperature of the air on the north side of the transit-circle. The systematic differ- ences in thermometer readings have a sensible effect on the position of the ecliptic as deduced from observations of the sun, the discordance in the results between the summer and winter solstices found when the reading of the exterior thermometer are used being rendered insensible when corrections are applied to reduce to the reading of the meteorological standard thermo- meter. Altazimuth.—The total number of observations of various kinds made in the twelve months ending 1887 May 20 is as fol- lows, the observations of the moon having been as usual restricted to the first and last quarters in each lunation :— Azimuths of the moon and stars ... 356 Azimuths of the azimuth mark 208 Azimuths of the collimating mark 242 Zenith distances of the moon bas 181 Zenith distances of the collimating mark 240 The altazimuth observations are completely reduced to March 31, so as to exhibit errors of moon’s tabular R.A., N.P.D., longitude, and ecliptic N.P.D., and the manuscript for the printer has been prepared to the same date. Lquatorials.—Various additions have been made to the Lassell equatorial with a view to making it available for astro- nomical photography and for general use. A delicate slow motion in R.A. (with differential wheels) and a firm N.P.D. clamping arm.with fine motion in N.P.D. have been applied, the steadiness and general usefulness of the telescope being greatly increased by these additions. The Corbett 64-inch refractor has been mounted below the tube of the reflector and parallel to it to serve as a directing telescope in taking photo- graphs and also for observation of occasional phenomena. A camera to take circular plates 84 inches in diameter (giving a field 1° 58’ in diameter) has been mounted at the principai focus of the Lassell mirror, and some trial photographs of the moon, Procyon, Regulus, y Leonis, and Preesepe, have been taken. The construction of the new 28-inch refractor has been delayed by difficulty in obtaining the disks of glass. Messrs. Chance are engaged in removing a bunch of fine veins from the flint glass disk, and have every hope of being able very shortly to report the disk practically perfect ; and M. Feil’s successor has successfully moulded a crown disk from which he believes that he has removed all defects. The south-east and Sheepshanks equatorials are in good order. Some trouble has been experienced with the water-supply for the driving clock of the former instrument, and an alteration in the arrangements for maintaining the pressure has been made at the Kent Waterworks, since which the working has been found quite satisfactory. The Cooke 6-inch equatorial is being mounted in the south ground for trial as to the practicability of using curved plates for stellar photography and other questions which have been raised at the Paris Conference on Astronomical Photography. III. Spectroscopic and Photographic Observations. For determination of the motions of stars in the line of sight, 206 measures have been made of the displacement of the F line in the spectra of 26 stars, and 20 measures of the J lines in 8 stars, besides comparisons with lines in the spectrum of the moon made in the course of the night’s observations of sté motions, or of the sky on the following morning, as a check on the general accuracy of the results. The observations of Sirius — since the date of the last Report indicate that the apparent di placement of the F line (which was originally towards the and subsequently towards the blue) is now insensible. The placement of the F line in the spectrum of Algol has b measured as frequently as possible during the winter months, order to ascertain if any evidence could be obtained of orbital motion such as would result from the hypothesis of th variability of Algol being caused by the transits of a large sat lite. A sufficient number of observations has not yet been obtained to allow a definite conclusion to be formed, but as far as the observations go there are indications of a variation of motion in the line of sight corresponding to orbital moti having the same period as that of the star’s variability. _ A photographic corrector, consisting of a concave crown ¢ convex flint lens (in contact), placed about 30 inches within focus, has been applied to the telescope of the south- equatorial to correct the chromatic aberration of the objec! glass for the photographic rays without alteration of the foc length. A Dallmeyer doublet (formerly used in the photo graph) has been employed to enlarge the primary image 74 times, so as to give on the photographic plate an image on a scale of about 0°45 inch to one minute of arc, or 15 inches to the sun’s diameter. A number of trial photographs of Castor, y Virginis, Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn have been obtained. The photographs of the double stars appear to be susceptible of — very accurate measurement, and tear of the photographs of — Jupiter show the four satellites, the belts, and the red spot. A photograph of y Virginis, showing the components w separated, has also been taken at the primary focus, the meyer enlarging doublet having been removed. It is intende also to use the photographic corrector with the Dallmeyer dou to obtain photographs ona large scale of sunspots, craters on moon, and other objects of small angular dimensions. The of view with the photographic corrector is necessarily restricted, For the year 1886, Greenwich photographs are available on 199 days, and photographs from India and Mauritius filling up — the gaps in the series on 164 days, making a total of 383 days out of the 365 on which photographs have been m x the record being thus practically complete for 1886. ae As regards the photographic reductions :— ad The Greenwich photographs have been measured in duplicate as far as 1887 April 28, and the measures have been completely reduced so as to exhibit heliographic longitudes and latitudes spots and areas of spots and faculee. ir The photographs from India and Mauritius have been recei from the Solar Physics Committee as far as March 10 February 20 respectively, and these have all been measur the measures completely reduced. IV. Magnetical Observations. ey The observations have been continued on the same lines as in former years, changes in the magnetic declination, horizontal force, and vertical force being continuously recorded by photo- graphy and the absolute values of magnetic declination, hori- zontal force, and dip being determined from time to time — by eye-observation. Earth currents in two directions near at right angles to each other are also photographically registere For these last the ordinates have hitherto been measured on arbitrary scale, and it appeared desirable to obtain the data for expressing this in terms of the accepted electrical units. The authorities of the Post Office Telegraphs have courteous! given every assistance in regard ‘to the requisite electric: measurements, and an electrical balance for m ing sistance, a standard cell, and a galvanometer of the Office pattern have been procured under their auspices. October last, Mr. H. R. Kempe, of the Post Office Telegrapl made some measures of the resistances of the earth current wil but the conditions were not then favourable for insulation. Subsequently the wires were damaged in the snowstorm of December 26-27 last, and were temporarily repaired on January 25. It is believed that they are now restored to their normal condition, and arrangements are being made to obtain the value © of the difference of electric potential between the two earth- plates on each line corresponding to a given length of ordinate on the photographic register. An experimental set of measures of resistance has been taken recently. i ; Fune 9, 1887] NATURE I4I The following are the principal results for magnetic elements for 1886 :— Approximate mean declination ; ( ai 17° 55’ ‘i . : 3°9379 (in British units Mean horizontal force... sa { 18157 (in Metric units) iF ( 67° 26’ 38” (by g-inch needles) Mean dip a es .. ¢ 67° 26 45” (by 6-inch needles) a | 67° 27’ 40” (by 3-inch needles) The declination and horizontal force magnets were thrown into vibration by the earthquake shock of February 23, the extent of vibration being 20’ in declination and 0004 of the whole horizontal force in that element. The motion commenced at sh. 37°6m. Greenwich civil time, and a second double dis- turbance of much smaller amplitude (possibly accidental) was registered from 7h. 39m. to about 7h. 57m. At the request of M. Mascart, a copy of the photograph has been sent to him for discussion with other records of the earthquake which he is collecting. In view of the importance of the study of earth- quakes, it appears desirable that a suitable seismograph should be procured for the Observatory. . Meteorological Observations. The mean temperature of the year 1886 was 48°°7, being 0°°6 below the average of the preceding forty-five years. The highest air temperature in the shade was 89°’8 on July 6, and the lowest, 16°°5,on January 7. The mean monthly temperature in 1886 was below the average in January, February (6°), March, June, and December, and above the average in September, October, and November. In the period of 156 days from 1886 December 16 to 1887 May 20 the mean temperature was 3°'r below the average of twenty years, the daily temperature being below the average on I15 days. The mean daily motion of the air in 1886 was 291 miles, being 7 miles above the average of the preceding nineteen years. The greatest daily motion was 857 miles on December 8, and the least, 56 miles, on October 8. The recorded pressures in 1886, exceeding 20 Ibs. on the square foot, were 27°6 lbs. on March 31, and 23°5 lbs. on December 9. During the year 1886, Osler’s anemo neter showed an excess of about 17 revolutions of the vane in the positive direction N., E., S., W., N., excluding the turnings which are evidently accidental. The number of hours of bright sunshine recorded by Camp- bell’s sunshine instrument during 1886 was 1228, which is about twenty hours above the average of the preceding nine years. The aggregate number of hours during which the sun was above the horizon was 4454, so that the mean proportion of sunshine for the year was 0°276, constant sunshine being repre- sented by I. The rainfall in 1886 was 24°2 inches, being 0°5 inch below the average of the preceding forty-five years. VII. Chronometers, Time Signals, and Longitude Opera- tions. The number of chronometers now being tested at the Obser- vatory is 225. The first seven chronometers in the competitive trial of 1886 were exceptionally good, the first chronometer being superior to any we have previously had on trial, except the first in 1882. For the annual trial of deck-watches, which commenced last November, fifteen watches were entered, and of these nine were purchased for the Navy, the first three being classed ‘‘ A,” or equal, in performance, to an average box-chronometer. A supplementary trial took place in February and March, for which nine deck-watches were entered, and of these seven were purchased for the Navy, the first two being classed ‘‘ A.” The watches in each trial were rated for a period of nine weeks, viz. two weeks (dial up) in the room at a temperature of 50° to 55°, four weeks in four different positions in the oven (dial up, pendant up, pendant right, pendant left, arranged symmetrically) at a temperature of about 80°, and three weeks (dial up) in the room. When the period of rating in any position was less than a week, weekly rates were inferred from the rate for the period by simple proportion, In order to compare the performance of the several watches, ‘* trial numbers,” representing deviations in weekly rates, have been formed on the same general principles as for the chrono- meter trials. The trials in different positions introduce, how- ever, a new element, and an arbitrary weight must be assigned to them in combining them with the trials ‘‘dial up.” It has been considered that when the watch is worn in the pocket the pendant will generally be ‘‘up,” and that not more than one- third of the deviation ‘‘ pendant right” or ‘‘ pendant left” is likely to have practical effect. Putting a = Difference between greatest and least weekly rates ‘‘ dial up,” b = Greatest difference between one week and the next ‘‘ dial up,” c = Difference between weekly rates ‘‘ pendant up” and ‘‘ dial up,” d = Difference between weekly right ” and ‘‘ dial up,” e = Difference between weekly rates left” and ‘‘ dial up,” rates ‘* pendant “* pendant the quantity ¢ + q + “may be taken as the measure of the deviation in weekly rate due to positions in ordinary wear. Half weight has been given to this quantity in combining it with the trial number ‘“‘dial up” (a + 24), on the assumption that the deck-watch would be usually lying ‘‘dial up” and that it would not be carried in the pocket more than eight hours a day on the average. Thus the quantity @ + 26 +4(¢ + d + ©), has been adopted as the trial number for tee deck-watches. It has been arranged that for the future all pocket chronometers and deck-watches rated at the Observatory after repair shall be tested in positions. The automatic drop of the Greenwich time-ball failed on one day only during the past twelve months. On three days the ball was not raised on account of the violence of the wind, and on five days on account of accumulation of snow on the mast. As regards the Deal time-ball, there have been twelve cases of failure owing to interruption of the telegraph connexions, and on three days the violence of the wind prevented the raising ofthe ball. For fourteen days after the snowstorm of December 26-27, no signals were sent to or received from the Deal time- ball tower, telegraphic communication being interrupted. There have been four cases of failure of the 1 p.m. signal to the Post Office Telegraphs. The arrangements for hourly time-signals at Devonport to be given by a local clock, corrected daily by the help of a time- signal at Greenwich at 10 a.m., have been carried out under Captain Wharton’s directions, and a return signal from Devon- port (serving as a test of the accuracy with which the local clock was corrected) has been regularly received at Greenwich (at 13h. om. 39s. G.C.T.) since November 22, with the exception of 36 days following the snowstorm of December 26-27, when there was interruption of the telegraphic communication with the West of England, and of 23 days when no return signal | was received. The failures occurred for the most part on Sundays. The plan appears to answer well, and it seems desirous that apparatus should be provided by the Government to enable the Committee of Lloyd’s to establish hourly signals at the Lizard on the same system. The new contact apparatus of the Westminster clock was brought into ‘action on 1886 May 22, and the automatic signals from the clock have been: received regularly from that date, except on three days following the snowstorm of December 26-27. The error of the clock was insensible on 25 per cent. of the days of observation, Is. on 40 per cent., 2s. on 22 per cent., 3S. on II per cent., and 4s. on 2 per cent. On one day the signal was 15s. late, and on another day 10s. late. A suggestion has been made that in view of the importance of the connexion of the British and Continental Surveys, the telegraphic difference of longitude between Greenwich and Paris, which was originally determined with great care in 1854, should be confirmed in order to complete the network of tele- graphic longitudes which have been determined of late years by Continental astronomers. It seems desirable that Greenwich Observatory, which, under Sir G. B. Airy’s direction, took such an active part in utilizing the telegraph for the determination of longitude, should now assist in completing the cycle. The necessary exchange of observers and signals could conveniently be carried out in the summer of next year, when the French geodetists will, I understand, be prepared for their share of the work. The Report concludes with the following general remarks :— *¢ As the result of an International Congress on Astronomical Photography held at Paris in April on the invitation of the 142 NATURE French Acadeiy of Sciences, at whic’ fifty-six representative astrono ners from all parts of the world were present, a schem? has been approved for the formation of a photographic map of the heaven; by the concerted action of a number of Odservatories in both hemispheres. This scheme provides for two series of photographs, the one intended to contain all stars down to the fourteenth magnitude inclusive, and the other, taken with short exposure, specially designed to give accurate positions of brighter stars down to the eleventh magnitude, so that it may be possible to form an extensive Catalogue of reference-stars for the first series, and thus to give the mean; of accurately determining the position of any star on the photographic map down to the four- teenth magnitude. The instruments with which this work is to be jointly carried out are to be photographic refractors of 0°33m. (13 inches) aperture and 3°43m. (11 feet 3 inches) focal length, and the Directors of the following ten Observatories have already announced that they are prepared to take part in the enterprise : Algiers, Bordeaux, Paris, Toulouse, and Vienna in the northern hemisphere ; La Plata, Melbourne, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago da Chile, and Sydney in the southern hemisphere. It seems fitting that Greenwich should take its share in a scheme which will in a few years so greatly extend our knowledge of the places of the fixed stars, and thus serve to carry out one of the principal objects for which the Astronomer-Royal was appointed. “On a review of the work of the past twelve months, it will be found that the activity of the Observatory has increased in various directions. The number of meridian observations is much larger than usual; additions have been made to the work of the magnetical and meteorological branch ; there have been continuous trials of chronometers and deck-watches (requiring special arrangements in each case), which have made large demands on my own time, as well as on that of Mr. Turner and of Mr. Lewis. Extraneous work in connexion with the Navy has also absorbed a good deal of time that would otherwise have been free for scientific investigations. Question; conaected with gun-directors, mirrors for electric search-lights, and bin- oculars for the Navy, have continued to engage our attention, and since the date of the last Report 510 telescopes and 35 binoculars for the Navy have been sent to the O»servatory for examination, whilst it is to be presumed that a further supply of 500 binoculars, now on order, will be forwarded here to be tested in due course. ** Whilst it seems desira le that such directly utilitarian work should be undertaken at the Observatory, as being the only exist- ing Government establishment where it can be done efficiently, I feel it nece sary to point out that the existing staff is inadequate for these extraneous duties in addition to the well-defined work for which the Observatory is primarily maintained. By great efforts, which can hardly be sustained for an indefinite period, the current reductions have been kept up, notwithstanding the large number of observations obtained in the last twelve months, but the ulterior discussions which are required to maintain the character of the Observatory as a scientific institution are falling further and further behind. Amongst other matters which I should wish to take up, if leisure could be found, I may mention the determination of proper motions of stars from the observa- tions made at Greenwich since Sir G. B. Airy’s appointment in 1835, an investigation which appears to come within the terms of the Royal Warrant directing the Astronomer-Royal ‘to rectify the tables of the motions of the heavens and the places of the fixed stars.’ ‘*The appointment of aclerk, which has presumably received the sanction of the Admiralty, will, when it is male, provide for the increase of office-work which has taken place of late years in regard to chronometers, accounts, stores, stationery, printing, &c., and if the maintenance of the telegraph-wire;, batteries, &c., for communication of time-signals were undertaken by the Post Office Telegraphs as part of the distribution of time to the public, there would be some further relief. But to enable me to give time to extraneous questions referred to the Astronomer-Royal by the Government, it appears necessary that the Chief Asssistant and I should be relieved of certain mechanical work which might be intrusted to computers, and that further responsibility should be delegated to the Assistants. Proceeding on the lines which have been laid down by my predecessor, I believe that the maximum of efficiency at the minimum of cost would be attained if an increase of work were met by an increase in the staff of computers, with due recognition of the positioa of two or three senior computers, and of the increased responsibility of the Assistants.” : [xune 9, 1887 UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. OxrorpD.—In Convocation on Tuesday, a grant of £4800, applied for by Prof. Clifton, for the neue of the pe: dor Laboratory by the erection of buildings for an Elect Department, was refused by a large majority. Twenty-seven men have entered for the final schools in Na Science this year, of whom sixteen offer chemistry, four phys: lozy, three animal morphology and physics, and one botany A course of medical teaching, including clinical demonst tions and elementary surgery, is to be given at the Rad Infirmary during the first half of the Lonz Vacation. Besides the lectures which we announced at the beginning of term, Mr. Arthur Evans, the Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, is giving a course of lectures on ‘‘The Early In Age.” ce CAMBRIDGE.—The twenty-first Annual Report of the Mus and Lecture Rooms Syndicate states that during the year considerable progress has been made in arranging the vai collectioas, but additional accommodation in the form of case and cabinets is required in various departments, especially botany and ornitholozy. Additional accommodation is ur demanded for the teaching of physiology, pathology, and bota It is also desirable that permanent arrangements u anatomy and medicine should be taken into consideration without further delay, and that the work should be commenced as soon as possible after the present chemical laboratory i: vacated. a eee Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S., and Mr. J. S. Nicholson, — Profess or of Political Ecoaomy in the University of Edinbur have been approved for the degree of Doctor in Science. _ The University having been applied to by the Association fe the Improve nent of Geometrical Teaching to take some steps t give improved methods of teaching geometry fair play in the examinations, and the Association having sent a deputation Cambridge to confer with the Board of Mathematical Studies, tre latter Board have recommended that other proofs than Euclid’s be accepted in the Previous Examination, no proof of any proposition occurring in Euclid being admitted in which ~ use is male of any proposition which in Euclid’s order occurs subsequently. They do not at pres:nt prop»se modifications in the syllabis of geometry for the Mathematical Tripos, because they are about to revise the schedule of Part I. as a whole. — The recent report on the local lectures scheme shows that fair share of attention has been devoted to natural science— namely, thirty-five out of one hundred courses of lectures. The courses on ‘‘ Work and Energy” by Mr. A, Berry, delivered five centres in the Northumberland mining district, were ° successful, There is distinct progress in the systematization work, and the development of local centres; but there many difficulties owing to lack of endowments. Attempts are baing made to connect practical courses of instruction the scientific lectures, but here again the lack of apparatus and laboratories is a serious disadvantage. An endowment fund of £1136 has been contributed, of which more than © is given by the Local Lectures and Examinations Syndicate. The chief purpose contemplated is the retention of the services of practised lecturers. ‘The class list of the Natural Sciences Tripos, Part L, just issued, contains the following names in Class I.: Anderson, Cai. ; Barber, Chr. ; Colbeck, Cai. ; D’Albuquerque, _ Dufton, S. F., Trin. ; Dufton, A., non-collegiate ; Chr. ; Francis, King’s; Fry, Ki »g’s; Grabham, Joh. ; G Joh. ; Richardson, King’s; Tennant, Cai.; Turner, F. M. Trin. ; Wagzett, Pemb. ; Wagstaff, Sid. ; Williams, Cai, SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. — LONDON. Physical Society, May 28.—Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Vice- President, in the chair.—Dr. S. P. Thompson read a note on transformers for electric distribution. In the simple algebraic treatment of the dynamo several assumptions app true for well-made machines are made use of. The author finds that a similar set of assumptions for transformers greatly simplifies the algebraic theory :—(1) The iron, copper, insulation are assumed good. (2) The reaction of the sec »ndary on the primary (other than that desired) is small; thus, if the primary be on magnetization of iron. ri; X ® ' & E ' coefficients of self-induction. _ primary and secondary are to be equal. ' shown to be legitimate, and the ratios of the resistances, E.M.F.’s, "currents, and coefficients of self-induction are expressed in terms - shown that E, = ‘the E.M.F.’s of _R, and L, the resistance and self-induction of the primary coil. If R, be negligible, the above reduces to E, = ‘a Sune 9, 1887] NATURE 143 supposed to be ares with constant mean current or constant mean potential difference, this is not to be altered by the current in the secondary. (3) No magnetic leakage ; so that the co- efficient of mutual induction is the geometric mean between their (4) The quantities of copper in the These assumptions are of the ratio of the numbers of convolutions, which ratio is " represented by 2 = = From analogy with the dynamo it is 2 wM === F,, where = 2m, E, and E the primary and secondary respectively, and VoL? i p : a The latter part of the paper since —! = 7, and M = VL,L,. 2 contains a general investigation cuits both having self-induction, effective resistance of the primary is increased, and the self- induction decreased by closing the secondary circuit. Mr. ‘Kapp said the investigations assumed the coefficients of in- duction to be constants, and that the phases of current in primary and secondary were opposite. The former being by no means true, he asked, What values were to be taken? and he of two neighbouring cir- and it is shown that. the believes the phases of current are not opposite in ordinary transformers. Mr. Swinburne protested against the use of -formulz to calculate the inductions when the required data could be obtained much more accurately from Dr. Hopkinson’s curves He also thought the curve of sines did not nearly represent the current curve for ordinary machines. Mr. Bosanquet thought the effective magnetization of a trans- former would be different from that of a dynamo, for, in the former, permanent magnetism was not utilized. In reply to Mr. Kapp and Mr. Swinburne the author pointed out that as the coefficients of induction enter in both numerator and denominator, it would -not matter which set of values were taken if the resistance was small compared with wL; and that self-induction tends to smooth. out irregularities in the current curve. Prof. Ayrton _ described a method of regulating a series transformer devised by himself and colleague some two years ago, based on analogy with a compound dynamo. Referring to the variation of L with current, he sketched a curve connecting them, obtained by Mr. Sumpner at the Central Institution, and mentioned that the E.M.F. curve of a Ferran'i dynamo is an exact sine curve. He believes problems involving alternating currents would be greatly simplified by using a new set of measurable quantities, such as will render the equations as simple as possible. At Prof. | Thomps n’s request, Prof. Ayrton exhibited a lecture experiment illustrating the action of transformers. The secondaries of two ordinary induction coils were joined in series through long fine wires, and an incandescent lamp placed in the primary circuit of one, lighted up on completing the primary of the other coil in which a battery was placed.—On magnetic torsion of iron wires, by Shelford Bidwell. This is an account of experiments made on the twisting produced by sending a current along magnetized iron wires,.and the author shows that Wiedemann’s explanation of these phenomena (by assuming a difference in molecular friction at the polar and lateral surfaces of magnetized molecules), is unsatisfactory. The wires were magnetized longitudinally by means ofa solenoid in the axis of which the wires were sus- pended. To obtain consistent results it was found necessary to demagnetize the wire between the observations. This is done by reversed currents of gradually decreasing strength, and a simple arrangement of rheostat and commutator devised for this purpose was exhibited. Two sets of experiments were made, in one of which the current in wire or solenoid was kept constant whilst that in the other was varied. The amount of twisting does not increase continuously when the currents are increased, but attains ‘a maximum when the inclination of the helix, representing the direction of magnetization, is inclined at about 33° to the axis of the wire. When the current in the solenoid was kept constant and that in the wire increased, permanent deflections remained on stopping the current. For small currents in the wire this deflection was diminished on starting the current, whilst stronger currents increased the deflection. For some intermediate value of the current, no change took place, and this value was: dependent on the current in the solenoid. Experiments were shown illustrating these phenomena. Anthropological Institute, May 24.—Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Dr. George Harley, F.R.S., read a paper on the relative recuperative powers of man living in a rude, and man living in a _ highly civilized state ; in which he brought forward a number of hitherto unpublished, though mostly well-known facts, demonstrating that the refining in- fluence of civilization had not been altogether the unalloyed boon we so fondly imagine it to have been. For the cases cited went far to demons'rate the fact that while man’s physique, as well a; his mental power, had increased during his evolution from a barbaric state into a condition of denséance, his recupera- tive capacity, on the other hand, has materially deteriorated. In fact, it appeared from the examples cited that every appliance adding to man’s bodily comfort, as well as every contrivance either stimulating or developing his mental faculties, while increasing his persona! enjoyments materially diminishes his animal vitality ; rendering him less able to resist the effects of lethal bodily injuries, or recover from them as well and as quickly as his barbaric ancestors, or his less favoured brethren.—Mr. G. L. Gomme read a paper on the evidence for Mr. McLennan’s theory of the primitive human horde: and a communication by Mr. Samuel Gason on the Dieyerie Tribe of South Australia was also received. Mineralogical Society, May 10o.—Mr. L. Fletcher, Presi- dent, in the chair.—It was reported that Mr. F. Pearce, of Maritzburg, Natal, and P.of. Albert Chester, of Clinton, N.Y., had been elected members in April.—The following papers were read :—Microscopical studies on some eruptive rocks from the Caucasus and Armenia, by Dr. Hjalmar Gylling, of Helsingfors. —wNote on some specimens of glaucophane rock from the Ile de Groix, by Rev. Prof. Bonney, F.R.S.—On the crystalline form of kreatine, by Mr. L. Fletcher.—Note on francolite, by Mr. F. H. Butler.—On the meteoric iron seen to fall in the district of Nejed, in Central Arabia, in the spring of 1865, by Mr. L. Fletcher.—On a granite containing andalusite from the Cheese- wring, Cornwall, by Mr. J. J. H. Teall.—Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., exhibited some specimens and sections of tabasheer and other forms of opal, and made some observations thereon. Paris. Academy of Sciences, May 31.—M. Janssen in the chair. —On the condition of stability in the movement of an oscillat- ing system connected with a pendular synchronic arrangement, by M. A. Cornu. A solution is here offered of a problem which presents itself in the adjustment of certain apparatus of great precision employed in physics and astronomy: how to render the oscillations of a given mobile system, such as a pair of scales or a galyanometer, exactly synchronous with a corresponding periodical motion, such as that of a clock’s pendulum, and the like. —On some crystallized metallic alloys of platina and tin, by M. H. Debray. Resuming his former studies of these alloys, the author here deals with those of platina and tin, with formula, PtSn,; of rhodium, RhSn, ; of iridium, IrSn,; and of ruthenium, RuSn,;. Osmium yields no alloy with tin, in which metal it crystallizes.—Progress of the Arago Laboratory, by M. de Lacaze-Duthiers. An account is given of the im- provements lately introduced at this marine zoological station, which has been established at Banyuls. It is now fitted with a 7 horse-power steam-engine for supplying the aquarium with water, and with submarine electric lamps for studying the habits of the Mediterranean fauna.—On a fossilized tendril of Vymphea Dumasit, Sap., by M. G. de Saporta, Although traces of rhizomes of Nymphzacez in various Tertiary formations are far from rare, the present fossil is specially remarkable for its great beauty and excellent preservation. Apart from the inner structure, which has been replaced by some amor- phous substance, it retains all the exterior outlines of the organ down to the minutest superficial details.—Re- port on the velocities set up by the tides of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in a canal establishing free communication between these two basins, by M. Bouquet dela Grye. This is the Report of the Commission appointed last year at the request of M. de Lesseps to study the influence likely to be exercised on the Panama Canal now in progress by the regular rise and fall of the surrounding waters. It appears that the tidal currents, much stronger on the Pacific than on the Atlantic side, can 144 NATURE [¥une 9, 188 never exceed 24 knots, and that this velocity will be reached only for a few hours at the equinoctial syzygies every year. It is incidentally stated that the Canal will be 72 kilometres long, 21 metres wide at bottom, witha slope of 45°, and a depth of 11°50 metres below the mean level at Panama, and of 9 metres below that of Colon.—Observations of Barnard’s Comet (1887 e) made at the Algiers Observatory with the 0’50 m. telescope, by MM. Trépied and Rambaud. These observations give, in tabulated form, the apparent right ascension, the declination, and number of comparisons with other stars for the period from May 16 to May 24; also the positions of the stars and the apparent positions of the comet for the same period. —On simul- taneous linear equations with partial derivatives of the second order, by M. Painlevé. Some remarks are offered in connexion with M. Goursat’s recent paper on this subject, including the explanation of a different method for obtaining the same results. —On a melograph, by M. J. Charpentier. The apparatus here described and presented to the Academy have been devised and constructed for the purpose of offering a solution of the problem relating to the fixation of musical improvisations, and are applicable to the piano type of instruments.—On the vapour-tensions of liquid cyanogen, by MM. J. Chappuis and Ch. Riviére. While studying the compressibility of cyanogen the authors have had occasion to measure some maxima tensions of this gas, with results differing considerably from those obtained by Faraday and Bunsen. The discrepancies are attributed partly to the great difficulty of introducing cyanogen free from nitre into the barometric chamber ; but chiefly to the manometric methods employed by those physicists, these methods being much inferior in accuracy to the open air manometer adopted by the authors. —On the reproduction of a carbonate of soda known as urao and trona, by M. Paul de Mondésir. These remarks are intended to throw some light on the subject of sesquicarbonate of soda, under which title are grouped various more or less un- satisfactory data and observations.—Action of selenious acid on the bioxide of manganese, by M. P. Laugier. During the course of his researches to discover an oxygenated product Se,O; corresponding to S,O,;, obtained by the action of sul- phurous acid on the bioxide of manganese, the author has obtained some new compounds, here described, resulting from the com- bination of selenious acid with the sesquioxide of manganese.— On a simplified calcimeter, by M. A. Bernard. For the apparatus here described it is claimed that it possesses several advantages over that of Scheibler, although based on the same principle. — Researches on the relations existing between the spectrum of the elements of inorganic substances and their biological action, by Mr. James Blake. The author’s further researches with over forty inorganic elements confirm his previous conclusions ; all except nitrogen and potassium showing a definite relation between their biological action and their conditions of isomorphism. BERLIN. Physical Society, May 20.—Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Gross spoke on the electrical condition of magnets during their magnetization. His experi- ments were made with Joule magnets. A cylindrical piece of iron was split along its axis, and the lower half of the cylinder surrounded lengthways by the spiral wire which conveyed the magnetizing current, completely insulated from it ; the ends of the upper half of the cylinder were perforated by copper spikes, which were then connected by means of copper wires with a galvanometer so as to form a closed circuit. After this circuit, which included the upper half-cylinder, had been brought into electrical equilibrium, the magnetizing current (in the spiral surrounding the other half of the cylinder) was reversed, and the galvanometer gave a throw. The direction of the current thus indicated was always opposite to that of the magnetizing current passing along the inner surface of the half-cylinder. The speaker thought himself justified in excluding the possibility of this result being due to a simple inductive action of the magnetizing current on the galvanometer circuit, inasmuch as when the iron half- cylinder was replaced by one of copper the galvanometer then gave no throw. (In the discussion which followed it was re- marked, in opposition to this view, that the resistance of the galvanometer was too great to admit of its indicating a simple induced current when experimenting with the copper half- cylinder.) Similarly, Dr. Gross is inclined to exclude as an explanation any induction of the magnet upon itself, and thinks that the cause of the current is the difference of potential between the inner and outer side of the cylindrical magnet. This point Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. .... . he proposes to investigate carefully in a future series of exp ments.—Prof. Lampe criticised two papers which appeared la year in the Refertorium fiir Physik, of which one contain an explanation of gravitation, the other treated of the motion a Foucault pendulum. The speaker pointed out very full mathematical and physical mistakes which had made it po for the author of the first paper to regard gravitation as d the rotation of the earth.—Prof. von Bezold gave an extr lucid description of Sprung’s balance-barograph.—Prof. C. Vogel communicated the most recent discovery in connexio with instantaneous photography, by which it is now possibl obtain instantaneous photographs not only at night but also the darkest places. Messrs. Goedicke and Miethe have prepz a mixture of pulverized magnesium, chlorate of potash, sulphide of antimony, which when ignited produces an explos lightning-like illumination of such intensity that by means of an instantaneous photograph can be taken. The speaker th gave a demonstration of the discovery by taking photographs several persons present ; he used the artificial light, of w each flash lasted one-fortieth of .a second, and in a few m produced a picture during the meeting. The powders, as pared by the discoverers, cost only a few pfennigs each, and hence readily come into general use. } BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVE CONTENTS. The Zoological Results of the Challenger Expedition A German Treatise on the Vegetable Kingdom . . Our Book Shelf :— eh Ridgeway : ‘‘ Nomenclature of Colours for Naturalists ” Beale: ‘‘ English Tobacco Culture”. ......-. Bettany: ‘‘ Life of Charles Darwin” Letters to the Editor :— : Thought without Words.—Colonel H. Stuart Wort- ley; Harold Picton... . #! Sorts Diatoms in the Thames.—W. H. Shrubsole .. . The Structure of the Nostochineze. —W alter Gardiner Curious Phenomenon in Capillarity.—S. A. Hill . . Sense of Taste or Smell in Leeches.—Prof. A. G. Bourne oo Gas Lisping.—_A Non-Lisper . :.. 2°93 Soe Etiology of Scarlet Fever. By Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S. The Secohmmeter, By Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F.R.S., and Prof. John Perry, F.R.S. (Z/lustrated) .... 129 The Fossil Fishes of Mount Lebanon ...... #3 Complimentary Dinner to Professor Tyndall . M. Boussingault ..... ORR iin te teen Our Astronomical Column :— Comet 1887 ¢ (Barnard, May 12) . . Minor Planet No. 266... The Parallax of a Tauri . 3 Madras Meridian Observations vin oY Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1887 June 12-18 0. eee ae ee Geographical Notes The Annual Visitation of the Royal Observatory . 1; University and Educational Intelligence ..... 142 Societies and Academies . . 4: 0 e)* ees, See eet et ae a S 6 ©. 6 6 0 eee oe ene eee «© 0 «8 6.6. eve. oe 8s . Pees ae ce oe A ae ©2568 ve Se: 2 eee o() el a 8 0.) eee Oe 8 ee 8 el eer ae PREP Pe ara i SR NATURE 145 THURSDAY, JUNE 16, 1887. THE JUBILEE. EFORE our next number appears, most of the cele- brations connected with the fiftieth anniversary of the Queen’s accession will have taken place; and in London, at all events, the gorgeous ceremonials which are now being prepared for next Tuesday will have been the admiration of hundreds of thousands of Her Majesty’s loyal subjects. It is therefore quite right and fitting that in a journal devoted to the progress of science, which the history of the last fifty years has shown to be the main basis of modern civilization, we should for a moment turn aside from our true function—that of fostering and re- cording the progress of natural knowledge—and dwell for one moment on the subject now uppermost in all minds, and dear to most British hearts. We know that in loyalty ‘the students of Nature in these islands are second to none ; and their gladness at the happy completion of the fifty years’ reign, and their respect for the fifty years’ pure and beautiful life, are also, we believe, second to none. But the satisfaction which they feel on these grounds is tem- pered when they consider, as men of science must, all the conditions of the problem. The fancy of poets and the necessity of historians have from time to time marked certain ages of the world’s history and distinguished them from their fellows. The golden age of the past is now represented by the scien- tific age of the present. Longafter the names of all men who have lived on this planet during the Queen’s reign, with the exception of such a name as that of Darwin, are forgotten ; when the name of Queen Victoria even has paled ; it will be recognized that in the latter half of the nineteenth century a new era of the world’s history com- menced. Whatever progress there has been in the history of any nation during the last fifty years—and this is truer of England than of any other country—the progress has been mainly due to labourers in the field of pure science, and to the applications of the results obtained by them to the purposes of our daily and national life. Space utterly forbids that we should attempt to refer to the various memoirs, discoveries, and inventions which at once are suggested to the memory when one throws one’s self back fifty years and compares the then condi- tion of England with the present one; and we do not suppose that the most Philistine member of any com- munity in our land, from the House of Lords downwards, will urge any objection against the statement. It is quite true that some men of science take a pride in the fact that all this scientific work has been accom- plished not only with the minimum of aid from the State, but without any sign of sympathy with it on the part of the powers that be. We venture to doubt whether this pride is well founded. It is a matter of fact, whatever the origin of the fact may be, that during the Queen’s reign, since the death of the lamented Prince Consort, there has been an impassable iad? gulf between the highest culture of the nation and Royalty itself. The brain of the nation has been divorced from _ the head. Literature and science, and we might almost add art, have no access to the throne. VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 920. Our leaders in science, our leaders in letters,,are personally unknown to Her Most Gracious Majesty. We do not venture to think for one moment that either Her Majesty or the leaders in question suffer from this condition of things; but we believe it to be detrimental to the State, inasmuch as it must end by giving a perfectly false perspective ; and to the thoughtless the idea may rise that a great nation has nothing whatever to do either with literature, science, or art—that, in short, culture in its widest sense is a useless excrescence, and properly unrecognized by Royalty on that account, while the true men of the nation are only those who wield the sword, or struggle for bishop- rics, or for place in some political party for pay. The worst of such a state of things is that a view which is adopted in high quarters readily meets with general acceptance, and that even some of those who have done good service to the cause of learning are tempted to decry the studies by which their spurs have been won. : If literature is a “good thing to be left,” as Sir G. Trevelyan has told us, if Mr. Morley the politician looks back with a half-contemptuous regret to the days when he occupied a “ more humble sphere” as a leader of literature, if students are recommended to cultivate research only “in the seed-sowing time of life ;” are not these things a proof that something is “rotten in the State,” even in this Jubilee year? It surely is well that literature, science, and art should be cultivated by men who are willing to lay aside vulgar ambition of wealth and rank; if only they may add to the stock of knowledge and beauty which the world possesses. It surely is not well that no intellectual pre-eminence should condone for the lack of wealth or political place, and that as far as neglect can do it each scientific and literary man should be urged to leave work, the collective performance of which is never- theless essential to the vitality of the nation. We venture tothink that our viewhas some claims forcon- sideration when we note what happens in other civilized countries. If we take Germany, or France, or Italy, or Austria, we find there that the men of science and litera- ture are recognized as subjects who can do the State some service, and as such are freely welcomed into the councils of the Sovereign. With us it is a matter of course that every Lord Mayor shall, and every President of the Royal Society shall not, be a member of the Privy Council ; and a British Barnum may pass over a thresh- old which is denied to a Darwin, a Stokes, or a Huxley. Our own impression is that this treatment of men of culture does not depend upon the personal feelings of the noble woman who is now our Queen. We believe that it simply results from the ignorance of those by whom Her Majesty is, by an unfortunate necessity, for the most part surrounded. The courtier class in England is—and it is more its misfortune than its fault—interested in few of those things upon which the greatness of a nation really depends. Literary culture some of them may have obtained at the Universities, but of science or of art, to say nothing of applied science and applied art, they for the most part know nothing ; and to bring the real leaders of England between themselves and the Queen’s Majesty would be to commit a dé¢se for which they would never be forgiven in their favourite coferies. No subject—still less a courtier—should be compelled to demonstrate his own insignificance. That this is the real H 146 NATURE cause of the present condition of things, which is giving tise to so many comments that we can no longer neglect them is, we think, further evidenced by the arrange- ments that have been made for the Jubilee ceremonial in Westminster Abbey. The Lord Chamberlain and his staff, who are responsible for these arrangements, have, we are informed, invited only one Fellow of the Royal Society, as such, to be present in the Abbey; while with regard to literature we believe not even this single ex- ception has been made. It may-be an excellent thing for men of science like Prof. Huxley, Prof. Adams, and Dr. Joule, and such a man of literature as Mr. Robert Browning, that they should not be required to attend at such a ceremonial, but it is bad for the cere- monial. .The same system has been applied to the Government officials themselves. ‘Thus, the Department responsible for Science and Art has, we believe, received four tickets, while thirty-five have, according to Mr. Plunket’s statement in the House on Tuesday, been distributed among the lower clerks in the House of Commons. Her Gracious Majesty suffers when a. cere- monial is rendered not only ridiculous but contemptible by such maladministration. England is not represented, but only England’s paid officials and nobodies. While we regret that there should be these notes of discord in the present condition of affairs, there can be no question that Her Majesty may be perfectly assured that the most cultured of her subjects are among the most loyal to her personally, and that they join with their fellow- subjects in many lands in hoping that Her Majesty may be long spared to reign over the magnificent Empire on which the sun never sets, and the members of which Science im the future will link closer together than she has been able to do in the past. IMPERIAL GEOLOGICAL UNION. O one interested in geological science could fail to be impressed with the evidence afforded by the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, in its display of natural products, in the conferences connected with it, and in the number of scientific men collected from all parts of the Empire, of the amount of geological work represented by Great Britain and its dependencies, and the commanding position of the Empire with reference to the geology of the world. The same fact was apparent in the importance attached to Colonial and Indian geology and geography at the meeting of the British Association at Birmingham. Influenced by these facts, I was induced to speak some- what strongly in the address which I had the honour of delivering at Birmingham on the position of Britain and its colonies and the English-speaking world in general with reference to scientific progress. On my return to ‘Canada, and more particularly after the (temporary, as I hope) failure of the project to hold a meeting of the British Association next year in Australia, it seemed desirable to give the matter some definite form; and after correspondence and consultation with friends, I was induced, in February last, to address a letter on the subject to Prof. Stokes, the President of the Royal Society. The reasons for this course were that both Prof. Huxley and his successor in the Presidential chair of the Royal Society had suggested an Imperial Scientific Union, and the subject was understood to be under the ' consideration of the Council of the Society, which ; its central and commanding position has a right to initiative in any movementof this nature. In this | geological science is alone directly referred to, as b that with which the writer is more immediately conne and that which in some respects has already the organization ; but without excluding other departments science. Special reference is also made to Canada affording an apt illustration of the extent and value of geological domain of the Empire. I need scarcel Her Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, seems « auspicious for such a project. The following pe from the letter referred to -- “It is, I think, evident trom the report a ; meeting "of the International Congress of that great, if not insuperable, difficulties lie in t any general agreement as to geological clas nomenclature, and mapping. These difficulties, depend so largely on difference of language and of thought, that they would not affect a union for scie! purposes on the part of the geologists of the B Empire, and ultimately of all English-speakin: nt It therefore appears that sucha more limited union mi with advantage be undertaken in the first instance, with the view not of obstructing but of aiding 1 wit movement. “The British Empire also possesses except a ties for taking the lead of other nations in s geology and physical geography are concerned British Islands, as is well known, are rema great variety of their formations and the their exposures, and much of the present and methods of representation in geology has o in Great Britain, and has been adopted with sligh tion in all English- speaking countries, and to a co able extent in other countries as well. In a have the larger half of North America, and much very satisfactorily explored. We havealsotheac of the best exposures of the older crystalline development of the Palzozoic series in the Easte Provinces, more closely allied to that of Europe th: that of the interior American plateau, and of deposits so extensive and complete that they m mately decide many of those questions of glacial ¢ which have been so much agitated. In India, Aust and South Africa, with the western districts of | and various smaller dependencies, we hold a I influence in the geology of the great Pacific and Ocean areas. Arctic and Antarctic geology and oceanic deposits have been worked principally b observers, and English-speaking geologists have are exploring in many countries not under se flag. More especially the large amount of g work done in the United States is based on methods, and is published and discussed in the language, and the most intimate and friendly subsist between the geologists of the United those of Great Britain and the colonies. = “Tn these circumstances it would seem thata British and English-speaking geologists might the difficulties which appear so formidable as different European nations, and might lay a bi tion of geological fact, classification, nomen representation, which would ultimately be a other countries as far as local diversities and diffe of language might permit. Such a geological would naturally be accompanied or followed by sim co-operation in other departments of investiga natural science. ma See Ga Fune 16, 1887] NATURE 147 ___ “Tt seems probable that the Geological Survey of Great - Britain and the Geological Surveys of the Colonies and of _ India, with the British Association and the Geological _ Societies and geological sections of Societies in all parts _ of the Empire, would be willing to co-operate in such a _ that the Council might usefully invite communications on _ ginning with those of the mother country and its colonies _ and dependencies, but looking ultimately to union with _ those of the United States also. 3 ‘Tn the meantime, I propose to mention the subject to _ the Council of the British Association, to the English and American Committees of the International Congress of Geologists, and to the Council of the Royal Society of Canada, and shall be glad to have your permission to _ regard this communication as an open letter to be used _ in any way likely to promote the object in view.” _ the subject from public departments and Societies, be- Copies of the above letter were sent to representative _ men in every part of the Empire, and a large number of _ replies have been received, expressing an interest in the _ proposal and readiness to aid in carrying it out. In so far as Canada is concerned, Lord Lorne, the founder of _ the Royal Society of Canada, and his successor as Patron of that Society, Lord Lansdowne, have signified their hearty concurrence, and the Council of the Society ap- pointed a Committee on the subject, consisting of Dr. Selwyn, F.R.S., Rev. Prof, Laflamme, and the writer, whose report was adopted at the recent meeting of the Society in Ottawa. The following are the conclusions and recommendations of this report :— “(1) That the objects referred to seem of the greatest importance to the advancement of geological science, and deserve the consideration of this Society, and more -especiall of its Geological Section. . _ “(2) That the present year, when all the subjects of the British Empire are united in a common desire to cele- _ brate the fiftieth year of the reign of Her Most Gracious Majesty, when the public mind is impressed with the recent gathering of the resources of the Empire in the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, when plans for Imperial Federation are before the public, and’ when a Conference of delegates from the colonies, for the purpose of pro- moting a more intimate connexion, is being held in London, appears eminently favourable to the realization of the idea of an Imperial Geological Union. (3) It would appear that the first steps towards such union should be taken by scientific bodies in London, and that the Royal Society of London should be requested to begin the movemeut by inviting in the first instance to a Conference, representatives of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and of the various Societies and Associations in Great Britain and Ireland prosecuting geological work, with tatives from similar bodies in the colonies. Such Conference might define the objects to be attained, ‘might prepare a constitution and arrange for subsequent meetings and for reports to be sent in on important questions. “(4) It appears to your Committee that when thus organized, the work of the ‘Imperial Geological Union’ might be carried on by local and general conferences and conventions; by regular reports from _ local _branches»for publication annually by the Officers or _ Council of the Union ; by correspondence and conference with pees bedies abroad, and possibly by other _ methods which would develop themselves. a. _ be aided by the Geological Survey of the Dominion, by _ this Society and the Societies affiliated with it, and _ possibly also by the Universities. _ “(6) The Director of the Geological Survey of the ' movement under the auspices of the Royal Society, and _ “(5) In so far as Canada is concerned, this work might Dominion has intimated his willingness to co-operate in sending representatives of the Survey to any conference or convention, and also by furnishing information as to the work and methods of the Survey. “(7) It appears to your Committee that this Society might co-operate by empowering the Council to continue its Committee and to select delegates to represent the Society in the event of a preliminary conference being called in London, and by inviting all the affiliated Societies which prosecute geological work in the Dominion to take similar action. . “Your Committee would therefore recommend that this. report, with the letter appended, be printed and circu- lated to the different local Societies connected with this Society, and to such other bodies as may be interested in the matter, and that their aid and countenance be solicited in carrying out the scheme, and that the Society empower the Council, or a committee appointed for the purpose, to represent the views of the Society by corre- spondence, or by attending any conference on the subject which may be summoned. It will, however, be under- stood that no expense shall be incurred without consent of the Council of the Society. “It appears to your Committee that while the usual language of the Union would necessarily be English, communications should be received in any language used within the Empire, and that in this Dominion the English and French languages would be recognized as in this Sociéty.” It will be seen that we hope the initiative will be taken by the Royal Society, and the present communication is. intended to aid in securing that general co-operation throughout the Empire which is essential to success. With the same object I have asked the Council of the British Association to throw its influence on the side of union ; and propose, in resigning the office with which the Association has honoured me, to make it a personal request that this great Society, which, by its meeting in Canada and its proposed meeting in Australia, has assumed an Imperial character, will take a leading part in the promotion of Imperial union both in reference to geology and to other sciences. I need scarcely add that the project is not intended to interfere with the operations of the International Con- gress of Geologists, which is to meet in London in 1888 ; but it would appear eminently desirable that the con- templated Imperial Geological Union should be organized before that meeting, so as to. enable British geology to. present a united front, and to assume the importance to which it is entitled. J. Wm. Dawson. SOCIAL HISTORY OF THE RACES OF MANKIND. Soctal History of the Races of Mankina. Division; ‘‘ Papuo and Malayo Melanesians.” Featherman. (London: Triibner, 1887.) M* FEATHERMAN does not improve. Those who have read the severe criticisms evoked by previous volumes, and still more those who have read the volumes themselves, will understand how much is implied in these few words, which could be justified only by a stern sense of duty, and regard for the interests of scientific'truth. But, as the huge work grows under his hands, it becomes more and more evident fthat he has undertaken a task entirely ‘beyond his strength. The present volume brings especially into painful evidence the Second By A. 148 NATURE [Fune 16, 1887 inherent defects of his method, his inadequate grasp of the subject-matter, and his many shortcomings betrayed at every step in the treatment of details. And first as to the method. A “social history of the races of mankind,” which, as he is careful to tell us, eschews both anthropology and ethnology “in the technical sense of these words,” necessarily resolves itself into a history of social progress, such as, for instance, is presented in Mr. E. B. Tylor’s “Primitive Culture,” or his “ Researches into the Early History of Mankind.” But Mr. Featherman’s work is in no sense a “history,” that is, a systematic and orderly treatise on the various phases through which mankind has passed, or is passing, in its upward development from the crude beginnings to the highest aspects of human culture. Any such broad and philosophic exposition of the subject is at once excluded by his method, which consists of a disconnected and more or less accurate account of the habits and customs, social usages, language, religion, and tribal or national organization of the various races and their subdivisions, classified according to a system 'peculiar to the author. Here we have an interminable series of minute ethnographic pictures, involving endless repeti- tions, without unity, without point, without those compre- hensive generalizations which are essential to give coherence to the whole, and which would flow of them- selves from a systematic treatment. These dsjecta membra may to some extent supply the raw material, but they never can “be considered as a manual of sociology,” as is claimed for them by the author. But owing largely to his inadequate grasp of the sub- ject-matter, this raw material itself is often of a highly unsatisfactory nature, and is so arranged as to be almost worthless to the ordinary student, or in fact to any except those few anthropologists who have the leisure and knowledge needed to re-arrange it for themselves. When Mr. Featherman passed from the “ Nigritians ” (African Negroes) of the first to the “ Melanesians” of this second division, he was at once confronted by one of the most tremendous difficulties in the whole range of anthro- pology ; but of that difficulty, turning upon some rational or at least working classification of the Oceanic peoples, he seems to be absolutely unconscious. Hence in his grouping of these peoples he has fallen into an abyss out of which there is no redemption. It is all very well for him to protest that “it is not the object of this work to discuss contested ethnological questions”; but he him- self feels the necessity of some kind of grouping, in establishing which he is fain to discuss some very abstruse questions touching the origin of mankind, the nature of species, the value of language as a racial test, and the like. In general he professes to base his classifi- cations “principally upon physical characteristics and language” (“ Nigritians,” p. xv.), and this leads him to a classification in the present volume, which confounds the yellow and dark races, which identifies the Malays with the Papuans, which ignores the presence not only of the fair Indonesians, but of the pygmy. Negritoes in the Eastern Archipelago, and which, as shown on the very title-page, recognizes in that region, and in fact in the whole of Australasia, eastwards to Fiji, one stock only— the “ Melanesian.” Of this stock there are two groups, the “ Papuo-Melanesians,” and the “‘ Malayo-Melanesians,” which is like sayinz the “ Black-Blacks ” and the “ Yelle Blacks,” the latter comprising the Malay race in its wide sense, the former all the rest—that is, the Melanes proper of Melanesia, the Papuans of New Guinea ar neighbouring islands, the natives of New Britain < New Ireland, the Negritoes of the Philippines, of Malay Peninsula, and Andaman, the Nicobarese, Australians and Tasmanians. Certainly the Negrite to are nowhere mentioned by name, being ignored as sucl but they are nevertheless described as Papuans Melanesians under other names, such as Ayetas (in Philippines), Semangs (in the Malay Peninsula), Mincopies (in the Andaman Islands), On the last- tioned he quotes somewhat disparagingly (p. SaaS memoir on ‘this race. Yet even from him he might be learnt that the Andamanese “ are Negritoes, #o¢ Papuan (Journal of the Anthropological Institute, August 1 p. 70), just as {from the photographs taken by Mik Malay Peninsula and the Philippines differ fro : Melanesians. This term Melanesian, which here Featherman is aware that it is Greek for “ black.” _ Of these Malays, again, it is dogmatically < (p. 420) that they “did not originate in Asia,” althou; nearly all anthropologists regard them as true / a branch of the Mongolic stock, who migrated south to the Archipelago while it possibly still formed p: the mainland. But Mr. Featherman has a curious t about migrations, denying, in fact, “that either 2 or plants ever migrate.” Hence, for him, the Mala: not be a branch of the Mongolic race, whigs pe races, which, although “ zoologically varieties pa species,” nevertheless originated in six different ce: and are consequently not genetically connected inference he doubtless seems to repudiate in the volume (p. viii.). But it is clearly and unequi stated in the passage in the previous volume, whic ich omits to quote in his reply to the critics who had, a: now says, “erroneously if not purposely ” affirmed this him. The omitted words run thus: “ The peculiar p cal characteristics and the 4adztats of the existi tend to show that they sprang from distinct ind pairs, developed under a variety of surrounding tions in different parts of the world” (“ Nigritians,” x3 In fact, the assumption is that like conditions inevite produce like results, that “the same causes must sarily produce the same effects under any given circu stances,” hence that “ plants and animals must have be produced and evolved not by a single pair, but by 2 indefinite number of pairs in different parts of the w (xiv.). It follows that crocodiles, for instance, have migrated, but have been independently evolved under surroundings in the Old and New Worlds; and so the “six” human types, “zoologically varieties of tl same species,” but nevertheless independently evol SYune 16, 1887] NATURE _ (from what lower types it is not stated) in different centres. SFR ae he aS So it is argued that “the Darwinian theory of trinsform- ism” is entirely wrong, and is caricatured by being com- pared to the Australian theory of the evolution of man from the lizard, which Mooramoora enabled to walk erect by striking off its tail (p. 181). “A weighty argument against the sweeping transmutation theory of Mr. Darwin” _ is elsewhere drawn from the Australian quadrupeds, hardly _ any of which are found in any other country, and it is triumphantly asked, “ Why did they not advance beyond ’ the marsupial type ?” (p. 112). Mr. Featherman evidently still thinks that under given conditions the marsupial should “advance” to a higher or placental type, unaware that Marsh has shown that there is no such evolution, but _ that the marsupial and placental mammals descend in independent lines from a common undifferentiated proto- type (Amertcan Journal of Science for April 1887). We come, lastly, to Mr. Featherman’s many short- comings in the treatment of details, of which it may be said, without any exaggeration, “Che formicolan d’error¢.” _ Blunders and unaccountable inaccuracies in geology, his- tory, geography, zoology, ethnology, seem to accumulate at almost geometrical ratio with each succeeding volume. But, as a previous critic is here said (p. xviii.) to have charged him with making mistakes of this sort without pointing them out, it will be only fair to specify at least a few of the more glaring errors occurring at almost every other page of the present volume. In the very first sen- tence of page 1, Borneo is connected geologically and bio- logically with the Australian instead of the Asiatic world, to which Wallace and others have conclusively shown ‘it undoubtedly belongs. A little further on “ Borneo, _ Sumatra, Java, Celebes, and the smaller islands of the Archipelago,” are said to have “formed a continuous ~ peninsular dependence of Papua” (p. 1), with which the to the Malay Peninsula (p. 13). three first were certainly, and Celebes most probably, never connected. But this re-grouping of the Eastern Archi- pelago, and the removal of the Indo-Malayan to the Austro-Malayan region was necessary for the author’s peculiar views regarding migrations and the ‘ Melane- sians,” so the results of Wallace’s labours in this field are quietly shelved. The members of the animal kingdom are shifted about in the same reckless way, and apparently for no purpose at all, unless it be to show the author’s incompetency for the work he has undertaken. Thus the hippopotamus is transferred from Africa to Sumatra (p. 286) ; birds of paradise from New Guinea to the same region (p. 286), and to Borneo (p. 3); the babirusa from Celebes to “the islands nearest to Malacca” (p. 2), and even to New Guinea (p. 9), where it is described as the Sus papuensis! the gazelle from Africa and South- Western Asia tothe Eastern Archipelago generally (p. 2) ; the emu from Australia to Java (p. 361); the orang-utan from Borneo to “ Malacca” (p. x.) ; humming-birds from America to the Philippines (p. 469), after which long flight it was at»least courageous to deny that “ animals ever migrate” (p.ix.). Topography and geography fare no better, for we have Quettah transported from Baluchistan On the same page the Ayetas are said to be “found more especially on Alabat ‘Island, where they inhabit the coast as well as the mountain regions.” Sheppey, for instance, at Thames mouth, for that is about Think of “mountain regions” in the size of the islet of Alabat, on the east e@ast of Li And think of this rock being the chief ho ‘the Byetas, who are scattered over tens of thousands of square miles in the Philippine Archipelago! Is Mr. Featherman poking fun at his readers, when he writes such stuff as this; or is it that he has not the remotest idea of the significance of the terms which he blindly copies from his mostly antiquated authorities? The latter alternative seems forced upon us, when we again read that the islet of Amboyna and the Sulus ‘‘are distinguished for their alluvial lands, their navigable rivers, &c.” (2). Then the large Solomon Archipelago is reduced to “ Solomon’s Island” (11), while, by way of compensation, Palawan de- velops into “the Palaonans ” (p. 491). Australia is divided at p. 114, into “ five provincial States,” which, however, are further on reduced to “four provinces” (p. 181), Queens- land being here forgotten. So with the population of Fiji, given correctly at p. 183, and wrongly at p. 187 ; and of the Philippines, nearly right at p. 470, but entirely wrong (4,290,000) at p. 480; the laborious compiler, with no in- formation of his own, being thus everywhere at the mercy of the authority he happens at the moment to be quoting. A» glaring instance is his treatment of the Malay Peninsula. and its inhabitants, for which he ap- pears to have seen nothing more recent than Favre’s “Wild Tribes ” (1852),and an early edition of Wallace, quoting, however, Rosenberg’s “‘ Malayische Archipel” (1879), which has nothing at all about the peninsula. The result is ludicrous, the area of this region being given “about 45,000 square miles ” (p. 420), instead of 75,000, and the population at 374,266 instead of 1,200,000. Here, also, “the chief rivers” are said to be “the Lingie, the Malacca, and the Cassang” (p. 419), and the mountains —but without wearying the reader it will suffice to say that the mountains are worse than the rivers. Similar wild statements are made about the Malay language (p. 300) about the population of Java (p. 362), the Javanese language (p.-376), the “ Kanaks ” of New Caledonia (p. 77), and, to make an end of it, about the Bughis of Celebes, of whom we are gravely informed that their “commercial activity is extremely limited ” (p. 447), these Bughis being far and away the most enterprising and commercial people in the whole Eastern Archipelago. One word in conclusion. If Mr. Featherman sees good to continue this wearisome compilation on the old lines, let him at all events abstain from sneering at specialists like Mr. Man (p. 232, 235), Mr. Taplin (not ZarA/zn, p. 135), Messrs. Fisson and Howitt (p. 141), and others who have done such admirable ethnological work in this Oceanic domain. But above all let him respect the august name of Charles Darwin (pp. 112, 181). A. H. KEANE. THE FAUNA OF LIVERPOOL BAY. First Report on the Fauna of Tiverpool Bay and the Neighbouring Seas. By Members of the Liverpoo Marine Biology Committee, edited by W. A. Herd- man, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in University College, Liverpool. (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1886.) N this volume are published the results of investiga- tions carried on by a Committee of Naturalists belonging to Liverpool and its neighbourhood. The > ae ve 150 ‘NATURE inquiries were suggested by Prof. Hocinlan and his energy and influence have evidently contributed largely to the success of the work. It is intended that the Com- mittee shall endeavour to found a sea-side laboratory and form a permanent organisation for marine biological research, but its first operations in the summer of 1885 were limited to expeditions for obtaining invertebrate specimens, by dredging, trawling, and tow-netting from | steam-tugs, and collecting on the shore at low-tide. ~The volume consists of a number of reports by the members ‘of the Committee and other naturalists on separate portions of the collections made. The greater number of these reports are lists. of species, with a record of the places where each occurred; one or two of the papers deal with matters of more general scientific ‘importance. Prof. Herdman himself identified the Alcyonaria, the Echinodermata, the Nudibranchiata, and ‘the Tunicata, and also is jointly with two other gentle- men responsible for the Hydrozoa. Mr. Hoyle records the Cephalopoda. The experience of these naturalists is -a sufficient security for the correctness of their work. In the list of Vermes given by J. A. Harvey Gibson, there are one or two errors which lessen its value. C7rratudlus borealis, Lamarck, and C. cirratus, O. F. Miiller, are set down as separate species, and it is stated that the latter, -of which a single specimen was dredged, has not pre- viously be2n recorded from the locality. The two names are synonyms, and to what species the single specimen “in arather mutilated condition” belonged remains an open question. WVephthys hembergiz, And.and M. Edw., is given as a synonmyn of JW. /ongisetosa, Oersted, but the two names undoubtedly refer to distinct species, and it follows that the specimens of Nephthys examined were not accurately discriminated. Mr. Harvey Gibson contributes another paper on the structure of some of the Polycheeta, in which he gives some interesting notes on certain anatomical points, and gives reasons for concluding that Pectinaria belgica, Pallas, and P. auricom.1, Miiller, are synonyms. A short paper by Prof. Herdman, on variation in the Tunicata, discusses the value of different characters in these animals as diagnostic marks, and points out the necessity of thorough anatomical examination in describing species, or even identifying individuals. A species of S,candra which could not be identified with any already known, and which is therefore probably new, is described by Mr. Harvey Gibson under the name S. aspera. Three introductory papers precede the more special part of the book: one in which Prof. Herdman gives a history of the origin and work of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee; one by the Rev. H. H. Higgins, containing a review of previous work in the domain to which the volume refers; and one by Prof. Milnes Mar- shall on shallow-water faunas. In this last a short but interesting comparison is made between the peculiari- ties of the physical conditions of the littoral region and features commonly occurring in the life-cycle of its inhabitants. Prof. Herdman, in summing up the results of the first year’s work of the Committee, gives the following figures :—913 species of invertebrates have now been recorded from the district under examination, of which 235 are new finds made by the Committee: 16 of these are new to the record of the British marine representing the New. | sion is requisite before the botanist and fauna, and 7 species and 3 varieties are new to These additions to zoological knowledge are illust ten lithographic plates, which, with the exception Plate II., containing coloured figures of Anthozoa, Plate IV., devoted to small crustacean forms, do attain a plete high standard. There are also two showing the district explored. OUR BOOK SHELF. Oberpliocin-Flora aus den Baugruben des K bet Niederrad und Schleuse bet Hochst a Geyler und F. Kinkelin. (Frankfort, 1837.) é AS a general rule, the more recent the fossi more. satisfactory the determinations of the prised in it will appear, though the work of © and others has made an exception of those of boniferous period. In the late Tertiaries the so closely allied to those still living that com} relatively easy ; but as we go back in time t more and more, and there is less to guide u cene floras especially show us that inn that are now exotic were indigenous — almost to glacial times, and their study sheds an light on the more problematical floras © them. ta This work describes a Pliocene flora : described from the valley of the Maine. with the fruits of well-known existing ¢g temperate regions. A remarkable except tralian type of Callitris, /venelites, which correctly determined. "The pines are n them being P2zus montana, and two varieties wl raised to the rank of species—P. cembra, dete! part of a cone, P. strobus on a scale, and examples named P. cortesiz, Ad. Brong. O are the larch, the silver fir, and the Norway American swamp or deciduous cypress, 7 Europe from the Eocene age onward, is rep foliage. Among the rest are leaves and UPI of the hornbeam, the cup of an acorn, an ab beech-nuts, described as Fagus pliocenica,an chestnut, representing the Old World; Liquidambar, Nyssa, a walnut, Juglans another nearly allied to /. migra, and thi The European forms thus appear about equal in number, one Asiatic, the horse-chestnut, and one form. ee The data are more trustworthy than are tainable from fossil floras, and they bring i one significant fact—namely, that whenever we hazel, walnut, or chestnut in strata so recent cene, or even as true Miocene, there is ni about the genera, for fruits and other organs be are present ; but in the older Tertiaries no d of the kind are ever associated with the Tea € to these genera. The evidence I have in the field seems to show that the early Eoc Eocene Dicotyledons had small clustered Platanus, Alnus, Liguidambar, &c.; ~~ plants were an Eocene development ; ; seeded oak, beech, walnut, hazel, are “of The reliance placed on the mere similarity i appearance of leaves of common types has not been fied by later discoveries, and an immense amount ¢ tad put his trust in the descriptions of the older oras. J. STARKIE GARD! N Sune 16, 1887] | NATURE 151 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous ; communications. [Te Lditor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as. possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.) i aa ee ile British Association Sectional Procedure, As the time for holding the Manchester meeting of the British _ Association approaches, it seems natural to inquire whether any action will be taken by the Council of the Association toward carrying out the important suggestions made in the columns of NATuRE (vol. xxxiv. p. 495), by Prof. Oliver Lodge, imme- diately after the late meeting at Birmingham. I can vouch for the - fact chat many of the active workers in the Section meetings of _ the Association can heartily indorse the expression of discontent which fell from Prof. Lodge as to the inadequacy of the present arrangements. The effect of the attempt to shirk holding Section meetings on the Saturday, and on the succeeding Wednesday, has been to cause a most undesirable pressure upon the time - available on other days, and has rendered serious and effective discussion of the subjects of the papers almost impossible. It is understood that at Manchester, thanks to the generous hospitality of the local leaders, the Association will be graced by the presence of an unusual number of foreign men of science, includ- ing some of the most distinguished of chemists, physicists, and biologists. This fact is in itself an additional reason for expect- ing earnest and lively discussions to arise in the Section meetings, —discussions such as add greatly to the interest of the meetings, and are of extreme value to those who are actual workers in science. It would indeed be cause for regret if the anticipated discussions were to be burked or spoiled by want of due atten- tad the arrangements of the meetings. The suggestions of Prof. Lodge are indeed so timely that I fear to weaken their force by adding to them or emphasizing any of them. Yet I ‘cannot refrain from urging two points: one the extreme undesir- ability of scamping the Wednesday sitting ; and the other the advisability of reconsidering the hours of holding Committee meetings. Whyshould not the Sectional Committees meet from 3 to 4 o’clock, and the Sections at 10.30? A clear half-hour would be gained; Committee-men might slip out for lunch instead of attempting to sit out a dwindling meeting in a famished state ; and they would continue their attendance to the end of the Section meeting because of the Committee meeting at its close, Further, much good would accrue if the Council would cause to be published from the first the days and hours appointed for the reading of papers or the holding of discussions on the various topics. Last year I succeeded in inducing the Sectional Secretaries to begin this practice, in spite of the cold water thrown upon my suggestion by more than one of the ancient lights of the Council. If the Council would only, as a matter of rood business-like arrangement, issue instructions that this should : done in No. 1 of the Journals, the benefit would be double. As an instance I will only mention that many of the members of the Committee on Electrolysis, of which Prof. Lodge is Secretary, are looking forward to a full and interesting discussion of their report, in which discussion they especially anticipate that an important will be taken oy their distinguished Continental visitors. owing this to be the case, why cannot the Council fix beforehand a day and hour for this matter, which is to many of the physicists and chemists the most important event of the meeting, more important than the addresses of Presidents of Sections, more important than the set evening discourses, more important even than the address of the President himself ? ie SILVANuS P. THOMPSON. _ 20 Arundel Gardens, W., June 4. i ts te The Recent Earthquakes in Mexico and Turkestan. _ In vol. xxxiv. p. 570 of NATURE you kindly allowed me to bring forward some facts in support of a view advanced by me and mentioned in your review of the ‘‘ Catalogue of European Earthquakes ” which appeared in your number of September 16, 1886 (vol. xxiv. p. 465), that earthquake localities lie on or are connected by great circles representingmain lines of fissuring and therefore coast-line directions. Since then I have observed and noted two or three other remarkable cases, but the earth- quakes recently reported (May 30) from Mexico, and June 9 from Turkestan, are so interesting in this respect that I venture to ask you for permission to point out how a great circle connects them. This great circle is a coast-line direction which I had laid down and called ‘‘ Coast of Coromandel Great Circle.” It passes through or near the following localities and points. Parting from the mouth of the Musi River on that coast it takes in the coast-line to Pulicat ; traverses the Indian and Southern Oceans and South Polar region (passing not far from the South Magnetic Pole) ; traverses the South Pacific and cuts the coast of Mexico at Talipa ; passes at Oaxaca (the province of the same name is named as having been affected by the recent earthquake), also between Puebla and Vera Cruz (also similarly affected) ; runs parallel to the west coast of the Mexican Gulf; traverses the United States, about 200 miles west of the boundary shown in Major Powell’s map of the earthquake of August 31, 1886 (see NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 31), and roughly parallel to it ; cuts the west coast of Hudson’s Bay at the mouth of the Nelson River ;. passes at about 1° east of the North Magnetic Pole ; traverses the North Polar region ; crosses Nova Zembla, and the promon- tory to the north of the Sea of Obi and Siberia ; and passes at about fifty-two miles to the west of Vernoje. It may be of interest to remark that a great circle representing the Riviera coast-line, so lately and so disastrously shaken, passes in a north-west and south-east direction about 4° to the north-east of this point, and as the Turkestan earthquake has evidently extended beyond Vernoje, the actual distance between this great circle and the district affected may be less than 4*.. In any case it is an interesting relation, and all the more so as this Riviera great circle cut New Zealand in the vicinity of the earth- quake district of June 10, 1886, itself antipodal to that of Andalusia of December 29, 1884. J. P. O'REILLY. Dublin, June 11. The Late Earthquake on the Riviera, February 23, 1887. HAvinc been at Nice during the late earthquake, I was much interested in the accounts published in NATURE (vol. xxxv. pp. 419 and 442), from which I have drawn up the following table :— Earthquake of February 23, 1887. sa fe Velocity Waal es Greenwich D 5 miles, |724**S| “miles ocal time. M.T. uration. per (From| Nice.) sconces Nice— h. m. s. h. m. 8) | ss secs. x)" 5 59 0am. | 5 30 OF! 25 intense. (2) 6100 5 45 0 ? 3) 8 300 eee Se 10? (4) 1 15 op.m.| 22 46 0 Marseilles— (1) 5 55 0a.m.| 5 33 40 go secs. Too 38 30 (2) 6 50 | 5 4340 | 15 » 100 2§ 37 Turin— ‘1) 6220 aT 3a | 100 2 50 (2) 6310 Bi gO 100 ? simul/ taneous. (3) 8530 Sage 100 2 50 Basle— ‘ (x) 6 47 5 34 5 | 270 4 67 | Paris— | (1) 5 450 5 35 30 | 420 5h 76 Greenwich— (x) 5.380 5 38 o 20 SeCS. 650 e ; 8x (2) 5.450 5 45 0 650 42 |? 160 6 00 67°,0:°0 7 400 7 40 0 7 500 7 50 0 152 NATURE -I am indebted to M. Perrotin, of the Nice Observatory, for some useful information. He tells me that ‘‘the first shock lasted nearly one minute ; it began by being very slight at first, and then became very intense: this latter phase lasted from 20 to 30 seconds.” anes We were all accused of great exaggeration in our accounts of the earthquake (I put the first shock at half a minute), but this more than confirms our estimates, A gentleman from South America, accustomed to earthquakes every week, told us that it was ‘‘a pretty good shake up.” : ; According to Lyell, Mallet, and others, we at Nice being on alluvial deposits—gravel, clay, &c.,—felt not only the original shock, but also the rebounds from the rocks on either side ; this would account for the very violent shaking that we had. I have compared notes with dozens of people, and feel sure that it was quite different from the sort of shock they felt at Cannes, Monte Carlo, and other places on rock, even the east bay at Mentone (the west bay suffered more than Nice). What saved us from being knocked down was, I suppose, that the amplitude of the vibrations was small, probably only a few inches. In the Italian Riviera (Diano Marina, &c.) they must have been more severe. Most people think that one more shock of the same strength would have brought half the houses down. A railway carriage going at 60 miles an hour gives the best idea of what our rooms were like during the first shock ; it was impossible to stand on the floor without holding on to something, like a landsman on board a ship in a storm. It would appear from the times given in the table that the velocity of this earthquake was high: 76 miles a minute to Paris, and 81 to London—a curious case of velocity increasing with distance. The second shock seems to have gone faster than the first. The ordinary rate of earthquake-shock velocity is (according to Prestwich’s ‘‘ Geology ’’) :— 1857. Neapolitan earthquake ... 9 miles per minute. 1843. United States ,, SSM ee ASL a5 1869. Cachar (India) ,, Puneet sy eer s The centre of the shock was somewhere in the Gulf of Genoa, near Savona. The second shock was slight. strong, but short. The noise before the first shock was very loud, like a large steam blast. There were more than half a dozen other shocks in the two following days, but they were slighter, and chiefly oscillatory ; curiously enough, we did not mind them so much as the vibrations, though I believe they are much more dangerous, if severe. The night before the earthquake some horses were nervous and refused food, and dogs howled, but I naturally supposed that it had something to do with the Carnival which was being celebrated at the time. J. E. H. PEYTON. 108 Marina, St. Leonards-on-Sea, May 19. The Shadow of Adam’s Peak. I HAVE recently seen a paper, read before the Physical Society by the Hon. Ralph Abercromby, which apparently shatters an explanation proposed by me to the same Society of the pheno- mena. of the shadow of Adam’s Peak in Ceylon. Whilst not anxious to support my own theory, if one more consistent with the phenomena has been discovered, I venture to think that there are certain considerations which militate against the new theory, and render it incomplete ; and, with your permission, I will enumerate them. (1) Mr. Abercromby says that it is the intervention of near and moving mist which produces the apparent uprising of the shadow. Is it possible that sucha simple explanation could have escaped the notice of the hundreds of observers who have witnessed the phenomenon, and returned with the impression that there was something inexplicable about the shadow? It is difficult to imagine observing and reasoning faculties so rudi- mentary as not to be able to observe that a shadow was on mist, and reason from that to an explanation of the apparent approach and uprising of the shadow. (2) Mr. Abereromby’s theory depends on the intervention of “near and moving mist rising from the Maskeliya Valley. This valley stretches away behind the observer in a south-east direc- tion as well as to the north-west, and mist rising from it would be quite as likely to intercept the sun’s rays behind as to form a curtain in front for the shadow to be projected on, and it would : The third was | be only on very rare occasions, such as Mr. Abercrom scribes, that the mist would keep entirely to the north-y the Peak. Why it should do so is not explained. Th the uprising of the shadow could only be seen on such very occasions. . (3) Mr. Abercromby says: ‘‘ Our fortune was in the uns weather, which made the mist so coarse and close that the unequivocal bow left no doubt as to the true nature of the cause ;” ‘the sky was covered with a confused mass of nearly ev variety of cloud ;” ‘‘ below and around us cumulus and mist ‘a pale moon with an ill-defined corona ;” * sometimes mz of mist coming up from the valley enveloped us with conder vapour ;” ‘driving condensed vapour was floating about, a fragment of rainbow-tinted mist appeared near the if shadow.” Under such conditions, what else could Mr. A cromby have seen than what he describes, the shadow on mist, a circular rainbow, spectral figures like those of the Br the rising and falling of the shadow as the mist inte: passed away? Instead of ‘‘ fortunate” in his conditions, Mr. Abercromby was the very reverse. To be ‘‘ fortunate should also have seen the shadow in a clear atmosphere, noted the adsence of any appearance of uprising. Mr. Why in his famous descent of the Matterhorn after the acciden in the evening a fog-bow very similar to that described b Abercromby, and the presence of mist was noticed in that case. But I ask, and I am willing to rest my theory on the answer, | is not the phenomenon of the apparent uprising of the shadow, witnessed when no mist is visible, and the atmosphere | north-west is clear? This furnishes a simple crux of th theories ; for any observer can notice whether mist is — not, and if not, whether there is any appearance of the of the shadow or not. Until corrected by future obse: maintain that the phenomenon is seen when there ‘‘around us cumulus and mist” and ‘‘ masses of mist ¢ up from the valley ;” in fact, when the air is so calm that the coast-line can be traced at a distance of seventy more. If I am proved i i i to be correct in this opinion, the ne theory has not advanced the explanation by a single step. theory of total internal reflection depends on the differer temperature between the air in the low country and on the Pe which is most marked in clear calm weather, ice fc ; such times on the Peak, while a fall of the thermometer to in the low country is commented on as noteworthy by the papers. The conditions described by Mr. Abercromby re the idea of mirage absurd ; but they also suggest, if the 1 theory be correct, the absurdity of there ever having been < mystery about the phenomena of the Shadow of the Peak. May 30. R. ABs. Upper Wind Currents near the Equator and Diffusion of Krakatdo Dust. ~~ I REGRET that Mr. Abercromby, before writing his in and suggestive article under the above heading, had no o; tunity of making himself acquainted with the conclus arrived at by the Krakatdo Committee regarding the rate which the finest ejecta were carried round the world. velocity he ascribes to the material, viz. 120 miles an hi deduced apparently from the few observations he quotes, quite 40 miles an hour in excess of that deduced from numerous cases treated by Mr. Russell and myself. In one or cases in the Indian Ocean the velocity does apparently app to that given by Mr. Abercromby, but these are both exce and doubtful, since they were probably due to minor outh antecedent to that which gave rise to the grand stream wh encircled the globe at an average pace of 80 miles an h Mr. Abercromby has thus accidentally made the p appear far more formidable than it really is. A constant of 120 miles an hour right round the world, though not outr to anyone who reflects on the great mobility of the atmosph the height of 100,000 feet or more, certainly makes a c able demand upon our powers of scientific imagination, velocity of only 80 miles an hour, even though constant the entire equatorial belt, does not appear, at such a! be opposed to what is already known of the motions of atmosphere at the far inferior elevation of the cirrus clouds. The height of the stratum is certainly a factor which car be overlooked, for if we find the average velocity of t continually increase as we ascend to the cirrus, it is reaso: to conclude that it rises beyond this limit, and if so a con Yune 16, 1887] NATURE 153 : _ wind of 80 miles an hour at an elevation of 100,000 feet (less _ than the height deduced by Verbeek for that reached by some of _ the ejecta) might theoretically co-exist with a trade wind of _ ordinary velocity at the earth’s surface. _ _ It is not so much with reference to the velocity as to the _ direction of the upper currents near the equator that Mr. _ Abercromby’s itinerary observations are valuable, since they _ correspond both normally and exceptionally with what might be __ expected from the laws of aéro-dynamics. Theory is naturally _ perhaps, though still somewhat singularly, silent as to what is _ supposed to be the motion of the air in the upper regions of the - belt bounded by 15° on either side of the equator. Ferrel’s _ equations are not very satisfactory for this space, owing to the _ smallness of the term 2vwsin @ representing the deflecting force _ Of terrestrial rotation (ad/enkungskraft), and close to the equator fail altogether at the surface, That the wind there, however, _ still maintains its westward component under the normal con- ditions which accompany the north and south trades is plain both from Mr, Abercromby’s and other observations. Higher up, owing to the absence of friction, the air tends to move in the “inertia curve ” corresponding to its motion at the surface, whose radius of curvature is aa and since near the equator @ sin @ is very small this curve is very nearly a straight line _ parallel to the equator, Whatever therefore happens to the _ Surface wind through local influences such as latitudinal shift of thermal equator or doldrums, or the establishment of a local heat maximum on a land surface causing a deflection of the normal trade wind into a local monsoon, ought not to interfere sensibly with the general tendency of the upper air to stream from east to west for a considerable space on either side of the equator. 1 ~y just remark, ex fassant, that the belt bounded by 15° N. and 5, latitude embraces an area of more than one-quarter of the entire surface of the globe. The apparent anomalies as well as rules exhibited by Mr. aaa She thus seen to be in complete accordance with the above principle. It is only when we get some distance away from equator that the paivent towards the poles in the SaERe atmosphere becomes large enough to change the west- ward into an eastward motion. As the air slides down this slope the radius of the ‘‘inertia curve” becomes smaller, and it veers through S.E. and S. to S. W., the normal direction of the upper current at the boundaries of the trade zones. That the barometer gradient at a height of 13,000 feet over ’ the equator is very small either from or towards the poles may be gathered from the following extract fron a table given by Dr. Sprung in his ‘“‘Lehrbuch der Meteorologie” (Hamburg, 1885) :— Height 13,123 feet. | Mean pressure in inches. | Lat. 20° N : ; 18°504 10° ‘ : : 18°532 ° 7 : : 18°543 eh Shales ; ; 18°547 20° 18°547 Above this height the gradient towards the poles would increase, but theoretically there might be no change in the direction of the wind near the equator. June 3. E. DouGLAS ARCHIBALD, Mammaliferous Gravel at Elloughton, in the Humber ~ Valley. I wAs informed a short time ago that a large bone had been found in a gravel-pit near Brough, on the Humber, and went at once to examine the place. I found the ‘‘ bone” to be a mam- moth’s tusk of large size, and learnt that other teeth and bones had not infrequently been exhumed in the pit. As this seems to be a new locality for mammalian remains, I think a short description of the deposit may be found useful. __ The excavation was commenced about twelve months ago on the top of a small isolated hill known as Mill Hill, which rises _ out of the Humber Flat to a height of about go feet, close to _ the village of Elloughton, and since that time there has been a constant and steady removal of the material, so that a good Section is now exposed. The hill forms an outlier of the Wold Range, from which it is separated by low ground nearly a mile in width, the north shore of the Humber lying about one mile to the south of it. It is composed of Oolitic rocks overlain by gravel. The section at present shown is as follows ;— ; A British burial found in this A. Top-soil, &c.... .,. 2hfeet.; layer, on the west side of the pit. ( Contains pebbles of flint, sand- stone, red chalk, Oolitic limestone, and other local rocks, along with a few well-worn erratic pebbles of felstone, quartzite, &c. ; also rolled lumps of clay and streaks of carbonaceous mat- \ _ ter like decayed vegetation. The mammoth’s tusk and other bones were found in this bed. Of doubtful age, but probably belonging to the Estuarine Oolites. B. Rough stony gravel, ) about with sand... ... ... § 9 feet. C. Yellow sand, with ) about stony layers a+} § feet. D. Hard gray clay, forming Bor ob RE ee a In the rough gravel, B, there are some boulders of local rocks so large as to suggest the idea that floating ice has been the agent of their transportation, especially as it seems as though the blocks must either have been raised from a lower level, or floated over the depression intervening between this hill and the Oolitic exposures in the flanks of the adjacent Wolds. The junction of B with C is very well marked, and there are signs of erosion, and unconformity between them; but as the whole of the beds are current-bedded and irregular, this line ot separation may be of no importance. On the other hand, since fossils seem only to be found in the sand, C, this may be the remains of an older deposit which has been denuded during the deposition of the overlying unfossiliferous gravel, B, and this latter bed may be a continuation of similar rough unfossiliferous gravels seen on the lower ground to the westward. If the clay exposed on the bottom of the pit really forms part of the Oolites, I see no means of determining the age of these gravels ; but my impression is that at any rate they are not older than the oldest boulder-clay of Holderness, and are probably not later than the newest. At Hessle, six miles to the eastward, bones have been found in a chalky rubble underlying boulder- clay, which Prof. Phillips regarded as pre-Glacial. At Biel- becks, seven miles to the northward, similar remains were obtained in 1829 from a fresh-water deposit which I think was regarded as post-Glacial. It may be that these deposits will eventually prove all to be of one age. The size and condition of the tusk were such that I do not think it can have been carried hither by water-currents alone. It has more probably either been dropped from the floating or living carcase of the animal or from a mass of floe-ice. Its length, as it lay exposed on the floor of the pit at the time of my visit, was 90 inches, but the workmen said they had broken up about two feet of the ‘‘ thick end” before they were aware ; and as the apex was also blunted and badly preserved, I think its length when first deposited cannot have fallen short of 10 feet. Its diameter was 6 inches at a distance of 10 inches from the apex ; 74 inches at 20 inches; 8 inches at 30; 84 at 40, beyond which it did not seem perceptibly to thicken. It lay in a water-logged gravel, and was in a very friable state ; and though I was enabled, through the kindness of Mr. H. Lyon, the owner of the pit, to strengthen the specimen with cement, it crumbled into small splinters when an attempt was made to remove it, and was irretrievably ruined. Its curvature was not great, and would lie within a breadth of about 20 inches. : The only other remains I have yet obtained from the pit are some portions of the teeth of the mammoth and a few irrecogniz- able fragments of bone. In the top-soil on the west side of the pit a British burial has been cut through, wherein lay the bones of a human skeleton, together with a fragmentary vase with the characteristic ornamentation. G. W. LAMPLUGH. Bridlington Quay, June 6. Fall of Peculiar Hailstones in Kingston, Jamaica. SHORTLY after midday on the 2nd inst. a thunderstorm visited this city ; the rain began with the wind from the east, as is usual with our May seasons, but it speedily changed to the 154 NATURE — [Fune 16, 18 west, accompanied with much lightning and thunder. Imme- diately hailstones became mingled with the rain, attention being drawn to their advent by the sharpness with which they struck on the shingled roofs. The west door of the laboratory being open to.the air, the-hail came in freely, nearly covering the floor for more than 12 feet. The -hailstones were of clear ice, inclosing a few bubbles of. air, varying from mere points to bubbles of the size of a split pea. The shape of the stones was singular. Suppose a shallow and very thick saucer to have a shallow cup, without a handle, inserted in it, and you will have a good idea of the form of the hailstones when unbroken. Many had more or less lost the “ saucer” by violence, while some were entirely without it, presenting the appearance of a double convex lens with faces of different curvature. - By actual measurement the hailstones were found to vary from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and from one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in thickness at the thickest part. I observed that in.-very many of the larger stones the air- bubbles could move about, showing the interior to be still liquid ; as melting proceeded the bottom of the “saucer” would suddenly give way and become concave. The storm lasted about 15 or 20 minutes, hail falling for the greater part of the time. The hail which fell on grass. remained unmelted for ten or fifteen minutes after the rain ceased. The fall of hail was very local, none falling at my house a mile away. I am informed that hail last fell in Kingston in 1839. : JAMES JOHN BowREy. Government Laboratory, May 12. Singular Nesting-place of Linnets IT may be interesting to some of your readers to know of the recurrence ofa strange freak on the part of a pair of linnets. Last ‘year they selected, as the scene of their nest-building and other parental operations, the interior of a Maltese water-bottle, hung against a brick wall, at the back of the house of Capt. G. Wood, and in a sort of half yard, half garden. The bottle is of porous ware, 10 inches high, 7 inches wide at its broadest part, which is mid-way between the bottom of the neck and the base, and haying an upright constricted neck 4 inches long and only 1} inches in diameter on the inside. In this singular receptacle the birds contentedly built, laid their eggs, and successfully reared their brood. This year, strange to say, the same pair, or one identically like them, have returned to the old haunt, deftly repaired and slightly added to the old nest, laid their eggs, and now have a vigorous progeny of five or six unfledged youngsters, : How the birds came, in the first instance, to select such a shelter, seeing that they could only pass in or cut with folded wings, and by a sort of dart, and that to enter the neck from within in this way must have been a task of considerable skill and no little difficulty, is a mystery ; but that they should have retained such a happy memory of their first sojourn as to lead them to return to their old quarters, is more interesting still. H. VIAN- WILLIAMS. 3 Waterloo Place, North Shields, June 2. A Br lliant Meteor, YESTERDAY I saw a very brilliant meteor with train, resem- bling a firework in shape, colour, and other features. It was ‘coming from Ursa Major, and vanished midway between a Lyrz and &Cygni. Motion very slow; 21h. 19m. mean Turin time. Turin, June 11. -“F. Porro, ELECTRICITY AT OXFORD. Et is with very great regret that we learn that the study * of natural science in the University of Oxford received last week a blow which is all the more to be deplored in that it was, in part at all events, deliverec those from whom such an onslaught was least to | been expected. Professed hostility or indifference to great scientific movement of the day, injudicious eco: —these are obstacles which promoters of that mo must be prepared to face, and will in the long run ¢ come. It is not, however, to be expected that pr will be made if each forward step is checked by those have themselves enlisted on the side of science. The cardinal point which the University had,to d was whether it should or should not provide itself y laboratory for the development of the teaching of e city. The Clarendon Laboratory was, we bel: first building in this country which was planned erected for the study of experimental physics alone. was designed about twenty years ago by Prof. Cli and, if we except the provision made for ele nothing better or more complete is to be foun four seas. z Rooms were, it is true, originally set apart as elect laboratories. The rapid growth of the science » have sufficed to render them inadequate now gather from a statement circulated by Prof. Clif other causes have combined to strengthen the cas extension of the building. Optics has been a favourite subject among stude physics at Oxford, and optical apparatus now the space intended for electrical instruments. has come to pass that “the important branch tricity and magnetism are,” in the words of the “necessarily excluded from the practical course.” _ In consequence of this unsatisfactory condition affairs, Prof. Clifton has for some years lectured alt exclusively on electricity, and has been comp discuss methods of manipulation and details as to i ments which are usually mastered in a labora Lee’s Reader in Physics, Mr. R. Baynes, has lished a practical course on electrical measu Christ Church. Although the work he has th excellent, we believe that it is not contended ° Church is in a position to make a permanent pi for instruction in electricity on a scale adequate requirements of the University. et For some time past, therefore, the University urged to add a wing for electrical work to the Clar Laboratory. a The necessity of providing for other Universit ments has caused a long delay, but at length th physics seemed to have come. Plans prepared |. Clifton were submitted to the Hebdomadal Council. Henry Wilde, F.R.S., generously promised a gas-e dynamos, and an electric lamp. The Delegates Museum (who superintend the laboratories of the U sity), the Curators of the Chest (who have ch. financial affairs), approved the scheme. It was ad by the Council, and nothing remained but fe graduates in Convocation assembled to give their At the last moment, however, unexpected opposi arose. Balliol and Trinity Colleges have for some y combined their provision for the teaching of nat science, and the President of Trinity, acting for th Colleges, issued a pamphlet hostile to the grant proposed new laboratory. This step was taken | grounds, both of which appear to us mistaken. __ In the statement above referred to, Prof. Clifto mentioned as an advantage incidental to the erecti the new laboratory that he would be able to ak lecture course of electrical demonstrations, as the | tion given in them would be better provided for laboratory work. He proposed to substitute a ge course on physics, addressed not only to the com tively few students who aim at high honours in subject, but to the larger body who enter for the firs' preliminary stage of the honour examination. To Sune 16, 1887] NATURE 155 ‘the authorities of Trinity objected that instruction of ‘this kind was already given by one of their lecturers. Into the merits of a dispute on a question of organiza- ‘tion of this kind it is difficult, and perhaps unnecessary, to enter. The main fact is that, even if Balliol and Trinity are right in claiming as against the University something like a monopoly of general lecture instruction in physics, ‘they have enforced that claim by placing, for an indefinite ‘period, the Oxford school of physics at a serious dis- advantage. Not a penny of the grant asked for was to be expended on apparatus for elementary lectures. It was all required for a lodge, for expenses connected with ‘Mr. Wilde’s installation, and for an electrical laboratory ‘such as other Universities have and the University of Oxford has not. ‘The President of Trinity no doubt thought that he was striving to prevent the University ‘incurring an unnecessary expense. Could not some of his scientific advisers have informed him that the questions as to whether an electrical laboratory should be built, and as to whether Prof. Clifton should spend time which its erection would place at his disposal in delivering a particular course of lectures, are ‘separate and distinct? Are there no Boards or Faculties im Oxford in which the arrangement of lectures can be discussed without the friends of progress obstructing pro- ress in Convocation? Opposition to the extension of e Clarendon Laboratory (the necessity for which they did not deny), lest as a secondary result of that extension a course of lectures should be given, which would involve no cost to the University, but which they feared might infringe their own real or supposed rights, is not an atti- tude for which the combined Colleges can expect much nie ly _ The second point which was raised by the President of Trinity was dealt with in an equally unsatisfactory manner. In 1885, Trinity College built and opened the i Laboratory for instruction in. theoretical and ' | mechanics and engineering. The Laboratory contains a steam-engine and three dynamos. It is about to be further extended, and it is claimed that it contains all the apparatus required for technical work in elec- tricity. The President recited these facts in his pamphlet, and then added: “ But with the question of advanced work I must leave others, who have more knowledge, to deal.” We venture to think that before describing the Millard Laboratory in detail in a pamphlet opposed to the Clarendon Laboratory grant, it would have been well for the President to have obtained from experts such informa- tion as would have enabled him to make up his mind as _ to what the two laboratories had or had not in common. If it is really intended to concentrate the teaching of electricity in Balliol and Trinity, and, while placing it in the hands of College lecturers, to prevent the Univer- sity Professor of Physics from acquiring the facilities for teaching it properly himself, we can only -say that a most mistaken policy has been adopted. Physics, on account of the cost of the apparatus required, is a subject in which centralization is desirable, and, consider- ing the place which electricity now occupies among the physical sciences, it would be absurd to exclude it from the University Laboratory, and from the curriculum of the only teacher of physics whom the University herself appoints. To do them justice, the combined Colleges did not directly make any such proposal ; but, if they did not mean “to make it, why was the Millard Laboratory imported into the controversy? As far as we can judge from the description given of it by the President of ‘Trinity, itis a technical laboratory which may develop into something analogous to that of Prof. Stuart at Cam- bridge. If so, it does not—and those connected with it ought to have known that it does not—occupy the gap which the new building was to fill. “Theoretical and practical mechanics and engineering,” coupled with elec- i trical technology, afford plenty of scope for the energies even of such active Colleges as Ballioland Trinity. Itisa pity that, with all this zeal, they have yet to learn that pure science is an ally and not a rival, that a dynamo is useful in a physical laboratory in which no technology is taught, and that the way for a young institution like the Millard Laboratory to earn respect is to do good work, and not to signalize its appearance on the field of labour by preventing others from doing it. NORTH AMERICAN PICTOGRAPAS* 6 ge remarkable volume contains no fewer than 83 lithographed plates, and 209 separate wood- cuts, and is an admirable compendium of the curious pictographs of the North American Indians. Large as it is, it professes to be only the forerunner of a still larger work that shall treat of pictographs generally. The author, Colonel Garrick Mallery, has already pub- lished an almost equally interesting memoir on “ Gesture Language,” in the first Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. One of the most striking features of the present work is the account it gives of the newly-discovered custom of the Sioux, or, more correctly speaking, of the Dakota Indians (for Sioux is some barbarism, repudiated by the natives), to keep national calendars. The custom is sufficiently ancient to have become generally established among this great branch of the Indians, but it is not old enough to have spread to the west of the Mississippi. One of the most important of the calendars begins with the year 1800; its historiographer was a man, still living in 1876, yclept “ Lone-Dog.” His calendar is painted on a buffalo hide, which appears to have been exhibited and ex- plained to Indian audiences from time to time, and greatly admired by them, for four copies at least have been made from it (with variations of arrangement), and every intel- ligent adult Dakota knows its contents, and can read them in part. One of these copies is imitated in a beautiful plate, which is the most effective of all the many illustrations of this volume. The process of making the calendar is inferred to have been as follows :—During the dreary periods of their six winter months, certain elders of the tribe amused themselves with talking over the events of the past year, and Lone-Dog discussed with them which of those events should be selected by general suffrage as the representative of that period. Suppose it was an outbreak of the small-pox: then Lone-Dog drew the outline of Fig. 1 on one part of his buffalo robe, and dabbed it with red spots. Then that year became ever after known as the small-pox year, and the Dakotas would say so-and-so happened in the small-pox year, just as we should say in the year 1801. Or, again, the event might be that for the first time horses were seen by them that had been shod with iron: then the symbol of the year became a horse-shoe, Fig. 2. Lone-Dog’s calendar is particularly graphic. Its earlierentries are probably derived from preceding chroniclers or from tradition ; anyhow it covers the entire period from 1800 to 1871. The first entry is made in the middle of the robe, and the others are arranged year after year succes- sively in an oblong spiral, the whole series being in- cluded in three turns and a half. They are drawn in black and red, the latter usually representing blood, of . which plenty seems to be spilt in murder or in hunting. Thus Fig. 3 is a case of murder; Fig. 4 is a year in which a vast number of elk were killed, identified in the rude drawing by their cloven feet. Fig. 5 celebrates the erection of a trader's station ; and Fig. 6 tells us that striped Spanish blankets were first introduced in that “Pictographs of the North American Indians.”’ A Preliminary Paper by Garrick Mallery, Extract from the Fourth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886.) 156 NATURE [ Sune 16, 18 year by atrader. Fig. 7 is the year of a great aérolite. Lone-Dog’s system is not the only calendar. — have recently been found by Dr. Corbussier which are drawn more elaborately, though not more intelligibly. The most important of these is only described, and not reproduced in this volume. It is by Battiste Good, and professes to date from prior to the year 1700. Being drawn in five colours, it would require much cost to imitate, and is withheld for the present. j Other curious features of the work are the pictorial censuses that it contains. One consists of eighty-four heads of families in the band of “‘ Big-Road.” Each is represented with the symbol expressive of his name attached to his head, after the manner of Fig. 8. Another 8 census is of the 289 adherents of Red-Cloud, who are for the most part portrayed on a similar principle. Some of the more symbolic representations are amusing and instructive. Those for various diseases are as follow :—We have already seen the representation of small-pox, and that of measles is much the same. A whooping-cough year is typified by Figs. 9 and 10, in a 3 I2 different calendars, Fig. 10 showing the broken and explo- sive expiration with much effect. Craziness is expressed by a wavy line; thus the name of the chief in Fig. 8 being Crazy-Horse, the animal has wavy lines drawn on his body. Starvation is shown, in Fig. 11, by a thin belly, and a black line across it; and gripes are excellently expressed by a scroll, Fig. 12, something like a figure 3, Others > j only more twisted and tortured, scrawled ov abdomen. The question is fully discussed whether this cal making was in any way due to the influence of t whites, but is decided on good grounds in the negatiy The whole conception and the way of carrying i seems to be thoroughly Indian, but it is not every I who is born with the historiographic capacities of Dog. The author testifies to the variety of indi aptitudes when speaking of the inhabitants of Q Charlotte’s Islands, who are beautifully tattooed. says, “nor is it everyone who can tattoo. Certain almost always men (let Mr. Romanes make a it), have a natural gift which enables them to this kind of work.” me The events that a group of persons are most a] associate with an epoch during which they have together, are not necessarily the most important They are those occurrences which are simple and defined, and have struck the fancy on that accoui well as from their unlikeness to former experiences. events are recalled with ease, and a partial ors act of recollection suffices to identify them. When pictorial nick-names are given to each su year in council, as in the case of the Dakotas, the must be very like that of giving verbal nick-n new boys at school. This used to be a far more custom than it is now, and I have a vivid rec: two old Etonians describing how it was done time. When the new boy made his appearance, of course well looked over and watched. Then, as the fi took them, first one lad and then another addressed with tentative nick-names. At the beginning trial names were apt to fall flat; at length o other lads adopted it, and usually in a few days boy was fitted with a generally-accepted name, he was afterwards known almost exclusively during whole time he was at school. The appropriat the nick-name was by no means always obviot strangers ; it might even be due to some passin with which by pure accident the boy was in some inc way associated. I think this giving of nick-names | excellent illustration of the manner in which man words must have arisen. i The process of determining the most typical event year, and then of portraying it by a simple and design of a higher order of art than was kr Lone-Dog, and introducing no more detail th necessary for identification, is well worth trying experiment. I tested it myself by attempting to cor such pictographs for the last few years of my life, un the condition that each should be included within of the size of a shilling, and at last I succeede well, in my own, but probably too partial, judg may add that, having done this, I laid a florin drawing, and traced a second circle round the fl the ring that lay between the two circles there we for fully twenty-five bold capital letters, which I dis among words that referred to other leading even year. The whole formed a by no means inarti: of designs suitable for medallions. fi I soon became so absorbed in my pictographs think others might interest themselves in the same It would be an amusing test of skill in a round gam try who could make the most artistic and vigorous de within the compass of a circle traced, say, round a penny—that is, of exactly one inch in diameter—to memorate some recent event known to all. capital prize subject for art students it would be, them to some brief register of events during the fifty of Her Majesty’s reign, and to ask for fifty such me lions, one for each year. Then, again, many persons in wood or paint on china, and want designs; let tl take episodes in their own histories, and make ane gee Fune 16, 1887 | NATURE 157 that should illustrate the events in families, schools, _houses, &c., such as the stained-glass windows in _churches do those in the history of the Bible. How prettily girls might design pictographs to record notable events in a pleasant tour, and interchange them with _ their fellow-travellers as presents. Such designs as these could be made subjects of embroidery, or, if on a larger scale, of that brass refoussé work which is, or was, so -much in fashion. It would be by no means difficult to _ convert them into actual medallions, First the wax model, then the plaster cast, then the cast in white fusible metal, then the covering with an electrotyped coating of silver, just in the way that the ancient coins are reproduced at the British Museum, at the cost of about three shillings each, which are now so frequently used in rows for necklaces. What a delightful memorial of twenty-five years of wedded history might be given by a husband to his wife, in the form of a necklace of such medals. It would be a pleasant labour to make a set of designs, which an artist could afterwards put into better forms, and construct from them the wax medallions for the electrotypist to cast and turn into metal. I commend this idea of commemora- tive pictographs and g/yptographs (as works in relief ought to be called) to the notice of amateur artists, whether they work in pencil, ink, colour, carving, em- broidery, xefoussé work, china painting, or in modelling. This volume is an excellent example of the growing variety and wealth of material now available to inquirers into the origin of language. We meet in it with abundant evidence of the rapidity with which pictographs become abbreviated into conventional symbols, and are thereby adapted to play the same important part in reasoning that is usually played by words. I cannot see that it makes any fundamental difference in the use of symbols whether they appeal to the ear or to the eye, though I fully grant that on many grounds, not worth entering into here, the former is more generally convenient, and best suits the idiosyncracies of the majority of persons. The unassisted sense of touch, as we have learnt from the case of Laura Bridgeman, may afford an adequate basis for the exercise of a considerable amount of reason- Ing. And for aught I can see to the contrary, a dog who “ponders,” to use a dog-trainer’s expression, may occa- sionally be carrying out some real act of thought by the aid of imagined and symbolic odours. FRANCIS GALTON. COCOA-NUT PEARLS. ae following letter has been sent to us by Dr. Sydney J. Hickson :— “During my recent travels in North Celebes I was frequently asked by the Dutch planters, and others, if I had ever seen a ‘cocoa-nut stone.’ These stones are said to be very rarely found (1 in 2000 or more) in the peri- sperm of the cocoa-nut, and when found are kept by the natives as a charm against disease and evil spirits. This story of the cocoa-nut stone was so constantly told me, and in every case without any variation in its de- tails, that I made every effort before leaving to obtain some’ specimens, and eventually succeeded in obtaining two. “One of these is nearly a perfect sphere, 14 mm. in diameter, and the other, rather smaller in size, is irregularly pear-shaped. In both specimens the surface is worn nearly smooth by friction. had cut into two halves, but I can find no concentric or other markings on the polished cut surfaces. __ “Dr. Kimmins has kindly submitted one half to a care- _ ful chemical analysis, and finds that it consists of pure / carbonate of lime without any trace of other salts or vegetable tissue. _ “T should be very glad if any of your readers could The spherical one I have inform me if there are any of these stones in any of the . Museums, or if there is any evidence beyond mere hearsay for their existence in the perisperm of the cocoa-nut.” On this letter Mr. Thiselton Dyer, to whom we sent it, has been good enough to make the following remarks :— Dr. Hickson’s account of the calcareous concretions occasionally found in the central hollow (filled with fluid— the so-called “ milk”) of the endosperm of the seed of the cocoa-nut is extremely interesting. It appears to me a phenomenon of the same order as tabasheer, to which I recently drew attention in this journal. The circumstances of the occurrence of these stones or “pearls” are in many respects parallel to those which attend the formation of tabasheer. In both cases, mineral matter in palpable masses is withdrawn from solution in considerable volumes of fluid contained in tolerably large cavities in living plants—and in both instances they are Monocotyledons. In the case of the cocoa-nut pearls the material is calcium carbonate, and this is well known to concrete in a peculiar manner from solutions in which organic matter is also present. In my note on tabasheer I referred to the re- ported occurrence of mineral concretions in the wood of various tropical Dicotyledonous trees. Tabasheer is too well known to be pooh-poohed; but some of my scientific friends expressed a polite incredulity as to the other cases. I learn, however, from Prof. Judd, F.R.S., that he has obtained a specimen of apatite found in cutting up a mass of teak-wood. The occurrence of this mineral under these circumstances has long been recorded ; but I have never had the good fortune to see a specimen. Returning to cocoa-nut pearls, I send you a note which the Tropical Agriculturist for April last quotes from the Strazts Times :— “ A trade journal appearing in Java gives the following particulars regarding a peculiar kind of pearl found in this part of the world :—It is well known that pearls have been met with within oysters and mussels. Some- times even trees yield pearls. In the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, there is a paper by Mr. J. Bacon regarding the kind of pearls often found within cocoa-nuts. The specimens shown have been bought at Singapore. They are said to be so rare in the East Indies as to be highly prized by the native rajahs, and worn by them as precious stones. Mr. Bacon himself possessed a small pearl of this sort. It is said that when allowed to grow, they will reach the size of cherries. _ This pearl resembles the common variety in smoothness, whiteness, and scant lustre of surface. It is harder than it, and almost as hard as feldspar or opal. The common pearl varies in hardness, but is never harder than feldspar. The cocoa-nut pearl consists of carbonate of lime, with very few organic substances remaining after treatment with acid solutions. This organic matter is insoluble, shows no trace of vegetable substances after microscopical examination, and seems to be akin to albumen in structure. In the common pearl there is also found an albuminous substance, but the latter remains unchanged in appear- ance and lustre even after the calcareous constituent parts have been dissolved away. In other respects microscopical research has brought out the fact that the cocoa-nut pearl is formed of concentric layers without any nucleus. The whole mass is made up of layers of fine crystalline fibres. Prof. Bleekrode, in commenting on the former in a Dutch scientific periodical, says that Rumphius, the famous botanist, had in his‘ Herbarium Amboinense,’ given full particulars of this petrifaction in the cocoa-nut. Rumphius has even illustrated his account of it by accompanying drawings of the two forms in which this kind of pearl is met with—pear-shaped and round, either of uniform appearance or with red edges. Hardly one 158 NATURE | ¥une 16, 18 in a thousand cocoa-nuts on the average displays this strange peculiarity. The formation of the latter is alwaysa remarkable phenomenon, hard toaccount for, from the water in the nuts generally lacking the chemical substances favouring abnormal growth of the kind. Rumphius states for a fact that cocoa-nuts from Macassar yield more pearls than those from other places. This scientist, in 1682, sent, as a present to the Grand Duke of Tuscany, a ring in which a cocoa-nut pearl had been set. Similar pearl- like formations are met with in other East Indian fruits, such as the waringin, the pomegranate, and the kechubong.” ‘ To this may be conveniently added two brief extracts from the longand admirable account given by Rumphius :— “ Calappites, Belgis Calappus-Steen, Malaicensibus JMes- tica Calappa, albus est lapillus instar marmoris seu silicis albi, durus, planus, ac glaber, cujus putaveram alio loco inter lapides ac mineras descriptionem dedisse, quum vero in Calappa nuce inveniatur, ac sollicitus sim, opus illud a me forte non absolutum iri, animo induxi hic loci ejus exhibere descriptionem. Est itaque albus ac politus, seu glaber lapillus in interiore Ca/appe nucis parte con- crescens, nunc putamini fixus, nunc vero media in lympha natans, diverse ac duplicis potissimum forme ” (Rumphius, “Herbarium Amboinense,” vol. i. pp. 21, 22). “Incole plurimum omnes AZesticas amant,quarum quas- dam tanti zstimant, ut optimis etiam preferant gemmis ; plurimas ‘enim ipsis tribuunt immo sine dubio super- stitiosas etiam virtutes, gestant enim has ad nudum corpus, in annulis, et armis, ad prosperum conatuum successum obtinendum. Elegantissimos ac rotundissimos hujus Calappi lapillos, seu Ca/appztes imponunt annulis suis, vel etiam telis adpendent, non auro, sed argento circumdatos, dicentes melius hoc cum natura Calappites convenire ” (p. 22). If Dr. Hickson would present one of his pearls to the-Kew Museum, it would, I am sure, interest a great many persons who would be glad to see an authentic specimen of so interesting a curiosity. NOTES. THE Annual Meeting of the Royal Society for the election of Fellows was held at the Society’s rooms in Burlington House on Thursday last, when the following gentlemen were elected into the Society : John Young Buchanan, M.A., John Theodore »Cash, M.D., Sir James Nicholas Douglass, M.I.C.E., Prof. James Alfred Ewing, B.Sc., Prof. George Forbes, M.A., William Richard Gowers, M.D., Prof. Alexander B. W. Kennedy, M.1I.C.E., George King, M.B., Sir John Kirk, M.D., Prof. Oliver Joseph Lodge, D.Sc., Prof. John Milne, F.G.S., Rev. Octavius Pickard-Cambridge, M.A., George James Snelus, F.C.S., Thomas, Lord Walsingham, William Whitaker, B.A. THE Council of the London Mathematical Society have awarded the second De Morgan medal to Prof. Sylvester, F.R.S., for his numerous and brilliant contributions to pure mathematics. The medal will be presented at the Council meeting in November next. THE preparations for the forthcoming meeting of the British Association in Manchester are progressing very favourably. A strong Local Committee has been formed, and a guarantee fund of over £10,000 has been raised to meet the necessary local expenses. The recepiion-room will be in the recently-built Natural History Museum of the Owens College, and the Section rooms in the College or its immediate neighbourhood. A _pro- minent feature of the meeting will be the presence of a large number of eminent foreign men of science, of whom more than a hundred have already accepted invitations to attend. - Hirst, ‘together on a similar occasion. Photographs of clouds, and photographs of the ARRANGEMENTS for the dinner to Prof. Tyndall are p ogres ing satisfactorily under the direction of the Executive Commit consisting of Prof. Stokes (Chairman), Sir F. Abel, § Bowman, Sir F. Bramwell, Dr. Evans, Prof. Franklan¢ Prof. Huxley, and Sir Henry Roscoe. Cirdul announcing the dinner have been largely issued. It is, he ever, for obvious reasons impossible to send notices to all th who might wish to attend, and applications for tickets are da made by gentlemen who have received no special notific: the event. There is no doubt that a body of scientific m meet at the dinner such as has seldom or never been Nor will the gathering fined to scientific men alone. Among others, the follow also expressed their intention of being present: Lord Lord Lytton, Earl Bathurst, Sir F. Pollock, Sir F. Lieut.-General Smyth, Prof. Bonamy Price, and Me Stephen, W. Lecky, and Wemyss Reid. eee” THE Ladies’ Soirée at the Royal Society, as we stated was largely attended. Careful preparations had been mat it, and it was a great success. At intervals, in the P Library, a cornet solo was telephoned from Bri A number of objects of great scientific interest were € Bridge, were shown with the lime-light ; the fo monstrations by the Hon. Ralph Abercrom with demonstrations by Mr. Baker. The mic: ture of pearls was also shown with the lime-ligh George Harley. The Zoological Society of London e: a fine living specimen of the electric eel, from which were taken. Prof. A. W. Riicker exhibited—(1) of soap-films. rotating under the influence of an A jet of air is directed on to the film so as vortex, the colours of which change as the film beco This experiment is due to Sir David Brewster. has been recently called to it by Lord Rayleigh. ) A ficial imitation of the colours of the setting sun. passed through a glass cell containing a solution of so sulphite. Ifa little hydrochloric acid is added, the s deposited in fine particles which scatter the blue end spectrum. The transnitted light becomes redder, an: like those of sunset are produced. This experiment Capt. Abney. (3) Apparatus to illustrate the pi light through lenses. An application on a large ‘scale method of tracing the rays by passing them through air closed space charged with a small quantity of smoke. - 5 and living larve showing the influence of surrou ngs u their colours were exhibited by Mr. E. B. Poulton ; and Dr, Klein exhibited the following specimens of microbes under t microscope and in cultivation :—Bacil/us anthracis ; tuberculosis ; Bacillus of leprosy; Bacillus of swine fev Bacillus of septiceemia ; Bacillus found in typhoid fever lum found in Asiatic cholera ; several other species of : several species of Bacterium termo; Micrococcus of mouth disease; Micrococcus of scarlet fever ; Mier vaccine ; different species of coloured microbes. M ‘A. Bell showed apparatus for reproducing audibly of liquid jets. Vibratory motions of the orifice from which jet escapes, give rise to slight swellings, and constrictio liquid column, The swellings increase and the constric minish as the jet travels downwards, finally causing it drops. When the jet strikes upon a flat surface, are continued as waves in the thin sheet of liquid, whic out from the point of impact. The jet liquid being a of electricity (acidulated water), and two platinum electre circuit with a battery, and a telephone being immersed liquid sheet or nappe, the jet vibrations are reproduced as in the telephone. _¥une 16, 1887] NATURE 159 A DEPUTATION consisting of Mr. Mundella, Mr. Joseph Cham- berlain, Sir John Lubbock, Sir Henry Roscoe, Sir Lyon Playfair, Mr. John Morley, and others, will wait upon the Chancellor of ‘the Exchequer on the 3oth inst. to urge the claims of University Colleges upon the Government. Mr. Goschen has always taken ‘so deep an interest in questions connected with education that he ‘may be expected to consider carefully the arguments which will ‘be submitted to him. It is almost certain that unless the ‘University Colleges receive aid from the State some of them will have to be closed, for it has never been found that institu- of this kind can be maintained by fees alone. All that is asked i is that the nation shall do for the University Colleges of ‘England what is already done for like institutions in Wales, and for the Universities of Scotland. _ THe foundation-stone of the new Calteus of Science at Tesco. Trae was laid yesterday by Sir William Armstrong. THE Rey. J. E. Leefe has presented his botanical collections to Kew. Since the death of Borrer in 1862, Mr. Leefe has been universally recognized as the principal authority on British willows. In early life he lived in Essex and Yorkshire, but for the last generation he has held-the living of Cresswell on the coast of Northumberland, opposite Morpeth. Here he got together a very fine collection of living willows, which had been obtained from Borrer, Darwall, the Duke of Bedford’s collection at Woburn, and the Botanic Gardens of Kew and Cambridge. His sight having failed, he has retired to live at Coatham, near Redcar, and has given to Kew the collections he is no longer able touse. His principal publication was issued in 1842 under the title of ‘‘Salictum Britannicum.” This contains ninety speci- mens, with printed tickets, and has been the recognized standard, ever since its publication, by which British willows have been named... His principal published papers are in the Yournal ff Botany for 1871—one entitled ‘An Arrangement of the British Willows,” and another ‘‘On Hybridity in Salix, and the Growth of Willows from Seed.” The collection he has now presented contains his own copy of the ‘‘ Salictum, ” accompanied by a quarto manuscript ; a valuable set of types from Hoch, the author of the classical ‘* Flora Germanica” ; a great many specimens dried from his living collection at Cresswell ; and American types received from his correspondents in the United States. The general herbarium is of a miscel- laneous character, principally British, but containing also a number of plants from Central Europe, Abyssinia, America, and other parts of the world. Amongst the British plants, the collection contains a curious Ammophila, gathered near Cress- well in 1872, with the glumes of ordinary 4. arenaria, but with the decidedly tropical inflorescence of 4. éaltica, for which one of the only two known British stations is in Ross links, also on the Northumbrian coast, and which has by some botanists been regarded as a hybrid between A. avenaria and a Calamagrostis. Aprofos of our note last week on the invitations to the ceremony at Westminster Abbey, a correspondent writes to us from Dublin :—‘* We have the same state of things here, Neither the President of the Royal Irish Academy, nor the President of the Royal Dublin Society, as such, have got invitations. Invi- tations have been sent lavishly to Mayors, all of whom, save in three cases, have refused them, thus leaving, as one would have thought, a chance for science coming No, 2.” _ Ina despatch received at New York from Mexico on the 12th inst, it was announced that shocks of earthquake had been felt throughout Guerrero State on the 29th ult. and on the Ist and 2nd inst., and that several of the smaller towns had been _ SEVERE shocks of earthquake were felt last week in some ‘parts of Turkestan. At Vernoje they began about 5 o’clock on the morning of the 9th inst. Almost all the buildings in the town were destroyed, and much life was lost. Great damage was also done at Kashelensk, Tsharkent, and other places. The telegraph line in the neighbourhood of Vernoje was broken down for a distance of about 200 versts. THE last number of the Annuaire de la Société Météoro- logique de France (February, 1887) contains an_ interesting article by M. Hervé-Mangon on the distribution of rainfall and its duration in Paris, from observations taken during the years 1860-70. These observations, which were made with Hervyé- Mangon’s pluvioscope, show that rain falls on an average 1> hours a month, The month with the shortest duration of rain was August, which had only 124 hours, while March had 26, and October and November a little more than 22 hours each. An examination of the hours of the rainfall during the night and: during the day shows that on an average there are fewer hours of rain during the night than during the day. The longest interval without rain was 26 days, from September 11 to October 6, 1865. The greatest number of consecutive days of rain was 18, from October 3 to 20, 1867. The month of March had, on an average, the greatest number of rainy days, viz. 21'2, and the month of June the least, viz. 13°1. ‘The months of greatest and least amount of rainfall do not correspond with these months, the maximum being 2°21 inches in September, and the minimum 1°00 inch in February. THE Monatsbericht der Deutschen Seewarte for the whole year 1886 has been issued simultaneously with the Report for January 1887. The delay in the issue of the Reports is owing to some important alterations in the form of the work, especially the extension, considerably to the west, of the chart showing baro- metric minima. The above Report takes the place of the Monatliche Uebersicht der Witterung, which completed its tenth volume with the year 1885. It is proposed to issue it regularly in the third month after that to which it refers, and to include in it (1) a review of the atmospheric conditions over Central Europe, (2) preliminary communications respecting the weather in the North Atlantic, and (3) meteorological tables for Europe generally, and charts of the paths of the barometric minima over ocean and continent. This monthly report will be supplemented by a more complete quarterly review of the weather, which will appear after a lapse of about two years, and will serve as the explanatory text of the daily synoptic charts for the North Atlantic Ocean and adjacent continents lately referred to (May 26, p. 88). This text will be issued separately by the German Admiralty, and will be of great value to all interested in meteorological investigations, From a recent report by Dr. Hellmann on statistics of lightning-damage in Schleswig-Hclstein, Baden, and Hesse, it appears that the danger from lightning in these parts (unlike the case of other parts of Germany) has been decreasing of late years. Soft-roofed houses are fired about 7 times oftener than those with hard roofs. Windmills are struck 52 times, and church and clock towers 39 times, oftener than ordinary houses with hard roofs. The marshy regions in Schleswig-Holstein are the most dangerous; and the land about inlets of the east coast the safest. With like conditions, the relative danger de- creases the more houses are grouped together. In Baden the danger varies more than in any part of Germany (about Heidel- berg it is 24, and in Waldshut 265 per million houses), In Hesse, the low plain of the middle Rhine is the most dangerous part. In the fifteen years 1869-83, there were killed by lightning for every million men, in Prussia, 4°4 ; in Baden, 3°8 ; in France, 3°1 ; and in Sweden, 3°0. The geological nature of the ground, and especially its capacity for water, has important influence. Thus, calling the danger on lime 1, that for sand is 9, while for loam it is 22, This is partly why most of South Germany and Austria is less dangerous than North Germany. 160 NATURE There are four factors affecting the lightning-danger to buildings ; two physical—unequal frequency of* storms, and geological character ; and two social—variable population, and mode of building. Of all trees, oaks are most frequently damaged, beeches most rarely (in the ratio 54 to I). AN electric trumpet has been recently devised by M. Zigang (Za Nature, June 4). It consists of a short brass tube mounted on wood and containing an electro-magnet whose ends face a vibrating plate, on which is fixed a small piece of soft iron. Against this plate-armature rests a regulating screw with platinum point, which serves for automatic interruption, by vibration of the armature. With two Leclanché elements a musical sound is had, which may be varied in pitch, intensity, and timbre by means of the screw. This instrument may be usefully employed in signalling on ships, railways, tramways, &c. ; it may also serve as a receiver for signals of the Morse type. ProF. CHRISTENSEN, of Copenhagen, has recently (¥ournal fiir praktische Chemie, 1887, No. 11) made a redetermination of the atomic weight of fluorine, with the satisfactory result that this element is to be added to the already large list of those whose atomic weights are whole numbers and simple multiples of that of hydrogen. The determination was based upon the analysis of a double fluoride of ammonia and manganese, 4NH,F . Mn,F6, the extreme precautions displayed in the pre- paration and purification of which show the peculiar difficulties attending work upon this singular element. It is very interest- ing to read of the filtrations through platinum gauze placed in gutta-percha funnels, of the drying of the beautifully crystalline red salt spread out upon wide expanses of platinum-foil, and of the skllful manner in which all traces of silicon were eventually eliminated.’ The results of the numerous analyses show that, if Stas’s value for oxygen be taken as the standard, the atomic weight of fluorine is 18°94, but if, as Mendelejeff concludes, oxygen be 16, then the atomic weight of fluorine becomes 18°99, or, in round numbers, 19°0. Ir will probably be remembered that, early in the year 1883 (Ber. der Deut. Chem. Ges., xvi. 324), a number of chemical reactions, especially the formation of arsehides from mixtures of metals and arsenic, were brought about, by Dr. W. Spring, by subjecting the powdered mixtures to the immense pressure of 6000 atmospheres. A still more striking experiment, entirely unique in its way, has just been made by Dr. Spring, in con- junction with Dr. Chemie, i. 5). Inthe course of a study of chemical dynamics these workers found that the blue-coloured double acetate of copper and calcium, (C,.H;0,),CaCu . 8H,O, is perfectly stable at atmospheric pressure as far as 75°; above this temperature it is decomposed into its constituent acetates, three-quarters of its water of crystallization being set free. This decomposition is atended with contraction in volume, and the salts dissolve in the liberated water. The idea was at once suggested, Could this decomposition be effected by means of Dr. Spring’s powerful compressing machinery? The idea was carried out, and no sooner was the pressure upon the solid double acetate increased to 7000 atmospheres, at a temperature of 40°, than the solution of the separated constituent salts spurted from every joint of the apparatus, and on releasing the pressure the resolidified mass was found to consist of a mixture of the white calcium and the green copper salt. Last week we referred to the fact that the Council of the Meteorological Society are anxious to obtain photographs of flashes of lightning. The Photographic News, dealing with the conditions under which such photographs should be taken, notes the following points as important :—‘‘ First, the exact position of the camera. In many countries, ordnance maps can be ob- tained on such a scale that a minute dot will indicate the position Van't Hoff (Zeitschrift fiir physikalische of the camera within a foot or two, and it will often be easy record the position of the apparatus with far greater exat thread with a plummet should be allowed to range fr optical centre (say the diaphragm in case of a doublet) t floor, where a mark should be made. Second, the time a’ the exposure was made. Third, the aspect of the cai When the locality is exactly recorded, this datum may b proximate, as there will generally be the means of exactly mining it upon the plate itself. Fourth, the equivalent focu: the lens, but the determination of this may well be left un it is found that something valuable may be deduced from photograph. Fifth, the distance of the flash, The reco of this is a very important matter, as, when the focus of the is known, it will be easy to determine the actual dista between cloud and earth, also the horizontal angle subtende the observer at the camera. To determine the distan observer should note as accurately as possible the time el: between the flash and the report, and in doing this, even chronograph watch as Ay now be had for five or six po be found of great service.’ AT a meeting of the Middlesex Natural History “ ici Society, at the Natural History Museum, South Kensing on, the 11th inst., Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., gave an ad. the teeth of the Mammalia, especially referring to tho: mens exhibited in the case in the Index Museum. the structure, growth, and disposition of the teeth i were given, and the peculiarities of vestigial and ru T teeth pointed out. Prof. Flower referred to the value of index museums, calling special attention to that of mine arranged by Mr. Lazarus Fletcher, and which for grea venience was placed in the mineral gallery. THIs evening, Prof. A. W. Williamson will deliver an in the Chemical Theatre, to the London University Chemical and Ae sesso Society. He has chosen as his st ** Atomic Motion.” Sir Henry Roscoe will take the chair ‘* My Microscope, and Some Objects from My ' simple introduction to the study of ‘‘ the infinitely little,’ Quekett Club man, is announced for immediate publicatior Messrs. Roper and Drowley. The little volume is dedi the President and Members of the Quekett Microscopical MEssrs. WHITTAKER AND Co. will publish early next 1 Mr. E. C. Robin’s book on ‘‘ The Design and Constructi n Applied Science and Art Buildings, and their estas and Sanitation.” Jena on May 26. One of the members stated that 64,000 yé y salmon had been placed in the Saale last year. The Duke of Saxe-Weimar was present at the meeting, an part in the debates. Dr. Moritz WAGNER, Professor at the Munich Uni died at Munich on May 31. He was well known as a sc traveller, and author of some excellent works of travel. — DuRING the five months ended May 1887 the total value. is the fish landed on the east coast of Scotland was £335,366 the west coast, £75,290; in Orkney and Shetland, 434: the total value for five months being £445,172. As comp: with the corresponding period of last year, this was a of £4,113. The last month, however, showed an increase 46,478 over the corresponding month of the year 1886. _ ARTIFICIAL clouds for the protection of vines from fros produced in a vineyard at Pagny on the Franco-German fro during the night of May 13. About 3 a.m., when the th meter had gone down to —1°'5 C., the demas was given to \ Sune 16, 1887] NATURE 161 uid tar, which had been poured into tin boxes, and pieces of olid tar which had been placed in the ground near the vines. Large clouds of smoke quickly enveloped the vineyard. The fires lasted for about two hours, but the smoke did not clear off till a considerable time after. The object of the experiment was completely gained, as not one young shoot was destroyed by the rost. - THE’ American Institute of Electrical Engineers, organized hree years ago, is making arrangements for the purchase of a litable building in New York. It is proposed that there shall e an electrical library and museum, and, if space permits, an | xperimental laboratory. Suitable accommodation will be pro- vided for council and general meetings, and the entertainment f members and their guests, and the house will be open ‘‘at all souable hours.” THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the t week include a Squirrel Monkey (Chrysothrix sciurea) from iana, presented by Miss Grace Williams ; a Negro Tamarin das ursulus) from Guiana, presented by Miss Julia Neilson ; Rhesus Monkey (Macacus rhesus) fron India, presented by s R. M. Hurt; a Common Marmoset (Hafale jacchus) from uth-East Brazil, presented by Mrs. Constance Hoendorff; a Common Raccoon (Procyon lJotor) from North America, pre- ented ‘by Mr. G, F. Van Zandt; two Lanner Falcons (Falco lanarius), European, presented by Mr. William Thomson ; two | Sealy Ground Doves (Scardafella sguamosa) from Brazil, pre- sented by Mr. William de Castro; a Cuckateel (Calopsitta nove-hollandia) from Australia, presented by Mr. H. H. James ; i Ring-necked Parrakeet (Palzornis torguatus) from India, pre- sented by Mrs. Hill ; a Yellow-billed Sheathbill (CAéonis alba) from Cape Town, presented by Mr. R. C. Ashton; nine Barbary Turtle Doves (7wrtur risorius) from Africa, presented | by Mr. E. L. Armbrecht; a Red Brocket (Cartacus rufus), a | Great American Egret (Ardea egretta) from Brazil, deposited ; | three Sandwich Island Geese (Bernicla sandvicensis) from the Sandwich Islands, a Wryneck (Zuzyx torguil/a), European, pur- chased; a Wapiti Deer (Cervus canadensis), a Barbary Wild | Sheep (Ovis tragelaphus), a Variegated Sheldrake (Zadorna | variegata), nine Summer Ducks (x sfonsa) brei in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. | Tue Great SouTHERN Comet (1887 a@).—Dr. J. M. | Thome, of the Cordoba Observatory, has published in the | Astronomical Fournal, No. 156, some interesting particulars as | to the appearance and observed positions of the great comet | which he discovered on January 18, On the 21st it became | evident that the comet was, in effect, all tail, the head being | much the fainter part of the object, and being at least 1 5’ in | diameter, very thin, and without nucleus or condensation of any | kind. After various attempts at determining its co-ordinates, Dr. Thome adopted the plan of moving the telescope along the axis of the tail, until rag a point beyond which nothing of a nebulous | character could be distinguished, and determining its position. These points were approximately half a degree in advance of the true centre of the nebulosity, and nearly in its axis. The obser- | vations of position extend from January 21 to January 27. With ns to the appearance of the comet to the naked eye, Dr. home remarks that it was a beautiful sight—a narrow, straight, | sharply-defined, graceful tail, over 40° long, shining with a soft | starry light against the dark sky, beginning apparently without a ieee, 20d, pradually widening and fading as it extended ards. he same number of the Astronomical Fournal contains a ssion of the orbit of the comet by Mr. S. C. Chandler, Jun. observations extend from January 20 to 29, and were made elbourne, Co-doba, the Cape, and Windsor, N.S.W. Two sets of elements—which do not materially differ, considering the xtreme uncertainty of the observations—have been obtained ; ‘first by taking the Cordoba observations as they stand, the second by attempting to determine the true centre of the nebulosity from Dr. Thome’s statement that the recorded posi- tions are 30’ in advance of the true centre and nearly in its axis. The elements are :— I. Il. T (G.M.T.) 1887 Jan. 9'080 Jan. 8°730 @ «173. 362 174 48°6 2 op 130 46°2 132 48°6 z 61 48°90 57 52°1 log g 8°30484 8°36280 Mr. Chandler points out that these elements are very unlike those of comet 1880 I., with which this comet was at first associated. In fact the orbit found resembles more those assigned to the comets of 1680 and 1689, than that of the group 1843-80-82. New MINoR PLANETS.—A new minor planet, No. 267, was discovered by M. Charlois at Nice on May 27. Another, No. 268, was discovered by M. Borelly at Marseilles on June 9. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887 JUNE 19-25. oh the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed. ) At Greenwich on June 19. San rises, 3h. 44m. ; souths, 12h. om. 58°8s.; sets, 20h. 17m. ; decl. on meridian, 23° 26’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 14h. 8m. i Moon (New on June 21) rises, 2h. 48m. ; souths, Ioh, 20m. ; sets, 18h. 1m, ; decl. on meridian, 15° 57’ N. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. h. m. h. m. h, m. Si ery Mercury 5 21 13 39 2457 23:20°N. Venus ... Qe seh ESQ 22693. ca) IOOEBING Mane ie 2 BO ase ESCA le SO TA 22 50N. BON te Ph ID AR ae 8! OP Bee Saturn... AE sae ER Ape ae eee SE 21 41 N. * Indicates that the setting is that of the following morning. une, h. e? sages te Sun at greatest declination north ; longest day in northern latitudes. eb eae Saturn in conjunction with and 2° 26’ north of the Moon. , eee LO Mercury in conjunction with and 3° 27’ north of the Moon. ba ree O Jupiter stationary. arrive: Goo Venus in conjunction with and 2° 1’ north of the Moon. Variable Stars. Star. RA Decl. h m. ghia h. m. U Cephei © 52°3... 81 16 N. .., June 23, 0 14 R Virginis .., EF A8 Occ Fag Ne ass ayes M 5 Libre 5: 14 54°9 Bee SO cae gn BGa ig kee: We U Ophiuchi... 17 10°8 BePOIN Gs can na 31 20, FAO. and at intervals of 20 8 W Sagittarii . 17 57°8 ... 29 35 S. ... June 25, 2 Om U Sagittarii... 1S, 25°2.... 19.129 Sal eos ke n Aquilze 19 46°7 o 43 N Sige eid aia « BY.” & S Sagittze 19 509... 16 20N te 1A, 25 OMe R Capricorni te OBA SO ey x00. 99.23? M § Cephei . 22 25°0...57 5ON.... 5, 21,23 Om M signifies maximum ; 7 minimum. Meteor-Showers. R.A. Decl. Near 8 Ursz Majoris 168 55 N a Cephei . 315 60 N GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. EMIN PasHA contributes to the Scottish Geographical Society’s Journal an account of an exploration he made recently of part of Lake Albert Nyanza, which contains some data bearing on the probable origin and the physical geography of NATURE Ly une 16, 162 the lake. Off the station of Mabagi, on the north-west shore | figure of the animal opened along the dorsal median of the lake, Dr. Junker found a long, low, sandy island, which he recognized as of quite recent formation; for in 1879 he noticed that the spot where it now lies was covered with shallow water. Its length is 1067 yards, and maximum breadth 99 yards. Tall grass and weeds grow at the water’s edge, and a species of acacia (4. mellifera) on the higher parts. The island, Emin Pasha states, is due to the deposition of the detritus brought down by the two rivers which enter from the south-west. From what he observed on the lake, he is inclined to believe that the foreshore on-the west is gradually encroaching on its waters ; in other words, the lake in this part is gradually filling up. As for the lake itself, Emin Pasha attributes its origin solely to erosion. He thinks it more than probable that formerly a large stream may have made its way from between the two ranges to east and west of the lake, so that its erosive action, combined with that of inundations, heavy rains, caving-in, and the in- fluence of the sun and weather, are quite sufficient to account for the result. The geological formation of both ranges is the same ; their altitudes differ but little, and the terrace-like forma- tion of their descent lakewards is in each case exactly alike. Emin Pasha hoped to examine the problem much more minutely, He landed at Kibiro, on the opposite side cf the lake, and gives an interesting description of the valuable salt-mines of the region. Emin Pasha afterwards made two other journeys on the lake, during one of which he discovered what he believes to be a new river, called Kakibbi by the Wasongora, and Duéru by the Wamboga. It flows from the Ussongora Mountains, and is of considerable size, and enters the lake at the south, having a large island near its embouchure. It abounds with cataracts, and is therefore unnavigable. To the south-west, Emin Pasha was informed, there is a large river on the banks of which there is a colony of Akkas—called Balia by the Wanyoro people, but by themselves Betua; the latter a name suggesting the Batua recently discovered by Lieut. Wolf on the Sankuru, to the south of the Congo. Is it not possible that the Kakibbi is the same as the ‘‘red river” discovered: by Mason Bey in 1877, entering the south extremity of Lake Albert ? In the Bulletin of the Lyons Anthropological Society will be found an interesting paper by M. Bertholon on the ‘‘ Arab Colonization of France,” in which the author, mainly on the basis of place-names, seeks to identify the existing effects of the Sara- cenic invasion of France. Dr. Collomb has also a useful paper on the peoples of the Upper Niger, their manners and their history. M. Epovarp Dupont, Director of the Brussels Natural _ History Museum, is about to leave for the Congo, to make a geological investigation of the region along the south bank of the river, between Boma and Stanley Pool. - He will endeavour especially to determine the epoch when the river broke through the coast range, and the age of these mountains. He will also explore any caves which may exist, in order to discover if there are any remains of a primitive population. THE new number of Petermann’s Mitteilungen is one of special scientific intere:t. The first paper gives the results of a series of researches by Japanese botanists on the botanical zones of Japan, in which the relation of these zones is shown to the configuration of the surface of the country. A much longer and perhaps more important paper in the same department is Herr Ernst Hartert’s account of the botanical results of the expedition to the Niger under the late Herr Flegel; it abounds with detailed information on the plants collected by the expedition. Dr. Alex. Supan, the able editor of the W/ittec/ungen, who takes a special interest in meteorology, contributes a carefully elaborated paper on the mean duration of the chief heat periods in Europe. Then we have a series of extracts from Emin Pasha’s letters, from 1883 down to 1886, much of which has already been published. THE NEPHRIDIA OF « LANICE CONCHILEGA,” MALMGREN} SEVERAL accounts of the nephridia of TZeredella conchi- lega have been given, H. Milne-Edwards (Aun. d. Sci. Nat, (2) Zoologie, x., 1838, p. 220), in a paper published in 1838, on the circulation in Annelids, describes the vascular system in a species to which he gives this name, and gives a * A Paper read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh by Mr. J. T. Cunningham, on Monday, May 16. | following four somites (10-13 inclusive) are seen this figure four looped nephridia are distinctly shown, behind the branchial region. The representation of the pos and character of these organs is perfectly correct so goes : they are the upper parts of the four nephridia belo somites 6-9. But the paper I refer to does not des nephridia, as it deals with another subject : they are s the figure, and that is all; and in the description of the the organs are referred to as organs of generation. Keferstein (Z:z¢schrift fiir wiss. Zoologie, Bd. xii., 1862 tions that the structure and number of the nephridia in 7: Jega are the same as in 7. gelatinosa, Kef.: in both cz says there are six pairs, each organ consisting of a tube itself, of which one half is darker, the other lighter: the belong to segments 3-9. peel Cosmovici? gives an erroneous description of the or, says there are two pairs without internal opening calls ‘‘ organs of Bojanus,” one of these situated in. cephalic diaphragm, the other immediately behind having an external opening ; and two other pairs, é: has an internal as well as external opening, and is an umn: the internal opening is large, and surrou circular lip, The gonad is attached to the posterior pa of these latter organs, which Cosmovici calls =nta and which he says serve as efferent excretory ducts The species referred to by these three authors is conchilega of Pallas, Terebella conchilega of Gmelin called Lanice conchilega by Malmgren. My identified from Malmgren’s description, and there is n the identity of my specimens with the species of but there is room for some uncertainty regarding identity of the specimens referred to by the authors tioned. For instance, Cosmovici identified his spec of Quatrefages’ ‘‘ Histoire des Annelés,” 1865, and > stated that the tube of 7erebella conchilega possesses fringes at its mouth: these fringes are always prese of Lanice conchilega, Malmgren. ‘This species is by some marked characters : two of them are th large vertical lobe on the 3rd somite (second b and the coalescence of the ventral scutes usually continuous ventral plate. : The true relations of the excretory system are Enumerating the somites from before backwards, ing the buccal as the Ist, we find that the branc somites 2, 3, and 4: the first notopodial fascicle of | setze is on the 4th somite, the third branchifero neuropodial uncinigerous torus is on the 5th: the tori are repeated on every succeeding somite to body ; the notopodial fascicles occur only on sevent tive somites. There are traces of transverse septa k Ist, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th somites, but none in t = thoracic region, which bears the notopodial fascicles. section, four long double nephridial tubes are seen { dorsalwards with the body-cavity ; the lower parts of th are covered by strands of the oblique muscles which the nerve-cord to the neighbourhood of the notopodi careful examination shows that these tubes belo: 6, 7, 8, and 9, Their internal openings can diately behind the fascicle of bristles belonging to 7, and 8 respectively, but their efferent tubes are seen down beneath the fascicles of somites 6, 7, 8, and 9. — parts of these efferent tubes are very wide, and i to separate them from one another. Beneath the nephridial sacs, which externally at least are inse one another. These sacs are simple, that is, they posed of a tube bent on itself like the anterior ne scarcely extend above the level of the oblique m internal opening or nephrostome can be found in the of the mest anterior nephridium, that belonging to are seen traces of a rudimentary nephridium, In or out the relations of these nephridia more accurately, the a part of a specimen was cut into a series of horizontal sections, commencing with the ventral surface, and _ why the successive nephridia could not be isolated fr another was seen on examination of these sections: the parts of the efferent limbs of the four anterior normal in somites 6-9, and the whole of the nephridial sacs in « “ Glandes génitales et Organes segmentaires des Annélides (Arch. de Zool, Exp., t. viii., 1879-80). - ‘ Tr is oe NATURE 163 Fume 16, 1887] [O-13, are in open communication, forming a wide continuous longitudinal tube extending from somite 6 to somite 13. Open- ings to the exterior from this tube were found in somites 6-9 inclusive, corresponding to the four large looped nephridia : zach of these openings was close behind the upper end of an ncinigerous torus. The internal openings of the same four nephridia could be traced with ease and certainty: they are ttached to the body-wall close behind the notopodial fascicles somites 5-8. These openings are wide, and are overhung orsally by a longitudinal lip furnished with a series of small iliated digitate processes: lower down, the anterior and poste- ior lips of the opening are simple, thick-walled, and ciliated. The aperture leads into a thin tube, which passes inwards and backwards, curving round the inner end of the fascicle of bristles behind the aperture, and then, crossing the continuous tube, passes up on the inner or medial side of the loop, at the apex of which it is continued into the efferent wider limb of the loop, which passes down on the outer side to open into the longi- . tudinal tube. Neither internal nor external openings could be found in that part of the longitudinal tube. which is behind the loops: it seems evident that this part of the tube represents four somewhat reduced nephridia which have coalesced, but whose openings have disappeared. An- teriorly to the four looped nephridii are traces of three others : itudinal tube extends forwards into somite 5 as if it luded a nephridium belonging to that somite, but I could find no external opening in this somite: at the angle between the septum behind somite 4 and the body-wall is a very obvious iephrostome, which ought to lead into the longitudinal tube, nto that part of it corresponding to somite 5, but the connexion could not be traced. Nephrostomes were also present attached to the anterior face of the septa behind somites 2 and 3 (the first and second branchiferous), and leading into tubes seen in somites 3 and 4, but I could find no external openings in these somites. I could find n> nephrostome in s mite 1 (the buccal) nor any race of a tube in somite 2. Gonads are present in the form of lumps of deeply-staining small indifferent cells attached to the terior of all the nephrostomata mentioned, seven in all. The minal cells, when still quite. undifferentiated, separate from the gonads, and undergo further development in the ccelome. But mind no reproductive elements in the cavity of the nephridial em, though the body-cavity contained them in quantity, and s probable that at the right season they are expelled through nephridial system. The body-cavity contains, besides the roductive elements, a large number of spherical, vacuolated, nucleated cells. This is the first case in which a communication ibetween successive nephridia has ever been discovered in any adult invertebrate. It is true that in the development of Poly- igordius, according to Hatschek, each nephridium gives off back- wards a prolongation of itself, from which the next nephridium is formed, and the two remain in communication for a time; but he connexion is soon severed, and in the adult the successive nephridia are isolated and independent. In Lamice conchilega the nephridia have coalesced together after coming in contact from before backwards, the separating membranes having dis- appeared. ‘The case is extremely interesting in the fact that we have in it an approximation to the condition of the excretory system in Vertebrata: the presence of a metameric series of |nephrostomata in vertebrate embryos has long ago been seen |to constitute a resemblance between them and Chetopoda, but hitherto no Cheetopod was known which resembled the verte- brate in having a number of nephridia coalesced to form a |continuous longitudinal tube. | It is surprising to find that, as far as I have been able to discover, no resemblance to the condition seenin Lamice conchi- |4ega occurs in any of its near allies. The only species of the jgenus Terebella as defined by Malmgren that occurs in the Firth of Forth is Zeredella Danielsseni, but of this I have only one specimen, and have not examined its nephridia. Of Amphitrite here are two species in the Forth: Amphitrite cirrata I have not examined anatomically ; in Amphitrite Johnstoni there area ge number (15-17) of nephridia forming long loops projecting orsalwards into the body-cavity, in the anterior region: each jas its own internal and external openings, and is isolated and ependent. In Zerebellides Stremii there is one pair of large rk-coloured nephridia in the anterior end, and three pairs of mall rudimentary ones posterior to this. In Pectinaria Jeica there are three pairs: they are all independent. In lelinna cristata there are several pairs, all separate. Figures Dh br . . * . . . . * * Showing the interesting relations which exist in Lanice conchilega, together with «a more complete description of the nephridia in other forms of Polychzeta, will I hope shortly be published in a paper on the anatomy of Polycheeta. NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF PART OF THE EASTERN COAST OF CHINA AND THE ADJACENT ISLANDS. URGEON P. W. BASSETT-SMITH, R.N., has forwarded to the Hydrographical Department of the Admiralty a brief Report on this area, embodying the results of ob ervations made in the course of last summer during the cruise of H.M.S. Rambler. Specimens of rocks were collected at certain points on the mainland and onthe neighbouring islands, stretching from Chusan on the north to Ockseu Island, south of Hai-tan Strait, opposite the northern part of Formosa. All the islands, with a single exception, appear to consist of crystalline rocks. They usually present sharp rugged outlines, with bold cliffs—more or less fissured and veined—rising, in many cases, vertically from moderately deep water. In the following notes, the stations from which the specimens were collected are described in succession from north southwards. Tou-wah Island, the most northerly station, consists of an irregular range of hills trending in a north-west and south-east direction, and reaching an elevation of 1600 feet. A gray granitic rock was obtained from the summit. Thornton Peak, on the mainland in the province of Chi-kiang, separated from the Chusan group by a narrow sea, is composed of a pink granite. From Ta-fou Island, in San-moon Bay, a fine-grained purplish quartz-felsite was obtained. The group of Hae-shan Isles seems to be composed of a dark gray quartz-felsite, and a similar rock forms the Tai-chow Islands. Another group of stations visited by the Rambler lies off the coast of the province of Fu-kien. Fuh-yan Island consists of hills reaching a height of 1700 feet, and- yielding a fine-grained greenish rock, apparently a diabase. Coney Island is composed for the most part of a coarse pinkish granite, with veins of quartz, and dykes which appear to consist of diabase and horn- blende-porphyrite. The two islands known as Tung Yung are formed mainly of quartz-felsite ; the specimens obtained from the larger of the two isles containing much opaque white feldspar, porphyritically distributed through the rock, In a cove at the south-west end of the latter island, the rocks split up into irregular columns, and in certain parts these columns exhibit considerable curvature. The third group of stations is situated on the River Min, and in the neighbourhood of its mouth. Chang-chiis a large irregular- shaped island of red porphyrite. The island known as Matsou is particularly interesting, the principal rock being a white quartz-felsite, with a complicated network of basaltic dykes. Ina small sandy bay, a deep water-course exposes a layer of dark earth, about a foot in thickness, crowded with land shells. Two small neighbouring islands known as White Dog consist of dark gray quartz-felsite. On the north side of the mouth of the River Min is an island, termed Sharp Peak, about three miles in length, which culminates in a rocky peak 1500 feet high. The island is formed, for the most part, of a hard conglomerate, associated with slates and shales, and with a talcose schist penetrated by veins of quartz. A cliff at the north-east point of the island displayed a clear section, in which this schist was seen to alternate with beds of slate and conglomerate, inclined at about 45°. A small low island off the south point at the entrance to the River Min, consists of granite, gneiss, and mica-schist. A specimen of red granite, with crystals of iron pyrites, was ob- tained from the rugged mountains of the neighbouring mainland. Temple Point, on the north side of the Min, a few miles from its mouth, yielded a greenish-yellow steatitic rock, with den- dritic markings. At Pagoda Anchorage, up the river, a fine- grained pink gneiss was obtained, and this locality also yielded a fragment of a large crystal of smoky quartz. About twelve miles further up the Yuen Fu branch of the Min River are some hot springs having a miximum temperature, in November, of 114° F. The rock is here a quartz-felsite. An orthoclase porphyry occurs about five miles further up the river, and quartz- felsite again occurred ten miles higher. Here, in a curious recess in the hill-side, in which’ a temple has been built, are numerous stalactites, some of large size. The mountains all up 164 NATURE ee 16, 1887 the Yuen Fu are very fine, presenting a succession of bold out- lines and rocky peaks. A dark-gray quartz-felsite was obtained from a high peak in a range of hills bounding the water-shed of the Min on the south. From the base of the hills a stretch of low flat reclaimed land extends to the coast. The soil of the hills is of a bright red colour, contrasting with the dark tints of the felsitic rocks. The fourth group of stations includes a number of localities around Hai-tan Strait. Here the hills present vivid colouring, which contrasts very markedly with the white sands of the shore, especially on Hai-tan Island itself. This consists of three ranges of hills, with intermediate barren plains. Near the north point is a group of reddish sand-cliffs, from 20 to 30 feet high, hori- zontally stratified, and presenting flat summits, which form a miniature plateau deeply trenched by numerous gullies. At the mouth of the strait is a small barren island—Tessara I-land —composed of gneissose rocks, which carry iron pyrites. Slut Island, about 400 feet high, yielded a dark porphyritic felsite, and a weathered surface of the rock displayed evidence of fluxion structure. Syang Point, at Hai-tan, shows granitic rocks running up into high hills. Kiang-shan, on Hai-tan Island, is a hill 1800 feet high, composed of dark-gray quartz-felsite. Mount Bernie, on the mainland, at the south end of the strait, about 1400 feet in height, is composed of a similar rock, weather- ing to a reddish earth ; and in Hungwah Sound the hills are of similar character. In Ockseu, a small rocky island, about twenty miles south of Hai-tan, is a dark-coloured rock, apparently dioritic, and certain masses of this rock when struck, emit a ringing sound, like that ofa phonolite. There are here numerous veins of quartz, some showing rather bold crystals, and a good deal of schorl, or black tourmaline. It is notable that the island of Ockseu is especially subject to seismic disturbances. THE METEOROLOGY OF INDIA? [tT is perhaps inseparable from the mode of issue of the “‘ Indian Meteorological Memoirs” that their titles (¢.¢. Vol. IIL., Part I., I.—Rainfall, Part I.) are rather complex. It is stated that this memoir is to be in three parts, whereof the present part treats only of the normal rainfall of India ; Part II. is to treat of its variations in past years; Part III. is to contain the tabular data : the whole to form Vol. III. of the series. As India depends chiefly on agriculture, the investigation of the conditions affecting its rainfall is of the highest practical import- ance toit. The registers of rainfall available are, except a few private ones, all official work done under Government orders. Some few extend from 1844, but the most of those accepted as trustworthy, after a critical examination, date from about 1862 ; the discussion includes the data only down to 1883, z.e. covers pretty nearly a complete record for twenty-two years. Alto- gether, the registers of 424 stations are reviewed : for purposes of discussion these are grouped into twenty-five ‘‘ rainfall districts,” z.e. districts with similar rainfall. From all these it appears that the average rainfall of the whole of India, excluding Burmah and the Himalya, is about 42 inches. The range of rainfall over this wide area is one of the most wonderful in the world, viz. from about 500 or 600 inches in Cherra Punjito from 1 to §inchesin Sindh. The average annual range over the whole of India (as above) is about 13 in the whole 42 inches. The rainfall is discussed under four heads :— (1) Summer Monsoons, (2) Autumn Rains in South-East. (3) Winter Rains. (4) Spring Storms. The local distribution of 1, 3, and 4 is well shown by tints of various shades on three maps. For the connection with the state of air-pressure, twelve maps are given, showing the isobars for the mean pressure of each month; the discussion of this connection is c mplicated, and difficult to summarise. (1) Summer (South-West) Monsoon.—By some, the south-west monsoon is considered to be an extension of the south-east trade- winds, but the author considers their connection to be very * “Indian Meteorolog:cal Memoirs,” Vol. III., Part I. I.—The Rain- fall of India, Part I. Pp. 116, and 9 Plates. A Monograph by.H. F. Blanford, F.R.S. (Calcutta: Government Printing Press, 1886.) ‘“‘{ndian Meteorological Memoirs,” Vol. IV., Part I. Pp. 57, and 4 Plates. Edited by H. F. Blanford, F.R.S. (Calcutta: Government Printing Press, 1886.) “Report on the Meteorology of India in 1834,” by H. F. Blanford, Tree Pp. 305 and 3 Plates. (Calcutta: Government Printing Press, 18 86. doubtful, and gives a rough calculation, showing that the ation from the Northern Indian Ocean, land of India, an of Bengal is enough to account for the whole of this rain. ‘This rainfall is far the heaviest of the four seas the most important for agriculture for most part of Indi in fact, popularly styled ‘‘the rains.” On its sufficiency the lives of millions. The distribution is at once seen tinted map. The west coasts of India and Arakhan cat first and heaviest fall of over 100 inches: this does not coast range of mountains. The next heaviest is from tl of the Bay of Bengal to the Himalya, thence all alo lower Himalya, of from 50 to 70 inches. The amount d thence steadily with distance from the head of the Bay of Ber and from the Himalya, dwindling to almost nothing south-east cocst and north-west border. i The effect of a mountain-range in intercepting rain brought out, e.g. in the Western Ghats this rainfall, comii the south-west, decreases from 250 inches on the coast inches at 30 miles inland, and to 20 inches at 60 miles f coast. Again, very little rain crosses the outer snowy 1 the Himalya. In fact, it seems to be an established the precipitation of rain from damp air is greatest in an ing current from the chill produced in the ascent, moderate in a horizontal current. panel (2) Autumn Rains in South-East.—The author shows | these are not (as often stated) a part of the north-east monso but are, in fact, a late part of the south-west monsoon, sponding to the late and heaviest part of the same or Arakhan coast. liam (3) Winter Rains.—These are popularly styled the monsoon, and are popularly said to be due to a reversal of t conditions of the south-west monsoon. Their distributiot roughly speaking, the opposite of that of the south-west soon, and is well shown on the map given. The s coasts, which scarcely feel the south-west monsoon, ¢ maximum of over 10 inches of this season, the No Himalya catch from 5 to 10 inches, the head of the Bengal from 3 to 5 inches, and the rest of the country less with increased distance from these places. Cg ae Small as these quantities are (compared to those of the sot west monsoon), they are of the greatest importance to some the localities named, especially to North-West India, depends the growth of the valuable crops of temperate | e.g. wheat, the staple of North-West India; indeed, extreme north-west the winter is the dampest season. (4) Spring Storms.—This rainfall is distinguished by 3 ing with the advance of the season, z.¢. with the rising te ture, and mainly restricted to the south and east provine is often accompanied by hail and thunderstorms, and is in the evenings. This rain is usually very local, of short du heavy, and frequently repeated. hie ene Altogether, this is a most elaborate and valuable on its subject—the normal rainfall of India. Aes ees - y Part I. of Vol. IV. of *‘ Indian Meteorological Memoirs ” tains three memoirs, each a short monograph on its own st by different authors : these will be dealt with separately. I.—‘‘ Account of the South-West Monsoon Storm 12-17 in the Bay of Bengal and at Akyab,” by J. Eliot and 2 plates). The history of this storm has been w from the meteorological reports of fourteen coast sta’ the logs of fourteen ves-els passing through the Bay o The states of the barometer and wind are shown for four on four charts, and the track of the storm-centre on The meteorological conditions seem to have been remar uniform over the Bay of Bengal for a fortnight precedit storm ; indeed, this seems to be the normal state of things acyclone. The south-east trade-winds seem to have ext north of the equator on May to and 11, and gradually adv: into the Bay of Bengal, as strong south and south-west with rain, increasing in violence within the Bay. In fro these, a barometric depression was formed about the 12th, which, as a vortex, the wind became cyclonic. This advanced in a curved path north and east (whereas most advance north and west up the Bay), increasing from per hour on the 15th to 15 miles per hour on the 17th, andt up on the Arakhan Hills close over Akyab on the 17th, « great damage to property. ts II.—‘‘ On the Diurnal Variation of the Rainfall at Cal by H. F. Blanford, F.R.S. (pp. 8, and 1 plate). This Fune 16, 1887] NATURE 165 iscussion of the hourly frequency and quantity of rain in a period of seven years (1878-54), derived from a self-registering Vasella’s hyetograph. The results do not seem of much prac- ical importance. In the rainy season the rain is least frequent it the hour of maximum pressure, and most frequent at the oldest hour. At other seasons, dust-storms, with rain, are ommonest in the evening. The greatest and least rainfall cur in general at the hours of greatest and least frequency. _ III.—*The Meteorological Features of the Southern Part of the y of Bengal,” by W. L. Dallas (pp. 11, and 1 plate). Thisisa iscussion of the meteorology of a square district of 4° by 4° of ie Indian Ocean, about half way between Ceylon and Sumatra, rived from the logs of ships. The air-pressure is at a maxi- um in January and at a minimum in May, with slight minima n July and October, which seem related to the occurrence of yclones. The diurnal variation is extremely regular, the minima alling about 3h. 30m. and 15h 4on., and the maxima about gh. 22h. The range is markedly largest in April and Sep- ember, 7.¢. at the two great seasonal changes. The mean emperature is 80°"9, and the range of the mean monthly tem- srature is only 3°, which is smaller than at any coast station: he diurnal range of the year is about 2°°7, varying from 3°°75 n April to 1°°8 in May, the maximum and minimum being thus ose together. In the summer (south-west) monsoon calms are From April to September the wind is pretty steady from th-west to west-south-west, and, from December to March, yenerally from north to north-east. Only thirteen gales are ineded in twenty-five years, and none of them over force 9 of he Beaufort scale. Mr. Blanford’s ** Report ” for 1884 is a discussion of the meteoro- ogy of India in 1884, on the same general plan as adopted for the fen years preceding. The discussion rests on observations sup- plied from 134 reporting-stations. Each meteorological element 's discussed separately, beginning with the solar radiation as peing the prime cause of all meteorological change ; next, earth- radiation, temperature, humidity, cloudiness ; and, lastly, rain- ‘all. The great extent of India, and its isolation by ocean and mountain from other countries, render it a country most favour- e for meteorological study. One singular feature is, that ost considerable variations are of a somewhat lasting character, ymetimes lasting two seasons, ¢.g. heavy snow in the spring in che Himalya is followed by steady north-west winds over the ains of Northern India, afterwards turning into the hot west The year under review was in some ways peculiar. Perhaps he most striking feature brought out is that, ever since 1878, the temperature of insolation and of the air have both steadily fallen, and were lowest in 1884 (1°°2 less than in 1878), although e sky was slightly less cloudy than in 1883: it seems likely that this is part of a cyclic change connected with that of the unspots, the temperature being highest at the sunspot minimum, and vice versé. The mean air-pressure was slightly (o’‘or) bove that of past years, and also much steadier. The average umidity was rather lower, and the average clearness of sky ewhat greater than in the recent years, and yet the total i was somewhat greater : this was chiefly due to excess of in North-West, Central, and South-East India. Heavy now fell in the North-West Himalya early in the year, bring- ng rain to the North-West Punjab, and dry north-west winds n North India generally, followed by a hotter summer than ual. The south-west monsoon bringing the rain sets in in orth India in June. The storms of the year were somewhat i . From July to September a series of cyclones formed n the Bay of Bengal, and followed a north and west course far nto the plains of India: this course seems to be the usual yclone track of the Bay of Bengal. One of these, in July, ossed the entire breadth of India, and one, in September, asted over a fortnight. Heavy snow fell in the outer Himalya September and October, followed by north-west winds in orth India, and by an unusually cool winter in India gener- lly. Twelve» charts accompany this Report, showing the mean onthly temperature, aii-pressure, and wind; the isotherms, obars, and wind-resultants being plotted in colours on each onthly chart. This annual Report, of which a very brief omary only is here given, is the outcome of an enormous mount of labour: the detailed tables of data covering 305 to pages, these tables being themselves mostly the result f laborious computation from the data furnished by the atories, UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE,—The Mathematical Examiners have bracketed as Senior Wranglers Messrs. Baker and Flux of St. John’s, and Iles and Michell of Trinity. 1t is unprecedented to have a bracketed Senior Wrangler. No women students have this year been placed as Wranglers. The following women students have been placed in the first class of the Natural Sciences Tripos, Part I., E. E. Field, A. J. Flavell, and M. M. Smith, all of Newnham College. The Honorary Degree of Doctor in Science has been conferred on Prof. Asa Gray, of Harvard. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 6, June.—R. Emden, on the vapour-pressures of saline solutions. | Criticism of prior results, and fresh experiments conducted according to the method of Konowalow. Babo’s law, that the vapour-tension of saline solutions is always proportional to that of pure water at the same temperature, is shown to be true between 20°C. and 95° C.—Max Planck, on the principle of increase of entropy. Application of this principle in the study of dissociation of gases.—C. R. Schulze, on the amount of water of crystallization held in various salts. Proves the existence of a new form of sulphate of magnesia having density 1°8981, containing six mole- cules of water, and therefore differing from Mitscherlich’s salt of same composition of density 1°6151.—W. Voigt, on the theory of light for absorbing isotropic media. A development of the theory propounded by the author three years ago.—C. L. Weber, on the galvanic conductivity of amalgams. The amalgams examined were of tin, bismuth, lead, cadmium. Addition of tin increases conductivity of mercury ; bismuth increases it until 10 per cent. of bismuth has been added, after which further addition decreases the conductivity ; lead shows a maximum at about 25 per cent. ; cadmium produces a steady increase in conductivity.—Adolf Koepsel, determination of magnetic moments and absolute strength of currents by means of the balance. The method is due to R. von Helmholtz, and is independent of the earth’s magnetic field or its variations. The author has made by this method a new determination of the electro-chemical equivalent of silver, which he gives as 0°011740 = 0'0000022 in C.G.S. measure. Lord Rayleigh’s value was 0'011794.—Walter Konig, magnetic researches on crystals. A very careful research on magnetic susceptibility of quartz and calc-spar in magnetic fields of various degrees of intensity. The two principal permeabilities in calc-spar possess a constant difference in fields of various strengths up to 3000 C.G.S.; for quartz, the difference diminishes as the field is strengthened, and is less than that of calc-spar.—R. Clausius, reply to some remarks of Lorberg upon dynamo-electric machines.—A. Foeppl, electricity as an elastic fluid. A specu- lative paper : the author thinks the existence of the Hall effect a criterion of his theory.—K. Wesondonck, on the absence of polar difference in spark-potential.—G. Meyer, note on the index of refraction of ice ; the value for sodium light is -1°3133.—E. Ketteler, on the dispersion of rock-salt. The author thinks he has established the law that the absorbing power of substances for heat-rays is proportional to the negative coefficient of the term in A? in the formula which he uses in place of Cauchy’s for the law of dispersion.—W. Voigt, reply to Wernicke’s remarks on elliptic polarization.—F. Braun, on the diminution of the compressibility of solutions of sal-ammoniac with increase in temperature.—A. Overbeck, on the signification of the absolute system of measurement. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Geological Society, May 25,—Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communications were read:—On the remains of fishes from the Keuper of Warwick and Nottingham, by Mr. E. T. Newton ; with notes on their mode of occurrence by the Rev. P. B. Brodie and Mr. E. Wilson.—Considerations on the date, duration, and con- ditions of the Glacial period with reference to the antiquity of man, by Prof. Joseph Prestwich. After showing how the discoveries in the valley of the Somme and elsewhere, twenty- eight years ago, led geologists who had previously been dis- posed to restrict the age of man to exaggerate the period during \ which the human race had existed, the author proceeded to 166 NATURE discuss the views of Dr. Croll on the date of the Glacial epoch. Dr. Croll, who had at first referred this to an earlier phase of orbital eccentricity, commencing 980,000 years ago, subse- quently regarded it as coinciding with a minor period of eccen- tricity that commenced 240,000 and terminated 80,000 years since. This last estimate was chiefly supported by the amount of denudation that had subsequently taken place. The efficacy of the increased eccentricity of the earth’s orbit in producing the cold of the Glacial epoch was shown to be very doubtful ; for-as similar changes in the eccentricity had occurred 165 times in the last 100 millions of years, there must have been many glacial epochs in geological time, several of them much more severe than that of the Pleistocene"period. But of such glacial epochs there was no valid evidence. Another inference from Dr. Croll’s theories, that each glacial epoch consisted of a suc- cession of alternating cold and warm or interglacial phases, was also questioned, such alternations as had been indicated having probably been due to changes in the distribution of land and water, not to cosmical causes. The time requisite for such inter- glacial periods as were supported by geological evidence was more probably hundreds than thousands of years. Recent observations in Greenland by Prof. Helland, Mr. V. Steenstrup, and Dr. Rink, had shown that the movement of ice in large quantities was much more rapid, and consequently the denu+ dation produced much greater than was formerly supposed. The average rate of progress in several of the large iceberg-pro- ducing glaciers in Greenland had been found to be 36 feet daily. Applying these data and the probable accumulation of ice due to the rainfall and condensation to the determination of the time necessary for the formation of the ice-sheet, the author was dis- posed to limit the duration of the Glacial epoch to from 15,000 to 20,000 years, including in this estimate the time during which the cold was increasing, or preglacial time, and that during which the cold was diminishing, or postglacial time. Details were then given to show that the estimate of 1 foot on an average being removed from the surface by denudation in 6000 years, on which estimate was founded the hypothesis of 80,000 years having elapsed since the Glacial epoch, was insufficient, as a somewhat heavier rainfall and the disintegrating effects of frost would pro- duce far more rapid denudation. It was incredible that man should have remained physically unchanged throughout so long a period. At the same time, the evidence brought forward by Mr. Tiddeman, Dr. Hicks, and Mr. Skertchly of the occurrence of human relics in preglacial times, had led the author to change his views as to the age of the high-level gravels in the Somme, Seine, Thames, and Avon valleys, and he was now disposed to assign these beds to the early part of the Glacial epoch, when the ice-sheet was advancing. This advance drove the men who then inhabited Western Europe to localities such as those men- tioned which were not covered with ice. Man must, however, have occupied the country but a short time before the land was overwhelmed by the ice-sheet. The close of the Glacial epoch, i.e. the final melting of the ice-sheet, might have taken place from 8000 to 10,000 years since. Neolithic man made his appearance in Europe 3000 to 4000 years B.C., but may have existed for a long time previously in the east, as in Egypt and Asia Minor civilized communities and large States flourished at an earlier date than 4000 B.c. After the reading of the paper there was a discussion, in which the President, Dr, Evans, Dr. Geikie, Prof. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. Hicks, and others took part. —Notes on some Carboniferous species of M/urchisonia in our public museums, by Miss Jane Donald. Communicated by Mr. J. G. Goodchild. Zoological Society, June 7,—Mr. E. W. H. Holdsworth, in the chair.—The Secretary read a report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of May, and called attention to a Tooth-billed Pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris) brought home from the Samoan Islands, and pre- sented to the Society by Mr. Wilfred Powell; to two Red- spotted Lizards (Eremias rubro-punctata) obtained at Moses’ Well, in the Peninsula of Sinai, and presented to the Society by Mr. G. Wigan ; and toa small scarlet Tree-Frog (Dendrobates typographus) from Costa Rica, presented to the Society by Mr. C. H. Blomefield.—Mr. Sclater called attention to examples of two North American Foxes now living in the Society’s Gardens, which he referred to Canis velox and C. virginianus.—A com- munication was read from Mr. A. O. Hume, containing some notes on Budorcas taxicolor, the Gnu-goat or Takin of the Mishmee Hills, and some remarks on the question of the form of the horns Mr. E. Symonds, containing notes on various species of met with in the vicinity of Krounstadt, Orange Fre specimens of which had been forwarded to Mr. J. H. | and determined by Dr. Giinther.—Mr. Martin Jacoby account of a small collection of Coleoptera obtained by L. Sclater in British Guiana.—Prof. G. B. Howes, rez on a hitherto unrecognized feature in the larynx of the Amphibians. This was the existence in many indi various species of a rudimentary structure, which ap correspond to the epiglottis of Mammals, and which instances attained a remarkable development as an org Institution of Civil Engineers, June 7.—Annual Meeting.—Mr. Woods, President, in the chair.—The the Council on the condition of the Institution, a statement of the accounts, were received. members on the roll of the Institution, on March 4347, of whom 20 were honorary members, 1568 n associate members, and 484 associates. This was of 173, or 4°19 per cent., on the 4174 members of ¢ recorded last year. The elections had included 34 n 234 associate members, and 6 associates, whi resignations, and erasures were 106. deat among the older members of the Institution d twelve months, chief among whom must be { Whitworth, whose world-wide renown as a unnecessary to dwell upon. By his will he Institution 80 shares, of £25 each, in the : Whitworth and Company, Limited. During t under review, 211 candidates were admitted a the other hand, 82 were elected into the corpore members, and 106 ceased, from various cau class. The total number of students on M as against 926 at the same date in 1886. Ther ordinary meetings during the session, whe v communications were read and discussed. The Ho quennial Prize had been adjudged to Dr. John yy nition of his researches on the uses and proper } the authors of some of the papers read and diseu: ordinary meetings medals and premiums h viz.: Telford Medals and Telford Premiums W. Kennedy, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Colonel E, Willcocks ;a Watt Medal and a Telford P1 Clowes ; Telford Premiums to W. J. Dibdin, J. J. Webster, and J.. Kyle ; and the Man remi Ransome. For papers printed in Section II. of the P without having been publicly discussed, the. follov had been made: a Telford Medal and a Telfo J. G. Gamble ; a Watt Medal and a Telford Prem Last, and Telford Premiums to J. Hetherington, | C. J. Wood, A. Leslie, and D. A. Stevenson. “ meetings had been held on alternate Friday even thirteen papers were read and discussed.—The ball resulted in the election of Mr. G. B. Bruce, Sir John Coode, Mr. G. Berkley, Mr. H. Hay Giles, M.P., as Vice-Presidents ; and of Mr. Mr. B. Baker, Mr. J. W. Barry, Sir Henry Bes Mr. E. A. Cowper, Sir James N. Douglass, Sir Mr. C. Hawksley, Mr. J. Mansergh, Mr. W. F.R.S., Sir Robert Rawlinson, C.B., Sir E. J. F.R.S., M.P., Mr. W. Shelford, Mr. F. C. William Thomson, F.R.S., as other Members of Chemical Society, June 2.—Mr. William Crooke President, in the chair.—The following papers were The equivalent of zinc, by Lieut.-Colonel Reynolds, and Prof. W. Ramsay.—The magnetic rotation - chloral, chloral hydrate, and hydrated aldehyde, by Dr. Perkin, F.R.S.—Note on a new class of voltaic c in which oxidizable metals are replaced by alterah by Dr. C. R. Alder Wright and Mr. C, T appeared to the authors probable that just as a liq parting with oxygen, chlorine, &c., can be used with an electrode of unchangeable material at_ voltaic cell (as in Grove’s nitric acid battery and an: binations), or may be replaced by a solid conducting itself capable of losing oxygen (e.g. a plate of stre pressed peroxide of lead), so conversely might a co plate of oxidizable material (e.g. zinc) at the other replaced by an unchangeable electrode in conjuncti liquid capable of taking up oxygen, chlorine, &c., ¥ s pe 2 in the female of this animal.—A communication was read from ducing any fundamental change in the character of 7 Fune 16, 1887 NATURE Ss ing place in the cell whilst generating a current. The ctrode immersed in this oxidizable substance, like the zinc of ordinary cell, would acquire the lower potential, and the te plate the higher potential; zc. the wire connected th the latter would be the “ positive pole ” of the construction reference to the external circuit. On trial, it has been found it such is the case, and that in consequence a large variety ‘novel forms of cell becomes easy of construction. For ample, sodium sulphite or potassium ferrocyanide solution p to chromic-sulphuric acid solution ; preferably with an iate layer of some neutral salt solution, such as sodium te, to prevent the direct action of the two fluids on one er. During the passage of a current, sodium sulphate or ssium ferrocyanide is formed in quantity proportionate to electricity passing, z.c. to the amount of silver thrown m in a silver voltameter included in the circuit ; whilst romium sulphate is produced at the other side Various alogous cells are described, in particular one where lead oxide solved in caustic soda is opposed to alkaline hypobromite : ease lead dioxide is produced and separates out in the orm; and one where chromium sesquioxide dissolved in ‘soda is opposed to chromium trioxide dissolved in sul- ic acid ; here sodium chromate and chromium sulphate are |, an E.M.F. about equal to that of a Daniell cell being _up.—The composition of Prussian blue and Turnbull’s e, by Mr. Edgar F. Reynolds.—Phlorizin, by Prof. E. H. pnie.—Further notes on the chemical action of Bacterium by Mr. Adrian J. Brown.—Note on the cellulose formed Bacterium xylinum, by Mr. Adrian J. Brown.—The idation of ethyl alcohol in the presence of turpentine, by Mr. E. Steedman, Williamstown, Victoria. Royal Microscopical Society, May 11.—Rev. Dr. linger, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Mr. Crisp called ention to a number of slides of hair which Dr. Ondaatje, of ylon, had forwarded tothe Society with a request for infor- ition as to its peculiarities of structure ; also to a donation by ». Deby of sixty-two slides, chiefly of Micro-Hymenoptera, ich came from the collection of the late Mr. F. Smith. —Mr. Mayall, Jun., said that he took it for granted that the Fellows re interested in whatever concerned the history of the micro- Par) ‘= ‘pe, and would therefore be glad of any new facts which ded to throw light upon the subject. He had lately come ‘oss evidence which showed that magnifying glasses were used least as early as 1513-20, for, in the celebrated portrait of o X., by Raphael, the Pope is shown holding one in his hand. e pe was painted between 1513 and 1520, as the Pope s elected in 1513 and Raphael died in 1520. He brought to _ meeting a large volume (lent for the purpose by Mr. aritch) which contained an engraving of Raphael’s portrait of o X. During a recent visit to Florence he also paid some ention to the microscopes which had been attributed to lileo. It was of course rather difficult to say in such matters at was really authentic and what was not. He could not, vever, help noting that all the telescopes made in 1660, about that time, had cardboard tubes, and wood or horn cells be determined. The formation of the locula of the ovary is ‘remarkable, and partakes more of a fungoid growth than herogamic. Paris. Academy of Sciences, June 6.—M. Janssen in the chair. —Researches on the density of sulphurous acid in the state of liquid and of saturated vapour, by MM. L. Cailletet and E. Mathias. Having already described the method employed by them for determining the density of ethylene, of the prot- oxide of nitrogen, and of carbonic acid as liquids and saturated vapours, the authors here generalize their method by applying it to the study of a substance (sulphurous acid), whose critical point, approaching 156°C., is much higher than that of the former gases. Their researches show that the densities of the liquid and of the saturated vapour have a common limit, which is opposed to the conclusion arrived at by Avenarius ; also that the critical density is 0°520.—Heats of combustion, by MM. Berthelot and Recoura. Continuing their studies of the heats of combustion by the new calorimetric method, the authors have determined the mean for glucose at 3°762 calories; for quinone, 6°102 ; for napthalene, 9°688 ; for benzoic acid, 6°345 ; and for salicylic acid, 5°326. Thesestudies are being continued with a view to determining the heat of combustion of liquid and volatile bodies, and the measure of the heat of combustion of pure carbon in its various states. Notwithstanding its funda- mental importance for calculating the heats of formation of organic compounds, this element has been neglected since the time of Favre and Silbermann.—Heats of combustion, by MM. Berthelot and Louguinine. Mean determinations are given for’ several compounds, such as napthalene, 9°6961 calories ; phenol, 7°8105 ; benzoic acid, 6°3221 ; cuminic acid, 7°5533; quinone, 6°0613 ; hydroquinone, 6'2295 ; pyrogallol, 5:0262. —A new endless tape odograph, by M. Marey. The ingenious instrument here described has been prepared for the purpose of automatically recording the velocity of men walking or running with or without burdens, and under the varying conditions of level or inclined, smooth or rugged track:, with or against the wind, and so forth. It is especially applic- able for determining the marching capacity of troops, as well as the velocity of locomotives and other engines, of water and atmospheric currents.—Action of oil on troubled waters, by Admiral Cloué. The author has studied the results of over two hundred experiments, made especially in England and the United States, and concludes that the question is now definitely settled. There can no longer be any doubt that oil has a most efficacious effect in calming storm-tossed waters, and thus saving vessels in danger of foundering at sea. Fish oils appear to be the best, mineral oils owing to their lightness the least effective, but kitchen refuse of all sorts and similar substances floating compactly on the surface, tend to produce the same result.—On the character and results of the improved methods of amputation lately introduced into hospitals, by M. Trélat. The author’s observations for the Charité and Necker Hospitals in Paris show that since 1880, when the antiseptic methods came into general use, the mortality under all kinds of amputations has fallen from 50 and upwards to an average of about 15 per cent. —On the density of the celestial vault, in relation to the radiant- points, by M. Alexis de Tillo. According to their right ascen- sions the 1315 radiant-points of the northern hemisphere are shown to be disposed in such a way as to make it evident that the regions traversed by the Milky Way (0°-g0° and 270°-360°) have a perceptibly greater meteoric density than the others (90°-180° and 180°-270°) which lie mainly beyond that stellar zone.—On the melotrope, a new musical apparatus, by M. J. Carpentier. This instrument is intended to serve as a complement to the recently described melograph, the automatic records of which it faithfully reproduces on any piano. But it may also be so adjusted as to constitute itself an independent instrument. suitable for the performance of automatic music gener- ally.—Action of an electro-static field on a variable current, by M. Vaschy. It is shown that in a magnetic field of varying intensity a closed conductor placed in this field is traversed by induced currents, and in general there arises in each point of the space an electric force capable of being calculated. In other words, the variations of the magnetic field develop a true electro- static field exercising a mechanical action on the electrified bodies, In virtue of the principle of equilibrium between action and reaction, the latter must react on the magnets or variable currents to which is due the magnetic field. —On the conductibility of abnormal salts and of acids in extended solution, by M. E. Bouty. The author’s previous conclusion is here confirmed, that in respect of their conductibility these acids differ greatly from each other, not even excepting sulphuric, nitric, and hydro- 168 NATURE [ume 16, 1887 chloric acids ; further, that these varying degrees of conducti- bility are not directly comparable with those of the neutral salts. —On cyanoacetic acid, by M. Louis Henry. These researches show, as anticipated, that the hydrogen element (CH,) in this acid, CN—CH,—CO(OH), has a basic character; also that the acid itself may be obtained in well-defined and perfectly white crystals, and that it dissolves, not at 5 5°C., as indicated by Van’t Hoff, but at 65°-66° C.—On the periodicity of magnetic perturbations and solar rotation, by M. Ch. V. Zenger. A com- parative study of observations recorded at the Pare Saint-Maurand Paulovsk Observatories shows that the dates of magnetic perturba- tions largely coincide either with the days of the solar period or with those of the periodic shooting-stars. This coincidence is observed at points far distant from each other on the surface of the globe, and in years of least (1878) as well as of greatest solar activity (1883-84). BERLIN. Physiological Society, May 27.—Prof. Munk, President, in the chair.—Dr. Lcewy spoke on the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata. His experiments were carried out on rabbits in the laboratory of Prof. Zuntz. He found that severing the medulla from the brain had no influence on either the fre- quency, depth, or rhythm of the respiration. On cutting one vagus in the animal operated upon as above, he observed a slight slowing of the respiratory movements ; in order to produce any marked alteration of the respiration, he found it necessary to cut both vagi. After this operation the frequency of the movements was considerably. lessened, the inspirations being very deep, while the expirations either did not take place at all, or were passive : in some few cases active expiration continued. The volume of the respired air was considerably diminished, while the rhythm was normal. By the above experiments it was shown that the centre in the medulla is able to maintain the rhythm of the respiratory movements after it is severed from both the brain and the peripheral parts of the vagi. More- over the centre when thus isolated was found to be equally susceptible to stimuli, whether applied directly or arriving from the periphery, as when it was still connected with the brain and lungs. In one experiment after the medulla was separated from the brain and both vagi were divided, the spinal cord was cut through, and the muscles of the hind-limbs tetanized ; this produced a quickening of the respiratory movements similar to that observed in normal animals, in accordance with the experiments of Zuntz and Geppert. ( Muscular contractions lead to the formation of some product of their metabolism which has not yet been isolated, but which stimulates the respiratory centre when brought to it in the blood.) Similarly an excess of car- bonic acid gas in the respired air had the same stimulating effect on the isolated respiratory centre as on the centre of normal animals. The irritability of the centre was not altered either qualitatively or quantitatively by its severance from the brain and lungs ; thus equal percentage increments of carbonic acid gas in the respired air produced an equal increase of the re- spiratory movements in animals with isolated and unisolated respiratory centre. Dr. Loewy has clso endeavoured to find experimentally an answer to another important question con- nected with respiration. The vagus, as is well known, is the only nerve that is in astate of continuous stimulation. Hering and Breuer have explained this as the result of the distension of the lung-alveoli during respiration, which acts as a stimulus to the endings of the vagus in the lungs. But inasmuch as they found that this continuous stimulation of the vagus does not entirely disappear when the lungs are no longer distended, after making an incision into the thorax, they assumed the existence of other unknown factors to explain the phenomenon. Dr. Leewy spoke against this view, pointing out that even in the collapsed lungs the alveoli are distended beyond their real size and that they are of normal size only in the atelectatic lung, and will then no longer stimulate the endings of the vagus. Experi- ments made by him confirmed this opinion: by occluding the bronchus of one lung, this lung became completely atelectatic, and then the vagus of the other side was severed. The imme- diate result of this was a considerable diminution in the frequency of the respiratory movements, greater in fact than is usually observed by section of only one vagus. Subsequent section of the vagus of the atelectatic lung produced no further effect on the respiration, thus showing that this vagus was not in a state of tonic stimulation.—Dr. Gad has carried on researches in his laboratory on the reaction-time for stimulation and inhibition. The experiments were made on the masseter muscle of the lower jaw was fixed so that the muscles antagonistic masseter did not come into play, and the contraction or Fr tion of the muscle was graphically recorded on a Marey « by means of a specially constructed muscle forceps. — periments showed that as nearly as possible the same elapsed between a given signal and the subsequent conti of the muscle as between the given signal and its rel According to this, the will has an equally exact control inhibitory as of the stimulatory process.—Dr. Benda mended the use of the kidney of mice for studying the s of the glomeruli, and demonstrated this structure on a preparations which he exhibited. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEI ABC Five-Figure Logarithms : C. J. Woodward (Simpkin).— Microscopical ‘Technology, Part 1: Dr. F. L. James (St. Louis). and Review of International Meteorological Observations, July to D 1885 (Washington).—Histoire des Sciences Mathématiques et I tome xi.: MM. Marie (Gauthier-Villars, Paris)—A Dictionary © sophy : J. R. Thomson (Dickinsons).—Results of Observations 0 Stars made with the Meridian Circle at the Government Observatory, in the years 1362-63-64: N. R. Pogson (Madras).—Rustic Walki in the London Vicinity : W. R. Evans (Philip).—Encyclopeedia oth ed., vol. xxii. (Black, Edinburgh).—Ocean Birds: J. F. Green (Po —-Philips’ Handy-Volume Atlas of the World (Philt ).—Scala Nat J. Cleland (Douglas, Edinburgh).—British Dogs. No. 8: H. ~Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard | : : The Almucantar: S. C. Chandler (Cambridge, Mass.).—Hi Hall and Knight (Macmillan).—Beitrage zur Biolo ie der ¥ Band, Drittes Heft (Breslau).—Journal of the iverpool A Society, vol. v.—Bulletin of the U.S. National Museum Synopsis of the North American Syrphide : S. W. Williston ( CONTENTS. The Jubilee. . . . . + «0s 's 6 ¢ Sop usc pees Imperial Geological Union. By Sir J. Willia Dawson, K.C.M.G., F.R,S...... Social History of the Races of Mankind. By A.-H. Keane .’. .. + «0s & = a The Fauna of Liverpool Bay .......-. Our Book Shelf :— + Geyler and Kinkelin: ‘‘ Oberpliocin-Flora aus Baugruben des Klirbeckens bei Niederrad u Schleuse bei Hochst a M.”—J. Starkie Gardner | Letters to the Editor :— Phi’ & British Association Sectional Procedure. —P Silvanus P. Thompson ... . .9. 5 3 5) The Recent Earthquakes in Mexico and Turkestan. Prof, J. P. O'Reilly oc 8 6. ee OF a ere AS The Late Earthquake on the Riviera, February < 1887.—J. E. Hi. Peyton. ..s ss)s0 eee The Shadow of Adam’s Peak.—R. Abbay. . . Upper Wind-Currents near the Equator and pueeoe of Krakatdo Dust.—E. Douglas bal Se lec se tee 8), ie ted a Mammaliferous Gravel at Elloughton, in the Hur Valley—G. W. Lamplugh. ......+-. Fall of Peculiar Hailstones in Kingston, Jamai James John Bowrey. (J/lustrated)..... Singular Nesting-place of Linnets.—H, Williams... . .... + «)6 495 A Brilliant Meteor.—Dr. F. Porro. ..... Electricity at Oxford .. . 2. ) 13s ss eee North American Pictographs. By Francis Galtc F.R.S. (lllustrated) 20 i 2 ve 1 Cocoa-nut Pearls. By Dr. SydneyJ. Hickson « W. T. Thiselton Dyer, C.M.G., F.R.S. .. . Notes er me Our Astronomical Column :— see The Great Southern Comet (1887 a). . . « « + New Minor Planets : ...) 0-8 6 4a) oo ee Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1 June 19-25 eee ove diy ice: |e one ay aeeeie gen Geographical Notes ......+.+ + 22s The Nephridia of Zanice conchilega, Malmgren. — J. T. Cunningham. ....5 **+ = s/s 3h gee Notes on the Geology of Part of the Eastern of China and the Adjacent Islands .. . The Meteorology of India. ......-+-. University and Educational Intelligence . Scientific Serials... 4 ..s:6 #22) ses Societies and Academies ......-.+-. Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received . . . . . . . 6 ite ee ee : 4 NATURE 169 _ THURSDAY, JUNE 23, 1887. THE AGRICULTURAL PESTS OF INDIA. The Agricultural Pests of India and of Eastern and _ Southern Asia, Vegetable and Animal, Injurious to | Manand his Products. By Surgeon-General Edward _ Balfour, Author of “The Cyclopedia of India,” &c. _ (London: Bernard Quaritch, 1887.) “~ ONSIDERABLE attention has been directed lately 4 to agricultural pests of all kinds, and especially ‘to insect pests, in various countries, because the injuries occasioned to crops by their agency have greatly creased, and in some instances altogether new dis- ers and diseases attributable to them have appeared. ‘he universal international exchange of agricultural duce and other commodities has tended and must end to distribute insects, fungi, and other sources evil to mankind, animals, and plants, throughout world. Thus the terrible scourge of the vine, _ the Phylloxera vastatrix, was first introduced into the French vineyards with plants, or cuttings, of vines _ imported from the United States. Very many insects most noxious to agricultural, fruit, and garden crops, in the United States were brought there with plants, cuttings, fruits, and seeds. The elm-leaf beetle, Ga/eruca xantho- melema, which is now seriously damaging elm-trees, was ot known in the United States until 1837, and came robably from France, or Germany, where it had been . troublesome pest long before that date. The hop Aphis humuli, called the “barometer of poverty ” a Kentish historian of hop culture, has only re- itly visited the hop plantations of America; yet it used almost a total blight last year in those of the Eastern States, upon an area of nearly 40,000 acres. Without any doubt this insect was conveyed from England in “hop-sets.”. The Hessian fly has been conveyed to Great Britain by some means or other not yet dis- covered, during the last year, and bids fair to be a dangerous and permanent scourge to the wheat and oat crops of this country. It is the same with moulds, or mildews, or “ blights,” occasioned by fungi. The vine mildew, O¢dium tuckerii, was not dreamed of in France until 1845. The potato mould, Peronospora infestans, had shown no important sign in Great Britain until 1844. The coffee mildew, Hemileta vastatrix, did no serious harm in the coffee plantations of Ceylon until after 1870; but during the last ten years it has enormously decreased their yield. Diseases of animals have also been greatly intensified during the past thirty years in Great Britain and in other countries. In India, as we gather from this little book of Surgeon-General Balfour, anthrax, pleuro- pneumonia, rinderpest, foot-and-mouth disease, are so | rampant that the Madras Government has recently | appointed an inspector of cattle diseases with a sufficient staff under him. _ There is no doubt that the attacks of certain insects than formerly. Hop blights from aphides and mildew, tive in England than they were fifty years back; and VOL. XXXvI.—NO. 921. and parasitic fungi are more frequent and more fatal : the orange-growers of Florida, California, and other places where oranges are cultivated, are at their wits’ end to combat the ravages of, scale insects, Coccide, which have greatly increased since 1870. It is a moot point as to whether this is due, or not, to modern and more artificial systems of cultivation, which may be more favourable to the spread of insects and parasitic fungi. Or it may be that these new systems interfere with the balance of Nature by decreasing parasitic and other insects, and birds and other animals, which are the natural foes of injurious insects. It has been discovered by Prof. Forbes, of Illinois, that several species of the Carabidze and Coccinellidz eat the spores of fungi; therefore an unusual increase in the number of birds, or other foes of these insects, might occasion a serious spread of mildews. The importance of the subject of agricultural pests cannot be overrated. It is now fully recognized by the Government of the United States, who have a distinguished entomologist upon the staff of the National Agricultural Department. Besides this, many of the States have their own entomologists, who furnish frequent and valuable reports and advice as to methods of treatment. In England the Agricultural Department of the Privy Council have lately issued a series of reports upon insects in- jurious to crops, written by Mr. Charles Whitehead ; and Miss Ormerod, the entomologist of the Royal Agricultural Society, has published annual reports for upwards of ten years, which have been of the utmost value and practical benefit to agriculturists. And in- India, as Surgeon-General Balfour tells us in this work, the serious injuries caused by insects and other animals, fungi, and bacilli, to mankind, animals, and plants, have at last attracted the attention of the Government of India, and it is proposed to invite communications from those engaged in agriculture, forestry, and horticulture in that country, to furnish matter for periodical reports like those issued from time to time by Miss Ormerod. These would of course be published in the vernacular, and should be illus- trated by woodcuts, as Miss Ormerod suggests in her com- prehensive letter in the preface of “Agricultural Pests of India.” It is much to be hoped that a competent entomologist may be appointed in India to direct this. work. Surgeon-General Balfour, so far back as 1880, recom- mended the Secretary of State for India to obtain reports on the diseases of cattle and plants, and on creatures noxious to mankind and vegetation. In his admirable “Cyclopedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia,” published in 1885, he gave a general view of the entomology of these regions, and described the losses sustained by agriculturists from these and similar causes. — He has followed this up with the work now under review. Though a small book, the “ Agricultural Pests of India” is very ambitious in design, as it treats not only of insects and fungi and animals injurious to mankind and agri- cultural crops, but of all mauuer of birds, beasts, and fishes. Several of these cannot, even by the greatest stretch of the imagination, be classified as pests to agriculture, and seem to be altogether out of place in ‘ this category. Under the heading “Fish,” sharks and Sperotheca castagnet, are far more common and destruc- | siluroids are described, though it is not by any means clear in what way they are agricultural pests, except, I 170 NATURE perhaps, that they might bite off the limbs of unwary agriculturists disporting in the sea. The book should have been styled the “ Natural History of India,” or “A Manual of the Natural History of India,’ rather than the “ Agricultural Pests of India.” But the fact that rather too many subjects are dealt with cannot be held to be a very serious fault, in a compilation containing an immense amount of serviceable information arranged alphabetically, together with a good index, so that any head can be quickly found. The author had great opportunities of acquiring knowledge of the branches of natural history he has here discussed while he was engaged in forming the Government Central Museum at Madras, and other museums in various parts of India, as well as in the preparation of “The Cyclopedia of India” and his work on “The Timber Trees of India.” He was therefore very well qualified to prepare this manual or dictionary of natural history, which will serve to show Indian agriculturists what are the principal foes of their crops and herds. ' No remedies or methods of prevention are given in detail. Some general instructions appear in the intro- ductory chapters, such as to farm cleanly, and to use certain washes and powders in case of the attack of some insects. These, however, have evidently been taken from lists of remedies prescribed by American and English practical entomologists, and have not been actually tried in India. Now that Surgeon-General Balfour has de- monstrated the dangers, and indicated general remedies which have been found advantageous in other climes, the farmers, the foresters, and fruit-growers of India should at once make experiments, and prove for themselves whether these are as efficacious in the fiery heat of the East as in the temperate climates of Great Britain and America. This notice cannot be concluded without an allusion to some of the errors which have been carelessly allowed to remain in the book, having evidently escaped the notice of the eminent scientific man who “revised nearly the whole in saddest and the proofs as they passed through the press.” Itis not to be expected that Surgeon- General Balfour should be a skilled entomologist, but it is very unfortunate for him that those on whom he relied for assistance should have so signally failed him. He says that the Cecidomyia tritic? is the Hessian fly of Europe and America. In reality the Hessian fly of Europe and America is Cecidomyta destructor, named so by Say long ago, and is completely and specifically distinct from Cecidomyia tritici, which is the true wheat midge of Great Britain. This is a mistake which appears un- pardonable in a scientific reviser. On p. 45 it is stated that “the species of Necrophorus and Silpha are useful ; they feed on carrion, and by scratching the ground from under dead animals they partially bury them.” As a fact the Sz/pha opaca, and another species, the S7/pha atrata, eat and seriously injure plants of beet and mangel- wurzel, as has been shown by Curtis and Miss Ormerod in England, by Guérin Méneville in France, and Taschen- berg in Germany. It need hardly be said that correct information as to the habits of insects is as necessary as accurate nomenclature—at least to agriculturists. Again, under the heading Buprestidz and Elateride (click beetles) it is remarked that the larve feed on living wood, and are more or less injurious. The wire-wo the larva of Elater lineatus, is fearfully destructive to roots of crops of all kinds. In the description of Ele ide, further on, this kind of mischief is attributed their larvee; so that there are two utterly confi accounts of the habits of these insects, calculat puzzle the inquiring Indian farmers. ‘ A sweeping statement that “all the weevil fag their eggs in the stigma of the flower” cannot be ported, and is utterly opposed to the experie observers. A few species do this, but others de eggs in a variety of places. Of weevils it is also that they “attack principally in their larval stag incredible harm to vegetation in their perfect form, and it would be difficult for the larvee- gots—to hold on to leaves. ; Sitonas, described as JS stored grain 2 before the work is put into the hands of the : a of India as a text-book for their guidance, Noyau et du Protoplasme. Par T. B. Carnoy of Biology in the University of Lonveing - A. Peeters, 1886.) : 7 this work the learned biologist se ably resumed and discussed the latest made concerning the phenomena of cell-divi arthropods and worms. It is, of course, impo short article to do justice to the great labour ; able patience here displayed by the distinguis nor can we discuss as fully as the subject ¢ several points on which Dr. Carnoy appears essentially from other workers in the same instance, from Prof. E, Van Beneden and Nussbaum, But the questions raised by Professor are of such importance that even ; of his present views cannot fail to be of interest. First, as regards cell-division in arthro Carnoy maintains that in them the direct j vision may be observed in various tissues, adult, and say be admitted to have all the c what he terms “ un processus normal.” This direct mode occurs either by “ étrangl by the help of a partition, just as in vegeta this is verified for the protoplasm itself as well as nucleus. ; Then, contrasting the direct with the indirect ¢ kinetic mode of cell-division, he remarks that th processes have in reality the same morpholog! ance and physiological value; that the cl karyokinesis are inconstant, and that they may 0: seen passing through many intermediate stages characters proper to the akinetic mode. N our author admits that karyokinesis is of cons importance to cell-life, inasmuch as it affords and surer method for making the cell dicentric leads to the division of the nuclear element into t1 parts; it enriches the protoplasm with plast j ; Sune 23, 1887] NATURE ; 171 lastly, it renders possible the total regeneration of the nucleus. In the present state of our knowledge, how- ever, there is obviously much that is hypothetical in the respective importance of these consequences. ' It is chiefly in his researches on the embryology of ‘Nematoda that Prof. Carnoy has reached conclusions which are totally at variance with those already arrived at on the ame subject by Messrs. Nussbaum and E. Van Beneden. e allude especially to the mode of formation of the olar bodies in the egg of Ascaris megalocephala. For the Louvain Professor, the two successive divisions which take place in the germinal vesicle assume the following haracters :— (1) The nuclear element (‘élément nucléinien ty pique”) of the egg of Ascaris megalocephala becomes at an early “stage broken up into eight nearly equal rod-like portions ; hese at once separate into two groups of four rods batonnets”), thus constituting the Wagnerian spots. _ (2) When a spermatozoid has made its way into the egg, sometimes very soon afterwards, occasionally later, an alteration of the germinal vesicle becomes visible ; its _ membrane dissolves away, and sabsequently, by a process of true karyokinetic division accompanied by the forma- | tion of asters of remarkable variety and complexity, the | first polar body is expelled. This he finds to consist of four nuclear rods and a portion of the protoplasm of the egg. At this stage, therefore, according to Dr. Carnoy, four rods only remain within the egg. (3) Now the same process begins again, in all essential respects resembling that which has just been described ; finally, the second polar body is expelled in its turn. It _ consists of two nuclear rods, so that only two rods remain -now in the egg for the formation of the female pro- nucleus. We are thus in a position to calculate accurately the amount of nuclein lost by the germinal vesicle during the expulsion of the polar bodies. According to Prof. Carnoy, the loss, for Ascaris megalocephala, would amount exactly to three-fourths of the nuclein originally present in the egg. _ Weare not sure whether Prof. E. Van Beneden’s views on _ this delicate question may not be to a certain extent recon- ciled with those of the eminent biologist of Louvain, especially as regards the number of nuclear portions contained in the first polar body. But respecting the constitution of the second polar body the views of the two Belgian observers are certainly difficult, if not im- possible, to reconcile. Prof. Carnoy’s book reads easily, and his statements are always clear and definite. The text is illustrated by a large number of figures, beautifully executed, which greatly enhance the value of this most interesting and important work. L. MARTIAL KLEIN. -~ OUR BOOK SHELF. The Climatic Treatment of Consumption: a Contribution _ to Medical Climatology. By J. A. Lindsay, M.A,, M.D. _ (London: Macmillan and Co., 1887.) Dr. Linpsay does not profess to have written a system- atic and exhaustive treatise upon the climatic treat- ment of consumption. He holds that we are only on the threshold of climatological investigation: and “for its exhaustive discussion,” he says, “prolonged inquiry will be necessary, and more exact methods than those hitherto generally employed.” He has made, however, an im- portant contribution to the study of a very difficult sub- ject, and his book ought to be of much service not only to physicians but to many sufferers who may still hope to find in climatic treatment a powerful adjunct to hygienic and medical measures. Having discussed the causes of consumption and the general principles of climatic treat- ment, Dr. Lindsay presents a general view of the chief sanatoria for consumption. He then describes mountain sanatoria and the ocean voyage, and gives a full and trust- worthy account of sanatoria he himself has visited, including Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, California, the Cape, Algeria, Southern France, and the home sana- toria. The value of the book is, of course, greatly increased by the fact that he has relied for his informa- tion mainly on personal observation. Lilustrations of the British Flora. Drawn by W. H. Fitch, F.L.S., and W. G. Smith, F.L.S. Second Edition, (London: L. Reeve and Co., 1887.) WHEN the illustrated edition of Bentham’s “ Hand-book of the British Flora” was exhausted, the wood engravings of that work were reproduced in a volume intended to serve as a companion to the ‘ Hand-book” and other British Floras. The volume has been so popular that the publishers have found it necessary to issue a second edition; and they have taken pains to secure that it shall be more useful than ever to students of botany, and especially to begin- ners. Five cuts have been added, and the arrangement of all the illustrations has been brought into accordance with Bentham’s “ Hand-book” as it has been revised by Sir J. D. Hooker. To facilitate reference from other Floras, the index has been greatly enlarged, and there is a new index of English and popular names. Sketches of Life in Japan. R.A. With Illustrations, Hall, 1887.) IN this book Major Knollys undertakes to tell us some- thing of “the minor lights and shades” of the social life of Japan. He is a careful observer, and writes brightly and pleasantly ; and no doubt the lively record of his impressions will interest a good many readers who would not have cared to study a more elaborate and systematic account of the Japanese people. The substance of the book was written “on the spot,” but all statements with regard to matters of fact have been carefully revised. By Major Henry Knollys, (London: Chapman and LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Lditor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts, No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [Zhe Lditor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible, The pressure on his space is so- great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Thought without Words. THERE appears to be some ambiguity about this matter as dis- cussed in the correspondence which has recently taken place in your columns. In the first instance Mr. Galton understood Prof. Max Miiller to have argued that in no individual human mind can any process of thought be ever conducted without the mental rehearsal of words, or the verbum mentale of the School- men. Now, although this is the view which certainly appears | to pervade the Professor’s work on ‘* The Science of Thought,” there is one passage in that work, and several passages in his subsequent correspondence with Mr, Galton, which express quite 172 NATORE [ ¥une 23, 1887 a different view—namely, that when a definite structure of con- ceptual ideation has been built up by the aid of words, it may afterwards persist independently of such aid; the scaffolding was required for the original construction of the edifice, but not for its subsequent stability. That these two views are widely different may be shown by taking any one of the illustrations from the NATURE corresponience. In answer to Mr. Galton, Prof. Max Miiller says, ‘‘It is quite possible that you may Zeach deaf-and-dumb people dominoes; but deaf-and-dumb people, left to themselves, do not zzvent dominoes, and that makes a great difference. Even so simple a game as dominoes would be impossible without names and their underlying concepts.” Now, assuredly it does ‘‘make a great difference” whether we are supporting the view that dominoes could not be flayed without names underlying concepts, or the view that without such means dominoes could not have been zzvented. That there cannot be concepts without names is a well-recognized doctrine of psychology, and that dominoes could not have been invented in the absence of certain simple concepts relating to number no one could well dispute. But when the game has been invented, there is no need to fall back upon names and concepts as a pre- liminary to each move, or for the player to predicate to himself before each move that the number he lays down corresponds with the number to which-he joins it. The late Dr. Carpenter assured me that he had personally investigated the case of a per- forming dog which was exhibited many years ago as a domino- player, and had fully satisfied himself that the animal’s skill in this respect was genuine—7.e. not dependent on any code of signals from the showman. This, therefore, is a better case than that of the deaf-mute, in order to show that dominoes can be played by means of sensuous association alone. But my point now is that two distinct questions have been raised in your columns, and that the ambiguity to which I have referred appears to have arisen from a failure to distinguish between them. Every living psychologist will doubtless agree with Prof. Max Miiller where he appears to say nothing more than that if there had never been any names there could never have been any concepts ; but this is a widely different thing from saying what he elsewhere appears to say, z.e. that without the mental rehearsal of words there cannot be performed in any case a process of distinctively human thought. The first of these two widely different questions may be dismissed, as one concerning which no difference of opinion is likely to arise. Touching the second, if the Professor does not mean what I have said he appears in some places to say, it is a pity that he should attempt to defend such a position as that chess, for instance, cannot be played unless the player ‘‘deals all the time with thought-words and word-thoughts.” For the original learning of the game it was necessary that the powers of the various pieces should have been explained to him by means of words ; but when this knowledge was thus gained, it was no longer needful that before making any particular move he should men- tally state the powers of all the pieces concerned, or predicate to himself the various possibilities which the move might in- volve. All these things he does by his specially-formed associa- tions alone, just as doesa draught-player, who is concerned with a much simpler order of relations : in neither case is any demand made upon the verbum mentale. Again, if the Professor does not mean to uphold the view that in no case can there be distinctively human thought without the immediate and direct assistance of words, it is a mistake in him to represent ‘‘the dependence of thought on language’’ as -absolute.* The full powers of conceptual ideation which belong to any individual man may or may not all have been > due to words as used by his ancestors, his contemporaries, and himself. But, however this may be, that these powers, when once attained, may afterwards continue operative without the use of words is not a matter of mere opinion based on one’s own personal introspection, which no opponent can verify : it is a matter of objectively demonstrable fact, which no opponent can gainsay. For when a raan is suddenly afflicted with aphasia he does not forthwith become as the thoughtless brute: he has lost all trace of words, but his reason may remain unimpaired. June 4. GEORGE J. ROMANES. t e.g. “I hope I have thus answered everything that has been or that can possibly be adduced against what I call the fundamental tenet that the science of language, and what ought to become the fundamental tenet of the science of thought, namely that language and thought, though distinguish- able, are inseparable, that no one truly thinks who does not speak, and that = pac truly speaks who does not think.’’—‘‘ Science of Thought,’’ pp. 3-94. as Prof. Miiller’s theory presupposes. The connexion I HAVE postponed offering you any remarks on Prof. Miiller’s ‘‘Science of Thought,” until I had read the through. i I think Prof. Miiller is on the whole right, that language is n sary to thought, and is related to thought very much as organizat to life. The question discussed by some of your correspondent whether it is possible in particular cases to think without guage, appears to me oflittle importance. I can believe that it possible to think without words when the subjects of thought visible things and their combinations, as in inventing macht but the intellectual power that invents machinery has matured by the use of language. But Prof. Miiller has not answered, nor has he asked, # question, on what property or power of thought the production language depends. He has shown most clearly the important tru that ali names are abstract—that to invent a name which deno an indefinite number of objects is a result of abstraction. - what does the power of abstraction depend ? I believe it depends on the power of directing thoughtiat will. Prof. Miiller la stress on the distinction between percepts and concepts, thou he thinks they are inseparable. I am inclined to differ from h and to think that animals perceive as vividly as we do, but I only a rudimentary power of conception and thought. I power of directing thought at will is the distinctively hi power, on which the powex of forming concepts and lan; depends, JosEeH JOHN Mu Belfast, June 19. . ——_— mee AFTER reading the correspondence published in N (vol. xxxvi. pp. 28, 52, and 100) on this subject, it has ocew: to me that the difficulties anthropologists find in Prof. Miiller’s theory are connected chiefly with his peculiar tions. eee In his letters to Mr. Galton, Prof. Miiller narrows the of his theory to a considerable extent. By defining th the faculty of ‘* addition and subtraction,” and by taking as composed of ‘‘word-thoughts” or ‘‘ thought-word Miiller excludes from his theory all those processes which preliminary to the formation of concepts. ‘Thus narrowed, not see that his doctrine in any way touches the wider que whether reasoning, as generally understood, is inde language. If we keep to the terms of this pbs ughts | words are undoubtedly inseparable. But this does not least imply that all thought is impossible without words. When we enlarge the scope of our terms, it is at once that thoughts and words are not inseparable. It is all» to join together ‘‘thought-word” and ‘‘ word-thought. the thought is something quite distinct from the mere which stands as a word for it. A concept is formed from s tions. Our thoughts are occupied with what we see, and and hear, and this primarily. Thus it is that, in the wider of thinking, we can think in pictures. This is the ment perience which Prof. Tyndall so highly prizes. He picture an imaginary process, not in words, not even’ words in the background, but in a mental prese things themselves as they would affect his senses. ly, tl if the mind can attend to its own reproduction of former sens tions, and even form new arrangements of sensations quite irrespective of word-signs, as Mr. Galton and most thinkers have experienced, it 1s evident that thought and are not inseparable. y All this is, of course, somewhat apart from Prof. restricted theory. But the question follows, how from wider thoughts do we become possessed of the faculty tion. Does not the one shade imperceptibly into the Prof. Miiller answers no, and here I think he is at fault. I this point that anthropologists part company with him. If be right, how do people learn? According to his theory, thoughts when they arise, start into being under some concept. I do not deny that they are placed under some concept, but it seems to me that something entirely inde of the general concept has, for convenience, a it, and this something must be called a thought. No do thought is at first vague and indefinite, and only when it be : definite does it require a name. But here one can plainly tre the genesis of a thought, and the adapation of a word a symbol for it. The new concept and its sign do n simultaneously. There are two distinct growths, not one onl Fune 23, 1887 | “NATURE 173 subtle and close, but the two elements can be easily separated. It avails nothing to say that until the thought is placed under a concept, it is nota thought. ‘This isa mere question of defini- tion, not of actual fact. I would point out one other consideration. If Prof. Miiller’s theory were true for all kinds of thinking, development would be _ impossible. If man could not think without language, and could _ not have language without thinking, he would never have had _ either, except by a miracle, And scientific men will not accept _ the alternative. We can conceive shadowy thoughts gradually shaping to themselves a language for expression, and we can derstand how each would improve the other, until by constant iteraction, a higher process of thought was introduced. But we cannot conceive the sudden appearance of the faculty of bstraction together with its ready-made signs or words. I have often wished that Prof. Miiller would state distinctly ow his theory accounts for the very first beginnings of language. T have not been able to discover any explanation of this point in his ‘‘ Lectures on the Science of Language.” _ Clapham, June 6. ARTHUR EBBELS. __ As poets have extraordinary inklings and afercus on the mst abstruse scientific questions, Wordsworth’s opinion on this matter (quoted by De Quincy) is worth considering: Language ‘is not the ‘‘ dress” of thought, it is the ‘‘izcarnation.” This is Shelley’s afergu of Darwinism. Man exists ‘‘ but in the future 11 the past; being, not what he is, but what he has been and shall be.” How to ‘‘distil working ideas from the obscurest poems ”— _ to use Lord Acton’s words—is one of the secrets of genius. ; A. GRENFELL. THE interesting discussion between Mr. Francis Galton and Prof. Max Miiller on this subject will doubtless raise many > rm in the minds of those who have paid some attention to he habits of animals. I have been asking myself whether, if Prof. Max Miiller is right in his conclusion—‘‘ Of course we all _ admit that without a name we cannot really know anything” “fan utlevable name, I presume), and ‘‘ one fact remains, animals _ bave no ge ”—animals must not, therefore,:be‘held by him incapable of knowing anything. This would bring us to the _ question whether animals £vow in the same manner as men, or _in some other manner which men do not understand. Now, I _think—at least it is as strong a conviction as I am capable of entertaining—that animals not only know, but deal with the materials of knowledge—facts— in a manner quite indistinguish- able from the manner in which I mentally handle them myself. Thus, I place an animal in circumstances which are quite unfamiliar to it, and from which it is urgently pressed to escape. There are two, or perhaps three, courses open to it ; one being, to my mind, patently the most advantageous. It tries all of them, and selects that which I should have chosen myself, though it is much longer in coming to its conclusion. Here the animal has the alia tata as the man to deal with, and, after consideration and examination, its judgment precisely corresponds with the man’s. I cannot, then, find it possible to deny that the mental operations are identical in ind ; but that they are not so in degree can be demonstrated by my importing into the situation an element foreign to the experience of the animal, when its failure is certain. It makes no difference whether the animal is under stress; or acting voluntarily. It may frequently be found to choose the method which most recommends itself to the man’s judgment. Every student of animals is familiar with numbers of such cases. Indeed they are constantly being re- corded in the columns of Narure, and abound in all accepted works on animal intelligence. I am quite prepared to admit that where there are two or more courses open to it the animal will occasionally select that which presents the greatest diffi- culties, and labour most assiduously to overcome them, some- times trying the remaining courses and returning to that wh ch it first chose. Darwin gives a good example of the honey-bee oe of Species,” p. 225, edition 1872). But no one will animal, when such are common among men. _ Prof. Max Miiller lays down the very distinct proposition that “animals have no language.” I suppose uferadle language is meant. Isthisso? ‘That their sign-language is both extensive | and exact (and even understood to some extent as between _ widely different species) most naturalists, I apprehend, will ‘his letter to Mr. Galton. 2 oe at imperfect judgment or vacillation of will in an = entertain no doubt. But has any species an utterable language ? What is to be the test of this? First there is the whole gamut of vocal expressions—which even we understand—conveying the ideas of pain, pleasure, anger, warning. What sportsman who has stalked extremely shy animals does not know the moment a bird or animal utters a certain note that he is discovered? If Prof. Max Miiller will not admit this to be language, I, for one, must ask him what it is. It conveys to others a distinct idea, in general if not in special terms, and seems to me quite equivalent to ‘‘Oh, dear!” ‘* This is nice” (expressed, I believe, in some African language by the reduplicated form #um-fium, the letter nv having the same value as in the Spanish mafana), ‘* Leave off, ‘‘ Look out,” ‘‘Come here,” &c. Those who have heard animals calling to one another, particularly at night, and have carefully noted the modulations of their voices (why should there be modulations unless they have a definite value), will find it very hard to accept Prof. Max Miiller’s conclusion that ‘animals have no language.” Every female mammal endowed with any kind « f voice has the power of saying ‘‘ Come here, my child,” and it is an interesting fact beyond question that the - knowledge of this call is feebly or not at all inherited, but must be impressed upon the young individual by experience. Further, the young brought up by an alien foster-mother pay no attention to the ‘*Come here, my child,” of the alien species. The clucking of the hen meets with no response from the ducklings she has reared, even when she paces frantically by the side of the pond imploring them not to commit suicide. But let us creep up under the banks of a sedgy pool at about this time of year. There swims a wild duck surrounded by her brood, dash- ing here and there at the rising Phryganide. Now let the frightful face of man peer through the sedges, A sharp ‘*quack ” from the duck, and her brood dive like stones, or renee into the reeds. She, at least, knows what to say to them. The already inordinate length of this letter precludes me from offering any instances of the communication of sfecific intelli- gence by means of.the vocal organs of animals. I think it probable that we far under-rate the vocabulary of animals from deficient attention—and, I speak for myself, stupidity. Possibly Prof. Max Miiller has not yet examined ‘‘ Sally,” the black chimpanzee. If not, he would surely be much interested. She is by no means garrulous, but, in spite of her poor vocal capacity, if he should still consider that she ‘‘cannot really know any- thing ” on that account, I must have completely misinterpreted ARTHUR NICOLSs, Watford, June 3. Two Friends. THE remarks on the reasoning powers of animals (dogs in particular) given in your issue of June 9 (p. 124) induce me to relate an experience of my own. We possess a dog and a cat, both males, the former called Griffon here, much like a Skye terrier, the latter a splendid animal (a cross of the Angora). These two animals are bound to each other by the closest friend- ship, which began thus:—The dog came to us two years ago, quite a pup—about three months old. Soon after a small, wretched, half-starved kitten arrived at our door asking hospi- tality. ‘The dog at once adopted it, let it eat out of the same dish, let it sleep on the same mat (and continues to do so still), in fact took entire charge of it. A black cat, a very vicious creature, and seemingly wild, haunted our garden, to the great destruction of birds’ nests and to the excessive terror of the kitten. As the dog grew, it became the kitten’s protector against the black cat, and has been so now for two years. If it was indoors and heard a cry of distress from our cat, you could not hold it from flying wildly to its rescue, forcing someone to open the door, or darting through a window. It has done this so long, and with such effect, that the black cat scarcely dares show its face in the garden, as the dog invariably attacks it with fury and drives it away, following it along the road to see if it is quite gone. I do not know if you will think this worthy of insertion, but I think it curious, and I can vouch for its truth. MC; La Tour de Peily, June 13. The Use of Flowers by Birds, As a curious incident enacted by sparrows has just come under my notice, which possesses some added interest in connexion with the two occurrences recorded by your correspondent 174 NATURE J. M. H.—viz. the employment by some finches of flowers in the formation of their nests (NATURE, vol. xvi. p. 83, and vol. xxxvi. pp. I0I-2)—it may be worth while to submit a detailed consideration of the case. The front of the house of a friend living at No 47 Highbury Hill is covered by an extensive growth of white jasmine which - reaches beyond the. first-floor windows. For several years house-sparrows have used the bushy branches of this shrub without causing special attention. This year, however, they have taken a new departure in nest-building. Not satisfied, apparently, with the hay, straw,.and other ordinary materials of sparrow architecture, they have suddenly aspired to appropriating to their use the bright yellow floweis. of laburnum, two trees of which are in full bloom a few yards from the first-floor window- sills below which they are carrying on their operations. Three nests were discovered twelve days ago, built close together in the jasmine, all of which had laburnum fl »wers strewn upon the top of ordinary nests ; one nest contained two young birds just hatched, and the other two had each a couple of eggs. As they rather disturbed the lady occupant of the house, she had all three nests destroyed, the litter from them entirely filling a large foot-bath. But the three pairs of birds, as might be expected, only set to work rebuilding their nests in the same place, furnishing them with more laburnum than before. They were however again disturbed, and an ob tacle (which in a previous year hid proved effectual in stopping the building in. another part of the house front) was set in the place of the nests, but still they did not desist ; two pairs continued to add their materials on the top of it, with more laburnum than ever, replenishing the nest as constantly as it was removed, while the third pair rebuilt their nest under the sill of the next window, using laburnum also. Even: entire sprays of the flowers were used, and the ground beneath the trees was so much strewn with fragments that my friend at first thought that boys had been pulling the trees. All the birds are now allowed to remain un- molested, and the yellow decoration is withered, without fresh being provided. This unaccustomed action of the sparrows is apparently somewhat different from the operations described by your corre- spondent J. M. H., for the bright golden flowers enveloping the nests are so strangely conspicuous as to attract the attention of passers-by, and therefore cannot answer. the protective purpose evident both in the case of the goldfinches with forget- me-nots and of the sparrows that used Alyssum. The only explanation I can suggest is that the birds have elevated their zesthetic taste to this “* quite too too” extent of art cultus. It is highly interesting to note also that—in opposition to the notions of the obsolete school of naturalists, who believed only in blind instinct—the rage for collecting their favourite ‘‘yellow” is infectious with these little yearners for the intense, just as is the desire for ‘‘ blue” that now and then breaks out (like a disease) amongst larger householders. The three pairs of birds seemed to vie with one another in their revelry of the chosen colour. Tt will be instructive to learn whether the fashion will last for many seasons: perhaps it will languish of satiety, and some other attraction of a less absorbing kind arise. The fondness of birds (in this country at least), for the colour yellow is perhaps worth considering in tbis connexion. A large number of wild or cult,vated plants might be enumerated that produce yellow flowers, which are either used as food or have their petals mauled by birds. There need be no doubt, I think, that the mutilation of such flowers is due to a playful fondness rather than to a dislike of the flowers. That birds evidently exercise the selective faculty in the choice of flowers is well illustrated by the fact, twice observed by my brother, that sparrows pull to pieces the yellow flowers only in mixed beds of pansies, and of crocuses, without injuring a single purple, mauve, or white flower of either kind. I have myself also witnessed the same selective operation performed by a sparrow on various crocuses growing in pots upon my window- sill, and I find many correspondents gave. similar testimony to this fact in a series of leiters which appeared in these pages in the year 1877 (vols. xvi. and xvii.). It may be questioned whether the education of their preference for the colour yellow is in any way connected with the fact that it is proper to the yolk of their eggs, and which they must be aware of ; but since all good eggs contain that colour, while probably some birds do not like it and greatly prefer other colours, this suggestion may be no more valid as a theory than would be the argument that some people’s taste for clairet-colour is due to the analogous _carry a fresh meaning to electricians. physiological accident of arterial coloration. The rich colour, again, of the beaks, entire mouths, and ‘‘ opensepu of the newly-hatched nestlings affords their parents ample tunities for the contemplation of colour, and there may unconscious mental absorption of the colour in conseq this course of training. At any rate, canary yellow is very developed in many species of the Fringil/ide, and th strong tendency towards the development of the yellowis in the plumage of the males of several British finches, appe through a greenish-brown tinge. It is also well dey amongst the weavers and the orioles, to which they are so allied. That sparrows should thus use sprays of flowe perhaps not so remarkable when we recall the close affinity bear to Ploceus and other weaver-birds. Melber Doubtless the colour-sense in birds, as well as in insects, real factor in the evolution of the floral beauty that surr ow them, although the modus operandi is not always one that can so readily traced. WILLIAM 55 Highbury Hill, London, June 9. Bie Names for Electric Units of Self-Induction and Conductivity. A NAME seems to be wanted for the practical wi induction, viz. an ohm multiplied by a second; in ot for a length approximately equal to an earth-quadran Ayrton and Perry call it a ‘‘secohm.” Why not ‘“quad”? It would be a handy great length for purposes. For instance, the velocity of light in a 30 quads per second, in common glass 20 quads per s To avoid misunderstanding, it would have to be that the actual earth-quadrant passing through any given only approximately a quad, its real value having to be de geodetically. - A quad-is to be understood as ten million precisely. pee! Another unit requiring a name is the unit of condu William Thomson has suggested the word ‘‘ mho,” but been greedily assimilated. I make the small omitting the 4. True, the expressions 12 mo and 16 n at first excite only bookbinding ideas, but they w OLIVER J. Lo June 13. SIE Units of Weight, Mass, and Force. — THE necessity for zames for the units of velocity tion is very clearly illustrated by a criticism of my for Beginners,” which appears in the Practical June 3. After objecting to the introduction of new explaining that a velo stands for a foot per second, proceeds :—‘‘ The second new name is ‘celo,’ | for an acceleration of one foot per second, or unit tion; so that if a body is moving with a velocity being accelerated at the vate of one foot per s said in the new language to-possess one celo. Inc celo means an acceleration of one foot per second, or The italics are mine. I cannot resist quoting also | sentence, which occurs a little lower down in the same —‘‘ We think there is something ridizulous about of these names, which, while possessing the very < advantage of shortening the language of the subject by or three words, serve to muddle the mind of the student, obscure the sense by wrapping it up in meaningless words. Why is not the Practical Engineer consistent? He state that just as a celo is unnecessary, for he con 5 same as a velo, in like manner a velo is unnecessary, for by t same line of arzument it must be the same as a7 4 is that the names velo and celo are not #wecessary men, although I expect they will be found to be con is, 1 believe, generally admitted that some such 1 greatly needed by teachers ; for it is the clear men tion of the ideas expressed by velo and celo, or the which often marks the distinction between a sound p a muddler. JouN” Gonville and Caius College, June 4. 4 I AGREE with your correspondent, Mr. R. B. H yi (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 604), in holding that names for dynamical units are of less importance than a convenient nota ‘NATURE 175 tion for them, To invent names for the pound-foot-second units 1elpful to beginners ; but it is a small matter compared a notation which completely specifies the mode of depend- of each unit upon the pound, foot, and second ; and it is il more so when compared with a general notation which will for any system of units. difference between names and notation is well seen in the ‘chemistry. The notation for a substance expresses the in which the substance is made up of the elementary nces ; while its name, however derived, serves merely as ruishing mark : and just as the chemical notation for a nce may be used as a name for the substance, so the nota- yr a physical unit may serve as a name for that unit. In my work on “Physical Arithmetic,” published by Mac- an and Co, in 1885, and reviewed in NATURE, vol. xxxi. 551, I have devised a notation which is the natural and timate extension of existing conventions both in language in the mathematics ; and I have made that notation the isis of a method for solving problems in applied arithmetic. If the Committee of the Association for the Improvement of Geo- i eaching are considering the subject, I ask them to der whether any notation more in harmony with existing entions can be devised than the notation of that work, a specimen I append the general notation for the chief trical, kinematical, and dynamical units. The word dy ponds to X, and the word fer to +, or / as now fre- tly used by physicists. The same method of notation sto the thermal and electrical units. The notation for special system is obtained by substituting the special names he fundamental units L, M, T. The test of the value of | notation is the amount of facility it offers in reasoning ; by referring to ‘‘ Physical Arithmetic,” anyone may see how this _ notation stands the test. i ee NOTATION FOR GENERAL UNITS. os ae : ~ Quantity. Notation. Dimensions. art I. Geometrical, a bey tee p E ume by L by L= V. 3 ie are per L radius hd Sine — opposite per L along a irvatu Radian per L, arc a (a ike Re Il. Kinematical. _ Tim iF + t WON my per Tt} — Accele Eber T per T lt>% Angular velocity are per radius per T | 7-4 iN ge Il. Dynamical, _ Mass M m Density pes V mi-8 ise -vec _by ml by L per T mit} by Lper T per T=F mit-? pes 3 ml-\¢~2 yL=W mi*t~? / per T ml*t-3 ee ~ ALEXANDER MACFARLANE. Austin, Texas, May 28. Licker The New Degrees at Cambridge. _A FEW years ago it pleased the dominant body in the Univer- of Cambridge to institute a Doctorate of Science and of Lette Candidates for these new. degrees were required to be of a certain academical standing, and to submit the proofs of their qualifications to the respective Special Boards of Studies, _ after certain formalities, were empowered to forward eir claims to the General Board of Studies for approval. By many well-meaning persons this step was thought to be eat encouragement to both letters and science. It was / same time understood that the qualification for the in Science was to be rather less than was required for 'to the Royal Society—a standard which all will admit Whether any similar understanding was agreed | upon as regards the Doctorate in Literature is uncertain, At first there was no particular desire shown among the best men of science and literature to aspire to the new distinction, and it is rumoured that a considerable amount of persuasion and friendly pressure had to be used to induce such men to submit to the infliction. But in time a few leading lights underwent the ordeal and were duly invested. The way being cleared, a good many others have followed, and as the Boards have not been too severe in judging the claims of candidates, the outbreak of ‘‘ scarletina” has become rather general. However, no parti- cular harm has ensued, and the coffers of the University have reaped the benefit—for the fee is not small. But now there is another aspect to this business. The new Doctorate is inferior in rank to that of the old Faculties. The senior Doctor in Science or Letters must always yield precedence to the youngest Doctor in Divinity, Law, or Physics. So far, those who have sought the new degrees have known what their position would be; but of late the Council of Senate has taken upon itself to determine that when an honorary degree should be given to any distinguished man of science or letters he is not to have the higher degree of LL.D., but to be content with the lower rank. As a rule honorary degrees are almost in- variably given to strangers—foreigners or colonists, They are not aware of this fine though real distinction ; and thus this very day the Senate House at Cambridge has witnessed the time honoured and highly valued distinction of LL.D. being conferred on a nuniber of excellent gentlemen, beginning with the Lord Mayor of London, while the new and inferior rank of Sc.D. is bestowed on one of the most distinguished biologists of the United States, whom the sister University is this week to recognize as a D.C.L. It may be urged that proceedings like this are necessary to reflect the proper amount of dignity on the new ‘‘ honour,” and that in time it will be regarded as highly’ as the old one has been. But I submit that this is not fair to the innocent recipients, and, moreover, that the University should recognize the fact that its highest honours are not to be bestowed upon successful merchants, politicians, and persons of eminent social standing, while the greatest men of letters and science have to take up with the lower grade. OurTis, June 20. ‘‘ After-Glows” at Helensburgh. I BEG to inclose a letter from Mr. L. P. Muirhead, with refer- ence to the ‘‘after-glows”’ recently seen at Helensburgh, which you may think worthy of a place in NATURE, RoBerT H, Scort. Meteorological Office, 116 Victoria Street, London, S. W., June 8 Rosemount, Helensburgh, Fune 4, 1887, 21h. DEAR Si1rR,—I do not notice any remarks in any of the weather reports or in the press concerning the after-glows, and as they may be local only, I drop you a line. All have lasted about 45m. ; the first of any note, on the 17th, commencing well down on the eastern, and finally fading away on the western, horizon, all through of a deep rosy red reflected from the. under and western side of cirro-stratus. Again, on May 21, 23, 29, 30, 31, and June 1. The last was peculiar, not only as being the most lurid, the cloudscape being marvellously fantastic, but, dying away at 2th., it revived faintly at 21h. 18m. to 21h. 3om., and again from 22h. to 22h. 20m., of a decided rose-colour on western side of roll-cumulus coming up from east-north-east. Thursday, Friday, and to-night there is no glow; overcast and oppressive just now ; a little rain fell in forenoon. The glow reminds me, on a more intense scale, of that previous to January 26, 1884, and again on December 8 last year. From May 21, until to-day, the weather has been genial and fine, Faithfully yours, Lewis P, MUIRHEAD, R. H, Scott, Esq., Meteorological Office, London, Zirconia, SomMEHOw I overlooked for a few days the letter of Messrs. Hopkin and Williams, which necessitates a brief reply, since they have confused (I am sure from mere haste) two samples, one of which I never had, and a correspondence most of which took place after what I had recorded. Briefly, these are the facts. I was informed by Mr, T. Bolas that I could obtain ‘‘pure zirconia” of Messrs. Hopkin and. 176 NATURE [ ¥une 23, 1887 Williams at a certain price. This seemed to me so low that I asked them about it, when they did inform me that the reason was its occurring as a by-product. Nothing whatever was then said, however, about being ‘‘ impure” ; on the contrary, they inclosed two small fragments, one of which they said they sold as ‘ pure,” and the other (at half price) as ‘‘impuare.” The last was a light yellow-brown colour, and I never meddled with it ; of the other I purchased an ounce for trial. On finding so much silica and soda I wrote them reporting, and asking if the sample was reduced by the hyposulphite process, as Dr. Draper had men- tioned the difficulty of getting a pure product in that way. They replied that hyposulphite was used, and that the ‘‘ pure’ sample might possibly contain soda, but they thought not silica ; the other sample might contain soda, silica, and probably iron. I wrote again pointing out that oxyhydrogen illumination was the most likely use for the product, and asking if they could not purify it further at an enhanced price, when they declined, as they state. The difference is, that all this took place after I had purchased and tested the sample, and reported to them upon it. I inclose you copy of their price list of 1886, still later, in which you will see that ‘‘zirconium oxide” still appears without qualification ; ~ and I also forward the original bottle and label which I received from them—the latter you will perceive is ‘‘ pure zirconia.” The correspondence, if sent you in full, will bear out all the details above. At the same time I would say that I had not the least idea of impugning in any way Messrs. Hopkin and Williams. I simply pointed out, as reference will show, the generally unsatisfactory character of samples considered commercially “ pure ” (one never expects ordinary purchased articles ‘‘ pure”’ in any other sense) for one special purpose, and I much regret that their letter necessitates this correction. LEWIs WRIGHT. P.S.—I am sorry to add that my previous letter has not elicited any very satisfactory information, or real aid towards the desired object. I learn from Mr. Cottrell that Du Motay’s cylinders were unquestionably more durable than any prepared since, even with the aid of Prof. Maskelyne. But I am as unable as ever to come across one, or to find exactly how the bees was prepared, or what light it gave in comparison with imes. THE JUBILEE. Il. WE have already referred to some aspects of the Jubilee which have a special relation to science, and we shall soon have occasion to return to the subject. . In the meantime we reprint from the 7zmes an admirable passage which presents a striking confirmation of the opinions we have expressed as to the true place of science in the history of the past fifty years. The passage is from the “ Jubilee Retrospect” which appeared in the 7zmes on Tuesday last :— “ The keynote of the Victorian era is the development of scientific research, the concomitant growth of practical invention, and the expansion of industry which these have brought about. Other ages have been fruitful of profound scientific conceptions, or have been illustrated by great inventions and discoveries, but it would be difficult to point to any half-century in the history of the world in which equal progress in speculative science has been combined with anything approaching to the magnitude, variety, and importance of the applications of science to practical ends which distinguish the present reign. It is as true to-day as at any former period that nothing great can be done in pure science save by men who make the dis- covery of truth the sole aim of their efforts, and who prize no other reward. But it is no less true that abstract and applied science go hand in hand as they never did before, and that each owns enormous obligations to the other. For if the triumphs of the workshop have been achieved by means of the discoveries made in the laboratory, on the other hand the laboratory depends for every step of its advance upon the technical skill and hitherto unrivalled precision of the workshop. — Physical science has reached a stage at which the verification of its hypotheses and the supply of new data for its specula- tions demand appliances of extraordinary excellence, and in many cases a collation of experience and experiment which nothing but the practical inventions of the AGB could render possible. It is doubtless to the co-ordina tion of the two forms of intellectual activity that we owe the rapidity of recent advance. An unprecedentedly large — army of inquirers has simultaneously pushed the inter- rogation of nature in a thousand directions, and hi attained unprecedented results. But beside them | been working an army larger, and equally keen, of me eagerly seeking to utilize for practical ends every crum of available information, and giving to scientific ideas a concrete application which often forms the starting-point for new processes of scientific induction. ee “The fundamental conceptions of the material univers entertained by educated men have been revolutionized during the last fifty years. The simple atomic theory the older chemistry has given place to a molecul theory, which itself has undergone considerable develop ment. The outlines of the elements which the older — chemistry accepted as an ultimate analysis are melting under the gaze of the spectroscopist, who across the haze of their wavering figures catches glimpses of a simple primal matter. The evolution of matter is, however, like — the evolution of living forms, a philosophical conception — which must always rest rather upon the general necessi- ties of thought than upon actual experiment. The im- — mutability of certain forms of matter in all the conditions that we can devise or have any experience of is as abso- lute as the persistence of specific types in the animal o vegetable kingdom. The most refractory substances have been vaporized in the electric arc, and the mos attenuated gases have assumed the solid form under the combined influence of intense cold and enormous pressure But we have made no nearer approach to actual evidenc either of material evolution or of the complexity of the so- called elements than may be inferred from certain spectro- — scopic observations of the sun and some experiments tending to show that in some cases we have confounded ~ two or more very similar elements under one name. Apart, however, from these abstruse speculations, the — whole tendency of physical and chemical investigation has been to bridge the gulf formerly fixed between molarand — molecular motion and between chemical and mechanical force. There is an obvious interdependence between this scientific movement and the doctrine of the conservation o energy, whichis one of the main philosophicalachievements of the epoch under discussion. According to that doctrine, the total energy of any body or system of bodies is a quantity as absolutely fixed and as incapable of suffering either increase or diminution as the matter of which these — bodies are composed. Energy, like matter, may assume — 4 q ; 4 sah an endless variety of forms ; but the force put on the locomotive is as indestructible as the particles whic compose its framework or its fuel. But to balance our — account we have to take cognizance not only of the forces — of impact or pressure of which we have direct experien and conceive ourselves to have tolerably full understand- — ing, but also of the forces of attraction and repulsion in — their various forms, concerning which we as yet know absolutely nothing beyond the fact of their existence as inferred from their effects. To refer the whole complex sum of these energies to a general law, and to deal with — them on fundamental physical and mathematical pin 4 ciples, is the aim of the physical science of to-day. Not- — withstanding all superficial resemblances, it stands differ- entiated from the science of all past ages by the clearness wich which it apprehends the nature of this quest and — the unrivalled range of the analytical methods it has — brought to bear. In the domain of biology the theory of — evolution, first placed upon a scientific basis by the genius of Darwin, is a product of the same great movement of — philosophic thought which brought forth the molecular — theory of matter and the doctrine of the conservation of _ Fune 23, 1887 | NATURE 177 _ energy. The idea of evolution itself was not new, but _ what was new was the proof that in the vast geological changes established by the labours of Lyell and other workers in the same field, in the visible tendency to variation in existing plants and animals, and in the evidence collected by Darwin’s industry and observation of the power of the struggle for existence to exercise, in given conditions, a selective and protective influence _ upon occasional variations, we have all the data required r the construction of a coherent theory. Evolution has ow definitely taken its place as a working scientific hypothesis, not, indeed, capable of explaining all the facts of biology, but consistent with these facts and furnishing —the most that a_ scientific hypothesis can ever do—the means of systematizing our knowledge in preparation for a further advance. The study of _ embryology is already modifying profoundly the inter- _ pretation put upon the evolutionary theory, and is prob- _ ably paving the way for some new generalization. Mr. _ Herbert Spencer’s application of the theory of evolution to the facts of social order is the expression, in the sphere of human thought and action, of the intellectual move- ment of which Darwin made himself the exponent in the _ field of biology. __ “ But striking as is the enlargement of the intellectual horizon during the last fifty years, the imagination is more powerfully impressed by the enormous extension of the applied knowledge which vivifies and transforms old industries, invents new ones, abridges the whole mass of social labour, annihilates the obstacles of time and space, destroys the enemies of the general well-being, and endows the whole population with conveniences, com- forts, and luxuries which a century ago were beyond the reach of kings. It seems as if the tree of national effort, after long putting forth scanty leaves and rare blos- ~~soms, had suddenly borne a load of fruit. Know- _ ledge, which vow long lain dormant or had led only to slow and trivial change, seems suddenly to have acquired a new Significance in the minds of men, and to have taken ona new and _ unprecedentedly rapid development. Physical science’ had made great advances between the age of Elizabeth and the close of the last century ; but relays of swift horses represented at one period as at the other the most rapid attainable mode of travelling or of transmitting news. The power of steam had been practically utilized by Watt a hundred years ago, and the investigation of electrical phenomena had made great progress before the accession of Victoria, but the whole of the vast improvements in locomotion and the transmission of news which we now enjoy have been effected since that event. With the exception of one or two short lines, the whole railway system of the country is the creation of the last half-century, and its effect upon the fortunes of the nation can hardly be over-estimated. The England of to-day has, in fact, been rendered possible only by the railway system, which in turn has been fed by the industries it fostered, and depends for its very existence in the form we know upon the modern development of telegraphy and engineering. It is easy, but not parti- cularly useful, to give statistics showing the growth of rail- way enterprise since George Stephenson began his task of developing steam communication. No figures can add to the impressiveness of the consideration that, whereas rail- ways.are now everywhere, fifty years ago they were practic- ally nowhere. Our whole modern system of commerce has grown up around this efficient system of intercommunica- | tion, and depends absolutely upon rapid transit for its very existence. But the direct results of the application of steam to locomotion are probably trivial in comparison with its profound influence upon the social life and even the moral character of the nation. The population of the country, formerly attached to the soil on which it was _ born by necessities stronger than feudal custom, has been _ endowed with the power of easy, rapid, and comparatively | | cheap locomotion. For good and for evil the habits of mind belonging to an age characterized upon the whole by permanence of local relationships have given place to the habits proper to a time in which labour is nomadic, and all the relations of life in the remotest districts are profoundly affected by the attraction of distant centres - of population. The immense increase of these centres, and the corresponding depopulation of rural districts, is one of the most obvious results, not, indeed, of railways alone, but of that industrial revolution in which they have played a central and indispensable part. That revolution may be defined as a great and sustained movement in the direction of economizing and organizing labour. Railways have powerfully promoted economy by reducing. to a fraction of its former amount the time spent in the transport of goods and workmen, and they have no less powerfully promoted organization by equalizing con- ditions and combining a thousand isolated stores of industrial energy into one central reservoir. Nor must we leave out of sight the enormous effect they have produced by facilitating the transmission of correspondence and news. While the railways were yet in their cradle they were utilized for the carriage of the mails, but the whole postal system was so chaotic and inefficient that the public could have reaped but little advantage save for the drastic reforms advocated by Rowland Hill in 1837, and carried into effect, in spite of the opposition of the Post Office officials, in 1840. The establishment of the penny post, together with the novel rapidity and regularity of the service rendered possible by railway extension, is in itself a reform which in earlier ages would have sufficed to render a reign illustrious. It has been supplemented by a telegraph system which as far transcends the penny post as that surpasses the clumsy and costly system of the iast century ; and the telegraph is in turn yielding the palm to the telephone, in the use of which, however, this country, owing to the obstructiveness of the Post Office, is far behind America and some Continental States. “The maritime supremacy of this country was fully established long before the accession of Victoria, and the marine steam-engine was familiar long before the loco- motive. Patents for screw propellers were even taken out a century ago, although they were not successfully applied until 1837, when Ericsson attained a speed of ten miles an hour. In the following year the Great Western performed what was then the extraordinary feat of making the passage from Bristol to New York in eighteen days. Considerable success had thus been attained before the present reign in the application of steam to marine transport, but the advance that has since been made is not less remarkable than the improvement in land trans- port. The voyage to New York is now performed in six days, and ships are actually sailing between Liverpooi and the Isle of Man at a speed equivalent to doing the New York passage in five. But the real measure of the revolution that has taken place must be sought in the supersession of sailing vessels by steamers for all the purposes of commerce, and the consequent mul- tiplication of the resources of industry. At. the beginning of the reign the tonnage of British steam-ships was considerably under 100,000 tons. It is now about 4,000,000. But just as the immense growth of railways has not prevented a large increase in the traffic of the canals, so has the increase of steam-shipping left room for an addition of 50 per cent. to the tonnage of British sailing-vessels. The increase of steam-tonnage taken alone gives but an imperfect idea of the progress that has been made. For by continual improvements in marine engines each ton of shipping is moved at a greatly in- creased rate and a greatly diminished cost ; while, as regards a very large and important portion of our trade, the opening of the Suez Canal, to which we supply four- fifths of its traffic, has still further economized time and labour. In this connexion by far the most important 178 NATURE achievement of recent years is the opening of the Canadian Pacific Railway, and the establishment of a line of steamers connectingits western terminus with India,China,andJapan. We thusgain a shortened route to the East, passing entirely over great ocean highways and British territory instead of through a land-locked sea and a narrow gut which accident or design may at any moment render impass- able. In view of the expansion of commerce during the last half-century, and of the immense undeveloped resources of Canada, it would be rash to set any limits to the future possibilities of this great Imperial highway. “ The universal acceleration of locomotion and transit is the most extended and general application of science to the great modern purpose of economizing labour and time. Every department of industry can, however, show special applications for effecting the same result.” ATLANTIC WEATHER CHARTS. eee Meteorological Council has recently issued the second part of the Synchronous Weather Charts for the North Atlantic and the adjacent cohtinents, the folio just published embracing two charts for each day from November 8, 1882, to February 14, 1883. The first part was noticed in NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 469, when we gave a somewhat detailed explanation of the charts and the observations upon which they were based. The second part embraces a very large portion of an English winter, and the conditions pictured over the Atlantic show that the weather over that ocean in winter is far more disturbed than it is during the summer months. The barometer in the winter ranges both higher and lower, and the changes of pressure are much more rapid and considerable. The movements of the travelling disturb- ances are also accelerated, and keep in a much lower latitude, the British Islands coming frequently under their full influence after they have passed over the warm and moist air of the North Atlantic. In the summer the barometer is above 30 inches: over the greater part of the ocean, but the highest readings seldom exceed 30°3 inches, whilst the areas of low pressure, the readings at the centre of which are seldom especially low, ranging for the most. part from 29°2 to 29°5, skirt to the:north of the high-pressure area, and pass as a rule well to the north- ward of the United Kingdom. At times these low-pressure areas scarcely influence our weather. At other times, when from some cause the high-pressure area is situated in rather a lower latitude than usual, the low centres will have a more southerly route in their passage from west to east, and will occasion disturbed weather over our islands, but for want of sufficient difference of barometric pressure - will but very seldom materially augment the strength of the wind. If, however, this southerly track of the dis- turbances is maintained for any length of time in the summer, it will have a very marked effect upon our weather, occasioning frequent and heavy rains; it was this which caused the entire failure of real summer weather in 1879. The winter charts show that the baro- meter often ranges as high as 30°5, 306, and 30°7 in Mid-Atlantic, whilst on the adjacent continents such readings are common, and in North America much higher readings occur—on February 1 the mercury reached 31°! inches. The charts do not extend to Siberia, but it is notorious that excessively high read- ings are commonly experienced there during the winter months. The low-pressure areas which are. principally limited to the ocean, and almost solely to the northern latitudes, frequently have the barometer at the centre below 29 inches, and occasionally below 28 inches. With these differences of barometric pressure there is ample material for the development and maintenance of storm systems ; and the most cursory examination of the charts shows to how great an extent storm after storm rages | almost daily in one part or another of the Atlantic, and ! time. This second series of charts illustrates in the most unmistakable manner the behaviour of storms over t 1 Atlantic: many a disturbance can be traced in its gress for days together. On November 13 a storm was passing over the north of France, and was occas ing strong easterly gales in the south of England and t English Channel. This disturbance can be traced day by day until November 3, when it was in the vicinity © the West Indies, where it was apparently bred, The sever storm which was blowing over the British Islands November 19 was apparently formed over central No America on November 9, and, after travelling slowly the Lake District, left the Gulf of St. Lawrence November 14, and followed a north-easterly track, after passing over the south of Greenland, it took a n southerly course, the centre subsequently passing bet Iceland and Scotland. A fairly good specimen of ste development is shown on the charts of February 7 a 8: on the 7th, a bend is shown in the isobars of 29’0 ai 29°I at about 300 cr 400 miles to the west of Ireland, this on the following day becomes a closed area with complete wind circulation; the disturbance, howe dies out again on the gth. A feature of very sp interest in the charts is the size of some of the disturb: ances; this stands out clearly from the graphic manne of representation. There are many instances of a blowing simultaneously in America and Europe, due the same storm area, and in these cases the area of lo barometer readings usually occupies the whole o northern part of the Atlantic, whilst over the land Europe and America, the barometric pressure ra high. On January 23, as the result of a single pressure area, a gale was blowing in Hudson's Labrador, and Newfoundland, and completely across Atlantic to the: North Sea and the north of Norwa diameter of the area over which the wind was blowir with gale force, being as much as 3800 miles (nautical) the centre of the storm was situated off the south-we coast of Greenland, where the barometer was reading 28°2 inches, whilst in America and Europe the barometer reached 30°8 inches. An almost equally large disturb ance is shown on February 10, the gale force ex quite across the Atlantic from Labrador and the Gi St. Lawrence'to the Gulf of Bothnia, the diameter of gale area being fully 3090 miles. Ne The equatorial doldrum is shown to be of less than the general charts which have been deduced averages would lead one to suppose, and very freq the north-east and south-east trades almost meet. B longitudes 20° and 30° W., the position at which the meet in November is about 5° N., in December abou 3° N., whilst in January and the early part of Februar the south-east trade only just blows north of the equator, and the doldrum is probably at this time at its most southern limit. The north-east trade is far more regu on the eastern side of the Atlantic than in mid-ocean on the western side, and this is fully accounted for b fact that the wind blows round the Atlantic high-pressure area in agreement with the ordinary anticyclonic cireu-— lation, so that on the eastern side of this high pressure which is also, as. a rule, the eastern side of the Atlant the wind is northerly, whereas to the westward of t area of high barometer readings the winds are freque from the southward. The northern margin of the tre varies considerably, and is almost entirely dependent on the position of the area of high barometer situated over the Atlantic ; when this area is well to the northward northerly winds hold from the chops of the Channel dow the coast of Africa to about 5° N., so that a vessel may leave England and keep a steady northerly and north- easterly wind until close to the equator. oe The winter charts also show that the differences « temperature are much larger over the Atlantic than they — ; Hune 2 3, 1887] NATURE #79 ere in the summer or autumn series, and the isotherms f both air and sea run much closer together. On _ November 25 there is a difference of 30° in the sea tem- “perature in the distance of 340 miles to the south east of _ Newfoundland, whilst on the eastern side of the Atlantic the same difference of temperature, 40° to 70°, spreads ‘over 2360 miles. This disparity between the hiftsoerice of temperature on the western and eastern sides of the Atlantic is quite common throughout the whole period of the charts, but not always to so large an extent. The charts of December 15 and 19 are other instances which show this difference, and on January 6 there is a differ: ‘ence of 30° (from 30° to 60° F.) in 120 miles off the south of Newfoundland, whilst on the eastern side there is only an equal difference of temperature (50° to 80°) in 3300 miles. The largest differences of temperature occur between latitude 40° and 45° N., and longitude 40° to 60° W., which is the area most affected by the meeting of the “warm water of the Gulf Stream and the cold Polar current, and the weather which is given on each chart shows that ‘there is almost constant rain in this position, and it is also the breeding-place of many a storm area, and storms when generated have a decided tendency to keep in the track of the Gulf Stream. These synchronouscharts will materially aid investigators in tracing the: connexion between the weather in the British ‘Islands and that over the Atlantic, and as it is not possible _ at present to know what is going on immediately to the _ westward of us, it is the more necessary to deduce, if ossible, laws which regulate the changes from time to ime. By the publication of these charts the Meteorolo- _ gical Council afford opportunity for testing many theories. _ Among these may be mentioned the theory of indraft of _ wind towards the centre of a cyclone, if this is. not | already pretty conclusively proved. Light is also _ thrown upon the question as to the position of rain with regard to the position and development of the = I storm area, and upon many other inquiries of a similar nature. We hope that after the two remaining _ parts of the work have been completed the Council wiil _ see their way to undertake a thorough discussion of the _ material which the charts contain. A REVIEW OF LIGHTHOUSE WORK AND ECOVOMY IN THE UNITED KINGDOM DURING THE PAST FIFTY YEARS. ET. Basin fifty years of the present reign have been dis- * tinguished with regard to lighthouse illumination by the development in this country of the beautiful cea se system of Augustin Fresnel. In 1837, this system had been established in France fifteen years, but had only just been introduced into Britain, where the catoptric ‘system was in full operation. Parabolic reflectors formed of facets of silvered glass were used in the Mersey light- houses so far back as 1763, and at Kinnaird Head, in Scotland, in 1787. In 1804, perfected reflectors of silver plate rolled upon copper were used at Inchkeith, and similar reflectors have been ever since employed. To Teulére must be attributed the honour of the invention of these parabolic mirrors, in 1783. The Inchkeith Light- house is also notable as the first in Britain to receive a Fresnel apparatus (1835), through the exertions of Alan Stevenson, who placed the next one at the Isle of May (1836), and the third at the Start (1836). These lights were all of the first order, Start and Inchkeith being re- _ volving, and Isle of May fixed. They were constructed _ by Messrs. Cookson, of Newcastle, who subsequently _ constructed at least a dozen others, mainly a; regards the refracting portion. __ Thelenticular system, as received from Augustin Fresnel _ by Alan and Robert Stevenson, comprised four principal Sore * Continued from p. ros, optical agents of glass, viz. the cylindrical refractor, the totally-reflecting prism, the refracting vertical prism, and the annular lens. These have been continued in use, with few modifications, until the present day, while his auxiliary elements, such as the small inclined lenses, the silvered metallic zones, and the plane silvered glass mirrors, have been abandoned. The first-order fixed light of Fresnel came well-nigh complete from his hands, and has remained unchanged in size and character, save as relates to the number of prisms above and below the lenses, which has been increased from 19 in all to 26, and as to the joints of the lenses, which have been made inclined instead of vertical, the latter improvement being due to Alan Stevenson, who also introduced a refractor of more truly cylindric form. It is inthe apparatus of revolving sections that the most striking ameliorations have been effected. The French engineers added little between 1822 and 1852 to Fresnel’s original work, a few combinations or modi- fications of his elements to produce flashes alternately with fixed light being nearly all. But between 1849 and 1852 the great improvement known as the holophotal system was elaborated by Mr. Thomas Stevenson. It is difficult to describe without drawings the various appli- cations to both catadioptric and dioptric instruments of this principle, by which the light of maximum intensity, or the best utilization of all the rays, was attained. The first catadioptric holophote was employed at the North Harbour, Peterhead, in 1849. Better forms were realized in 1864. The first use of holophotal metallic mirrors above and below the annular lenses of a Jarge revolving light was at Little Ross. These mirrors, which needed no small auxiliary Fresnel lenses, were, instead of being plane, like Fresnel mirrors, generated by a parabolic pro- file passing round a horizontal axis. , The typical azoptric holophote is a central refracting lens of usually three elements, with a series of concentric holophotal totally- reflecting rings, forming an instrument of varying diameter and focal distance, condensing into a parallel beam all the front arc of the diverging sphere of rays. The holo- phote is perfected by a glass spherical mirror of totally- reflecting prisms so shaped and set as to return all the back hemisphere of incident rays through the flame, to be parallelized and sent out with the front hemisphere of rays. This spherical mirror in its most effective form was the invention, in 1861, of Mr. James Chance, who gener- ated the double-reflecting prisms or zones round a vertical instead of a horizontal axis, separated them, and divided them into segments or panels, thus making it practicable to increase the radius of the mirror and apply it to the largest apparatus as a most usefuladjunct. In this instru- ment the image of the flame is not reversed, and the light sent back is at least three-fourths of that received. But the most important application of the holophotal system was to the dioptric revolving sea-light. The- totally-reflecting zones above and below the refracting lenses were generated round a horizontal instead of a vertical axis, and made to work in complete unison with the lenses, the light being parallelized in every plane from top to bottom. The first holophotal sea-light was the North Ronaldshay, in 1851. Since that date every re- volving light with prisms has been holophotal. It has been estimated that the modern plan gives light five or six times more intense than the original plan. Another material addition to the resources of the light- house engineer has been contributed by Mr. Thomas Stevenson in the azimuthal condensing system. This is, briefly, an arrangement of the optical agents before described, and of some others specially devised, by which either one arc of the horizon is illuminated by a beam of the greatest attainable intensity while the rest is dark, or else two or more sectors are lighted with equal or with unequal intensity while the others are dark ; these distinc- tions being governed by the nautical requirements as to range and direction of the sea-coast, channel, or harbour 180 NATURE where the light is established. The beams thus sent out may be white or coloured, the differences in coloured media themselves, or, as compared with white light, being equalized approximately by the instruments used. The condensing method has been applied more freely to the’ smaller than to the larger orders of apparatus during the past twenty-five years; and among the most beautiful illustrations of the system, designed not alone by Mr. Stevenson, but by Mr. Chance, Mr. Alan Brebner, and Dr. Hopkinson, may be cited the Buddonness, the Isle Oronsay, the Lochindaal, the Dartmouth, the Hoylake, and many apparatus for certain narrow seas in Australia. But the large lights of Orme’s Head, Dungeness, Bidston, _Longships, St. Tudwal’s, Dublin Bay, and McArthur’s Head, may also be selected as good examples of the con- densing plan. A third and very valuable improvement is the group- flashing system of Dr. John Hopkinson, F.R.S., by which a new series of characteristics has been added to revolv- ing lights. This invention dates from 1874, and consists in so shaping and combining on unequal axes the panels of an apparatus that a double, triple, or fourfold flash may be produced, each flash of the group being of such duration and divided from another flash by such an ‘interval of time that compass-bearings may easily be taken from the ship; while each group is separated from another group by a longer interval, the whole period being one of the usual periods of revolving lights, such as half a minute. Thus, while adequate power is maintained for each flash, an unmistakable distinction is established. This plan became rapidly popular. The Trinity House were the first to apply it, in 1875, to the catoptric floating light on the Royal Sovereign Shoals, near Hastings. The next applications were to a dioptric light for Mexico, and to the Little Basses light, Ceylon. It is now used all over the world. At the Casquets, in 1876, it enabled the Trinity Corporation to dispense with two of the three lights hitherto employed, and show from one tower a half- minute-light in triple flashes, each lasting two seconds, each interval between them three seconds, and the long interval between the groups eighteen seconds. The great lights of Bull Point, Hartland Point, and Eddystone are other examples of double and triple group-flashing by optical combinations. The use of colour in lighthouse practice has been gra- dually diminishing since 1837, and is now almost re- stricted to harbour-lights and ship-lights, with a few cases of fixed sea-lights where a danger is to be marked over a narrow sector. The loss by absorption in red and green, the only two colours available, being from 60 to 80 per cent.—a loss slightly redeemed in the case of red by a certain relative superiority to white in thick weather —it is obvious that colour must sooner or later disappear from the list of effective lighthouse agents. Meanwhile the power of a coloured beam (without regard to the illuminant). has been optically enhanced by one of two methods, superficial amplitude and azimuthal condensa- tion. Where a revolving light is to show, in alternate or other series, red and white beams, the power may be approximately equalized by assigning to the red a certain greater angular breadth in the panels of prisms and lenses than to the white. The Wolf Rock light (1869), the Flamborough Head (1872), the Hartland Point (1874), were so treated by Mr. James Chance, though with different arrangements of panels, the average proportion being 73 for the red, and 27 for the white. The coloured glass plates used were of a selected tint of “copper ruby.” The second method, condensation, is mainly applicable, as before mentioned, by means of vertical prisms and other agents to lighting sectors of the horizon, or to securing perfect definition between two coloured arcs or between a white and a coloured arc. The Kingswear fourth-order light, Dartmouth (1865), designed by Mr. Chance, is an excellent onsale seaward arc of 45° there is a central white beam between a red beam of 173?° and a green beam of Ten vertical prisms were used, four condensing the | on the border of the red and white, and four border of the green and white, while two augmen central beam. The fairway channel to the har indicated by the coloured light, and the bright bea stitutes a sea-light which is frequently observed distance of sixteen miles, though the lamp is inf the lamps of to-day. P The signal-lights of the port and starboard sides vessel are coloured in order that a marked contrast be visible at a distance of at least two miles, a course and evolutions plainly understood. But 1 great inferiority of green to red, and of both to » (the third signal carried by a steamer being a white combined with the imperfection of the optical appa and of the burner. used, renders too many ship- lamentably untrustworthy at even this short ra can only tend to multiply such terrible collisions’ with which we have become familiar during t fifteen years. It might be impracticable, on accov weight or cost, to introduce condensing agents into lights generally, though Mr. Thomas Stevenson, foremost in the van of improvement, tried them small steamer Pharos in 1866; but there can sufficient reason for not adopting such lenses lighthouse types as are now made for the purpose mingham and Paris, and in not fitting them w incandescent electriclightin two different degrees of so as to equalize nearly the red and green he making them both equal in visibility to the white 5 t securing an effective signal for the adequate protect life and property at sea. The writer has long, but wit small success, advocated this course. Public opinior however, may yet be stimulated by some crowning disaster to insist on a reform so urgently needed, and so perfectly easy to realize. erate In 1873 the first dioptric light established in Eng Start Point, received its present apparatus in substi for the old Fresnel lenses and concave mirrors. new revolving light, the design of Mr. Chance, and y was repeated in 1874 at Cape Bon, Africa, and the So Stack Rock, Holyhead, was composed symmetric: six sides of 60°, with the usual upper and lower the central lens having nine elements in circular s The panels are thus the widest in azimuth hitherto structed, except some of those of Flamborough He which subtended 693°, or the four holophotal quz constituting the South Stack Low Light (1879), de by Dr. Hopkinson, and the only existing ligh kind. By a subsidiary arrangement of totally-refle prisms and a holophote, a fixed red beam at Start was projected to a lower chamber in the tower, thence sent out to mark the position of certain r The Watling Island (Bahamas) second-order doub flashing light of 1885, designed by Dr. Hopkinso unique specimen of holophotal circular settings, with most recent improvements. ; 2 ae eee A remarkable variation of the usual elements dioptric sea-light dates from 1879 or 1880. Lower pi for sea-lights had, at the suggestion of the writer in’ been suppressed on several occasions; and for lights, Messrs. Chance had dispensed with all pr and raised the lenses to a vertical angle of 80°. now it was determined to produce a first-order appz with refractors only, extending the vertical angle to from 56° or 57°, the old normal height. This was tained by Messrs. Chance by means of dense flint g in the superior and inferior limits. The power of the le always counting for 75 per cent. of that of the comp light, was thus considerably augmented, while the and bulk were reduced, though doubtless at the expe t aa NATURE 181 of symmetry. The first-order lights, Anvil Point (Dorset), the Eddystone, and the Minicoy (Indian Sea), were con- structed on this principle at Birmingham (1880-83). In the case of the Eddystone, two apparatus exactly alike were employed by the Trinity House—one superposed on the other, and each lighted by its own lamp, the whole height of optical glass exceeding 12 feet. The aan of superposed lenses was first suggested, in 1859, by ‘Mr. J. W. D. Brown, of Lewisham, and first practically ‘set forth, in 1872, by Mr. John R. Wigham,.an engineer of conspicuous ability, in connexion with his large gas flames for Irish lighthouses ; and it has been since fully pproved and adopted by the Trinity House. The great ights of Galley Head, Howth Bailey, and Rockabill attest the excellence of this arrangement of lenses, and _the Eddystone biform (1881) is not less successful. The enhancement of illuminating power through the amplification, vertical and horizontal, of lenticular panels has been described. But a more emphatic change, asso- ciated with the name of Stevenson, has recently been consummated. The radius or focal distance of Fresnel’s _ first-order light is 920 millimetres. The Fresnel of our _ time proposed a radius of 1330, and such,a lens has ___ been already constructed in France. The name “hyper- _ radiant,” given to it by Mr. Stevenson, seems hardly so accurately formed as “ hyper-radial,” which was inde- pendently suggested by the writer in 1885, although the new lens will be excellently adapted to the large flames of ___the day, at once utilizing their volume and not suffering from their heat. In the lights for the Bishop Rock and Round Island (Scilly) now (1887) being prepared by Messrs. Chance for the Trinity House, the apparatus will be of the hyper-radial type, and it will have a vertical angle of 80°, with glass all of the usual refractive index. There will be for each lighthouse a biform structure 15 feet high, the Bishop having lenses for white double flashes arranged in a pentagon of five groups, each lens _subtending 36° horizontally, with an eight-wick burner ; and the Round Island having lenses for red single flashes, each lens subtending 60° horizontally, with a ten-wick burner. Petroleum will be used in both cases. The latter apparatus would seem to mark the maximum limit of dimension, with regard to optical agents and to illumin- ants, compatible with the present conditions of lanterns and towers. Hyper-radial apparatus is also being pre- pared in Paris for the Tory Island and Bull Rock lights in Ireland. But the true maximum of power or intensity for light- : houses must ever be sought in the electric light. This : application of the branch of physical science that has : perhaps more than any other distinguished the Victorian -epoch had its experimental beginnings, under the auspices of Faraday, at Dungeness and the South Foreland. The apparatus used at Dungeness was of 150 millimetres radius. In 1881 the apparatus for Macquarie was con- structed of 920 millimetres radius. Six large electric lights have been established in Britain since 1862, all the work of Messrs. Chance, and all of their design except the Isle of May, which was planned by Mr. Thomas Stevenson. The Souter Point light, revolving, of second and third order elements, dates from 1871; the South Foreland, High and Low, fixed, of the third order, from 1872; the Lizard fixed lights, of the third order, from 1877 ; and the Isle of May, which gives a fourfold flash, and is of first and second order radii, from 1886. In addition, there have been designed by Dr. Hopkinson, and made at Birmingham, the Macquarie (Sydney), a first-order revolving, the most powerful light in the world, and the Tino (Spezia), a second-order triple group- \flashing light. It is needless to give details of these appa- ratus, which are throughout distinguished by skilful optical combinations and the utmost precision of workmanship. They have all been, with the exception of the Isle of May, the subject of elaborate papers and exhaustive dis- / cussion before the Institution of Civil Engineers, An apparatus of the second order is. being prepared at Birmingham for the new electric light of St. Catherine’s (Isle of Wight). It is composed of refractors only, extended to 97° of vertical angle, and with certain special arrangements for divergence. The carbons will be of 50 millimetres diameter and of a novel and perfect form. There has been during the past fifty years, but especially since 1861, with regard to lighthouse charac- teristics, a selective process in operation by which the fittest have survived. Not only has the optical apparatus been perfected in curvature, finish, and adjustment to nautical conditions, and the intensity of light increased threefold, but the weaker forms of distinction have been suppressed, and the better forms retained and multiplied. Fixed lights for the most part have been discontinued, and, in this country at least, lights composed of fixed and revolving portions. Long periods in revolving lights have been altered to short periods, the uncertain aid of colour largely abandoned, the varieties of the group-flashing system invoked, and the quick contrasts of light and dark resorted to in occulting or intermittent apparatus, although the very ingenious but too complicated plan of Babbage, with its rhythmical longs and shorts, has not prevailed. The enhanced speed of steam-vessels, the multiplication of all kinds of vessels, the improvement of shore-lights, and the spread of commercial enterprise, by which new ports are opened and new coasts explored, have naturally effected these changes. And, farz fassu, striking improvements in the mechanism of revolving carriages and of clockwork both with weights and springs, in occulting-cylinders and gun-metal framing of appa- ratus, have resulted from the combined efforts of our best lighthouse engineers. The early rivalry between the catoptric and the dioptric systems has wholly ceased, the latter having, by the weight of its general and well-tried superiority, displaced the old system in all directions save in one or two revolv- ing sea-lights of exceptional merit, like Beachy Head or St. Agnes, and save in all light-vessels where the excellent 21-inch reflectors, with the two-wick Douglass burners, often send out beams of 20,000 candles over the shoal- beset waters. There were in the United Kingdom, in 1886, 202 sea- lights, of which 147 were dioptric and 55 catoptric, and, in addition, about 450 small lights of all kinds, making, with the 74 light-vessels, a total of about 730. Surely this is a noble growth of lighthouse illumination, even in the long period under review. It compares not un- favourably with the United States, the first country to adopt the lenticular system on a bold and comprehensive scale, or even with the country of Fresnel himself and of his brother Léonor, where the elucidations and experi- ments of Allard and of Reynaud, and the practical work of Lepaute, Sautter, Barbier and Fenestre, have done much to promote science and benefit humanity. J. KENWARD. (To be continued.) THE OBSERVATORIES AT OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE. rp Be following is the Annual Report of the Rev. Prof. Pritchard, the Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, to the Board of Visitors of the University Observatory ; read June 8, 1887 :— I. Lectures.—The statutable lectures have been given, and the Observatory and its instruments have been freely accessible to the students during every day of Term time. For next Term I offer a course of elementary lectures expressed as far as possible in untechnical language. I desire to add also two public lectures on the development of astronomy during the last century. 182 NATURE [ ¥une 23, 1§ - II. Jnstruments.—As a matter of practical convenience, portions of both the equatorial instruments have been within the last day or two placed in the hands of the opticians, with a view to modifications or repairs which shall render them applicable to the entirely new de- parture which is now in progress in respect of the processes and methods of practical astronomy. The De la Rue equatorial, which has long possessed an historical value, has been rehabilitated mainly at the expense of Dr. De la Rue in certain of its more delicate working parts, and this has been so advantageously com- pleted that Dr. De la Rue has been induced to introduce still further renovations, whereby that instrument will be placed in a condition probably equal to that in which it first left its designer’s hands. The mounting of the large equatorial refractor, ori- ginally supplied at the expense of the University, is now required for some experimental inquiries suggested by the Photographic Committee of the Royal Society. Dr. De la Rue has supplied two mirrors of 15 inches aperture of different focal length, and these are to be mounted alternately on the tube of the refractor, together with a camera as arranged by Mr. Grubb. The expense of these valuable additions is borne by the Royal Society and by Dr. De la Rue. The delicacy of the projected inquiries necessitates the electrical control of the driving- clock. The transit-circle recently presented to the University by Mr. Barclay has realized my expectations of its excel- lence. I find it to be thoroughly stable, and sufficient for all the purposes required, whether for University instruc- tion or for accurate meridional observations. In the latter respect it completes the Observatory equipment. The electrical illumination of the circles and other neces- sary parts has proved entirely successful, and the general aspect of the instrument as it stands on its massive piers is such as to suggest confidence. Ill. Buildings ——The fabric of the building and its complicated roofs and domes are in-excellent substantial repair, and will require no outlay that I can foresee during the present year. IV. Astronomical Work—The somewhat hazardous enterprise of attempting for the first time in the history of astronomy to obtain the distance of the fixed stars from our earth by the aid of photography has been attended with success. The final results of the investiga- tion have been placed in my hands only during the writing of this Report. The first observation was obtained on May 26 of last year, and the last was effected on May 31 of the present year. The intermediate computa- tions were systematically continued during the interval. They involved the reduction of no less than 30,000 bisections of star images, 01 330 photographic plates, procured on 89 nights. Eight independent determinations of the parallax of the two components of 61 Cygni resulted from all this work, and these happily indicate a substan- tial agreement between themselves, and afford other necessary proof of reliability. By a happy coincidence, on the very day when the final results of these investigations were evolved, I had the pleasure of a visit from Her Majesty’s Astronomer at the Cape of Good Hope, a practical observer whose ex- perience in parallactic investigations is probably unrivalled. His remarks, after critical examination of the entire work, have encouraged and gratified me. Astronomical photo- graphy is hereby placed on a secure basis as an efficient and exact exponent of the highest form of astronomical science, Simultaneously with these observations, similar work has been in progress for the determination of the parallax of » Cassiopeiz and Polaris. These observations will now be treated on a less laborious scale. Photographic plates of the Pleiades have also been taken with the view of obtaining the accurate relative positions of about one | wires, the results were combined with those previ = hundred stars therein. have been commenced. I should say that .the experimental investig required by the Photographic Committee /of the Society originated in the necessity asce what are the limits of accurate field obtainable mirrors of different focal lengths: the inquiry had reference to the questions which were open for di at the recent Paris International Co nee, % regret that I was unable to fulfil my intention of part (as invited by Admiral Mouchez) in that imp meeting. V. Finauce.—The funds granted by the - have been sufficient, notwithstanding the c activity, which requires a corresponding contint outlay. This grant, hitherto triennial, exp December 31 next. If the Board of Visitors request the University to continue this grant f years, it would assist me in undertaking, for the sity, a share in the production of a photographic the heavens, a valuable and extended ‘class which under other circumstances I should not in contemplating. re The details given above testify without further mine to the unwearied perseverance and intellis my two able assistants, Mr. Plummer and Mr. Prof. J. C. Adams has just presented the Re ceedings in the Cambridge Observatory, from 1886, to May 26, 1887. From this Report we following extracts :-— Ye ws bE The total number of observations made wi transit-circle during this interval, for determ right ascension and north polar distance, i These include 726 observations of clock stars me 151 nights; 68 observations of Polaris at the wu transit involving 169 circle readings, and 61 ti at the lower transit involving 149 circle read observations of zone stars made on 88 nights ; < observations of stars compared with the minor The necessary trish Sappho. ek For instrumental adjustment, the nadir observed 218 times, the bisections of the decli with their images being in every case made f tions of the observer, on the north and south s tube respectively ; the level and collimation each observed 217 times. eet At the request of Mr. Bryant, F.R.A‘S., Sappho was compared with adjacent stars ; nights from January 12 to February 2, by Northumberland equatorial and square bar for differences of right ascension and declination. the end of February all the compared stars peatedly observed with the meridian circle ; and tion to this 9 stars which had been compared with Sappho. es ee State of the Reductions —The true right asc obtained up to February 17, 1887, and polar distances to April 27, 1887. one The mean right ascensions and north polar for January 1, of the standard stars are calcula end of 1886, as are also nearly all the observati made in the present year for comparison The mean R.A. and N.P.D. of the zone stars are reduced up to the end of 1881. The right ase zone stars are reduced to the epoch 1875 as far as 16, 1878, and the north polar distances to March The collection of the observations of the zor the Catalogue has been commenced. es, A fresh determination of the intervals of ascension wires from 73 observations of Pola 1885 November 17 to 1886 July 6, was comp! July 12.. As no change seems to have taken place .. B pare ee ‘tothe NATURE 183 ned: so that the final determination rests on 145 bservations of Polaris made from 1885 January 21 to 386 July 6. These intervals were used till 1887 March ‘since which time another determination, from 78 ob- vations of Polaris, from 1836 July 7 to 1887 April 27, is been used. -five observed north polar distances of Polaris the pole, deduced from observations made in 1886, observed nadir point and assumed colatitude 47° 8" 4, and corrected for flexure and errors of sion, give a north polar distance less than that given he Berliner Jahrbuch by 0557 : 68 observations below ‘pole, treated in the same way, give a polar distance eater than the Berlin one by precisely the same antity. Thus our polar distance of Polaris for 1886 exactly equal to the Berlin one, and the correction of med colatitude is + 0’'557; results very similar to of previous years. observations of Polaris above the pole, direct and d, made by Miss Walker on 1886, April 8, May 3, 6, when corrected for errors of division and for action, give for the colatitude 37° 47’ 8"853. The for eight years, given in the last Report, is 7” 8854. observations of clock stars made by Mr. Graham 86, Mr. Todd in nearly every case reading the circle, ve, aS a mean value for reduction to the Berlin N.P.D. 353 ; or, if we take the means for each separate as of equal weight, + 0’°319. These have not been ted for errors of division and flexure, which, for the mits of the zone, 60°-65° N.P.D., have probably a mean of -0"26 or thereabouts; this would have to be applied with an opposite sign to the above means: but the results for intervals of 1° show that the errors _ of division ought to be determined for each star, as they been for Polaris and for the nadir point. orological Observations.—The meteorological ob- tions continue to be communicated daily by telegraph ) the Meteorological Office. The sunshine recorder has been regularly employed, and the records are sent at intervals to the Office. NOTES. In the distribution of Jubilee honours the claims of science have not been forgotten. Among those who have been raised to the peerage we are glad to see the name of Sir William Armstrong, C.B., F.R.S. The honour of knighthood has been conferred upon Warington Smyth, Esq., F.R.S.; Dr. Garrod, F.R.S. ; G. H. Macleod, Esq., Queen’s Surgeon, Edin- burgh; and J. Wright, Esq., C.B., late Civil Engineer to the Navy. Among the new Knights Commanders of the Bath are John Simon, Esq., M.D., C.B., F.R.S., late Medical Officer, Privy Council Office ; and Capt. Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R-S.; Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., British Museum, and Prof. Brown, Agricultural Department of the Privy Council, have been made Companions of the Bath. THE names of the following gentlemen have been added to the list of the Tyndall Dinner Committee :—The Duke of Northumberland, President of the Royal Institution ; Sir W. G, Armstrong, F.R.S., ex-President of the Society of Mechanical Engineers; Dr. Haughton, F.R.S,, President of the Royal Irish Academy ; E. H. Carbutt, Esq., President of the Society of Mechanical Engineers; and G. B. Bruce, President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Mr. Harrorp J. MackinpER, M.A., has been elected Reader in Geography at the University of Oxford. wf In the Report on the Oxford Observatory, which we: print to-day, reference is made to important improvements effected, - emher wholly or in part, at the cost of Dr. De la Rue. We may add to what is there stated that Dr. De la Rue generously offers £500 to convert the Oxford 12}-inch refractor into a Henry photographic telescope—practically, to buy a new object- glass. THE annual general meeting of the Marine Biological Asso- ciation will be held to-morrow in the rooms of the Linnean Society. The Laboratory on the Citadel Hill, Plymouth, erected by the Association at a cost of £9009, will be opened for work in the summer, and the Council are anxious to co-operate in the foundation and management of laboratories on other parts of the British coast. Miss OLDFIELD has presented to the Herbarium of the Royal Gardens, Kew, the botanical collections made in Australia by her late brother, Mr. Augustus Oldfield. This gentleman was, as stated by Mr. Bentham in the preface to ‘‘The Flora of Australia,” an acute: observer as. well as ‘‘an intelligent. col- lector.” His series of Eucalypti are especially good, as he took great pains to obtain the various forms of foliage characteristic of each species, as well as the fruiting and flowering stages. Sir Joseph Hooker used his Tasmanian plants in his ‘‘ Flora” of that colony. Mr. Oldfield ‘‘made large additions to the West Australian plants previously known.” These collections were placed at Mr. Bentham’s disposal forthe purposes of his ‘‘ Flora A ustraliensis.” Tue biennial Exhibition of Agriculture and Entomolozy in Paris will take place from August 27 next to September 29, at the Orangerie, one of the terraces of the Tuileries Gardens, The French Minister of Public Works is the President of the Society which organizes the display. Tue Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean for June, issued by the Hydrographic. Department of Washington, states that Capt. Lassan, of the Norwegian barque Petty, while. in. lat. 17° 38’ N., long. 46° 34’ W., on April, 1, experienced. three: distinct shocks of earthquake, diminishing in force, and accom- panied by strong eruption of air-bubbles, covering. the surface: during the continuance of the shocks. The ice-reports show large numbers of bergs north of lat. 42°, and between long. 47° and 53°. On June-1, M, Hervé Mangon, President of the Council of the French Central Meteorological Office, read the ninth Annual Report of the work of the Office (see NATURE, vol, xviii. p..96). It shows satisfactory evidence of continued energy and progress in. all departments of the service. No less than 154 telegraphic reports are received daily from Europe and Algeria, and 41 telegraphic summaries and weather forecasts are issued, includ- ing one to a London daily paper. The success claimed for the forecasts is 88 per cent., and for the warnings of storms 82 per cent., being a greater success than in any previous yéar. There are 153 climatological stations (including 12 observa- tories) taking not less than 3 observations daily, in. addition to a large number of minor stations. The Office is also actively engaged in collecting observations made at sea, and received upwards of 500 log-books during the past year. This branch is encouraged by the presentation of medals, awarded by the Association Scientifique to the best observers. M. Hervé Mangon reviewed the work of the various observatories, and referred especially: to the investigations of M. Renou, at St. Maur, who has just completed an inquiry into the rainfall for the last 200 years, and is finishing a work on the climate of Paris, on which he has been engaged for 40 years. Reference is also made to the reports now received daily from America and the Atlantic, of which our own Meteorological Office bears half the cost: The telegrams are regularly published in the French Bulletin International. The other half of the expense of these telegrams is borne by a lady whose name is not generally known. M. Hervé Mangon spoke at great length of the damage, 184 caused yearly by the inundations and mountain torrents, and of the advantage of planting the mountain declivities with trees or shrubs. One of the chief features of the past year is the com- pletion of the Observatory of the Pic de l’Aigoual, in the depart- ment of Gard, which has been established in the interest of forest meteorology. A series of experiments is to be made on the influence of various kinds of soil and vegetation in storing the water caused by rainfall, and on the time necessary for its evaporation and percolation. THE Lollettino Mensuale of the Italian Meteorological Society for May contains the report of the first annual meeting of the Council, held on April 14. The principal matters discussed were: the co-operation of the Italian Navigation S scieties ; the development of the service of medical meteorology at Naples and other towns ; and the preparation of a map of the globe showing all the stations of the Society both at home and abroad. {t was proposed to encourage observations of the temperature of the surface of the ground, and to publish the results of these and other observations already collected. The second annual meeting of the Council was fixed for the autumn. ‘THE Observatory at Batavia has just published vol. vii. of its series, containing the magnetic observations (only), from Sep- tember 1883 to December 1885, together with the results from July 1882 to December 1885, prepared under the direction of Dr. van der Stok. The observations show a well-defined de- crease of the declination in 1884-85, at the rate of nearly two minutes a year, and a decrease of the horizontal force at the rate of o’o0012a year. The vertical force has continued to increase, and the dip shows a progressive value of about 7’°5 a year. It is intended in future to issue, yearly, a volume containing both the magnetic and the meteorological observations, but the publication of the meteorological observations for the years 1883-85, and the discussion of the results for the twenty years during which the observations have been made, are indefinitely delayed, owing to pressure of other work. Mr. CLEMENT L. WraGGE, the newly-appointed Govern- ment Meteorologist of Queensland (see NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 229), has published the meteorological synopsis of the Bris- bane Observatory and rainfall reports for the colony for January to March 1887, and also his report of the inspection of the sta- tions. The inspection disclosed the thorough disorganization of many of the stations. For instance, at Cooktown, a station of the first class, the spirit thermometer had the enormous error of 15°, owing to the volatilization of the alcohol. At Normanton, another first-class station, the shade thermometers were “exposed” in the sitting-room. we merely quote Mr. Wragge’s concluding remark that ‘‘the majority of the meteorological records and results already pub- lished are unreliable and valueless.” We hope with him that the new system will gradually attain a position of excellence equalling that which obtains in this country. WE have received a copy of the lecture delivered lately by Dr. Orme Masson, the Professor of Chemistry in the University of Melbourne, on the first occasion on which he addressed him- self publicly to a Melbourne University audience. is, ‘‘ The Scope and Aims of Chemical Science, and its Place i the University.” Dr. Masson has a clear, fresh, and vigorous style, and in this lecture he brings out with much force the part which chemistry has played in modern material progress, and its fiiness to serve as an instrument of intellectual culture. He expresses a hope that there may always be at the University of | Melbourne a small band of students devoting the bulk of their | time for a few years to chemical research. The University, he says, will soon have ‘‘ well-equipped laboratories, not only for the practical instruction of large classes of medical students and NATURE It is unnecessary to multiply instances, and | The subject | others, but for the accommodation of those specialists who go. further in the work, requiring to be ee with the 1 0 elaborate paraphernalia of experimental science.’ At the opening meeting, on April 19, of the Royal S of ‘Tasmania for the session of 1887, Mr. R. M. Johnston rn interesting paper on the question, ‘* How far can the ge death-rate for all ages be relied upon as a comparative ind the health or sanitary condition of any community?” object of the paper was to demonstrate that the general de rate of any one place, although in itself due to. a combinat of many causes, may be taken as a fairly trustworthy local i to health and sanitary condition, but that it is a most index as regards the comparative health and sanitary condi of different localities. The latter fact he attributed main the extreme variability in the proportions of persons living different places under the principal age groups. Mr. E. STANFORD, of Charing Cross, has just issued volumes of his series of Tourists’ Guides. They are Guides Suffolk, Wiltshire, and the Wye and its neighbourhood ; first by Dr. J. E. Taylor, the second by Mr. R. N. Worth, the third by Mr. G. Phillips Bevan. Each of the volumes been carefully compiled, and is worthy of the useful and \ known series to which it belongs. AN interesting collection of Indian antiquities is now b exhibited at the Albert Hall. It includes, among other obj a large number of Palzeolithic and Neolithic implements, re from Indian grave-mounds of the prehistoric aborigines, of rude cave pictures and marks on rocks, and Buddhist tures and terra-cotta seals found among the ruins of Kusina The objects exhibited form part of a collection made in Ind Mr. A. C. Carlyle, late of the Archeological Survey of India. THE remains of a cemetery belonging to the age of the Gane have recently been discovered in Paris, in the old Faubourg Se Germain, at the corner of Rocroi and Bellechasse Streets. Fifty- two tombs have been found, with skeletons, most of which are skeletons of women and children. Only twelve are skeletons of men. Many weapons and implements have also. unearthed: swords, lances, shields, and bronze and instruments of all descriptions. eee THE grasshopper plague is giving serious trouble in A this year. The efforts made to destroy the eggs have pr useless. In one district 50,000 gallons have been collect burned. This represents the destruction of 7,250,0 insects. Ir is observed in the French army that diseases of the 2 are very common. In a recent study of this sabioos: certi imposed on recruits, at an age when, generally, tise develo ; of the body is not in harmony with that of the heart, be 3 either in advance of it or behind it In the latter sade there is An instance is given in which a cca common occurrence). in garrison in the vee in 1880, had on an average twelve Soy of the heart. uN colonel came to the cosbaees who 2 very faulty notions as to the amount of drill and fatigue | the men could stand. By September 1883, the number of heart- invalids had risen steadily to twenty-two out of forty-five (¢.e. about one in two). A BRILLIANT discovery is announced in the current combi of the Berichte der Deut. Chem. Ges. by Dr. Theodor Curtius, who has succeeded in preparing the long-sought-for hydride of nitro- gen, (NH,),, amidogen, diamide, or hydrazine, as it is variously % Fune 23, 1887] NATURE 185 med, This remarkable body, which has hitherto baffled all empts at isolation, is now shown to be a gas, perfectly stable p to a very high temperature, of a peculiar odour, differing from at of ammonia, exceedingly soluble in water, and of basic pro- erties. In the course of his work upon the diazo-compounds of e fatty series, Dr. Curtius treated diazo acetic ether with hot, rong potash, and obtained the potassium salt of a new diazo- ty acid, which on addition of mineral acids yielded yellow crystals of the free diazo-acid. On digesting the yellow s solution of this acid with very dilute sulphuric acid the our disappeared without the usual evolution of nitrogen ; and cooling a magnificently crystalline substance separated out, ich was shown by analysis to be no other than the sulphate of n, (NH,),. H,SO,. These crystals remained unchanged 50°, but on strongly heating over a flame melted with ive evolution of gas and deposition of sulphur. On ning this salt with potash solution the free diamide, (NH,)», expelled as a gas which changed red litmus into blue, and sred itself evident by its irritating odour. The gas fumed tact with hydrochloric acid forming the hydrochloride, on leading it into sulphuric acid re-formed the sulphate. ( ed energetic reducing properties, reducing Fehling’s mmoniacal silver solutions in the cold, gave a dense red pitate with neutral copper sulphate, and formed crystalline unds with aromatic aldehydes and ketones. It is very m that chemistry is enriched by the discovery of a new gas, the intrinsic value of the isolation of amidogen to both “sanic and inorganic chemistry renders the communication ‘Dr. Curtius one of exceptional and of far more than passing erest. __ MEASUREMENTS have lately been made by Messrs. A. von Ettiogshausen and W. Nernst, upon the Hall effect manifested in different metals. They have found that tellurium far sur- es bismuth in its power, hence they think that the Hall ct is connected with the thermo-electric properties of the metals. The effect is least in tin. ‘Taking this as unity, effects in other metals are relatively as follows: pla- tinum, 6; copper, 13; gold, 28; silver, 21; palladium, 29 ; cobalt, 115; iron, 285 ; nickel, 605; carbon, 4400 ; antimony, | 4800; bismuth, 252,500: tellurium, 13,250,000. The sign of the effect is positive in the case of cobalt, iron, steel, antimony, and tellurium, also lead, zinc, and cadmium. Jt is negative in all the others. Tue mining engineer, M. Dahll, who has been examining the north of Norway on behalf of the Norwegian Government, states in his Report that all the rivers in the interior of Finn- marken, a district of fifly Norwegian square miles, carry gold. The metal is found in sand contained in little hollows, which by their shape prevent its being washed away by the water. The weight of the gold grains varies from 10 milligrammes to £ gramme. Platinum is also found occasionally. Durine the cutting of peat in a moss at Vevang, near the town of Christiansund, in the north-west of Norway, the work- men recently dug out a log of oak over 12 feet in length, and about 4 feet in diameter. It was found at a depth of 9 feet. The trunk and root of a great oak-tree were unearthed in the same moss some years ago, so we may conclude that there __was once an oak forest in this spot. The remains of the oak _ were found below a layer in the bog in which remains of firs are _ often found. : . “In the new number of the Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association there isa paper by Dr. H. Hicks on the explora- ons which he, in conjunction with others, has carried on in the ‘ n Beuno and Cae Gwyn Caverns in North Wales. He as no doubt whatever as to the accuracy of the conclusions esented by him in his previous papers on the subject. ‘I 1,” he says, ‘perfectly convinced by the evidence found USSC5 re) during the exploration of these caverns that they must have been occupied by man and the animals before the climax of the Ice age ; also that the thick stalagmite was formed some time during that age; that this was broken up by marine action during the submergence ; and that the caverns were afterwards completely covered over by materials deposited from floating ice. There seems, therefore, to be every reason to suppose that man and the so-called Pleistocene animals arrived in this country in advance of the glacial conditions, and that their migrations were mainly from northern and north-western directions. ” THE first number of the 7echnology Quarterly has been sent tous. This new American periodical is published by a Board of Editors chosen from the senior and junior classes of the Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, representing, as far as possible, all the departments of the Institute. A large amount of original work is done in the Institute every year by advanced students, and it is thought by the editors that the Quarterly will be an acceptable journal if it contains nothing more than the results of the original investigations made in the chemical, physical, mining, mechanical, and biological laboratories, and also in the departments of civil engineering and architecture. But it is expected that the a/umni of the Institute will be glad of this medium for recording their investigations and the results of their practical work. Among the contents of the present number are articles on “*The Control of Rivers and the Prevention of Floods,” ‘* The Efficiency of Small Electromotors,” ‘‘ The Use of the Aneroid Barometer in Western Massachusetts by the U.S. Geological Survey,” and ‘* The Constitution of Benzol.” Tux additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two Macaque Monkeys (Macacus cynomolgus) from India, presented respectively by Mrs. Slatter and Mrs. Beeston ; a Lesser White-nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus petaur-~ ista) from West Africa, presented by Miss Kate Wood ; a Grey Ichneumon (Herfestes griseus) from India, presented by Miss Dudding ; a Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), British, pre- sented by Mrs. Dick ; a Virginian Deer (Cariacus virginianus) from North America, presented by Mr. Tom Jay; three Kestrels (Zinnunculus alaudarius), British, presented by Dr. J. W. Trentler ; two Blue Titmice (Parus ceruleus), British, pre- sented by Mrs. Francis L. Barlow; a Blue-eyed Cockatoo (Cacatua ophthalmica) from New Britain, presented. by Mr. W. H. Fellows ; four Horned Vipers (Vipera cornuta), three Dwarf Chameleons (Chameleon pumilus), a Many-spotted Snake (Coro- nella multimaculata), a Rufescent Snake (Leptodira rufescens) from South Africa, presented by the Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S. ; a Crowned Horned Lizard (Phrynosoma coronatum) from California, presented by Mr. Duff Gordon; a Pig-tailed Monkey (A/acacus nemestrinus) from India, four Herons (Ardea cinerea), six Night Herons (Wycticorax griseus), Turopean, deposited ; a West African Python (Python sebe) from West Africa, purchased ; a Mesopotamian Fallow Deer (Dama meso- potamica), two Japanese Deer (Cervus stka), two Collared Fruit Bats (Cynonycteris collaris) born in the Gardens ; two Yellow- legged Herring Gulls (Larus cachinnans) bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Tue GREAT SOUTHERN Comet, 1887 4.—Mr. Chandler continuing his researches on the orbit of this comet (referred tc in. last week’s NATURE), gives, in No. 157 of the Astronomicat Fournal, the following elements deduced from the Cape and ‘Adelaide observations published in the Monthly Notices for March last :— T = 1887 January 11'230 G.M.T. o= 63 36'0 Q = 337 42°38; True Equinox. ¢ =; 037 feme) log g = 7°73892 186 NATE [ Yume 23, 18 The observations on which this orbit depends differ widely from - the estimates of position at Cordoba and Windsor, which Mr. Chandler had used in his previous computations; and the cle- ments now found are in fair agreement with those deduced by Mr. Finlay from the Cape observations of January 22, 25, and 28 alone, which are published in the above-mentioned number of the AZonthly Notices. , THE COMPANION OF. Sir1US.—Prof. A. Hall gives, as the mean results of his observations during the present year (As¢ro- nomical Fournal, No. 157): Epoch 1887°238 ; position-angle, 24°°18 ; and distance, 6”°508. A SHORT METHOD OF COMPUTING REFRACTIONS FOR ALL ZENITH DIsTANCES.—In continuation of his paper in Astronom- ische Nachrichten, No. 2768 (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 329), the application of which was limited to zenith distances less than 45°, Mr. Schaeberle, of Ann Arbor, U.S.A., in No. 2788 of the same publication, gives his method for the computation of refractions, with Bessel’s constants, for 45° to 77° of zenith distance, and for zenith distances greater than 77°, with an accuracy sufficient for pravtical purposes. Starting from Bessel’s expression 7 = aB4y* tan z, Mr. Schaeberle finds that Ar (the quantity to be added to the mean refraction 7) can be : represented only by Av = ™F + € ~ between the limits z = 45° AB , Ay and z= 77°. —+— and «=% (A- 1). For zenith. distances greater than 77°, the final AB where ¢ = 0'9 oe In this expression F = equation becomes Av = 7F +-¢€ (F “% ), The requisite quantities can evidently be easily tabulated, and the computer is thus provided with a very convenient method for calculating refractions which will not materially differ from those deduced directly from Bessel’s Tables, ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887-/UNE 26—/ULY 2. (FOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on June 26. Sunrises, 3h. 46m. ; souths, 12h. 2m. 29°7s. ; sets, 20h. 18m. ; decl. on meridian, 23° 22’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 14h. 36m, Moon. (at First Quarter on June 28) rises, gh. 35m. ; souths, 16h, 38m. ; sets, 23h. 29m. ; decl. on meridian, 8° 53’ N. Planet. Rises, ‘Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian, h. m, h. m. h. m wy Mercury 5 51 TR Rae es Ae Bho ge, Bh Venus... 2-39 Ty De aaen eee as 16. 40 N. Mars 2 39 10 55 I9 II 23° 2%:N; JWR ck 19°20 ie Ol 90 oe et ee Saturn... 5 20 TS 25 29826 21 33 N. * Indicates that the setting is that of the following morning. Occultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). Corresponding angles from ver- June. Star. Mag. _ Disap. Reap= 425 to ght for inverted image. h. m, h. m. in Mi 27... 10 Virginis ...6 ... 23 36 near approach 199 — July. ts 8 ea ee © 52 nearapproach 201 — erp po 6) a) c: acrrdge uy tn Cesar eau 2 Rr emt yh Lae! Ig 320 June. h, 20. jay Jupiter in conjunction with and 3° 40’ south of the Moon. July. h. I 10... Mercury at greatest elongation from the Sun, 26° east. ; 2 Seer Sun at greatest distance from the Earth, Meteor-Showers. R.A. Decl. Near o Herculis 253 47 N. Swift meteors. 5 Cygni.. 294 39 N. Slow meteors. e Delphini Sia) BOS ON. Between 8 and y Cephei. 330 77 N. Variable Stars. i fs ial Star. ae ; Decl. » mm. ° ‘ U Cephei O 52°3... 81 16 N. ... June 27, July 2, R Piscium . I 24°8 2 18N. ... June 26, S Ursz Majoris ... 12 390... 61 43 N.... July 1, W Virginis ... 1320'S 3 i;--8 AD Oe nts U Ophiuchi... 17 10°8... 1 20N.... June 30, U Sagittarii... 18 25°2-.. 19°12: S38 Gs ae B Lyre... 18(45'9-.4 332 SAN R Lyre 2s 18. 51°9.... 43 48 N. ... July 1, S Vulpeculze 19;.43°8:..:,.27, ON...) anew n Aquilze 19 46°7... 0 43N.... July S Sagittee 9... 19 50'9 ... 16 20N. .., June’ T Aquarii 20 44'0 5 3458 W Cygni 21 31°8... 44 52 N As § Cephei 22 25°O::.. 59 SO Ny tena M signifies maximum ; #7z minimum, THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF. C A GENERAL meeting of the Zoological Socie took place on the afternoon of ‘Thursday, In celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of Her the meeting was held on the lawn of the Soci which was reserved for the occasion. are personally interested, and the duration of © nearly cotemporaneous with that of Her Majesty’s his Society was founded there was no distinct. mn in the country devoted solely to collecting, record- Mesinc the facts upon which zoological science rests. sd parent of all our scientific Societies, the Royal, y undertook, as it does still, the discussion of many ‘subjects ; but it could not be expected to treat them in . The Linnean was a Society of great respectability, solely to biological research, both zoological and already nearly forty years of age, and possessed of all appurtenances of a scientific organization—meetings, and collections for reference. I cannot help thinking me eading Fellows had, at that time, displayed more ‘it might have kept in its hands the principal direction of cal studies of the country, instead of allowing what proved so formidable a rival to spring up, and to arge a portion of its useful functions. However, for ch it is pers not worth while to inquire into now, pply all the needs of the lovers of zoology ; and in an active and zealous band united together, and, as Ils us, ‘‘subscribed and expended considerable. A for the purpose” of founding the Zoological on. | leading spirit of this band was Sir Stamford Raffles, returned from the administration of those Eastera which the history, both natural and political, will ever tely associated with his name. He was chosen for of President, but his death, on July 4, 1826, de- the Society, while yet in its infancy, of his valuable $ even some years before it acquired its Charter of In- rporatic In this deed, dated March 27, 1829, Henry, _ Marquis of Lansdowne, is named as the first President of the chartered Society, Joseph Sabine as the first Treasurer, and Nic Aylward Vigors the first Secretary. iety appears to have acquired great su ngly short time. The first printed list o - I can discover (dated January 1, 1829) contains the names of 1294 ordinary Fellows and 40 honorary and corresponding Mem- bers. The list is an interesting one from the number of names it includes of persons eminent either in science, art, literature, itics, or social life: indeed, there were not many people of ion in the country at that time who are not to be found opularity in a P Members that oat ce of ground in the Regent’s Park having been obtained Bee Eement at little more than a aoa! rent, the Gardens were laid out, and opened in 1828, during which year 98,605 visitors are recorded as having entered. In the following first complete) year there were as many as 189,913 visitors, this number was increased in 1831 to 262,193. ___ While the menagerie of living animals was being formed in the Regent’s Park, the Officers and Fellows of the Society were _also engaged in establishing a Museum of preserved specimens, shich soon assumed very considerable dimensions. A Catalogue printed as.early as the year 1828 contains a classified list of 450 imens of Mammalia alone ; and it continued for many years ittract donations from travellers and collectors in all parts of orld, and became of great scientific importance, inasmuch mtained very many types of species described for the first | the publications of the Society. It was at first lodged in in the Society’s house in Bruton Street; but these be- so crowded as to present the ‘“‘confused air of a store an the appearance of an arranged museum,” premises taken in 1836 in Leicester Square ; the same which were bal is reported to have contained as man “ formerly occupied by the museum of John Hunter before its removal to the College of Surgeons, At this time the Museum as 6720 specimens of vertebrated animals, and numerous additions were still being made both by dénations and by purchase. The rooms in Leicester Square being found inconvenient for the purpose, it was finally resolved, after considerable discussion of various sites, to transfer the collection to the Gardens in the Regent’s Park ; and in 1843 the building which is now occupied as a lecture-room on the upper floor and a store-room below was constructed and fitted up for its reception. Although the Museum was at one time looked.upon as a very important part of the Society’s operations, being spoken of as ‘*the centre of the Society’s scientific usefulness” (Report of Council, 1837), and one upon which considerable sums of money were spent, it was afterwards a cause of embarrassment'from the difficulty and expense of keeping it up in a state of sefficiency ; and when the Zoological Department of the British Museum acquired such a development as to fulfil all the objects proposed by the Society’s collection, the uselessness of endeavouring to maintain a second and inferior zoological museum in the same city became apparent, and in 1856 it was, as I think very wisely, determined to part with the collection, the whole of the types being transferred to the National Museum, and the re- maining specimens to other institutions where it was thought their value would be most appreciated. Another enterprise in which the Fellows of the Society were much interested in its early days was the Farm at Kingston, the special object of which was thus defined :—‘‘ It will be useful in receiving animals which may require a greater range and more quiet than the Gardens at the Regent’s. Park can afford. It is absolutely necessary for the purpose of breeding and rearing young animals, and giving facilities for observations on matters of physiological interest and research, and, above all, in making attempts to naturalize such species as are hitherto rare or un- known in this country.” The Farm, however, apparently not fulfilling the objects expected of it, and being a source ,of ex- pense which the Society could not then well afford, was gradually allowed to fall into neglect, and finally abandoned in 1834. The mention of this establishment, however, causes me to allude to one of the objects on which the Society laid considerable stress at its foundation, and which is defined in the Charter as ‘the introduction of new and curious subjects of the animal kingdom,” but which, as may be gathered from the Annual Reports of the Council and from other documents, meant not only the temporary introduction of individuals for the purpose of satisfying curiosity about their external characters and structure, but also the permanent domestication of foreign animals which might become of value to man, either for their utility in adding to our food-supplies or for the pleasure they afforded by their beauty. Abundant illustrations of the vanity of human expectations are afforded by the details of the hopes and disappointments recorded in the Reports of the Society relating to this subject. It is mentioned in the Report of the year 1832 that “* the armadillo has three times produced young, and hopes are enter- tained of this animal, so valuable as.an article of food, being naturalized.in this country.”” More than fifty years have passed, and British-grown armadillo has not yet appeared upon the menu-cards of our dinner-tables. At one time the South- American curassows and guans were confidently looked upon as future rivals to our barn-door fowls and turkeys. Various species of pheasants and other game-birds from Northern India, collected and imported at great expense, were to add zest and variety to the battue of the English sportsman. The great success which for many years attended the breeding of giraffes in the Gardens not unnaturally led to the expectation that these beautiful creatures might become denizens of our parks, or at all events a source of continued profit to the Society; and it is possible that some who are here now may have been present at the feast for which an eland was sacrificed, amid loudly- uttered prognostications that the ready acclimatization of these animals would result, if not in superseding, at least in providing a change from, our monotonous round of mutton, beef, and ork. Unfortunately for these anticipations, no giraffe has een born in the Gardens during the last twenty years, and elands are still far too scarce to be killed for food of man in England. It is well that these experiments should have been tried ; it . of the Society, the scientific meetings. 188 NATURE [ Fume 23; I 3 may be well, perhaps, that some of them should be tried again when favourable opportunities occur ; but it is also well that we should recognize the almost insuperable difficulties that must attend the attempt to introduce a new animal able to compete in useful qualities with those which, as is the case with all our limited number of domestic animals, have gradually acquired the peculiarities making them valuable to man, by the accumula- tion of slight improvements through countless generations of ancestors. While all our pressing wants are so well supplied by the animals we already possess, it can no longer pay to begin again at the beginning with a new species. ‘This appears to be the solution of the singular fact, scarcely sufficiently appreciated, that no addition of any practical import- ance has been made to our stock of truly domestic animals since the commencement of the historic period of man’s life upon the earth. T now turn to the history of one of the most important features In the early days of the Society there was only one class of general meetings for business of all kinds ; and the exhibition of specimens and the communi- cation of notices on subjects of zoological interest formed part of the ordinary proceedings at those meetings. The great extent, however, of the general business was soon found to interfere with such an arrangement. The number of the elections and of the recommendations of candidates, the reports on the progress of the Society in its several establishments during each month, and other business, were found to require so much time as to leave little. for scientific communications, and the Council saw with regret that these were frequently and necessarily postponed to matters of more pressing but less permanent interest. ‘To obviate this inconvenience and to afford opportunities for the reception and discussion of communications upon zoological subjects, the Council had recourse to the institution ofa ‘‘ Com- mittee of Science and Correspondence,” composed of such Members of the Society as had principally applied themselves to science ; at the meetings of which communications upon zoological subjects might be received and discussed, and occasional selec- tions made for the purpose of publication. The first meeting of the Committee took place on the evening of Tuesday, November 9, 1830, at the Society’s house in Bruton Street, when a communication was received upon the anatomy of the urang utan by a young, and then unknown, naturalist, Richard Owen by name, the first of that long series of memoirs, extending over a period of more than fifty years, the publication of which in our Transactions has done so much to advance the knowledge of comparative anatomy and to give an illustrious place to their author in the annals of science. Among the names of others who are mentioned as having taken part in the business of the Committee during the first year of its existence, either by their actual presence or by forwarding communications, are N. A. Vigors, W. Yarrell, J. E. Gray, J. Gould, E. T, Bennett, Andrew Smith, T. Bell, W. Martin, Joshua Brookes, W. Kirby, W. H. Sykes, Marshall Hall, W. Ogilby, John Richardson, and B. H. Hodgson, who, I am happy to say, is with us at the meeting to day. The Committee continued in existence for two years, having met for the last time on December 11, 1832. The success of its meetings was so great that it was thought desirable to make an alteration in the by-laws, by which the meetings of the Committee were replaced by the ‘‘ General Meetings of the Society for Scientific Business.” The first of these meetings took place on Tuesday, January 8, 1833, and they have con- tinued to be held on two Tuesdays in each month during the season to the present time. As long as the Society retained its house in Bruton Street, the meetings were held there. In 1843 the Society took another house, which it occupied for forty-one years, No. 11 Hanover Square ; but its needs having outgrown the accommodation afforded there, it removed in 1844 to the far more spacious and commodious premises, in No. 3 of the same square, which we at present occupy. These meetings of the Society, which are open to all the Fellows and to friends intro- duced by them, have exercised a considerablé influence upon the progress of zoological knowledge, not only by the reading and discussing of communications formally brought before them, but also by the interchange of ideas at the informal social gatherings over the coffee-table in the library afterwards, which have great value as affording a common meeting-ground and bond of union for all the working zoologists of the country, as well as of many visitors from foreign lands. The more important scientific comiaunications to these meetings have from the commencement been publish form of quarto Transactions and octavo Proceedings. constitute a series of inestimable importance both for t of the material contained in them and for the excellence illustrations of new or rare forms of animal life with whi are embellished. In Jater times they have also formed a> for communicating to the world the important results o from the dissection of animals which have died at the and which, since the establishment of the office of Pro 1865, have been systematically used for this purpose. In connexion with the scientific meetings mnst be men the Library, the first formation of which is described Report of the Council for the year 1837, and which has steadily growing ever since by donations of books, by of publications with other learned Societies, and by } annual expenditure of money, to be one of the best- well-arranged, and most accessible collections of we reference that it is possible for the zoological student to enj value has been greatly increased by the publication with past month of an excellent Catalogue, which contains | of about 6560 pub'ications. The most recent addition to the functions that the So undertaken with a view to carry out the purposes of its tion is the publication of an Annual Record of Z Literature, containing a summary of the work done by and foreign naturalists in the various branches of zool each year, a publication of the utmost value to the zoologist. Such a Record has been carried on for past by a voluntary association of naturalists, but, ov difficulties met with in obtaining sufficient support, | danger of being abandoned, until the Council, after the sideration which the importance of the subject deserved, r to take it in hand as part of the operations of the Society. The Society has, however, not only been mindful of ads scientific knowledge—it has also endeavoured to ie this knowledge in a popular manner by means of lect former years these were only given in an occasional : but the liberal bequest of Mr. Alfred Davis to the 1870 has enabled the Council to undertake a more systematic method of instruction ; and the Fellows have had every summer for several years past the op hearing many of our most eminent naturalists and able upon subjects which they have made especially their o must, however, confess that the interest taken by the generally in these lectures has not quite equalled the exp that were raised when the question of establishing them was brought before the notice of the Council. Although, as will be seen by a consideration of tl subjects which I have already referred to, the Society sphere of operations and many methods by which the o its founders are carried out, it is undoubtedly the mait of the menagerie of living animals in the Gardens where now assembled, by which it is most known both to the pi well as to a large number of our Fellows. It will therefore, before concluding, to add a few words ur points of interest connected with the past history and condition of this branch of the Society’s operations, which is at the same time the largest source of its revenue cause of its expenditure. Menara: The collection and exhibition of rare and little-kno animals has long been a subject of interest and instruc civilized communities, and in many countries either the St: or the Sovereign has considered it as part of their dut privilege to maintain a more or less perfect establish the kind. : ss Before the Zoological Society was formed, the ‘‘1] the Tower had been for centuries 2 national institution may be interesting to those who derive pleasure in tr links between the present and the past, to be reminded 1 collection is in some measure a lineal continuation of that honoured institution, as it appears from the Reports Council that in the year 1831 His Majesty King Will Fourth ‘‘was graciously pleased to present to the a the animals belonging to the Crown lately maintained a the Tower.’ It is also recorded that in the previous ‘a Hi Majesty had made a munificent donation of the whole of tl animals belonging to the Royal Menagerie kept in Windsor Park. This may perhaps be the place to mention that, in the Report read April 1837, the Council ‘‘had the gratification t call the special attention of the members to a donation from He 3 Sune 23, 1887] NATURE — 189 gyal Highness the Princess Victoria,” consisting of a pair of ose pretty and interesting little animals the Stanley Musk- er. During the fifty years that have elapsed since this first- sorded mark of interest in the Society on the part of her pre- nt Majesty, the Queen and her family have never failed to yw their regard for its welfare whenever any opportunity has sen, of which the acceptance of the Presidency by the late ince Consort, on the death of the Earl of Derby in 1851, was the most signal instances. The advantages which the y has received from the numerous donations to the erie, and the constant kindly interest shown in its general by H.R.H. the Prince of Wales, are so continually the observation of the Fellows, that I need scarcely e than allude to them here, beyond stating that in no ‘the Society’s existence has the number of visitors to the or the Society’s income, been so great as in 1876, when e collection of animals brought from India by His Royal formed the special object of attraction. ept for the collection, necessarily of limited extent, din the Tower, and a few others having their origin in ial enterprise (as Mr. Crosse’s menagerie at Exeter _ and the various itinerant wild-beast shows), there before the foundation of the Society’s Gardens, @ means in the country of gaining knowledge of strange forms of exotic animal life with which world abounds. An extensive, well-arranged, and well- llection,. where the circumstances of exhibition nore favourable than in the institutions just referred to, d then to fulfil a national need, as the rapidly acquired ity of the Society already alluded to testifies. Indeed, e consider the amount of enjoyment and instruction has been afforded to the 24,572,495 visitors who are regis- as having entered our Gardens from their first opening in o the end of last year, it is easy to realize what a loss try would have sustained if they had not existed. There period, it is true, in which they fell rather low in popular the record of 1847 showing both the smallest number of and the lowest income of any year in the Society’s A new era of activity in the management of the ty's affairs was then happily inaugurated, which resulted in @ prosperity which has continued ever since, with only slight & ations, arising from causes easy to be understood—a pro- y to which the scientific knowledge, zeal, and devotion to the affairs of the Society of our present Secretary, ably seconded in all matters of detail by the Resident Superintendent, have _ greatly contributed. One of the greatest improvements which have been gradually effected in the Gardens in recent years is the erection of larger, more commodious, and more substantial buildings for the accom- modation of the animals than those that existed before. A few | examples will suffice to illustrate the successive steps that have been taken in this direction. The primary habitation of the lions and other large feline animals was the building on the north side of the canal, which many of us may remember as a Reptile-house, and which has been lately restored as a dwelling- | place for the smaller Carnivora. The Council Reports of the period frequently speak of the bad accommodation it afforded to | the inmates, the co uent injury to their health, and the dis- | agreeable effects on visitors from the closeness of the atmosphere. In September 1843, the terrace, with its double row of cages beneath, was completed; and the Report of the following spring, speaking of this as ‘‘one of the most important, works ever undertaken at the Gardens,” congratulates the Society upon the fact that the anticipations of the increased health of this interesting portion of the collection, resulting from a free expo- sure to the external air, and total absence of artificial heat, have been fully realized. The effects of more air and greater exercise were indeed said to have become visible almost imme- siately. Animals which were emaciated and sickly before their removal became plump and sleek in a fortnight after, and the ites of all were so materially increased that they began to cill and eat each other. This, however, led to an immediate increase in their allowance of food, since which time, it is stated, no further accidents of the kind have occurred. As_ this structure, looked upon at that period as so great an improvement its predecessors, still remains, though adapted for other » we all have an opportunity of contrasting the size of and the provision it affords generally for the health and of the animals and the convenience of visitors, with ' the magnificent building which superseded it in 1876. nce, | In the Report of the year 1840 it is stated that the only work of considerable magnitude undertaken since the last anniversary was the erection of the ‘‘ New Monkey-house,” and the Council speak with great satisfaction of the substantial nature of the structure and the superior accommodation which its internal arrangements are calculated to afford to its inmates. Many of us may remember this building, which stood on the space now cleared in the centre of the Gardens, Twenty-four years after its erection, in their Report dated April 1864, we find the Council speaking of it as ‘‘what is at present perhaps the most defective portion of the Society’s Garden establish- ment,” and the erection of a second ‘‘ New Monkey-house ” was determined upon. This is the present light and comparatively airy and spacious building, the superiority of which over the old one in every respect is incontestable. Up to the year 1848 the only attempt which had been made to familiarize the visitors with the structure and habits of animals of the class Reptilia was by the occasional display of a pair of pythons, which were kept closely covered in a box of limited dimensions in one of the smaller Carnivora-houses. In 1849 the building which had been rendered vacant by the removal of the lions to the new terrace was fitted up with cases with plate-glass fronts on a plan entirely novel in this country, and which for many years afforded an instructive exhibition of the forms, colours, and movements of many species of serpents, lizards, and crocodiles. This house was a vast improvement upon anything of the kind ever seen before ; but the contrast between it and the present handsome and spacious building so recently erected in the south-eastern corner of the grounds affords another illus- tration of the great progress we are making. If time allowed I might also refer to the Elephant-house, completed in 1870, to the Insect-house, opened in 1881, and to various others of less importance. The erection of these houses has necessarily been a very costly undertaking ; in fact, since what may be called the recon- struction of the permanent buildings of the Gardens, which © commenced in the year 1860, more than £50,000 has been expended upon them. It is only in years of great prosperity, when the Society’s income has considerably exceeded its neces- sarily large permanent expenditure, that works such as these can be undertaken. Much as has been done in this direction, we must all admit that there is still more required. The buildings of to-day will, we may even hope, some day seem to our successors what the former ones appear to us. The old idea of keeping animals in small cramped cages and dens, inherited from the Tower and the travelling wild-beast shows, still lingers in many places. We have a responsibility to our captive animals, brought from their native wilds, to minister to our pleasure and instruction, beyond that of merely supplying them with food and shelter. The more their comfort can be studied, the roomier their place of captivity, the more they are surrounded by conditions reproducing those of their native haunts, the happier they will be, and the more enjoyment and instruction we shall obtain when looking at them. Many of our newest improvements are markedly in this direction. I may especially mention the new inclosure for wild sheep near the Lion-house in the South Garden, with its picturesque rock-work and fall of water, and the large aviary for herons and similar birds just completed on what used to be called the Water-Fowls’ Lawn. All such improvements can, however, only be carried out by the continued aid of the public, either by becoming perma- nently attached to the Society as Fellows or by visiting the Gardens. I trust that this brief record of the principal events of the Society’s history will show that such support is not undeserved by those who have had the management of its affairs. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE.—In the Natural Sciences Tripos, Part I., the following women students were placed in the first class: E. E. Field, A. J. Flavell, and M. M. Smith, all of Newnham College. In Part II. the following men were placed in the first class in alphabetical order, the subject for which they were so placed being named :—Adie, Trinity, and Couldridge, Emmanuel (Che- mistry) ; Durham, Christ’s, and Edgeworth, Caius (Physiology); 190 NATURE Lake, St. John’s (Geology) ; Melsome, Queens’ (Physiolozy) ; Rendle, St. John’s (Botany) ; Turpin, St. John’s (Chemistry). No women were placed in the first class. Mr. Lake, of St. John’s, whose name appears in the above list, has been elected to the first Harkness Scholarship for Geology and Paleontology. Dr. William Hunter, M.D., F.R.S.Edin., has been elected - the first John Lucas Walker Student in Pathology. The degree of Doctor in Science has been conferred on Mr. James Ward, of Trinity College, and Prof. F. O. Bower, of Trinity College and Glasgow University. In consideration of this year being the two hundredth anni- versary of the publication of Newton’s “‘ Principia,” the Chancellor’s Medal is to be given for an English poem on Isaac Newton. The botanical teachers in the University have made a press- ing appeal for the erection of a class-room for practical micro- scopical botany. The Examiners for the Mathematical Tripos, Part II., have issued the following class list :— Class I. Division 1: C. W. C. Barlow, and Bryan, Peter- house; Dixon, Trinity; Fletcher, St. John’s; Platts, Trinity. Division 2: Coates, Queens’; F. W. Hill, St. John’s. Division 3: Clark, Pembroke ; H. G. Dawson, Christ’s. Class II. Division 1: Askwith, Trinity. Division 2: Johnston, Peterhouse ; McAulay, Caius ; Nicolls, Peterhouse. Division 3: Tate, St. John’s. Class III. Division 1: Dickinson, Trinity. The appointment of a Demonstrator of Pathology has been approved. The proposals regarding the teaching of geography and the appointment of a University Lecturer in Geography have been confirmed. The modified proposals to build new plant-houses in the Botanic Garden have been approved. A small research labora- tory is to be built in connexion with them. - At the annual election at St. John’s College, on June 18, the following awards in Natural Science and Mathematics were made :— Foundation Scholarships :—Science: Rendle, £50 ; d’Albu- querque, £60; Varley, £50; H. H. Harris, £50; Rudd, £40. Scholarships prolonged or increased in value :—Science: Rolleston, £80; Shore, £60; Seward, £40; Harris, W., £50; Lake, 480— Mathematics: Fletcher, 480; Hill, £60; Tate, 440; Orr, £80; Sampson, £80; Baker, £100; Flux, £100. Exhibitions :—Science: Grabham, d’Albuquerque, Baily, Hankin, Shaw—Mathematics : Orr, Sampson, Carlisle, Millard, Cooke, Humphries, Shawcross, Palmer. Proper Sizarships :— Science : + Kellett—Mathematics: Box, Brown, Lawrenson ; Shawcross, Palmer. Hughes Prizes :—Science : Lake ; Mathe- matics: Baker and Flux, equal. Wright Prizes :—Science: Turpin, d’Albuquerque ; Mathematics: Orr, Cooke. Hockin Prize (for Physics, and in particular Electricity): Turpin. Herschel Prize (for Astronomy): Flux. Hutchinson Student- ship (for Sanskrit): Strong. Among the distinguished persons upon whom _ honorary degrees were conferred on June 20 was Prof. Asa Gray, Professor of Natural History and Keeper of the University Herbarium and Botanical Library, Harvard University, author ofthe ‘‘ Elements of Botany ” (1836), the ‘‘ Botanical Text-Book” (1842, ed. 6, 1880), ‘‘ Darwiniana” (1876), ‘‘ Flora of North America” (1878), &c., &c. We append the text of the speech delivered by the Public Orator, Dr. Sandys, in presenting him for the degree :— Iuvat tandem pervenire ad historiae naturalis professorem Harvardianum, botanicorum transmarinorum facile principem. Annorum quinquaginta intra spatium de scientia sua pulcherrima quot libros, eruditione quam ampla, genere scribendi quam admirabili composuit. Quotiens oceanum transiit ut Europae herbaria diligentius perscrutaretur, virosque in sua provincia primarios melius cognosceret. In aliorum laboribus examinandis, recensendis, nonnunguam leviter corrigendis, iudicem quam perspicacem, quam candidum, quam urbanum sese praebnit. Quanta alacritate olim inter populares suos occidentales Darwini nostri solem orientem primus omnium salutavit, arbitratus idem doctrinam illam de formarum variarum origine causam aliquam primam postulare, et fidei de numine quodam, quod omnia creaverit gubernetque, esse consentaneum. Viro tanto utinam contingat ut opus illud ingens quod Americae Borealis Florae Groom, 4£50—Mathematics: Norris, £403. accuratius describendae olim dedicavit, ad exitum felic quando perducat. Illum interim, qui scientiam tam suis laboribus, sua vita, tam diu illustravit, usque senectutem, ut poeta noster ait, ‘vitae innocentis florem gerens,’—illum, inquam, his saltem laudis saltem honoris corolla, libenter coronamus. Plurimos in annos Academiae coronam illustrio Florae sacerdos venerabilis, ASA GRAY. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS, - THE Yournal of Botany for. May contains articles :—Angolan Scitaminez, by Mr. H. N. Ric and allies of Ranunculus Flammula, by Mr. Che Notes on British Characeze for 1886, by Mess Groves.—The progress of botany in Japan, Dickins.—Conclusion of the Rev. Mr. Purchas’: for South Derbyshire. wee In the number for June Mr. E. M. Holm figures two species of seaweed new to Britain, Zc and Z. ixsignis.—There are also papers on ¢ r by Baron von Miiller and Mr. J. G. Baker; — Potamogeton, by Mr. A. Fryer; on plants of N rt land, by Mr. F. J. Hanbury and Rev. E. S. Ma Chinese ferns, by Mr. J. G. Baker; and on Aus of Potamogeton, by Mr. A. Bennett. 7 Sees SOCIETIES AND ACADE)D LONDON. Royal Society, June 16.—‘*‘ Abstract of upon Rabies.” By G. F. Dowdeswell. = The first experiments made by inoculation of rabid street dogs, during the outbreak of the « all failed to produce infection, thus confirmin: uncertainty of the result of the bite of a rabi Subsequently, adopting the methods M. Pasteur, it was found :— i bag (1) That the virus of rabies in the lower hydrophobia in man resides in the cerebro-sj and in the peripheral nerves, and is not confined to t secretion, as previously believed, nor is even as or as actively virulent in it as it is in the nervous ti: (2) That inoculation of a portion of the nervous rabid animal upon the brain of another by t infective rabies or lyssa, much more certainly, shorter incubation period, than by subcutan | the same substance ; but that the disease is id in both cases. j (3) That the virulence of ‘street rabies” is and ultimately becomes remarkably constant by p a series of rabbits, in which animals the sympto different from those in others, and which are as typical, being essentially paralytic, but th: extent is always present in this disease in d id lower animals, and that there is no constant : the so-termed “‘dumb” and ‘‘ furious” rabies animal, the difference consisting in the prepe paralytic or other symptoms. (4) That the tissues of an infected animal do usually become infective till towards the close . period. ree, (5) That of a large number of drugs th germicides and those which act specifically spinal system, including those most esteemed : of rabies and hydrophobia, none have’any n modifying the result of infection in the rabbit. (6) Lastly, that with respect to the me against infection by a series of inoculations with advocated and practised by M. Pasteur, th with the rabbit, and that his recent ‘rapid method of inoculation is liable itself to produ that with the dog the natural refractoriness of this ar tion with rabies by any method of inoculation, isso exceedingly difficult to determine the effect of rel prophylactic measures upon it ; and that with man the of the treatment must determine its effects. ae NATURE 19! al Society, June 11.—Mr. Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S., dent, in the chair.—A number of Puluj and other m-tubes were exhibited by Dr. Warren De la Rue. The uj tubes consisted of a phosphorescent lamp, and radiometers phosphorescent vanes and mica disks painted with phos- substances. The other tubes contained different jorescent minerals, such as magnesium carbonate, calcium and Iceland spar. When illumined by a Jarge induction- beautiful colour-effects were produced.—The following were then read :—Note on beams fixed at the ends, by Ayrton and Perry. This paper contains a simple method ing problems relating to horizontal beams with vertical and fixed at both ends. The curve of bending-moment given distribution of load is first plotted, supposing the supported” at the ends, and the constant ¢, by which rdinates of this curve exceed those of the true curye, is mined from the condition that the angle between the end ns must be nought. If M is the bending-moment at a mn, I the amount of inertia of the section about its neutral , and E Young’s modulus of elasticity for the material, then is the curvature of the beam at that section. If O O’ is a rt length of the beam, the angle between the originally rallel sections at O and O’ is a .O O%. Hence, if the be divided into a great number of parts, and the values of aI determined at the middle of each, then 24 .00'=0 OSs ors ta) E is supposed constant. But M=m-c, where m is ‘bending-moment at the same ‘section, supp sing the ends rte a re as 0, Rcd. Wei I I Wt p28 (2) Ca a are ve “The following rule results: Knowing m and I at every point, divide ‘the beam into any number of equal parts, find 7 at the middle of each part, and take their sum ; this gives the numerator of (2). Find rat the middle of each part, their sum . b hier the denominator of (2). From this c is determined. ‘Diminish all the ordinates of the m diagram by c, and we have the diagram of bending-moment for a beam fixed at both ends, with any ‘assumed distribution of load and variation of cross- section. Particular cases are ‘worked out in fall. Numerous drawings made by students of Finsbury Technical College were exhibited, showing applications of the method to different distri butions of loading.—Note on Messrs. Vaschy and Touanne’s method of comparing mutual induction with capacity, by Prof. -G. C. Foster. In November last the author described a method | of comparing the mutual induction of two coils with the capacity | of a condenser. Since then he has found that a very similar method was used by Messrs. Vaschy and Touanne in July 1886, and published in the Zvectrician the following month. The formule are identical, and the difference consists in inter- changing the galvanometer and the variable resistance £. ‘Messrs. Vaschy and Touanne’s arrangement has the advantage that the resistance of the secondary coil need not be known. _ Prof. Foster’s method had been used by one of his students (Mr. Draper) about two years‘ago, but priority in publication belongs to Messrs. Vaschy and Touanne.—Prof. Perry asked the _meeting for suggestions to explain why a strip of steel twisted about its longitudinal axis at a red heat, and allowed to cool, tends: to untwist when under tension, and for a formula to calculate the amount.—A note on magnetic resistance by Profs. Ayrton and Perry was postponed. _ Geological Society, June 8.—Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communications were read :—A revision of the Echinoidea from the Australian Ter- tiaries, by Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S. After calling atten- tion to a previous paper by himself published in the Society’s Journal for 1877, and to additions to the fauna made by Prof. R. Tate and Prof. McCoy, the author proceeded to give notes on the characters, relations, and nomenclature of 29 species of Echinoidea. A few notes were added on the relations between this fauna and that now inhabiting the Australian seas, also on the connexions with the Tertiary Echinoidea of New Zealand, Sind, &c.—On the lower part of the Upper Cretaceous series in West Suffolk and Norfolk, by Mr. A. J. Jukes-Brown, and Mr. W. Hill. The district described in this paper is that of West Suffolk and Norfolk, and is one which has never been thoroughly examined ; for no one has yet attempted to trace the beds and zonal divisions which are found at Cambridge through the tract of country which lies between Newmarket and Hunstanton. Until this was done the Hunstanton section could not be corre- lated definitely with that of the neighbourhood of Cambridge. It was the authors’ endeavour to accomplish this, and the follow- ing is an outline of the results obtained by them. The paper was divided into six parts: (1) stratigraphical, (2) paleontological, (3) microscopical, (4) chemical analyses, (5) faults and alteration of strike, (6) summary and inferences, In the four first parts separate lines of argument were followed, and each led to the same set of conclusions. The chief interest of the paper pro- bably centres inthe gault, and its relations to the chalk marl and the red chalk. Quite recently the very existence of gault in Norfolk has been disputed, but the authors think the facts they adduce and the fossils they have found will decide that point. The gault at Stoke Ferry is about 60 feet thick, and in the outlier at Muzzle Farm Ammonites interruptus occurs plentifully in the form of clay-casts with the inner whorls phosphatized. At Roydon a boring was made which showed the gault to be about 20 feet thick, the lower part being a dark blue clay, above which were two bands of limestone inclosing a layer of red marl, and the upper 10 feet were soft gray marl ; the limestones contained Amm. rostratus, Amm. lautus, Inoceramus sulcatus, and Lnoc. concentricus (?), while the marls above contained Belemnites minimus in abundance. At Dersingham another boring was made which proved the gray marl (2 feet) to overlie hard yellow marl, passing down into red marl which rests on Carstone. The gray marl thins out northward, and as the red marl occupies the position of the red chalk, the authors believe them to be on the same horizon, an inference confirmed by the presence of gault zimmonites in the red chalk. Another point of importance is the increasingly calcareous nature of the gault as it is followed northward through Norfolk. ‘This was regarded as ‘evidence of passing away from the land supplying inorganic matter, and approaching what was then a deeper part of the sea; this infer- ence is borne out by the microscopical evidence. As regards the chalk marl, it also becomes more calcareous : at Stoke it is still over 70 feet thick, and its base is a glauconitic marl which can be traced to Shouldham and Marham, but beyond this the base is a hard chalk or limestone, whichis conspicuous near Grimston and Roydon, and passes, as the authors believe, into the so- called ‘‘ sponge bed” at Hunstanton. The Totternhoe stone is traced through Norfolk, but is thin at Hunstanton (2 feet) ; its existence, however, enables the limits of the chalk marl to be defined, with the result that some 13 feet of the hard chalk at Hunstanton must be referred to that subdivision, The gray chalk also thins northward, and from go feet near Cambridge is reduced to about 30 at Hunstanton. The Belemnite-marls are traceable in Norfolk, but either thin out or are replaced by hard white chalk near Heacham. The Melbourn rock is continuous, and maintains similar characters throughout. The total diminution in the thickness of lower chalk is from 170 feet at Newmarket to 55 feet at Hunstanton, viz. 115 feet. An endeavour was made to estimate the amount and extent of gault removed by erosion from Arlesey and Stoke Ferry. —On some occurrences of Piedmontite-schist in Japan, by Mr. B. Koté. Communicated by Mr. Frank Rutley. Mathematical Society, June 9.— Sir James Cockle, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The President announced that the Council had awarded the second De Morgan Medal to Prof. Sylvester, F.R.S.—The following communications were made : —Note on the linear covariants of a binary quintic, by A. Buch- heim.—The motion of a sphere in a viscous liquid, by A. B. Basset (the method ofsolution was by definite integrals analogous to Fourier’s solution of equations determining the propagation of heat).—On the reversion of series in connexion with recipro- cants, by Capt. Macmahon, R.A.—Explanation of illustrations 192 NATURE [une 23. 188 accompanying a preliminary note on diameters of cubics, by ‘J. J. Walker, F.R.S. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, June 13.—M. Janssen in the chair. —On the life and labours of M. Laguerre, Member of the Section for Geometry, by M. Poincaré. A brief sketch is given of the important discoveries made, especially in pure geometry, by this distinguished mathematician, who was born at Bar-le- Duc on April 9, 1834, and died there on August 14, 1886.— General method for the determination of the constant of aberra- tion, by M. M. Loewy. By means of the table published in the Comptes rendus for May 23, the author has determined the two azimuths relative to the horizontal direction of the terrestrial movement. The solution of this problem affords a good illus- tration of the easy application of the new method, as well as the high degree of accuracy of which it is capable.—Note on the earthy phosphates, by M. Berthelot. Some practical remarks are offered in connexion with M. Joly’s recent communi- cation on the earthy phosphates. While confirming the numerical data of previous thermo-chemical studies, they extend and in some respects modify their application.—Note on the residuums resulting from the action of the acids on the alloys of the metals in association with platina, by M. H. Debray. In a previous communication it was shown that the common metals, such as tin, zinc, lead, alloyed with a small quantity of the metals of platina, when heated with an acid capable of dis- solving the common metal yield either the metal of platina in the crystalline state, or perfectly distinct alloys, or, lastly, residuums containing a considerable portion of water and oxygen. Here it is shown that these residuums even contain nitrogen when the acid employed is nitric acid.—Figures in relief representing the successive attitudes of a pigeon on the wing ; disposition of these figures on a zootrope, by M. Marey. By the method already described and applied to other birds, theauthor here represents the flight of a pigeon in eleven successive attitudes taken at equi- distant phases in a single revolution of the wing. The zootrope on which these phases are reproduced is an instrument derived from Plateau’s phenakistiscope, which reflects the continuous flight of a bird. The large number of the images and the slow rotation of the instrument reproduce the apparent movements so gradually that the eye is easily able to follow them in all their shifting phases. The bronze figures are painted on a white ground, the illusion being completed by appropriate tints im- parted to the bill, feet, and eyes. —‘‘ The Pygmies of the Ancients in the light of Modern Science,” by M. A. de Quatrefages. On presenting to the Academy the work bearing the above title, the author remarks that, although now found only in scattered groups everywhere oppressed or encroached upon by larger and stronger races, the dwarf Negrito peoples existed in compact bodies forming the bulk of the population in many parts of Africa, Southern Asia, and the Eastern Archipelago. The Akkas, discovered by Schweinfurth south of the Monbuttu country, formerly reached as far north as the parallel of Khartoum, and were known by this name to the ancient Egyptians, Mariette having found it inscribed under a pygmy sculptured on a monu- ment dating from the old empire. The Negritoes of Malaysia and Melanesia, characterized by their low stature and a relative degree of trachycephaly, are quite distinct from the Papuans of the same region, and this distinction is now generally recognized by anthropologists. The Asiatic pygmies described by the ancients are represented by these eastern Negritoes, just as the African pygmies of Herodotus and Pliny were the ancestors of the Negrilloes still surviving in many parts of Africa. In stature the modern pygmies range from 1°507 (various tribes in the Malay Peninsula) down to 1°300 metre (the Batwas recently discovered by Dr. Wolff in the Congo Basin).— Observations of the Borrelly planet made at the Observatory of Algiers, by M. Trépied.—Observations of the new planet, No. 267, discovered at Nice on May 27, by M. Charlois.—On a new form of electrometer, by M. J. Carpentier. The apparatus here described has been prepared especially with a view to industrial appliances. It is distinguished by its exceptional qualities of aperiodicity, by which its readings are rendered perfectly sure and rapid.—Researches on the trimetallic phos- phates, by M. A. Joly. Here are studied the sodico-strontianic and sodico-barytic phosphates and arseniates, which are specially interesting owing to the readiness with which they are formed in the crystalline state with a considerable liberation of heat, and under conditions analogous to those yielding the ammoniaco- magnesian phosphate.—On the metallic vanadates, by M..A. dry process, the author here shows that many metallic such as those of magnesia, lime, nickel, cobalt, zinc, cop lead, and silver, may also be produced by the wet process. crystallized vanadates thus obtained present, like the compositions analogous to those of the alkaline vanade the hydrochlorates of chlorides, by M. Engel. This pa: more especially with the hydrochlorate of perchloride o On the composition of different butters, by M. E. The experiments made by the author with butters from parts of France show that, contrary to the generally a opinion, the quality of this article does not depend so the method of preparation as on the breed of cattle « food, the character of the pastures—that is to say, the constitution of the soil—the influence of the seasons, t the milk, &c. Ditte. Having already prepared a number of vanadates oy BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECE Journal of the Chemical Society, June ere ee Jackson). ings of the Society for Psychical Research, riibner).—J Royal Microscopical Society, June (Williams pee ts €).— Société Impér.ale des Naturalistes de Moscou, No. 2 (Moscow). zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1887, No. 5 ( h, cords of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xx. Part 2,—The Th of the Mississippi : P. Giles.—A Century of Electricity: T. C. M (Macmillan).—Atlas de la Description Physique de la République Deux. Section, Mammiféres: Dr. H. Burmeister and E. Daireaux Aires).—Metal Plate Work: C. T. Millis (Spon).—Animal al Biology Morgan (Rivingtons) —My Hundred Swiss Flowers: M. A. —Dinocerata, an Extinct Order of Gigantic Mammals: Prof. i) (Washington).—Introductory Text-book of Physical Geo Edition: D. Page (Blackwood).—On Light (Nature Series): Stokes (Macmillan).—Manchester Microscopical Society, Tran Annual Report, 1886.—Geodatische Arbeiten, v. Heft; and sta tioner, iv. Heft (Kristiania).—The Nature of Fever: Dr. D. (Macmilian),—Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts New Series, vol. xiv., Part x (Boston).—Natural History Tra Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle-u on-Tyne, vol. ix. (Williams and Norgate).—Bulletin de la Société Imperiale dex Ba de Moscou, 1886, No. 3 (Moscou). CONTENTS, a The Agricultural Pests of India. . . cosh Cell-Division in Animals. PY Rev. Dr. L. faded 7 Micin; Sy. oo re Paced Our Book Shelf :— Lindsay : ‘‘ The Climatic Treatment of Consumption ’ Fitch and Smith : ‘‘ Illustrations of the British Flora ” Knollys : ‘‘ Sketches of LifeinJapan”...... Letters to the Editor :— : Thought without Words.—Dr. George I. Rea, F.R.S.; Joseph John Murphy ;}Arthur Ebbe A. Grenfell ; Arthur Nicols . . . Two Friends.—M. C, F ee eae eae The Use of Flowers by Birds. —William White . Names for Electric Units of Self-Induction and Co ductivity—Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S.. . Units of Weight, Mass, and Force.—Rev, John Lock ; Prof. Alexander Macfarlane .. , ee The New Degrees at Cambridge. —Outis 33s aa “* After-Glows ” at Helensburgh. —Robert BS Scott, F.R.S.; Lewis P. Muirhead Zirconia, Lewis Wright... 4 s5es ieee The Jubilee, II. Atlantic Weather Charts ncn teas ; ‘ A Review of Lighthouse Work and Economy in United Kingdom during the Past Fifty bisa By J. Kenward .. The Observatories at Oxford and Cambridge . Notes 0 8 00) eee i ee Our Astronomical Column :— fe The Great Southern Comet, 1887a@ .... cones The Companion of Sirius . . sate A Short Method of Computing Refisetions for Zenith Distances . . Ete Astronomical Phenomena for the "Week 18 June 26—July2..... The Zoological Society of London .. . University and Educational Intelligence Scientific Serials Societies and Academies . . ae Books, Pamphlets, and Serials "Received . ery tS + ee 6.8 ee = © © 8 8 © © whey ia) oe te Fs 4 r NATURE 193 ‘THURSDAY, JUNE 30, 1887. FORESTRY. School of Forestry in Germany, with Addenda relating _ toa desiderated British National School of Forestry. _ By John Croumbie Brown, LL.D. (Edinburgh: Oliver _ and Boyd ; London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1887.) ILVER and gold have I not ; but what I have I am prepared to give.” This is what the author tells ‘us towards the end of the present volume, and there can be no doubt that he has fully acted up to his promise. He has now presented the public with what appears to be the fifteenth volume on subjects of forestry, and he offers to publish some thirty additional volumes if the necessary inducement is held out. Surely Dr. Brown _ must be extremely philanthropic, or else the publishing of books is considerably cheaper than we have so far _ believed it to be. These works, published and unpub- lished, deal with forest subjects in almost every known country of the earth, and we wonder how Dr. Brown has managed to collect all the information. The above- mentioned offer seems to have been made in succession to a variety of bodies, but none of them have availed themselves of it, and the world at large must, for the present, be satisfied with the information contained in the fifteen volumes which have so far passed through the press. That; however, extends over a considerable range, including information regarding forests and schools of forestry in Germany, France, Spain, Norway, Russia, and the Cape ; on modern forest economy ; the effects of forests on humidity of climate; hydrology of South Africa, &c., &c. Now, it appears to us either that Dr. Brown’s works are deficient in interest, or that his countrymen are very ungrateful in not availing them- selves of his handsome offer. If we follow the dictates of common-sense, we must, it seems, decide in favour of the former alternative. We hear occasionally of a Parliamentary Committee which considers “whether, by the establishment of a forest school, or otherwise, our woodlands could berendered more remunerative” ; or a feeble effort is made to start a National British Forest School in Edinburgh ; or a lan- guishing controversy turns up, whether the junior officers of the Indian Forest Department should be educated in France, Germany, or at home. But on the whole these matters do not excite much curiosity or interest. Parlia- mentary Committees on the subject die away without making any proposals beyond suggesting the re-appoint- ment of a similar Committee in the next Parliament, which event may come to pass if members have no bigger game to hunt; Edinburgh is still without its forest school, and a forestry branch has actually been added to the Royal Indian Engineering College at Cooper’s Hill, for the education of Indian forest officers, without many people being aware of the fact. The explanation of all this indifference is that even the perseverance of Dr. Brown has not yet succeeded in convincing Englishmen of the importance of afforestation. The mere fact that it is of importance in various Continental countries and in several British dependencies is not sufficient to show that VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 922. _ the same holds good in these islands, and it will be as _ well to say something more on this subject. Forests are, in the economy of Nature and of man, of direct and indirect value: the former through their products, and the latter through their influence upon climate, the regulation of the water-supply, the healthi- ness of a country, and allied phenomena. These islands are rich in iron ore, coal, and peat, wherewith to produce more iron than is required by the country, and to render the question of firewood of very subordinate importance. What is more, they are so situated that the importation of wood and other forest-produce is com- paratively easy and cheap, owing to their sea-bound position, and a multitude of railways and other means of communication scattered over the country. At any rate, we have received, so far, as much timber as we require, and at a lower rate than it has been possible to produce it at home. Whether this state of things will last for ever is a different question; but it rests with us to initiate measures in our dependencies (such as Canada) which will secure us against a timber famine as long as” the British Navy rules the sea. After all, the whole question turns on this point, and the decline of the British Navy would raise other issues of such immense importance, that the question of the future timber-supply of this country may well be added without producing a nightmare in even the most imaginative mind. Again, in respect of the indirect effects of forests, Englishmen may rest assured that the absence of wood- lands will not ruin their country. The climate and rainfall of these islands are principally governed by their geographical position. Strong moist air-currents come to us direct from the sea, and, compared with their effects, those of forests, even if 20 per cent. of the total area of the United Kingdom were covered with them, would be found comparatively small. Nor need we cry for forests on account of the general regulation of moisture ; because, thanks to an ample rainfall and a comparatively moist state of the atmosphere, our waste lands are generally covered with heath, mosses, and other growth, which act as powerful retainers of moisture. To add a crop of trees to these would make comparatively little difference, especially as afforestation would, in many cases, have to be accompanied by the draining of the soil. In some respects, however, an increase of our wood- lands might be highly beneficial. They would afford protection not only to cattle and birds (the latter being the great destroyers of noxious insects), but also to agri- cultural lands which are at present exposed to strong sea breezes. A judicious distribution of woodlands along the coasts (especially the western) of these islands would no doubt be followed by beneficial results in this respect. Again, our waste lands (occupying upwards of 40,000 square miles, equal to 34 per cent of the total area), might be made more remunerative than they are at present, and their afforestation would provide a very considerable amount of work, not only by the creation and subsequent management and working of the forests, but also by the springing up of a variety of industries dependent on the_ existence and sustained yield of woodlands. We take this opportunity to recommend the subject to the careful attention of those who are about to legislate once more on K 194 NATURE [ ¥une 30, 188; the Irish land question. Experience has shown that the climate of a considerable portion of Ireland (especially in the coast districts) is not sufficiently favourable to produce crops which will permanently support the cultivator and yield large'rents to the owners of the soil. In such cases the afforestation of surplus lands (that is to say, lands not required for agricultural operations) might prove a useful auxiliary in the solution of the Irish land question, by providing additional work which would enable the small cultivator to earn a day’s wages whenever his presence was not required on his holding. Instead of sitting idle during a good portion of the winter, he could appreciably augment his income (and capacity to pay rent), without being obliged to leave his home in search of distant work However, we must return to Dr. Brown. Our author has in the book under notice placed before the few who may be interested in the question, a fair account of how forest schools are arranged in Germany, the country where forest science has attained its highest development. The arrangement of studies at the several schools is given in considerable detail, and the book shows the high standard of education of German forest officers. Some of the schools are independent institutions situated in or near extensive forests, while others form part of Universities or technical Colleges. In the former case the education takes generally a more practical turn, while under the latter arrangement a higher standard of general education is likely to be secured. Dr. Brown is in favour of attaching the desired British forest school to a Uni- versity or other similar educational establishment. In our opinion the decision on this point should depend on the class of men whom it is desired to educate. The ordinary foresters required by British landowners for the management of their woodlands are men who could not be enrolled as members of a University College ; and their education must be of a more simple description, with a strong practical tendency. But men who are to join the general administration of India should attain a high standard of education, and a forest school for their benefit might well be attached to a University or to a high-class College. Unless such men are fit to take their proper place amongst the rest of the governing staff of the country, they will not be able to do justice to the work which will be intrusted to them on their arrival in India. Both wants cannot be met by one set of men. The employment of men who have merely had a practical training might be disastrous to the Indian forests. On the other hand, British landowners would decline to receive men who, in consequence of a College edu- cation, would be above the ordinary work of a British forester, not to mention the fact that such men would expect higher rates of pay than the owners of woodlands would be willing to give them. In short, the course of studies to be followed by each of these two classes of men must be arranged on different lines. In either case, however, a tract of well-managed woodlands should be situated close to the seat of the school. To do without such a training-ground would be equivalent to training medical men without a hospital ready at hand. On this point we are decidedly at issue with Dr. Brown, who, \in declaring such a school-forest unneces- sary, has, in our opinion, only proved that he has failed | to grasp the essential requirements of a forester’s te ia At the same time, the reader of Dr. Brown’s books ca help wondering at the marvellous industry employe the venerable author in the compilation of his va works on Continental forest schools. Such energy devotion are deserving of a better reward than th likely to meet with, owing to the apathy on forest | ) tions existing in this country, 5 OBSERVATIONS AT GODTHAAB. = Observations Internationales Polaires, 1882-83. — dition Danoise: Observations faites a come ‘s la direction de Adam Paulsen.” (Copenhague, 188 4 Be part of the publications of the Meteorolog Institute of Denmark deals with the met a i tidal, and other observations made in 1882-83, by Danish Arctic Expedition at Godthaab (64° 11’ N. » 51° 44’ W. long.). The pages devoted to meteoro present us with detailed tabular views of the hoi observations of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, and the direction and velocity of the w These are prefaced by an interesting and full disc of the atmospheric pressure (illustrated with 186. press and wind charts of Greenland), which includes a val comparison of the observations of that year with thos all the stations since 1866. _ ; In summer the mean lowest temperature, 38” 2: at 2 a.m. and the highest, 4371, at 2 p.m., the dai rr being thus 4°°9. On the other hand, the mean .d range of temperature is extremely small in winter, ow to the proximity of Godthaab to the Arctic circle. Thus highest and lowest hourly temperatures were respectit in December, 19°°5 at 10 a.m. and 18”0 at 10 pam. ; January, 15°°1 at 5 p.m. and 14" Iat I am.; and February 4°°4 at 6 p.m. and 3°7 at 3 pm. Th February the mean warmest and coldest hour of ‘the: show a difference of only 07, and are only three he apart from each other. Quite different is the amour the daily range of temperature deduced from the max and minima of the month; in February the mean of the highest was 9°o and of the lowest 03, the differe being 8°7. In these months the changes of temperat are but little influenced by the sun, being st gether occasioned by the passage of the cyclones | anticyclones. It is this practical elimination of the: n ence of the sun which gives a peculiar value to temperature and hygrometric observations of such s tions when any serious attempt is made to assign to t 2 important elements the parts they play in the histor storms. The mean annual temperature c S the twenty-four hourly observations is only abou tenth of a degree lower than that from the dai aX and minima. In all the months the agreement As ( cle the greatest difference being o”5 in February 2 August ; and in seven of the months the dif a not exceed o'r. The results giving the variations in the hourly v of the wind are interesting as showing that such diur variation as may exist will require a number of _ observations to show it clearly, this periodicity | masked in an unusual degree by the high winds w accompany the low-pressure systems of Greenland. | | x Be Fs ata é NATURE 195 - With eighteen years’ observations (1866-83) at Ivigtut, haa Godthaab, and Jacobshavn, and nine years’ (1875-83) at _ Upernivik, we can now present, with an approximate correctness not hitherto attainable, the distribution of "pressure over Greenland during the months of the year. The following mean pressures, at 32° and sea-level, give ‘the highest and lowest, with the months of their Lowest. Year. Inches. Inches. 29°398 in January. 29°666 684 Godthaab th be 445 33 ; acobshavn "898 ” "565 ” ‘749 pernivik ‘981 in April. "603 ”» ‘753 Thus in Greenland pressure increases with latitude. ‘The difference between the extreme south and north is in January 0205 inch, and in spring 0°154 inch ; but the dif- ference in summer is small, being in July custly o'008 inch. The above mean of January at Ivigtut 29°398 inches, and for the same month at Stykkisholm in the north-west of Iceland 29°396 inches, are, so far as known, the lowest ‘mean monthly pressures anywhere yet observed in the northern. hemisphere ; and it is interesting to note that it _ is in the region immediately to the south and south-west of these places that a very large number of our conch storms have their origin. Attention is forcibly drawn by the 186 charts of pres- sure and wind to the remarkable fact that the depression areas of Greenland appear to travel from north to south. An extension of the area charted would doubtless show that while in many cases these areas travel northwards st in a considerable number of cases this direction is more apparent than real, It is, however, abundantly evident that Greenland exerts an important influence on our. Atlantic storms that remains still to be investigated. The most elaborate part of the paper is the discussion -of the diurnal curves of pressure from the hourly observa- tions. The curve for the year exhibits the two usual maxima at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m., and the two minima at 2a.m. and I p.m., the morning minimum and the evening maximum being respectively the greater, and these fea- tures of the curves are, with one exception, reproduced in the curves for the months. tell their story more clearly if we eliminate the more prominent irregularities attaching to means of one year only, by bloxaming the hourly means, by taking for the hourly means of each month means calculated from that month, the month immediately preceding, and that imme- diately following it. In ‘these new mean hourly values the morning greatly exceeds the evening maximum in February, March, and April, whereas in every other month the reverse holds good, and that in a very pro- nounced degree. On the other hand, the morning greatly exceeds the afternoon minimum. in each month of the year. From the relations the results show to those for places in similar situations in lower latitudes, we may conclude that unusual care has been taken in securing for _ the barometer a position where it was subject to only a very small daily change of temperature. It is absolutely necessary that this condition should be attended to, if _ Observations are to be of any use at all in the discussion of the important question of the horary. variations of _ pressure in high latitudes. Since the variations dealt with The results will be made to’ seldom exceed o’o!o inch, and are generally much less, it is evident that the inquiry is for these regions a refined one ; hence it is essential that the attached thermometer should represent the temperature of the whole instrument towithin 1° F. It is the neglect of this point that vitiates several series of horary barometric observations in the Arctic regions. Over the open sea in high latitudes during the summer months, where the sun either does not set, or only fora brief interval, the diurnal curve of pressure differs essen- tially from the above. The observations made by the Challenger Expedition in the Antarctic Ocean, and those made by the Norwegian Expedition in the north of the Atlantic, show only one maximum and one minimum in the day, the maximum occurring during the day and the minimum during the night. This peculiar curve is re- . stricted to the open sea of high latitudes. Director Paulsen is inclined to the opinion that the diurnal varia- tion of pressure at Godthaab is caused not so much by local variations of temperature and humidity as by trans- missions from lower latitudes of their diurnal variations of pressure. In this opinion we to some extent concur, it being probable that some of the more prominent features of these daily curves of pressure are the results of vast quasi-tidal movements communicated through the higher regions of the atmosphere, in which the space traversed by the individual aérial molecules is not necessarily great. OUR BOOK SHELF. Essays and Addresses. By the Rev. James M. Wilson, M.A. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1887.) In these “Essays and Addresses” Mr. Wilson deals chiefly with problems connected with religion and morality, and his main object seems to be to show that theological and ethical principles, properly interpreted, are supported, instead of being contradicted, by scientific ideas. The book is evidently the result of much inde- pendent reflection. Mr. Wilson tries to grapple with no intellectual difficulty which he has not thoroughly examined, and in all his statements of scientific doctrine he is scrupulously exact. He refers to science in so many aspects that much of what he has to say may be studied with interest even by readers who do not feel that his arguments with regard to such subjects as “ Miracles” and “ Christian Evidences” are perfectly conclusive. Introductory Text-book of Physical Geography. By the late David Page, LL.D., F.G.S. Twelfth Edition. (Edinburgh and London: W. Blackwood and Sons,. 1887.) THIS book was originally published about twenty-five years ago, and has done good service in many schools and colleges. After the author’s death it was brought up to date by Dr. Charles Lapworth, who, besides making a number of minor corrections and additions, contributed a summary of those results of the Chad/enger Expedition which had reference to the depths, deposits, and tem- perature of the ocean; an account of British storms; a description of the biological regions of the earth; and a short sketch of Prof. Huxley’s arrangement of the human family. In the present edition Dr. Lapworth has again sought to bring ‘the work abreast of scientific know- ledge, introducing new matter relating to geology and petrography, meteorology and climatology, and the dis- tribution o animals and plants. On the latter subject he has obtained from Prof. D’Arcy Thompson an excellent summary of recent biological research and theory. The 196 NATURE [¥une 30, 1887 — value of the book has also been increased by the insertion of several new maps illustrative of the astronomical and meteorological sections. Longman’s New Geographical Reader. Standard VII. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1887.) Tuis “ Reader” contains lessons on the ocean, currents» tides, the planetary system, and phases of the moon. The subjects are of more scientific interest than those treated in most books on geography, and are arranged in a progressive and readable form. The book is divided into sixty lessons, each being followed by a list of some of the words contained in it, with their meanings. In the chapters on the ocean the subjects are well selected, and the various depths and currents are illustrated by maps. In the lesson on the tides the differential action of the sun and moon on the water of the earth should have been mentioned. The diagram illustrating neap tides has one bad point, the sun being shown as shining on a part of the moon which is turned away from it. In the diagram on page 231, which represents the sun as seen in full daylight from the surface of the moon, the sun is shown with its corona. The fact of the sun being seen from the moon, which has no atmosphere, would not make the corona visible, but would only tend to intensify the light of the sun and the corona proportionally. It is a pity that this illustration should have been put in without any explanation whatever. The chapters on the inhabitants of the sea and methods of catching them are very interesting ; also the voyages to the Arctic and Antarctic regions, An appendix is added which contains a summary of the whole book. LEITERS: TO\THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] The New Degrees at Cambridge, THE letter of ‘*Outis” in yesterday’s number of NATURE (p. 175) is likely, I fear, to convey a false impression as to the new degrees of Doctor of Science and Doctor of Letters, which, by the way, were instituted, for good or for evil, by the Commis- sioners, and not by any ‘‘dominant body in the University.” It is true that Doctors in the new faculty take precedence after Doctors in Medicine just as Doctors in Medicine take precedence after Doctors in Law, and Doctors in Law after Doctors in Divinity, but this distinction is only of importance when a pro- cession has to be marshalled ; to all intents and purposes the academic rank of all Doctors is the same. If it be true, as I believe it is, that the standard for admis- sion to the regular degree of Doctor in Science is only “‘ rather less than that required for admission to the Royal Society,” and that the standard for Doctor in Letters is much the same, it follows that the standard for such degrees is much higher than that for any other Doctorate in the University, while that for Doctor in Law is notoriously the lowest of all. Since the new degrees were instituted the Council has usually offered the new degrees to those persons selected as recipients of honorary degrees whose claims were essentially scientific or literary, while it has continued to give the honorary LL.D. to persons whose distinction was of a less academic kind. This may have been wise or unwise, but the Council had cer- tainly no idea that in what they were doing they were offering to men of science an honour of a lower grade than that to which they had been accustomed. It is true that, fearing perhaps that - greater ratio. the less familiar title might at first be not so well understood - outside the University, they began by offering to the recipients the choice of the degree of LL.D. or of Litt.D. or Sc.D., as the case might be ; but I believe that in all cases those who had the choice preferred the literary or scientific degree. es No doubt these degrees, like that of LL.D., have been and will continue to be given to men of very different degrees of eminence. It is not every year that the University has the opportunity of enrolling among its honorary graduates a man like Asa Gray ; but I think that, even if he is excluded, the roll of our honorary Doctors in Science and Letters need not fear comparison with that of the honorary Doctors in Law who have received their degrees within the same period. — Cambridge, June 24. Weight, Mass, and Force. THE position taken up by ‘‘P.G.T.” and some ot in the discussion on the proper use of the words ‘‘ weight ” and ‘mass ” is similar to that assumed by an astronomer coming for- ward to tell us that we have been calling the stars by their wre names. ‘gta The following extract from an American technical journal is submitted to the consideration of ‘‘P. G. T.,” Mr. Hayward, and Mr. Alfred Lodge, in order that they should point out for our benefit where they consider the dynamical language is erroneous, and that they should translate it into the terminology necessa: in their opinion to make it correct by using the mathematical terminology of poundals, dynes, moms, poundems, &c. ¢ the undoubted immigration of certain Australian species into New Zealand, a distance of 1200 miles. Mr. Stainton adduced the instance of Margarodes unionalis, which isa South European insect, feeding on the olive, yet is occasionally found in Britain. - —Mr. Meyrick also made some observations on the distribution of the insect fauna in the various regions of Australia: he said that it appeared to be more or less different in certain defined * portions of the continent, which might be roughly regarded ag oases in the midst of desert districts: all his observations, how- ever, had tended to upset Mr. Wallace’s theory that Eastern and Western Australia were originally separated, as the gradations in the insect fauna from east to west were quite gradual; in Western Australia the Tineina were the only group well repre- sented by peculiar endemic forms.—Mr. Pascoe read a paper on the genus Byrsops, a genus of Curculionida.—The President announced that Lord Walsingham’s collection of Lepidoptera and larvee, recently presented to the nation, would be exhibited in the Hall at the Natural History Museum, South Kensington, until the end of June. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, June 20.—M. Janssen in the chair. —On the analytic theory of heat, by M. H. Poincaré. An attempt is here made to determine more rigorously than has hitherto been possible the principles from which are deduced the general laws of the analytical theory of heat in the case of any solid body whatever.—On the employment of crushers (‘‘ mano- metres a écrasement”’) in measuring the pressures developed by explosive substances, by MM. Sarrau and Vieille. Continuing their studies on this subject, the authors here propose by means of the crusher to determine more especially the maximum pres- sure produced by an explosive under given conditions.—Fresh materials bearing on the relations which exist. between the chemical and mechanical work of the muscular tissue, by M. A. Chauveau, with the assistance of M. Kaufmann. In continua- tion of previous papers, the author here deals with the nutritive and respiratory activity of the muscles which act physiologically without producing any mechanical work.—On collisions at sea, by M. Jurien de la Graviere. In connexion with the increasing number of disasters caused by preventable collisions, attention is directed to the practical measures recently proposed at various conferences by M. Riondel. Of these the most important are : (1) that all steamers be required to follow one outward and another homeward route, in order to divide the present single stream of traffic into two parallel streams ; (2) that a maximum vélocity be determined for vessels navigating narrow straits in foggy weather; (3) that the lighting of the high seas be rendered more powerful, and brought more into harmony with present rates of speed ; (4) that international maritime tribunals be established in order to adjudicate between vessels of different nationalities. The latter proposition has already been approved by the United States, and several Governments have consented to take part in'the future International Conference 'to which the whole question must be referred.—Observations on the: Grazac meteorite, by MM. Daubrée and Stanislas Meunier, This méteorite, which fell two years ago, and 'to which M. Carayin- Cachin first drew attention, is of a new carbon type, somewhat analogous to those of Orgueil and of the Cape, but distinguished from them by its general appearance and chemical properties. Its breakage is granular, and in many respects it resembles certain varieties of the oxides of manganese and copper, and the bituminous cinnabar of Idria; density 4°16. This new specimen is all the more remarkable that it belongs to the class of rare and interesting meteorites which in their resemblance to our combustible minerals have suggested indications of biological phenomena beyond the globe. —On the molecular specific heats of gaseous bodies, by M. H. Le Chatelier. Since Dulong and Petit’s discovery of the law of specific heats for solid bodies, numerous attempts have been made to generalize this law, and to extend it to the gases; but the experimental researches of Regnault have shown that at the ordinary temperature there exists no equivalence either between the molecular heats or the atomic heats of the gases. The experiments here described, on the combustion of gaseous mixtures, lead to the same conclusion for high temperatures.—On the calorific conductibility of bismuth in a magnetic field, and on the deviation .of the isothermal lines, by M. Leduc. The discovery of the great increase in the electric resistance of bismuth, when intro- duced into a powerful magnetic field, ‘has ‘led the author to suppose that this field produces in the structure of the metal a > 216 NATURE [Yume 30, 1887 modification, one of the effects of which is the deviation of the equipotential lines. It also occurred to him that this modifica- tion of structure should produce on a calorific flux the same alterations as on an electric current, and the experiments here described have fully confirmed these anticipations.— Application of the electrometer to the study of chemical reactions, by M. E. Bouty. In the author’s last communication the problem was resolved in principle regarding the application of the electro- meter to the study of chemical reactions. Here the subject is illustrated by the example of sulphuric acid and the sulphate of potassa.—On a new regulator of electric light, by M. Létang. The object of this apparatus is to obtain a distinct regulating control by means of a simple contrivance independent of any complicated machinery. The means employed to arrive at this result are based on the employment of a mechanism analogous to that of an ordinary system of electric chimes.—On the man- ganites of potassa, by M. G. Rousseau. The formation has already been described of a manganite of potassa by calcination of the per- manganate at 240° C. But this method is useless for studying the variations of the molecular state of manganous acid combined with potassa under the action of a progressively increasing temperature. Hence the author has had recourse to the dissocia- tion of the manganate of potassa in presence of an alkaline dissolvent. BERLIN. Physical Society, June 10.—Prof. Du _ Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—In connexion with his previous com- munications on the determination of the wave-length of light by the weight of a cube of quartz, Dr. Sommer spoke on the methods of determining the specific weight of bodies, with special re- ference to the method by weighing them in water. After having discussed the earlier methods and experiments of Marck and Lépiney, he gave an account of the methods he.had himself employed in order to do away with the in- fluence which the capillary forces at the surface of the water exert on the wire by which the solid is suspended. He surrounds the wire at the point where it enters the water with a glass tube 5 mm. in width, in which is placed one drop of a mixture of equal parts of olive-oil and benzene. From the lower end of the wire in the distilled water he hangs a tiny tray on which two cubes of quartz are placed. Using a wire o°I mm. in diameter, which he finds gives a result as accurate as weighing in air, he determines the weight of these quartz cubes in water, then pushes one of the cubes off the tray by means of a platinum wire which had -been previously submerged, and weighs again. He then pushes the second cube off the tray and weighs a third time. These three weighings, taken in con- junction with the weight of the tray and cubes in air, yield an exactitude which up to the present time has either not been at- tained at all by hydrostatic methods or only by a laborious and roundabout process. The exactness of this method of determin- ing the specific weight of quartz cubes surpasses that obtained by the use of a piknometer.—The President gave an account of a communication which had been made by Siemens at the last meeting of the Akademie der Wissenschaft. A steel tube 10 cm. long, with perfectly smooth external and internal surfaces and extremely uniform bore, and whose walls are apparently of per- fectly equal thickness at all points, was prepared by the following method, patented by Mannermann in Bemscheid. Two rollers, slightly conical towards their lower ends, are made to rotate in the same direction near each other; a red-hot cylinder of steel is then brought between these cylinders and is at once seized by the rotating cones and is driven upwards. But the mass of steel does not emerge at the top as a solid, but in the form of the hollow steel tube which Siemens laid before the meet- ing. Prof. Neesen gave the following explanation of this striking result : owing to the properties of the glowing steel, the rotating rollers seize upon only the outer layer of the steel cylinder and force this upwards, while at the same time the central parts of the cylinder remain behind. The result is thus exactly the same as is observed in the process of making glass tubes out of glass rods. STOCKHOLM. Royal Academy of Sciences, June 8.—Monograph of the Amphipoda Hyperiidea, part 2, by Dr. C. Bovallius.—Fresh- water Algz, collected by Dr. S. Berggren in New Zealand, and described by Dr. O. Nordstedt.—On a manuscript map of Scan- dinavia from the middle of the fifteenth century, found in the library of Comte Zamoisky, in Warsaw, by Prof. A. E. Nordenskiéld.—On the sequence of the Glacial beds, and the temperature during the various stages of the Ice epoch, Prof. O. Torell.—On the anatomy of Hyperoodon diodon, Miss A. Carlsson.—Some reptiles and fishes showing the - called third eye, exhibited and demonstrated by Prof. F. Smitt.—Desmidiacez from Greenland, described by He Boldt.—On the distribution of Desmidiaceze in the no: regions, by the same.—Contribution to the knowledge of anatomical structure of the Dioscoreze, by Herr J. P. Jungn —Studies on the spectra of absorption of the rare elemer Prof. L. F. Nilsson and Dr. G. Kriiss.—An attempt to cal late the dissociation in the water of solution, by Dr. S. Arr nius.—Contributions to the theory of undulations in a ‘e body, by Prof. A. V. Backlund.—On the changes in ~ and density of fluids through absorption of gases, by Dr, Angstrém.—On the form of the crystals and twin-crystals scolecite from Iceland, by Herr G. Flink.—Mineralogical not by the same. oe oe a ar BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVE. The British Moss Flora, Part x.: R. Braithwaite.—An Introduction the Study of Embryology: A.C. Haddon (Griffin).—Pola seine Vergang heit, Gegenwart und Zukunft ; eine Studie (Wien).—Mount Taylor and Zui Plateau: Capt. C. E. Dutton (Washington).—Bulletin of the U Geological Survey, No. 38 (Washington).—Annalen der Physik und Chem 1887, No. 7 (Barth, Leipzig). CONTENTS. Forestry 3.00 see oe Observations at Godthaab ... Our Book Shelf :— Wilson: ‘‘ Essays and Addresses ” ie Page: ‘‘ Introductory Text-book of Physical graphy ” ere i ‘* Longman’s New Geographical Reader” .. . Letters to the Editor :— The New Degrees at Cambridge.—C, T.. . . Weight, Mass, and Force.—Prof. A. G, Greenhill . I Upper Cloud Movements in the Equatorial Regions of the Atlantic.—Capt. David Wilson-Barker .. 1 The Shadow of Adam’s Peak.—Hon. Ralph Aber-. cromby 2... .. 4.04) 4 Sle Temperature and Pressure.—Maxwell Hall. ... 1 British Association Sectional Procedure.—Dr. W. Bennett grat ee Ph Warren. . Snow in Central Germany.—Dr. Meteor.—Capt. H. King, R.N..........,. 49 gers ad in McGill University. —Prof. T. Wesley ce ills 2. 0 ane 8. 8 ee The University of Tokio.—Prof. S. Sekiya .... 1 Science for Artists. (JZ//ustrated) sini eane a A Review of Lighthouse Work and Economy in the ~ United Kingdom during the Past Fifty Years. ih. By J. Kenward oe Report of the Board of Trade on Weights and — Measutes 0°93) 1°04 +a The German Meteorological ee Neti, te ete . ie “ae Otto Knopf ipa . ? ae Odea Fee oe ° 8 tb 8 le eee 0 0 Se OD Oe) Office. By J. S ia Harding 3), 6°. ule ee $e ie a) aes a The Height of Summer Clouds. .........~ Ivan Polyakoff ....... a raew os Notes scent 5. sia cere 0 0 Le pits 10s lke tie ean Astronomical Phenomena for the Week july 329 i 6 Se oid. Eg? eRe ene Geographical Notes: ...°. s.. 0). 6 3) wee Discovery of Fossil Remains of an Arctic Flora Central Sweden. By Prof. A. G. Nathorsti ... 2 Geological Structure of Finisttre ........45 2 Temperature in Relationto Fish ....... Societies and Academies . . ne Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . . . . - NATURE 217 THURSDAY, JULY 7, 1887. PROFESSOR TYNDALL AND THE SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT. HE complimentary banquet to Prof. Tyndall, to a which reference has more than once been made in _ these columns, is described in detail elsewhere. We cannot, however, allow an event of so much interest, __ and which is, we believe, unique in the history of science in this country, to pass without comment. Many notable gatherings have taken place in Willis’s Rooms, but we question if English science has ever been more completely represented than at the “ Tyndall Dinner.” The President of the Royal Society was in the chair. The seven Vice-Chairmen were Presidents of the most important scientific Societies. The tables were crowded with men whose names are known wherever Nature is studied. No every-day motive would suffice to bring together such an assembly, and it isnot every day that we have an opportunity of doing honour to a life-work such as that of Prof. Tyndall. Others will rank beside or above him as - investigators, but in the promotion of the great scientific movement of the last fifty years he has played a part second tonone. The English people are a determined but somewhat slow-witted race, and it has been no easy task to convince them that a new era—that of science— was dawning. They have been content to pride them- selves on industrial successes due for the most part to ~ isolated efforts of genius, which was hampered by un- necessary difficulties, and which cannot be produced at will. They were long in seeing, they do not yet fully see, that our industrial position can only be maintained if armies of well-equipped followers are ready to seize the ground which the leaders win. There is, however, a still harder lesson to learn. The industrial application of a scientific principle—vitally important to the well-being of the people as that applica- tion may be—requires nevertheless a lower form of intel- lectual energy than the discovery of the principle itself. The triumphs of applied science, of the physician, the engineer, the telegraphist, are readily “understanded of the people.” The research laboratory, on the other hand, is open to few. The flash of genius which has wrung a fresh secret from Nature can only be fully appreciated by those who are intellectually competent to understand the difficulty and the success. And yet, if a widespread knowledge of science was to be, as it is, an essential con- dition of national well-being, it was absolutely necessary that the people should know something of, and be in some sort in sympathy with, the methods and conditions of scientific thought. In supplying this need, Prof. Tyndall’s greatest work has been done. Uniting scientific eminence of no ordinary kind with extraordinary gifts of exposition, he has, by his lectures and his books, brought the democracy into touch with scientific research. In dozens of lecture-rooms experiments devised by him are proving that a living science is a nobler instrument of education than a dead language. In hundreds of libraries his nervous English is convincing men of the VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 923. value of a career like Faraday’s, and teaching them to appreciate, if they cannot always in detail follow, the methods by which the victories of science are won. He has done perhaps more than any other living man to compel those who regard knowledge as valuable only in so far as it is immediately useful, to admit that the seed which is sown in the laboratory often produces the most abundant harvest in the workshop, and that a desire for knowledge is the mother of inventions which necessity could never have brought to the birth. Such has been Prof. Tyndall’s work ; and yet we ven- ture to think that among those who met in Willis’s Rooms a deeper feeling was aroused than admiration for an eminent worker and a useful career. Many of the greatest masters both of the moral and intellectual life have sought the attainment of their highest ideals in a more or less complete withdrawal from society, and it may well be that some natures can best achieve in seclusion the concentration which a supreme effort demands. But although the scientific movement of to-day may receive its highest inspirations from men who, like Dar- win and Joule, have worked in self-imposed retirement, its distinguishing characteristic is that it is sweeping along with it all classes and all opinions. It is a new habit of thought in the light of which the foundations of our educational, industrial, and political systems are being reconsidered. It isa new and deliberate attempt to put into practice the belief that ‘‘ the sovereignty of man lieth hid in knowledge, wherein many things are reserved which kings with their treasures cannot buy, nor with their force command ; their spials and intelli- gencers can give no news of them; their seamen and discoverers cannot sail where they grow.” Thus it has come to pass that science has gathered round it a crowd of workers, engaged in very various tasks, but all of whom would be ready to admit that the cardinal principle of the movement in which they take part is the investigation of truth for truth’s sake alone. They may be professors or manufacturers, soldiers or physicians. If only they are imbued with the desire to penetrate a little further into the mysteries which surround us, if only they are willing and able to add something. to the sum of human knowledge, they are scientific men. In part this army is organized. There is in England no Academy of Literature. The Academy of Arts, it is admitted, needs reform. The principal scientific Socie- ties, however, with the Royal Society at their head, perform the duties of an Academyof Science to the general satisfaction. No human institution is perfect, but it may be fairly said that they set in their Transactions a high standard of scientific work, and that their judgment, whether of men or of investigations, is seldom chal- lenged. In spite of this advantage, neither the outside world nor scientific men themselves have as yet sufficiently realized that these Societies constitute a great guild of that learning which is the most powerful and the most characteristic influence of our age. On an occasion such as the Tyndall Dinner this realization is quickened. The curious magnetic influence of numbers is felt. Minor differences disappear in the L 218 NATURE [xuly 7, 1887 knowledge that all are workers in the same cause. Men become more vividly conscious that though students of Nature are excluded from the State recognition which is extended to the Church, to medicine, and to the law, they too are members of a great profession. They realize that, though State rewards are given only to those who have applied their knowledge’ to some directly useful end, in a gathering of the profession of science the true leaders are those who have wrested the deepest secrets from Nature, careless whether they could be turned to gold or no. A meeting held in great numbers and for a common purpose may have an influence which many an apparently more useful testimonial would lack. Profi Tyndall has done service in the cause of science which merited the unique compliment he received. He would, we believe, be the first to rejoice if in the future the Tyndall Dinner was remembered not only asa tribute to his own work, but as marking the beginning of a period in which the ranks of science were drawn closer together, and in which the further organization of the investigation of Nature claimed and received the attention which its importance demands. THE GEOLOGY OF ENGLAND AND WALES. The Geology of England and Wales. With Notes on the Physical Features of the Country. By Horace B: Wood- ward, F.G.S. Second Edition. (London: Philip and Son, 1887.) HE student of physical geology has at least two large English text-books, interesting, full, accurate, judicial, and written by masters of the science ; but he who would build on this foundation a knowledge of historical -and paleontological geology is in a hxrder case, and finds either a meagre outline containing little but a few mean- ingless names of formations and fossil lists, or else an ill- digested and formless mass of matter, derived from every- where, but leading nowhere. Perhaps the time has not yet come when stratigraphy can be treated from the stand-point of inorganic evolution, so that fact. may be joined to his fact and an organized whole result. While, however, we wait for one who shall give us geology in the form of the inorganic and organic evolution of the globe, we must not omit to notice the labour of those whose “work is to record the facts from which the pleasanter deductions may be made.” Mr. Woodward has done wisely in republishing by subscription and in an enlarged form his admirable book on the geology of England and Wales—a veritable mine of facts, well indexed and admirably supplied with references for the advanced reader, forming a base-line for further study and research, but complete in itself for the more ele- mentary student and rendered interesting by the author’s fresh style, by his capital and apt illustrations, and by his wonderful faculty of seizing upon the individuality of the rock group he is describing and skilfully tracing its varia- tions from place to place. This new edition is improved by a larger and better map, undertaken by Mr. Goodchild, by more free use of sections, illustrations, and fossil lists, and by the employment of local names with tables of correlation. The author works his way upwards from the lowest rocks, but combines a BRE Ce with a chronological arrangement, and varies his method from system to system in order to adapt it better to the rocks under co sideration. Just occasionally one meets with a sli method, as in the case of the Rhztic rocks, where fo: apparent reason he has reversed his usual order treated the White Lias first. Where the mass of fac unusually great and somewhat barren of interest, author has introduced littlehelps and alleviations for the student will be truly grateful,—the character hero of a system sketched in one graphic tou origin of the name of a system or a fossil, or cussion of the origin of some bed of palzontological economic value (vide pp. 24, 47, 84, 266, 670). It seems hard to criticise any points of detail well-intentioned and well-executed work, but the tion of a few lines for improvement will perhaps better than anything else how little the author has others to suggest. First, with regard to the map. is clearly engraved, and coloured with light but contrasted tints; every name on it suggests some interesting from a geologist’s point of view, and the « of the whole is pleasing. There is no special colou: the Permian (not an unmixed advantage), and, enough, the Yorkshire coal-field is left uncoloured boundary is engraved, however, and the studen easily fill in the colour for himself. A point has 1 gained in using a distinctive colour for beds be the Bala, but one lost in not using still another lowest Cambrians. The igneous rock colours have been used less sparingly, and surely the A and Snowdon deserve a volcanic tint as much Borrowdales and the Cheviot rocks. We miss, too, north of England dikes and the Whinsill. es The book opens with an introduction conta little history, a little cosmogony, and a few defin The latter are hardly needed, and might have made for the accounts of the geology of different lines of : way, which found a place in the first edition but | been crowded out of this. A few words on th zoic group are followed by an account of the. system, in which too little is said of the new class of amongst these rocks institutel by Prof. Lz while Prof. Bonney’s papers on the Bangor area almost passed over. The table on page 52 hardly it quite clear that the Harlech group of St. Da : divided into the Caerfai and Solva groups, of which tt former constitutes the Aznelidian of Lapworth, and latter,, together with the Menevian beds, the doxidian. On page 58 we find the time-worn across that part of the Longmynd which teaches no of the succession of the Longmynd rocks; this several other sections should have been orientated. page 60 the Hollybush sandstone is omitted table of Shropshire Cambrians, and awkwardly ple page 65, while the Shineton shales are correlated. the Dolgelly beds and Malvern black shales in the | though afterwards correctly placed with the Dict; shales and Lower Tremadoc. A deceptive appea unconformity in sections on page 89 might easil been removed, even if present in the original woe It is good to see Mr. Lewis’s name brought up w NATURE 219 The author mentions, but does not definitely accept, Prof. Hull’s correlation of the Devonian rocks. Through- ‘out the work, and particularly in the Carboniferous section, great care has been taken to show and where possible give the origin of the economic value of the rocks. A little more ress should have been laid on the relations of the Coal- ‘measures to the underlying rocks, and one might notice there the absence of the Dudley, Sedgeley, and other inliers from the South Staffordshire coal-field on the map. An important feature consists in the description of Palzo- _ goic rocks from all the deep borings (a list of these forms the first appendix) ; and a good section to express the present state of knowledge on the deep-seated geology of the London Basin is given on page 202. _ The Permian and Lias form a single system, the Poiki- litic, which is included in the Mesozoic, the author being _ guided by the widespread discordance between it and _ the older rocks. It is not quite easy to understand all the tables (pp. 286, 470), but these only echo the difficul- ties which exist in the rocks themselves. It would have been as well if the Yorkshire Cornbrash had found a place after the Upper Estuarine on page 321. A good opportunity was missed of discussing the anomalous beds of Faring- - don and Blackdown, particularly in relation to Mr, _ $Starkie Gardner’s recent papers on kindred questions ; and we should have liked to see the grit phases in the __ Jurassic clays of the eastern counties more accurately defined. A section might have been introduced to show scwe thinning of the Gault and growth of the Cambridge module beds; and Mr. Sollas’s work on flints ought not to have been omitted. - The Upper Eocene beds are classed as Oligocene, but ‘the Brockenhurst bed is put in its true place in the - Headon. There are some very suggestive remarks on the con- nexion between health and geology, between villages and Springs and consequently the outcrop of porous rocks, and on the effects of percolation of spring and sea water through rocks. The section on igneous rocks is of neces- sity somewhat vague and unsystematic from its brevity, _ but room has been found to treat the volcanic rocks historically ; the Nuneaton diorites are intrusive in pre- _ Carboniferous rocks only. There are concluding chapters on metalliferous deposits, and on scenery and geology, the latter containing a useful list of hills, valleys, plains, and forests. _ Alittle more space might with advantage have been spent in indicating with greater fulness what is known of the physical geography of the different periods, and epochs of earth movements, their dates, directions, and effects should have been more fully dealt with in the last chapter. A capital synopsis of the animal kingdom is furnished in an appendix by Mr. Edwin T. Newton; and a grand index, occupying 45 pages of three columns eaah, and giving the dates of the birth and death of authors referred to, closes the volume, which is an excellent - summary of the present state of our knowledge of British zu geology. The author has worked conscientiously and __well, and that we have been able to suggest so few addi- Be tions clearly shows that his labour has not been in vain. na W. W. W. A TREATISE ON GEOMETRICAL OPTICS. A Treatise on Geometrical Optics. By R. S. Heath, M.A., D.Sc., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, Professor of Mathematics in the Mason College, Birm- ingham. Demy 8vo, pp. xvii. 356. (Cambridge: Uni- versity Press, 1887.) HIS treatise is based on the conception of a beam of light as consisting of a system of rays, which obey the laws of reflexion and refraction. The transformations of such a system and the construction and properties of optical instruments are deduced, so far as the latter are capable of explanation from this point of view. In confining himself to geometrical optics in this sense, the author follows the mode of division of the science which has been usually adopted in text-books in this country, through the succession of Cambridge treatises by Coddington, Griffin, and Parkinson, and Lloyd’s “ Treatise on Light and Vision.” The subject then splits up naturally into the theory of reflexion and refraction of systems of rays, which is in fact a department of geo- metry ; and the more special discussion of the nature of optical instruments and the forms and positions to be given to their refracting surfaces to diminish spherical and chromatic aberration, which allies itself with the technical science of optical construction. The book begins with a short chapter on | the nature and properties of ‘light, in which the theory of illumina- tion is worked out as a consequence of the experimental fact that self-luminous surfaces appear equally bright in all directions and at all distances. The second and third chapters contain the statement, in geometrical and ana- lytical form, of the laws of reflexion and refraction, and the investigation of conjugate foci for direct pencils. In Chapter IV. the subject of refraction through lenses and systems of lenses is treated, use being made of the symmetrical analysis, by means of the convergents of con- tinued fractions, to determine the principal points of a system whose refracting surfaces are specified. Free use is also made of the cardinal points of the system in the semi-geometrical manner introduced by Mobius. The following chapter is devoted to an account of the general analytical investigation by means of which Gauss placed the whole theory on an independent basis. The notion of the equivalent lens is here introduced to some practical purpose, for the investigations of this and the preceding chapter enable the author to specify the exact character of the equivalence that can be secured by a single lens or a single refracting surface: viz. that if the lens or surface occupied the position of one of the principal planes of the system, it would refract any beam incident along its axis into the same configuration as it actually possesses when it emerges through the other principal plane of the instru- ment; so that, neglecting aberrations, the equivalence holds in every sense except as regards the displacement along the axis, and is therefore complete for most practical purposes. The theory of caustics is treated, chiefly by analytical methods; and the existence of wave-surfaces, which cut the system of rays at right angles in an isotropic medium, is established geometrically. Chapter VII. is devoted to the discussion of the { spherical aberration of direct pencils, which is perhaps 220 NATURE [Fuly 7, 1887 — one of the most difficult parts of the subject to present in an elegant manner, on account of the non-symmetrical character of the necessary approximations. The treat- ment here given seems to leave nothing to be desired. Chapter VIII. begins with an exposition of the proper- ties of a general system of rays: this with the cardinal result that the rays are all bi-tangents to a focal surface is ascribed to Kummer. They had, however, been pre- viously given by Hamilton in his memoir on “ Systems of Rays,” in the discussion of ray-systems in a crystalline medium where the wave-surface no longer cuts the rays at right angles; and he in turn refers back to the same papers of Malus which contain the theorem of orthogon- ality in isotropic media. The theory of the characteristic function is next applied to the solution of the general problem of the refraction of a narrow beam at a surface of double curvature; and to the analytical determination of the relation between the forms of such beams before and after passing through a general optical instrument whose internal structure is not specified. In these discussions the author has closely followed a series of papers by Clerk Maxwell which ap- peared about fifteen years ago in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, and which presumably were to find a place in a book on optics then contem- plated by their lamented author. It does not seem to have been much noticed in this country that the same formulze for oblique refraction were developed a long time ago by Sturm and others, in a direct geometrical manner, from Malus’s theorem; but the conciseness and precision which arise from defining a beam by means of its charac- teristic function give them an enhanced importance in optical theory. Their application is here given to some cases which we do not remember having seen published before : thus the modification impressed on a beam by refraction centrically through a single thin lens is ex- pressed by means of very simple formule, from which several properties of considerable elegance and some practical value might be directly drawn. The theory of dispersion and achromatism is treated in the ordinary way. In the chapter on vision are intro- duced discussions, chiefly from Helmholtz, of the mechan- ism of accommodation and the principles of binocular vision. Then follows a clear and valuable chapter on telescopes and microscopes, a chapter on miscellaneous optical instruments, and a brief account of atmospheric refraction, mirage, rainbows, and halos. It may seem ungracious to expect more where so much is given, but we could have wished that the theory of refraction through general systems had been treated more from an historical standpoint. A difficulty often felt in this part of the subject arises from the way in which the geometrical and analytical methods of different writers are liable to be intermixed. The book was probably in the press before a recent note by Lord Rayleigh had brought again into prominence the large share taken by the English opticions of last century, notably Cotes and Smith, in the development of the general theory of this branch of the subject. The list of treatises and memoirs might be improved by consulting the bibliographies given by Helmholtz and Verdet. It is a misfortune incident on the scheme of the book that it is seldom able to say the last word in relation to the more delicate arrangements of telescopes and micro- scopes, where diffraction plays an important part. This becomes very patent, for example, in the account of im- mersion objectives. The theory of diffraction as applied to optical construction is for the most part purely geome- trical, and it would much increase the value and interest of books on geometrical optics if that theory were explicitly included, and the subject introduced by the consideration of light as wave-motion, instead of the artificial conception of the reflexion and refraction of rays. «OR As is usual in English text-books, selections of problem: have been added at the ends of the chapters. In this case, Cambridge examination-papers of recent years have been largely drawn upon for questions, with the result that some are included which are not of much value as illustrations of the subject, though they may be very use- ful as tests of mathematical power. Indeed it seems open to question whether the practice of adding large collec- tions of examples is not now overdone in this country ; it certainly in some cases tends to unfit the books which contain them for the use of students who do not possess the advantage of tuition, or some guidance in selecting the few that will be of value for them. a The treatise is, on the whole, a most welcome addition to our optical text-books. Much of its contents, though fundamental and elementary, has only hitherto been accessible in English through Mr. Pendlebury’s treatise on “Systems of Lenses”; and there is more that now appears in a text-book for the first time. The printing and general appearance of the book reflect great credit on all concerned with it. J. LARMOR. © OUR BOOK SHELF, Shores and Alps of Alaska. By H. W. Seton Karr, F.R.G.S. (London: Sampson Low, 1887). Sage THIS is a very interesting account of a journey of explora- tion in a country which, as the author says, is probaiee’ destined soon to become better known. The most import- ant part of the book is that which relates to the attempt made by Mr. Seton Karr and his companions upon Mount St. Elias. When this attempt was made, the com- bined “alpinism” of the climbers was “ insignificant.” Nevertheless, they achieved considerable success, and the writer has been able to present a vivid and striking record of their observations. The height of Mount St. Elias was differently estimated by the old navigators, and Mr. Seton Karr points out that it is the only mountain” the real height of which has exceeded the first estimates” made of it. -The latest determination taken from Yakatat and from the United States Coast Survey schooner Yukon, gives 19,500 and possibly 20,000 feet. - From its massive shape the mountain does not convey the impres- sion of being quite so high as this, although “its whole altitude is presented to the eye, from its sharp summit down to the ocean at its foot.” Of the scenery of which Mount St. Elias is the most prominent feature, Mr. Seton Karr writes most enthusiastically. He even goes” so far as to say that “without a doubt the scenery at Yakatat is the most wonderful of its kind in the whole world.” Seen early in the morning, when the air is re- markably transparent, the mountains seem “too ethereal to have any actual existence.” The observer feels that “they cannot be anything except some unholy illusion that must dissolve and disperse when the sun rises.” uly 7, 1887] NATURE 221 ae LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- ¢ to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous cations The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.) : Relation of Coal-Dust to Explosions in Mines. THE suggestion in my former letter on this subject (vol. xxxiv. p- 595) that “‘ keeping the ventilating air-current saturated with _ aqueous vapour ” might prove the most effective way of rendering the dust in coal-mines innocuous, has, I am glad to see, been since shown to be practicable, in a South Wales colliery. Since the above date, I have considerably extended my research, with re- - sults that confirm the conviction therein expressed that many of the _ most disastrous colliery explosions during the last seven years in _ this northern district have been practically dust explosions, and _ therefore preventable ; that the rough method of watering the floors only, or floors and sides, of the mines is delusive, since it leaves the most dangerous dust undisturbed, the upper and flocculent dust ; and last, that probably the reasons why dust in dry pits does not explode more frequently are now within grasp. To this latter conclusion, with your permission, I will now briefly _address myself. That every firing of a shot that is accompanied _ by flame in a dry and dusty pit does not produce an explosion is _ well known ; that sometimes such firing of a shot does is un- _ happily also well known. That the local presence of gas, even rahe amount, is sometimes the reason of this is universally acknowledged. That the amount and condition of the dust resent (even in the practical absence of gas) is at other times _the reason is now believed bymany. Setting aside the amount of dust, which every one will allow must be an essential factor, ____ and also the varying energy which the shot, blown out or not, develops, let us look at the other conditions. The temperature ___ and hygroscopic state of the air-current is one most important __ factor, and consequently the concomitant temperature and hygro- scopic state of the dust traversed by such current. Beyond this, much tosay in the matter. The finer the particles the more readily will they ignite, and the more completely will they place their substance under the influences present. Thus ordinary screen coal-dust will not ignite when a common match is lighted _ and applied to it, but it will when finely pounded in a mortar. Now the dust resting on the baulks and upper portions gener- ally of the ways will invariably so light and burn when dry, _ although the constituents vary greatly in different pits and in different seams of the same pit. What are the ordinary constituents of coal-dust? Two, per- haps three, important substances, and others unimportant : important, as being inflammable in varying degrees; unim- portant, either from their uninflammability or from their excessively small amount. The three important are mother of coal, or dant ; coal ; and certain coloured bodies, probably sfores. The unimportant are shale or other stone dust, iron pyrites, lime flakes, and incidentals, as animal and vegetable matters, and the results of the wear and tear of the haulage and winning apparatus, &c. Dismiss these last, as only one needs any attention, the shale ; and that special, not general. Dant lights most readily ; the red end of a used match is often sufficient to fire it, and then it burns itself out whether resting on wood or stone. Burned in a retort, it loses little weight, and the fumes it gives off will not ignite. Now, this dant is largely present in st and flocculent dust, reaching in some specimens even 70 or er cent. Dant clearly therefore is not itself dangerously explosive, yet is admirably fitted to act the part that tinder used to do, when it handed on the spark from the flint and ‘steel to the old-fashioned brimstone match. Coal forms a considerable part ofall upper and flocculent dust, and constitutes the great mass of the bottom dust along intake haulage roads. Coal-dust (got as free from dant as possible) when pounded very fine ignites with some difficulty, burns at first somewhat fiercely and with considerable smoke, but gener- ally goes out leaving a portion of the heap unburned. Placed on an iron plate and burned by heating the plate, it threw off the degree of fineness and the constituents of the dust will have’ scintillations, its fumes readily took fire, and forty grains of dust ! were reduced to one grain of ash. In a retort it gave off first much smoke which would not light ; soon, however, the smoke lessened, when its fumes lit and burned with a long bright flame. Such coal-dust is manifestly capable of producing an explosion. Under favourable conditions it can produce a considerable amount of ordinary illuminating coal-gas, whose presence would convert the air-current into an explosive mixture. Therefore, adopting the former simile, as the dant is the “der, so this coal is the sulphur match, as the shot flame or other initial cause is the spark struck from the flint and steel. Spores.—Nearly all dusts (and I have examined many) have shown under the microscope few or many orange, brown, or reddish flakes, very often triangular in shape and with concoidal fractures. I have not yet examined thin sections of these coals, but the fragments present much the appearance presented by the spores in the well-known spore coals of the Bradford ‘‘ Better Bed,” and Leicestershire ‘‘ Moira.” If these coloured bodies originate in Lycopodian and other microspores or macrospores, they may play an important part, for the resinous nature of the microspores of the Selaginedla selaginoides, &c., of our northern hills is so well known that they were formerly used in theatres to produce artificial lightning. As my experiments and inquiries in this direction are yet incomplete, I will only suggest that their presence may account for some dusts being so much more dangerous (as the German experiments have conclusively shown) than others, and add the hope that these words may lead others to pursue this inquiry. ARTHUR WATTS, Bede College, Durham, May 26. Science for Artists. OF the various optical errors in this year’s pictures, certainly that in the elegant scene (624) of the Queen’s Accession, in the morning small hours of June 20, 1837, is largest and most hope- less. Neither a source of light at 93,000,000 miles, nor one at 93 inches, could cast the bar-shadows. It is impossible to say whether they are meant to be aérial in the dust or mist, or cast on the walls and wainscot. But for either they are equally pre- ternatural, though not by diverging perspectively. If cast on the solids they would, instead of being straight, be crooking in and out over the mouldings. But if they are in aérial mist or dust, the error is in supposing the same eye can see more than one of such shadows at atime. The eye requires to be very nearly in the plane of the shadow seen, so that, of those cast by parallel things, as window-bars, only one could be seen by any single eye, and only as continuing the line of the bar itself. The bar and its mist-shadow could never meet at an angle, as they all do in this picture. Another error (now com- mon) is in there being no more penumbra than if the sun were a star, or a small electric arc-light. Epwp. L. GARBETT. Weight, Mass, and Force. WITH reference to the extract, as to the language employed in which Prof. Greenhill invites my criticism, I have no doubt that to an engineer it would convey perfectly definite and intelligible information, and that one who has mastered the fundamental notions of dynamics as a science would be able to divine its meaning, but Prof. Greenhill would hardly maintain that the language is scientifically accurate, and that, however sufficient as a shorthand for the trained engineer addressing engineers, it is not full of pitfalls for the tyro. There is no need to object to the statement that ‘‘ the weight is 137,000 pounds,” though it is just as easy to say, ‘‘ the mass is 137,000 pounds,” But that ‘‘the boiler carries 160 pounds of steam,” I find, means that the pressure of the steam is 160 pounds (weight) er sguare inch, while ‘‘a 96-feet grade” means ‘*a gradient of 96 feet per mle.” Surely, except as a recognized shorthand for experts, the suppression of the words in italics is unjustifiable and liable to lead into error. It is more important, however, to observe that (as in a great majority of the cases an engineer has to deal with) the question here discussed is essentially a statical one. The motion of the train considered is uniform (30 miles per hour), and the variations in pressure in the cylinders, &c., are avoided by taking the ‘mean effective pressure,” so that there are no accelerations to be considered, and only, in fact, a balancing of forces. The question of mass therefore, (a purely 4inetic notion), can hardly arise, and there is no room for confusion between mass and weight. R, B. HAywarpD. 222 NATURE [ Fuly 7, 1887 Upper Cloud Movements’ in the Equatorial Regions of the Atlantic. T am sorry that the observations of so good an observer as Capt. D. W. Barker should not agree with my own, but I certainly never confounded what he calls high low-level clouds with the true high clouds. When clouds are being propagated ina different direction from that in which they are being blown—as sometimes happens—it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain the real direction ; but that would not account for the discrepancy between our observations. My own researches were specially directed to the doldrums, and the history of the Krakatdo dust entirely confirms my obser- vations ; but in some low latitudes—as in Cuba—the highest clouds are usually from about south-west. This, however, does not affect the doldrum districts. RatpuH ABERCROMBY. 21 Chapel Street. Fish Dying: In a large pool in this county, well. stocked with fish, especially trout and roach, a considerable number of the roach haye been found dead, every day during the last week. They are in fair condition, and sh»w no eyidence of poison or of parasitic disease. There is a certain amount of current through the centre of the pool, but the ingress of water has been, of course, much reduced by the drought. The pool, however, covers many acres, and there are twenty feet of water in the deepest parts. Can any of your readers suggest a cause for the death of the roach, and a remedy? No other species appears to have suffered. F, T. Mott. Birstal Hill, Leicester, July 4. THE DINNER TO PROFESSOR TYNDALL. gt dinner to Prof. Tyndall, as we stated last week, - was going on at Willis’ss Rooms on Wednesday evening as we went to press. It was attended by as large and distinguished, a company as ever assembled to do honour to a man of science. The chair was taken by Prof. Stokes, President of the Royal Society, who had acted as Chairman ofthe Organizing Committee. Among those who had consented to serve on the Committee were the Marquis of Salisbury, the Duke of Devonshire, the Duke of Argyll, the Right Hon. J. Inglis, the Earl of Rosse, Earl Granville, Sir F. Abel, Prof. Adams, and many others holding high positions in connexion with scientific and learned Societies, and Mr. J. Norman Lockyer and Mr. A. W. Riicker had acted as honorary secretaries to the Committee. Among those who attended the dinner were the Earl of Derby, Earl Bathurst, the Earl of Lytton, Sir F. Leighton, Lord Rayleigh, Lord Thurlow, Sir J. Lubbock, M.P., Sir W. Bowman, Sir F. Bramwell, Sir I. Lowthian Bell, M.P., Sir J. Lister, Sir H. Roscoe, M.P., Sir G. Richards, Lord A. Russell, Sir F. Pollock, Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., Sir Prescott Hewett, Prof. J. C. Adams, Colonel Donnelly, Sir J. Hooker, Prof. Asa Gray, Prof. Flower, Dr. A. Geikie, Dr. Hirst, Mr. W. Crookes (President of the Chemical Society), Mr. G. B. Bruce (President of the Institution of Civil Engin- eers), Mr. D. Adamson (President of the Iron and Steel Institute), Dr. J. Evans (President of the Society of Antiquaries), Prof. B. Stewart (President of the Physical Society), Prof. Judd (President of the Geological Society), General Strachey (President of the Royal Geographical Society), Sir J. Fayrer, Sir H. Wilde, Sir H. Doulton, Sir J. Caird, Sir P. Magnus, the President of the Alpine Club, Profs. Frankland, Debus, Tilden, Ray Lankester, Liversedge, G. Darwin, Dewar, M. Foster, Carey Foster, Odling, Gamgee, W. G. Adams, Clifton, Humphry, and Dallinger, Messrs. Warren de la Rue, Gill, Kempe, J. Hopkinson, H. Pollock, E. Wood, Brudenell Carter, Romanes, Pengelly, Preece, Ellis, Vernon Harcourt, R. H. Scott, and others. At the close of the dinner Mr. Norman Lockyer, at the request of the Chairman, read a list of absentees, from most of whom had been received letters expressing strong sympathy with the object of the banquet, and admiratior of the career of Prof. Tyndall. Among the writers were the Marquis of Salisbury, Mr. Goschen, Mr. W. H Smith, Lord Cranbrook, the Marquis of Ripon, the Earl of Rosse, Lord Monk Bretton, Profs. Max Miiller, J. } Seeley, T. H. Huxley, Sir F. Abel, and about thirty others identified with science and literature. fi aa The first toast was “The Queen,” and - The Chairman in proposing it said that the recent celebration of the Jubilee diminished the necessity f saying many words in commendation of the toast. A hearts were affected by the Queen’s letter, in which so touchingly acknowledged the manner in which she had been received. Those who were present at the scene in the Abbey were touched by the exhibition o family devotion and affection which took place at th conclusion of the service, when the Royal Family salutec her who was at the same time Sovereign and mother, anc received from her the kiss of affection. And as on tha occasion the Royal Family was united with the Sovereigr so on the present occasion, in drinking the health of He Majesty, they would mentally include the health of th Prince and Princess of Wales and the rest of the Roya Family. VeaBes The toast was drunk with all the honours. cs eaten The Chairman in proposing the toast of the evenin; said :—My Lords and Gentlemen,—I now come to thi toast of the evening, “The Health of Dr. Tyndall,” anc may he long enjoy the leisure which he has so wel earned. A social gathering like the present is no occasion on which it is desirable to enter into det the circumstances of the present meeting seem tod that I should say a few words on some of Dr. T researches. Some of his earliest scientific work related t diamagnetism and magnecrystallic action, and in part © this he was associated with the well known German phy sicist Knoblauch. But I cannot dwell on these now. An I will even dismiss with this brief mention his researche on the properties of ice and his application of them tot theory of glaciers and the observations which he mad common with his friend and colleague Prof. H whose necessary absence from among us to-night much regret. If I be not trespassing too much ¢ patience of those who listen to me, I would wish little more on that elaborate series of researches, formi no less than six separate papers in the Philosophi Transactions, in which Dr. Tyndall investigated the r tion of simple and compound gases and of vapours radiant heat, especially radiant heat from sources é ut moderate temperature. According to his researche while the main constituents of the earth’s atmospher nitrogen and oxygen, are practically diathermous, at lea: with regard to radiations which can traverse roc -salt, 2 we know that by far the greater part of those that \ have to deal with can, such is far from being the case wit other gases equally transparent with regard to light. D.: Tyndall found that as a rule the more complex the cor position of a gas the greater is its defect of diathermane: To confine ourselves to the two gases which occur in th atmosphere mixed with its main constituents—I allude: course to carbonic acid and to water in the gaseous sta of vapour—he found that both, especially the latter, whi likewise is present in by far the larger quantity, distinctly defective in diathermancy, and CC that the main part of the absorption of solar heat - passing through the atmosphere, absorption as disti guished from scattering, is due to the watery vapo) which it contains. From this result he drew importa inferences as to atmospheric temperature and clima logical conditions. Dr. Tyndall’s researches on the rel fo sa . # . < CO tion of gases to radiant heat came naturally before r — ¥uly 7, 1887] NATURE 223 uring my long tenure of office as one of the Secretaries f the Royal Society ; and for my own part I may say that it seemed to me all along that the results were established on so firm a basis, and the conclusions regard- ‘ing the invisible radiations were so perfectly analogous to what we know to be true regarding the visible ones, where the investigation is comparatively easy, that the work bore on it the stamp of truth. The conclusions were not, however, accepted without opposition. In the ‘date Prof. Magnus Dr. Tyndall met a foeman worthy of his steel; a foeman, however, only in the sense of an intellectual athlete ; for socially I doubt not they were the firmest friends, and their friendship was even cemented by the fact that they were both alike seeking after truth in a similar subject. But truth only gains by opposition : its defenders are led to engage in fresh re- searches, which end in strengthening its foundations. I think that the validity of Dr. Tyndall’s results is now generally admitted. If some hesitation is still felt, it _ arises mainly, I think, from misconception ; from imagin- _ ing that assertions which were meant to apply only to _heat-rays of such refrangibilities as to be absorbed by ‘water were meant to be affirmed of the invisible radia- tions generally which lie beyond the extreme red. The ‘time reminds me that I must only very briefly refer to another investigation in which Dr. Tyndall has more re- cently been engaged, and of which the interest is biological while the means of investigation are physical ; I allude, of course, to the question of abiogenesis. Here, again, _ Dr. Tyndall was working on contested ground, and the _ objections of opponents stimulated him to fresh inquiries, which resulted in the continual strengthening of his fl tive conclusions. In the course of his work he was ' _ Jed, for instance, to the discovery of the great difference _ ~~. which exists between the germs of microscopic creatures _ and the creatures themselves, in relation to their power f resisting the destructive influence of a high tempera- ture. This discovery not only detected a source of errer } some experiments which had seemed to favour the hypothesis of abiogenesis, but threw important light on _ the conditions which must be fulfilled in order to secure _complete sterility. But original research is not the only way in which a man can advance the cause of science. _ All-important though it is, it nevertheless often happens __ that an original investigation is too abstruse to be _ followed by more than a few experts; nor is it by my means necessarily the case that an eminent in- -vestigator is equally successful in expounding to others, especially to a mixed audience, the results at which he himself or other investigators may have arrived. The general diffusion of science depends largely on the clear- mess with which its leading principles and results are expounded, whether by lectures or by treatises, in which, while they are scientifically sound, popularity of style and general readableness are not sacrificed to the dry exact- ness of scientific detail. Most of us have had opportuni- ties, whether at the Royal Institution, with which the mame of Tyndall has so long been connected, or else- where, of being impressed with the singularly lucid style and graphic expression with which he expounded to his audience the salient points of the scientific subject which she brought before them. Nor was it only in clearness of verbal exposition that he excelled ; the manipulative skill with which his original investigations were carried on ‘served him in good stead in his more popular expositions ; _and by the aid of that “domestic sun,” which even the murky atmosphere of a London winter could not obscure, he was enabled in very many cases to exhibit to the audi- ence the actual results of experiments which had first _ been carried out in the quiet of the laboratory. Nor is it ‘our Own countrymen alone who have had the benefit of Dr. Tyndall’s lucidity of exposition’ Our friends across the ocean have flocked to hear and have appreciated the dectures which he has there delivered as a free gift to NETS A Oe EGE SE NY SETS ;: G £ Transatlantic science. But oral lectures, after all—the lectures at least of one individual—can only reach a frac- tion of the community ; nor do they admit of that pause for thought which the learner requires in endeavouring to make himself master of a new subject. But the same qualities of mind which enable a man to be a clear and interesting lecturer fit him also to be the author of eminently readable books ; and for the general diffusion of science which is taking place we owe much to the writings of Dr. Tyndall. My lords and gentlemen, I fear that I have trespassed too long upon your time, and I will therefore now conclude by asking you once more to drink to the health of Dr. Tyndall. (The toast was drunk with great enthusiasm, the company rising.) Professor Tyndall, on rising to respond, was re- ceived with loud cheers, the company rising. He said: —Mr. President, my Lords, and Gentlemen,—When the project of a dinner was first mentioned to me by a very old and steadfast friend of mine, who, to my regret and his, is not here to-night, had any dream, or vision, of the assembly now before me risen on my mind’s eye, I should have declined the risk of standing in my present position ; for I should have doubted, as I still continue to doubt, my ability to rise to the level of the occasion. Gratitude, however, is possible to all men ; and I would offer you, Sir, my grateful thanks for the manner in which you have proposed this toast; I would thank with equal warmth an assembly which, in intellectual measure, is, probably, as distinguished as any of the same size ever addressed by man, for the way in which they have received it; and I would extend my thanks to my friends of the Department of Science and Art, for their spontaneous kindness to an old colleague, who for many years lent his humble aid to the Depart- ment in diffusing sound scientific knowledge among the masses of the people. My own scientific education began late. It had, of necessity, to be postponed until after I had reached the age of seven or eight and twenty. Not- withstanding this drawback, in learning, teaching, and working in the laboratory, I have been permitted to enjoy a spell of thirty-nine years. In 1850, during a flying visit from Germany to England, I stood, for the first time, in the bright presence of Faraday. In February 1853, I gave my first Friday evening lecture in the Royal Institution ; and three months afterwards, on the motion of Faraday, the old Chair of Natural Philosophy, which had been filled at the beginning of the century by Thomas Young, was restored, and to it I was elected. It causes me genuine pleasure to think that I shall be succeeded in that Chair by so true and so eminent a man of science as Lord Rayleigh. It is not my intention to overburden you with egotism to-night ; but, casting an earnest glance back upon the past, a few words seem due from me to the memory of one or two of the group of good men, no longer with us, with whom I was so intimately associated. Regarding Faraday I will confine myself to stating that years have not altered my estimate of the beauty and the nobleness of his character. He was the prince of experi- mental philosophers ; but he was more than this—in every fibre of his mind he was a gentleman. It is, however, of two of our honorary secretaries that I wish now to speak; premising that, for the first seven years of my life in the Royal Institution, the post of hono- rary secretary was held by a cultivated and very worthy gentleman, the Rev. John Barlow. From 1860 to 1873—that is, for a stretch of thirteen memorable years—lI had the happiness of working hand in hand with Dr. Bence Jones. Never in my experience have I met a man more entirely and unselfishly devoted to the further- ance of scientific work. I hardly like to mention the following incident, because it furnishes but a scanty measure of his devotion. On one occasion I was in need of funds to carry out some experiments of a delicate and 224 NATURE [Fuly 7, 1887 — costly character. Bence Jones came to me, and after some hesitation—for he knew that money was likely to raise a difficulty between us—he said, with earnestness : * Dear Tyndall, behave as my friend; do me the favour and the honour of devoting this to your investigation. There is more, if you need it, where that came from.” He handed me a cheque for #100. Had I asked for £1000, he would: have given it to me, and the world, as far as he was concerned, would have been none the wiser. Bence Jones was a strong man, and liked to have his own way. At first, as was natural, we sonietimes surged against each other; but these little oppositions were rapidly adjusted, and for many years before his death the tie of brother to brother was not truer or tenderer than that which united myself and Bence Jones. On my return from the United States I found him dying. In fact, the knowledge of his condition caused me to take leave, earlier than I otherwise should have done, of a people that I had learnt to trust and love. Soon after my return | saw him lowered into the grave. The death of Bence Jones, whose steadfast loyalty to the Institution he loved so well, showed itself to the last, was a sore calamity to be met. At that time one man only seemed fitted to supply his place. That man was the beloved and lamented William Spottiswoode. To him I appealed to stand by the Institution at a critical hour of its for- tunes. He had his own mathematical work on hand, and he was too well acquainted with the duties of our honorary secretaryship to accept them lightly. After much reflection, he wrote me a letter regretfully but distinctly declining the office. But he reflected a second time. He knew that his refusal would cause me pain, and his affection for me prevailed. When, therefore, the letter of refusal—for he sent it to me—came, it was accompanied by a second letter, cancelling the refusal and accepting the post. With William Spottiswoode I had the happiness of working in close companionship for six years. The diligence, wisdom, and success with which he discharged his onerous duties—the princely hospitality which shed a glow upon the office while he held it—are well remembered. Of the dignity with which he after- wards filled the high position now occupied by the illustrious man who presides here this evening it is need- less to speak. Him also we have seen lowered to his rest, amid the grief of friends assembled to do honour to his memory. Such were the men who served the Royal Institution in the past; and their example has been worthily followed by other men of eminence, still happily amongst us. Never was an institution better served than the Royal Institution, and not by its honorary secretaries alone. Withsingleness of purpose and purity of aim, its suc- cessive Presidents, Boards of Managers, and honorary treasurers have unswervingly promoted the noble work of investigation and discovery. May they never lower the flag which, for well-nigh a century, they have kept victoriously unfurled. The year after my appointment I was called upon to deliver, in conjunction with Dr. Whewell, Faraday, Sir James Paget, and some other eminent men, one of a series of lectures on scientific education. I then referred with serious emphasis to the workers in our coal-mines, and to the terrible perils of their occupation. I pointed to the in- tellectual Samsons toiling with closed eyes in the mills and forges of Manchester and Birmingham, and I said: “Give these toilers sight by the teachings of science, and you diminish the causes of calamity, multiply the chances of discovery, and widen the prospect of national advance- ment.” Thus early, you will see, I was alive to the import- ance of technical education ; and I am no less alive to it now. You will not, therefore, misunderstand me when I say that to keep technical education from withering, and to preserve the applications of science from decay, the roots of both of them must be well embedded in the soil of original investigation. And here let it be emphatically added, that in such investigation practical results may enter as incidents, but must never usurp the place o! aims. The true son of science will pursue his inquiries irrespective of practical considerations. He will eve regard the acquisition and expansion of natural know. ledge—the unravelling of the complex web of nature by the disciplined intellect of man—as his noblest end, and not as a means to any other end. And what has beer the upshot of science thus pursued? Why, that the investigator has over and over again tapped springs 0 practical power which otherwise he would never have reached. Illustrations are here manifold. I ig eer to the industries which affiliate themselves with Faraday’: discovery of benzol, and with his discovery of the law: of electrolysis. But I need not go further than the fact that in this our day a noble and powerful professior has been called into existence by his discovery of magneto electricity. The electric lamps which mildly illuminat our rooms, the foci which flood with light of sola brilliancy our railway-stations and public halls, can all be traced back to an ancestral spark so small as to be barely visible. With impatient ardour Faraday refusec to pause in his quest of principles to intensify his spark That work he deliberately left to others, confidently pre: dicting that it would be accomplished. And, promptec by motives both natural and laudable, but which hac never the slightest influence on Faraday, others have developed his spark into the splendours which now shin in our midst. eae: It would be a handsome Jubilee present, if it were possible one, to roll up the career of Faraday into portabl form, and to offer it to the Queen as the achievement 0 one of Her Majesty’s most devoted subjects during he ownreign. Faraday’s series of great discoveries, however began in 1831, which throws his work five or six years to far back. During the rest of his fruitful life he was: loyal son of the Victorian epoch. But, passing beyont the limitations of the individual, what is science, as ; whole, able to offer, on the golden wedding of the Queei with her people? A present of the principle of gravita tion—a handing over to Her Majesty of the bit an bridle whereby the compelling intellect of Newto1 brought the solar system under the yoke of physical law —would surely be a handsome offering. I mention tl case of known and conspicuous grandeur, in order to the value of another generalization which the science o her reign cam proudly offer to the Queen. Quite fitt take rank with the principle of Gravitation—mor momentous if that be possible—is that law of Conserva tion which combines the energies of the material univers into an organic whole; that law which enables the ¢ of science to follow the flying shuttles of the univers: power, as it weaves what the Earth Spirit in “ Faust calls “the living garment of God.” This, then, is th largest flower of the garland which the science of the las fifty years is able to offer to the Queen. ae The second generalization is like unto the first — point of importance, though very unlike as regards reception by the world. For whereas the principle Conservation, with all its far-reaching, and, from sor points of view, tremendous implications, slid quietly int acceptance, its successor evoked the thunder-peals whic it is said always accompany the marriage of thought an fact. For a long time the scent of danger was in the ai But the evil odour has passed away; the air is freshe than before ; it fills our lungs and purifies our blood, an science, in its Jubilee offering to the Queen, is able! add to the law of Conservation the principle of Evolutio In connexion with these victories of the scienti intellect, I have mentioned neither persons nor nati alities, holding, as Davy expressed it, when the Copl Medal was awarded to Arago, that “ science, like Natu to which it belongs, is neither limited by time nor spay It belongs to the world, and is of no country and no ag xuly 7, 1887] NATURE 225 _ Still, it will not be counted Chauvinism if I say that in the establishment of these two great generalizations Her Majesty’s subjects have quitted themselves like men. With regard to a third generalization, neither England nor Germany has been idle. Omitting the name of many noble worker in both countries, the antiseptic system of urgery assuredly counts for something in the civilized orld. And yet it is but a branch of a larger generaliza- ion, of momentous import, which in our day has been ex- tended and consolidated to an amazing degree bya Gallic investigator. To some, however, any flower culled in this garden will be without odour. Let me therefore add a sweet-scented violet under the name of spectrum analysis which, besides revealing new elements in matter, enables the human worker to stretch forth his hand to sun and stars, to bring samples of them, as it were, into his _ laboratory, and to tell us, with certainty, whereof they are composed. Surely all these, and other discoveries of high importance, taken and bound together, form an intellectual wreath, not unworthy of Her Majesty’s acceptance in her Jubilee year. A short time ago an illustrious party leader summed up the political progress of the Queen’s reign. What I have _ said will, I trust, show that the intellectual world is not entirely compounded of party politics—that there is a _ band of workers scattered over the earth whose arena is the laboratory rather than the platform, and who noise- __ lessly produce results as likely to endure, and as likely to influence for good the future of humanity, as the more _ ¢clamorous performances of the politician. One word more. On the continent of Europe, kings had been the nursing fathers, and queens the nursing mothers, of science; while Republican Governments were not a whit behind in the liberality of their subven- __ tions to scientific education. In England we had nothing of this kind, and to establish an equivalent state of ___ things we had to appeal, not to the Government, but to _ the people. They have been roused by making the most ‘recondite discoveries of science the property of the com- ‘munity at large. And as a result of this stirring of the national pulse—this development of self-reliance—we see schools, colleges, and universities now rising in our midst, which promise by and by to rival those of Germany in number and importance. It is time that I should cease. But before doing so, I would ask—as they do in the House of Commons—per- mission to say a word in personal explanation. I have climbed some difficult mountains in my time, and after strenuous effort for a dozen hours or more, upon ice, rock, and snow, I have not unfrequently reached the top. I question whether there is a joy on earth more exhilarat- | ing than that of the mountaineer, who, having achieved his object, is able to afford himself, upon the summit, a | foaming bumper of champagne. But, my lords and gentlemen, the hardest climb, by far, that I have ever accomplished, was that from the banks of the Barrow to the banks of the Thames—from the modest Irish roof under which I was born to Willis’s Rooms. Here I have reached my mountain-top, and you—God bless you !— have given me a bumper which no scientific climber ever before enjoyed. 7 Sir Frederick Pollock, in proposing the toast of “ Literature and Art,” said that on most occasions similar to the present one this toast was a triple one, and in- cluded the three sisters—Science, Literature, and Art. But this evening they were assembled together to do homage to science, in the person of one of its most dis- _ tinguished votaries, and for the time the room in which _ they had met became a temple of science. In such a temple the principal figure, standing upon the pedestal appropriated to the presiding goddess, must be that of Science, and to her due rites had been already rendered. But for the sisters Literature and Art room must be found also in the sacred edifice ; they too must have their altars and their shrines. He pointed out that the highest powers of the imagination were required by the man of science, as well as by the poet and the painter, and instanced the prediction by Fresnel of the bright spot in the centre of the shadow of a disk ; and the suggestion made to Goethe of his theory of the, development of the vertebrate skeleton, by his accidental observation of the scattered fragments of the deer’s skull lying in his path. He adduced the names of Aristotle, Bacon, and other great men who had connected literature with science ; and instanced Leonardo da Vinci, and Sir Christopher Wren, one of the founders of the Royal Society, as linking together science and art. He accord- ingly had great pleasure in submitting for acceptance “ Literature and Art,” coupling with it the name of Lord Lytton, who was not only a distinguished representative of modern literature, but had also a distinct hereditary claim to represent that of the last generation; and Sir Frederick Leighton, the distinguished President of the Royal Academy. The Earl of Lytton,—In returning thanks for “ Litera- ture” upon an occasion when we are all met to honour science in the person of one of its most illustrious adepts, I cannot but forcibly remember that we are living in anage when inquiry is more active and more widespread than conviction, and it is natural that in minds of the highest order under these conditions even the imaginative faculty should be more powerfully attracted to scientific research than to purely literary production. But inquiry, I think, would be very sterile if conviction in some form or another were not the ultimate fruit of it, and I think that for a period of really vigorous, creative, imaginative art we must look forward in the course of scientific research to some such general re-settlement of ideas upon the basis of a common conviction—which is not now, perhaps, alto- gether attainable—as may enable art, instead of represent- ing, as it does now, merely the mental attitude of the individual poet or the individual painter, once more to become the universally spontaneous and _ universally recognized imaginative expression of ideas and emotions which are common to a whole generation or a whole community. If that is the case, if science is ultimately to render this great service to literature and art, surely in the meanwhile we cannot but gratefully appreciate the literary labours of those men of science who in our own and in other countries are promoting or have promoted this result, not only as original discoverers but also as popular and powerful interpreters of scientific fact, and who in this latter capacity have already enriched contem- porary literature with writings of rare literary value. If, instead of returning thanks for literature, I were permitted to return thanks on behalf of literature to those writers who have powerfully influenced my own gene- ration, not only by thoughts which stimulate and instruct the intellect, but also by words which stir and elevate the heart, then assuredly I should ask leave to mention some distinguished names which occupy in the field of literature a position only second to the high rank they hold in the hierarchy of science ; and foremost among those names I should not hesitate to mention with a special personal gratitude the name of the illustrious man who _ is the honoured guest of this great assembly to-night. I cannot say it is as a student of science that I myself have studied the writings of Prof. Tyndall, but this I can say, and most truly, that those writings have been to me, from a very early period of my life, companions so cherished that I learnt to look upon their writer as a dear personal friend and benefactor long before it was my privilege to be admitted to his personal intimacy. I believe that scientific research has succeeded in establishing on a physiological basis certain evidences of intelligence even among oysters ; and certainly there is, I think, one form of intelligence which is conspicuously displayed by the 226 NATURE Fi [yudy 7: 1887 oyster which might perhaps be cultivated with advantage by after-dinner speakers in my position. The oyster knows when to shut up. Admonished by that very inter- esting and suggestive fact in natural history, what little else I have to say upon behalf of literature I shall confine to the expression of a hope that the well-deserved relaxa- tion from his more systematic scientific labours in con- nexion with the Royal Institution may enable my valued and honoured friend Prof. Tyndall to enjoy an increased leisure ‘for the continued cultivation of that department of literature which has already been so richly adorned by his admirable writings. Sir F. Leighton, who was to have responded for “ Art,” had been obliged to leave before this stage of the proceec- ings in order to receive Royal visitors at the Academy. Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., proposed the next toast, The Public Services in Relation to Science.” He said that undoubtedly the public services were intimately con- nected with science and were profoundly affected by its progress, but, unfortunately, the truth was only beginning to be recognized in this country. In the United States scientific men were attached to all public offices, but in this country the attachment was of the loosest possible character. Nevertheless, science had undoubtedly affected our public services in the most profound way. The telegraph had altered the whole system of commerce and also the methods and the powers of government. There was to be a great naval review next month; it would be interesting to imagine Elizabeth’s thirty small ships, which conquered the Armada, sailing through two miles of modern ironclads. The largest piece of ordnance used in the Crimean War cost less than a single shot fired ‘from the huge guns of our ironclads. But it was in peace rather than in war that science rejoiced in aiding government. A strong feeling was arising that we must improve our intellectual position as a nation, and this at last was being recognized by the Government. A material index of progressive civilization had always been desired. Liebig contended that the best index of civilization was the quantity of soap consumed. When the Queen ascended the throne we consumed per head 7? pounds of soap, and now we use Io pounds per head. The consump- tion of paper was a more reliable index. At the com- mencement of the Queen’s reign the consumption was 1; pound of paper yearly ; now it was 12 pounds; while in the United States it was 1o pounds, in Germany 9 pounds, in France 8 pounds, and in Italy 4 pounds. But the main question was whether we were developing the national ‘intellect at the same rate as other nations. Our general intelligence is still high, but our trained scientific intelli- gence is low. Our secondary education in all matters relating to science was far behind that of the United States,'Germany, and France. Neicher the Government nor the people governed could go on in simple faith on our practical aptitudes by relying on a blind and vain empiricism, like a tree severed from its roots. The Earl of Derby,—My Lords and Gentlemen: You have asked me to return thanks on behalf of the public services in connexion with science, and Sir L. Playfair, in relation to that toast, has referred to the increased con- sumption of soap in this country. I have attended a good many public dinners, and I must say that the expenditure of what is vulgarly called soft soap has been great this evening. I am sincerely grateful to him for the quantity of that article which it has pleased him to expend upon me. But really the toast is one which hardly any man is competent to do justice to, and certainly not one who like myself has no connexion with science, except a sincere admiration and respect for its professors, and whose con- nexion with the public service has only been that of a Parliamentary chief. Under our system the Parliamentary head of a department is mainly concerned to keep it in harmony with the House of Commons and with the public. He has te warn the permanent officials that something that is done, or something that is left nie or proposed to be left undone, is what public opinion wi resent ; and, on the other hand, he has to tell outsider that the things they ask him .and press him to. do ar things unwise or impossible from an administrative poin of view. That is useful; it is certainly laborious, and i is often a difficult function ; but it does not. involve: mt more scientific knowledge. than is implied in driving cab through a crowded street. It does require som knowledge of men, but that is a department of stud) to which, as yet, no scientific formula has been found t apply. Sir L. Playfair told us, and I was sorry to heari of the loose connexions which exist between scien 8 Government. I can only say that | am ieee of any such immoral transactions. But if the depz D were better represented here and if they could. ; themselves, I am sure that they would not be pasion acknowledging their obligations to science. The Treasury would tell you that those useful though sometimes un graceful coins in which our dinner is paid for would no circulate through Europe as they do if they had not beer subjected to a careful and complicated process, requiring scientific knowledge. The Excise might tell you, if cd ev chose, of the frauds that might be perpetrated revenue and the public if it were not for the ca aed scientific examination of all taxable articles. Pie y: Office would find no difficulty in acnowledging it: obligations to Watt and to Stephenson—for where woulc postal revenue be without railways ?—and in later days t investigators whose researches made the telegrap possible. But the fighting departments, or the spend departments, which is their more common name Downing Street, would have the most to return tha for. They would point to the modern ironclad, the elaborate, the most complete, and the most ei contrivances in which the art of construction as bet utilized for purposes of destruction. They would tell ye how the chemist, metallurgist, the engineer, the elect the mathematician, have all contributed their share to that extraordinary result of science and skill. The Wi; Office would follow the Admiralty. They would ne as Frederick of Prussia did, that Providence is o: side of the biggest battalions, but they might ibly that Providence was generally on the side of ‘the a which could bring into the field the most scientific. effective weapon in the hands of the most carefully-tr soldier. If I were toturn to the line of business with whic I had once something to do, I might ask any dipl omatis or any statesman to explain to you how largely the positior of Egypt, and, with that, the diplomacy o Europe, I as been affected ‘by that ‘little scratch which the iu i M. de Lesseps drew across the Egyptian sands ; and if, a is quite possible, the coal-carrying power of steamers a d their speed and their economy are largely increased—I do not speak of those wilder predictions according ‘to which steam is to be superseded as the motor power by more efficient—suppose I say the large increase of the coal- carrying power of steamers, and the results to which I have referred may be again reversed ; and again, at least in war time, the route to India may lie through the South African seas. If I speak of the colonies, everyone conversant v that department would admit that if we had had the ocean telegraph in existence twenty-five years ago | our little wars beyond the seas would never have taken place, and those that have taken place would have b on. disposed of in half the time. I know that tl things are common-place, but I cannot help that. — lf i could tell you what the next great discovery was to be, that would not be common-place. But, unfortunately. that is not in my power ; and if it were I do not think 7 should be in a hurry about it, because I have observed that those who are the first to announce a discovery are generally rewarded by having a remarkably unpleisant time. But however great may be the gains which we NATURE 227 @ * derived from the applications of science, they are thing as compared with those which will and do accrue us from the acceptance of scientific habits of thought. atis coming already, and it will come more ina not ote future. We have many things in this.age and ntry of which we cannot boast, but we may boast that science England has done something more than hold n. The great name of Darwin will survive, it may the British Empire itself, and with him will be re- bered some others also, whom to single out might aps be invidious, But we may be sure of this, that ong their names will be included the name of our dis- nguished guest of to-night. It is @ common complaint lat politicians have done nothing for science. In that do not agree. They have done the best they could for it—they have let it alone; they have not corrupted it by their intrigues, nor vulgarized it by their squabbles ; and they being what they are, and science being what it that is probably the best service they could have Tendered it. _. Lord Rayleigh proposed “ The Health of the Chairman.” Prof. Stokes briefly responded, and the company, which umbered nearly two hundred, separated. HE ELEVEN-VEAR PERIODICAL FLUCTUA- TION OF THE CARNATIC RAINFALL. AA ORE than fourteen years ago, in the pages of z NATURE, Mr. Norman Lockyer first drew atten- tion to an apparent periodical variation of the rainfall _ registered at the Madras Observatory ; which seemed to _ be such that it reached a maximum and a minimum alternately, at about the same epochs as the corresponding phases of the sunspot frequency. The idea, once started, was followed up by others, among whom perhaps the best _.___ known is Dr. (now Sir) W. W. Hunter, whase pamphlet _ on the subject, without laying claim to any originality as ards its subject-matter, attracted very general attention the charm of its style, and also by its attempt to identify the periodical occurrence of famines in Southern ndia with the epochs of minimum rainfall shown by the Madras registers. When, however, the data on which these speculations were based came to be critically examined, the general _ verdict of men of science was that the conclusions were “not proven.” This was certainly my own opinion ; and General R. Strachey, in a lecture delivered before the Royal Institution in 1877, and, at greater length, in a ‘paper communicated to the Royal Society in May of the ‘Same year, showed that any attempt to educe a true ___eyclical variation from the recorded figures, ended in a _-hegative result. Admitting that when the annual quanti- ties were tabulated in eleven-year cycles, the means of the homologous terms seemed to indicate a period of maximum between the third and seventh years, and of a minimum between the eighth and second years, he found that, when the mean difference of the individual years from the supposed periodical means was compared with the mean difference of the former from the arithmetical mean of the whole series, the results differed but little. It was further shown by myself that the supposed con- _nexion between the periodicity of the Madras (Observa- _ tory) rainfall and that of famines in Southern India was Saag means so intimate as might appear at first sight. i famines in question had occurred sometimes in one part of the peninsula, sometimes in another, by no means _ always in the country around Madras; but no. other ____ Station in the peninsula (of those then available for the ___ inquiry) showed even such an approach to a periodical Variation of the rainfall as did the Madras Observatory. Be) Nei ns this stage matters have since remained, with the _ -sxception that, in 1879, an apparent periodical fluctuation _ a very different character was brought to notice by — ™e€srs, Hill and Archibald in the winter rainfall of Northern India. This, which has an interest of its own, I shall not further discuss at present. In the course of a general investigation of the rainfall of India, the first part of which only has been as yet published (“Indian Meteorological Memoirs,” vol. iii. part 1), I have lately had occasion to reconsider these old questions, and to re-examine them by the light of the accumulated data of the last twenty-two years. For convenience of discussion, I have divided India and Burmah into twenty-four rainfall provinces, one of which is the Carnatic. This consists of the plain below the Eastern Ghats, occu- pying the south-east of the peninsula, and extending from Cape Comorin tothe mouths of the Kistna. Its area may be taken as 72,000 square miles. The town of Madras is situated nearly midway on the sea-coast of this province, and is a fairly representative station ; but, in addition to the rainfall registers of the Madras Observatory, I have those of thirty-nine other stations, pretty equally dis- tributed through the province ; most of them extending back to 1864. The Carnatic is distinguished by one important peculiarity in the season of its chief rainfall. During the spring months, it receives a certain amount of rain, in common with the southern and eastern provinces of India generally ; but while the heavy summer rains are falling in Central and Northern India, and also on the west coast of the peninsula, the Carnatic is but little affected by them. In its southern districts, indeed, the rainfall of June and July is less than that of May ; and it is not until the rains are over in North-Western India, viz. in October and November, that this province receives the chief and heaviest rainfall of the year. Hence the vicissitudes of the rainfall of the summer months, which are all important in Central and Northern India, are relatively less important in the Carnatic, even if they affect that province in the same manner as Northern India—and this is far from being always the case—and as a final result the annual fluctuation of the Carnatic rainfall often differs widely from that of other provinces in the peninsula. The mean annual rainfall of the Carnatic may be taken in round figures at 35 inches, which is about 7 inches less than the general average of the whole of India. The following table gives the annual variation from this average for the twenty-two years 1864-85, which results when the annual total fall of each indi- vidual station is compared with its local average, and the mean of all the differences taken for each year. Annual mean rainfall variation of the Carnatic rainfall, Inches. nches. 1864 - 5°0 1875 -— 52 1865 - 5°0 1876 —13°2 1866 - 40 1877 + 83 1867 —- 94 1878 fe) 1868 — 4°6 1879 + 2°3 1869 - 03 1880 + 70 1870 + 1'8 1881 — 21 1871 ce 1882 ... + 4°4 1872 +11'5 IOS2 cas er. 52 1873 = O7F 1884 +116 1874 + .7°3 1885 - I'l During the first thirteen years (with the exception of 1873) the fluctuation, here shown, is remarkably distinct and regular. The rainfall reached a minimum in 1867, then rose steadily to a maximum in 1872, and after a drop in 1873, and partial recovery in the following year, fell rapidly to a second minimum in 1876. From 1877 to 1881 it oscillated considerably, but thereafter rose again steadily to a second maximum in 1884, dropping again in 1885 to something below the average. Thus we. have, apparently, two complete cycles in the twenty-two years ; the first remarkably regular, the second less so, but with the periodical fluctuation still dominant. ; In order to ascertain with somewhat greater precision 228 NATURE [xaly 7, 1887 the probable character of this periodical fluctuation in an eleven-year cycle, the coefficients of the first two periodical terms of the harmonic formula have been computed, taking 1864 as the initial epoch. These coefficients are— wu’ = 5°340 inches. 2’ = 2°873 inches. 1. = 206-20" 1 = ae and the values of the eleven annual phases of the cycle thus found are— Inches. 1864 and 1875 — 5°1 1865 ,, 1876 -— 6°7 1866 ,, 1877 - 4°4 1867. ,, 1878 — 1°5 1868 ,, 1879 — 0°6 1869 ,, 1880 — 0°77 1870 ,, 1881 + 08 1871 -,, 1882 + 474 1872 ,, .1883 + 73 1873 ,, 1884 + 5°9 1874 ,, 1885 + 0°5 Taking the differences of these values from the recorded rainfall of each of the twenty-two years, the mean devia- tion of the latter in any one year from its periodical value is found to be— + 3'5 inches, which is only one-fourth of the range of the periodical variation as above determined ; and the probable error e, of the periodical value, as found by the formula— as = (v") € = 0°6745 n/a = ay is = 0°70 inch. On the other hand, the mean deviation of a single year from the general average is + 5‘2 inches, and the probable error of that average + 0°94 inch. What, then,is the numerical probability of the cyclical variation, thus determined, being a true periodical fluctuation, representing a regularly recurrent pheno- menon? As a general problem this cannot be solved, because we do not know all the variations to which the rainfall may conceivably be subject. But we can com- pare the relative probability of this particular variation being the result of a periodic law, and of its being a mere fortuitous series of variations from a constant average. That it is the most probable variation, having the assumed period of eleven years (with the exception of such as might be computed from a larger number of periodic terms), is assured by the method of its computation, which is based on that of least squares; and one may assume that this relative probability-for. a single year is represented by the inverse ratio of the probable errors of the two means above determined, viz.— 0°94 o'70° This ratio of probability increases in geometrical pro- gression, as the number of years during which it is found to hold good increases in arithmetical progression’; and, for twenty-two years, becomes— oot) = Obes (224) 5534. This ratio, although by no means amounting to demon- stration of the exact validity of this particular cycle, * The probability of throwing any given series of numbers of a single die, in any prescribed order, repeatedly for ~ throws, is obviously the same as that of throwing a single given number ~ times in succession, viz. (2 ee and the probability of throwing, in like manner, one out of a givenseries of dyads or triads, the dyads or triads varying in any prescribed order is (2)” or (2)*. The relative probability of the dyad to the triad series is & oe and - . eq: 3, . generally the relative probability of a phenomenon, the law of variation of affords at least a very high probability that the apparent undecennial fluctuation is no chance phenomenon. Apart from the approximate identity of its period, the oscillation of the rainfall, thus disclosed, is very different in character from that of the sunspot curve. The periodical minima of both rainfall cycles preceded those of the corre- sponding sunspot cycles by two years ; the actual year of minimum rainfall coincided with that of sunspot mini- mum in the first cycle, and preceded it by two years in the second. The periodical maximum of the first cyele followed the sunspot maximum by two years, that of the second cycle coincided with the corresponding phase of sunspots, which, in this case, was retarded by two years. The actual rainfall maximum occurred two years late; than the sunspot maximum in the first cycle, and year later in the second. fi Hence, as far as the evidence of two cycles goes, the minimum of the rainfall tends to precede the minimum of the sunspots, the maximum of the former to follow that of the latter ; and it is noteworthy, as I shall after- wards show, that the droughts which, during the last century, have visited with more or less intensity certain portions of the Indian peninsula, have, on an average, preceded years of sunspot minimum by about one year. _ In the other provinces of tropical India, an eleven-year cycle is hardly, if at all, to be detected; a conclusion fully in accord with that which I drew, in 1877, from an ex- amination of the rainfall registers of Bangalore, Mysore, Bombay, Nagpur, &c. The more pronounced phases of the Carnatic cycle are indeed reproduced as a rule, more or less distinctly, as seasons of high or low rainfall re- spectively, in most parts of the peninsula; but some of the intermediate years are characterized by vicissitudes as great, and even greater than these, destroying the appearance of anything like regular fluctuation. ae The Carnatic minimum of 1867, which was the cul- mination of five years’ (1864-68) deficient rainfall, was represented also in Mysore and Bellary, in Malabar and the Deccan; but, in the last two of these provinces, 1866 had a still lower rainfall: and in Berar and Khandesh, while the deficiency of 1866 was (relatively to the average) greater than in any of the more southern provinces, that of 1867 was above the average. In the Konkan again, there was no very great deficiency before 1871, and this was shared more or less by the whole of the peninsula, excepting only the Carnatic and Malabar, which had an excess of 16 and 13 per cent. respectively. pee The Carnatic maximum of 1872 was reproduced in Orissa and the Northern Circars—that is to say, in all the eastern provinces of the peninsula—and also in Berar and Khandesh ; but in other parts of the peninsula the rain- fall of this year differed but little from the average. 1874, however, was a year of excessive rainfall in all the western and southern provinces of the peninsula. The great drought of 1876 (the second Carnatic mini- mum) extended with even greater intensity to Mysore, Bellary, Hyderabad, and the Deccan districts of Bombay, and affected more or less the whole of the peninsula, and, in addition, a great part of extra-tropical India. But in the Konkan and Malabar the deficiency was only 18 per cent. of an average fall. In the Konkan the deficiency of the following year was much greater ; and in the northern provinces of Bombay, as well as in the greater part of North-Western India, the summer rainfall of 1877 failed almost completely ; whereas in the Carnatic the rainfall of that year was remarkably copious. one which is unknown, varying 2 times in succession, between limits + 2 and +(4 + 2) respectively, is— p r Similar reasoning holds good when # and # + % are the measures of the mean Variation ; and also when, as in the case before us, they represent i probable errors of alternative averages. Finally, the relative improbabi of the more limited range, as a chance result—in other words, the pr?@- bility of the limitation being the result of a regulating cause—is exp~5S© by the inverse ratio. a /. / 7 | Fuly 7, 1887] NATURE . 229 The following year, 1878, was one of remarkably copious rainfall in nearly all parts of the peninsula, with the exception of the Carnatic, where the rainfall did not exceed the average. In Hyderabad it was greater than that of any other year since regular registers have been kept; and, on the general average of the peninsula _ (excluding the Carnatic), it is approached only by that of - 1874 and 1882. Finally, the Carnatic maximum of 1884 coincided with small excess in Hyderabad and with a larger excess in _ the north-west of the peninsula (the Central Provinces, Berar, Khandesh, the Konkan, and Guzerat); but this as due to independent conditions. In Mysore, Bellary, _ Malabar, the Deccan, the Northern Circars, and Orissa, the rainfall of the year was more or less deficient, especially in Mysore, where the fall was only three-fourths of the average. It may, then, be considered as demonstrated that the _ apparently periodical variation of the Carnatic rainfall is _ by no means representative of a similar variation in that _ of Southern India generally ; and I might here conclude _ the discussion, were it not that the independent evidence of a certain apparent regularity in the recurrence of _ droughts and dearths seems to require a few words of notice. At page 21 of the Report of the Indian Famine Com- missioners is given a list of all the serious droughts, and _ consequent seasons of dearth, that have affected India during the last century. Selecting those that have _ chiefly affected some part of the peninsula, we have the following :— egg Intervals. 1782 1791 2 years: 1802 wee wee wee 3” 1806 eee eee ef é 3° 1812 oe ore ee a 9 1823 eee eee see Pry 1832 bath | Wael zee = 9 1844 eae eee ee 9 > ee eee 1865 : ie! 1876 ihe Omitting that of 1806, which divided the ordinary _ interval into two, the mean interval is 10°36 years, and _the deviation from this mean in no case amounts to two years. According to Wolf’s table, the years of minimum _ sunspots and their intervals were :-— ses mae Intervals. 1754 1798 4 years. ISIO ' a 1823 2 ag 1833 Mr a 1843 13 ” 1856 ‘; “if 1867 oe Ds 1878 ey the mean interval being 11°18 years. The coincidence of these mean intervals is hardly so close as might be anti- cipated were there any real physical interdependence between recurrent phases of the sun’s condition, and the recurrence of the droughts. And a comparison of the dates in detail brings to light further discrepancies. Thus the years of drought vary in their relations to the nearest years of minimum sunspots as follows :— One, midway between two sunspots minima ; seven years distant from each ; One, four years earlier ; One, three years earlier ; Three, two years earlier ; _ One, one year earlier ; - One, coincident ; One, one year later ; One, two years later ; _ One, four years later. Omitting the first (that of 1791), which occurred four years after a year of maximum sunspots, and midway between two minima, in an unusually prolonged cycle, the years of drought, on a general average, anticipated the sunspot minima by somewhat less than a year, instead of following the minima, as might have been expected on the hypothesis of the former standing to the quiescent condition of the sun in the relation of effect to cause. I should not, however, hastily conclude from these facts that there is no relation between the recurrence of drought in Southern India, and the periodical variation of the solar photosphere; but merely that the inter- dependence of the two classes of phenomena, if real, is far from being simple and direct, and also that other and, as far as we know, non-periodic causes, concur largely in producing drought. If we accept the conclusions, drawn in the first part of this note, as to the highly probable periodicity of the Carnatic rainfall, one must admit that there is, in that province, a recurrent tendency to drought at eleven-year intervals, though it does not always culminate in drought of disastrous intensity ; and this epoch anticipates by about two years that of the sunspot minimum. This tendency is evidently much weaker in other parts of the peninsula; and in Northern India there is some indication of a tendency to the recurrence of drought about the time of maximum sunspots, as in 1803, 1837, 1838, and 1860—all years of disastrous drought in Northern India; and the experience of late years has demonstrated that these droughts generally extend to the northern provinces of the peninsula. HENRY F. BLANFORD, NOTES. WE print elsewhere a report of the speeches delivered by Mr. Goschen and by some members of the influential deputation who waited upon him last Thursday to press the claims of University Colleges. The deputation had certainly no reason to complain of the manner in which they were received. Mr. Goschen, speaking as Chancellor of the Exchequer, was of course obliged to adopt a cautious tone ; but it was plain enough that those who addressed him represented a cause with which he had strong personal sympathy. His promise that the Government would give the matter ‘‘its most serious attention,” means, we may hope, that the principle of State aid for University Colleges has been practically accepted. On Monday the foundation-stone of the Imperial Institute was laid by the Queen. No representative of science, as such, was invited to be present at the ceremony, and NATURE did not receive a Press ticket. Evidently science is to have little to do with the New Institute. THE Prussian Society for the Promotion of Industry has recently offered a prize of about £150 for the most exhaustive critical comparison of all kinds of existing bronze, tombac, and brass alloys, used or recommended for machinery, giving their chief properties with regard to resistance, ductility, friction at different temperatures, malleability, electrical conductivity, be- haviour with acids, hydrogen and carbon sulphides, chlorine, and other strongly corrosive substances met with in practice. The same Society also offers a gold medal and £250 for the best work on light and heat radiation of burning gases. The time limit in the former case is the end of 1887; in the latter, the end of 1888. The National Association for the Promotion of Technical Education has now been formed. A meeting of persons in- terested in the movement was held on the Ist inst. at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. Lord Hartington presided, and among those present were Lord Rosebery, Mr. John Morley, Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir John Lubbock, and representatives from Colleges, technical schools, trade-unions, School Boards, national Societies, and Chambers of Commerce. 230 NATURE [xuly 7, 1887 wie About 40 members of Parliament were also present. Lord Hartington, in opening the proceedings, said their object was not so much to stimulate public interest in this great question as to consider from a practical point of view the channels into | which such interest ought to be directed. He had been struck by the facts relating to technical education at home and abroad | which had been presented in very voluminous form to the public | in the reports of our Consuls. We had in this country attained to a great industrial and technical supremacy in the world. We | had attained this position partly by the possession of great | resources in coal and iron and other industrial. materials, partly ; from the character, energy, and industry of our people, and partly—and here he might be trenching upon controversial grounds—from the fact of our having adopted a sound com- mercial policy. At the same time, concurrently with our attainment of this supremacy, wonderful scientific discoveries had been made, and more and more science was being applied to the industrial occupations of the world. Other nations had | and Electricians. Mr. Preece, F.R.S., was appointed chair- man. In his opening speech. he said they had met to make arrangements. for a. dinner which was to be given in celebra- tion of the jubilee of the telegraph. It was the success of the essay made by Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone that led to the association of Robert Stephenson, George Parker Bidder, Brunel, and other well-known men in those days, with the tele~ , graph, and from that little beginning they had seen how the ' telegraphs had spread all over the face of the earth. In Eng- | land, where the first step was taken, they had succeeded in | important event, probably the greatest event that had ' its present great position should meet together and. talk. over old. keeping well in the van, and it was only fitting that such red iy xy during the long reign of Her Majesty, should be celebra that those who had been instrumental in bringing telegrapk times. It so happened that there were several reasons why the _ celebration should not take place on July 25, which was really: been quick to perceive this, and were striving to make their | position equal to ours by developing at immense cost to the State and public funds that scientific instruction which would enable their manufactories and workmen to compete successfully with ours. If we were passive in the matter—if we were indolent— it was conceivable not only that foreign nations would rival us, but they might also succeed in passing us, with consequences , which it would be difficult to contemplate. If we were satisfied to go on as we were, if we were content to rely in the future as we had done in the past on those advantages which had given us our present position, and if we did not think it necessary to organize more completely our system of technical instruction than at present, that decision should be the result of deliberate and well-formed consideration and not the result of apathy or indolence. Sir Lyon Playfair, moved that the Association be formed, that Lord Hartington be invited to become President, and the following gentlemen Vice-Presidents :—Lord Granville, Lord Ripon, Lord Rosebery, Lord Spencer, the Bishop of London, Mr. Broadhurst, Prof. Huxley, Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Mundella, Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir B. Samuelson, Prof. Stuart, Dr. Sullivan, Sir R. Temple, and Prof. Tyndall. Mr. John Morley, in seconding the motion, said the time for further inquiry had gone past, and the time had arrived when they could no longer with wisdom, or even with safety, delay the movement they that day commenced. The resolution was carried unanimously. Sir J, Lubbock moved the appointment of an executive Com- mittee, which was carried; as was a motion, made by Mr. Mundella and seconded by Lord Rosebery, that those present be invited to join the Council. A discussion ensued on the proposed objects of -the Association, after which Sir B. Samuel- son moved, and Mr. Howell seconded, a resolution inviting the assistance of large towns and the chief. industrial centres, The motion was duly carried, and votes of thanks closed the proceedings. In his statement on Monday about the progress of business in the House of Commons, Mr. W. H. Smith said: ‘‘ There is a measure for pro.noting technical education, which we have every reason to believe will be accepted unanimously by the House— at all events, we hope that a very slight discussion will be sufficient to pass that measure into law.” ON July 25, 1837, the first practical essay in telegraph work- ing was made by Messrs. Cooke and Wheatstone between Euston and Camden Town. In the material order of things few more magnificent triun.phs have ever been achieved, and it has very properly been decided that the fiftieth anniversary of the occasion shall be celebrated. Some time ago an influential Committee was formed to take the matter into consideration, and the other day there was a well-attended meeting of the membeis at the offices of the Society of Telegraph-Engineers the proper day. In the first place, Mondays were days: with legislators in their House over the way, and it would be extremely difficult to get many of those whom they hoped to attract if the proposed. dinner took place on a Monday; a it was quite impossible on a Government night, like Monday, get the Postmaster-General, who, it was thought, should ake the chair, to attend ; and, further, on July 23 there was to | ye: a. great naval review, and a great many who would wish toa tend, the dinner would not be able to get back until late on Monday afternoon. For those reasons it would be difficult to hold 1 dinner on the 25th, and Wednesday, the 27th, had been sugges as meeting everybody’s convenience. He therefore novel ae ceaate Mr. Willoughby Smith seconded the motion, was unanimously agreed to. Discussion followed resp matters of detail, and an Executive Committee was el consistinz of Messrs. W.. Hi. Preece, E. Graves, Cc. i Messrs. H. ‘Aisbaster and C, H, W. Biggs as Honorary pee taries, and Mr. F. H. Webb, Secretary of the Society of - graph-Engineers and Electricians, as Acting Secretary. — [ guarantee fund was at once opened, and names were soon d dowr for upwards of £100. The meeting was adjourned until ’ Tues- day, the 12th inst., when the Executive peeps All re as to the progress of the ee an assistant to the Professor of Botany; another on Practical Zoology, conducted at the Scottish Marine Station, Granton, Edinburgh, by Mr. J. Arthur Thomson, Lecturer on Zoology in’ the School of Medicine, with the co-operation of Mr. J. T. Cunningham, the Superintendent of the Station. These courses” ought to be of great service to teachers and others oceup ed during the University terms, for whom they are ri) intended. WRITING to us from Tashkend on June 12, M. “Wilkins sa that the city of Vernoje was completely ruined by pe earth- quake of June 9. More than 800. bodies. had been cay sf ee ‘i if water are said to flow abundantly from the disturbed a to the scene of the catastrophe, and many crevasses are ig inthe ground. The exact time of the tremendous shock is, jiven as 4h. 35m. local time. At 4h. 18m. (Tashkend local time) | the same morning, we felt here a flat wave which set in motion suspended objects. Taking into account the difference of longi tude between Tashkend and Vernoje and the consequent differ- ence of time, it appears that the wave travelled in a straight Tine | , more than 400 miles in the short time of 13°5 minutes, crossing NATURE — ‘ 231 on the way, in a diagonal direction, the whole western half of the Thian Shan range.” een Christina. The most important exhibits are specimens ‘the natural products, vegetable and mineral, of the Philippine slands. Some forty natives, male and female, with their native houses and arms, are present. The late King of Spain started idea of a permanent Colonial Museum, to contain the cantile products of the Spanish colonies. The opening of Exhibition is regarded as the first step towards the realization is scheme. ANOTHER instalment of his valuable work on high tempera- _ ture dissociations has just been given forth from the laboratory _ 0f Prof. Victor Meyer, at Géttingen. The molecular condition phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony at the highest accessible temperatures has been the subject of this recent work, and the following are the experimental results obtained. As is well nown, the experiments of Deville and Troost brought to light the fact that as high as 1040° in the case of phosphorus, and 860° in the case of arsenic, the observed densities are such as can only be explained on the supposition that the molecules of these elements consist of four atoms, J. Mensching and Victor Meyer now show that as the temperature is gradually raised to i red heat the molecular weights begin to diminish—that is, the ir-atom molecules commence to break down—and at a white eat so large a number are dissociated that the values obtained for the vapour-densities approximate to those required on the Suppesition that the molecules each contain but two atoms. Hence, at a white heat the vapour-densities of phosphorus and ~arsenic.are normal, and the molecules consist of the usual two atoms. In the case of antimony, no thoroughlytrastworthy work hitherto been published as to its molecular state, but it has n generally supposed to consist also of four-atom molecules. ensching and Meyer, however, find that it behaves quite phosphorus and arsenic, inasmuch as immediately on lization its density is found to correspond to a molecule of t three atoms, and although dissociation continues to the ‘limit of terrestrially procurable temperatures, yet when this is -attained, the level of the normal state is not reached, and more Alefinite results must perforce be deferred until, by some inge- _-Mious device, temperatures far higher are obtainable. _ THE Royal Meteorological Institute of the Netherlands at ‘Utrecht has recently published its faarbock for 1886, containing observations taken three times daily at ten places, and daily rainfall values at eighty stations. These volumes, which have been regularly issued for thirty-eight years, form one of the most complete series of meteorological observations in Europe, vand they also contain valuable discussions on the climatology of _ distant parts. The volume now in question contains observa- _ ttions taken at San Salvador (on the Congo) for 1885, and at _ Djedda (Arabia Felix), Paramaribo (Dutch Guiana), and Cule- bra (Panama Canal) for 1886. The Director of this Institution (Dr. Buys Ballot) first enunciated the law that now bears his ‘ame, showing the universal relation of the direction of the wind to barometric pressure, which has been so instrumental in (popularizing weather knowledge. This Office also deals largely ‘with maritime meteorology, and has published a long series of “papers on this subject entitled “* Uitkomsten van wetenschap en ervaring,” as well as wind-charts for the various oceans. AN unusual number of foreign men of science will be present the Manchester meeting of the British Association for the vancement of Science. The following is the first list of ners who have accepted invitations to attend the meeting :— nA (Physics and Mathematics): Cleveland Abbe, Meteoro- Office, Washington ; Von Hefner Altneck, Berlin; A. Ecole Polytechnique, Paris ; A. Crova, Montpellier ; Eastman, U.S. Naval Observatory ; W. Foerster, Director of the Berlin Observatory ; W. de Fonvielle, Paris; A. Horst- man, Heidelberg; F. Kohlrausch, Professor of Physics, Wiirz- burg; A. Kundt, Professor of Physics, Strassburg; William Libbey, Princeton College, N.J.; G. Lippmann, Paris; R. Lipschitz, Professor of Mathematics, Bonn; Malcolm McNeill, Princeton College, N.J.; O. E. Meyer, Breslau ; G. Quincke, Professor of Physics, Heidelberg; Schering, Director of the Observatory, Gottingen ; Ernst Schroeder, Karlsruhe ; j. Violle, Ecole Normale, Paris ; E. Warburg, Professor of Physics, Frei- burg; H. Wild, St. Petersburg; A. C. Young, Princeton College, N.J. Section B (Chemistry): A. Bernthsen, Heidelberg ; La We Briihl, Freiburg; Caro, Mannheim; Le Chatelier, Paris ; F. W. Clarke, Washington; De Clermont, Paris; F. B. Fittica, Marburg; R. Fittig, Strassburg ; Hempel, Dresden; Reinhardt Hoffman, Biebrich ; A. Ladenburg, Kiel; J. W. Langley, University of Michigan; A. Lieben, Vienna; C, Lieberman, Berlin ; Oscar Liebreich, Berlin; Lunge, Zurich ; J. W. Mallet, University of Virginia; C. A. Martius, Berlin ; Mendelejeff, St. Petersburg; Menschutkin, St. Petersburg ; Lothar Meyer, Tiibingen; Noelting, Muhlhausen; Pauli, Hockst; Silva, Paris; G. Wiedemann, Leipzig; Otto Witt, Berlin; J. Wislicenus, Leipzig. Section C (Geology): E. Cohen, Greifswald; H. von Dechen, Bonn; Anton Fritsch, Prague; Alfred Nehring, Berlin; Abbé Renard, Bruxelles; F. Zirkel, Leipzig. Section D (Biology): A. de Bary, Strassburg; Von Boddaert, Cutsem; C. W. Braune, Leipzig ; A. Chauveau, Paris ; F. Cohn, Breslau ; C. Dervalque, Liége ; C. Gegentauer, Heidelberg ; Asa Gray, Harvard Col- lege, Cambridge, U.S.; W. His, Leipzig; A. Hubrecht, Utrecht ; Ch. Julin, Liége ; F. Kiihne, Heidelberg ; Count von Solms Laubach, Gottingen; Lortet, Lyon; Marey, Paris; C. S. Minot, Harvard College; G. S. Morse, Salem, Mass.; P. Preyer, Jena ; Pringsheim, Berlin ; J. von Sachs, Wiirzburg ; De Saporta, Aix; A. Weismann, Freiburg; R. Wiedersheim, Freiburg. Secéton E (Geography): Comodore Jansen, The Hague ; M. Lindemann, Bremen ; M. Venukoff, Paris. Section F (Economic Science): Carl Greven, Leyden; Dana Horton; Judge Mackay ; A. de Marcoartu, Madrid; Carl Menger, Vienna ; Section G (Engineering): Thos, Egleston, Washington ; J. B, Francis, Past President of the American Society of Civil Engineers; A. Gobert, Bruxelles; Quinette de Rochemont, Havre ; R. H. Thurston, Sibley College, Cornell University. Section H (Anthropology): Dr. O. Finsch ; Marquis de Nadaillac, Paris. MeEssrks. Marcus WARD AND Co, will publish, early this autumn, a work, in two volumes, on the Canary Islands. The writer, Mrs. Olivia M. Stone, author of ‘* Norway in June,” visited with her husband all the islands of the group—a feat which had never before been accomplished by English people: Illustrations from photographs taken during the tour, and eight maps made from the author’s personal observations, will accom- any the letterpress, IN a letter printed by us last week, describing a meteor which was seen in West Sussex by daylight, the meteor is said to have ** disappeared near the meridian of Antares.” For ‘‘ meridian ” read ‘* position.” THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include three Blotched Genets (Genetla tigrina) from South Africa, presented by Gen. J. J. Bisset ; an Ocelot (Felis pardalis) from South America, presented by the Earl of Dudley ; a Barn Owl (Strix flammea), British, presented by Mr. Wickham ; a White-tailed Sea Eagle (Ha/iaetus albicilla), Euro- pean, presented by Mr. G. J. Mayer; a Ceylonese Jungle Fowl (Gadlus stan/eyi) from Ceylon, presented by Mr. Hugh Neville ; six Corn-Crakes (Crex pratensis), British, presented by Mr. G. J. B. Willows ; a Magpie { Pica rustica) from France, presented by Mr. Walter H. Ince; a Yellow-fronted Amazon 232 NATURE (Chrysotis ochrocephala) from Guiana, deposited; six Chin- chillas (Chinchilla lanigera) from Chili, a Burrowing Owl (Speotyto cunicularia) from Buenos Ayres, two Hoopoes ( Upupa epops), British, a Gould’s Monitor (Varanus gouldi) from Aus- tralia, purchased ; two Mule Deer (Cariacus macrotis), a Y ellow- footed Rock Kangaroo (Petrogale xanthopus) born in the Gardens ; two Blood-breasted Pigeons (Phlogenas cruentata) bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. RELATIVE POSITIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL STARS IN THE PLEIADES.—We have received vol. i., part 1, of the Transac- tions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale University, con- taining an important paper by Dr. W. L. Elkin, giving the results of his researches with the Yale heliometer on the rela- tive positions of sixty-nine stars situated in the above-mentioned group, ‘he work consists, in reality, of two independent tri- angulations: one resting on measurements of the distance of each star in the group from each of four stars situated near its outer limits, so that nearly the entire group is inclosed sym- metrically by the quadrilateral formed by them; the other resting on measurements of distance and position-angle from Alcyone, the central star of the group. These two independent determinations are in very satisfactory agreement, and Dr. Elkin has thus furnished a most accurate catalogue, for the epoch 1885, of the relative positions in R.A. and declination of these sixty- nine stars. For comparison of his results with the K6nigsberg places for 1840, Dr. Elkin has adopted the corrections to the Tatter resulting from Prof. Auwers’s researches, and brought up the newly reduced places to 1885, exhibiting the comparison in the form of apparent displacements in R.A. and in declination, the place of Alcyone being made identical in both series. For the six largest cases of relative displacement there is a remarkable com- munity both of direction and amount of apparent motion, and it is remarkable that this general drift is very similar to the reversed absolute motion of Alcyone as given by Newcomb. For two of the stars, Bessel’s Nos. 14 and 35, the coincidence is, in Dr. Elkin’s opinion, sufficiently close to warrant the deduc- tion that these two stars at least do not belong to, but form only optical members of, the group. It is possible, if not probable, that the other four should also be placed in the same category. The general character of the internal motions of the group appears, however, to be extremely minute, and Dr. Elkin thinks that the hopes of obtaining any clue to the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized in the immediate future. Dr. Elkin also compares his results with the micro- metrical measures of M. Wolf at Paris and of Prof. Pritchard at Oxford, and arrives at the conclusion that ‘‘the use of the filar micrometer for such large distances as those under considera- tion is likely to be accompanied with considerable casual error, and, unless great care is taken, with large systematic error. The conclusions of Messrs. Wolf and Pritchard as to the relative motions in the group have thus been unfortunately vitiated, and must be replaced by those formulated” in Dr. Elkin’s most able paper. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887 JULY 10-16. (FOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at Greenwick mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on July 10 Sun rises, 3h. 57m.; souths, 12h. 5m. 1°7s. ; sets, 20h. 13m. ; decl. on meridian, 22° 16’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 15h. 27m. Moon (at Last Quarter on July 13) rises, 22h. 32m.*; souths, 3h. 51m. ; sets, 9h. 19m. ; decl. on meridian, 8° 32'S. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. h, m. h. m. h. m. Ra Mercury 6 14 1940':\..5. 21 6 15 33 N Venus ... 8 10 15.10 ..,::22 10 10 57 N Mars gee Yi 10 42 10-793 23 59 N Jupiter... ... 13 8 18 26 23 44 9 45. Saturn... 4 34 12 35 20 36 2016 Ni * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding evening. ( ¥uly 7, 1887 j July. TZ see eee $3. +3: Boe NE Mercury at greatest distance from the Sun. Venus at greatest elongation from the Sun, 46° east. eae rm) Mercury stationary. ae Variable Stars. pitt Star. R.A. Decl. bt, h m. ° ‘ h. m. yA U Cephei O 52°3... 81 16 N.... July 12, 22 52 o Ceti... foc. . 2 OO 0 we mv Algol 3 08 ... 40 31 N. 2. Gh ee S Leonis Ii 5:0... 6° 4N. 7 ee MM W Virginis ... 13::20°2 2 48S. .... 5) thy 5 Librze fo ha ae 8 45 »» 35, 23 42 m B Lyre... ... ss 18 45°9 ... 33 14.N. » 12,22 Oae R Lyree 18 51°9.... 43 48 N. “9 i MM 5 Cephei 22 25°0 ... §7 SON. ... 95° hes) R Pegasi 23 10... -9 56 Ni ae Ma M signifies maximum ; #2 minimum. Meteor-Showers. hetced:-- R.A. Decl. se From Herculis . 271 .«. 21 N. Veryslow. Ophiuchus .., 280 14S. Veryslow. Near m Pegasi 329 36 N. Swift. Red streaks. From Andromeda... 352 38 N. Swift. — REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF INQUIRY INTO M. PASTEUR’S TREATMENT OF HYVDROPHOBIA. eae THE following is the text of this important Report to the President of the Local Government Board :— Po ea S1r,—In accordance with the instructions contained in a letter A $i dated April 12, 1886, from your predecessor, the Right Honour: able Joseph Chamberlain, M. P., appointing us to be a Committee to inquire into M. Pasteur’s treatment of hydrophobia, we beg leave to present to you the following Report. Mga». = In order to answer the several questions involved in the in- quiry, we found it necessary that some of the members of the Committee should, together with Mr. Victor Horsley, the Secretary, visit Paris, so as to obtain information from M. Pastew himself, and observe his method of treatment, and in ute a considerable number of the cases of persons inoculated by him ; and, further, that a careful series of experiments should be made by Mr. Horsley on the effects of such inoculation on the lowe! animals. The detailed facts of these observations and experi- ments are placed in the Appendix to this Report ; a summary of them, and the conclusions which we believe may be drawn from them, are given in the next following pages. tie pi The experiments by Mr. Horsley entirely confirm M. Pasteur’: discovery of a method by which animals may be protected from the infection of rabies, “The general facts proved by them maj be thus stated : j + cag aa If a dog, or rabbit, or other animal be bitten by a papel. and die of rabies, a substance can be obtained from its spin: cord which, being inoculated into a healthy dog or other animal, will produce rabies similar to that which would have followec directly from the bite of a rabid animal, or differing only in thai the period of incubation between the inoculation and the appear ance of the characteristic symptoms of rabies may be altered. — The rabies thus transmitted by inoculation may, by similas inoculations, be transmitted through a succession of rabbits witk marked increase of intensity. oe But the virus in the spinal cords of rabbits that have thus diec of inoculated rabies may be gradually so weakened or attenuated, by drying the cords, in the manner devised by M. Pasteur anc related in the Appendix that, after a certain number of days drying, it may be injected into healthy rabbits or other animal: without any danger of producing rabies. Ss. And by using, on each successive day, the virus from a spina cord dried during a period shorter than that used on the previou: day, an animal may be made almost certainly secure agains rabies, whether from the bite of a rabid dog or other animal or from any method of subcutaneous inoculation. iy The protection from rabies thus secured is proved by the fac that, if some animals thus protected and others not thus protectec be bitten by the same rabid dog, none of the first set will die o: uly 7, 1887) NATURE 233 , and, with rare exceptions, all of the second set will so t may, hence, be deemed certain that M. Pasteur has dis- ered a method of protection from rabies comparable with that ch vaccination affords against infection from small-pox. It ld be difficult to over-estimate the importance of the dis- y, whether for its practical utility or for its application in eral pathology. It shows a new method of inoculation, or, {. Pasteur sometimes calls it, of vaccination, the like of it may become possible to employ for protection of both and domestic animals against others of the most intense of ‘virus. The duration of the immunity from rabies which is conferred inoculation is not yet determined ; but during the two years have passed since it was first proved there have been no cations of its being limited. e evidence that an animal may thus, by progressive inocula- s, be protected from rabies suggested to M. Pasteur that if eam or any person, though unprotected, were bitten by a id dog, the fatal influence of the virus might be prevented ! by a timely series of similar progressive inoculations. He has - accordingly, in the institution established by him in Paris, thus inoculated a very large number of persons believed to have been bitten by rabid animals ; and we have endeavoured to ascertain _ with what amount of success he has done so. ‘The question might be answered with numerical accuracy if it ere possible to ascertain the relative numbers of cases of hydro- obia occurring among persons of whom, after being similarly tten by really rabid animals, some were and some were not inoculated. But an accurate numerical estimate of this kind is ible. For (1) It is often difficult, and sometimes impossible, to ascertain whether the animals by which people were bitten, and which were believed to be rabid, were really so. They may have escaped, or may have been killed at once, or may have been observed by none but persons quite incompetent to judge of their condition. (2) The probability of hydrophobia occurring in persons bitten + dogs that were certainly rabid depends very much on the ber and character of the bites ; whether they are on the face or hands or other naked parts ; or, if they have been in- flicted on parts covered with clothes, their effects may depend on the texture of the clothes, and the extent to which they are torn ; d, in all cases, the amount of bleeding from the wounds may affect the probability of absorption of virus. - (3) In all cases, the probability of infection from bites may be affected by speedy cauterizing or excision of the wounded parts, or by various washings or other methods of treatment. _ (4) The bites of different species of animals, and even of dif- ferent dogs, are, probably, for various reasons, unequally danger- ous. Last year, at Deptford, five children were bitten by one ‘dog and all died ; in other cases, a dog is said to have bitten __ twenty persons, of whom only one died. And it is certain that _ the bites of rabid wolves, and probable that those of rabid cats, are far more dangerous than those of rabid dogs. The amount of uncertainty due to these and other causes may be expressed by the fact that the percentage of deaths among ms who have been bitten by dogs believed to have been _ rabid, and who have not been inoculated or otherwise treated, has been, in some groups of cases, estimated at the rate of only 5 per cent., in others at 60 per cent., and in others at various inter- mediate rates. The mortality from the bites of rabid wolves, also, has been, in different instances, estimated at from 30 to 95 _ per cent. To ascertain, as far as possible, the influence of these sources of fallacy in cases inoculated by M. Pasteur, the members of the Committee who went to Paris requested him to enable them to investigate, by personal inquiry, the cases of some of those who had been treated by him. He at once, and very courteously, assented, and the names of go persons were taken from his note- books. No selection was made, except that the names were ___ taken from his earliest cases, in which the periods since inocula- tion were longest, and from those of persons living within reach _ in Paris, Lyons, and St. Etienne. sa _* The terms referring to ‘‘ preventive” treatment will be used for that de- to prevent the occurrence of the disease in one already infected ; ___ tose referring to ‘‘ protective” treatment for that designed to protect a man or an rom the risk of becoming infected. And it may be well to state _ that hag tp the usual custom is followed of employing the name of ‘ hydro- " phobia’ the disease in men, and of “rabies ’’ for that in animals, they are really the same disease. The notes made on the spot concerning all these cases are given in the Appendix, and they include, as far as was possible, the evidence whether the dogs deemed rabid were really so, the situation and kind of bites, the immediate treatment of them, the statements of medical practitioners and veterinary surgeons to whom any useful facts were known.! Among the 9o cases there were 24 in which the patients were bitten on naked parts by undoubtedly rabid dogs, and the wounds were not cauterized or treated in any way likely to have pre- vented the action of the virus ; there were 31 in which there was no clear evidence that the dog was rabid; others in which the bite, though inflicted by undoubtedly rabid animals, having been through clothes, may thus have been rendered harmless. Among these, therefore, it is probable that, even if they had not been inoculated, few would have died. Still, the results observed in the total of the 90 cases may justly be compared with those ob- served in large numbers of cases similar to these as regards the uncertainties of infection, but not inoculated. The estimates published as to the mortalities in such unassorted cases are, as we have said, widely various. We believe that among the go per- sons, including the 24 bitten on naked parts, not less than eight would have died if they had not been inoculated. At the time of the inquiry, in April and May 1886, which was at least eighteen weeks since the treatment of the bites, not one had shown any signs of hydrophobia, nor has any one of them since died of that disease. Thus, the personal investigation of M. Pasteur’s cases by members of the Committee was, so far as it went, entirely satis- factory, and convinced them of the perfect accuracy of his records. After the first few months in which M. Pasteur practised his treatment, he was occasionally obliged, in order to quiet fears, to inoculate persons who believed that they had been bitten by rabid animals, but could give no satisfactory evidence of it. It might, therefore, be deemed unjust to estimate the total value of his treatment in the whole of his cases as being more than is represented by the difference between the rate of mortality ob- served in them and the lowest rate observed in any large number of cases not inoculated. This lowest rate may be taken at 5 per cent. Between October 1885 and the end of December 1886, M. Pasteur inoculated 2682 persons, including 127 who went from this country. Of the whole number, at the rate of 5 per cent., at least 130 should have died. At the end of 1886, the number of deaths stated by M. Vulpian, speaking for M. Pasteur, was 31, including 7 bitten by wolves, in three of whom the symptoms of hydrophobia appeared while they were under treat- ment, and before the series of inoculations were complete. Since 1886 two more of those inoculated in that year have died of hydrophobia. The number of deaths assigned by those who have sought to prove the inutility of M. Pasteur’s treatment is, as nearly as we can ascertain, 40 out of the 2682; and in this number are in- cluded the seven deaths from bites by wolves, and probably not less than four in which it is doubtful whether the deaths were due to hydrophobia or to some other disease. Making fair allowance for uncertainties and for questions which cannot now be settled, we believe it sure that, excluding the deaths after bites by rabid wolves, the proportion of deaths in the 2634 per- sons bitten by other animals was between 1 and I°2 per cent., a proportion far lower than the lowest estimated among those not submitted to M. Pasteur’s treatment, and showing, even on this lowest estimate, the saving of not less than too lives. The evidence of the utility of M. Pasteur’s method, indicated by these numbers, is confirmed by the results obtained in certain groups of his cases. Of 233 persons bitten by animals in which rabies was proved, either by inoculation from their spinal cords, or by the occurrence of rabies in other animals or in persons bitten by them, only 4 died. Without inoculation it would have been expected that at least 40 would have died. Among 186 bitten on the head or face by animals in which rabies was proved by experimental inoculations, or was observed by veterinary surgeons, only 9 died, instead of at least 40. And of 48 bitten by rabid wolves only 9 died ; while, without the preventive treatment, the mortality, according to the most probable estimates yet made, would have been nearly 30. * The Committee are much indebted to M. Arloing, Director of the Veterinary School at Lyons ; M. Savary, Veterinary Surgeon at Brie-Comte- Robert ; and M. Charlois, Veterinary g rgeon at St. Etienne, for assistance in their inquiries. 234 NATURE Between the end of last December and the end of March, M. Pasteur inoculated 509 persons bitten by animals proved to have been rabid, either by inoculation with their spinal cords, or by the deaths of some of those bitten by them, or as certified by veterinary surgeons. Only 2 have died, and one of these was bitten by a wolf a month before inoculation, and died after only three days’ treatment. . If we omit half of the cases as being too recent, the other 250 have had a mortality of less than 1 per cent., instead of 20 or 30 per cent. It has been objected that the number treated by M. Pasteur, which, from October 1885 to the end of 1886, included 1929 French and Algerians, was much greater than could reasonably be supposed to have been bitten by rabid animals. But there had hitherto been no careful registration of such cases, and the numbers that have occurred in the present year are not less than in the same part of last year, when the alarm about hydrophobia was greatest, : From the evidence of all these facts, we think it certain that the inoculations practised by M. Pasteur on persons bitten by rabid animals have prevented the occurrence of hydrophobia in a large proportion of those who, if they had not been so inocu- lated, would have died of that disease. And we believe that the value of his discovery will be found much greater than can be estimated by its present utility, for it shows that it may become possible to avert by inoculation, even after infection, other diseases besides hydrophobia. Some have, indeed, thought it possible to avert small-pox by vaccinating those very recently exposed to its infection ; but the evidence of this is, at the best, inconclusive ; and M. Pasteur’s may justly be deemed the first proved method of overtaking and suppressing by inoculation a process of specific infection. His researches have also added very largely to the knowledge of the pathology of hydrophobia, and have supplied what is of the highest practical value, namely, a sure means of determining whether an animal, which has died under suspicion of rabies, was really affected with that disease or not, The question has been raised whether M. Pasteur’s treatment can be submitted to without danger to health or life; and, in answering it, it is necessary to refer to two different methods of inoculation which he has practised, and which are fully described in the Appendix. In the first, which may be called the ordinary method, and which has heen employed in the very large majority of cases, the preventive material obtained from the spinal cords of rabbits that have died of rabies derived, originally, from rabid dogs is injected under the skin, once a day for ten days, in gradually increasing strengths. In the second or intensive method (méthode intensive) which M. Pasteur adopted for the treatment of cases deemed especially urgent, on account either of the number and position of the bites or of the long time since their infliction, the injections, gradually increasing in strength, were usually made three times on each of the first three days, then once daily for a week, and then in different degrees of frequency for some days more. The highest strength of the injections used in this method was greater than the highest used in the ordinary method, and was such as, if used at first and without the previous injections of less strength, would certainly produce rabies. ~ By the first or ordinary method, there is no evidence or pro- sability that anyone has been in danger of dying, or has in any degree suffered in health even for any short time. But after the intensive method deaths have occurred under conditions which have suggested that they were due to the inoculations rather than to the infection from the rabid animal. There is ample reason to believe that in many of the most urgent cases the intensive method was more efficacious than the ordinary method would have been. Thus, M. Pasteur mentions that, of 19 Russians bitten by rabid wolves, 3 treated by the ordinary method died, and the remaining 16, treated by the intensive method, survived; and he contrasts the cases of 6 children, severely bitten on the face, who died after the ordinary treatment, with those of ro similarly bitten children who were treated by the intensive method, and of whom none died ; and M. Vulpian reports that, of 186 persons badly bitten by ani- mals that were most probably rabid, 50 treated by the intensive method survived, and of the remaining 136 treated by the ordinary method 9 died. The rate of mortality after the intensive method was not greater than that after the ordinary method; for among 624 patients thus treated only 6 died, or, counting one doubtful case, 7. But that which excited suspicion was the manner of in some of them; and this manner was observed in a 1 named Goff, sent from England. On September 4 last, he severely bitten at the Brown Institution by a rabid cat, to wh in spite of repeated warnings, he exposed his naked han Twelve wounds were inflicted. They were at once treated wi pure carbolic acid, and, six hours later, he was put under influence of chloroform at St. Thomas’s Hospital, the wot portions of skin were freely excised, and the wounds thus mad were treated with carbolic acid. On the same evening he wa sent to Paris, and on the following morning M, Pasteur com menced the intensive treatment, and it was continued durin twenty-four days. During all this time the man was rep« intoxicated.1 He once fell into the Seine ; and while er the Channel on his return home he was severely chilled. — in his usual health ; but he became unwell, with pain in th abdomen, like colic, and with pain in the back. On the 18tl he had partial motor paralysis in the lower limbs, and on the 19th complete motor paralysis of these limbs and of the trunk and partial motor paralysis of the upper limbs and face, H was taken to St. Thomas’s Hospital, where he died on th 2oth. tet To the last he was free from all the usual symptoms of hydro phobia, and the progress of his disease and the manner of hi death were so similar to those of what is described as acut ascending paralysis, or Landry’s paralysis, that a verdict to thi effect was given at a coroner’s inquest. But the certainty th his death was due to the virus of rabies was proved by exper ments by Mr. Horsley. A portion of his spinal cord was takei to provide material for inoculations, and rabbits and a do; inoculated with it died with characteristic signs of paral: rabies, such as usually occurs in rabbits. ‘ ie In most of the other cases of death after treatment intensive method, the symptoms have been nearly th those just related ; but in none of them has the same test ¢ death from hydrophobia been applied. The likeness of thi symptoms to those of the form of rabies called dumb or para lytic, usually observed in rabbits, has suggested, as we ha said, that the deaths were due not to the virus of pirgeege or cat, but to that injected from the spinal cord of the rabk But this is far from certain. In the case of Goffi, especially the incubation period was such as would have followed th of the cat, not the inoculation of highest intensity incubation period in the rabbits and dog inoculated spinal cord were such as have been observed after sim oculations with virus derived, not only from rabbits inocul in series by M. Pasteur, but from a dog, a cat, and a wolf th died of ordinary rabies. It may well have been, therefore, the intensive inoculations in him and in the other persons \ died after them were not themselves destructive, but th failed to prevent the rabies which was due to the bites, 1e may also have modified the form in which the rabies manifes itself; giving it the characters of the paralytic rabies usu rabbits, instead of the convulsive or violent — usually, | not always,” observed in man after bites of cats ordogs. The question is likely to remain undecided ; for to avoid th possible, however improbable, risk of his intensive treatment M. Pasteur has greatly modified it, and even in this modifie form employs it in none but the most urgent cases. eh The consideration of the whole subject has naturally rai the question whether rabies and hydrophobia can be prevente in this country. ; rf If the protection by inoculation should prove permanent, th disease might be suppressed by thus inoculating all dogs ; but i is not probable that such inoculation would be intar adopted by all owners of dogs, or could be enforced on them. Police regulations would suffice if they could be rigidly forced. But to make them effective it would be necessary : that they should order the destruction, under certain conditic of all dogs having no owners and wandering in either town o1 country ; (2) that the keeping of useless dogs should be dis couraged by taxation or other means; (3) that the bringing o T Ocher cases, as well as this, have led M. Pasteur to believe that the ris] of death from hydrophobia is much increased by habits of drunkenness. _ 2 Cases of paralytic hydrophobia have been observed, though rarely, ii men bitten by rabid animals, and not treated by inoculation. It may indeed, be suspected that at least some of the cases of “‘acute ndin; paralysis” may have been cases of this form of hydrophobia, although, it the complete absence of the usual violent symptoms, no suspicion of th source of the disease was entertained. NATURE 235 s from countries in which rabies is prevalent should be for- len or subject to quarantine ; (4) that, in districts or countries which rabies is prevalent, the use of muzzles should be com- ry, and dogs out of doors, if not muzzled or led, should be by the police as ‘‘ suspected.” An exception might be for sheep-dogs and others while actually engaged in the ses for which they are kept. ere are examples sufficient to prove that, by these or similar s, rabies, and consequently hydrophobia, would be in y ‘‘stamped out,” or reduced to an amount very far nm has hitherto been known. be not thus reduced it may be deemed certain that a umber of persons will every year require treatment by ethod of M. Pasteur. The average annual number of hs from hydrophobia, during the ten years ending 1885, was, England, 43 ; in London alone, 8°5. If, as in the estimates | for judging the utility of that method of treatment, these s are taken as representing only § per cent. of the persons the preventive treatment will be required for 860 persons England ; for 170 in London alone. For it will not be ossible to say which among the whole number bitten are not in danger of hydrophobia, and the methods of prevention by cautery, excision, or other treatment, cannot be depended on, We have the honour to be, Sir, Your obedient Servants, (Signed) James PaGEt, Chairman, T. LAUDER BRUNTON, GEORGE FLEMING, JosEPH LISTER, RICHARD QUAIN, HENRY E. Roscor, J. BURDON SANDERSON. Victor Horstey, Secretary, June 1887. The Report is followed by appendices, two of which we ae _ Abstract Report of Mr. Horsley’s Experiments. e first object of the experiments was to test M. Pasteur’s id of transmitting rabies by inoculation, and to compare its ets with those of rabies due to the bites of dogs found rabid in the streets,! Through the kindness of M. Pasteur, two rabbits inoculated . him were placed at the disposal of the Committee on May 5, and were conveyed within 24 hours safely to the Brown Institution, where the experiments were carried out by Mr. Storsiey. In these two rabbits the first symptoms of rabies appeared on May 11 and 12, and the disease followed exactly the course described by M. Pasteur. _ At first the animals appeared dull, but continued to take food readily until symptoms of paralysis appeared. The first of these _ symptoms was commencing paralysis of motion of the hind-legs, not accompanied by any loss of sensibility. The paralysis soon extended to the muscles of the fore-legs, and later to those of the head, and the animals died comatose. _ After post-mortem examination, portions of the spinal cord of each of these rabbits were crushed, according to M. Pasteur’s method, in sterilized broth, ant the liquid so obtained was wes § beneath the dura mater into four rabbits and the same _ number of dogs, all being first rendered insensible with chloro- form or ether.? ___ Of the four rabbits so inoculated, the first two showed the __ first symptoms seven days after the inoculation ; the third and _ fourth on the sixth day. The symptoms as well as the incuba- tion period exhibited by these rabbits were exactly the same as _ were observed in those brought from M. Pasteur’s laboratory. Careful notes and photographs were taken in. the case of all the animals, in order that the constant and specific nature of the disease might be demonstrated by observations during life and after death. It was also observed that during the incubation period the temperature of the body remained normal, that is, _* This expression is adopted from that usual in France, “rage des rue. in the experiment; performed in this inquiry were thus made ‘nless. ats about 39°°4 C. With the first definite symptom the tempera~- ture rose to about 40°'4 C., which is the temperature usually observed during the first day of the obvious illness. By thenext day it began to fall, and on the third day after the appearance of the first symptom it averaged 37°°5 C. On the last day it was always below normal, and on one occasion fell before death to 24° C. The animals did not appear to suffer any pain what- ever in the course of the disease. They were free from the spasms which, in the earlier stages of the malady in man, form so painful a feature of the disease, and indéed the disease in them resembled throughout that rapidly fatal, but painless, disease of man known as acute ascending paralysis. The post-mortem appearances in the rabbits were remarkably uniform. As a rule nothing abnormal, save congestion, presented itself either in the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood-vessels, or serous membranes. ‘The larynx, pharynx, and, more especially, the epiglottis, and the root of the tongue, were frequently intensely congested. The lungs showed almost invariably capil- lary congestion; and sometimes small patches resembling broncho-pneumonia were observed. The mucous membrane of the stomach was very markedly congested, and there were at its cardiac extremity numerous hemorrhages. The constancy of these appearances was most remarkable, and corresponded in every particular with those subsequently observed in rabbits. which had died of rabies from the bite of rabid dogs. Of the four dogs inoculated, the first showed on the eighth day after inoculation an alteration in the voice and commencing excitement ; on the following day the excitement became ex- cessive, and the bark was quite characteristic ; on the eleventh day the dog was aggressive, notwithstanding slight paralysis of the legs ; on the twelfth day the paralysis had increased, and on the next day there was complete paralysis and coma, and death occurred on the fifth day after the onset of the symptoms. The second dog showed the first symptom on the ninth day after inoculation, when it was very dull and partially paralyzed ;. its bark was characteristic. Next day the paralysis was almost complete, and on the twelfth day the animal died. This was therefore a case of the rapid paralytic form ; whilst in the first dog the disease was of the ordinary furious form of rabies terminating in paralysis. The third dog showed the first symptom on the ninth day after inoculation, and from that time became gradually paralyzed, and’ died on the sixteenth day. The fourth dog showed the first symptom in from eight to nine- days after inoculation, and during the first day was extremely aggressive ; on the two following days the characteristic bark was observed ; and on the twelfth day there was paralysis of the hind-legs ; it died on the thirteenth day. Thus the furious form: and the paralytic or dumb form of rabies were represented in equal numbers, whereas, in the usual mode of infection by biting, the former is more prevalent. The post-mortem appearances were as follows :—The brain and central nervous system were in some of the dogs the seat of considerable congestion ; in others these organs appeared normal. The serous membranes were perfectly normal; the larynx especially, and sometimes the pharynx, were congested; the lungs always congested, especially in the lower lobes ; the heart normal ; the blood usually fluid, occasionally with post-mortem clots ; the stomach was always found to contain foreign bodies, such as straw; and its mucous membrane was congested, frequently showing numerous hzemorrhages ; the small intestine was always empty, and the large glandular organs showed venous: congestion. For the purpose of exact comparison of the disease just described with that produced. when rabies is communicated. to. the rabbit in the ordinary way, some rabbits previously nar- cotized with ether were caused to be bitten by rabid dogs of the streets, or were inoculated by trephining with material obtained from the spinal cord of dogs or other animals which had died of rabies, and in one instance from that of a man who had died with hydrophobia. Four series of experiments of observations in which rabbits. were bitten by rabid dogs from the streets were made. In one of them the dog by which the rabbit was bitten exhibited the dumb fo-m, in others the furious form, of the disease. In each series excepting the first a large proportion of the rabbits died ; the symptoms presenting themselves in these cases were identical with those observed in the rabbits inoculated from M. Pasteur’s virus, but the duration of the symptoms was usually longer. As t In some, signs of po::-mor‘em digestion were found. 236 NATURE [xuly 7, 1887 has been stated, rabbits inoculated by M. Pasteur’s virus rarely show symptoms during more than three days before death, whereas the rabbits bitten by rabid dogs from the streets often live for a week after the appearance of the first symptoms. The post-mortem appearances in the rabbits dying after having been bitten by rabid dogs of the streets were the same as those already described in rabbits inoculated with the virus from M. Pasteur’s rabbits. . In the case of rabbits inoculated by trephining with the virus from animals dying of rabies of the streets, the incubation period was from 14 to 21 days. In all cases the symptoms were similar to those produced by M. Pasteur’s virus, and those of rabbits bitten by rabid dogs from the streets; but in the pro- longation of the disease approached more closely in character to the latter. The results of these experiments confirm several of the chief observations made by M. Pasteur ; especially— (1) That the virus of rabies may certainly be obtained from the spinal cords of rabbits and other animals that have died of that disease. (2) That, thus obtained, the virus may be transmitted by inoculation through a succession of animals, without any essential alteration in the nature, though there may be some modifications of the form, of the disease produced by it. (3) That, in transmission through rabbits, the disease is ren- dered more intense ; both the period of incubation, and the duration of life after the appearance of symptoms of infection, being shortened. (4) That, in different cases, the disease may be manifested either in the form called dumb or paralytic rabies which is usual in rabbits ; or in the furious form usual in dogs; or in forms intermediate between, or combining, both of these, but that in all it is true rabies. ; (5) That the period of incubation and the intensity of the symptoms may vary according to the method in which the virus is introduced, the age and strength of the animal, and some other circumstances ; but, however variable in its intensity, the essential characters of the disease are still maintained. The certainty that the virus of rabies can thus be transmitted without essential change made it desirable, in the next place, to ascertain whether, as M. Pasteur states, it can be so attenuated that it may be inoculated without risk to life, and whether animals thus inoculated are thus made safe from rabies. The methods for this protective inoculation which M. Pasteur has employed are described. To test them, six dogs were ‘‘ protected” by injecting sub- cutaneously the emulsions of spinal cords of rabbits which had died of rabies ; beginning with that of a cord which had been dried for 14 days, and, on each following day, using that of a cord which had been dried for one day less, till at last that from a fresh cord was used. None of these dogs suffered from the injections ; and when they were completed, the six dogs thus ‘‘ protected,” and two others unprotected, and some rabbits unprotected, were made insensible with ether, and were then bitten by rabid dogs, or by a rabid cat, on an exposed part. A ‘‘protected” dog, No. 1, was bitten on July 8, 1886, by a dog which was paralytically rabid. It remains perfectly well. An ‘‘unprotected” dog, No. I, was bitten a few minutes afterwards by the same rabid dog, and died paralytically rabid. A ‘‘protected” dog, No. 2, was bitten on November 6, 1886, by a dog which was furiously rabid ; it remains well. At the same time, four ‘‘ unprotected” rabbits were bitten by the same rabid dog, and of these two died of rabies in the usual form (z.e. 50 per cent. of animals bitten). The same results followed with the ‘‘ protected” dog, No. 3, and the ‘‘ unprotected ” rabbits, bitten at the same time. The dog still lives, the rabbits died of rabies. The ‘‘protected” dogs, Nos. 4 and 5, were bitten on January 20, 1887, by a furiously rabid dog; and on the same day the ‘‘ unprotected” dog, No. 2, and three ‘‘ unprotected ” rabbits were bitten by the same dog. The ‘‘ protected” dogs remain well ; the ‘‘ unprotected” dog and two rabbits died with rabies (z.e. 75 per cent. of the animals bitten.) The ‘‘ protected” dog, No. 6, was bitten on three different occasions by a furiously rabid cat on September 7, 1886; by a furiously rabid dog on October 7, 1886; and by another furious ‘rabid dog on November 6, 1886. It died ten weeks after being bitten for the third time, but not of rabies. It had been suffering with diffuse eczema during the whole of the time ty az that it was under observation, and it died of this. At the post mortem examination, no indication of rabies was found; an two rabbits, inoculated by trephining with the crushed spina cord, showed no sign of rabies, either during life or, when the} were killed several months afterwards, in any appearance afte: death. It was thus made certain that the dog was not rabid. Thus, all the experiments performed by Mr. Horsley have confirmed those of M. Pasteur, and the experiments las described have shown that animals may be protected fron rabies by inoculations with material derived from spinal cord: prepared after M. Pasteur’s method. The protection may be deemed somewhat similar to that given by the inoculation fo anthrax, or by vaccination for small-pox, though the theory o the method of inoculation devised by M. Pasteur is very differen’ from that upon which vaccination for small-pox and inoculatior for anthrax is based. The further step, the prevention of rabies or hydrophobia in animals or in persons into whom the viru has already been introduced by bites or otherwise, is considerec in the body of the Report. i In the course of his experiments, Mr. Horsley observed man} interesting facts concerning the modification of the action of thi virus according to the method of its inoculation, and the condi tion of the animal inoculated ; but he found nothing to justify : belief that any animal not inoculated is insusceptible of rabies or that the disease ever arises spontaneously.?* Coincidently with these experiments, some were made by Mr. Dowdeswell for the purpose of ascertaining whether an: drugs can protect an animal from rabies. Their result is re corded in a paper read before the Royal Society, and may b summed up in the statement that rabies can neither be pre vented nor influenced in its course, unless it be for the worse by any of the drugs that were employed, including allyl alcohol atropine, benzoate of soda, chlor cocaine, curare, iodin (dissolved in iodide of potassium), mercuric perchloride, quinine salol, strychnine, urethane. M. Pasteur’s Methods of Preventive Inoculation? == M. Pasteur believes that the virus of rabies is a living micro organism, and that, like some others, it produces in the tissue it invades an excretory substance by which, when present i sufficient quantity, its own development and increase ar checked, as are those of the yeast ferment by the alcohol pra duced in the vinous fermentation. In accordance with thi theory, he thinks that the spinal cords of animals that have die of rabies contain both the virus and this excretory substance which, practically, may be deemed its antidote. e believe therefore that by injections of an emulsion from such spina cords into the systems of animals bitten or inoculated with th virus of rabies, the antidote may be able, during the period ¢ incubation, to arrest and prevent the fatal influence of the viru: But, in order to avoid the possibility of injecting a still poter virus, M. Pasteur holds that the virus in the spinal cord mu: be weakened by drying the cord in a pure and dry atmospher at a temperature of 20° C. ; in which drying the efficiency of th antidote may be reduced to a much less extent than the potenc of the virus. By such drying this potency may be so reduce that an emulsion of the dried spinal cord may be injected with out any risk of producing rabies : and this risk is in no measur increased by the daily injections of emulsions from cords drie during a gradually less number of days, and which, though mor virulent than those first used, still contain a larger proportion « the antidote than of the virus. ma In accordance with this theory, the method of the preventiy injections first used by M. Pasteur was adjusted in the followin manner :— is Seagena Days of Inoculation. | rst./2nd.| 3rd.| 4th. sth.! 6th.| 7th./ 8th. a rot! Days during which the ee ia spinal cord had been Sige ried 2. ase ere ove | E4 | 13°] 92 | EE 20) 20 In consequence of some deaths among those who had bee thus treated, M. Pasteur deemed it necessary, in cases of ver severe bites and of persons bitten long before the treatmer * The minuter facts connected with all these experiments will soon | communicated to one of the scientific Societies. 2 As derived from the observations made by the Committee, and from full description supplied by Prof. Dr. Grancher, April 11, 1887. NALOGRE 7 237 uly 7 puld be commenced, to increase the intensity of the treatment y more speedily increasing the strength of the injections, by nore frequent repetitions of them, and by using on certain days inal cords dried during only three, two, and one days. Thus | September and October 1886 he adopted the following of Inoculation. Ist. end. 3rd. 4th. 5th. ing of the fee feos. LA, TB, 2 II, 10, 9 8,7 6,5 4,3 Tnoculation.| 6th. 7th. | 8th, | oth, oth. r1th, drying of the US see vee ove 2 I 6, 5 4,3 2 I n very severe and perilous cases this course was repeated hree or four times. It was distinguished as the méthode ive, and among such severe cases it was followed by a ked diminution of mortality. But when it appeared possible it might be dangerous, M. Pasteur changed it for that he now uses, and which may be thus represented :— ays of Inoculation. 1st. | and. | 3rd. | 4th. | sth. | 6th. | 7th. drying of the cords 44,13 | 12,11 | 11, sg oe 10] 9,9 | 9 8 t 1 ‘ / roth. | rrth. | rath, | 13th. | r4th. r5th : / | lays of Inoculation. ay gth. ee, | | | drying of thecords | 8 8 7 7 7 Ae he material for injection is prepared by crushing portions of ied spinal cord, and diffasing them in sterilized broth free |! all risk of putrefaction, decomposition, or any change due to the presence of other micro-organisms ; and the injection is made with syringes through fine tubular needles into the sub- cutaneous tissue. For transmissions of rabies through rabbits, in order to obtain the spinal cords required for its prevention in other animals, _ injections of virus of highest intensity are made through minute holes in the skull into the space under the dura mater or fibrous - covering of the brain. | The materials for the protective inoculations are prepared in _ the same manner as those for the preventive, from spinal cords _ dried from ten days to one day. UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND THE STATE. ON Thursday last, June 30, a deputation consisting of members of Parliament and others had an interview with the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who was accompanied by Mr. Jackson, M.P., to urge that Government assistance should be extended to local university colleges situated in various parts of the country. Among those present were Sir John Lubbock, M.P., Mr. Mundella, M.P., Mr. J. Chamberlain, M.P., Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., Mr. Bryce, M.P., Mr. Arnold Morley, M.P., Mr. Jesse Collings, MP. Mr. R. Chamberlain, M.P., Sir U. Kay-Shuttleworth, M.P., Mr. Theodore Fry, M.P., Mr. Burt, M.P., Sir Henry Roscoe, M.P., Sir A. K. Rollit, M.P., Prof, Stuart, M.P., Sir Bernhard Samuelson, M.P., Mr. Howard Vincent, M.P., Sir W. H. Houldsworth, M.P., Dr. Percival, _ and Sir Philip Magnus. Sir John Lubbock, as the representative of the University of London, introduced the deputation. Their request was that a _ Parliamentary grant should be made to English colleges, as was already made to those in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. The colleges on behalf of which they appeared were doing excellent work, but were greatly hampered for want of funds. ‘The claims _ of these colleges were not based alone on their services to learn- ‘ing and study; they were calculated to contribute largely to _to the purposes of higher secondary education, the material prosperity of the country. We now imported 4£150,000,000 worth of food annually, and our population in- creased at the rate of about 350,000 a year. How were so many to be fed, and how could a revival and return of trade be pro- moted? Our rivalry with foreign nations was now not on the battlefield but in the manufactory and the workshop; and it was none the less severe because it was a competition rather than a contest. The need of the assistance for which they asked was very pressing. Without going into details as to particular colleges, he observed that the more recent institutions were generally spending more than their income, and even the oldest and the richest were sadly crippled for want of funds. It was found practically impossible to increase the subscriptions, and local authorities, as a rule, had no power to supplement their funds. As to raising the fees so as to make the colleges self- supporting, that might be possible but would be very undesir- able. He only wished the fees could be abolished altogether, for those receiving education at the colleges benefited not only themselves but the whole nation. As to the expenditure on education, it was in the opinion of some people very large, but it was small in comparison with other items. Our ignorance cost us very much more than our education. Moreover, the principle for which they contended had been conceded in regard to Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. The grants to Irish colleges amounted to £25,000, to Scotland £16,000, and to Wales 412,000. The University of Glasgow had a special grant of £150,000 for building. None of the English colleges had such aid, Their request simply was that in this matter of education England should be treated in the same way as Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Mr. J. Chamberlain said that he attended as the representative of Mason College, Birmingham. ‘Their case was the same in principle as that of all the other colleges. They urged that State-aided education had been accepted in principle in England . and in all other countries, but in England alone we had not followed out the principle to its logical conclusion. We had stopped at the lower grade, and in this respect had made a great mistake. If it was of national importance that every one should have placed within his reach the instruments of education, it was of equal importance that they should be stimulated and encour- aged to make use of these facilities. An attempt had been made in some halting fashion to redress the inequality in which this country was placed. The Charity Commissioners had recently been diverting funds which were, to some extent at all events, intended for the benefit of the poorer classes of the population That practice was open to very serious objection, because it was robbing Peter to pay Paul ; and also because under that system nothing what- ever was done for the colleges represented by the deputation, which were carrying on and extending the education given in the primary and secondary schools. The enormous development of primary and secondary education had created a demand for higher education. Proof of that was to be found in the fact that, although the institutions now represented were nearly all of them the creation of the present generation, they had had, in spite of deficiency of means, the most remarkable success ; and the daily increasing number of their students showed that they were established to meet a real want. The pressure of com- mercial competition came almost exclusively from those nations in which technical instruction and higher education had been developed and stimulated by the action of the State. The demand now made upon the Government was really a very moderate one, and the sum asked for was never likely to assume any very large amount. He believed the grants for primary education amounted to something between £2,000,000 and £ 3,000,000 a year, and that the additional grant now asked for would only amount to something like £50,000. Mr. Goschen,—Will the deputation be able to supply me with a scheme for the distribution of the £50,000 or with the principle ? Mr. Chamberlain replied that, in his opinion, the grants should be made conditional upon further local aid. In that way the Treasury would be able to distinguish the colleges which were entitled to share in the grant. Mr. Goschen,—Conditional upon further local aid ? Mr. Chamberlain,—Proportioned, in the first place, to the number of students, and, in the second place, conditional upon the amount of local aid. Mr. Mundella, —Not in all cases further local aid. Mr. Chamberlain agreed with Mr. Mundella that in some 238 NATURE eases large local contributions were being made, and those cases should be taken into account. In conclusion, he urged upon the Government the consideration of a nationality that was some- times apparently forgotten, and in the name of the 25 millions of English population he asked that they should receive a re- cognition in the matter of education proportionate to that given to Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Mr. Mundella pointed out that there were precedents for what they were asking in the grants given in Scotland, Wales, and elsewhere, and, in his opinion, Sir John Lubbock had rather underrated the benefit which schools in Scotland derived from the system. The high schools in Scotland were aided by grants out of the rates, and all middle-class education was largely sup- plemented by grants. In every country in Europe which really rivalled England a first-class technical education was within the reach of the humblest classes. In France very much the same education as given in our colleges could be obtained free and at the expense of the State. There was at present no power to aid the colleges in England, but he felt sure the Education Depart- ment would have no difficulty in framing a scheme for the purpose ; and he ventured to hope the Chancellor of the Ex- chequer would assist them, and that grants should be allowed to these institutions in proportion to the efficiency of each college. Sir Lyon Playfair observed that as the Government was going to introduce a Bill for giving to School Boards and other authorities power of rating for higher and technical education, he thought it would be well to extend the operation of the Bill by giving power to the same bodies to rate for higher colleges, The authorities were quite ready to be rated, and only wanted the necessary powers. The experience of commercial nations throughout the world was that the competition of industries was a competition of intellect. The difference between the policy of this and other countries was that while in other countries the State recognized the fruits of education and acted upon their perception of them, we left the first steps to the efforts of in- telligent men in various localities. These men had now done their part, and, in consequence of the action of the English Government in the past, he thought it was the duty of the Government to come to the rescue of this small and highly in- telligent body of men who had got up these colleges, and give to them that permanence which they were not likely to have without some small support from the public funds. Sir Bernhard Samuelson said that in the course of the investi- gations of the Technical Education Commission he had the opportunity of visiting nearly all the colleges now appealing for aid, and, as far as his judgment enabled him to form an opinion, he must say that, considering the means at their disposal, these colleges were doing a thoroughly good work, and a work which deserved the encouragement of the community. Mr. Thomas burt, M.P., was not quite clear that this was the best way of spending money educationally, but he was quite sure it was a very good one. He could testify to the value conferred upon the miners and the industrial classes generally of the North by the College of Science in Newcastle. That institution had been greatly crippled in its resources. There was among the miners a widespread desire for improved education, and the College of Science and the University Extension lectures had not only given positive instruction of a valuable kind, but had conferred still greater advantages by creating and stimulating a desire on the part of the industrial classes for improved educa- tion. If the Government could see their way to help this and kindred institutions, a very great benefit would be conferred on the industrial classes of the country. After a few words from Prof. Tilden (who differed from other speakers as to charging local rates), Dr. Perceval, and Sir George Young, ; Mr. Goschen, in reply, said :—When Mr. Tilden sat down just now I was thinking on the whole that it was rather advisable for the deputation that the list of speakers was very nearly ex- hausted, because the differences of opinion began to be manifest. Mr. Tilden objected to powers being given to corporations or boroughs to rate themselves, whereas one of the objects of the deputation, or, at all events, one of the suggestions made to me during the course of this deputation, was that we should be sure to give powers to localities to rate themselves for these purposes. I do not know what the view would be of the deputation upon the subject, but I suspect that the bulk of the deputation is in favour of power being given, which of course would be optional, for large towns to rate themselves for this purpose. Mr. Tilden argued that it would be unfair that a college which drew from other quarters should be supported by local rates am inclined to think that that is a dangerous argument — because you might find whole masses of the popula agricultural population, for instance, which would der paratively little advantage from these colleges—who n that they would not wish to be taxed towards natio which were to be applied to the big towns for the s their colleges. So that I think it is rather a dangerov ment, and I further think the towns derive a very consi advantage from having these large institutions, and th ought not to look too narrowly to the area over whi rates would be charged. Then, Mr. Burt, I th remark which to my ears was rather significant this was a good way of spending money, he was n this was the best way of spending money upon The interpretation I put upon that remark was that a further demand would be made upon the national for educational assistance in other directions which, in Burt’s opinion, would be the best. gentlemen, than you, who have studied this sub that there are many directions in which, and many poin from which, this educational question has to be co am glad to have received this most important de might almost call it in some respects a formidable but I know that this is not the only direction in wh would be put upon the Treasury with regard to education. . represent here what I understand to be the higher technical, scientific, and I think you may also say of 1 struction. There is the elementary education, and the attendant upon that ; then there is the Science and / ment, which in some respects is apart from th education ; and there remains a field for which I sure will be put upon the Treasury, which is th education which lies between the elementary education higher form of education which I understand these coll I make these remarks to show that it would be I think, for the Government—though, of course, = the Chancellor of the Exchequer to speak—to_ matter simply from a partial point of view. We the whole of the demands which are likely to be Government for educational purposes, It is comparative test which has been applied by this d very dangerous one to the finances of the State. certain colleges is certain to lead to a grant to and if some of the gentlemen present had heard gentlemen argued that their case was practicall the assistance given to the Scotch Univer possibly made applicable to the English see the scope of the remarks which I have far from saying that, while there is this serious to be put upon the Government, this is not a | must be carefully and deliberately faced, and all its bearings. You have come to me to-day. order to remove what. we may call any financial regard to your proposals ; but, of course, it would with the Education Department to work out any sj colleges are to be granted assistance upon the scale suggest, and so you will not expect me to give you any tion of policy to-day. But I presume that you a the arguments you have used should sink into my to remove any opposition I might make financially that would be made by other departments and channels. Now, from the financial point of view you assent to certain propositions, and the main of tions is that assistance should only be given by the there has been a distinct local effort in support. we cannot argue any more that the State should n up to acertain line. That line seems to be by public o raised every day, and while formerly it was only the v now it is a higher class ; and so from class to class ii me the demand for State education is rising very rapic haps I might say very formidably, But Iam glad to of the fact that, anxious as you are, representing as you immense educational efforts in various parts of the coun do not wish in any way to stop that magnificent flow of pri contributions towards education which has been the ; of this country in many ways. It would be ora by the action of the State you were to arrest that a NATURE 239 “7 ther anxious that that action should be stimulated by ‘ate contributions from the public funds and from rates. to contributions from rates, I think that as the municipal itutions of our country are more and more reformed and ed, and the more power is given to them in the course of cocess of decentralization which is now accepted by almost icians, the more power you may give to these localities to -acertain freed »m in the way of assisting such institutions think are calculated to advance their interests in every There is one point on which I should like to say some- oma personal point of view. When I made a remark r colleges were partly literary and partly technical, I did n to convey the impression that I think colleges for culture deserve less recognition than colleges for ical education I think that they must to a. very great stand or fall together, and that it would be an error— h I am aware there may be others here wh» take rent view — if technical education were too much to _ that general education and development of the which surely must always be one of the great of education in every form. I do not know er the sum which was first mentioned, I think, by Sir Lubbock has been arrived at by any general agreement, e by college, or whether it is a mere general guess. But I it would be necessary, as a preliminary examination of which you have put before me, that there should be dard suggested, either of numbers or of local contribu- d also of work, before the matter could be taken into yractical consideration ; because not only are there these colleges, but I fancy that, as soon as any arrangement n made in favour of them, we should find another list of not precisely on the same footing, but which were suf- strong to make a kind of claim on that comparative hich is constantly increasing the national expenditure. tho-e of the deputation who are members of Par- will acknowledge that it would be perfectly impos- deal with the matter in the supplementary estimate ear, even if we assented to it, without much further lat for it is really the Education Department which ie this matter. Ihave not had the opportunity of my colleagues on the magnitude of the sum which st, or on the general principle. All I can say to-day am glad to receive the suggestions which you have that I recognize, of course, the great importance of t developing technical and scientific education ; but I can- ge myself to any particular sum or to any particular of carrying out your wishes. The deputation may rely the Government giving the matter its most serious attention, e shall be most willing to receive suggestions from such | men as Sir Lyon Playfair, Sir John Lubbock, Mr. Mundella, and the other gentlemen who take so deep an interest in educa- i to see what practical shape can be given to the wishes of putation. Mr. Mundella observed that the condition of some of the leses was such that it was desirable that the intentions of the pvernment should be known at the earliest possible moment. John Lubbock moved, and the Mayor of Sheffield seconded, ‘‘That the thanks of the deputation be given to ‘Mr. Goschen for his courtesy.” ces | The deputation then withdrew. J= SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon, _ Royal Society, June 16.—‘* Dispersion Equivalents,” Part I. By J. H. Gladstone, Ph.D., F.R.S. ‘The object of this paper was to bring to the notice, especially of chemists, the subject of dispersion equivalents ; a property of bodies similar to the refraction equivalents which are now gagzenerally recognized. In the paper of Gladstone and Dale in the Phil. Trans. for 1863 they had adopted the difference be- een the refractive indices for the solar lines A and H as the _of dispersion. This, divided by the density, gave the aspecific d on. In 1866 they multiplied this by the atomic we and termed the product the dispersion equivalent. The subj et has scarcely been touched since that time either by ish or Continental ob '-e OM- elie ee oc Se ee Sere eae Upper Cloud Movements in the Equatorial Regions of the Atlantic.—Hon. Ralph Abercromby. . . . Fish Dying. —F. T. Mott. .°. . . es ee The Dinner to Professor Tyndall * Sjaten el The Eleven-Year Periodical Fluctuation of ft Carnatic Rainfall. By Henry F. Blanford, F. Ra Notes Pe Our Astronomical Column :— pea Relative Positions of the Principal Stars in the Pleiades . 2 .)4 6. « “a 5 er Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1887 July 10-16 ....4.)29s 6 eee Paid . Report of the Committee of Inquiry into M, Pasteur’s Treatment of Hydrophobia ..... University Colleges and the State. ......., Societies and Academies .......5...424., Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . . . . pe: Paes ay 0 Me a ee ae al See Ss ~~ NATURE 241 THURSDAY, JULY 14, 1887. ELEMENTARY PRACTICAL PHYSICS. Lessons in Elementary Practical Physics. By Balfour Stewart, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, Victoria University, the Owens College, Manchester, and W. W. Haldane Gee, B.Sc., Demonstrator and Assistant Lecturer in Physics, the Owens College. Vol. II. Electricity and Magnetism (London: Mac- millan and Co., 1887.) HE second volume of the now familiar “ Stewart and Gee” has at length appeared, and it is satisfactory to find that the hopes and expectations to which a just appreciation of the first has given rise have not been formed in vain, but that the same store of exact information down to the minutest details is to be found in “Electricity and Magnetism” as in “ General Physical Processes.” While in this the second volume the authors “have adhered to the plan of subdivision into a series of lessons each descriptive of something to be done by a definite method with definite apparatus,” they have treated the subject, to a certain extent, twice over —in the first three chapters generally, with simple and easily extemporized apparatus, and in the remaining chapters as exactly as possible, with all that care and attention to the details of standard patterns of instruments which are essential to the claim, in the title, of “ practical.” Thus in the second chapter instructions are given for measuring M and H by the method of Gauss without any bought apparatus, while in the sixth chapter is to be found a most complete description of the Kew unifilar magnetometer with figures of the instrument in its two positions and of its parts. There is here a fully worked example, from which a student who has not the advantage of using such an instrument may get an idea of the accuracy obtainable, and from which he may realize the relative importance of the numerous corrections which are applied. To facilitate the calculation of these corrections tables are supplied which will be of value to those using the magnetometer. Though all will agree that a little practical introduction to the subject generally is of advantage to the student, and that therefore these three introductory chapters serve a really useful purpose, many will question the wisdom of devoting space in an essentially practical book to an explanation of such terms as electromotive force, con- ductivity, resistance, or of the theory of the battery or the meaning of Ohm’s law. These are text-book matters for which a student does not depend on a practical book, nor is he expected to do so. The ten pages devoted to these points are in fact ten pages wasted. The fourth chapter deals with the measurement ot re- sistance. As this extends over 108 pages, and is divided into sixteen “lessons,” it is clear that this very important branch of the subject receives its fair share of attention. ‘The measurement of the resistance of every kind of material, from thick copper bars to insulators, is fully set forth. It is in this chapter that an explanation is given of the method of putting upa reflecting galvano- meter and its several adjustments. The directions for fixing the instrument in the most perfect way are excel- VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 924. lent. Not a word is said, however, to show that for many purposes such a galvanometer set up in any azimuth and almost anyhow is not less serviceable than wher arranged as described. No trouble should be spared, anc none is spared by the authors, in showing how to do any thing which shall improve the accuracy of work done but in some cases a mass of elaborate adjustment serve: no purpose whatever, and then it should be pointed ou that, though useful for this or that purpose, such adjust ment may be dispensed with. In the chapter on the tangent galvanometer the con struction of standard and ordinary instruments is 0 course explained, and the method of using them. Thei application to the determination of electro-chemica equivalents and of Joule’s equivalent is given here. I the account of the method of finding the quantity of hea developed there is, apparently, a slight oversight. Th authors speak of the mean deflection during the time th experiment lasts. If the current is practically constant the mean deflection may be taken without appreciabl error ; but if it varies, then the square root of the mea square truly represents the heating effect of the current It is true that it should be the aim of the experimenter t avoid such variations ; but if for some reason they shoul occur, the student should be told how to make the bes of his experiment. In the sixth chapter, already referred to in part, w find a most admirable description of the methods of de termining the magnetic elements. This chapter leave nothing to be desired. The chapter on electro-magnetic induction contains a account of a great many experiments on induction ¢ magnetism by currents, of currents by currents, and c currents by magnets ; but, as in the third chapter, spac is devoted to matters which might with advantage be let to the ordinary text-books. For instance, there is n necessity to prove the expressions for the ballistic gal vanometer, or to explain the theory of damping an logarithmic decrement. The determinations of the cc efficients of self and mutual induction form the subjec of one lesson only. This part may now with advantag be greatly extended, since, lately, Prof. Foster ha brought the subject before the Physical Society, an many others have followed suit. In the last two chapters the condenser and electromete are treated. A good deal of useful matter is to be found in some c the appendixes. In the first we find the Wheatstone ne and Kirchoff’s laws ; in the second and third, the theor of the electrical units. The fourth will be found the mos valuable, in the laboratory, as there is here much addi tional information on the comparison of electromotiv forces and the construction of standard cells. That o additional practical details is useful as far as it goes. There is nothing about electro-capillarity, or about in struments depending upon any action of the:kind ; ther is practically nothing about the electro-dynamometer, an: there is no index. Though a few faults have been found, they ar mostly unimportant; and it is a matter of opiniot whether some, especially the introduction of theoretica explanations into a book intended for use in the laboratory are faults at all. The book will be found to be of th M 242 NATURE [yuly 14, 1887 greatest service in every physical laboratory, and to be a fitting companion to that already so well known. It is to be hoped that the remaining volume, on light, heat, and sound, will soon be ready. THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN, CALCUTTA. Annals of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. Vol. I. The Species of Ficus of the Indo-Malayan and Chinese Countries; Part I. Paleomorphe and Urostigma. By George King, M.B., F.L.S., &c., Superintendent of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta. (London: Reeve and Co., 1887.) R. KING deserves well of botanists for his protracted, though evidently profitable, labours on so varied and difficult a genus as /zcws. From obvious causes, a large proportion of the large arboreous tropical genera of plants are still very imperfectly known, and, prominent among them, /7zcus, therefore Dr. King could hardly have extended his researches in a more useful direction. The present publication, which, from its general title, we may assume will not be limited to a monograph of the Asiatic species of /zcws, is a tall quarto of sufficient size to illustrate adequately almost all the species of the genus in question. Indeed, this monograph possesses a quite special value, inasmuch as every species is carefully figured in natural size, with enlarged analyses of the floral structure. Most persons interested in such matters will be familiar with Fritz Miiller and Solms Laubach’s investigations of the sexual conditions in the flowers of various species of Ficus, and the singular phenomena attendant on the fertilization of the ovules. Nevertheless, it may be con- venient to give here a brief account of the process.!. The edible fig, which may be given as an example of the fruit of the genus generally, consists of a thick hollow recep- tacle, the inner surface of which is thickly studded with flowers; and, in the edible fig, exclusively with female flowers. Male flowers of this species of fig are borne on different plants, called the caprifig ; and associated with these male flowers in the same receptacles are numerous female flowers, occupying the greater part of the space. Invariably these female flowers are infested by gall-pro- ducing insects, hence they are termed gall-flowers, and very rarely indeed is a single ripe seed found in a recep- tacle of the caprifig. The insects hatched and nourished in the gall-flowers leave the receptacles of the caprifig at a period when the pollen of the male flowers is being shed, and in making their exit bear some of it with them to the receptacles of the edible fig, which they next visit ; but they are unable to deposit their eggs in the perfect females, and only serve to convey pollen to them. On similar mutual adaptations the fertilization of all the species of Ficws seems to depend. In an introduction to the descriptive part of his work, Dr. King details the results of his own examination of several hundred species, extending over some nine years ; and he states that Solms-Laubach anticipated him only in his explanation of the true nature of the “gall-flowers,” for he had found them in every species of the genus that had come under his notice. He also enters into some further particulars concerning the insects acting in the t Further details will be found in NaTurRg, vol. xxvii. p. 584. process of fertilization, though he adds nothing more conclusive. While admitting, and even assuming, that the pollen of the males must be conveyed by the insects” developed in the gall-flowers “to the perfect females imprisoned in the neighbouring receptacles,” he is still puzzled as to the way in which it is done. We are under the impression that Solms-Laubach indicates, if he does” not actually state in so many words, that he had not only frequently seen the winged female insect issuing from the receptacles of the caprifig, but that he had likewise occasionally observed them enter the receptacles of the cultivated fig, which is the female of the same species. This, the first part of King’s monograph, cont 1s” descriptions and figures of seventy-six species of Ficus, whereof ten belong to his section Paleomorphe, and the rest to Urostigma, which was originally proposed as an independent genus by Gasparrini, and provisionally re- tained as such by Miquel. King found five different kinds of flower, variously associated or removed, in the Asiatic species of fig ; and upon characters derived from the differentiation and arrangement of the sexual organs he classifies the species in two primary groups and seven sections. The species of the relatively small group Palzomorphe are distinguishable from all the others by having spuriously bisexual flowers associated | with gall-flowers, while the fertile females occupy se 7 receptacles. In the definitions of the sections, the pistil in the functionally male flowers is described as” rudi-_ mentary, though perhaps sterile would be a better term: to use, because, as figured, and designated in the explana- tions of the figures, it is a fully-developed gall-pistil. This condition is regarded as the nearest a assumed original complete hermaphroditism. In all six sections of the larger group the sexes. are strictly separated, as to the individual flowers ; and in the section Urostigma, male, gall, and perfect fewiale flowers are intermingled in the same receptacles. We have over- looked it if there is any explanation of the advantage derivable from the presence of gall-flowers where both sexes are also found in the same receptacle ; but it may, perhaps, be found in the fact that the inflorescence is proterogynous or proterandrous, hence insect agency is as necessary as in those species where the haan are. in different receptacles. Le EEE In the remaining five sections the male sds are invariably borne in one set of receptacles, awd | ‘the: fertile female flowers in another set ; and the presence of neuter flowers in the female receptachés characterizes the section Synecta. The neuter flowers contain rudiments of neither sex, which condition King —— hadi 8 the neuter flowers are asexual. A Neuter flowers are wanting in the sections Syadiio, Covellia, Eusyce, and NMeomorphe; but the arrangement of the flowers is otherwise the same as in Sywecia. The two first of these sections have monandrous male flowers, and the two last have diandrous or triandrous male flowers : while the receptacles of the first and [third are. mostly axillary, those of the second and fourth are Z borne in fascicles on the stem and branches. Thus it. will be perceived that the distinctive characters of these four sections are somewhat artificial. However, it is only fair to say that the author himself points attics fact. NATURE We have very little to say except in favour of this work, which is certainly one of the most important of - recent contributions to systematic botany ; but we should hhave liked to see a closer adherence to established usage _ in the application of certain botanical terms. To use the terms moncecious and dicecious in relation to the indi- vidual receptacles as well as the whole tree is perplexing, and also unnecessary, because suitable terms for express- ing these distinctions are current, and even employed by _ the author himself in some passages. W. B. H. OUR BOOK SHELF. Year-book of Pharmacy for 1886. (London: Churchill, 1887.) General Index to Year-books of Pharmacy, 1864-1885. (London: Churchill, 1886.) Tue “Year-book of Pharmacy” for 1886 contains a larger number than usual of abstracts of papers. _ Amongst the most interesting of them are perhaps those treating of coca and substances obtained from it. _ It: appears that when the active principle, cocaine, is heated with water it. decomposes, losing methyl (CHs), which is replaced by hydrogen. The product of this decomposition is benzoyl-ecgonine, which can again be - eonverted into cocaine by heating with methyl iodide and methyl alcohol. The replacement of methyl by hydrogen in the conversion of cocaine into benzoyl- __ ecgonine produces a very marked change in the physio- ir. fe hee action of the substances, for while cocaine is _ distinguished by its extraordinary power of paralyzing _ the sensory nerves and thus producing anesthesia of any part to which it is applied, this power is completely absent in benzoyl-ecgonine. Benzoyl-ecgonine, however, has a physiological action very closely allied to that of _caffeine—a circumstance which is very interesting in relation to the use of coca and ‘coffee as a beverage. _ Another substance used as an intoxicating drink in the ‘South Sea Islands—namely, Kava, obtained from the root of Piper methysticum—has been found, like cocaine, to have a powerful local anzesthetic action. " Other abstracts of great interest are those which relate Pe _ to ptomaines and leucomaines, or alkaloids formed from | the decomposition of albuminous matters either outside or inside of the body. These alkaloids are becoming more and more important from the. fact that they are now recognized as not only causing poisoning where meat has been taken in a state of putrefactive change, but as causing abnormal symptoms in some diseases. Thus it has been found that in typhoid fever a large quantity of ptomaines occur in tbe feeces, and it is supposed by one writer that the utility of ¢/sames in illness may be due to their aiding the removal of these alkaloids from the body through the kidneys. . By cultivating the comma-bacillus in broth, an alkaloid has been obtained which appears to be identical with that already isolated from the dejecta of cholera patients. In ' relation to these alkaloids produced in the body, it is very interesting to note that alkaloidal substances may be formed by the action either of ammonia or of compound ammonias on glucose. -A number of new alkaloids have been isolated from plants, and the actions of several of these are described. _.__- The General Index to the “ Year-books of Pharmacy ” _ for the Years 1864-1885 inclusive is of great service, ___ Saving much time, and enabling one not only to find.any ‘ Raper readily, but to see at a glance what work has. been ne on a particular subject within the last. twenty Ke years. t A BC Five-Figure Logarithms. By C. J. Woodware (London : Simpkin Marshall and Co., 1887.) , ’ To those who work in physical and chemical laboratorie this little book will be an immense help, for, in th ordinary work of the laboratory, errors of experimen exceed any error of calculation introduced by five-figur logarithms, while the time saved in calculation is ver great. f The tables are indexed ledger-fashion, so that. the re quired mantissa may be found in a moment. The diffe: ences for the 5th and 6th figures of sequences are found b using side letters denoting the line at the foot of eac table in which the required difference is presented. Mue greater accuracy is obtained by the last figure of certai mantissze having dashes above and _ below to indicat departures from the normal difference. At the end ar added a few chemical and physical constants and table: including some on gas analysis. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinion expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he unde. take to return, or to correspond with the writers rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymon communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep the letters as short as possible. The pressure on his spa is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure ti appearance even of communications containing interestin and novel facts. | Lighthouse Work, In the second of the very interesting articles on ‘‘ Lighthou: Work in the United Kingdom,” by Mr. J. Kenward, which hay appeared in your pages, some words are used, not intentional. I believe, but which, by those who are unfamiliar with tl subject, might be construed in such a, way as to deprive the la Mr. Thomas Stevenson of the credit due to him as the invent: of the dioptric mirror. ~The following is an extract from M Thomas Stevenson’s ‘‘ Lighthouse Construction and Illumin: tion,” published in 1881, which puts the matter on a corre footing :— “* Mr. $. 7. Chance’s Improvements of 1862 on Stevenson Dioptric Spherical Mirror.—Mr. Chance proposed to genera the prisms of the spherical mirror round a vertical instead of horizontal axis, and also to arrange them in segments. He sa) (Adin. Inst. Civ. Eng. yol. xxvi.):—‘The plan of generatir the zones round the vertical axis was introduced by the autho who adopted it in the first complete catadioptric mirror whi was made, and was shown in the Exhibition of 1862 by t! Commissioners of Northern Lighthouses, for whom it.was co: structed, in order to further the realizing of what Mr. Thom Stevenson had ingeniously suggested about twelve yea previously. During the progress of this instrument the. ide occurred to the author of separating the zones, and also | dividing them into segments like the ordinary reflecting zones. a dioptric light ; by this means it became practicable to increa: considerably the radius of the mirror, and thereby to rend it applicable to the largest sea light, without overstepping tl limits of the angular breadths of the zones, and yet witho' being compelled to resort to glass of high refractive power.’ ‘*’There can be no doubt of the advantage of these improv: ments, and it is without any intention of derogating from M Chance’s. merit in the matter that it is added that my first ide was also to generate the prisms round a vertical axis. But tl flint. glass. which was necessary for so small a mirror cou not be obtained in large pots, and had to be taken out in ve small quantities on the end of a rod and pressed down into tl mould. © I was therefore obliged to reduce the diameter of tl rings as much as possible ; and it was thought by those whom consulted at the time (Mr. John Adie, Mr, Alan Stevenson, ar Prof. Swan) that by adopting the horizontal axis the mo importent and most useful parts of the instrument near the ax would be more easily executed, inasmuch as those prisms we: of very much smaller diameter. Mr. Chance not only adopte 244 NATURE l=" a ee a [uly 14, 1887 the better form, but added the important improvement of separating the prisms and arranging them in segments.” Edinburgh, June 28. D. A. STEVENSON. In addition to several errors into which Mr. Kenward, in his third article on ‘‘ Lighthouse Work,” has fallen, he seems to have overlooked the experiments made by Messrs. Stevenson, in 1870, on paraffin as an illuminant for lighthouses, and which were fully detailed in the Parliamentary Paper 318, Session 1871. Experiments had been made with some degree of success with burners having one and two wicks, but all attempts to burn paraffin efficiently in the large concentric-wick burners were unsuccessful until Capt. Doty solved the problem. Unaware of what had been done in France, Messrs. Stevenson, early in 1870, had been conducting a train of experiments on paraffin, and had reached important conclusions on the subject, and good flames were got with the single and double Argand lamps, when Capt. Doty submitted his burners tothem. The Doty burners were then subjected to crucial tests in Edinburgh, and also to actual trial for a month in a first-order lighthouse. The con- clusions Messrs. Stevenson then arrived at and reported to the Scottish Lighthouse Board may be summarized as follows: that paraffin as now manufactured, with a high flashing-point, is safe and suitable as a lighthouse illuminant ; the flames of the Doty burners are of great purity and intensity, and easily main- tained at the standard height ; the lamp-glasses and lamps in use for colza are equally suitable for paraffin; the varying state of the atmosphere does not affect the penetrability of the paraffin light more than the colza light ; no structural alterations on the existing apparatus are necessary ; the initial power of the lights will be exalted from 10 per cent. in the four-wick burner to fully 100 per cent. in the single-wick burner ; and that the use ‘in the Scottish lighthouses of the new illuminant would effect an annual saving of £3478. These conclusions, which subsequent experience has fully borne out, ‘settled the relative merits of paraffin and colza so far as British lighthouses were concerned ; and the first four-wick paraffin burner ever permanently installed in a lighthouse was at Pentland Skerries on February 15, 1871, while Argand paraffin burners were in use at Pladda in December 1870, and at the catoptric lights of Great Castle Head in December 1870, and at Flamborough Head in June 1872. With reference to Ailsa Craig the facts are that in 1878, when Messrs. Stevenson were considering the problem of effect- ively guarding the Fair Isle by fog-signals, they consulted Prof. Holmes as to the feasibility of working the signals from a central station and sending the compressed air through a long length of piping, and he concurred with them regarding its practicability, and stated that he had worked a signal in Canada at a distance of halfa mile. When Ailsa Craig came to be dealt with, the Fair Isle scheme was reverted to, and Mr. Ingrey’s firm contracted to carry out the work in accordance with Messrs. Stevenson’s specification. ‘The automatic appliances for secur- ing the true periodicity of the siren blasts were designed by Mr. Ingrey. In giving the history of gas-engines applied as a motive power for actuating fog-signals, a most important advance in lighthouse work, Mr. Kenward does not state that this was done on the Clyde by Messrs. Stevenson in 1875, and that since then they have introduced gas made from mineral oil for driving gas- engines at Langness in 1880, at Ailsa Craig, and at the Clyde. ‘D. A. STEVENSON. 84iGeorge Street, Edinburgh, July 4. The Use of Flowers by Birds. I HAVE just read in NATuRE of June 23 (p. 173) Mr. W. White’s letter, and should like, with your permission, to add a few words on this subject. A quiet, leafy home has made me well acquainted with the commoner birds, therefore I speak. In the first place, with regard to the non-protective colour of the laburnum blossoms, it must be remembered that the flowers thus used have two other qualities that recommend them to the nest-builders: flexibility and length. Everyone must have noticed how sparrows and other birds steal anything long and limp—pieces of string, &c.—when they are building. Only the other day I caught a sparrow trying hard to untie a piece of thick string with which the branch of atree had been tied back, ~ 304 and it would have succeeded if I had not gone to the rescue. I have had the ties of budded roses taken away by them also. I have been told by a lady that she once lost a lace handkerchief in a mysterious manner, which was at last discovered—through a telescope—on a high tree, on the nest of a rook or daw. All the flower-sprays mentioned were long and limp. I have seen birds take those of the clematis also. bf But there can be no doubt that birds have a very keen sense of the protectiveness of colour; if you startle a blue tit it will seek a high branch against the sky—blue, and brown, and green; a robin flits away to the brown shadow ofa bush; I have even known a young robin, threatened by an elder (they are great disciplinarians), take refuge near a reddish-brown dress, ce A thrush is wonderfully clever almost: as soon as it is in finding its own tints on some wall or tree-trunk, and a believe to be a piece of it to such an extent that one may approach quite close to it and it will remain absolutely motion- less as long as one’s eye is upon it; but if the eye is removed, even for a ‘‘twinkling,” the bird will have hopped down noise- lessly behind something before one can look again, Bee es With respect to the yellow flowers, may there not be some quality attached to the colour that birds like, or find profitable? I have watched a thrush during a long hard frost, devour—not merely pull to pieces, but eat voraciously—large bunches of yellow crocuses. All the earlier bunches were eaten. When the purple and white came out later it was still faithful to the yellow, and never touched any other; and so eager was it, that when the blossoms were gone it would dig its beak down into the buds and pull out the least bit of yellow that appeared. I watched it from a window close above the bed, and there was no possibility of making any mistake about it. The bird—a very large one—took some again this year, but not many. It could hardly be all for love of colour, though no doubt that is very strong in birds as in children. Birds are very like children. _ The sparrows mentioned in my last note made two me trials after I sent it—five in all; and the last time their attemp was nearly composed of white alyssum. After that they gave up, but I get a severe scolding from them sometimes if I go near the place. They tried to build there last year, and I removed two or three nests, but I allowed a thrush, that had built below and brought forth a brood before I perceived it, to remain. When they left, the sparrows immediately built o the top of the forsaken thrush’s nest. They seem to have drawn the conclusion—rather hastily, but not irrationally—that ¢at was a safe place, and whether or not their thoughts took the shape of words, they chattered over their work immensely. And I do not know where the line can be drawn between words and exclama- tions (the foundation-stones of language), nor between those and the notes and cries of birds, which are much more numerous and varied and distinctive of purpose than most people imagine, especially those of the robin. The strangely human and canine cries of a party of quarrelling sea-gulls are extremely expressive. It may be said that there is no progress, no addition to the language of birds ; but I am not sure of that. Last winter, a robin, accustomed to be fed at my window on bits of bacon, invented a note by which it called me to feed it. It was quite peculiar—hushed, short, and muttered, as it were. Its object seemed to be to reach my ear and not that of rival birds. It would take a few little bits—very few—when offered, look grate- fully in my face, with its head on one side, and away, till it was again hungry ; then—da cago. Thesame robin is hopping in and out of the open window continually now, taking what it pleases for itself and young of food set for it. erent That birds should be subject, like ourselves, to the tyranny of fashion seems not at all unlikely if one considers nature of that tyranny. The feeling that seems to oblige people to adopt, notwithstanding their sense of beauty and fitness, fashions that are positively monstrous, must have its roots low down in the scale of Nature. It seems to be composed of a sense of asso- ciation and a love of the accustomed—both very s in birds ; association, for instance, of wisdom and authority with a wig, of the delightfulness of well-bred women with the extremely undelightful outlines they contrive to give to their figures, &c., &c. The pleasure that the accustomed gives is, I suppo: that of rest. No doubt fashion may reign in the lower regions ; may it not control, in a somewhat transient manner, the bee that packs its load from the pollen of a particular flower, of one colour and no other? |. MiSs Sidmouth, July 3. | Fuly 14, 1887] NATURE 245 Spawn of Sun-fish (?). DuRING a cruise on the west coast of Ireland, from which I have recently returned, I captured a long ribbon of spawn about 40 feet long, 3 feet deep, and a quarter of aninch thick. The ova, about the size of No. 2 shot, were set in a firm gelatinous mass, which floated edgeways in a frilled form. I saw it floati about a foot below the surface, and succeeded in gaffing it an towing it behind the punt by getting some of it fixed over the gunwale. The embryos had raltey 2 so as to show eyes when first taken, and in the two days, during which some of it remained alive in a deep can, a further advance took place ; but then, owing to the heat of the weather, the ova whitened, its buoyancy was lost, and decomposition set in. As we saw several specimens of the sun-fish (Orthagoriscus mola) in the vicinity, and as the spawn must have belonged to some very large fish, I think it probable that what we found was the spawn of a sun-fish. I should be glad if any of your readers could throw more light on the subject. W. S. GREEN. Carrigaline, co. Cork, July 4. After-Glows. In reply to the letter of Mr. L. P. Muirhead in NATURE of June 23 (p. 175), I would ask to be permitted to state that the _after-glows are very rich and conspicuous here evening after evening, and occasionally discernible till 10 p.m. Worcester, July 4, 1887. J. Ltoyp Bozwarp. The Cuckoo in India. ”* I HAVE been here for just one month, and during that time. have constantly heard the cry of the cuckoo. Last Sunday I heard it at Lackwar, fifteen miles from here. This would apparently point to Jerdon’s not being correct in saying the cuckoo is rare in India. F. C. CONSTABLE. Mussoorie, June 15. Mr. Mutzler, the owner of this hotel—the Charleville—tells __ me the cuckoo is constantly heard from spring to October. I.uminous Boreal Cloudlets. In NATuRE, vol. xxxiv. p. 192, attention was invited by the writer to what appeared to him to constitute a special class of self-luminous cloudlets in the northern sky at night, for which, if so recognized, the name ‘‘ nubeculz boreales ” was suggested. A careful look-out was kept every night last autumn, winter, and spring for their reappearance here, but to no effect till the night of the 19th inst. Then, and subsequently on the 21st, 24th, and 26th inst., there was an increasing development of the phenomenon in a north polar horizontal arc of 50°, or 25° on each side the true north. At length on the 28th, and last night, the 29th inst., there was a magnificent and marked display. One of your able correspondents of last year seemed to con- sider he had already drawn attention to the subject in a previous year in your columns. It appeared, however, he had only remarked upon sunlit clouds, as a phase of the cloud-forms attracting latterly special attention. It is quite out of the question to attribute the luminosity now to in any respect to direct solar illumination at mid- night; and fortunately the eminent Astronomer-Royal for Scotland was led to apply the spectroscope, confirming the writer's conjecture as to the sub-auroral and _ self-luminous character of these cloudlets. His letter of July 31 will be found in NATURE, vol. xxxiv. p. 311. The recent works of Lemstrém and Koch, reviewed in NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 433 e seg., have followed up the subject in noting a sudden and wide-spread development of cirrus clouds and luminous mists in aurorz of Sweden and Labrador. Dundrum, co. Dublin, June 30. D. J. Rowan. ‘The Migrations of Pre-Glacial Man. ‘Wit Dr. Hicks kindly explain the statement cited in NATURE (vol. xxxvi. p. 185), that the migration of pre-glacial man to this country was ‘‘/rom northern and north-western directions.” June 25. ° GLACIATOR, On the Pliocene Deposit of Marine Shells near Lattakia, and a Similar Deposit in the Island of Zante. ON p. 384, vol. xxx. of NATURE, Prof. Hull publishedi#an account, furnished him by myself, of the shell deposit in the marl of the Lattakia plain. Since that time I have submitted these specimens to Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S., of the British Museum, who has kindly furnished me with their specific names, as far as they are determinable. The subjoined list fixes the geological date or succession of the deposit, which belongs to, or is of the same age or period as, the Pliocene or Crag deposits of Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. The fossils from the raised beaches may be of post-Pliocene. MOLLUSCA. Class IL—GASTEROPODA. Order I.— PROSOBRANCHIATA. Sec. A.—Siphonostomata. I, Fam. STROMBIDA. 1. Strombus, sp. 2. ° > >” 2. Fam. MuRICIDé. . Murex branderis, Broce. x» erimaceus, Linn. », conglobatus, Micht. Fusus rostratus, Defr. 3 corneus, Sow. = F. gracilis, PH WARAY gat SDs . Ranella marginata, Sow. or Broce. 3. Fam. BUCCINIDA. 10, Buccinium Jlexuosum, Broce. Il. Cassis crumona, Lam, . Cassidaria echinata. . Columbella nassoides. . Nassa clathrata, Defr. 15. 5, megastoma, Broce. . Lerebra imbricaria, 17. » near 7. plicaria. 18, eel Sis 4. Fam. CoNIDAé. . Conus Noé, Broce. 20. 4, deperditus, Brig. Rist ego ae 22. Pleurostoma monile, Broce, 23. 4 cataphractra, Broce. 24. pe turricola, Broce. 5. Fam, VOLUTIDA. 25. Mitra scrobiculata, Deft. (Bfocc). 260. y5 sp. BF ok es sp. Sec. B.—Holostomata. 6, Fam. CERITHIIDA. 28. Aporrhais (Chenopus) pes- pelecani, L. 29. Cerithium vulgatum, Brug. 7. Fam. NATICIDA, 30. Natica, sp. 8. Fam. LITTORMIDA. 31. Phorus agelutinans, Lam. g. Fam. TURBINIDA. 32. Turbo rugosus, Lam. 33- 5 SP. 34. Trochus patulus, Broce. Class IIl.—CONCH/IFERA, Lam. Sec. A.—Asiphonida. 10, Fam. OSTREIDA, 35. Ostrea, sp. 36. Spondylus crassicostata, 11. Fam, PECTENID. | 37. Lecten, sp. near P. altopl- | catus. 38. 33 jacobeus. 39. 4, opercularis, L. 40. 3, adubius, Broce. 4I. 9» janira, near guin- guecostatus, 12. Fam. ARCIDA. 42. Arca polit. | 43. Pectunculus, sp. Sec. B.—Siphonida, In- tegro-pallialia, 13. Fam, CHAMIDA. Chama squamosa, Brand. 14. Fam. CARDIIDA. . Cardium rusticum, L. 46. 2 echinatum, L. pe edule, L. EN Pe 15. Fam. LUCINIDA, 48. Lucina borealis, L. Sec. C.—Sinu-pallialia. 16. Fam. VENORIDA. / 49. Venus fasciata, Da Costa, 50. 4, (Cytherea) casina, L. | ; | Class III.-BRACHIOPODA, Cuv. 51. Waldheimia complanata. It will be seen by this list that three classes, seventeen fami- lies, twenty-nine genera, and fifty-one species are represented. Beside the above marine species, which are found more or less embedded in the soil, as well as on its surface, Helix pomatia is found in great profusion all over the surface. Another species of He/ix, closely allied to H. /apicida, and a species of Clausilia, in this region. No other terrestrial shells were collected In addition to the above Mollusca I found a species of Toxas 246 NATURE [Fuy 14, 1887 ter, species of Dentalium Noé, and specimens of Szrpula, also a large shark’s tooth belonging to the genus Carcharodon. During the autumn of 1885 I visited Zante in the Austrian Lloyd’s steamer from Trieste to Athens. As the steamer only anchored for a few hours, I had time only for a walk to the top of the hill overlooking the town. . A’ chain of hills trending nearly north and south forms the backbone of the Island of Zante. At the latitude of the’town of Zante this chain is broken by a strip of alluvial plain about 2 miles wide, -stretch- ing from the eastern to the western coast of the island. The Castle hill is a mass of Pliocene marl, rising about. 300 feet above this plain at its eastern edge. The steep side of the hill is channeled with innumerable ravines and gullies, and of the same colour as the Pliocene beds of Lattakia.. In coming down the hill; I observed in one locality, within a radius of 30 feet, the following species :— Cerithium vulgatum, Brug. Murex conglobatus. Cardium edule, L Venus (Cytherea) casina, L. Ostrea, sp. All of these were more or less embedded, or had been worked out by the rain, and lay at the bottom or sides of the gullies. London, June 23. GEORGE E, Post. The Perception of Colour, I HAVE not yet heard it stated that our perception of colour is slower for the blue and violet rays than for the green, yellow, and red ones; and as I think that this subject has interest for many of your readers, they will perhaps carry out the following simple experiments on themselves and their friends. A luminous object, such as a distant gas-lamp, an electric light, or the moon, is looked at through a direct-vision prism after it has been removed out of its case. The spectrum is of course a bad. one, but brilliant. Now, if the prism is rolled backwards and forwards between the fingers, so that the spec- trum oscillates through a small angle, it appears to bend like a riding-whip which is being flicked from side'to side. The blue and Violet parts.of the spectrum always lag behind. In fact, as far as I could see, the spectrum, instead of being straight, seemed to be gently curved, but very sharply bent between the indigo and the violet part, which would show that the more refractive rays are seen. by us very much later (even proportion- ately) than the others. As everybody is not able to detect this bending of the spec- trum, the following experiment should also be carried out. In- stead of rolling the prism, it is passed between the eye and the object as quickly as possible, so that the spectrum is only seen for an instant ; and it will be distinctly noticed that it seems to flash from the red end towards the violet-—a sure sign that the red is seen first and the violet last. C. E, STROMEYER. Strawberry Hill, July 5. Breeding for Intelligence in Animals. SEEING the results that have been attained by breeding for special qualities in dogs, why should not systematic’ efforts be made to breed for general intelligence? The correspondents who have from time to time furnished you with illustrations of canine sagacity must be sufficiently numerous to form an Asso- ciation to promote the interbreeding of intelligent dogs, and the distribution of their offspring to those who would foster and cultivate their intellect. H. RAYNER. June 27. The Nephridia of Lanice conchilega. SINCE my paper on the nephridia of ZLanice conchilega, Malmgren, appeared in NATURE (June 16, p. 162), I have learned that the chief peculiarity to which I called attention in. my description of the nephridial system had been observed and mentioned before. In the monograph on the Polycladen by Dr. Arnold Lang; published in 1884, and forming one of the series ‘* Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,” p. 677, occurs the sentence: ‘Bei Lanice conchilega, Pallas, hat neuerdings Ed. Meyer bei erwachsenen Thieren jederseits einen Langscanal aufgefunden, welcher alle Segmentalorgane mit einander ver- bindet, und nur an einer Stelle durch ein Dissepiment unter- brochen ist.” Dr. Ed. Meyer has called my attention to this passage, and informed me that Dr, Lang received permission from him to make use of this and other observations which he (Dr. Meyer) had made in the course of his studies on Chzetopoda. mS The sentence quoted has been also cited by Dr. R. S. Bergh in an article on ‘‘ Die Excretionsorgane der Witrmes” in na oy 1885, Bd. ii. p. 115, That sentence is the only acres published concerning Dr. Meyer’s observations on the nephr of the species in question. When my paper was printed I ss unaware of the existence of the sentence in Dr, Lang’s mono- “ graph, or of the reference to it made by Dr. Bergh. ‘Hindoreanss * ately I had not had time to read the monog aph through, z : had not suspected that there was in it a mention of a. concerning the anatomy of Chetopoda, My examin Lanice conchilega was made in entire ignorance that Dre had already investigated its anatomy; otherwise I she course have mentioned his name in the summary I g¢ previous work on the subject. Edinburgh, June 30. organ in another group with the : researches, ere Its high development in some lizards, and, so pay: as swe ; know, its rudimentary nature in all other existing grou! of vertebrates, including fishes and Amphibia, and lz its entire absence in Amphioxus, are, for those vy in the latter the “ Urvater.” of the Chordata, points made it difficult to form any satisfactory mor conception of its origin. hae True, something that admitted of comparison vith could be found in larval Ascidians ; and Spencer, at the — end of his able paper, endeavoured to trace its “rise and © fall” from its supposed homologue, the larval Tunicate eye. "With Wiedersheim and Carriére, I consider that Spencer has placed the eye of the larval Tunicate at the wrong — end of the series—if it should come in at all; for, as experience has abundantly shown, it is very easy to. com-_ pare organs of the higher vertebrates with what are ‘sup> posed. to. be homologous organs. in Amphioniaaa 4 Tunicata, and at the same time to be enti rr I need hardly refer the reader to the instances im vhich © such comparisons have been shown by Dohrn in his — famous “Studien” to have been entirely wrong; an holding with him that Amphioxus and the Tunicata a very degenerate vertebrates, and that from them bt can be got for the elucidation of the problems of. brate morphology, I felt the necessity of looking el: where for the solution of that of the parietal eye ins relations to the paired eyes. yh With these problems in view I began to study. the | development of the pineal eye, and also its structure in — such fishes as might be expected to retain it in a mores: developed condition than most of those we know. | At Prof. Wiedersheim’s suggestion I examined’ he structure of the “ pineal gland” in Ammocostes of Petro-— myzon planeri,in the hope that something more mi come out beyond that which the able work of Ah 7 has already made known to us. The result Babe =f e sense, disappointing, but not unexpected, for, r er- ing eee researches, and bearing in- mind that th fe paired eyes of Petromyzon are rudimenta in Ammoceetes, _ first becoming capable of vision in the _ I had = : hope of good results from the- examination of sexuall ve mature animals. In the adult the discoveries made exceeded 1 my expecta-— : tions; and after examining this animal I proceeded to sections through the brain of Myxine. Here, again, the | finds were important, and the research was extended to specimens of Bdellostoma and Petromyzon marinus, 2 uly 14, 1887 | NATURE 247 which I owe to the generosity of my former teacher, Prof. Howes. ; as Before giving the detailed account of my investigations, I may say that neither the anatomical nor developmental studies so far made, give any direct clue to the origin of the organ. : : That which seems to me the most likely hypothesis I shall give at the end of this paper, and in its favour I can at least say that it is a morphological explanation of the evolution of the parietal eye, which, so far as I know, is ‘not inconsistent with any known facts. The epiphysis in Ammoceetes has been described by - Ahlborn (Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxix.). His descrip- tion is mainly correct, and but little can be added to it. The epiphysis itself is divided into a dorsal and a ventral vesicle, and as we are not concerned here with the ventral ~ one, I shall ignore its existence. : In large Ammoceetes the dorsal vesicle lies deep under the skin, and far removed from the light; its position being marked externally by a clear white spot just behind the opening of the nose. It is a simple closed sac, and retains its attachment to the brain. The dorsal wall is thinner than the ventral, and is made up of a layer of flattened cells, which are not modified to form a lens. ; ‘The ventral wall is a much more complicated structure. Towards the inside of the vesicle it presents a layer of rod-like cells, which are more like the rods of a retina than like anything else. Externally (with regard to the vesicle) to this layer are two or three irregular rows of nuclei. There is no lens and no pigment, except a few very minute dots. In this stage the retina of the parietal eye of Ammo- | coetes somewhat resembles that of Cyclodus, figured by | Spencer, but is somewhat better developed, and tends towards the condition found in Varanus giganteus. Except in the presence of the minute dots of pigment, and in the fact that the dorsal wall of the vesicle is not connected by fine strands with the ventral wall, as Ahlborn supposed, there is nothing new in this descrip- tion, and even now we cannot say that the parietal eye ; illy-grown Ammoceetes is very highly developed. In the adult Petromyzon, just as the paired eyes are highly developed so also do we meet with an increased development of the parietal eye. As is well known since Wiedersheim’s researches, the brain of the adult is ‘much compressed in an antero-posterior direction. The dorsal vesicle of the pineal gland lies much further for- wards, and more dorsally than in the larva, so that it comes to be nearer the external surface of the body, while it lies buried in the roof of the skull. Its posterior wall is densely pigmented, so much so that it is impossible by ordinary means to make anything out of the structure of the cells composing it. These points.can be seen very ae longitudinal vertical sections through the brain and skull (see figure). nem ge to mention that the clear white patch of skin lying above the organ is much larger and more marked than in the Ammoceetes. It is, however, difficult to suppose that the white patch is here of much physio- logical importance, and it can only be referred back to a time when the eye in Petromyzon was of more use than at present. The anterior wall is composed of cells which are thrown into folds (possibly in part due to contraction) ‘projecting into the cavity of the vesicle. I mentioned above that in the full-grown Ammoceetes there are only a'few minute dots of pigment present. So few and so small are these, that unless specially sought _ for they would be overlooked, as indeed they have been 2 ut previous observers. The state of things is much “4 nt in the young Ammoceetes of about 2 inches in length. ‘There, as in the adult, the retina of the _ parietal eye contains a large deposit of pigment. This was first shown me by Dr. Schwarz (a pupil of Prof. Weismann’s), who has made, for the study of the paire eyes, some very fine sections of very young Ammoccete: at stages which I had failed to obtain. I shall figur these sections in the complete account I have in prepara tion. In the young Ammoceetes the parietal eye is large and exceeds in size either of the pairedeyes. Its posterio wall is really a well-developed retina, with long rod-lik elernents embedded in pigment, and a series of oute layers of spherical nucleated bodies. Its anterior wa’ consists of several layers of rounded cells, but it doe not form a lens. In the specimen of FPetyomyzon marinus mentione before, owing to the soft state of the brain I could onl make out a very deep fossa in the skull in the position i: which the “eye” is situated in P. Alanert. The whit patch of skin is here very large indeed, and on the whol I am inclined to think that the parietal eye in Pelromyzo. marinus would well repay further investigation. In Myxine the state of things is even more surprising Here the parietal eye is a large flattened vesicle lying ©: the brain and connected with it by a very short soli stalk. There is externally no white patch of skin, bu lying in the skin above the vesicle there is a flattene body, which, in structure and position, more nearl Longitudinal vertical (sagittal) section through the parietal eye of an adu! Petromyzon planerz (Zeiss C. oc. 2cam.]. 67, brain; ¢.¢., connectiv tissue ; #, position of nose; P.E., pigment of the retina; P.o., parieta eye, 1.e. dorsal vesicle of the epiphysis; Rr, retina; s.a.f., subderma pigment ; sk, skull; sz, skin; v.v., ventral vesicle of pineal gland. resembles the “ Stirn-driise ” of Amphibians than any thing else. This “Stirn-driise,” as is well known, is ; rudimentary portion of the epiphysis, and hence of ‘the parietal eye. There is no lens and no pigment in Myxine. The anterior wall of the vesicle consists of a single layer o somewhat flattened cells. The retina has essentially the structure of that of the parietal eye of Varanus, but it lacks the pigment whict is there present (wZde Spencer, “Pineal Eye in Lacertilia, Q/.M.S., vol. xxvii. Part 2, Plate XIV. Figs. 1 and 6). Bdellostoma seems, in this, and, as was first shown by Johannes Miller, in other points in the structure of its brain, to resemble Myxine. Without discussing the matter at length, I may say that in the parietal eyes ot Petromyzon and Myxine we have to deal with structures which are still well developed, and which were probably once much more developed than now. In this connexion the history of the changes in Ammoccetes is very inter- esting, and all the more so as confirming and -ex- tending Dohrn’s opinion that the Cyclostomata have degenerated from highly developed fishes. The parietal eye in Ammoceetes, like many other of its organs, makes a good start, and only degenerates as the Ammoccete degenerates. When the Petromyzon state is reverted to, 248 NATURE [Fuly 14, 1887 the parietal eye, like the animal in which it occurs, reverts towards an ancestral condition, and its doing so is an additional point in favour of Dohrn’s opinion that the change to the adult Petromyzon is a sort of atavism. Myxine, though in other respects more degenerate than the adult Petromyzon, retains the structure of the retina in a somewhat more specialized condition, one which most nearly recalls the highest parietal eye pre- sented to us by the Lacertilia. With regard to the development of the eye in lizards, the only point I will now mention is one which was to be expected to hold, viz. that the lens develops as a thickening of the anterior wall of the vesicle. I may add, however, that it. shows signs of a tendency to involution. And now, without discussing Spencer’s speculations, I will briefly state my idea of the manner in which the parietal eye was evolved in connexion with the paired eyes. From the start of my investigations I was fully con- vinced that the evolution of all three eyes must be viewed from one common starting-point. The fact that, as Wiedersheim ‘states, even in man nerve-fibres have been traced from the optic thalami to the pineal gland, is suffi- cient evidence for this, even if we did not know that all three eyes arise in connexion with the same portion of the brain. The hypothesis is an extension of that given by Wiedersheim, Carriére, Dohrn, and others, to account for the evolution of the paired eyes. The starting-point is a dorsal optic plate before the neural folds begin to form. This gives us a dorsal eye on the so-called invertebrate type. When the neural folds began to form so as to involute the brain and spinal cord, the optic plate was of course, being part of the brain, involved in the involution. With the progression of the latter it probably increased in size, and extended some- what over the lateral margins of the neural folds. When the neural folds closed and shut in that which forms the optic vesicles, part of the optic plate was left, forming the rudiment of the parietal eye. This, just as all known sense-organs tend to get involuted, got also secondarily involuted, and that but slowly, so that the outside wall of the involution had time to become a lens, an eye being thus formed on the invertebrate type. The parietal eye, being closely bound up with the paired eyes, got secondarily involuted with them; and, losing its primary mode of origin by delay in its development, it now appears as a secondary outgrowth of the brain, in which the lens is still formed from the outer wall. The lens, moreover, possibly retains traces of an involution. Spencer has not attempted to grapple with the difficulty involved in the fact that the rods of the retina of the paired eyes are turned from the source of light, while in the parietal eye they are turned towards it. The explanation given above is not in contradiction with this state of things; it, in fact, receives support from it. In the complete paper I shall discuss the matter at length, and give ample illustrative figures. J. BEARD. Anatomisches Institut, Freiburg i/Br., June 21. THE JUBILEE ANTICYCLONE. te UEEN’S WEATHER” has long been a familiar expression descriptive of the most desired weather for all open-air celebrations and enjoyments ; and per- haps no June of the last fifty years has presented us with so many days of such choice weather as the June of 1887. In the language of modern meteorology this is due to the fact that the prevailing type of weather has been anti- cyclonic. From the middle of June to the beginning of July, thus including the time of Her Majesty’s Jubilee, a very pronounced and remarkable anticyclone overspread the British Islands, with its usual attendants of bright weather, strong sunshine and heat during the day, clear and cool nights, and capriciously-distributed rainfall. Taking June as a whole, temperature was most in excess of the average in the west and north-west of Ireland and over Central Scotland from Inverness to the Solway ; the excess at Glencarron, in Ross-shire, being 5°°o, at Laing and Braemar 4°°5, and in many places in Scotland and the west of Ireland about 4%0. The exceptional character of these temperatures will appear from the fact that during the present century they have . only been exceeded in the north-east of Scotlandinthe Junes of 1818, 1826, and 1846. On the other hand, over England, to the east of a line drawn from Berwick to the — Isle of Wight, and to the north of a line from Stornoway ~ to Wick, temperature does not appear to have exceeded the mean of June more than a degree: whilst at Somer- leyton in Suffolk, and North Unst in Shetland, the tem- perature fell fully a degree below the average. These differences were due to the general position of the centre of the anticyclone being well to westward of the British Islands, so that the northern islands and the south- east of England were within the eastern margin of the anticyclone, and hence exposed to the northerly winds and lower temperatures peculiar to that sec- tion of an anticyclone, as was pointed out in NATURE ten years ago in reviewing the American Weather __ Maps. During this anticyclonic weather there were two distinct sources of high temperature, viz. that due to the strong sunshine which found its most decided expression — in the high temperatures of Central Scotland; and that due to the warm descending air-currents of the anti- cyclone, which being most marked at great heights was most strongly expressed at the Ben Nevis Observatory. At this Observatory the means, for the ten days ended June 26, of the daily maxima were 61°°8, and of the — minima 50°°3, thus. giving a mean temperature of 56°0, © and 11°5 for the daily range. Quite different was temperature during these ten days at low levels inland. At Pinmore, for example, in the deep valley of the Stinchar, Ayrshire, the mean temperature was 63°4,and the daily range 33°3, or three times greater than onthe top of Ben Nevis. On June 21 the contrast was very striking, the minimum on Ben Nevis being 43” . whereas at Pinmore it fell to 34°3, on which morning, as reported by Mr. Donald, the ob- — server, it was freezing at the river side. During the © night the high temperature was kept up on Ben Nevis by the descending air-currents of the anticyclone, but — the cold currents generated by the night radiation con- — centrated on and filled the steep narrow valley of the — Stinchar. = The frequent occurrence of 40°'0 and upwards between the daily maximum and minimum, so frequently observed — over the country, was primarily dependent on the clear dry H atmosphere and the strong solar and terrestrial radiation consequent thereon. These great and sudden changes of temperature were on occasions largely incres!= am 4 the shiftings of the position of the anticyclone, by which — a particular locality was at one time on its west side, and — therefore in enjoyment of the high temperature peculiar to that position, but a few hours thereafter was within its eastern side and its low temperature. eee So far as records have reached us, the rainfall was — nowhere above its average, being, however, at or close to © the average at Glenquoich and Glencarron, where it was respectively 5°53 and 419 inches. On Ben Nevis 7°51 inches fell, being only 0°66 inch less than the average. At Oxford, the deficiency from the monthly mean was only 15 per cent., and at Somerleyton 23 per cent. Generally, - however, the deficiency was exceptionally great and wide-— spread, being in nearly all parts of the British Islands” from 50 to 95 per cent. less than the June average of the = 4 -¥uly 14, 1887] NATURE 7 249 _ stations. Another feature of the weather was the sudden _ changes which occurred in the humidity of the air, which were perhaps most striking on June 18, on which day at _ many places a higher temperature was observed than has _ been noted for many years. On that day thunderstorms _ occurred over the greater part of the eastern districts of _ Scotland, accompanied with dense clouds and a close _ atmosphere. At a very large number of places not a drop Of rain fell. At a few places a heavy, short-continued __ shower fell, but the air cleared and dried so suddenly _ that in three minutes all effects of the rain were — ; and everything looked as parched and dried up as fore the rain. On the morning of this day the isobars for 9 a.m. revealed the existence of a local shallow depression extending from Ochtertyre, north-eastwards towards Aberdeen, where atmospheric pressure was lower than on either side of it. Here the thunder- storm was severest, and rain fell most generally. At Lednathie, Forfarshire, the storm and rainfall were all but unprecedented. The rain commenced at 12.50 p.m., and ceased at 1.30 p.m., and during these forty minutes there fell 2°24 inches. Mr. Morison, the observer, remarks that “the appearance of the rain while falling was like bright small streams falling straight down” — a description which will recall to some of our readers what they have often noticed during the torrential _ downpours of the tropics. The state of many of our rivers attests only too strongly to the persistence and severity of the drought. On Sunday last the level of the Tay was fully half an inch beneath the deep cut made in the red sandstone rock at Perth on June 30, 1826, to mark the unprecedented low- ness of the river at that time. The Thames in its upper reaches is covered with high grown rushes and great floating masses of weeds, and nearer London it is _ reported to be lower than it has been in the memory of the oldest boatman. NO LANGUAGE WITHOUT REASON—-NO REASON WITHOUT LANGUAGE. A?! found that you had already admitted no less than thirteen letters on my recent work “The Science of Thought,” I hesitated for some time whether I ought to ask you to admit another communication on a subject which can be of interest to a very limited number of the readers of NATURE only. I have, indeed, from the very beginning of my philological labours, claimed for the science of language a place among the physical sciences, and, in one sense, I do the same for the science of thought. Nature that does not include human nature in all its various manifestations would seem to me like St. Peter's without its cupola. But this plea of mine has not as yet been generally admitted. The visible material frame of man, his sense-organs and their functions, his nerves and his brain, all this has been recognized as the rightful domain of physical science. But beyond this physical science was not to go. There was the old line of separation, a line drawn by mediaeval students between man, on one side, and his works, on the other; between the sense-organs and their perceptions; between the brain and its outcome, or, as it has sometimes been called, its secretion—namely, thought. To attempt to obliterate that line between physical science, on one side, and moral science, as it used to be called, on the other, was represented as mere confusion of thought. Still, here as elsewhere, a perception of higher unity not necessarily imply an ignoring of useful dis- tinctions. To me it has always seemed that man’s Mature can never be fully understood except as one and indivisible. His highest and most abstract thoughts appear to me inseparable from the lowest material im- pacts made upon his bodily frame. And “if nothing was ever in the intellect except what was first in the senses,” barring, of course, the intellect itself, it follows that we shall never understand the working of the intellect, unless we first try to understand the senses, their organs, their functions, and, in the end, their products. For practical purposes, no doubt, we may, nay we ought, to separate the two. Thus, in my own special subject, it is well to separate the treatment of phonetics and acoustics from higher linguistic researches. We may call phonetics and acoustics the ground floor, linguistics the first story. But as every building is one—the ground floor purposeless without the first story, the first story a mere castle in the air without the ground floor—the science of man also is one, and would, according to my opinion, be imperfect unless it included psychology, in the widest meaning of that term, as well as physiology ; unless it claimed the science of language and of thought, no less than the science of the voice, the ear, the nerves, and the brain, as its obedient vassals. It was, therefore, a real satisfaction to me that it should have been NATURE where the questions raised in my “ Science of Thought” excited the first in- terest, provoking strong opposition, and eliciting distinct approval, and I venture to crave your permission, on that ground, if on no other, for replying once more to the various arguments which some of your most eminent contributors have brought forward against the funda- mental tenet of my work, the inseparableness of language and reason. I may divide the letters published hitherto in NATURE into three classes, unanswerable, answered, and to be answered. I class as unanswerable such letters as that of the Duke of Argyll. His Grace simply expresses his opinion, with- out assigning any reasons. I do not deny that to myself personally, and to many of your readers, it is of great importance to know what position a man of the Duke’s wide experience and independence of thought takes with regard to the fundamental principle of all philosophy, the identity of language and thought, or even on a merely subsidiary question, such as the geneaological descent of man from any known or unknown kind of animal. But I must wait till the Duke controverts either the linguistic facts, or the philosophical lessons which I have read in them, before I can meet fact by fact, and argument by argument. I only note, as a very significant admission, one sentence of his letter, in which the Duke says: “ Language seems to me to be necessary to the progress of thought, but not at all necessary to the mere act of thinking.” This sentence may possibly concede all that I have been contending for, as we shall see by and by. I class as letters that have been answered the very instructive communications from Mr. F. Galton, to which I replied in NATURE of June 2 (p. 101), as well as several notes contributed by correspondents who evidently had read my book either very rapidly, or not at all. Thus, Mr. Hyde Clarke tells us that the mutes at Constantinople, and the deaf-mutes in general, com- municate by signs, and not by words—the very fact on which I had laid great stress in several parts of my book. In the sign-language of the American Indians, in the hieroglyphic inscriptions of Egypt, and in Chinese and other languages which were originally written ideo- graphically, we have irrefragable evidence that other signs, besides vocal signs or vocables, can be used for embodying thought. This, as I tried to show, confirms, and does not invalidate, my theory that we cannot think without words, if only it is remembered that words are the most usual and the most perfect, but by no means the only possible signs. Another correspondent, ““S. T. M. Q.”, asks how I account for the early processes of thought in a deaf-mute. If he had looked at p. 63 of my book he would have found my answer. Following Prof. Huxley, I hold that deaf- mutes would be capable of few higher intellectual mani- 250 NATURE festations than an orang or chimpanzee, if they were confined to the society of dumb associates. But, though holding this opinion, I do not venture to say that deaf-mutes, if left to themselves, may not act rationally, as little as I should take upon myself to assert that animals may not act rationally. I prefer indeed, as I have often said, to.remain a perfect agnostic with regard to the inner life of animals, and, for that, of deaf- mutes also, But I should not contradict anybody who imagines that he has discovered traces of the highest intellectual and moral activity in deaf-mutes or animals. I read with the deepest interest the letter which Mr. Arthur Nicols addressed to you. I accept all he says about the sagacity of animals, and if I differ from him at all, I do so because I have even greater faith in animals than he has. Ido not think, for instance, that animals, as he says, are much longer in arriving at a conclusion than we are. Their conclusions, so far as I have been able to watch them, seem to me far more rapid than our own, and almost instantaneous. Nor should I quarrel with Mr. Nicols if he likes to call the vocal expressions of pain, pleasure, anger, or warning, uttered by animals, language. It is a perfectly legitimate metaphor to call every kind of communication language. We may speak of the language of the eyes, and even of the eloquence of silence. But Mr. Nicols would probably be equally ready to admit that there is a difference between shouting “Oh !” and saying “Iam surprised.” An animal may say ‘‘ Oh!” but it cannot say “Iam surprised ;” and it seems to me necessary, forthe purpose of accurate reasoning, to be able to distinguish in our terminology between these two kinds of communication. On this point, too, I have so fully dwelt in my book that I ought not to encumber your pages by mere extracts. I now come to the letters of Mr. Ebbels and Mr. Mellard Reade. They both seem to imagine that, because I deny the possibility of conceptual thought without language, I deny the possibility of every kind of thought without words. This objection, too, they will find so fully answered in my book, that I need not add anything here. I warned my readers again and again against the promiscuous use of the word “thought.” I pointed out (p. 29) how, according to Descartes, any kind of inward activity, whether sensation, pain, pleasure, dreaming, or willing, may be called thought ; but I stated on the very first page that, like Hobbes, I use thinking in the restricted sense of adding and subtracting. We do many things, perhaps our best things, without addition or subtraction. We have, as I pointed out on p. 20, sensations and per- cepts, as well as concepts and names. For ordinary pur- poses we should be perfectly correct in saying that we can “think in pictures.” This, however, is more accu- rately called imagination, because we are then dealing with images, presentations (Vorstellungen), or, as I prefer to call them, percepts, and not yet with concepts and names. Whether in man, and particularly in the present stage of his intellectual life, imagination is possible without a slight admixture of conceptual thought and language, is a moot point; that it is possible in animals, more particularly in Sally, the black chimpanzee at the Zoological Gardens, I should be reluc- tant either to deny or to affirm. All I stand up for is that, if we use such words as thought, we ought to define them. Definition is the only panacea for all our philosophical misery, and I am utterly unable to enterinto Mr. Ebbels’s state of mind when he says: “ This is a mere question of definition, not of actual fact.” When Mr. Ebbels adds that we cannot conceive the sudden appearance of the faculty of abstraction together with its ready-made signs or words, except by a miracle, he betrays at once that he has not read my last book, the very object of which is to show that we require no miracle at all, but that all which seemed miraculous in language is perfectly natural and intelligible. And if he adds that he has not been able to discover in my earlier works account of the first beginnings of language, he © evidently overlooked the fact that in my lectures on the science of language I distinctly declined to c ' myself to any theory on the origin of language, while whole of my last book is devoted to the solution of t problem. My solution may be right or wrong, but it — certainly does not appeal to any miraculous interft iS. for the explanation of language and thought. iS There now remain two letters only that have really to be answered, because they touch on some very imp ‘ points, points which it is manifest I ought to h in a clearer light in my book. One is by Mr. Mi the other by Mr. Romanes. Both have evidently re: book, and read it carefully ; and if they have noi clearly seen the drift of my argument, I am afraid #] is mine, and not theirs, I am quite aware that ae? Ss of Thought” is not an easy book to read and to un stand. I warned my readers in the preface that they m not expect a popular book, nor a work systematically b up and complete in all its parts. My book was writ as I said, for myself and for a few friends, who k beforehand the points which I wished to establish, who would not expect me, for the mere sake of com ness, to repeat what was familiarto them, and could be found elsewhere. I felt certain that I should be stood by them, if I only indicated what I meant ; : it ever enter into my mind to attempt to teach them, convince them against their will., 1 wrote as if in har. with my readers, and moving on with them on which we had long recognized as the only safe one, which I hoped that others also would follow, if they once be made to see whence it started and wh tended. %° Mr. Murphy is one of those who agree with me language is necessary to thought, and that, though it be possible to think without -words when the subjects of thought are visible things and their combinations, as in inventing machinery, the intellectual power that invents — machinery has been matured by the use of language. — Here Mr. Murphy comes very near to the remark made — by the Duke of Argyll, that language seems necessary to the progress of thought, but not at all necessary to th mere act of thinking, whatever that may mean. — \ Murphy, while accepting my two positions—that t is impossible without words, and that all words vy their origin abstract—blames me for not having exp more fully on what the power of abstraction reall; pends. So much has lately been written on abs that I did not think it necessary to do more than ir to which side I inclined. I quoted the opini Aristotle, Bacon, Locke, Berkeley, and Mill, and myself I stated in one short sentence that I should 2 the power of abstraction, not so much to an effort of will, or to our intellectual strength, but rather to our lectual weakness. In forming abstractions our ness seems to me our strength. n ov sensations it is impossible for for us to take in © whole of every impression, and in our first perceptions cannot but drop a great deal of what is contail our sensations. In this sense we learn to ab whether we like it or not; and though aft abstraction may proceed from an effort of the w still hold,as I said on p. 4, that though a/fention can b said to be at the root of all our knowledge, the power abstraction may in the beginning not be very far remov from the weakness of distraction. If I had wished write a practical text-book of the science of thought ought no doubt to have given more prominence to tl view of the origin of abstraction, but as often in my bo so here too, I thought sapzent7 sat. : I now come to Mr. Romanes, to whom I feel trul grateful for the intrepid spirit with which he has wad through my book. One has no right in these days nN fe a eR ek ep uctieceatcanies Ta ress Fuly 14, 1887] NATURE 251 _ expect: many such readers, but one feels all the more grateful if one does find them. Mr. Romanes was at home in the whole subject, and with him what I endea- _ voured to prove by linguistic evidence—namely, that con- _ cepts are altogether impossible without: names—formed _ part of the very A B C of his psychological creed. He is _ indeed almost too sanguine when he says that concerning _ this truth no difference of opinion is likely to arise. The ~ columns of NATURE and the opinions quoted in my book _ tella different tale. But for all that, | am as strongly convinced as he can be that no one who has once under- stood the true nature of words and concepts can possibly hold a different opinion from that which he holds as well c ) It seems, therefore, all the more strange to me that Mr. Romanes should have suspected me of holding the Opinion that we cannot think without: pronouncing or silently rehearsing our thought-words. It is difficult to guard against misapprehensions which one can hardly realize. Without appealing, as he does, to sudden _ aphasia, how could I hold pronunciation necessary for thought when I am perfectly silent while I am writing and while I am reading? How could I believe in the necessity of a silent rehearsing of words when one such _word as “therefore” may imply hundreds of words or pages, the rehearsing of which would require hours and days? Surely, as our memory enables us_ to see without eyes and to hear without ears, the same per- sistence of force allows us to speak without uttering words. Only, as we cannot remember or imagine with- out having first seen or heard something to remember, _ neither can we inwardly speak without having first named something that we canremember. There is analgebra of language far more wonderful than the algebra of mathe- matics. Mr. Romanes calls that algebra “ideation,” a _ dangerous word, unless we first define its meaning and “tay bare its substance. I call the same process addition and subtraction of half-vanished words, or, to use Hegel’s _ terminology, aufgehobene Worte ; and I still hold, as I _ said in my book, that it would be difficult to invent a better expression for thinking than that of the lowest .. barbarians, “speaking in the stomach.” Thinking is nothing but speaking »zzws words. We do not begin with thinking or zdeation, and then proceed to speaking, but we begin with naming, and then by a constant pro- ‘cess of addition and subtraction, of widening and abbre- viating, we: arrive. at what I call thought. Everybody admits that we cannot count—that is: to. say, add and subtract—unless. we have first framed our numerals. Why should people- hesitate to admit that we cannot: possibly think, unless. we have-first framed’ our words? Did the Duke of Argyll mean this. when he said that language seemed to. him necessary for ‘h2 progress of thought, but not at all forthe mere act of thinking?) How words are framed, the science of language has taught: us; how they are re- duced to mere shadows, to signs. of signs, apparently to mere nothings, the science of thought will have to explain far more fully than I have been able to do. Mr, Romanes remarks that it is a pity that I should attempt to defend such a. Position as that chess cannot be played unless the player “ deals. all the.time. with thought-words. and word- thoughts.” I) pity myself indeed that my language should be. liable. to. such misapprehension. I thought that to move a “castle” according to the character and'the rules originally assigned to it was to deal with a word-thought or thought-word. What is. “castle” in chess, if not a word-thought or thought-word? I did not use the verb ‘to deal” in the sense of pronouncing, or rehearsing, or defining, but of handling or moving according to under- stood rules. That this dealing might become a mere habit I pointed out myself, and tried to illustrate by the even more wonderful playing of music. But, however automatic and almost unconscious such habits may become, we have only to make a wrong move with the “castle” and at once our antagonist will appeal to the original meaning of that thought-word, and remind as that we can move it in one direction only, but not in another. In the same manner, when Mr. Romanes takes me to task because I said that “no one truly thinks who does not speak, and that no one truly speaks who does not think,” he had only to lay the accent on /vw/y, and he would have understood what I meant—namely, that in the true sense of these words, as defined by myself, no one thinks who does not directly or indirectly speak, and that no one can be said. to speak who does not at the same time think. Wecannot be too charitable in the interpretation of language, and I often feel that I must claim that charity more than most writers in English. Still, 1am always glad if such opponents as Mr. Romanes or Mr, F. Galton give me an opportunity of explaining more fully what I mean. We shall thus, I believe, arrive at the conviction that men who honestly care for truth, and for the progress of truth, must in the end arrive at the same conclusions, though they may express them each in his own dialect. That is the true meaning of the old dialectic process, to reason out things by words more and more adequate to their purpose. In that sense it is true also that no truth is entirely new, and that all we can aim at in philosophy is to find new and better expressions for old truths. The poet, as Mr, A. Grenfell has pointed out in his letter to NATURE (June 23, p. 173), often perceives and imagines what others have not yet. conceived or named. In that sense I gladly call myself the interpreter of Wordsworth’s prophecy, that “the word is not the dress of thought, but its very incar- nation,” F, MAx MULLER. The Molt, Salcombe, July 4. ON THE PRESENCE OF BACTERIA: IN THE LYMPH, ETC.,OF LIVING FISH AND OTHER VERTEBRATES} FIRST noticed bacteria in the blood of a roach (Leuciscus rutilus). This roach, for some hours before it was removed from the water, had been occasion- ally swimming on its side at the surface—an_ indication that it was in an exhausted condition. Immediately after the fish was killed, a drop of blood was taken from. the heart by a sterilized pipette (with all the necessary pre- cautions) and examined. The blood was found to contain a considerable number of slender motionless bacilli, mea- suring from 0’003-0'008 micromillimetres in length. On an average, four bacilli were visible in the field at a time, with Zeiss’s F objective and No. I eye-piece. The peri- toneal fluid which was next examined contained so many bacilli that it was impossible to count them ; the bacilli were usually lying amongst large granular lymph-cells, and they were longer and more slender than those in the blood. Similar bacilli were found in the lymphatics, spleen, liver, and kidney, and they were abundant in the muscles in contact with the peritoneum, while very few were found in the muscles under the skin of the trunk, and still fewer in the muscles near the tail. The intestine was crowded with similar bacilli to those found in the body-cavity, and, in addition, there were a number of large and small bacteria and micrococci. Bacilli also were found in the walls of the intestine and in the bile- duct. Believing that there was some relation between the diminished vitality of the above roach and the numerous bacilli in the tissues, I examined a considerable number of healthy roach in the same way, and also. other fresh- water fish, eg. trout (Sa/mo Jlevenensis), perch (Perca Jluviatilis), carp (Cyprinus auratus), and eels (Anguilla vulgaris). In all the healthy specimens examined, with the exception of the trout, bacilli were found in the t Abstract of Paper by Prof. J. C. Ewart, read before the Edinburgh Royal Society on June 6. 252 NATURE [Huly 14, 1887 body-cavity. Bacilli were also present in the blood of the carp, and on one occasion four bacilli were detected in a drop of blood from what appeared to bea healthy roach. In some the peritoneal fluid contained numerous bacilli, while in others only a few were visible ; generally there was a relation between the number in the body- cavity and the number in the intestine, and they were most abundant in fish which had lived for some time in aquaria without food ; but.in trout which had been fasting for at least ten days, no bacilli could be observed in the peritoneal fluid. The carp which had _ bacilli in their blood had been living for some months in a small glass aquarium. The difference between the roach first examined and those. examined subsequently led me to endeavour to ascertain whether a sudden change of temperature would produce any influence in the number and distribution of the bacilli. As I anticipated, a rapid change from a spring to a summer temperature (from 48° to 65° F.) greatly diminished the vitality of all the fish experimented with, except the carp; and, as the fish became more and more exhausted, the bacilli gradually increased. If the tem- perature was raised from 48° F. to 65° F. in two hours, the bacilli of the peritoneal fluid not only increased in the roach, perch, carp, and eel, but they made their appear- ance in considerable numbers in the body-cavity of the trout, and on one occasion a number of small bacilli were found in the blood ofatrout. Although the carp seemed to enjoy. the rise of temperature, they were not exempt from the increase of the bacteria in the blood as well as in the peritoneal fluid. In some specimens of blood as many as eight short slender bacilli were visible in the field of the microscope at one time, and the peritoneal fluid in some instances swarmed with long and short bacilli, some of which were motile. The above observations were confirmed by cultivations in gelatine agar-agar, and in infusions of fish-muscles. In healthy active specimens of the roach and perch, cul- tivations were easily obtained of the peritoneal bacilli, and generally also from the muscular fibres lying near the peritoneum, but in no instance did I succeed in obtaining cultivations when the blood, or the muscles from imme- diately under the skin, were used for infecting the culture- media. Of the sea fish examined I have found bacilli—some- times long and slender, sometimes short and thick—in | the peritoneal fluid and blood of the whiting (Gadus mer- langus), haddock (Gadus c@gilefinus), cod (Gadus mor- | rhua), herring (Clupea harengus) ; and in the peritoneal fluid only of the flounder (P/atessa flessus), plaice (Pla- | tessa vulgaris), and lumpsucker (Cyclopterus lumpus). 1 | have not hitherto succeeded in demonstrating the existence of bacteria in either the peritoneal fluid or blood of the skate (Raza batis), dogfish (Acanthias vulgaris), or fishing frog (Lophius piscatorius). ‘here can be no doubt that the bacteria enter the body- | cavity by penetrating the walls of the intestine ; neither | can there be any doubt that, having once established | themselves in the peritoneal fluid, they do their utmost to find their way into the blood and tissues. Notwithstand- ing the presence of active bacteria in the intestinal canal, andthe bile and pancreatic ducts, I have failed to discover either bacilli or micrococci in the body-cavity of either amphibia, reptiles, birds, or mammals, when in a healthy condition. Henceit may be taken for granted that, in the higher vertebrates, under ordinary circumstances, either (1) the walls of the intestine form an effective filter or screen, which prevents the passage of the bacteria into the body- cavity ; or (2) that the living cells of the mucous and other layers so act on the bacteria that they are destroyed before they reach the body-cavity ; or (3) that the cells of the peritoneal fluid effectively sterilize the bacteria which succeed in entering ; or (4) that the bacteria are destroyed as they pass along the lymphatics towards the general circulation. Most fish seem capable of tolerating the presence of one or more kinds of bacteria in the peritoneal fluid, whilst others can even tolerate considerable numbers in their blood. It seems, however, that there is a limit to this toleration ; for when the equilibrium is disturbed, when by a change of the surroundings the vitality of the tissues is diminished, the bacteria rapidly increase, and unless the tissues as rapidly recover, the bacteria may directly or indirectly cause death. From the observations made, it appears that bacteria travel most easily along the lymphatic canals and spaces, the lymph-cells being apparently less able to arrest their progress than the blood-corpuscles. rg As to the nature of the bacilli found in fish nothing has hitherto been determined. Olivier and Richet seem to think they are neither specific nor putrefactive. At first I thought they were putrefactive, but not specific. Having made some further experiments, I am now inclined to consider them specific and not putrefactive. It has been asserted by previous writers that bacteria are always present in the living tissues of fish, but this conclusion should be accepted with some reserve. For example, trout, roach, and eels, which were gutted immediately after death, and introduced for a short time into a 5 per cent. solution of phenol, and then transferred into sterilized water, remained unchanged for weeks. When examined, dead bacteria were found on the surface of the skin and in the peritoneal lining of the body-cavity, but no living bacteria could be detected in the muscles, nor did they appear in cultivations into which fragments of muscle had been introduced. As was anticipated, when the fish were placed in ordinary water, putrefaction at once set in. Hence, in the meantime, it may be taken for granted that while bacteria exist in the tissues of some fish even at comparatively low temperatures, they are not always, if ever, present in the tissues of others. THE PROGRESS OF SCOTCH UNIVERSITIES. HE following three diagrams are meant to convey an idea of the progress of the Scotch Universities— Edinburgh, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews—in recent Fig. 1.—Total number of students at the four Scotch Universities (with line of population). years. The first shows the total number of students each year from 1869 to 1885, and it appears that, with an increase of population of about 18 per cent. in that period, the Fuly 14, 1887] total attendance has grown over go per cent. (The straight line indicates what the growth would have been at the population-rate.) The growth in Edinburgh is greatest, and the other Universities follow in the above 41 ee ee | —j +} —_} pity 1. ' | I: Fig. 2.—G’a gow University. Students in different Faculties (19 years). ’ it is to be remembered that the students are only those of the Established Church ; the two other large Presby- terian bodies having their own theological schools. (The Statistics are taken from Oliver and Boyd’s “ New Edin- burgh Almanac,” and the numbers of students at each NATURE order. Nos. 2 and 3 indicate how the students have been distributed among the different Faculties. The preponderance of arts students in Glasgow, and of medi- cal in Edinburgh, will be noted. As regards theology, Fig. 3.—Edinburgh University. Students in different Faculties (12 years). University include those of the summer as well as the winter session.) A. B. M. * It is right to state that in the recent classification ot Glasgow students a small proportion are given as ‘‘ Arts and Medicine,”” ‘‘ Arts and Law,” &e. Phese we have included as “ Arts” students only. 254 NATURE [ yuly 14, 1887 NOTES: THE Admiralty has, we believe, specially set apart the Zion for the use-of the scientific branch of the Navy and of men of science at the approaching naval review. It was obviously right that this arrangement should be made, and the Admiralty is to be congratulated on having declined to follow the bad example set by the Lord Chamberlain in connexion with the ceremony in Westminster Abbey, M. PASTEUR having consented to become a candidate for the office of Perpetual Secretary of the Paris Academy of Sciences, the-other. candidates have withdrawn their applications, and he will of course be elected unanimously. THE Committee for the erection of a statue to Frangois Arago, in»Paris, on the Place St. Jacques, near the Observatory, held a meeting the other day at the Observatory, Admiral Mouchez in the chair: It was decided that the subscription should be closed on December 31 next. Although the majority of the-lists have not yet been returned, it is already known that not less than 4700 has been collected. An appeal will be addressed by M. Mouchez to admirers of the celebrated astronomer. THE Congress of the International Astronomical Society will beheld at Kiel from August 29 to September 1. AT the half-yearly general meeting of the Scottish Meteoro- logical Society, held on Monday, it was intimated that the sub- seriptions. obtained for the Ben Nevis Observatory since the beginning of January last now amount to £1115. Mr. H. H. JouHnston, H.B.M. Consul for the Cameroons district'‘of West Africa, has sent home to-this country, through the Foreign Office, the collections of natural history objects made during his recent excursion into the Rio del Rey district; a swampy region lying near the base of the Cameroons Mountains, in which it was at one time reported that Mr. Johnston had been taken prisoner and held in captivity by the natives: The collections have been placed by Mr. Sclater in the-hands of various specialists to be reported upon. They are not very numerous, and will not probably contain many novel- ties, as much of the surrounding district has been well ex- plored.. But Capt. Shelley has already discovered amongst the birds two examples of a fine new species of plover, which will be described in the next number of the /dzs as Sarciophoris seebohmi, This plover is remarkable for its rufous forehead, ‘black crown, and chocolate-coloured crop, which render it easily distinguishable from its congeners. There is likewise among the mammals an example of a small shrew new to science, which Mr. Dobson will describe at the next meeting of the Zoological Society, and dedicate to its discoverer. A‘N important botanical periodical is about to be issued by the: Delegates of the Clarendon Press. ‘It will be entitled Annals: of Botany, and will be edited by Prof. Bayley Balfour, of the University of Oxford; by Dr. Vines, Reader in Botany in the University. of Cambridge; and by. Prof. W. G. Farlow,. of Harvard University,, Massachusetts, U.S.A. The papers, adequately illustrated, will be on subjects. pertaining to all branches: of botanical science, including: morphology, histo- logy, physiology, paleeobotany,. pathology, geographical distri- bution, economic botany, and systematic botany and classifica- tion. There. will also be. articles on the. history. of botany, “reviews and criticisms of botanical works, reports of progress in the different departments of the science, short notes, and letters. A record of botanical works in the English language will be a special feature. With regard to the last point, the editors direct attention to the fact that many important contri- butions to botanical science are not at present brought before the botanical world with that promptitude which their merit deserves, and many are frequently entirely overlooked, owing to the fact that the periodical in which they appear is not readily accessible to botanists generally. An attempt will be mad the Annals of Botany to remedy this state of affairs; and. hoped that it may be possible to make the record fairly c plete, embracing works published not only in Great Britain an Ireland, but also in India and the colonies, and in Ame To enable them to carry out this intention, the editors ap of the ‘rabies of papers elated to. branches. DuRING the months of March, April, and M Ascherson, of the Berlin University, carried” researches on the coast of Egypt. He has found’ number of plants that were formerly unknown. attaches to the results obtained by him on the: co Suez Canal and the Syrian frontier. TuHE Berlin Academy of Sciences has~ granted! (445) to Dr. Ravitz (Naples) for the researches on the central nervous system of / marks (£150) to Prof. Nussbaum (Bonn) for a dition to San Francisco and investigations o organisms ; 600 marks (£30) to Dr. Otto Z berg) for the continuation of his studies on North German lakes; and 1200 marks (4 Schmidt for a geological expedition to the Py ; We are glad to notice that the Council of th Eveaing Schools’ Association, through one of the are organizing a system of elementary in branches of natural science, to come into op in the London Board schools, These evening from September or October until April or May, | the Association carried on its operations in Board schools, and hopes to do so in at The classes are intended for the continuation young people between the ages of fourteen’ have left the day Board schools. About: 80 vohigemee services abe young sejeiai men, to help so good a cause. it oe to gi of lantern, slides; &e., will be a by the intended that the lectures shall be» once:a.v exceed forty-five minutes in length. Cireulars:h sent to the various. centres of scientific: tea inviting the- co-operation of students: and! _ anc information can be-obtained ‘from any member of! the» Committee”’ of the A’ssociation, or from: its: ret E. Flower; 37° Norfolk Street, Strand:. We: that the Gilchrist: Trustees: have: generously intention of spending £ 100° on lanterns:and’s the Association: : A. WELL-EQUIPPED technical school for ‘Preston neighbourhood is about to be erected and endowed, of £30,000 has been made for the purpose to the Coun i Harris Institute, Preston, by the trustees under the f late Mr. E. R. Harris, who left nearly half a million sterling for philanthropic objects in Preston. The site for the s has been given by the Preston Corporation. In the - prosps just issued by the Council of the Institute it is estimated th the cost of the building, furniture, and fittings will not be le than £17,000, of hich they are allowed to provide £1 10,0 | Fuly-14, 1887] NATURE 2S out of the grant, the remaining £20,000 being held as an endow- _ ment fund. The Council intend that instruction shall be given in all the branches of cotton-spinning, weaving, and designing, _ mechanical engineering, and the building-trades in general, Engineering, Tokio, for seven years. author of several valuable papers on engineering subjects, and es ThCl,. _ atomic weight 116, for which no place exists in the periodic _ table. Kriiss and Nilson, in their endeavours to get at the ti _ truth of this matter, have utilized a quantity of pure thorium, _ which they had prepared for atomic-weight determinations, by __ both in day and night classes. The school will be called the - Victoria Jubilee Technical School. _ Tue Chair of Civil Engineering in the University of Dublin has been filled by the appointment of Prof. Thomas Alexander, who recently returned from Japan after having held the Pro- fessorship of Civil Engineering in the Imperial College of Mr. Alexander is the has given some new theorems in graphic statics which have been adopted both in English and Continental works on that subject. He is also, jointly with Mr. Arthur W. Thomson, author of a work on elementary applied mechanics. In the latest number of the Zeitschrift fiir physikalische Chemie will be found complete details of the classical work of Drs. Kriiss and Nilson, briefly announced three weeks ago in the Berichte, upon the vapour-density of thorium chloride, which finally sets at &. rest the controversy as to the valency and position in the natural _ system of thorium. From a consideration of the physical con- _ stants, and the fact that the oxide is isomorphous with the oxides of titanium, zirconium, and tin, thorium was.generally supposed to be tetravalent, forming an oxide, ThO,, anda chloride, ThC], ; ‘moreover, an element of atomic weight 232, having these “Bi properties and belonging to the tetravalent series, was required from theoretical considerations based on the assumption of the truth of the periodic law. But, unfortunately, confusion was introduced into all this harmony by the matter-of-fact announce- _ ment by no less an authority than Troost that the vapour-density of the chloride had been determined by him to correspond to the This, however, meant a divalent thorium of converting it into the chloride, pure colourless prisms of which were eventually obtained by resublimation in a platinum tube. The determination of its vapour-density was then carried out in a platinum vessel and in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide, with the satisfactory result that at temperatures varying from 1102° to 1140”, just above the point of volatilization, the vapour-density corresponds to a formula of ThCl,, while above this temperature ‘the chloride dissociates into free chlorine and a lower chloride. This proves decisively that thorium is tetravalent, and demon- strates the accuracy of results deduced from physical constants. To complete this splendid work, which bears great similarity to the famous work of Nilson and Pettersson on beryllium, the Swedish chemists have redetermined the atomic weight of thorium, which, in the light of their vapour-density determina- tions, they find to be 231°87. THE Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer of the United States Army for the year 1885 has now reached this country. It consists of two volumes: the first con- tains the usual meteorological results and notices of the works in progress; the second part, a volume of 440 pages (Wash- ington, 1886), is a treatise by Dr. W. Ferrel on the recent advances in meteorology. As might be expected from Dr. Ferrel’s works on the ‘‘ Mechanics and General Motions of the Atmosphere,” the subject is not treated in a very elementary manner. In fact, it is stated in the preface that the object has been to select from the material.on hand some of the more im- portant principles, methods, and results arrived at, mostly during the last quarter of a century, and to present them in the form of ww a text-book of the higher meteorology. No descriptions of Be erological instruments are given, as the Report states that this subject will be treated of in a separate work, by Prof. Cleveland Abbe. We refrain from making any comments here on Dr. Ferrel’s treatise, further than that it supplies a want that has been much felt by students who have mastered the usual elementary text-books, VOLUMES 28-30 of the miscellaneous collections published by the Smithsonian Institution (Washington, 1887) contain much valuable matter which should be widely known, viz. :—(1) A fourth edition of Dr. Guyot’s meteorological and physical tables, the third edition of which was published more than a quarter of a century ago. Many useful tables have been added, mostly geographical and miscellaneous, but the meteorological tables have generally been reprinted unchanged, and are much behind the present requirements of the science. (2) A cata- logue of the principal independent scientific and technical periodicals published in all countries from the earliest times to the close of the year 1882, giving full titles, sequence of series, and other bibliographical details. (3) The scientific writings of the late Joseph Henry, formerly Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, including his contributions to various Societies and some previously unpublished papers, embracing a period of fifty- five years. This work is divided into two parts, the first.con- taining miscellaneous, and the second meteorological papers. PROF, SHALER’S article on tornadoes and cyclones in Scribner's Magazine for August will contain reproductions of two instantaneous photographs of a tornado which passed over Jamestown, Dakota, on June 6, 1887. The publishers ‘had made a special search for negatives of storms, and given notice of it to many Western photographers. This fortunate oppor- tunity occurred after the article was already in type. THE ‘‘ Admiralty Manual of Scientific Inquiry ” is such a well-known book, that we need only state the names of the eminent men who have brought the fifth edition, which we have just received, up to date. Astronomy by Sir G,. B. Airy, K.C.B., ex-Astronomer-Royal ; Hydrography by Capt. W. J. L. Wharton, R.N., Hydrographer of the Admiralty ; Tides by Prof. George H. Darwin; Terrestrial Magnetism by Prof. George F. Fitzgerald, assisted ‘by Staff- Commander Creak, R.N., and Mr. G. M. Whipple, Superin- tendent of the Observatory; Meteorology by Mr. Robert H. Scott, Secretary of the Meteorological Council ; ‘Geography by General Sir Henry Lefroy, R.A.; Anthropology by Mr. .E. B. Tylor; Statistics by Prof. C. F. Bastable ; Medical Statistics by Mr. William Aitken; Geology by Prof. Arch, Geikie ; Mineralogy by Prof. W. J. Sollas ; Seismology by Mr. Thomas Gray ; Zoology by Prof. H. N. Moseley ; Botany by Sir J, D. Hooker. About half of the book has been entirely re-written ; the arrangement of the present edition being substantially the same as that of former ones. No doubt our men-of-war will by-and-by be used very much more as floating laboratories and observatories than they are at present. When this is done both. science and the naval service will be great gainers, and we know of no better means towards such an end than the efficient use:of this magnificent compendium published in accordance with the laws of the Admiralty. ‘* PIONEERING in New Guinea,” by the Rev. James Chalmers,. contains some very valuable sketches ‘of travels and labours in New Guinea during the years 1878-86. Mr. Chalmers.explains. that ‘‘ his hand takes more readily to the tiller than to the pen.” Hence he has made no effort to ‘‘ work up”’ the contents of his journals into *‘a finished book,” but has been content for the most part to present them exactly as they were written. The book is all the more likely to be appreciated on that account, for it has a freshness and vividness which it could scarcely have possessed if it had sprung less directly from the author’s expe- rience. Mr. Chalmers points out that succeeding missionaries 256 NATURE [ Fuly 14, 1887 and observers can never see the people of New Guinea in the stage of savagery in which he found them when he first went to the island. This gives, of course, a peculiar interest to the record of his impressions. The work contains a map and illustrations, and is published by the Religious Tract Society. WE have received the first eight numbers of ‘‘ British Dogs” by H. Dalziel (Upcott -Gill). The book will supply admirers of the dog with a trustworthy guide, and it provides in an accessible form much information that will be of service to professionals, as well as to amateurs. The descriptions and plates, with slight exceptions, are very good. Pror. AyrTon’s “ Practical Electricity” is being translated into the German and Spanish languages. THE tenth volume, lately published, of the series entitled ‘*Monographs of the United States Geological Survey,” con- tains a full account, by Prof. O. C. Marsh, of the Dinocerata, an extinct order of gigantic mammals discovered in the Eocene deposits of "Wyoming Territory. The work is admirably illustrated. THE New York Industrial Education Association will begin in the autumn the publication of a series of educational monographs underthe editorship of the President of the Association, Dr. Butler. According to Sczence, the papers will treat of various educational topics, historically and critically ; and some of the most influen- tial educators, both in America and in Europe, have promised contributions. It is expected that the first monograph will be from the pen of President Gilman, of the Johns Hopkins University. The arguments in favour of industrial education and statements as to its proper organization and development will occupy a prominent place in the series, but not at all to the exclusion of other topics. On Friday, the 15th inst., a students’ comversazione will be held at the Technical College, Finsbury. There will be a con- cert and exhibition, and lectures on ‘‘Church Bells” and ‘*Spectrum Analysis” will be delivered, the former by Prof. Ayrton, F.R.S., the latter by Prof. Meldola, F.R.S. A de- monstration on “ The Use of the Secohmmeter” will be given by Mr. W. E. Sumpner. In 1880 the Midland Union of Natural History and other Scientific Societies founded the Darwin Medal for the purpose of encouraging original research by members of the Societies form- ing the Union. The medal is a handsome one, the dies for which were engraved by Mr. Joseph Moore, of Birmingham. On the obverse is the bust of Darwin, and on the reverse a branch of coral, commemorative of one of the most famous of his researches. The subjects for which the medal is awarded are geology, zoology, botany, and archeology. This year it was set apart for archeology, and at the annual meeting of the Midland Union of Natural History Societies, held last week at Malvern, it was awarded to Mr. Edward W. Badger, of King Edward’s High School, Birmingham, for a paper on ‘‘ The Monumental Brasses of Warwickshire.” THE second German Fishery Meeting will be held at Frei- burg in Baden on July 29 and 30. An excursion to the Imperial Piscicultural Establishment at Hiiningen (Alsace) will be made. All inquiries are to be directed to the German Fishery Society, Leipzigerplatz 9, Berlin. THE Deutsche Seewarte has issued a second edition of its ice chart (see NATURE, vol. xxxvi. p. 41) compiled from the semi-weekly Atlantic Ice Report, by F. Wyneken, of New York, and from its own observations. The chart shows that the state of the drift ice in April and May was nearly the same as in February and March. Between 48° and 51° W., and north of 42° N., icebergs were frequently met with, but there were { obtained from the Greenwich observations, very few to the south of this. It is not supposed that the i will disappear during July, so that vessels cannot yet safely ti a more northerly route. Towarps the end of June very remarkable weather prevai in certain parts of Scandinavia. At Réros, in Central Norwa for instance, it snowed so heavily that sledges might easily ha been used. Just before, the weather had been very warm long while. In Sweden, on the other hand, several pro were visited by terrific cyclones, which tore up hundreds trees by the roots, and unroofed many houses. AT the annual meeting of the Victoria Institute, to held the Society of Arts House on Tuesday, July 19, at an address will be delivered by the President of the Society. ; THE total value of the fish landed on the coasts ob Scot! during the six months ended June 1887 was £556,058, | decrease under the corresponding period of last year of a decrease under the corresponding month of last 434,219, and an increase over last month of £9043. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens d past week include an Entellus Monkey (Semmnopithecus Q) from India, presented by Capt. W. L. Prentice Squirrel (Sccwrus cinereus) from North America, pre: Mr. Percival Farrer ; two Weasels (Mustela vulgaris $ 2 Sussex, presented by Mr. Clement Wykeham Archer ; two headed Pigeons (Starnenas cyanocephala) from Cilla pres by Mr. John Marshall ; two Common Gulls (Larus canus) Scotland, presented by Mr. T. A. Cotton ; two Lapwings (F lus vulgaris) from Essex, presented by Mr. Gervase F.. an Alligator Terrapin (Chelydra serpentina) from North presented by Prof. Agassiz; a Speckled Terrapin (CZ guttata), an American Black Snake (Coluber ene fronted Capuchin (Cebus diate from Brazil, a Dingo (Ce eu dingo ) from Australia, deposited ; two Gluttons (Gu/o luscus) from Russia, a Redshank (Zotanus calidris), two Lapy (Vanellus vulgaris) from Suffolk, purchased ; a Mandarin (x galericulata), two Red-crested Pochards is 3 bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. RESEARCHES ON THE DIAMETER OF THE SUN.—In contin tion of his investigations on the supposed changes in the diameter from year to year (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 496), Auwers publishes in the Sitzungsberichte der Kéniglch F sischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 1887, XxvVili., the result of his researches on the yearly in the diameter. The existence of such an inequali “he pointed out by Lindenau in his discussion of Maskel observations ; by Cesaris, Carlini, and Rosa in the M observations; and by Struve in the Dorpat obs More recently Rosa has discussed extensive series of Gre observations of the sun, and also Madras observations comb and Holden have discussed Greenwich and Washing! observations ; and Hilfiker has discussed transits of © diameter obtained at Neuchatel. To these must now be Prof. Auwers’ careful discussion of the Greenwich — circie observations, both of horizontal and vertical diz obtained during the years 1851-83 inclusive, as well as of extensive series of Washington and Oxford observations lected in his former paper, referred to above. These discus: all show the existence of apparent inequalities in the sun’s dia- meter during the year, but do not appear to be at all conclusive as to the reality of such variations in the sun itself. In Prof. Auwers’ opinion they are due to the effect of temperature on ~ the instrument, or to the effect of difference in the telescopic — image of the sun as observed at opposite seasons of the year. Thus a most remarkable inconsistency appears in the resu both of horiz | j Fuly 14, 1887] NATURE 257 and vertical diameter, 1851-83, and from the Neuchatel observations, of horizontal diameter only, for 1862-83. The fol- owing table shows the discordances from the mean for each onth of the year for the two series :— Month, Greenwich. Neuchatel. “ “ january — 0°36 +0°66 ebruary — 0°24 +0°54 March — 0°03 +0'24 April +0°22 -O'5I May +0°25 — 0°54 June +0°08 — 0°34 July +0°08 — 0°33 August +o°o!r — 0°54 September — 0°06 -o'lg October —o'lo +0°38 November —0°22 +0°23 December —0°35 +0°4I It appears obvious that these results must be attributed to other causes than physical changes in the sun’s diameter. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887 JULY 17-23. ( FOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at : Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, _ is here employed. ) At Greenwich on July 17 Sun rises, 4h. 4m. ; souths, 12h. 5m. 50°5s.; sets, 20h. 7m. ; ry = meridian, 21° 13' N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 15 m. Moon (New on July 20) rises, th. 19m.; souths, 9h. om.; sets, 16h. 50m, ; decl. on meridian, 17° 15’ N. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian. : h. m. h. m. . m gil dee _ Mercury... 59 13 14 20 29 13 45 N. “Venus... ... 23 15 6 BE 40 SEE li ee NATURE 265 THURSDAY, JULY 21, 1887. THE MINING INDUSTRY OF NEW ZEALAND. Report on the Mining Industry of New Zealand. (Papers laid before Parliament, Session 1886.) 8vo, pp. 334. (Wellington, New Zealand, 1887.) _ The Hand-book of New Zealand Mines. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo, pp. 519. (Wellington, New Zealand, 18387.) HESE volumes, which cover the same ground, and to some extent reproduce the same information, are in great part the result of a personal investigation of the mining districts of our great antipodean colony, made by the Hon. Mr. W. J. M. Larnach, C.M.G., the Minister of Mines. From the Report, which is about six months older than the Hand-book, we learn that the latter has been compiled by the officers of the Mining Department, under the direction of the Minister, in order to furnish systematic information as to the area of mining claims, and as to other particulars concerning the working of mines, which has not hitherto been available. This result has been fairly well attained in the volume before us, which is a valuable summary, arranged topographically, of the con- dition of the mines actually at work, the description of each district being preceded by an historical sketch of the early explorations. Among these, that describing the progress of discovery on the west coast of the Middle ‘Island is especially interesting, as it goes back as far as 1836, when an early settler, named Toms, “ on one occa- sion was caught and thrown down by a large seal, re- ceiving a severe bite on the thigh, but he escaped death by dealing it some hard blows with his fist on the nose.” Other and more serious difficulties were encountered from the opposition of the native inhabitants, whose interests were finally purchased by Sir George Grey and the successive Governors, subject to certain reserves, which at the present time produce an income of about £4000 per annum, and as there are only about a hundred natives on the west coast, they are comfortably fed, housed, and clad, peaceable and sober, and generally respected by their European neighbours. From this part of the colony gold was exported of the value of nearly £12,000,000 sterling between 1864 and 1873, and the yield, though diminished, still continues, with the prospect that the product of alluvial rocks will be more than eclipsed by that of the quartz reefs, some of which have been proved to be extraordinarily rich. The total produce of gold in New Zealand between 1853 and the end of 1885, according to the Report, is 10,789,560 ounces, valued at £42,327,907 sterling, and the Hand-book gives the area of country proved to be auriferous in the three islands as about 21,000 square miles. The product next in importance to gold, although per- haps it is scarcely to be classed as a mineral, is kauri gum, which is produced at the rate of about 6000 tons annually from deposits in the North Island, which have already yielded upwards of £3,500,000 sterling to the wealth of the colony. The prosperity of Auckland has been largely aided by its kauri gum fields, and the VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 925. valuable kauri tree, which is only found in the northern forests of the North Island. The coal of New Zealand seems to be largely of the character of lignite, though some portion is of a more highly carbonaceous character. The output at present is little in excess of 500,000 tons, which suffices for about three-quarters of the consumption of the colony. Several other minerals have been produced in small quantities, but their aggregate value is insignificant when compared with that of the three staples noticed above. In going over the detailed accounts of the different gold-mines, given in both volumes, we cannot but be struck by the great diversity of the character of the deposits, and this, as might be expected, has led to several interesting modifications in the method of work- ing. Among the more remarkable of these are, the use of a steam dredger for working auriferous alluvial gravels in the channel of the Molyneux River, and a method of lifting similar materials by a water-jet aspirator applied at Gabriel’s gully in the Tuapeka district. These are described at some length, but the descriptions and illustrations are not as full and precise as they might be, considering the interest of the subjects. Another novelty is the use of electricity on the large scale for driving a stamping mill at the Phenix Mine, in Otago. The current produced by a pair of turbines of about 100 horse-power and two Brush dynamos is transmitted to a distance of about two miles to the crushing battery, which contains thirty heads of stamps and is driven by a Victoria electromotor and a Leffel turbine conjointly. This is probably the largest application of electric power to mining purposes that has yet been made. Mining in New Zealand appears to receive greater sup- port from the State than is customary in most other countries, as not only are large sums devoted to the opening up of roads and pack trails through the country, but contributions are made towards the con- struction of water races and channels for tailings, and subsidies are paid towards prospecting in different localities. These grants are made contingently upon much larger sums being furnished by local or individual effort, and, according to the testimony of the Reports, have been of great value in encouraging discoverers. A point of interest in connexion with the econo- mics of New Zealand mining is the general establish- ment of local schools of mines, or, as they are called in some localities, chemistry clubs, in the different mining centres. These are organized apparently on a system somewhat similar to that of the science classes of the Science and Art Department, the instruction being given to the members by means of a staff of seven teachers under the charge of Prof. J. G. Black, of the University of Otago, who travels through the different districts giving lectures and laboratory demonstrations, for periods varying from two to five months at each, accord- ing to its size and importance. The course of instruction includes mineral chemistry and assaying, mineralogy and metallurgy, and provision is being made for the addition of the subjects of mining engineering and surveying. The results expected from the scheme are set forth in full, from which it appears that miners will be able to assay ores and metals of every kind, be able to assay their own bullion, and become generally familiar with the metal- N 266 NATURE [Fuly 2 I, 1887 lurgy of the precious metals. Such results will probably not be realized in their entirety, neither is it desirable that they should be, as the presence of a well-educated specialist, an assayer or smelter, for example, may often be of more permanent value to a district than the necessarily superficial knowledge of subjects not immediately con- nected with their own occupation that the local miners are likely to acquire under the scheme ; but there can be no doubt that great good will result from giving them an intel- ligent interest in mineralogy, and the observation of the phenomena brought under their notice when at their own particular work. The Hand-book concludes with a description of the principal forest trees of New Zealand, taken from Dr. Hector’s “ Hand-book of New Zealand.” It has also several maps, supplied by Dr. Hector and Mr. Gordon, of the Mines Department. The greater part of the material has been collected by Mr. Patrick Galvin, of Wellington. We are-sorry to see that in the final paragraphs of the preface, Mr. Larnach appeals to the honourable gentle- man who may succeed him to improve the work in a second edition ; from which we infer that the author has fallen a victim to a Ministerial crisis. If it be so, we have to thank him for what he has done, but if not, we hope that he may have the opportunity of extending and im- proving the work which he has so worthily begun, instead of leaving it to his successor. H. B. A CENTURY OF ELECTRICITY. A Century of Electricity. By T. C. Mendenhall. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1887.) N this readable little work, Prof. Mendenhall has striven to depict the origin and growth of many of the modern electric appliances—the telegraph, the dynamo, the telephone, and the electric lamp... He opens with a felicitous quotation from Benjamin Franklin describing with characteristic humour a proposal to hold an electrical party of pleasure on the banks of the Skuylkil, when the healths of all the famous electricians in England, Holland, France, and Germany are to be “drank” in electrified bumpers, under the discharge of guns from the electrical battery. This is followed by a very interesting account of the early development of the experimental science, and in particular of the work of Gilbert and of Franklin. It is satisfactory to note that for once Gilbert’s just fame as the creator of the double science of electricity and magnetism is recognized, and his pre-Baconian use and development of the experi- mental and deductive methods of philosophizing acknow- ledged. The discoveries of Galvani, Volta, Oersted, and Ampére are set forth in a style which, while losing nothing in accuracy of description, is enlivened by pleasant biographical touches. Speaking of the week during which Ampére wrought out to such brilliant conclusions the train of ideas suggested by Oersted’s discovery of the electric deflexion of the magnet, Prof. Mendenhall ob- serves : “It is safe to say that the science has at no other time advanced with such tremendous strides as during that memorable week.” The work of Sturgeon in invent- ing, and of Henry in perfecting, the electro-magnet is duly noted ; but we miss, in comnexion with electro-magnetic subjects, the name of Prof. Cumming, who did so mv to expand and define the growing science. The vexed question, Who invented the electric graph ? is here reached, and is very carefully handled. Mendenhall’s frank impartiality in touching on this an sundry other delicate topics of contested priority is wort of praise. A propos of the part taken by Henry in t invention of the electric telegraph, the author Bes 5 ske of Henry’s arrangement of a bell for re signals, with a polarized lever to strike the exhibited in Albany in 1832. The most te the work is that dealing with duplex and mi graphy, which is very fully treated, though the name of La Cour, who preceded Delany in chronous distribution of currents. Sir William labours in submarine telegraphy, and those of Gi Planté on accumulators, are emphasized, but Respecting the telephone, after noting the early Page and the similarity between Reis’s telephor mitter and those used to-day, the author turns work of Elisha Gray and Graham Bell in the terms :—“ By a curious coincidence Mr, Gray ¢ specifications and drawings fora speaking-telephone United States Patent Office, in the form of a cavea February 14, 1876; and on the same day Mr. his application for a patent, the latter being few hours earlier than the former. The coinc comes more interesting when it is remem was also on February 14, 1867, that Wh Siemens simultaneously presented to the Ro} their independent discovery of the important | dynamo-electric machines could be constructed operated without the use of permanent magnets.” double coincidence of dates is certainly curious significance of it is marred when we remember, both Wheatstone and Siemens must yield priority to Varley, who patented the same discovery on I 24, 18665 and, secondly, that the apparatus described in the patent application of February 14, 1876, in which a separate instrument was omplone pitch, “each instrument being capable of receiving but a single note,” and Canola describe a speaking-telephone at all. Bell’ “the transmission by the same means of speech” was only applied for some ten mont Due credit is given to Hughes for his well-know on the microphone, to Edison for his button black, and to Dolbear for the invention of the static receiver. The chapter on the electric too short, and might with advantage be eé Faraday’s splendid discovery of magneto-electric tion, leading to the invention of the dynamo, is recounted, and the important part played by American constructors of powerful machines narrated. A similar remark will apply to the upon electric motors, a department of electre which America is likely to make peculiarly her ite: When we reflect that the rapid introduction British industries of the gas-engine is slow com with the tremendous rate at which electric motors being everywhere brought into use in the States, we that Prof. Mendenhall has under-rated rather than rated the importance of this item in his account 3 aa Ss ee PRO eee ent nemlenr ns NATURE 267 evelopments of the century. Strangely enough, there is in the whole work no mention of that most widely-spread of all electric inventions, the domestic electric bell, nor ‘its almost forgotten inventor, John Mirand. Prof. Mendenhall has added to the interest of his sketch by pplying a number of illustrative cuts of objects of vistoric interest, such as Faraday’s first magneto-electric chine, and his first transformer or induction-coil. We ould have welcomed some account of the great theorists, uulomb, Laplace, and Weber, who, with Sir William Thomson and Clerk Maxwell, have, by their calculations _ and mathematical developments, played so leading a part % in the progress of the century; but the author would _ probably have found it impracticable with the plan of his __ sketch to deal with the labours of these intellectual giants. In his less ambitious aim of popularizing the experimental _ development of the subject he has succeeded admirably. | OUR BOOK SHELF. The Fungus Hunters Guide and Field Memorandum _ Book, with Analytical Keys to the Orders and Genera, _ -tllustrated, and Notes of Important Species. By W. Delisle Hay, F.R.G.S. (London: Swan Sonnenschein, Lowrey, and Co., 1887.) _ AFIELD guide and mentor is a welcome companion _ for the practical botanist, provided it is so compiled as to meet the requirements of field work, otherwise it is merely “a delusion and a snare.” This little volume, unfortunately, belongs to the “otherwise,” for it is insufficient, antiquated, and misguiding: insufficient, because it includes only a few species under each genus or ib-genus, and these have been selected without manifest son ; antiquated, because, although dated 1887, it is upon the state of this branch of science in 1871, and might have been published at that date, for all internal _ evidence to the contrary; and misguiding, because the errors of 1871 are not corrected, the illustrative figures are entirely without names of the species intended to be _ represented, and more important or essential species are _ excluded than many of those included in the lists. ___Under each genus or sub-genus in the volume a list is _ given of “common or notable species,”’—each with its scientific name (but without the authority for the specific name, which any botanist would regard as essential) ; an imaginary popular-name, which is useless because inary and not real ; a short description, rarely suffi- cient; and letters indicating esculent or poisonous qualities. As only one or two species are given under a . Prooeeinad sub-genus which has a dozen or more other 31 representatives, it should have been stated dis- tinctly that there are so many more species which are not named, any of which the collector might meet with in his rambles. Unfortunately the selection of the species favoured with a place has been made with very little judgment. Someare included which are so rare that they ve only been found once or twice in this country, whilst others are excluded which are almost sure to be met with eeeely successful ramble. The fact is patent that | as the authorized record for to-day, whereas it is abso- lately out of date, and all the great advances made during _ the intervening period are studiously ignored. The _ volume is interleaved with ruled paper for notes and _ Memoranda, and we venture to afirm that this is the _ only useful and unexceptionable portion of the work. The purch must judge whether it would not have been _ More economical to secure a blank memorandum book, since the numerous figures are valueless without names, “ Hand-book ” issued sixteen years ago is accepted and the analytical keys ought to have been more accurate and better constructed. My Hundred Swiss Flowers: with a Short Account of Swiss Ferns. By Mary A. Pratten. (London: W. H Allen and Co., 1887.) THIS is a very unpretending book, and should be of con- siderable service to beginners in botany who may wish to carry on botanical studies among the Alps during the month of July or early in August. The writer has selected those Swiss flowers which seem to her “ most remarkable, most characteristic of the country, or most commonly seen,” and she is, of course, right in thinking that a great many of them will be new to such as make a first visit to the Alps. Her descriptions are clear and sufficiently full, and the illustrations are very good. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure om his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] The Carnatic Rainfall, Mr. H. BLANFoRD’s authority is so deservedly high, that I have had some hesitation in writing to controvert the conclusions he has adopted in the paper published in NATURE of July 7 (p. 227), entitled ‘‘ The Eleven- Year Periodical Fluctuation of the Carnatic Rainfall” ; and to state my reasons for thinking that there is no real validity in the arguments he uses in favour of ‘the very high probability that the apparent undecennial fluctuation is no chance phenomenon.” Mr. Blanford brings forward a series of figures which show the mean annual variation of the rainfall during twenty-two years, at a number of stations in that part of Southern India locally known as the Carnatic, from the mean annual rainfall for the Carnatic generally. From these figures he has inferred the appearance of two complete cycles of eleven years, with a dominant periodical fluctuation. To test the character of this apparent periodicity he obtains from these figures the two first terms of an harmonic expression that shall represent the observed facts for an assumed eleven-year period ; and he finds the mean difference between the observed values and those calculated from the adopted harmonic expression to be +3°5 inches, from which the mean probable error of any of the calculated periodical values is found to be + 0°70 inch, Now it is apparent that such a series of calculated values has no physical signification whatever. The greater or less degree of difference between the observed and calculated quantities only indicates how far the sums of the terms of the harmonic series employed coincide with the series of observed quantities which the calculated series was designed to represent. It is also obvious that by a sufficiently extended series of terms the cal- culated quantities might be brought to agree, within any desired degree of approximation, with those observed. No conclusion whatever, therefore, can be based on the amount of the differ- ences above alluded to, so far as any question of periodicity is concerned, and the so-called ‘‘ probable error” is merely an arithmetical result of the particular form of calculation adopted. Mr. Blanford goes on to remark that the mean difference between the observed series of values of the annual variation of rainfall and the mean of the whole of them, is +5:2 inches, with a probable error of the general average of 0°94 inch. And here again I am unable to see that any weight can be attached to these figures in connexion with the main point at issue. The mean variation of the series of observed values, from the mean of all of them, will of course be greater than the mean variation of those observed values from a series deliber- ately calculated so as to correspond with them, such as that obtained by aid of the harmonic series. The introduction of the expression ‘‘probable error” of the general average is also 268 NATURE ‘ a's [rudy 21, 1887 — likely to be misleading. This too only represents an arithmetical result, and signifies that as in the series of twenty-two observations there is an average departure of +5 °2 inches from the mean of all the measurements, the probability is that this mean will be within + o'94 inch of the truth, so far as those measurements are to be trusted. For these reasons I am quite unable to follow the arguments by which it is sought to connect the amounts of these two ‘* probable errors,” or to see how they can in any way indicate ‘*the relative probability of this particular variation being the result of a periodic law, and of its being a mere fortuitous series of variations from a constant average.” Neither does there appear to be any justification for assuming that the relative probability of the truth of two hypotheses is represented by the inverse ratios of the probable errors of results derived from them, Still less is there any ground for saying that because the particular series of quantities under discussion relates to a period of twenty-two years, the relative probability just alluded to is thereby increased to the twenty-second power of that ratio, or from about 14 to 1, to 655 tor. It is no doubt true that if the probability of an event occurring once be represented by the fraction x the probability of its recurring z times in succession will be represented by ( xy; but I fail to see how this affects the question at issue. RICHARD STRACHEY. July 11, 1837. Is Cold the Cause of Anticyclones ? IN a review of Loomis’s papers in this volume of NATURE, p. 2, occur the following sentences :—‘‘ While all, or nearly all, of the high pressure of anticyclones may be accounted for by the very low temperatures which overspread the same region at the same time along with the resulting upper currents con- centrating upon them from adjoining cyclonic regions, it is quite different with the low pressures of cyclones. In the case of cyclones the problem is complicated by the strong winds, the copious precipitation, and the ascending currents, which affect the results in ways which no physicist has yet been able to explain.” This induction of Loomis’s, that anticyclones are largely the result of cold, which the reviewer here repeats, is in entire opposition to the deductive views of Ferrel, and I think the discrepancy is to be. found in the method used by Loomis in drawing his inductions, In order to investigate the cause of anticyclones, Loomis selected only decided areas of high pres- sure, and as a consequence his data were almost entirely confined to the winter months, when the temperature accompanying anti- cyclones is always low. If, however, he had selected more moderate anticyclones, he would have found that in summer anticyclones in the United States are sometimes accompanied by intense heat (90° F. or more). This is especially so in periods of drought. Under these conditions the approach of a cyclone with rain brings a most refreshing cooling. Furthermore, Hahn, attacking the problem by a different method, has obtained results apparently directly opposed to this induction of Loomis. Hahn made a careful study and comparison of the observations obtained last autumn and winter on the Sonnblick and at adjacent mountain and valley stations (see Mefeorologische Zeitschrift, February and April 1887). One of the most marked results found was that at heights exceeding 1000 metres above sea-level there was an increase of temperature during anti- cyclones, while a decreased temperature was only found in valleys and near the general level of the earth’s surface. Hahn’s average results show that the temperature on the Sonnblick, height 3090 metres, rose from an average of — 16°°4 C. at the average barometric pressure of 509°1 mm. to — 7°°7 C. at the barometric pressure of 529°3 mm. ; while at the same time the average temperature at Schafberg, height 1776 metres, rose from — 9°'o C. to + 1°°4 C. ; but on the contrary at Zell-a-See, height 754 metres, the average temperature fell from — 5°'9 C. to - 8°°9 C. These results, which show that the larger portion of the atmosphere is warmed instead of cooled within the area of an anticyclone, seems entirely destructive of Loomis’s hypothesis that the cooling of the air near the earth’s surface is the chief cause of the anticyclone. Hahn’s results, however, indicate that the cooling of the air near the earth’s surface does increase the pressure somewhat. Thus in October 1886 the barometric minimum occurred at all the stations, both mountain and valley, on the 17th ; while the barometric maximum o = at all of the stations on the 30th. When the difference pressure between the mountain stations at the time of barometi minimum was compared with the difference in pressure between the same stations at the time of barometric maximum, it was — found almost exactly the same; but the difference in pressure — between the valley stations and the mountain stations was about 5 mm. greater at the time of maximum pressure than at the time of minimum pressure. Hahn refers this greater range of pressure at the valley stations to the decreased temperature at valley stations during anti- cyclones, but this still leaves a range of pressure of 20mm. , which the decreased temperature entirely fails to These results of Hahn are in entire accord with the obtained at Blue Hill Observatory (640 feet above sea), pared with Mount Washington and with stations near which indicate that the cooling in anticyclones is almost confined to within a few hundred feet of the earth’s sur Science, vol. viii. pp. 233 and 281). i In the light of these facts, it seems more reasonable to as: that the warmth found on mountains and the cold in accompanying anticyclones, are the result, rather than of anticyclones. Such researches as those of Langley ont heat, and of Hahn on the distribution of temperature &c., in different planes of the atmosphere, indicate effect of the sun’s heat on the atmosphere is far more than some of our text-books on meteorology would believe ; and instead of the cause of anticyclones being as as the reviewer of Loomis’s article states, it seems probe we shall understand the phenomenon of the anticy when we master the problem of the cyclone. . H. HELM CLAy’ Blue Hill Observatory, Boston, Mass., U.S., June Physiological Selection, I AM perhaps in a position to contribute oo : to the discussion upon Mr. G. J. Romanes’s proposal of logical selection as an improvement upon Darwin’s selection. cape I failed to meet with Mr. Romanes’s paper in the _ the Linnean Society, and I confess that I did me 2 clear idea of what he meant by physiological selectio read his article in the Mineteenth Century for January. main difficulty appears to be the intercrossing with stock, which he thinks would prevent the survival of varieties naturally selected to become species. Now, Australian bush experience of the habits of animals a1 satisfies me that this difficulty is mainly, if not entirely, i and that Nature amply provides against the supposed ing. Any person who has observed the habits — domesticated stock, such as horses and cattle, can scarcel: know that migration is a general practice of one sex, frequent one of the other. The old always hunt ea ec and strangers entirely away to form herd§ and families o own, and thus the supposed intercrossing is by one sex effectually obviated. But it is also frequently the young fillies and heifers, at the same season, take to v for less evident reasons, far from their accustomed haunts, st of miles, after which they will stop, and attach themselves to another herd and locality as tenaciously as their parents 1 vg in theirs. This of course further tends to prevent int with parent stocks. I cannot but think that Mr. Romanes’s anxiety to fin tion of his difficulty has led him into serious mistak vitiate his treatment of the subject. For instance, he’ 59, Nineteenth Century for January), ‘‘ The hypo physiological selection sets out with an attempted proof inadequacy of natural selection, considered as a theory of the of species.”” IT was out walking yesterday when I read this, I wrote in the margin, ‘‘ The theory of natural selection is” not of the origin of species at all, but of the preservati particular varieties.” On reaching home, I referred ‘Origin of Species” (4th edition, 1866), and was pleased to find that I had adopted Darwin’s precise repeated in several places (see pages 71, 9I, 123, At page gt he says :—‘‘ Some writers have misapprehen: objected to the term natural selection. Some have imagin natural selection induces variability ; whereas it implies preservation of such varieties as occur, and are beneficial - Fuly 21, 1887] NATURE 269 the conditions of life.” Was not this a prophet ? Yea, I say unto u and more thana prophet! Of course if the conditions of life are unfavourable, the incipient variations cannot become species. But surely it is obvious that in variation is the real _erigin of species. Variations must occur before the selection of some of them in preference to others. To consider the theory of natural selection as a theory of the origin of species, is therefore clearly an error. In his ‘‘ Origin of Species” Darwin certainly _ expounded variation, and I might have ventured to think that as _ the book deals more largely with the subsequent selection of a few varieties to survive as species at the expense of many _ extinguished, a more exact title for it would have been ‘‘ The ____ Evolution of Species.” But what says the great master? See _ page 71 :—‘‘ Owing to this struggle for life, any variation, how- ever slight . . . will tend to the preservation of that individual, and will generally be inherited by its offspring. . . . I have called this principle by which each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term natural selection, in order to mark its relation to man’s power of selection.’ And who will not re- ize the wisdom of his selection of the term? It has been ore observed that the ‘‘ Ascent of Man” would seem a more accurate title than the ‘‘ Descent of Man.” But I have no ‘doubt that his reasons for preferring the latter were equally a ut Mr. Romanes proceeds :—‘‘ This proof is drawn from three distinct heads of evidence. (1) The inutility to species of a portional number of their specific characters. (2) The _ general fact of sterility between allied species, which admittedly cannot be explained by natural selection, and therefore has hitherto never been explained. (3) The swamping influence of even useful variations of free intercrossing with the parent form.” I have advanced, I think, ample reasons why No. 3 may be regarded as imaginary, and which therefore reduce the value of No. 2toaminimum. No. 1 depends entirely upon the defini- tion of ‘‘w#i/ity.” Has tiis word any real significance outside human interests and considerations? The idea of utility, if extended to Nature’s operations, may, it seems to me, apply to the interests of any other variation than the one whose specific __ characters are in question, which may therefore be, without com- punction or regret, sacrificed to the most fit, as we know that Innu ble species have been extinguished in the interest of “those that supplanted them. But utility to Nature may be the ‘tinction of one variation and the preservation of another. As Mr. Romanes’s whole paper is built upon what I have already quoted from it, I need scarcely follow it any further. With your ermis: however, I have another remark to make. Mr. Romanes seems to me to have been much exercised by the consideration of the intercrossing with parent forms, and, not hss Big the simple solution given above, to have cleverly in- vented his physiological selection to escape from the dilemma. Of course Nature is not clever, but simple in its operations.’ I was always much impressed with what appeared to me a greater difficulty, which might be thought to have a clearer title to be - called ‘* physiological selection.” I allude to a general tendency in the een at least) sexes to prefer a mate with opposite characteristics, with the apparent result of insuring mediocrity in the eny. Thus, asa general rule, the tall prefer the short ; the Fs 3 the fair; the wise, the silly; &c., and vice versd. Variation is, on the other hand, apparently insured to a large extent by the differences between parents, but still it would seem that the tendency should, ceteris paribus, be inevitably towards a mean inthe progeny. ‘The general migration, however, as above indicated, of young males and females, gives plainly ample opportunity for the preservation of viable variations, besides others which experience and care will doubtless discover. Melbourne, April 11. H. K. RuspeEn. Weight, Mass, and Force. APPLICATIONS of the data previously given, in the extract from the American journal, to the dynamical principles of varied motion are easily provided for Mr. Hayward. Take the following : ‘‘ Determine the weight of the greatest train the Strong locomotive can take up a 96-feet grade from rest at one station to stop at the next station a mile off in four minutes, taking the brake power as a resistance of 400 lbs. to a ton.” The main points at issue, however, are whether the language of the engineer, and in fact the usage of our own and other es, is scientifically correct or incorrect in its use of the words weight and weighing ; and whether the mathematician is to be allowed to restrict the word weight to the subsidiary sense of force of attraction by the earth. It is of great importance that this question of dynamical terminology should be thoroughly thrashed out now, before Mr. Hayward’s Committee on Dynamics, of the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, prepare their final report on the subject. A. G. GREENHILL. Woolwich, July 11. The Sky-coloured Clouds. ON the evenings of June 14, 18, and 19 there was a feeble re- appearance in Sark of the sky-coloured clouds, as I may call them in default of a better name, which were so brilliant in the twilights of the last twosummers. Though the display this month has been comparatively faint, it has been unmistakably of the same character. I have seen nothing of these clouds since the 19th in travelling in the Channel Islands and through France. Geneva, June 29. T. W. BACKHOUSE. P.S.—Chamounix, July 13.—I1 have seen one more display—a brilliant one seen from this neighbourhood on the 6th inst.— 7..W. B. The Migrations of Pre-Glacial Man. THE question raised by “Glaciator” has been treated by me in a paper entitled ‘‘ The Faunas of the Ffynnon Beuno Caves and of the Norfolk Forest Bed” in the Geological Magazine for March 1887. I there stated that, ‘‘ Although man probably reached this country from the east, it seems to me equally clear that he must also have arrived here with the reindeer from some northern source during the advance of glacial conditions.” Though the Norfolk Forest Bed fauna contains abundant remains of deer and of other animals suitable as food for man, it is curious that so far no implements or other traces of man have been found there. The Forest Bed contains in the main the fauna of an eastern area, as the river on the banks of which the animals roamed flowed from the south-east. If pre-glacial man arrived in this country from the east or south, we should therefore expect to find evidences of this in the Forest Bed. On the other hand, wherever the remains of northern animals, such as the reindeer, mammoth, and rhinoceros, occur in any abundance, there we almost invariably find traces of man, Now that we know that man arrived in this country before the climax of the Ice age, as proved by the explorations carried on for several years at the Ffynnon Beuno Caves (amply confirmed also by this year’s researches), it seems but natural to infer that man arrived in this country with the northern animals as they were compelled to migrate southwards by the gradually advancing glacial conditions, and that he kept mainly with the reindeer near the edge of the advancing ice. HENRY HICKs. ABSTRACT OF THE RESULTS OF THE IN- VESTIGATION OF THE CHARLESTON EARTHQUAKE} as ely amount of information now in possession of the United States Geological Survey, relating to the Charleston earthquake, is probably larger than any of similar nature ever before collected relating to any one earthquake. The number of localities reported exceeds 1600. The sources of information are as follow: (1) we are deeply indebted to the U.S. Signal Service for fur- nishing us the reports of their observers ; and (2) equally so to the Lighthouse Board, which has obtained and forwarded to us the reports of keepers of all lighthouses from Massachusetts to Louisiana, and upon the great lakes ; (3) to the Western Union Telegraph Company, which instructed its Division superintendents to collate and transmit many valuable reports ; (4) to the associated Press, which has given us access to the full despatches (with transcripts thereof) which were sent over the wires X Paper read before the National Academy of Sciences at Washington, on April 19, 1887, by C. E. Dutton, U.S.A., and Everett Hayden, U.S.N., U.S. Geological Survey. 270 NATURE [uly 21, 1887 centering at Washington during the week following the earthquake ; (5) to geologists and weather bureaus of several States, who have kindly exerted themselves in this matter and collected much important information ; (6) to a considerable number of scientific gentlemen who have distributed for us our circular letters of inquiry in special districts,—notably, Profs. W. M. Davis, C. G. Rockwood, J.P. Lesley, T. C. Mendenhall, and Messrs. W. R. Barnes, of Kentucky, and Earle Sloan, of South Carolina ; (7) to a large number of postmasters in the Eastern, Central, and Southern States; and, finally, to hundreds of miscellaneous correspondents throughout the country. In collecting this information, a printed list of questions was prepared. This practice has been resorted to in Europe and in Japan with considerable success, and the questions which have been devised for distribution in those countries have been prepared with great skill by some of the ablest investigators of earthquakes. Prof. C. G. Rockwood, of Princeton, has also been in the habit of distributing forma! questions of this character in this country whenever apprised by the newspapers of a notable shock. Availing ourselves of his advice and assistance, questions prepared by him were printed and widely dis- tributed. They were much fewer and more simple than those employed in Europe, because European investi- gators depend almost wholly upon the educated classes to answer them, while in this country the uneducated but intelligent and practical classes of the people must be the main reliance. These questions were designed to elicit information : (1) as to whether the earthquake was felt, (2) the time of its occurrence, (3) how long it continued, (4) whether accompanied by sounds, (5) the number of shocks, (6) general characteristics which would serve as a measure of its intensity and indicate the kind and direction of motion. It is to be observed that the only information to be hoped for which can have even a roughly approximate accuracy is the time of transit of the shock. The degree of approximationin the time data actually obtained will be adverted to later. Special effort was made to obtain information as to the relative intensity of the shocks in all parts of the country. At the very outset a serious difficulty presents itself. In the estimates of intensities there is no absolute measure. What is really desired is some reliable indication which shall serve as a measure of the amount of energy in any given portion of the wave of disturbance as it passes each locality. The means of reaching even a provisional judgment are very indirect, and qualified by a considerable amount of uncertainty. To estimate the force of a shock, we have no better means than by examining its effects upon buildings, upon the soil, upon all kinds of loose objects, and upon the fears, actions, and sensations of people who feel it. In view of the precise methods which modern science brings to bear upon other lines of physical research, all this seems crude and barbarous to the last degree. But we have no other resource. Even if it were possible to obtain strictly com- parative results from such facts, and decide with confidence the relative measure of intensity which should be assigned to each locality, we should have gained measures only of a series of local surface intensities and not of the real energy of the deeply-seated wave which is the proximate cause of the surface phenomena. Notwithstanding the indirect bearing of the facts upon the real quantities we seek to ascertain, and their apparently confused and dis- tantly related character, they give better results than might have been supposed. When taken in large groups, ~ they give some broad indications of a highly suggestive character, and though affected with great inequalities which for the time being seem to be anomalous, these anomalies are as instructive as the main facts themselves. We have given the preliminary plotting of the intensities in the map before you. The first point to which we shall invite attention is the magnitude of the area affected by the shocks. It was sensibly felt in Boston, which is 1 most distant point on the Atlantic coast from w affirmative reports have been received. From Maine the answers are all negative. Most of those from Hampshire are negative, but two or three positive show clearly that it was felt in sensitive spots. Vermont, affirmative reports come from St. Johns and Burlington on Lake Champlain. No positive reports __ come from the province of Quebec. In New York Stay it was felt in the vicinity of Lake eens a ak Placid and Blue Mountain Lake in the Adiron Ontario, it was quite noticeable in several though the great majority of reports from t negative. In Michigan, it was noted in s and at Manistee Lighthouse, on Lake M trembling was strongly marked. In Winconsi most of the reports are negative, it was felt quite at Milwaukee, and was also noticed at Green B La Crosse on the Mississippi, 967 miles from Ct the remotest point in the United States whi positive answer. In Central lowa and Centra it was unmistakably felt. In Arkansas, the eastern of the State, from sixty to seventy-five miles w Mississippi, gives numerous favourable Louisiana, the reports are mostly negative, but r persons in New Orleans felt the shocks and re their nature. In Florida, it was universally fe the northern part of the State was severe and From the Everglade region, of course, no rep been received, as it is uninhabited; but in sox Florida Keys it was felt in notable force. Fro few reports have co:ne, and the most distant island which was shaken was Sagua la Grai vibration was very decided. Lastly, a report Bermuda, 1000 miles distant from Charleston, little doubt that the tremors were sensible there. The area within which the motion was sufficien attract the attention of the unexpectant observer be somewhat more than circumscribed by a cir miles’ radius, and the area of markedly sensib would, including the oceanic area, be somewhere two and a half and three million square miles estimate, however, only well-defined seismic mo) notable force is considered. There are reas¢ believing that by proper instrumental obs movement could have been detected over a 1 area. In the first place it is to be noted that the portions of the observed area lie in districts w rather thinly populated, sometimes, also, in distric from the nature of the ground do not discle the passing shock. Furthermore, the passing outer portions of the area was almost everywhi undulatory character and of great wave-lengtl still retaining a large amount of energy, dit dissipate itself into those smaller and shorter which are very much more likely to attract though really possessing very much less ¢é hundred miles from the origin the long swayin was felt, and was often sufficient to produce sea-s! yet was unaccompanied by sound or by the tre motion due to short waves. sei It will be observed upon the map that there are large tracts which show a comparatively feeble int while completely surrounding them is the general 2 greater intensity. The most conspicuous of these of silence is the Appalachian region. The facts he extremely interesting and suggestive. It has bee ally supposed that a mountain-range serves as to the propagation of earthquakes—not from any relation of cause and effect, but merely as the observation. In Japan it is universal testimony | central range of the island marks the dividing line earthquake and no earthquake. The shocks so | TEDO! Sanh s: AS rant rr rl altel cine pid ! there are seldom or never felt beyond the mountail ‘ Goes uly 21, 1887) me a NATURE 271 action, similar conclusion has been drawn from South American earthquakes, and also from those which have visited Southern Italy. As soon as the data in the earlier stages of the inquiry began to indicate insulated areas of mini- Ir they were completely investigated, and every effort has been made to secure full data from them. The result has been to show satisfactorily that such was the case. The Appalachian belt south of Middle Penn- sylvania disclosed a few spots where the shaking was considerable, but in the main it was but slightly affected ISOSEISMALS ae OF THE CHARLESTON EARTHQUAKE ROSSI-FOREL SCALE 1s* yo" iba” until we reach the extreme southern tb of this range, where the shocks begin to be somewhat vigorous, even in the mountains. West and north-west of the range, how- ever, the force of the undulations resumes even more than its normal vigour. In Eastern Kentucky and South- Eastern Ohio, the force of the shocks was very considerable, causing general alarm. Chimneys and bricks were shaken down, and the oscillation of the houses was strongly felt. In South-Eastern Ohio, nearly every theatre, lodge, and prayer-meeting, was broken up in confusion. It does not 272 NATURE [¥uly 21, 1887 appear that the Appalachians offered any sensible barrier to the progress of the deeper waves, but it does appear that they affected in a conspicuous degree the manner in which the energy of the waves was dissipated at the surface. Another minimum area was found in Southern Indiana and Illinois, and also in Southern Alabama and Mississippi. There is a curious circum- stance connected with the minimum area in Indiana and Illinois. On February 6 last, an earthquake of notable force occurred in just this locality. Circulars were sent out at once, and on plotting the isoseismals they showed a singular coincidence in almost exactly filling the vacancy or defects of intensity of the Charleston earthquake. At present there is nothing to indicate whether this coin- cidence is accidental or whether there is some hidden relation. Where the waves passed into the newer delta region of the lower Mississippi, the surface intensity of the shocks rapidly declined. This is indicated in the map by the compression of the isoseismals in those localities. We incline to the opinion that this sudden diminution of the intensity is due to the dissipation of the energy of the waves in a very great thickness of feebly elastic, imper- fectly consolidated, superficial deposits. It is a matter of common observation in all great earthquakes that the passage of the principal shocks from rigid and firm rocks into gravels, sands, and clays is, under. certain circum- stances, attended with a local increase in the amplitudes of the oscillations and in the apparent local intensity and destructiveness, ind the reason for it is intelligible. But where such looser materials are of very great thickness and great horizontal extent the reverse should be ex- pected. For when a wave passes from a solid and highly elastic medium into a less solid and imperfectly elastic one, the amplitude may be suddenly increased at the instant of entering ; but so rapid is the extinction, that, if the new medium be very extensive, the impulse is soon dissipated. Many reports throughout the Central States indicate localities of silence which are not expressed upon the map. The reason for omitting them is that it has been impracticable to secure a sufficient density of observation (z.é. a sufficient number of reports per unit area) to enable us to mark out and define these smaller areas with very great precision. Todo this for the whole country would require some tens of thousands of observations and the expenditure of tens of thousands of dollars to systematize and discuss the data. A map shaded to show the varying intensity by varying the depth of the shading would havea mottled appearance, in which the mottling would be most pronounced in the areas of a little below the mean in- tensity, say between the isoseismals 3 and 5. This fact is of great importance in the interpretation of the isoseis- mals, for the omission to consider it results in giving to the middle isoseismals too high a value. In any isoseis- mal zone, what we should like to ascertain is the mean intensity of the whole area included within that zone. As a matter of fact, the data we possess consist more largely of maximum than of minimum or average intensities, and therefore tend to considerably augment the mean derived intensity above the true mean. This will become appar- ent by an inspection of the map where the zones of 5, 6, and 7 intensity are disproportionately broad, while those of 3 and 4 are disproportionately narrow. We have not attempted to allow for this source of error, though fully aware of it, because we had no means of determining what allowance to make. We have drawn the lines wholly upon the face of the returns, and the investigators who may attempt to utilize our results must grapple with the corrections as best they may. Throughout the States of North Carolina, South Caro- lina, Georgia, and North-Eastern Florida, and in general anywhere within about 250 miles of the centre, the energy of the shocks was very great. At Columbia, Augusta, | Raleigh, Atlanta, and Savannah, the consternation of a the people was universal. The negroes and many of poor whites were for a week or two not exactly demo ized, but intensely moralized, giving themselves to gious exercises of a highly emotional character, t stronger and deeper natures among them being pressed with a feeling of awe, the weaker natures wi feeling of terror. And this was general throughout large region just specified. In all of the large to within 200 miles of Charleston more or less damage suffered by houses and other structures. - Walls we cracked to such an extent as to necessitate impo repairs ; dams were broken, chimneys were overthro: plastering shaken from ceilings, lamps overturned, v thrown out of tanks, cars set in motion on side tra animals filled with terror, fowls shaken from their roo loose objects thrown from mantels, chairs and beds mo: horizontally upon the floor, pictures banged against walls, trees visibly swayed and their leaves agitated rustled as if by a wind. These occurrences were gene and were more strongly marked until they became te ing and disastrous as the centre of the disturbance vy approached. At Augusta, 110 miles distant from the centrum, the damage to buildings was considerable ; | at the arsenal in that place the commanding offi residence was so badly cracked and shattered as necessitate practical reconstruction. In Columbia, miles distant, the shock was very injurious to buil and appalling to the people, but no substantial stru were actually shaken down. In Atlanta, 250 miles” tant, there was no worse injury than falling ch and some slight cracks in the walls, but the hou instantly abandoned in great alarm and confusion occupants, and many preferred passing the nig streets to re-entering their dwellings. At Asheville, 230 miles distant, and at Raleigh, 215 miles distan shocks were quite as vigorous as at Atlanta. af ; Coming nearer the seismic centre we find the intensity — increasing on all sides as we approach it. The region immediately about the epicentrum in a great earthqu always discloses phenomena strikingly different from th at a distance from it, and the differences are not m in degree but also in kind. The phenomena characteri of the epicentral area cease with something like ab ness as we radiate away from the epicentrum. central phenomena are those produced by shocks in the principal component of the motion of the e vertical. Proceeding outwards, these predomi vertical motions pass, by a very rapid transiti movements of which the horizontal component greater, and in which the undulatory motion bec pronounced. The epicentrum, and the zone immedi surrounding it, is the portion of the disturbed tract merits the closest attention, for it is here that we may the greatest amount of information concerning the orig’ and nature of the earthquake. To appreciate this we v venture to offer some theoretical considerations. — ; Allusion has already been made to the inde: character of the data used for estimating the intens: the shock. There is no unit of intensity which present available. In selecting certain effects of an e: quake to characterize varying degrees of intensity, most that can be hoped for is a means for discrimin whether the relative energy of a shock is greater or in one locality than in another. But how much gr and how much less—in conformity with what law— problem which remains to be solved. An earthquake pulse, however, is a form of energy transmitted as elastic wave through the deeply-seated rocks, and its pro pagation and varying intensity are subject to the laws | wave-motion There must be, therefore, some typical la governing the rate at which such a wave diminishes intensity of its effects as it moves onward. To antic the objection that this typical law would apply only to — scrim) rant tr namin la ml le et : ¥uly 21, £887] NATURE 2735 medium which is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic, while the rocks are far from being so, we reply that we have investigated the objection, and are satisfied that while it has some validity, the effect of these in- equalities is not great enough to seriously impair the applicability of the law, nor to vitiate greatly the results to be deduced from it. The analysis we offer is a novel ‘one. We attach considerable importance to it, and the consequences which flow from it are somewhat remarkable. :. (To be continued.) EXPERIMENTS ON THE SENSE. OF SMELL IN DOGS.' I ONCE tried an experiment with a terrier of my own, which shows, better than anything that I have ever read, the almost supernatural capabilities of smell in dogs. On a Bank holiday, when the Broad Walk in Regent’s Park was swarming with people of all kinds, walking in all directions, I took my terrier (which I knew had a splendid nose, and could track me for miles) along the walk, and, when his attention was diverted by a strange dog, I sud- denly made a number of zigzags across the Broad Walk, then stood on a seat, and watched the terrier. Finding | had not continued in the direction I was going when he left me, he went to the place where he had last seen me, and there, picking up my scent, tracked my footsteps over all the zigzags I had made, until he found me. Now, in order to do this, he had to distinguish my trail from at least a hundred others quite as fresh, and many thousands of others not so fresh, crossing it at all angles.* The object of the experiments about to be described was that of ascertaining whether a dog, when thus dis- _tinguishing his master’s trail, is guided by some distinctive smell attaching to his master’s shoes, to any distinctive ‘smell of his master’s feet, or to both these differences combined. I have a setter-bitch, over which I have shot for eight Having a very good nose, she can track me over immense distances, and her devotion to me being very exclusive, she constituted an admirable subject for my riments. hese consisted in allowing the bitch to be taken out | of the kennel by someone to whom she was indifferent, who then led her to a pre-arranged spot from which the tracking was to begin. Of course this spot was always to leeward of the kennel, and the person who was to be tracked always walked so as to keep more or less to lee- ward of thestarting-point. The district—park-lands sur- rounding a house—was an open one, presenting, however, numerous trees, shrubberies, walls, &c., behind which I could hide at a distance from the starting-point, and so observe the animal during the whole course of each ex- periment. Sundry other precautions, which I need not wait to mention, were taken in order to insure that the bitch should have to depend on her sense of smell alone, and the following are the experiments which were ried :— (1) I walked the grass-lands for about a mile in my ordinary shooting-boots. The instant she came to the starting-point, the bitch broke away at her full speed, and, faithfully following my track, overtook me in a few minutes. (2) I seta man who was a stranger about the place to walk the park. Although repeatedly put upon his trail by my servant, the bitch showed no disposition to follow it. (3) I had the bitch taken into the gun-room, where she be Bape Food by Mr. George J. Romanes, before the Linnean Society, on December 16, 1886. Reprinted from the Linnean Society’s Journal—Zoology, vol. xx. ? “ Mental Evolution in Animals,” pp. 92-93 ; where also see for additional remarks of a general kind on the sense of smell in different animals. saw me ready to start for shooting. I then left the gun- room and went to another part of the house, while my gamekeeper left the house by the back door, walked a certain distance to leeward in the direction -of some par- tridge-ground, and then concealed himself. The bitch, who was now howling to follow me, was led to the back door by another servant. Quickly finding the trail of the gamekeeper, she tracked it for a few yards; but, finding that I had not been with him, she left his trail, and hunted about in all directions for mine, which, of course, was no- where to be found. (4) I collected all the men about the place, and directed them to walk close behind one another in Indian file, each man taking care to place his feet in the footprints of his predecessor. In this procession, numbering twelve _in all, I took the lead, while the gamekeeper brought up the rear. When we had walked two hundred yards, I turned to the right, followed by five of the men; and at the point where I had turned to the right, the seventh man turned to the left, followed by all the remainder. The two parties thus formed, after having walked in opposite directions for a considerable distance, concealed themselves, and the bitch was put upon the common track of the whole party before the point of divergence. Following this common track with rapidity, she at first overshot the point of divergence ; but, quickly recovering it, without any hesitation chose the track which turned to the right. Yet in this case my footprints in the common track were overlaid by eleven others, and in the track to the right by five others. Moreover, as it was the game- keeper who brought up the rear, and as in the absence of my trail she would always follow his, the fact of his scent being, soto speak, uppermost in the series, was shown in no way to disconcert the animal when following another familiar scent lowermost in the series. (5) I requested the stranger before mentioned to wear my shooting-boots, and in them to walk the park to lee- ward of the kennel. When the bitch was led to this trail, she followed it with the eagerness wherewith she always followed mine. (6) I wore this stranger’s boots, and walked the park as he had done. On being taken to this trail, the bitch could not be induced to follow it. (7) The stranger walked the park in bare feet; the bitch would not follow the trail. (8) I walked the park in bare feet: the bitch followed my trail ; but in quite a different manner from that which she displayed when following the trail of my shooting- boots. She was so much less eager, and therefore so much less rapid, that her manner was suggestive of great uncertainty whether or not she was on my track. (9) I walked the park in new shooting-boots, which had never been worn by anyone. The bitch wholly refused to take this trail. (10) I walked the park in my old shooting-boots, but having one layer of brown paper glued to their soles and sides. The bitch was led along my track, but paid no attention to it till she came to a place where, as I had previously observed, a small portion of the brown paper first became worn away at one of my heels. Here she immediately recognized my trail, and speedily followed it up, although the surface of shoe-leather which touched the ground was not more than a few square millimetres. (11) I walked in my stocking-soles, trying first with new cotton socks. The bitch lazily followed the trail a short distance and then gave it up. I next tried woollen socks which I had worn all day, but the result was the same, and therefore quite different from that yielded by my shooting-boots, while more resembling that which was yielded by my bare feet. (12) I began to walk in my ordinary shooting-boots, and when I had gone fifty yards, I kicked them off and carried them with me, while I continued to walk another three hundred yards in my stocking-soles ; then I took off 274 NATURE ; [¥uly 21, 1887 my stockings, and walked another three hundred yards on my bare feet. On being taken to the beginning of this trail, or where I had started in my shooting-boots, the bitch as usual set off upon it at full speed, nor did she abate this speed throughout the whole distance. In other words, having been once started upon the familiar scent of my shooting-boots, she seemed to entertain no doubt that the scent of the stocking-soles and of the bare feet belonged to me; although she did not clearly recognize them as belonging to me when they were not continuations of a track made by my shooting-boots (10 and 11). (13) I requested a gentleman who was calling at the house, and whom the bitch had never before seen, to accompany me in a conveyance along one of the carriage- drives. At a distance of several hundred yards from the house I alighted in my shooting-boots, walked fifty yards beside the carriage, again entered it while my friend alighted and walked two hundred yards still further along the drive. The bitch ran the whole 250 yards at her full speed, without making any pause at the place where the scent changed. This experiment was subsequently re- peated with other strangers, and with the same result. (14) I walked in my ordinary shooting-boots, having previously soaked them in oil of aniseed. Although the odour of the aniseed was so strong that an hour after- wards the path which I had followed was correctly traced by a friend, this odour did not appear to disconcert the bitch in following my trail, for she ran me down as quickly as usual. It was noticed, however, by the friend who took her to the trail that she did not set off upon it as instantaneously as usual. She began by examining the first three or four footsteps with care, and only then started off at full speed. (15) Lastly, I tried some experiments on the power which this bitch might display of recognizing my indi- vidual odour as emanating from my whole person. Ina large potato-field behind the house, a number of labourers had been engaged for eight or ten hours in digging up and carrying away potatoes all the way along half-a- dozen adjacent “drills.” Consequently, there was here a strip of bared land in the field about twenty yards wide, and a quarter of a mile long, which had been thoroughly well trampled over by many strange feet.. . Down this strip of land I walked in a zigzag course from end toend. On reaching the bottom I turned out of the field, and again walked up a part of the way towards the house, but on the other side of a stone wall which bounded the field. - This stone wall was breast high, and was situated nearly a hundred yards to windward of my previous course through the potatoes. The bitch, on being led out of the house, was put upon my trail at the top of the field, and at high speed picked out my trail among all the others, following roughly the various zigzags which I had taken. But the moment she gained the “wind’s eye” of the place where I was standing behind the wall, she turned abruptly at a right angle, threw up her head, and came as straight as an arrow to the spot where I was watching her. Yet while watching her I had allowed only my eyes to come above the wall, so that she proved herself able to distinguish instantly the odour of the top of my head (without hat) at a distance of two hundred yards, although at the time she was surrounded by a number of over-heated labourers. (16) On another day, when it was perfectly calm, I tried the experiment of standing in a deep dry ditch, with only the top of my uncovered head above the level of the surrounding fields. _When she was led within two hundred yards of the place, she instantly perceived my odour, and ran in a straight line to where I had then ducked my head, so that she should receive no assistance from her sense of sight. This experiment shows that, in the absence of wind, the odour of my head (and no doubt, in a lesser degree, that of my body) had diffused itself through the air in all directions, and in an amount sufficient to enable the setter to recognize it as my a at a distance of two hundred yards. From the above experiments I conclude that this’ distinguishes my trail from that of all others by peculiar smell of my boots (1 to 6), and not by the p: smell of my feet (8 to 11). No doubt the smell whicl recognizes as belonging distinctively to my trail is municated to the boots by the exudations from my but these exudations require to be combined with leather before they are recognized by her. however, if I had always been accustomed to s which the animal can recognize as mine, the scent able to penetrate a single layer of brown pape Furthermore, it would appear that in follow this bitch is ready at any moment to be guided ence as well as perception, but that the act of is instantaneous (12 and 13 as compared with 11). Lastly, the experiments show that not on (as these affect the boots), but likewise the who a man exhales a peculiar or individual odour w can recognize as that of his master amid a croy persons (15); that the individual quality of this can be recognized at great distances to windward in calm weather, at great distances in any direction and that it does not admit of being overcome t strong smell of aniseed (14), or by that of many a footprints (4). FOSSIL WOOD FROM THE WES TERRITORIES OF CANADA} GILICIFIED wood occurs in the country wes’ Manitoba in the Upper Cretaceous beds, Laramie and in the Miocene of the Cypress Hills, has found its way into the drift. The numerous 5; mens in our collections, picked up on the plains, of little palzeontological value, as their soure certain, and it has become desirable to obtai found im sztz. A small collection of this kind by Dr. G. M. Dawson in the course of the Survey, and was described in the Report on Parallel, in 1875. In 1880, Schroeter, in an ap Heer’s paper on the plants of Mackenzie River, a few species from the Laramie of that district. recently, numerous specimens have been collected beds of known geological age by Dr. G. M. Daw J. B. Tyrrell, and Mr. T. C. Weston, of the Survey, and slices have been prepared b They include species from the PRelly Rive: Pierre groups, which are Upper Cretaceous ; Lower Laramie, apparently a transition group the Cretaceous and Eocene; and from the Laramie, which is probably Lower Eocene, though time regarded as Miocene. These woods are m coniferous, but there are also angiospe ; several kinds. In describing them in detail, named as species, but merely referred to the mi genera which they most closely resemble. We thus in the Belly River series two types of Seguoza corr ing to the wood of the two modern species, and ¥ the types of Zaxrus Salisburia or Ginkgo, Thi possibly 4 dzes, along with exogens referable conject to the genera Betula, Populus, Carya, Ulmus, and Plate mus. In the Laramie we have a similar assemblage o conifers and exogens, with forms referable to Pzus Abies, and to /uglans and Acer among the exo ‘ Abstract of a Paper by Sir William Dawson, read before the Society of Canada, May 1887. exc uly 21, 1887] NATURE 275 ame fruits and other fragments from the Belly River ries appear to indicate the presence of a species of ocarpus. Appended to the descriptions of the woods = notices of new species and localities in connexion ith the Laramie flora, and remarks on the grand coni- rous fruits of the period, as connected with the formation coal and lignite. The concluding remarks are given in full, as of interest in connexion with the British ocene flora :— oncluding Remarks.—While studying the specimens scribed in this paper, I received the volume of the Uzeontographical Society for 1885, containing the conclu- sion of Mr. Starkie Gardner’s description of the Eocene -Coniferze of England. The work which he has been able to doin disentangling the nomenclature of these plants, and fixing their geological age, is of the greatest value, - and shows how liable the palzobotanist is to fall into __ €rror in determining species from imperfect specimens. Our American species no doubt require some revision in this respect. ____T have also, while writing out the above notes for publi- _ Cation, received the paper of the same author on the Eocene beds of Ardtun in Mull, and am fully confirmed _ thereby in the opinion derived from the papers of the _ Duke of Argyll and the late Prof. E. Forbes (Journ. Geol. _ Soe. of London, vol. vii.), that the Mull beds very closely _ correspond in age with our Laramie. The /7/zcztes _ hebridica of Forbes is our Onoclea sensibilis. The species of Gingko, Taxus, Sequoia, and Glyptostrobus _ correspond, and we have now probably found a Podo- _ carpus as noted above. The Platanites hebridicus is very near to our great Platanus nobilis. Corylus _ Macguarit is common to both formations, as well as Populus arctica and P. Richardsoni, while many of the _ other exogens are generically the same, and very closely _-~ allied. These Ardtun beds are regarded by Mr. Gardner ____ as Lower Eocene, or a little older than the Gelinden series of Saporta, and nearly of the same age with the so-called __ Miocene of Atanekerdluk in Greenland. I have ever _ since 1875 maintained the Lower Eocene age of our _ Laramie, and of the Fort Union group of the North- Western United States, and the identity of their flora with that of Mackenzie River and Greenland, and it is very satisfactory to find that Mr. Gardner has independ- ently arrived at similar conclusions with respect to the Eocene of Great Britain. An ge eb consequence arising from this is that the period of warm climate which enabled a temperate flora to exist in Greenland was that of the later Cretaceous and early Eocene, rather than, as usually stated, the Miocene. It is also a question admitting of discussion, whether the Eocene flora of latitudes so different as those of Greenland, Mackenzie River, North-West Canada, and the Western States, were strictly contemporaneous, or successive within a long geological period in which climatal changes were gradually proceeding. The latter statement must apply at to the beginning and close of the period ; but the plants themselves have something to say in favour of contem- poraneity. The flora of the Laramie is not a tropical but a — flora, showing no doubt that a much more equable climate prevailed in the more northern parts of America than at present. But this equability of climate implies the possibility of a great geographical range on the ‘a of plants, ‘Thus it is quite possible, and indeed highly probable, that in the Laramie age a somewhat uni- form flora extended from the Arctic seas through the _ great central plateau of America far to the south, and in _ like manner along the western coast of Europe. It is also __ to be observed that, as Gardner points out, there are some differences indicating a diversity of climate between Greenland and England, and even between Scotland and Treland and the south of England; and we have similar differences, though not strongly marked, between the Laramie of Northern Canada and that of the United ’ States. When all our beds of this age, from the Arctic Sea to the 49th parallel, have been ransacked for plants, and when the palzobotanists of the United States shall have succeeded in unravelling the confusion which now exists between their Laramie and the Middle Tertiary, the geologist of the future will be able to restore with much certainty the distribution of the vast forests which in the early Eocene covered the now bare plains of interior America. Further, since the break which in Western Europe separates the flora of the Cretaceous from that of the Eocene does not exist in America, it will then be possible to trace the succession of plants all the way from the Mesozoic Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Kootanie series, described in previous papers in these Transactions, up to the close of the Eocene ; and to deter- mine, for America at least, the manner and conditions under which the angiospermous flora of the later Cretaceous succeeded to the pines and cycads which characterized the beginning of the Cretaceous period, THE LIVERPOOL MARINE BIOLOGY STATION ON PUFFIN ISLAND. HE Liverpool Marine Biology Committee was formed in the spring of 1385 for the purpose of working up thoroughly the fauna and flora of that large rectangular area of the Irish Sea which lies around Liverpool Bay, and is bounded by the Isle of Man and the coasts of Anglesey, North Wales, Cheshire, and Lancashire. During the last three seasons the members of the Committee have con- ducted a large number of dredging, tow-netting, and other investigating expeditions in various parts of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee district, and, as a first result of their labours, they published, in the summer of 1886, a “ First Report upon the Fauna of Liverpool Bay and the Neighbouring Seas.” It became evident at an early stage in these investigations that, as the sand-banks and channels in the immediate neighbourhood of the estuary of the Mersey are comparatively barren, it would be Old Tower. Biological Station. Fic. :.—Puffin Island from the north. necessary, in order to carry on the work of the Commit- tee satisfactorily, to establish a small marine laboratory somewhere on the coast of North Wales or Anglesey. Such a station, close to the region where there is a rich and varied fauna, and yet within easy reach of Liverpool, would enable the members of the Committee, and other biologists who were working with them, to pay frequent and regular visits to the best ground for the purpose of collecting specimens ; and also to carry on observations on the habits of the animals, and to investigate their structures and life-histories. The Liverpool Marine Biology Committee have been aided in their work by small grants this year and last year from the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society, and have received most important and generous assistance, by the loan of steamers for the dredging expeditions and in other ways, from some of the Liverpool ship-owners—amongst others, from the present Mayor, Sir James Poole, from Mr. 276. NATURE George Holt, and from the Liverpool Salvage Association —and now they owe the attainment of their desire for a marine laboratory to the kindness of Sir Richard Williams Bulkeley, Bart., of Beaumaris, in allowing them to make use, for scientific purposes, of the former Dock Board Telegraph Station on Puffin Island (Fig. 1). : Puffin Island, or Priestholme, is a small uninhabited island close to the north-east corner of Anglesey, and lying with its longer axis north-east and south-west. It is composed mainly of beds of limestone, and has pre- cipitous sides, which have been worn into caves, crevices, and innumerable pools. The best landing-place is on the end nearest to JAnglesey, where there is a beach of [Fuly 21, 1887 = | shingle. The shores all round the island support an abundant fauna, and some of the best dredging-grounds in the Liverpool Bay district lie close to Puffin Is and a little further to the west along the coast of Angl A glance at the accompanying chart will show the d sity in the depth of water off the north and east end the island (Fig. 2). The house which the Liverpool Marine Biology C mittee have now taken possession of as a centre for th further operations was built by the Liverpool Dock Board, and used as a signalling station, but has been uninhabited for some years. It contains four good rooms, besides lofts and out-houses, and a long o “soe ener esate! a Fic. 2. running towards the sea (north-east), and lighted by a series of seven windows round the outer end (Fig. 3). This observatory will make a well-lighted, convenient labora- tory, while the other four rooms serve as kitchen and sleeping rooms for the naturalists and the keeper of the station. At the end of May the new doors and windows, shutters, tables, and other fittings, which had been prepared in Liverpool, were ready for transference to the station, and a number of the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, along with some workmen, were taken down to Puffin Island by the ss. Hyena, which had been lent for the purpose by the Liverpool Salvage Association, The house was rapidly made weather-tight and put in we order, and is now under the charge of a keeper and assistant. Tanks will soon be erected, and some of shore-pools are being converted into natural aquaria. small sailing-boat has been obtained, by which dred; and tow-netting in the neighbourhood of the island « carried on, and by means of which communication be kept up with the Liverpool steamers at Beaumaris the railway at Bangor. ' Since the establishment of the station some of members of the Liverpool Marine Biology Comm have already had half a dozen expeditions to / island, and the following naturalists have commenced — la St i i It sna aj york on their respective groups of animals : Suly 21, 1887] NATURE 277 Mr. I. C, hompson, on the Copepoda; Mr. J. Lomas, on the Polyzoa ; and Prof. Herdman, on the Tunicata. Various other scientific men have come as visitors to see the station, including: Prof. Lodge, F.R.S., Prof. Hele Shaw, Mr. Reginald Phillips, of Bangor, Mr. I. Roberts, WwW oo ww w a, W T + eee . T ' at u E \ 88 RASH EENT fh LABORATORY. Ww w Ww w " W KITCHEN ? 5 m 7 z | see a f r gece w Fic. 3.—Plan of Liverpool Marine Biological Station on Puffin Island. Ww, windows ; c, chimneys. and Mr. Mellard Reade; and it is hoped that if the weather is favourable on Sept. 3, the biologists taking part in the British Association dredging expedition, arranged by the Liverpool Marine Biology Committee, will have an opportunity of visiting Puffin Island and its Biological Station. W. A. HERDMAN, ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. N June 1886, an Australian Antarctic Exploration . Committee was appointed at Melbourne. It con- _ sisted of five members each from the Royal Society of Victoria and the Royal Geographical Society, Victoria Branch. This Committee has collected a quantity of in- formation respecting the islands lying south of Tasmania as well as respecting lands lying nearer the Pole. The prospect of obtaining a Government grant for an expedition having scientific purposes only, though the preferable course, was thought to behopeless. The Com- mittee therefore has recommended the Government of Victoria (which had expressed itself favourably to the pro- ject) to offer to steam-whalers, for carrying a scientific staff to certain high latitudes, bonuses, graduated to degrees of southing. Weprint the conditions, but no tenders can be invited till a grant is assured, and the Government of Victoria is indisposed to act in the matter without other colonies, whose co-operation is doubtful, though Tasmania will most probably offer a small contribution. Many offers of steam-whalers have been sent from England, Scotland, and Norway, where the owners seem anxious to dispose of their ships and gear. Most im- portant and valuable information and advice have been received from Capt. Gray, of Peterhead. The following are the recommendations of the Antarctic Committee to the Honourable the Premier of Victoria :— (1) The Antarctic Committee begs respectfully to recommend to the Honourable the Premier the propriety of stimulating Antarctic research by the offer of bonuses. (2) That a sum of £10,000 be placed upon the Estimates, to provide for the amount of the bonuses, and for the expenses of the equipment and of the staff. (3) The amount of the bonuses to be paid to the ship- owners for the hereinafter mentioned services is to be decided by tender, and the same, together with the cost of equipment and the staff, not to exceed the sum of £10,000, (4) That the Government invite tenders from ship- owners willing to perform the services required. (5) That the tenders be sent to the Treasury direct, or through the Agent-General, not later than June I. (6) That tenderers must provide two fortified steam- ships, each of not less than 175 tons register, 60 horse- power nominal, and Ar at Lloyd’s, or of an equivalent class. (7) That tenderers must supply full descriptions of the ships and their equipments. (8) That the master and chief mate of both ships shall have held similar positions in Arctic steam-ships. (9) That the tenderer shall provide, free of charge, cabin accommodation in each ship for two gentlemen, who will sail as the scientific staff; also a separate cabin, of a size to be specified, as instrument-room and office. (10) The scientific staff will have the status of cabin passengers, and be subordinate to the master, but the master must afford them every facility, that does not interfere with the work or safety of the ship, for noting natural phenomena. (11) The chartered ships will earn a special bonus (to come out of the £10,000 appropriated) upon their enter- ing at the Custom House a cargo of Ioo tons of oil, being the produce of fish caught south of 60° S. The special bonus to be paid as follows, viz.:—To ships owned and registered in Australia, £1,000; to ships owned and registered elsewhere, £800. (12) The services desired are as follows, viz. :—A flying survey of any coast-lines lying within the Antarctic Circle, and not now laid down upon the Admiralty charts. The discovery of new waterways leading towards the South Pole, and of harbours suitable for wintering in. Oppor- tunities to be afforded to the scientific staff to add to our knowledge of the meteorology, oceanography, terrestrial magnetism, natural history, and geology of the region. The discovery of commercial products. (13) The tenderer must specify the bonus he demands for passing 70° S. with either one or two ships; also the bonus he demands for each degree attained beyond 70° S. by one ship; also the bonus he demands for every occasion upon which he succeeds in establishing on the shore a temporary observing camp. (14) That the Government should pay for only one such station for each 120 miles of latitude or longitude, unless the master shall have established more at the written request of both members of the staff. (15) The staff to have the right to refuse to accept the site of any camp selected by the master, and such refusal shall be logged by the master, and read over to the staff in the presence of the mate and the surgeon ; and the staff shall hand to the master their objections thereto in writing, and the same must be signed by both of them. (16) The tenderer will not receive any more bonus for two ships than for one after passing the 7oth parallel. The Committee would prefer that one of the ships should remain fishing in the neighbourhood of North Cape, Victoria Land, whilst the other pushed into higher latitudes. In case of accident to the latter, the former would serve as a depot and relief for the shipwrecked crew to fall back upon. (17) Should the master of either ship despatch an exploring party from his vessel, the contractor will be entitled to a bonus for each sixty miles of latitude or longitude traversed by such party, but the tenderer must specify what sum he will require for each sixty miles so traversed. (18) That the ships should proceed direct to the bight situated on the meridian of 180°, with a view of one of them getting beyond Ross’s furthest, and especially of observing the conditions of the volcanoes at the head of the bight. (19) The contractor will be liable to no penalty should he fail to reach to any latitude tendered for. 278 NATURE (20) The contractor will have the right to employ his ships in whaling or sealing, and in loading guano or other cargo. : (21) Should the masters be unable to get right or sperm whales to enable them to compete for the bonus offered under the 12th proviso, they will nevertheless be entitled to the bonus should they return with a cargo of any merchantable commodity obtained within the Antarctic Circle, and having a value equivalent to that of 100 tons of whale oil. (22) Both ships must be in Port Phillip Bay and ready to start on October 15. (23) That in case of any difficulty arising in England between the Agent-General and the contractor, it shall be referred to the British Antarctic Com mittee for decision. THE CAPTIVE KITE-BALLOON. ee has always been an objection to the extensive use of captive balloons for scientific or military purposes, that a wind of moderate strength suffices not merely to depress them considerably from the vertical, but to cause them to jerk, rotate, and oscillate vertically and horizon- tally in such a manner as to render them either partially ineffective or totally useless. During the recent military manceuvres at Dover, it was stated that the captive balloon under the charge of Major Templer was not allowed to ascend beyond the shelter of the surrounding downs, owing to the strong wind then prevailing. It was thus ors de combat as far as the enemy was concerned, and this seems to be a common experience of military balloonists. The jerking, as a balloon after a freshening of the wind suddenly reaches the end of its tether, is, 1 am told by an experienced member of the Balloon Corps, very trying to the nerves, while the rotation on its axis is a serious obstacle to steady observation. The depression of a captive balloon in a wind of any sensible strength is also more than most persons would imagine, and as the velocity of the wind generally increases with the height (very rapidly for the first few hundred feet), while the buoyancy of the balloon, owing to several causes, diminishes, this condition becomes more pronounced at the higher levels. The depression is obviously due to the fact that a captive balloon, as at present employed, can only be secured at its dase, and thus the normal component of the wind is resolved in a downward direction, pressing the balloon towards the earth. If the fastening could be made two-thirds of the way up its side, this normal component could be resolved in an upward direction, and utilised so as to add to the elevating power of the balloon. The fragile nature of the balloon fabric, however, renders it impossible to do this except by interposing a kite-surface between it and the wind. All the preceding defects are remedied and several positive advantages are gained by attaching a balloon to a kite in the manner indicated in the accompanying diagram. (1) The addition of the kite with the fastening at the side instead of the base counteracts the depression pro- duced by the wind, and not only raises its own weight, but even in a light anticyclonic breeze elevates the whole apparatus to a higher level than that which could be attained by the balloon alone. Thus, in an experiment here on Friday, June 10, in the presence of Mr. Eric S. Bruce and others, with a very light wind,' the balloon of 113 cubic feet capacity and with 1200 feet of wire out attained a/ove a mean vertical height of 693 feet, while when attached to a kite of 9 feet by * I have since ascertained that during the trial the mean velocity at Greenwich [211 feet. above the sea with a good exposure for the wind (N.E.)] was 12 miles per hour. The present locality was in a valley 260 feet above sea-level, surrounded by hills rising to 500 feet above the sea. 7 feet and the same length of wire it kept steadily at feet. The lifting power in the second case w. greatly increased, as shown by the following compar of the angles of the kite and wire in the two cases! :—_ Angle of Wi the g Balloon. 3 ° 413° The addition of the kite raised 1} lbs. more balloon could have done alone, with a good deal t It increased the height by 96 feet and dimin by 133°. ; fry With the tail (made of self-regulating co. pletely counteracts the jerky, rotatory, and movement of the balloon, by keeping the wire exerting a constant pull on the balloon at extremity. eed (3) With the addition of the of hood, an Balloon alone us Balloon with kite... ‘' BE i XY 6, () ANON | NY Xe We Archibald’s Captive Kite-Balloon. a@*, octagonal kite, pieces of bamboo; 4", spherical balloon ; 4 i silk) ; Z, extra or top hood ; /*/*, &c., ba with top of balloon; g, ring connecting lower verging net cords of halloon; , tail of cones (¢); 7? with kite, one branch passing through a pulley to feature of the combination, the kite shi fabric from the destructive action of the percentage of days than the balloon alone. (5) In a large balloon with car attached can alter his altitude and azimuth by pu side attachments of the kite, and thus observation, (6) With the kite, and except in the ra calm, a much smaller balloon is needed weight.? : ; (7) The use of wire (a suggestion - William Thomson) greatly increases lessens the weight, of the earth-line. I arrived at the idea of uniting the tw conducting my kite anemometrical o owing to my desire to prevent my kites suddenly when the wind dropped. I | equally desirous of some means for shielding from damage and keeping them win az balloon satisfies both requirements, a use both to scientific as well as military Tunbridge Wells, June25. 1 The lifting power of the balloon with weighed about 4 Ibs. and the kite 2} Ibs. ss Ne cs Mia i 2 The kite portion is portable and easily detachable calm. ¥uly 21, 1887] NATURE 279 NOTES. A BILL dealing with the question of technical education was bmitted to the House of Commons on Tuesday, and read a t time. We print elsewhere the speech delivered by Sir W. art Dyke in introducing the measure. THE Report for 1886 of the Science and Art Department has ust been issued. _ THE summer meeting of the Institution of Mechanical ineers will be held in Edinburgh, on Tuesday morning, _ August 2, and Wednesday morning, August 3, in the University. | The chair will be taken at half-past nine o’clock by the President, Mr. Edward H. Carbutt, in the Natural History Lecture Theatre. The following papers have been offered for reading and discussion, not necessarily in the order here given :—On the ‘structure and progress of the Forth Bridge, by Mr. E. Malcolm Wood, of London; notes on the machinery employed at the Forth Bridge works, by Mr. William Arrol, of Glasgow ; on the paraffin oil industry in Scotland, by Mr. St. John V. Day, _ Honorary Local Secretary ; description of the electric light on _ the Isle of May, by Mr. David A. Stevenson, of Edinburgh ; ~ description of the new Tay Viaduct, by Mr. Fletcher F. S. Kelsey, Resident Engineer ; on electro-magnetic machine-tools, by Mr. Frederick John Rowan, of Glasgow; on the dredging of the lower estuary of the Clyde, by Mr. Charles A. Stevenson, of Edinburgh ; on the position and prospects of electricity as applied to engineering, by Mr. William Geipel, of Edinburgh. Various excursions are being arranged, and it is desired that members who propose to be present, and to accept the several invitations, should let their intention be known without delay. __ THE summer meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects Will-be held at Newcastle-on-Tyne on July 26 and 28, and at “Sunderland on July 27. The following papers will be read ps at Newcastle: on the application of hydraulic pressure to “naval gunnery, by the Right Hon. Lord Armstrong, F.R.S. _ Vice-President, and Mr. J Vavasseur, Associate ; recent deve- _ lopments in marine engineering, by Mr. Frank C. Marshall, Member of Council; Tyne improvements, by Mr. P. J. Messent, Engineer to River Tyne Commissioners. At Sunder- land the following papers will be read: on some recent experiments with basic steel, by Mr. W. H. White, Director of Naval Construction, Vice-President ; on the present position occupied by basic steel for ship-building, by Mr. B. Martell, Chief Surveyor to Lloyd’s Register of British and Foreign _ Shipping, Vice-President. There will be excursions to places of scientific interest in the neighbourhoods. Mr. THomMas Hupson Beare has been unanimously ap- ‘pointed by the Governors of the Heriot-Watt College, Edin- Professor of Mechanics and Engineering in that insti- tution. Mr. Beare came over to this country from Australia in 1880, having gained the South Australian Scholarship at the University of Adelaide. He then became a student at Uni- versity College, London, to which he afterwards returned about three years since to be one of the principal demonstrators under Prof. Kennedy i in the Engineering Laboratory. “THE Geographical Society of St. Petersburg has decided _ tosend an Expedition to Turkestan for the scientific investiga- tion of the earthquake at Werny. Prof. Muschketoff, the head Expedition, will be accompanied by five other men nc _ including the St. Petersburg geologist, M. W. S. § Bulletin of Miscellaneous itunes daa ma Gardens, Kew, contains a careful and — Is Leaps snnoeestal ine Sar heen ais of Bixa Orellana, This colouring substance has long been known and used for various purposes. It is, however, liable to so many fluctuations, and the prices generally are so low, that it has never received serious attention in British colonies, and hence few, if any, plantations have been exclusively devoted in such colonies to the annatto plant. The annatto of commerce is practically a forest product obtained from wild or semi-wild plants, and the supply has only kept pace with the demand. Of late years a slight revival has taken place in the use of annatto, especially in America, and inquiries have in consequence been made for information as regards culture and preparation, This _ information the writer of the paper in the Bulletin supplies, and his notes will be of great service to all who may wish to become growers of annatto. ON May 9 the Governor of Jamaica addressed to the Governors of Barbados, the Leeward Islands, the Windward Islands, and British Honduras, a letter relating to the scheme for the establishment of botanical stations in some West India Islands in connexion with the Botanical Department in Jamaica. From this letter, which is printed in the seventh Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, we are glad to learn that the Government of Jamaica is prepared to adopt the proposed scheme from August 1, or from any subsequent date. BEFORE the end of the year the great Tweeddale collection and library will, it is hoped, be safely housed in the Natura} History Museum. This princely donation to the national col- lection is the gift of Capt. R. G. Wardlaw Ramsay, to whom it was bequeathed by his uncle, the late Marquess of Tweeddale. With the exception of the Hume Collection it is the finest series of Indian birds in existence, and is especially rich in species from the Philippine Archipelago, where Mr, Alfred Everett collected for some years for Lord Tweeddale. Capt. Ramsay’s collections from the Karen Hills, in Burmah, are also most important, this being one of the few localities unworked by Mr. Hume’s collectors. Tue American Museum of Natural History, New York, has just acquired the ornithological library of Mr. D. G. Elliot, a well-known American naturalist. This library consists of about 1000 volumes, and is one of the most important in America. Mr. Elliot has at the same time presented his collection of humming-birds to the above Museum. It is, according to the Auk, ‘represented by about 2000 specimens, and includes some fifty or more types. Its importance is further enhanced from its having formed the basis of Mr. Elliot’s recent monograph of the family. It doubtless ranks as second in the world in point of completeness, or next to that of the British Museum.” The latter collection, however, must now contain at least 10,000 skins, irrespective of the Gouldian series of mounted specimens. Another important addition to the American Museum is that of the large ornithological collection of Mr. G. N. Lawrence, which contains some 300 types. This has been purchased, and is one of the chief of the private collections in America. Tue special groups, illustrating the nesting habits of British birds, which have proved so attractive in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington, have now been introduced into the galleries of the American Museum of Natural History, and twelve cases of American birds have already been mounted. The cost of these effective, but expensive, groups will be de- frayed by Mrs. Robert E, Stuart, and the Museum has secured the services of Mrs, Mogridge, who executed the artificial flower- work for the British Museum. Mrs. Mogridge is raat: a rival” | in this branch of decorative art. Tue expedition made by Mr, John Whitehead to th mountain of Kina Balu, in Northern Borneo, has 280 NATURE [rudy 21, 1887 the splendid new Broadbill, described ie Mr. Bowdler Sharpe as Calypiomena whiteheadi at the last meeting of the Zoological Society, there are nearly twenty other new species, including some very remarkable forms of Avachnothera, Chloropsis, Cryptolopha, and an apparently new genus of Campophagide. These will all be described in the October /é%s, by Mr. Sharpe. DEALING with the question as to the influence of small birds in assisting the extinction of Aforia crategi, Mr. A. G. Butler, in the current number of the Zv/omologist’s Monthly Magazine, says he has collected in Kent for at least thirty years, and during the whole of that time he has never seen any bird but a sparrow attempt to catch a butterfly. Nor has he ever known a small bird to eat a large caterpillar if it could get one that could be more easily swallowed. ‘‘ Of our indigenous species,” he says, ‘‘the robin and the great tit certainly select green caterpillars in preference to others, and, when feeding their young, I have watched both these birds with their mouths full of the green pests of the gooseberry and currant. From obser- vation of cage-birds I should say that the finches certainly show a similar preference, the green larvee of Mamestra being chosen before the brown, though all are greedily devoured.” A BOLD attempt has recently been made to penetrate the darkness surrounding the subject of the inter-molecular arrange- ment of atoms, and to raise our ideas of the constitution of chemical compounds beyond what is expressed by the orthodox chemical formule. It has long been felt that the chemical formula of a substance as expressed in one plane on paper, although invaluable as far as it goes, must of necessity be a very misleading one, inasmuch as it in no way indicates the probable position of the various atoms in space. This insufficiency has been especially felt in the case of substances like tartaric acid, where we have several distinct isomers acting quite differently upon polarized light, and frequently forming right- and left- handed hemihedral crystals, although expressed by the same constitutional formula. Since the year 1874, when Van t’ Hoff and Le Bel published their celebrated theory of the ‘‘asym- metric carbon atom,” the idea has been gaining ground that this kind of isomerism must be due to different spacial arrange- ment, and Van t’ Hoff gave impetus to the theory by showing that the existence of four isomeric tartaric acids could be explained by imagining the four radical-groups to be variously placed at the four corners of a regular tetrahedron, of which an asymmetric carbon atom occupied the centre. During the last few days a comprehensive paper has been issued by Prof. J. Wislicenus, on the ‘‘ Spacial Arrangement of Atoms in Organic Molecules, and its Determination in Geometrically Isomeric Compounds,” further expanding Dr. Van t’ Hoff’s somewhat sceptically received ideas, proceeding to build up the spacial constitution of a large number of unsaturated organic com- pounds, and giving nearly 200 figures, of which the regular tetrahedron representing CH, is the base. Prof. Wislicenus practically demonstrates that the cases of so-called abnormal isomerism may be completely cleared up, and that existing experimental data are generally sufficient to enable spacial constitution to be determined. This remarkable paper will doubtless give rise to much discussion, and appears likely to lead to results which will mark a genuine advance in chemical philosophy. IN a paper to the Berlin Academy, Herr’ Liebreich lately called attention to what he calls the ‘‘ dead space” in chemical reactions : a space, z.é., in which the reaction going on in other parts of a uniformly mixed liquid does not occur, or occurs late, or in less degree. It may be very well observed, ¢.g., in decom- position of chloral hydrate by sodium carbonate (yielding chloro- form) in a test-tube. A layer of 1 to 3 millimetres’ depth under the surface remains clear, and separate by a convex surface from the ‘‘ reaction space,” where the solution is turbid from droplets _ of chloroform. Even after twenty-four hours’ rest of the mixture the two spaces can be distinguished; and after mixture by shaking again, the surface of separation is reproduced in a few minutes. In horizontal capillary tubes the dead space “Pree on both sides, and, if the liquid columns introduced are short, no reaction occurs, as the dead spaces unite. Thus is expla the absence of reaction in the case of liquid .absorbed in vessels by glass pearls ; there is dead space everywhere. Contact with air seems essential to the formation of dead space. Thus if a vessel closed at one end, and holding the liquids eae e: named, be inverted, so that there is no air space ¢ mixture, the reaction occurs uniformly throughout. — space appears as in the former case ; and if the lower end be a closed with fine membrane the dead space appears there ‘ Herr Liebreich is studying the phenomena further, — f 7; one being a suitable lecture experiment, showi action of electricity from points on finely divided matter i air. He thinks it established that such a stream of ele does not electrify the air itself statically (indeed that air other gases probably cannot be statically electrified), but dust particles in it. Further, a glowing platinum wire send particles which diffuse in air that has been electrically fre dust, making a fresh charge possible. Here, too, the e streaming from such wire does not statically electrify but the charges which are observed as atmospheric ele belong to fine non-gaseous particles given out by the already present in the air. An experiment is also addt show that at ordinary temperature negative electricity « potential streams more readily from solid conductors into 4 spheric air than positive. ELECTRICITY in the house has some important bearings hygiene. One of these M. Sambuc has recently called < to (Revue a’ Hygiene), in the liberation of hydrogen, where batteries are used in which zinc is dissolved by pres: Besides the danger of shattering of the vessels, the rogel spreading in the air may form an explosive mixture ; and it have a cooling effect through its great conductivity for he also deadens the voice and alters its timbre. Further, if, a as be, the hydrogen is charged with sulphur, arsenic, phx ph carbon, or silicium, there are other and greater dan chemist is known to have died from breathing a little hydrogen. These facts are not cited against the use electric light, but to induce proper care in those who use it. THE twenty-sixth volume ot the magnetical and logical observations made at the Government Observa' Bombay, containing the results for the year 1885, has | published, under the superintendence of Mr. C. Chz F.R.S. Continuous registrations are obtained by mi self-recording instruments (although not published), and observations are taken five times a day, as a check upon automatic records. The following is a summary of the i meteorological results :—The mean barometric pressure for year was 29°826 inches, the difference of the greatest and mean daily pressure amounting to o'581 inch. The annual temperature was 79°'2, and the greatest daily 1 was 87°°3 on June 6. The absolute maximum was in June (being slightly /ower than the maximum in shade at Greenwich on the 4th inst.), and the min 62°'1 in February, giving a range of 29°°7. The rainfall 1 sured by a gauge 44 feet above the ground was 67°91 in rain fell on 113 days, and mostly occurred between June September ; the greatest fall was 10°29 inches on August (| Huby 21, 1887) NATURE 281 ; The Observatory does not appear to possess a sunshine-recorder. _ Observations for a few selected hours for Bombay and five other ‘stations for the years 188 5-86 have already been published parately by the Indian Meteorological Office. METEOROLOGICAL observations have been regularly made at Khedivial Observatory at Cairo (Abassieh) during the past € years, and have been published in various forms. The pub- cation has now assumed a more definite shape, under the e, Résumé Mensuel, and is issued by the Ministry of Public Tnstruction. The observations are taken every three hours during the day and night. Yearly summaries are not given, but e find from the monthly values that the mean shade tempera- ure for the year 1886 was 69°°6. The absolute maximum in the shade was 113°"4 in June, and the minimum, 36°°7, in De- _cember ; giving a yearly range of 76°°7, The thermometers are : ~ placed much too high, being about 33 feet above the ground, _ instead of about 4 feet. The amount of rainfall is not regularly _ published. THE Jahrbuch of the Magdeburgische Zeitung for the year 1885 (Magdeburg, 1887, 88 pp. 4to) contains, in addition to the usual observations and reproductions of the continuous registra- _ tions of barometer and sunshine-recorder, a table showing the _ extremes of temperature on the surface of the earth observed by means of five maximum and five minimum thermometers, one pair lying flat and the other four pairs being inclined about 45° under the four principal points of the compass, between May 1885 and April 1886; but there is no discussion of the results. There is also an interesting appendix relating to the choice of hours that will give the nearest approach to the mean daily temperature. The author has used the continuous records for Berne, Vienna, Magdeburg, Pawlowsk (near St. Petersburg), i -and Upsala for a year, and has found the following to be the -mean values of the corrections to be applied to the various _ yearly means :—For 8h., 2h., 8h., 0°'040; for 7h., 2h., 9gh., _ =0°092; for 6h., 2h., toh., 0°104; and for max. and ‘min. 0°'084. The best combination according to this in- vestigation is therefore 8h., 2h., 8h., whereas in this country gh. a.m. and gh. p.m. are found to give a good mean. The combination of max. and min. also gives a fairly approximate value for mean latitudes, The author has also investigated the epoch of the maximum and minimum temperature for the same places, and shows how the highest daily temperature occurs later as the summer advances, being at about 3h. p.m. in June and July and between 12h. and th. in January and December ; and further, that the lowest temperature does not always take place at about sunrise, as is generally supposed, but only during summer, while in winter the minimum is near midnight. The present Director of the Observatory is A. Griitzmacher ; the former Director, Dr. Assmann, having been appointed to the Meteorological Office at Berlin. Mr. A. L. Rorcu has published the results of the observa- tions made at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Nor- folk County, Massachusetts, U.S., in the year 1886 (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 472). This Observatory, which was established by Mr. Rotch in 1885, is now one of the best-equipped stations in the United States, and the current expenses amount to about 2500 dollars a year. An auxiliary station has also been esta- blished at the foot of the hill, 440 feet below the Observa- tory, and some curious variations of temperature and precipita- tion have been noted between the two stations, but enough data have not yet been accumulated for publication. Among the special instruments in use may be specified a Campbell- Stokes bright-sunshine recorder, which is believed to be the only one in the United States; a Jordan sunshine- recorder, which registers both bright and faint sunshine photographically ; and a mirror for the measurement of the | azimuth and altitude of clouds, ready for publication. The mean temperature for the year was 45°°6. The absolute maximum in the shade was 9I°’o in July, and the minimum ~ 15°’o in January, giving a yearly range of 106°. The greatest daily range was 38°°2 on December 25, and the least 1°°7 in F ebruary. The total rainfall and melted snow was 46°99 inches, measured on 1 32 days; the greatest monthly fall being 8-29 inches in February, and the least 1°52 inch in June. The work is accompanied by tracings from the self- recording instruments, selected to illustrate certain phenomena during the year, with explanatory text, a practice which is both inexpensive and very instructive. The hourly tabulations of atmospheric pressure and wind velocity have been published ix extenso, ON February 5 last there was a shower of ashes, lasting from 7 a.m. to If a.m., at Finschhafen in Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land. It covered the surrounding district with a layer of pale grey volcanic ashes. As the condition of the winds at the time was abnormal, it is impossible to say in what locality the volcanic eruption took place. Dr. Schrader reports that on February 2 a bright red halo, as if produced by smoke at a great elevation, was noticed around the sun; a few evenings before, similar halos had been noticed around the moon. Samples of the ashes have been sent to Dr. N eumayer, of Hamburg, for analysis. SoME time ago, Mr. F. W. Putnam, the American archzxo- logist, wrote a letter to the newspapers, pointing out that the Serpent Mound in Adams County, Ohio, had lately been much damaged by ‘‘wash-outs,” and begging that steps might be taken for its preservation. Thereupon three Boston ladies took the matter in hand. The money they asked for was soon ob- tained, and now the ground upon which the mound is situated has been bought, and handed over to the guardianship of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology. Mr. Putnam, through whom the purchase was effected, proposes to spend the approaching autumn in the neighbourhood of the mound, restoring it where it has been injured, transforming wheat-fields into grass lawns, making paths and fences, and planting trees. ‘‘ So long as the place is respected and guarded by all who visit it,” he says in a letter to a Cincinnati newspaper, ‘‘ the park will be free to all, but should any vandalism be committed, an arrangement would at once be made to put a keeper at the place, and possibly entrance fees would have to be charged in order to pay the expenses.” Pror, A. H. KEane’s translation of ‘‘The Necropolis ot Ancon, in Peru,” a German contribution to our knowledge of the culture and industries of the empire of the Incas, presenting the results of excavations made on the spot by W. Reiss and A. Stiibel, has been issued in fourteen parts by Messrs. A. Asher and Co. during the years 1880-87. The work is now ready in three volumes, which contain, besides a comprehensive text, 141 coloured plates in folio. A separate volume, complete in itself, but at the same time forming a supplement to the present work, is in course of preparation. It will contain treatises by Herren | W. Reiss, A. Stiibel, L. Wittmack, R. Virchow, and A, Nehring. WE have received Part I. of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, showing the opera- tions, expenditures, and condition of the Institution, to July 1885. In addition to the Secretary’s Report, there is a general appendix containing some valuable scientific papers. In one set of these papers an account is given, by eminent writers, of the progress made during the year 1884 in astronomy, geo- graphy, physics, chemistry, and other sciences. Other papers deal with various problems in anthropology. but these results are not yet THE Clarendon Press is publishing a fourth edition of ‘‘ Ex- ercises in Practical Chemistry,” by Mr. A. G. Vernon Harcourt, 282 NATURE | [yudy 21, 188 F.R.S., and Mr. H. G. Madan. The first volume, containing elementary exercises, has been issued. In the preface to this _ new edition, Mr. Madan, who has undertaken the task of revi- sion, explains that he has made some verbal alterations, intro- duced additional experiments and exercises, and somewhat altered the course of analysis of a single substance. In many cases the preparation of useful compounds of the radicle is more fully dealt with than in former editions. Tue ‘Flora of West Yorkshire,” a volume of about 800 pages, by Mr. Frederick Arnold Lees, will be ready in August. It will be published by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, by subscription, and will form an extra volume of the Botanical Series of the Transactions of the Union. The work is divided into four sections—(1) Climatology; (2) Lithology; (3) the Botanical Bibliography of the Riding; (4) the Flora proper. With regard to the fourth section, it is claimed that “‘such a complete flora for any district in the world has never before been published, more than 3000 species being dealt with.” AN interesting volume relating to the ‘‘Grand Concours International des Sciences et de l’Industrie,” which is to be held at Brussels in the year 1888, has just been issued. It con- sists of reports drawn up by the Committees which have been appointed to make preparations for the Exhibition, Each of these reports includes a letter addressed to producers, a general and detailed classification »of objects, a list of sub-committees, and a series of desiderata in the department to which the report relates. If the ‘‘ Grand Concours International” corresponds to the scheme which the Committees have worked out, it will be one of the most complete and suggestive Exhibitions that have yet been held. ON August 7 the University of Géttingen will celebrate the 150th anniversary of its foundation. THE annual conversazione given by the students of the Fins- bury Technical College was held on Friday the 15th inst., and was remarkably successful. The College was tastefully decorated with flowers and flags, and a large fountain, illuminated by powerful coloured arc and incandescent lamps, played during the evening. All the rooms were thrown open to visitors, and exhi- bitions of chemical, electrical, and mechanical apparatus and manufactures were arranged in the laboratories. Over fifty of the leading scientific firms lent exhibits, and one electrical firm sent over £500 worth of apparatus. In the workshops speci- mens of the work of the students during the session were shown. Two concerts, both attended by crowded audiences, were given ; and Prof. Ayrton lectured on ‘*Church Bells,” and Prof. Meldola on ** Spectrum Analysis.” Over four hundred visitors were present, including many distinguished men of science and commerce ; and the students are to be congratulated on having provided a very pleasant entertainment for their friends. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Pig-tailed Monkey (Macacus nemestrinus) - from Java, presented by Mrs. Lewis; a Tiger (Felis tégris 3 ) from India, presented by Mr. Sandford Kilby; a Turtle-Dove (Turtur communis), British, presented by Mr. R. Humphries ; a Bonnet Monkey (AZacacus sinicusQ) from India, two Booted Eagles (Misaetus pennatus) from Spain, a Golden-crowned Conure (Conurus aureus) from Brazil, two Alligators (A//igator mississippiensis) from the Mississippi, two’Common Toads (Bufo vulgaris) from North Africa, deposited ; a Ruffed Lemur (Lemur varius) from Madagascar, an Elate Hornbill (Cerato- symnxz elata) from West Africa, two Common Boas (Boa con- strictor) from South America, purchased; a Squirrel-like Phalanger (Belideus sciureus) born in the Gardens ; two Diuca Finches (Diuca grisea), an Auriculated Dove (Zenaida auricu- ata) bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE NICE OBSERVATORY.—M. Faye has published in- Comptes rendus, tome ev, No. 1, a note on the work of the Nit Observatory, from which the following particulars are extra As soon as a small meridian circle by Gautier had been e1 at the new Observatory, M. Perrotin, the Director de! the difference of longitude telegraphically from’ P. from Milan. These operations gave for the difference: Milan, 27m. 25°325s., whilst a direct determination viously made by MM. Perrier and Celoria gave 27m. : The value 43° 43’ 16”°9 has been provision a latitude. With the equatorial of 0°38 m. aperture has undertaken an extensive series of double-s which have already proved of great excellence 2 is proposed to continue these measures on a more e: with the large telescope of 0°76 m. aperture. Al: observations of comets and of minor planets have be M. Perrotin and by M. Charlois, his assistant. Th also quite recently discovered a new asteroid (No. % Faye goes on to speak of the spectroscopic researches | out at Nice by the late M. Thollon, particularly those with the investigation of the telluric lines in the sol As our readers will remember, M. Thollon showed - regions B and a of the solar spectrum some of the t are due, not to an element varying with the tem: as aqueous vapour, but to a constituent of the atma as oxygen, the influence of which varies with the the Sun only. M. Egoroff afterwards confirmed this: that the lines referred to are due to the oxygen atmosphere. a hae The instrumental equipment of the Nice Obs all but complete, and M. Faye speaks with enth career of usefulness before it—favoured as it is with : Sp climate, and, thanks to the munificence of M. Bischofi with instruments which suffice to place it in the modern Observatories. ae i ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA | WEEK 1887 JULY 24-30. (FOR the reckoning of time the civil day, Greenwick mean midnight, counting the he is here employed.) eee At Greenwich on July 24 Sun rises, 4h. 14m. ; souths, 12h. 6m. 14°38. 5 decl. on meridian, 19° 54’ N.: Sidereal ° 16h. 8m. 5 Moon (at First Quarter on July 27) rises, Sh. 15h. 26m. ; sets, 22h. om. ; decl. on ic Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. h. m. h. m. hom Mercury § BO. jeu 8283 19° 464) sen Venus... eee Pere ee ee Mags 0%: ux. BO 4 ove 10 20 ee Jupiter... 12 20 17-3 22 50 Saturn... 3 48 11 48... 19 48 Occultation of Star by the Moon (visible at ¢ July. Star. Mag. _ Disap. h. m. 25 230; Des der hue 0 20 20 July. h. Werk oF CT Venus in conjunction with and 3° 8’ of the Moon. Te ee Sy GeO ane Jupiter in conjunction with and 3° of the Moon. see.) 29... 5 «. Mercury in inferior conjunction witht Meteor- Showers. Fide: The Aquarids, R.A. 340°, Decl. 13° S., near form the principal meteor-shower at this season of the meteors from this radiant are slow, in marked contrast. from Perseus, radiant at R.A. 32°, Decl. 55° N., at t time, which are swift. P NATURE 283 # uly 21, 1887] Variable Stars. “R.A. Decl. h. m. e 4 h. m. © 52°3... 81 16N... July 27, 21 51 ™ 3 0%... 40 31 N. 33 90s ae 5 14-949 33S a Si SG ey ae $° m a6°27°6"...: 26° 55 Si: .... ay FO M B16 BONG, §,. 26 Oe 26, 23 24 m 88.2598) .cIGIF SOs hy BHO Oe 18) 459... 33 TOON. i.) se Ree oe ae EQ. 9075.1 F 30 Be Se ee uM 16° 43°S i) 2 0 Nee" a8 M 407 OAT Ne ce ae ae OM a0 40°44: a3a2 NN. cy M M signifies maximum ; #7 minimum. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. _ THE new supplementary part of Petermann’s Mitteilungen ie ha devoted to Dr. R. von Lendenfeld’s‘explorations in the Australian Alps in 1885-86. The region explored by Dr, Lenden- _ feld covers the greater part of the mountain districts of Victoria _and New South Wales, and already in NATURE and elsewhere e has given some details concerning the geological and glacial results of his work. In the present memoir he gives a sketch of _ the Australian Alps in general, their geology, physiography, meteorology, flora, and fauna; he indicates the general _ physiognomy of the mountain system, its leading ranges, its valleys, and its river systems. He then devotes separate sec- _ tions to the Kosciusko group and the Bugong group, and to a __ discussion of the Australian Ice period. There can beno doubt, Dr. Lendenfeld maintains, that at one time the Australian high- lands were deeply glaciated, and that during the Tertiary the climate of the country must have been far richer in moisture than oe at the present day. IN the new number (vii.) of Petermann’s Mitteilungen Dr. Gerhard Rohlfs describes in a letter to Dr. Schweinfurth the results of his recent exploration of the limestone plateau which bord ape of the great Wadi Arabah, in Central Egypt. Ger Tillo brings together elaborate data bearing on the _ yariation of the mean sea-level above or below a normal zero in _ the various seas of Europe ; and Nikolaus Latken contributes a short paper on mining in East Siberia for 1874-85. Thereis an excellent map of the Khuriseb Valley, extending south-east from Walfisch Bay, West Africa, by Dr. Stapff, which, with the accompanying paper, gives a very full idea of the geology of the region, __ A NUMEROUS and carefully-equipped Expedition is being sent out this summer by the Finnish Society of Botany and Zoology for the exploration of the interior of the Kola Peninsula. Another Expedition, organized by the St. Petersburg Society of Naturalists, set out last month to Petropaulovsk, to explore the White Sea and the Mediterranean coast. UNDER Prof. O. Doering, the Government of the Argentine province Cordoba is establishing a network of meteorological stations which will begin work in January 1888. It is intended to form and equip 40 stations of the first order, 15 of the second, 10 of the third, and 10 of the fourth order. The instruments are being obtained from Berlin. Dr. L. BRACKEBUSCH, Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Cordoba, has recently returned from a five- months’ excursion in the Cordilleras, bringing with him rich collections of minerals, and a mass of geological, geographical, and hypsometrical data, _ ‘THE Venezuelan Government has, it is stated, organized an Expedition for the geological and anthropological exploration of _ ‘the territory on the Upper Orinoco and the Amazons. At a recent meeting of the Geographical Society of the Pacific, Prof. Davidson stated that his study of the ocean eurrents had brought him t» the conclusion that a branch of the Japanese warm current, the Kuro Siwo, does pass into the Fy Sei Arctic Ocean through Behring Strait ; and he promised to lay before the Society, at a future meeting, some information on the subject. AccorDING to the last mail from Zanzibar Lieut. Wissmann has arrived at the Kavala mission station on Lake Tanganyika. The explorer left Luluaburg on the Sankuru in November last, to traverse the unknown country in which are the sources of the Lulongo, the Chuapa, and the Lomami. He then meant to reach Lake Tanganyika by Nyangwé. To the last part of the Verhandlungen of the Vienna Geo- graphical Society (Nos, 5 and 6 of Band xxx.) Herr W. Putick contributes a valuable paper on the subterranean district of Inner Carniola, the curious region known as the Karst. THE TECHNICAL EDUCATION BILL. THE following is the speech delivered by Sir W. Hart Dyke on Monday in introducing the Technical Education Bill into the House of Commons :— ‘* In the observations that I am about to make I ‘shall be as concise as possible, because I know that members are waiting to deal with other important matter. I feel that I am guilty of something like cruelty in introducing at this period of the session, after all we have gone through and with the labours still before us, any further legislation, but I plead in extenuation the fact that this is no new topic. It is one which has for some time past stirred up among the artisan classes considerable interest. Volun- tary efforts have for s »me time past been made in this country in regard to technical instruction, and if I am asked why it is that we are going to endeavour to supplement by legislation what has been done the answer is that it is because we believe in the reality of this movement. For some years, not only among our artisan classes, but among our large employers of labour in in- dustrial centres, it has been recognized that, though the com- mercial depression cannot be traceable to the lack of technical and commercial education in this country, yet that some part of it is due to the fact that Continental nations have had great ad- vantages over us in regard to technical training for their youths, and that this has given them considerable commercial advantages overus. I amencouraged to hope that these proposals will meet with some acceptance from the House. If they enable the best material which is now turned out by our schools to continue Jonger in their school life and to start into some new educational groove for the benefit of themselves and of the in- dustrial localities in which they live, and for the benefit also of the community at large, I think I may venture to urge that the time of the House will not be wasted in discussing these pro- posals. It is perfectly true that it may be urged that as I have not long held my present office I am rather rash in introducing this subject, and still more so considering that a Royal Com- mission has been sitting for some time and dealing with this great educational question. But I think that the House will agree with me that this is somewhat outside the scope of the Commission which is now sitting. There was a Royal Com- mission on Technical Education which reported in 1884. That Commission let in a flood of light on the question of technical instruction, and I should like for one instant to refer to their special recommendation as regards this country. As the House is aware, that Commission extended its labours to Continental countries, and conducted an exhaustive in- quiry in connexion with this subject. The Commission pointed out that there was a considerable difference in respect of our treatment of the educational question and its treatment in coun- tries abroad. ‘They also pointed out that with the exception of France there was no European country of the first rank that has an educational Budget so large in amount as ourown. They say that all our existing educational institutions will not alone accomplish the object aimed at, and that the localities must rely more than they have done hitherto upon their own special exertions. I may quote further from the Report of the Commis- sion in reference to the advisability of introducing technical in- struction into our schools. The Commissioners state that in Manchester, Sheffield, Birmingham, and other great centres, a considerable step has already been made in this direction, and they ask this pertinent question: ‘‘If we introduce needlework into girls’ schools, why should not grants be made for manual instruction in boys’ schools?” The Commissioners also recom- mended that rudimentary drawing should be continued through- 284 NATURE [Fuly 21, 1887 out the standards. These are some of the recommenda- tions with which the present Bill proposes to deal. I think I am not taking too sanguine a view of this scheme when I say that it will carry out all those proposals. The object of the Bill is to enable local authorities to provide for the establishment of technical schools or to assist in pro- viding them, and also to give local authorities power to supplement existing teaching in elementary schools by technical instruction, whether by day or evening classes. There will also be a proposal in the Bill with regard to the ratepayers, to whom a power of vetoing any proposal under the Bill will be given. We propose that the Bill should be administered by the Science and Art Department—that is to say, that it should be administered subject to the directorate of that Department. We also propose that the Bill should have the limitation that no scholar should come under its operation until he has reached the sixth standard. The authorities for administering the powers conferred by the Bill will be School Boards where they exist, and where they do not exist town councils. I should just like to refer to Clause 4 of the Bill. To make the Bill acceptable to the ratepayers you must show that it is a cheap Bill and that consideration has been shown for them. Clause 4 is what I may call the operative clause of the Bill, and it enables local authorities to provide technical schools. Of course that would involve expense in building ; but there is a sub-section of Clause 4 which enables the local authority to combine with any other local autho- rities. This will enable a system of combination to be adopted which will prove a great saving to the ratepayers; and, further, the next sub-section provides that the local autho- rity may contribute towards the maintenance or provision of any technical school which has been established by any other local authority. It is further intended to include a provision that local authorities shall be empowered to rate for the purpose of supplementing any existing institution. These, I think, the House will admit are provisions which will enable this Bill to be worked cheaply. A further sub-section gives the local authority power to make any arrangements it may deem necessary or expedient for supplementing the technical instruc- tion at present given in the schools. This provision I consider one of the most valuable in the Bill. It will enable technical instruction to be at once given without putting the ratepayers to any expense in building. I should like to refer for a moment to the limitation to the sixth standard. Though this will neces- sarily exclude many children, I think all interested in education will admit that the Bill should apply to the pick of our scholars, and that a good educational foundation should be required. With regard to the question of agricultural instruction, I am free to admit that the Bill, as drawn, can extend that instruction only to a very small extent, but I believe that the measure is capable of very considerable development, and that under cer- tain of its sub-sections agricultural instruction may be afforded to a satisfactory extent. It is proposed to insert a provision in the Bill that where any local authority passes a_ resolu- tion to establish a technical school a certain proportion of the ratepayers may demand a poll, but I am here at once met with a _ difficulty with regard to the metropolis—namely, that it is very wrong to propose to bring into existence the enormous voting power within the metropolis for such a purpose by this Bill. It may: be asked how I propose to protect the ratepayers of the metropolis in regard to this matter. I have a proposal on the subject which has been drawn up by the Vice-Chairman of the London School Board, the hon. member for Worcestershire, and which has received the approval of the Chairman of that Board. I believe, from all I can gather, that that proposal will be popular with the present London School Board, and that it has been accepted by the hon. members for the metropolis who have been consulted in this matter, on the understanding that this policy alone will be carried out by the London School Board until the next election. I believe, also, that this proposal will be approved by the ratepayers of the metropolis. I have been asked by the hon. member for Worcestershire whether the scheme would not involve an extra charge for building, and I have been able to assure him that it will not doso. Therefore, Sir, I am prepared to admit that the members for the metropolis must be considered in this matter. Of course, if they think that further security to the ratepayers will be necessary it will be possible to insert an addition to this clause in the Bill to the effect that no action with reference to this Bill shall take place until after the next School Poard election. I believe it would be a mistake to do anything of the kind ; I believe that the inte: of the ratepayers and of the great mass of working men in metropolis may be safely trusted in the manner proposed by | Bill. Then, Sir, I may be asked this question, which, I thir is a very pertinent one. It is true that a vast amount ha: already been expended in the cause of technical instruction, anc I may be asked: ‘‘If you once establish the principle rating, will you not check the principle of voluntary effo I believe we shall do nothing of the kind, for several reasons. believe that this will be an essentially popular measure am the working classes. I believe it will be impossible to chon voluntary effort in a cause such as this where you supplement it — by rates, for I believe that those who are spending money n- tarily are doing it in a cause which they know to bea vast one, and that for all sums of money whenever spent in cause more than compound interest will be repaid as the re There are numerous instances in regard to this matter. was only the other day I noticed that in Lambeth the Libraries Act was adopted. That is a case in point. was the result there of adopting the principle of rating noticed that at the concluding meeting held, when arrang were to be made for this new library under the system of ra the hon. member for Barrow-in-Furness, who was in the c announced that a friend of his had not only given the but was going to build the whole library at his ow Numerous instances of the same type have come under my ne Therefore I do not think we ought to dread that the establis ment of voting power will check in any degree voluntary ef have only one other point to deal with—the administra this Bill. We propose that this Bill shall be administere the Science and Art Department at South Kensington. I been anxious that the Bill should be so administered, for we have a Department whose educational capacity has thoroughly well tested. I have heard some hon. mer attack the results of South Kensington as rather expe am anxious that the House should be in a position to the actual yearly expenditure at South Kensington, not regards administrative expenditure, but as regards its By the leave of the House, I shall therefore lay upon the ta a document that will show in a concise form the actual © penditure at South Kensington for five years, both as regards — administration and as regards results. Hon. members will the see how vast an increase there has been as regards payment pt levee results and how small has been the increase of i expenditure. I should like to read to the House what Department is now doing with regard to science and art." Du 1886-87 there were 1936 schools or separate institutions in wh instruction was given in one or more branches of There were 6976 classes in different branches of scient and the number of individual students under instruction ¥ 100,419. At the May examination 127,900 pa were for examination to South Kensington. I should like also some more instances to show the vast strides made in ¢! instruction. In chemistry, 21,085 papers were worked at nations. To show the advance made of late years in the afforded for instruction in science of a pei» 5 experimental character, it may be mentioned that thirty ye there were only one or two places where students could laboratory instruction in chemistry, and that at very high The Royal College of Chemistry, established in 1845, was of these. Another was soon after started in Craig’s Co’ there are 234 chemical laboratories in connexion with the and Art Department in which students can obtain la instruction at very low fees. There were 4257 separate at the last examination which afforded accommodation for candidates. In the last session there were in operation 2: of art and 626 art classes, with 71,132 students in 50,000 were examined in May last, and the number of worked was 75,678. I should not for one moment have atte to put the administration of this Bill under the Depa Science and Art at South Kensington if I had any doubt ability to work it with efficiency and economy. I thank House for the attention with which it has heard me. In not go again through the details. Happily this cannot garded as a party question. It is one which interests me on each side of the House, and although I do not subm Bill as covering all the ground of technical instruction, believe that it is a measure which will do an enormous of good to our industrial population. In conclusion I wi urge that, if it were only for the two provisions alone v . ‘ Fuly 21, 1887] NATURE 285 _ regard to continuation classes and to evening classes, this Bill is worthy of the serious consideration of the House. I hope that _hon, members will not at this time of the session overload the Bill with amendments. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1886, No. 3. _—On two great comets (41 and 42) of 1886, by Th. Bredichin (in French).—On the Agromyza Jateralis and its _metamorphoses, by Prof. Lindeman (in German).—On the iron- “bearing mud of Lipetzk, by E. Kislakovsky. It appears much _ like that of Franzensbad in Germany, and especially that of _ Ciechocinek in Poland.—On the Ammonites of the group _ Olcostephanus versicolor (Trautschold), by Mary Pavlow (in French, with two plates). Studying a rich collection of Ammo- nites versicolor, some of] which reach 8 inches in diameter, while others have the size of a pin’s head, the author considers them as belonging to the genus O/costephanus, and establishes the following species, of which the last three are new: O. versicolor, elatus, subinversus, inversus, and coronatiformis.— On the importance of oxygen for plants, by W. Palladin (summed up in German). An elaborate research into the amount of matter destroyed in consequence of fermentation in an atmo- sphere devoid of oxygen, as also into the relations between the breathing’ of plants and their growth.—On the dynamic centra of a rotation-ellipsoid, with relation to earth, by K. Weihrauch, being a mathematical inquiry (in German) from which it results that the centres of attraction are situated —1 the earth nearer to the centre of figure than would be the case in an homogeneous ellipsoid of the same average density.—On the Algze of Moscow, by A. Artari (in French), being a continua- tion of a former publication, and containing a list of eighty-five more species, chiefly Bacillariaceae.—On the fauna of the lakes of the Slavyansk mineral waters, by P. Stepanoff. The fauna is mixed and contains representatives both of fresh-water and marine species, these latter being chiefly found amidst the Infu- ~sorize.—The sannual report of the Society contains obituary notices of the late President of the Society, Dr. Renard. ~ No. 4.—Vascular plants of Caucasus, by M. Smirnoff. In this _ second paper (in French) the nebulosity of different parts of Cauca- sus is discussed, and data given.—Wild plants ofthe Government of Tambof, by D. Litvinoff, continued.—The species of Zhrips living on corn in Middle Russia, by Prof. Lindeman (in German). The new species Zhrifs secalina and Phlocothrips armata are described together with former ones.—Zoological researches in the Kirghiz Steppe, by P. Nazarow, being a most valuable review of the fauna of the steppe, especially of its avi- fauna (with a map).—Speeches pronounced at the death of Dr. Renard. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, June 16.—‘‘ Experiments on the Discharge of Electricity through Gases.” (Second Paper.) By Arthur Schuster, F.R.S. In thinking over the phenomena presented to us in vacuum tubes, I always felt a difficulty owing to our ignorance of the conditions which hold at the surface of bodies, either suspended in or near the discharge, or even at the boundary of the vessel through which the discharge is passing. It is evident enough that if there is a flow of electricity on the surface of a non-conductor that flow must be tangential, but it is not so clear whether we are justified to conclude from this that there can be no normal forces at such surfaces, for it is not necessary that the flow should always take place along the lines of force. Supposing we suspend two pieces of gold leaf, as in an elec- troscope, at any place in a partially exhausted vessel, and render them divergent by electrification, they should collapse as soon as the discharge begins to pass, if tangential forces only can ently exist attheirsurface. This I have tested by experi- ment, and found to be the case. A cylindrical glass vessel 38 centimetres high and 15 centi- metres wide, was divided into two approximately equal compart- ments bya vertical metallic screen. There was an open space of about 5 millimetres between the screen and the sides of the vessel, a space of about 4 centimetres above, and 2°5 centimetres below the screen. One compartment contained two pieces of gold leaf, which could be charged from the outside. The other compartment contained two electrodes about 5 centimetres apart, and 2 centimetres from the screen; these distances could be varied during the experiment. The screen was always conducted to earth, and the electric fields on the two sides of the screen were therefore nearly independent of each other. When the gold leaves were electrified and divergent, and discharges from the induction-coil passed between the electrodes on the other side, no effect could be observed at atmospheric pressure: the gold leaves remained divergent. At a pressure of about 4°3 centimetres of mercury, the effect I was looking for first appeared; when the discharge passed, the divergent leaves slowly collapsed, and as the pressure was further diminished the collapse took place more and more quickly. We have here, then, even with the discontinuous discharge, a neutralization of all normal forces at the surface of the gold leaf. It seemed to me to be interesting to observe more particularly the effects of the ordinary discharges we have at our command, at atmospheric pressure. I took two light balls, and suspended them so that they could be made to diverge by electrification. The electrodes (either spheres or points) of a Voss machine were placed at a distance of 3 inches from each other, and the electri- fied balls were placed at a distance of 9 inches from the discharge. The results are contained in the following table, in which the first two columns indicate whether the electrodes of the Voss machine were points or spheres. The third column gives the electrifica- tion of the balls, and the fourth column the results. Negative Positive aaaeode: electrode. Balls. Result. Sphere Sphere Positive Balls collapse slowly +. Negative »» remain divergent Point Point Positive »,- collapse quickly “a ae Negative »» remain divergent Sphere 3 Positive ne Pe a * sa Negative », collapse slowly Point Sphere Positive xb ve quickly a! * Negative ss remain divergent It will be seen that when the two electrodes are similar, whether spheres or points, the balls collapse when they are electrified positively only; but that when one electrode is a sphere and another a point, the balls collapse if their electrifica- tion is of the opposite nature to that supplied by the point. The conclusion thus arrived at, which will be proved beyond possibility of doubt in the second part of this paper, is this: we can only have tangential forces at the surfaces of vessels inclos- ing a gas through which a discharge is passing, provided no current crosses the surface. After I had convinced myself that an electrified body placed in a partial vacuum through which an electric current is going, has its electricity quickly neutralized, it was doubtful still whether this neutralization was due to an actual discharge or merely to a covering of electrified particles of an opposite sign. The ques- tion is a vital one in all cases where potentials have to. be measured. For we can only measure potentials of a gas by measuring the potential of a metal in contact with it ; and if an electrified body is covered by electrified particles of a different sign, there is a finite difference of potential between the metal and the gas, and we should have to inquire carefully, in each particular case, how far such a difference would affect our conclusions. The question is settled by the principal result of this paper : A steady current of electricity can be obtained in air from electrodes at the ordinary temperature which are at a difference of potential of one-quarter of a volt only (and probably less) ; provided that an independent current is maintained in the same closed vessel. In other words, a continuous discharge throws the whole vessel into such a state that it will conduct for electromotive forces which I believe to be indefinitely small, but which the sensitive- ness of the galvanometer I used has prevented me from tracing with certainty below a quarter of a volt. There cannot be there- fore a finite difference of potential between a gas and a metal in contact greater than that amount. The same vessel was used as in the previous experiment. 286 NATURE [yudy 21, On one side of a screen conducted to earth, were the two main - electrodes, from which the current of the large battery passed. On the other side were two auxiliary electrodes connected to the two poles of a small battery. Whenever the main current passed, the small battery was found to send a steady current which could be measured. The smallest electromotive force which was observed to send a current under these conditions was one-sixth of a Leclanché. Anelectromotive force of one-sixth ofa Leclanché is about one- quarter of a volt, and a current has thus been obtained in a gas from an electromotive force which could not maintain a current through water. An electromotive force of 0'1 volt gave doubtful results, but this was probably due to the experimental difficulty of detecting the current. In some previous experiments, which, however, were not quite free from objection on other grounds, the lowest electromotive force for which the currents could be measured was 0°2 volt. The experimental arrangement which is the best for the quali- tative investigation of the effect is not the best for quantitative measurements, and I have therefore not endeavoured to follow out to any great extent the quantitative laws of these currents produced by low electromotive forces. I may give, however, some facts which I have observed. The intensity of the current depends ona great many circumstances. (1) It increases rapidly with the intensity of the main discharge, and also with a reduction of pressure, as far as I have tried it (that is about half a millimetre). (2) The intensity of the current from the auxiliary battery increases less rapidly than the electromotive force. (3) In some experiments, in which one of the electrodes of the auxiliary battery was a copper wire and the other a copper cylinder, the current was nearly always considerably stronger when the larger surface was the kathode. (4) Anything that facilitates the diffusion of gas from the main current to the auxiliary electrodes will increase the strength of the current observed. In some experiments, in which the screen separating the two fields was made of wire gauze instead of tinfoil, the currents were stronger than those given above. These experiments show conclusively that there is nothing peculiar in the gaseous state of a body to prevent any electro- motive force, however small, to produce acurrent. If a finite electromotive force is required under ordinary circumstances, the fact cannot be accounted for, as Edlund and others have done, by a special surface resistance which has to be overcome by a finite difference of potential at the surface. : I think the facts are very well accounted for by the theory which I have proposed in my last paper. If the two atoms of a gas making up the molecule are charged with opposite electri- cities, but are held together in addition by molecular forces, a finite force is her: to overcome the latter. But as soon as that force is overcome and the atoms themselves are set free to diffuse and constitute a current, these atoms will be able to follow any electromotive force which we may apply. If, then, we have auxiliary electrodes, these electrodes will establish their electric field, which we can never screen off completely from any other part of the vessel except by closed surfaces. The atoms, with their positive and negative charges, will diffuse across to the auxiliary electrodes and give off their electricity to them. No finite difference of potential is required in the auxiliary electrodes, because, even if there is work done in making an atom interchange its positive for negative electricity, that work is undone again at the other pole, where atoms of a similar kind interchange negative for positive electricity. I should like, in conclusion, to point out an important appli- cation of these results. I have last year obtained by calculation results which seem to show that the principal cause of the diurnal variation of terrestrial magnetism is to be looked for in the upper revions of the atmosphere. Prof. Balfour Stewart at various times suggested that the air-currents in these regions may, owing to the lines of force of terrestrial magnetism, have electric currents circulating in them. The difficulty against this supposition always seemed to me to lie in the fact that the electromotive forces required to start a current were larger than those which could possibly exist in the atmosphere. But as there are very likely continuous electric disturbances going on, such as we observe in aurorze and thunder- storms, the regions within which these discharges take place would act as conductors for any additional electromotive force however small, so that any regular motion, such as tidal motions, could very well produce periodic effects affecting magnetic needles. a If these original discharges increase in importance, t according to the results obtained in this paper, the curren to the smaller periodic causes would increase also, and they increase in a very rapid ratio. We know that the electric charges in the upper regions of the atmosphere are consider stronger at times of many sunspots, and this may account fact that at those times the amplitude of the daily oscillation the magnetic needle is considerably increased. I have had considerable assistance in these expe my assistant, Mr. Stanton, to whom my best th: Geological Society, June 23.—Prof. J. W. President, in the chair.—The following communi read :-—On nepheline rocks in Brazil, with special r the association of phonolite and foyaite, by Mr. | Derby. The author refers to the phonolites and basalts of Fernando Noronha, a deep-sea island o eastern shoulder of the continent of South America. WN light on the relations existing between the granit and the other members of the group. C tains near Rio de Janeiro composed of these rocks, as peak of Itatiaia, 3000 metres high, the loftiest m eastern South America. A cursory examination of s these localities having shown an apparent relati foyaite, phonolite, trachyte, and certain types of Derby determined to visit the Caldas region, w under construction gave unusual facilities for « series. A fine development of foyaite, phonolite found, associated with several types that have no’ with in the other localities. The existence of a was recognized. The bulk of the paper was detailed description of these railway-sections, — deductions are drawn :—(1) The substantial identity, mode of occurrence and geological age, of the ( and foyaites. (2) The connexion of the lai phonolites with a typical volcanic series contai seated and aérial types of deposits. (3) The equal, i antiquity of the leucite rocks as compared with th rocks, whether felsitic, as phonolite, or granitic, as fo The probable Paleozoic age of the whole eruptive President said it was seldom that a paper c portant facts was presented to the Society. It wa Mr. Derby to have proved that plutonic rocks nepheline (foyaite) passed into volcanic masses 1 phonolites. This Mr. Derby had clearly established servations in the field. He had also shown that leuc in rocks of Paleozoic age, thus rendering unter stronghold of those who insisted on making geological < primary factor in petrographical classification. He alluded a the value of the independent determinations of Prof. Re Mr. Bauerman said he had been over portions of the with the author, and was glad to add his testimony to of the paper. He spoke of the importance, in a geo sense, of these generalizations. It was remarkable how crystalline masses of rock pass over into a sort of phono These were associated with Palzozoic masses, which were pi Permian, or at least pre-Triassic. He alluded to’ of investigating Fernando Noronha, and also to the attendant upon the investigation of rocks in Brazil, wh subject to such an enormous amount of local alteration. Bonney also expressed his sense of the value of the paj alluded to the comparative rarity of nepheline and and to the confusion in the nomenclature. He was the nepheline rocks near Montreal, where dolerite through by nepheline syenite, associated with — phonolites. Although there might be a doubt here, were most probably of Silurian age ; but the evidence in was still clearer as to the Paleeozoic age, and he believed the case of some other masses, the evidence had s Canadian geologists. He alluded also to the nep the Katzen-Buckel, where there was a similar © coarse-grained to fine-grained. Dr. Hatch said that leucite was clearly shown to be of Palzeozoic age, and the paper as a step towards the better classification of thi: of rocks. Prof. Seeley asked for evidence as to the ide tion of the leucite. The President thought there was bility of a mistake in this respect. As regards the rocl p - Fuly 21, 1887] NATURE 287 3 a - Katzen-Buckel, none were truly holocrystalline, and hence they could not amorphie r with foyaite or elaolite-syenite.—Notes on the metamo rocks of South Devon, by Miss Catherine A, Raisin, B. Comimunicated by Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.—On the ancient beach and boulders near Braunton and _ Croyde in North Devon, by Prof. T. McKenny Hughes, —Notes the formation of coal-seams, as suggested by evidence collected chiefly in the Leicestershire and South Derbyshire coal-field, by Mr. W. S. Gresley.—Note on some Dinosaurian emains in the collection of A. Leeds, Esq.; Part 1. Ornithopsis @, Part II. Omoszurus, sp., by Mr. J. W. Hulke, -R.S.—Notes on some Polyzoa from the Lias, by Mr. Edwin Walford.—On the superficial geology of the southern portion of the Wealden area, by Mr. J. Vincent Elsden. Communicated the President.—Report on palzobotanical investigations of the Tertiary flora of Australia, by Dr. Constantin Baron von Ettingshausen.—On some new features in Pelanechtnus coral- linus, by Mr. T. T. Groom. Communicated by Prof. T, ~McKenny Hughes.—On boulders found in seams of coal, by _ Mr. John Spencer. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, June 6.—Mr. J. Murray, Vice-President, in _ the chair.—Mr. J. B. Readman read a paper on a furnace capable of melting nickel and cobalt.—Mr. R. Kidston com- - municated the last part of his paper on the fossil flora of the Radstock series of the Somerset and Bristol coal-fields.—Prof. Grainger Stewart read a paper on investigations into the dis- yg of albumen from the kidneys of healthy people.—Dr. H. _R. Mill communicated the result of his investigations on the salinity and temperature of the Firths of Inverness, Cromarty, and Dornoch, and of the North Sea.—Prof. Ewart discussed the big of Bacteria in the lymph, &c., of fish and other verte- ‘ es. ; une 20.—Sheriff Forbes Irvine, Vice-President, in the chair. —Prof. Geikie communicated a paper by Prof. Frederico Sacco on the origin of the great Alpine lakes.—Dr. E. Sang read a paper on the minute vibrations of a uniform chain hung by one end, and on the functions arising in the course of the inquiry.— Dr. A. W. Hare read a note on the biological tests employed in arias Agr purity of water.—Prof. Tait submitted a paper by _ Mr. A. H, Anglin on alternants which are constant multiples _ of the difference-product of the variables. pide Paris. _ Academy of Sciences, July 1r.—M. Janssen in the chair. _—Presentation of the minutes of the International Astronomical Congress for the execution of the photographic chart of the heavens, by M. Mouchez. It was stated that although the Congress held in Paris last April concluded its labours before the end of the same month, the publication of its proceedings has been delayed till now, owing to the necessity of sending the proofs for revision to the members scattered over various parts of the world. Two main resolutions were arrived at, the first arding the adoption of the photographic process, and of a uniform class of instruments, so as to secure the greatest possible degree of homogeneity in the results. The instrument unani- mously adopted was that of Gautier, already in use for two years in the Paris Observatory. The second resolution regarded the period and extent of work to be carried out at the various international stations. It was decided that there should be two series of stellar photographs, the first comprising stars to the 11th magnitude approximately, the second to include all down to the 14th magnitude, or about 15,090,000 altogether. A per- manent Bureau was also appointed, for the purpose of executing the decisions of the Congress and maintaining constant relations between the members and the Observatories taking part in the work of stellar Photography. A special bulletin may also perhaps be issued from time to time, to report generally on the progress of this great astronomic undertaking.—Heat of forma- tion of hydrotelluric acid, by MM. Berthelot and Ch. Fabre. Four determinations effected by the agency of the perchloride of iron in solution, give a mean of 29°12 calories. —On the presence of microscopic crystals of albite in various limestone tocks of the Western Alps, by M. Ch. Lory. The genesis of these crystals appears to have been generally favoured in the Vest Alps by the conditions under which the Triassic formations have been developed. They occur somewhat ex- ceptionally in association with the Middle Lias at Villette, and about the | head of the long fjord of the Miocene sea, which flowed from the Maritime Alps to a point a little north of Saint- Jean-de-Maurienne. Hence the formation of these microscopic crystals appears to be connected with the special character of the deposits, and to be independent of the more or less intense local mechanical actions which affected the various stratified rocks at the time of the Alpine dislocations.—Presentation of M. Godefroy Malloizel’s volume containing a complete list of M. Chevreul’s writings issued between the years 1806-86, by M. de Quatrefages. The cost of this publication has been met by the balance of the sum subscribed by the youth of France to strike a medal in honour of M. Chevreul on his hundredth anniversary. Besides the titles and dates of everything issued by M. Chevreul during the last eighty years, careful tables of contents are appended to all memoirs and scientific papers of any considerable length. An introduction is added by M. Desnoyers, Librarian of the Museum, and a fine portrait of the illustrious doyen of the savants of the whole world, by M. Champollion.— On antipyrine as a substitute for morphine in subcutaneous in- jections, by M. Germain Sée. The continued experience of the author since his first communication on antipyrine as an anzesthetic (April 18, 1887), shows its decided superiority over morphine in all cases of rheumatic, hepatic, and cardiac affec- tions. It is administered in the same way, but is more easily prepared, more efficacious, and entirely free from the dangerous consequences too often attending the use of morphine.—On a simple dynamic method of deterwining the degree of isotropy of an elastic solid body, by M. E. Mercadier. According to Saint Venant, in all true solid isotropes ~ = 1, where A and wu are M two characteristic quantities of a solid body, by means of which » may be expressed all the coefficients relative to its elasticity (Lamé). Hence, if this relation can be measured for different bodies, their degree of isotropy may be determined by the difference between the value of such relation and unity. M. Mercadier here supplies a simple method for making this deter- mination based on the theory of the vibrations of circular plaques, the laws of which have recently been verified by him. He shows, for instance, that for glass A = mw ; that is. to say, that it is an isotropous body. This is an extremely simple confirma- tion, by a dyzamic process, of the result of the beautiful experi- ments made by M. Cornu on glass by a s¢a¢ic method.—On the alums formed by selenicacid, by M. Charles Fabre. Continuing the studies of Wohlwil, Wohler, and Petterson, the author here describes a series of selenic alums with alumina or sesqui- oxide of chromium base, which he has succeeded in preparing. They comprise the alums of alumina corresponding to the general formula Al,O,. 3SeO,; + MO. SeO; + 24HO, and the alums of chromium corresponding to the general formula Cr,0;.35eO, + MO. SeO; + 24HO.—Researches on the re- actions of the vanadates considered from the stand-point of chemical analysis, by M, Ad. Carnot. In this paper the author completes the study of the reactions produced between the vanadates and the chief metallic salts under the ordinary con- ditions of analysis. Amongst the salts here treated are those of cobalt, nickel, zinc, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead, and bis- muth. BERLIN. Physiological Society, June 17.—Prof. Du Bois-Reymond, President, in the chair.—Prof. Ewald spoke on the behaviour of salol (salicylate of phenol) in the stomach, a question which he has investigated in order to obtain information as to the movements of the stomach in relation to the time in which the contents of this organ are sent on into the intestine. Prof. Nencki had stated that salol.is not acted upon by gastric juice, butis split up into salicylic acid and phenol by the action of pancreatic juice. Prof. Ewald’s experiments confirmed the statement that salol undergoes no change in the stomach ; thus, after administering salol, this substance could be detected in ortions of the contents of the stomach examined at intervals of rom one-half to three hours after it had been taken. Pan- creatic juice was found to be similarly inert on salol, but on the other hand it was decomposed by most alkaline fluids. When injected into the intestine through a fistula, salol could readily be detected after half an hour, as salicyluric acid, in the urine. Since, therefore, salol undergoes no change in the stomach, but is readily decomposed in the intestine, and appears in half an hour as salicyluric acid in the urine, it was found to be extremely well suited to the purposes of the proposed experiments. When salol is given to healthy men whose gastric apparatus is in 288 NATURE a normal condition, whether on an empty stomach, or with food, or at different stages of gastric digestion, salicyluric acid was found in their urine on an average three-quarters of an hour after it had been taken. . From the data given above, the salol must have remained one-quarter of an hourin the stomach. In the case of patients suffering from gastric dilatation, the salol remained much longer in the stomach. The time which elapses between the administration of salol and the appearance of salicyluric acid in the urine may hence be used as an important means of diagnosing cases of slight gastric dilatation. After pro- longed electrical stimulation of the abdominal muscles, the passage of salol into the intestine was quickened.—Prof. Zuntz criticised a theory of the excretion of carbonic acid in the pul- monary alveoli which has been put forward by von Fleischl, ac- cording to which the shock given to the blood by the contraction of the heart is to be regarded as the chief cause of the diffusion of the carbonic acid through the alveolar walls. The speaker refuted this theory as being both unproved and unnecessary. —Dr. Goldschneider communicated the results of his experi- ments on the reaction-time of the perception of temperature. It has been known for a long time that cold is more quickly per- ceived than heat. As a starting-point, the speaker had first carried out some direct measurements. He sought out portions of the surface of the body which were equally sensitive to heat and cold; these parts were then stimulated as far as possible with equal intensity, and the results were as follows, taken as a mean of about two thousand separate measurements :— The reaction-time for cold as a stimulus is for the face 13°5, for the arm 18, for the abdomen 22, and for the knee 25 hundredths of a second. When an equally strong heat stimulus was applied, the numbers obtained were 19, 27, 62, and 79 hundredths of a second. The ratio of the reaction-times was found to be about the same when the stimuli were applied to such a nerve as the trigeminal which goes straight to the brain and to a spinal nerve. The experiments on thermal stimulation were made by bringing a metallic button in contact with the skin and recording electrically the moment of contact; the resulting sensation was indicated by a Beiss key. The degree of heat and cold employed as a stimulus was selected so as to differ by equal amounts from the temperature of the skin. From the results of the experiments, Dr. Goldschneider deduced some theoretical conclusions as to the nature of our sensations of heat and cold. Physical Society, June 27.—Prof. von Helmholtz, President, in the chair.—Prof. von Bezold demonstrated the currents, which he has very fully investigated, which occur in a fluid as the result of varying temperatures or the rotation of the vessel in which the fluid is contained. These currents were made visible, as they occur in a large mass of water, by means of a few drops of hectograph ink, which at first spreads itself out in radiating lines over the surface, then sinks in the form of threads and columns, and, following the direction of the currents in the fluid, presents an extremely interesting appearance of rotatory formations.—Dr. Richarz has closely studied what takes place in an electrolyzing cell during the decomposition of water in the immediate neighbourhood of the electrodes during the passage of the currents of electrolytic convection. As is well known, an electromotive force of 1°5 Daniell is necessary in order that the current may pass electrolytically and the water be decom- posed ; if the electromotive force is less than the above, the water is not decomposed, but at the same time it can be shown that the electricity does traverse the fluid. According to Von Helmholtz’s views on electrolysis, when the electromotive force is small, currents of electrolytic convection pass through the fluid, which are kept up by the occlusion of the positively charged hydrogen atoms at the kathode and by the neutral oxygen in solution. Starting from the work of Moritz Traube, who has proved the formation of hydrogen peroxide at the kathode in the electrolyzing cell, Dr. Richarz has been able to prove, both qualitatively and quantitatively, the formation of hydrogen peroxide at the kathode during the passage of con- vection currents. This formation of the peroxide takes place, according to the views of the speaker, by the union of two atoms of the occluded hydrogen with the neutral molecule of the dis- solved oxygen, which has given up its positive charge to the kathode. As the result of this separation of the occluded hydro- gen, fresh portions of hydrogen can be occluded by the metal of the electrode, and in this way a renewal of the electric current can take place.—Prof. Neesen described a vapour-calorimeter, consisting of a glass vessel into the centre of which projects a glass tube, closed at the lower end, for the receptio substance under investigation. This tube is surrounde mass of lamp-wick, which is saturated with ether, ani a small quantity of liquid ether in the bottom of vessel. Another glass vessel, exactly similar to the joined to it by means of a capillary U-tube, in which drop of ether serves as an index. When a warm dropped into the calorimeter, an amount of ether is into vapour proportional to the heat given up, and the 4 of this vapour, as measured by the displacement of tl index, gives the heat yielded by the substance. Prof. is still engaged in testing and improving the calorin only made the above preliminary communication as the last meeting of the Saciety before the summer va Dr. Grunmach exhibited a double quartz plate, which made of a right- and left-handed quartz plate, but was c a twin crystal, in which the fusion of the two crystals is fect that every slice cut from this twin crystal may be double plate in the polarizing apparatus. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS REC Walks in the Ardennes: J. W. Richards (Low).—Welsh Druidism, Third Edition: Griffith (R. Banks).—Annuai R Department of Revenue, Settlement, and Agriculture, for 1885-86 ( —Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, June (Stanford). Physiology, vol. viii. No. 2 (Cambridge).—The Indian Forester, 1 vi., vii., vili. (Calcutta).—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, (Leipzig). —Museum d’Histoire Naturelle des Pays-Bas, tome Ostéologique des Mammiféres: F. A. Jentink (Brill, Leide). : CONTENTS. The Mining Industry of New Zealand. .. .. A Century of Electricity ...... : Our Book Shelf :— Pratten : ‘‘ My Hundred Swiss Flowers”. . . Hay: ‘‘The Fungus Hunter’s Guide and Memorandum Book” ... Letters to the Editor :— ? The Carnatic Rainfall.—General Richard Str * ceo e 0 e e ee eee F.RIS. 2 es ee ee ie Is Cold the Cause of Anticyclones?—H. He Clayton. ... Physiological Selection.—H. K. Rusden .. . : yy m o.0 © 90: 0) » he: ie ikon na acne ee The Sky-coloured Clouds.—T. W, Backhouse The Migrations of Pre-Glacial Man.—Dr. FE Hicks) FRCS; 6s ae Abstract of the Results of the Investigation of Charleston Earthquake, I. ByC. E. Dutt U.S.A., and Everett Hayden, U.S.N., U Geological Survey. (Witha Map) .... « « Experiments on the Sense of Smell in Dogs. Dr. George J. Romanes, F.R.S........ Fossil Wood from the Western Terri Canada. By Sir J. William Dawson, C.M.G The Liverpool Marine Biology Station on Puf Island. By Prof. W. A. Herdman. (J/ustrated) Antarctic Exploration . ..: 9. 4 7 a) ee The Captive Kite-Balloon. By E. Douglas Archi (LU ustrated) 0S seein era ; epi i agha een 2 eer “lh a nt nl “Saceee tanta oe ee. ae Notes |... 20. {6 ee bee te ooh eae Our Astronomical Column :— fo The Nice Observatory. ..... y” Sapie tothe toes Astronomical Phenomena for the Week July 24-30 gts sce e ke eee ee : oe eee © eee) Ge a) See ares Geographical Notes . The Technical Education Bill ...... Scientific Serials Societies and Academies Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . . . . . . . . . . . Bed * 6 6°28 ee 4 eee NATURE 289 THURSDAY, JULY 28, 1887. THE GEOLOGY OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM. Outlines of the Geology of Northumberland and Dur- ham. By Prof. G. A. Lebour. (Newcastle-upon-Tyne : Lambert and Co., 1886.) HE normal guide-book cannot be said to be as a rule very entertaining reading, and a work like the one before us is essentially a geological guide-book. But the guide-book may be so treated as to present points of interest even to the reader who never puts it to the use _ for which it was primarily intended. Such a guide-book __ has been produced by the joint labours of a great poet -and a great geologist; and a great historian, when he leads us round towns and cities thick with objects full of historical associations, puts into our hands a guide-book of this type. No one, least of all the author, would for a moment think of placing the unpretending little volume on the geology of Northumberland and Durham in the same class as the books to which allusion has just been made, but it is very curious to note how many questions of interest are started during the perusal of what at first sight looks like nothing more than a rather dry descrip- tion of local geology. Some of these points may now be noticed. : The fact that peat-lakes have often more than one outlet, though it is coupled by the rather questionable Statement that “ordinary lakes with two outlets do not exist,” throws light on a much disputed question in physical geography. For two outlets to co-exist for any length of time in a lake, it seems necessary that the outflowing streams should have the same eroding power, and this will be the case if these streams have the same fall, and if their beds are composed of the same material. A lake in Arran which has two outlets is wholly sur- rounded by granite, and in its case the two conditions mentioned are probably satisfied. The eroding power of the sluggish outflows from a bog must be very small, and the material on which it is exerted is everywhere peat. Here it is easy to realize the possibility of there being several outlets. But there are few cases in which the balance of power could be exactly maintained, and hence lakes with two outlets must be rare. It is extremely interesting to find a Zzmgulda recorded from beds high up in the Coal-measures. New cases of marine bands in the upper portion of the Coal-measures are constantly being brought to light, and each fresh discovery strengthens the belief that the occasional presence of marine forms is not confined to the Lower Coal-measures or Ganister Beds, or is even com- moner there than in the Middle Coal-measures. If this be so, the attempts which have been made to draw on palzontological grounds a line between the Lower and Middle Coal-measures, at once fall to the ground. Marine bands seem to be less plentiful in the Coal- measures of Durham and Northumberland than in those || of Lancashire and Yorkshire. This accords well with || the hypothesis that the outlets which connected the Coal- measure lake or estuary with the open ocean lay to the VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 926. west. It was through these openings that marine forms now and again migrated into the area, and the further a spot was from the door of entry, the fewer would be the immigrants which reached it. Under the head of “ Millstone Grit” we are told that the rocks, which in Lancashire and Yorkshire are con- spicuous under this name, are in Northumberland in no wise distinguished from the Coal-measures proper, that they have no distinctive fossils—in short, nothing peculiar to them but their position. But the contrast between Lancashire and Yorkshire on the one hand, and North- umberland on the other, is really by no means so great as these words would seem to imply. It is true that in the first-named and adjacent counties a portion of the Carboniferous rocks has certain lithological peculiarities so strongly marked, that it is convenient to separate it from the beds above and call it Millstone Grit, but the distinction rests solely on the comparatively unimportant points of coarseness of grain and massiveness, and when we look to points of real importance, such as conditions of deposition, fossils, and the like, Millstone Grit, Ganister Beds, Coal-measures, and other similar groups are seen to be arbitrary, though very convenient, subdivisions of a formation that is essentially one from top to bottom. Prof. Lebour has happily seized on the only line of demarcation among the Carboniferous rocks which can have any real significance ; that, namely, which separates rocks in which the fossils are all practically marine from rocks inwhich marine fossils are the exception, and in which they are the exuvie of marine creatures which paid occasional visits to the area, but whose stay there was short. And this brings us to the lower and marine portion of the Carboniferous system, which is divided in the present work into twomembers, named respectively the Bernician andthe Tuedian. The contrast between the Mountain Limestone of Derbyshire and Yorkshire, almost pure limestone from top to bottom, and the beds in the south of Scotland, which we must look upon as its time-equivalents—shales and limestones in which it is often difficult to find lime- stones at all, and more difficult still to recognize them when they are come across—this contrast has become one of the hackneyed instances of geology. The name Ber- nician is applied by Prof. Lebour to beds on the same geological horizon in the north of England. They are in a general way intermediate in character between their equivalents on the north and on the south ; but ina work intended mainly for the use of young students the author has wisely warned his readers that they will not find in Nature that regularity and uniformity of change that some geological diagrams might lead them to expect. The lime- stones are not all wedges with their sharp edges pointing north, and, moreover, the total thickness both of the whole group and of its various subdivisions varies very much from place to place. We would suggest, in the interest of those students who have not yet got beyond books, that it be pointed out in the next edition that this is only what was to be expected ; that in a subsiding area it is almost certain that sinking will go on faster at some spots than at others ; that pits and holes will be thus formed in the sea-bed ; and that in a deposit laid down under such conditions great variations in thickness and character must necessarily arise. It would not be amiss to call oO 290 NAIURE attention also to the bearing such considerations have on the attempts which are occasionally made after minute correlations and identifications of individual beds in such a group of strata. The example set in this matter in the present work is excellent, for a clear distinction is drawn between those limestones or other beds about whose con- tinuity there can be no question, and those whose occur- rence is local ; but example may be usefully enforced by precept. The same wholesome refusal to draw hard and fast lines where none have been drawn by Nature is seen when we come to the chapter on the Tuedian beds. Special attention is drawn to the fact that, though these can be separated, as far as lithological character goes, from the overlying Bernicians, the line of demarcation is by no means everywhere of the same geological age. The Tuedian beds resemble so closely the ‘‘Cement Stone Group ” of the central valley of Scotland, that they are doubtless the southern continuation of that sub- division. ‘The Scotch beds, as is well known, were laid down in an assemblage of ponds, creeks, and lagoons separated by banks of sand and muddy shoals. The Tuedians of the north of England do not seem to show quite such rapid changes horizontally as are common in their Scotch equivalents, but they must have been formed under very similar conditions. Beds thoroughly Tuedian in character occur on the west of the Cross Fell Range near Shap: they are very thin, and we are there probably close to the southern boundary of the area over which these peculiar beds were laid down. Very interesting are the accounts of the somewhat peculiar group of rocks discovered in the deep borings for rock salt alongside the Tees. First came more than 1000 feet of Red Marls and Sandstones, which may be very safely assigned to the Trias. Judging by what is seen at the outcrop, we should have expected the main mass of the Magnesian Limestone to follow; but such was not the case. The hole then entered a group of rocks consisting of gypsum, anhydrite, rock salt, and beds of limestone. Prof. Lebour is of opinion that the Magnesian Limestone was not reached by any of the holes. Hereby several questions may be started. Are the 1000 feet of red marl and sandstones to be assigned to the Red Marl or the Red Sandstone? A nice difficulty for the ‘system-mongers ; but before we try to solve it, we may ask whether these two subdivisions are as sharply marked off from each other in Yorkshire and Durham as in other parts of England, There is no reason why they should be; and if they are not, we may well content our- selves with calling the whole Trias. Then how are we to account for the presence of the rock salt and gypsum, which, as far as is known, is never seen along the outcrop, or indeed anywhere else in England? It seems likely that towards the end of the Permian period unequal sub- sidence produced hereabouts a depression in the bed of the water ; that, as now happens elsewhere under similar conditions, the Permian lake became largely laid dry, so that water remained only in this and perhaps other similar basins; and that, from the highly concentrated solutions which remained in these lakelets, local deposits of a strongly chemical character were precipitated. The author remarks on the close resemblance which these deposits bear to the subdivision of the Permian called j psycho-physiology of man; and then to enter them. That they and the German “ Rauchwacke” formed under very similar conditions there can be doubt, but there is no proof that the two were forme the same time, and this is almost necessarily implied: give them the same name. Ina group of rocks like Permian, formed in so many distinct basins, and changing conditions the order and nature of which probably never the same in any two basins, the subdivisions must necessarily be totaliy different different areas, and any attempt to correlate these subdivisions can be little better than guess-work. subdivisions are to have distinctive names, better that the beds of each basin should each have a of names to itself. Similar objections apply to the h of designating the subdivisions of the English New Sandstone by German names; it is the practice to upon the New Red Marl as the time-equivalent Keuper, and the New Red Sandstone as that Bunter, but there is absolutely no proof of this. worse when a statement is made that the Mus absent in England, and a fictitious unconformity lated between thie New Red Marl and the New Sandstone to account for its absence. Who whether the lower part of the New Red Marl, upper part of the New Red Sandstone, or 1 not forming here while the Muschelkalk - deposited in Germany ? The peculiarities of structure exhibited “ t nesian Limestone are shortly but clearly ¢ > have been long known, but little has been explaining how they were produced. The one of extreme complexity, but a persevering even if it did not lead to a complete sc almost certainly throw great light on what ignorance call concretionary action. Sundry formerly referred to this mysterious cause, shown to be due to simpler and less recondite but there is a large residuum of cases aes. explanation. We have by no means exhausted all thet suggestions which this little book will promp esohegians who cannot wenter far from home anxious to win their spurs. PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. Elements of Physiological Psychology. A Treat Activities and Nature of the Mind from the Phy and Experimental Point of View. By George T. Professor of Philosophy in Yale University. © Longmans, Green, and Co., 1887.) \ HE aim of this volume is twofold: first, to” clear, accurate, and up-to-date account 8, 1887] NATURE 291 % test against a merely materialistic interpretation of the phenomena. Such a protest, coming from one who is _ well abreast of modern physiology, is likely to carry aiael es F _ weight which could not but be lacking to the opposition _ of a thorough-going disciple of the “old psychology” school. No one can say that Mr. Ladd’s conclusions are reached in and through his ignorance of the real nature and value of the facts on which materialists base their _ arguments. _ The work consists of a short introduction and three _ parts, of which the first deals with “The Nervous Mechanism,” the second with “ The Correlations of the Nervous Mechanism and the Mind,” and the third with “The Nature of the Mind.” The first part opens with a chapter on the elements of the nervous system, and then proceeds to show how these elements are combined into a systematic whole. _ The morphology of the nervous mechanism having’thus been described, its general physiology is dealt with in the next two chapters, and the automatic and reflex-motor functions of the central mechanism are successively _ brought under review until, in ascending order, we reach the cerebral hemispheres, the special functions of which are reserved for the second part. The reasons the author gives for adopting this plan are: (1) that nothing is known as to the molecular structure of these hemispheres, or as to their automatic and reflex-motor centres and activities which adds anything of importance to the description of the nervous system as a mechanism or to the mechanical theory of its action; and (2) that the correlations which exist between the struc- _ tural condition or physiological function of the nervous system and the phenomena of mind are chiefly (if not wholly) capable of ‘study as illustrated in the cerebral hemispheres. An important chapter on the end-organs of the nervous system then follows, and is succeeded by one on development. A concluding chapter in this part is devoted to the mechanical theory of the nervous system, in which, while the author admits that the changes which take place in the brain are essentially the same as those with which the science of molecular physics has elsewhere to deal, he reaches the conclusion that “it cannot be pretended that even a beginning has been made toward a satisfactory theory of the functiona] activity of the central organs considered as a special case in molecular physics.” In this part, together with much that is familiar, there is not a little that has hitherto seen the light only in scattered publications. The second part opens with two long chapters on ‘the localization of cerebral functions. The experiments and conclusions of Fritsch and Hitzig, Exner, Ferrier, Munk, Goltz, and others are carefully described and considered. The conclusions to which the author is led by his review of these labours are as follow :— “Three principles may be laid down as summing up ‘the results reached by inference upon the basis of experi- ment with respect to the localization of function in the cerebral cortex. The first principle is to be accepted in the form of a general postulate derived from a study of ||, the other parts of the nervous system, and confirmed on attempting to apply it to the cerebral hemispheres. It may be stated as follows: the different elementary parts of the nervous system are all capable of performing its different specific functions when, and only when, they have been brought into the proper connexions and have been exercised in the performance of those functions. This principle includes two important laws which, we know, hold good throughout the nervous mechanism, and which lie at the physical basis of important psychical facts and laws ; they are the daw of Specific Energy and the daw of Hadit. The remaining two of the three principles alluded to above may be said to follow from the first: they are the principle of /ocalized function and the principle of suéstitutzon. The former asserts that, in the normal condition of the nervous system, all parts have not the same definite functions. Everything in both its anatomy and physiology indicates that the principle of localized function does apply, in some sort, to the cerebral hemispheres. So-called ‘centres, however, are in no case to be regarded as portions of the nervous substance that can be marked off by fixed lines for the confinement of definite functions within rigid limits. These areas are somewhat different for different brains of the same species ; they widen when a heightened energy is demanded of them ; their centres are neither mathematical points nor very minute collec- tions of cells. Nor are these areas perfectly isolated locaiities ; on the contrary, they obviously overlap each other in certain cases. Furthermore, the functions of the cerebrum are not absolutely confined to those centres. with which, under ordinary circumstances, they are chiefly or wholly connected ; in which, that is to say, they are localized. If such centres, for any reason, become incapacitated or relatively unfitted to perform their normal functions, the same functions may be per- formed by other areas of the cerebral cortex, provided these areas also stand in the proper connexion, This is the principle of substitution.” In the remaining chapters of the second part we are led to consider sensations in their qualitative and quan- titative relations, the nature of “things,” or the present- ations of sense (which introduces us to ‘‘ space-form ”), and the time-relations of mental phenomena (which intro- duces us to “time-form”). Then we are conducted, through feeling, to the higher faculties—memory, will, conception—the physiological basis of which is sought in vain. The concluding chapter of this part gives a sum- mary of the general correlations of body and mind. The author seems to intend that two points shall stand out pro- minently ; first, the essentially synthetic activity of the mind in constructing those presentations of sense which we call things or objects ; and secondly, notwithstanding a vague correlation, the inconceivability of any physiologi- cal basis thereof. “For that spiritual activity which actually puts together in consciousness the sensations, psycho-physics cannot even suggest the beginning of a physical explanation.” And again: “ When we speak of a physical basis of memory, recognition must be made of the complete inability of science to suggest any physical process which can be conceived of as correlated with that peculiar and mysterious acfus of the mind, connecting its present and its past, which constitutes the essence of memory.” In the third part the conclusion to which especial pro- minence is given is this: that the subject of all the states of consciousness is a real unit-being, called mind ; which is of non-material nature, and acts and develops accord- ing to laws of its own, but is specially correlated with certain molecules and masses forming the substance of the brain. The nature of this correlation is considered at length. To speak of mental states and processes as 292 NATURE [yuly 28, 1887 the “ product” of the nervous mass of the brain in any sense of the word corresponding to that which we rightly apply to the various secretions of the body, involves us at once, it is held, in the grossest absurdities ; while the theory that claims that a// mental phenomena, whatever their varied characteristic shading, have exact equiva- lents, as it were, in specific forms of the nerve-commo- tion of the living brain is marked by its “ surprising audacity.” “Standing on a slender basis of real fact, it makes a leap into the dark which carries it centuries in advance of where the light of modern research is now clearly shining.” The author, however, by no means rejects, he strongly contends for, a causal nexus as exist- ing between brain and mind. He regards the term organ (or instrument) of the mind, as applied to the body, as particularly calculated to emphasize the relation of the ideas and volitions which arise in consciousness to the control of the muscular apparatus. He will have nothing to do with monism, but contends that psycho-physical science, simply observing the facts and building on them, establishes the dualism of brain and mind. ‘‘ We affirm, then,” he says, “ that we are entitled tosay : The changes of the brain are a cause of the states of consciousness ; and the mind behaves as it does behave, decause of the behaviour of the molecules of the brain.” “ We affirm also that we are equally entitled to say: The states of consciousness are a cause of the molecular condition and changes of the nervous mass of the brain, and through it of the other tissues and organs of the body.” So far, in dealing with the third part, we have perhaps made it appear that, in the author’s view, the correlation is complete. And the passages we have quoted seem to justify this view. But many other passages reject such an interpretation with scorn. “In investigating the cor- relations which undoubtedly exist between the nervous mechanism and the phenomena of consciousness, it is found that some of these phenomena imply activities of the mind which do not admit, in any sense of the word, of being thus correlated.” i Fudpient itself is a fort of mental phenomena for the essential part of which “no physical equivalent can be discovered or even conceived of.” “To account for this boundless expansion of the activities of consciousness (in the early years of child- hood), with its surprising new factors and mysterious grounds of synthesis and assumption, by proposing an hypothesis of ‘dynamical associations’ among the particles of nervous substance in the brain, is a deification of im- potency.” “ Not one of the higher acts of feeling, know- ing, or willing, so far as its suz generis character is concerned, admits of being correlated with, or represented under, any of the conceivable modes of the motion and relation of molecules of nervous substance.” It would seem, then, that the author plays rather fast and loose with this correlation, as indeed is apt to be the fashion with dualists. We doubt whether he is justified in saying that psycho-physical science establishes the dualism of brain and mind. Here, it seems to us, the writer’s usual caution forsakes him. Idealism, material- ism, occasionalism, dualism, monism, are none of them theories that are in any likelihood of being “ established ” for many a long day. They are of the nature of Jdeze/s ; and strong as is his advocacy of the dualistic creed the The he. Essentials of Histology. By E. A. Schiifer, author falls into error if he dreams of its speedy establ ment. We could wish that he had squarely faced difficulties which the acceptance of the dual hypothesis entails, a few of which are but barely men- tioned on page 597. These and many others may not bi difficulties to him ; but surely he who would establish doctrine should meet half-way such difficulties as are lik to trouble unbelievers. We could wish, too, that he — given us a more detailed criticism of the monistic cree which he rejects. To ask why the double-fac unit (the human being) manifests itself both in physic mental states—“ one being, in two wholly incom modes of manifestation ”—and to say that monis undertake the task of showing ow the one re appear under these two phenomenal forms of b matter and mind—is surely not a very powerful or criticism. There are many ows and whys which only be answered by quietly pointing to the facts. do not say that monism can in this way be “establi 1 but we regard the criticism as weak. ee; Nor are we impressed with the force of the ; argume upon which so much stress is laid, that for certai 1 mental activities no physolencaae correlate can ceived. It seems to us that, if anywhere, the in ability comes in at the very beginning. If once conceivability of a correlation between a nerve tion of any kind and a state of consciousness be adn there need be no further talk of inconceivability i matter. There lies the rub: elsewhere we onl; questions of degree and of relative complexity. — We cannot take leave of this valuable and im work without expressing our sense of its ab thoroughness, and its candour. There is no oa book in the English language that covers its ground. — OUR BOOK SHELF, Second . Edition. _(London : Longmans, | ‘Cone 887.) ‘ : THIS edition is, in several respects, an impro the first. The volume is less bulky, and there useful additions to the text so as to bring this up t especially as regards the methods of histolo : There are seventeen valuable illustrations — omission in the first edition of references to th of the illustrations has, we are glad to see, been in this edition. On the whole, we think the book a clear expo the present state of human histology, and, as suc prove useful to students and teachers. oe Aluminium: its History, Occurrence, Propertie lurgy, and Applications, including its A Joseph W. Richards. 12mo, pp. 346 (Phi Band. London: Sampson Low and Co, 188 THIS volume is mainly a compilation based upc late H. St. Claire Deville’s treatise published — and the newer work by Dr. Mierzinski in H ‘“‘Chemisch-Technische Bibliothek,” which app 1883. As no special work on aluminium had P appeared in English, we agree with the author apology is necessary in presenting it. The sub been systematically treated both from the scientifi Fuly 28, 1887] NATURE 293 technical points of view, and as regards the latter the _ information has been brought up to date by including notices of Webster’s improvements in the Deville process, Messrs. Cowles Brothers’ electrolytic method of produc- ing aluminium alloys, and the Castner process of reducing sodium from caustic soda at a low temperature, which, in conjunction with Webster’s processes, seems likely to render the production of cheap aluminium commercially possible. The author has contributed to the appendix a series of experiments made by himself on the formation and reduc- tion of aluminium sulphide, which are of interest, although the results, in the reduction experiments at any rate, appear to have been mainly negative. Iron, tin, copper, and antimony were employed as reducing agents, but only with the first two metals was any reduction effected. The concluding paragraph, therefore, reads rather oddly :— «These processes have been covered by patents, but have never been made successful. It appears that if rightly managed they will give good results and produce alu- minium alloys cheaply.” Questions on Physics. By Sydney Young, D.Sc., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, and Tutorial Lecturer on Physics in the University College, Bristol. (London: Rivingtons, 1887.) ASSUMING that books consisting of a series of questions with their answers collected together at the end supply a legitimate want and do a real service in the cause of scientific education, Dr. Young’s “ Questions on Physics” is a valuable addition to those already existing. It is as free as it is possible to make such a book from the charge of encouraging “cram,” as the questions are many of them not adapted to rule-of-thumb methods of solution. Many of them also are descriptive of some instrument or prin- ~ ciple, in which case, of course, answers are not given. e author takes in succession mechanics, acoustics, heat, magnetism, electricity, and optics. After the _ answers he gives a series of tables which will be found useful. There are no questions on moment of inertia, or on the ballistic galvanometer. One sentence—the last part of question 155—may vex the student: “ Calculate the focal length of a concave lens which gives a magni- fication of three diameters at a distance of three inches.” The book is intended for the intermediate examination in science and preliminary scientific examination of the London University. Eminent Naturalists. By Thomas Greenwood, F.R.G.S. (London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co., 1886.) THIS is a little book (200 small 8vo pages) intended, as the preface says, to furnish “short yet comprehensive sketches of some leading naturalists.” The sketches are certainly “short,” but can only be said to be “ compre- hensive” in the sense that this term may be applied to anepitaph. It is difficult to understand what object such very sketchy biographical sketches can be supposed to serve. Moreover, in this case the subjects appear to have been selected at random; the result being that the por- trait gallery, such as it is, presents a somewhat incon- gruous assemblage—to wit, Linnzeus, Lubbock, Thomas Edward, Louis Agassiz, Cuvier, Buffon, Lyell, and Mur- chison. Whether this curious arrangement is intended to express the writer’s idea of the order of merit of these men, or whether, like his choice of naturalists, it is purely haphazard, we are not informed. But surely, if a bio- grapher goes back as far as Linnzus for his material, and carries down his survey to the present generation, even the most popular of popular readers might have expected him to supply a less deficient index of “ eminent naturalists.” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] The Carnatic Rainfall, Ir I have rightly interpreted General Strachey’s courteous criticism of my paper on the Carnatic rainfall, the gist of his objections may be summed up by saying that the method by which I endeavoured to estimate numerically the genuineness of the apparent cyclical variation of that rainfall, as a recurrent phe- nomenon, is logically invalid. This, I must frankly admit, is really the case ; my error has been somewhat of the nature of a petitio principit, and is indefensible. I have reasoned upon a series of values directly obtained from the observations, as if they had been obtained deductively from some independent source, and had been found, on trial, to agree, within certain allowable limits, with the results of the observations, .This pro- cedure, as General Strachey has shown, is manifestly illogical ; and the inferred ‘‘ high probability that the apparent undecen- nial fluctuation of the Carnatic rainfall is no chance phenome- non,” in so far as this conclusion depends on the above erroneous reasoning, necessarily falls to the ground. But only in so far. The validity of the data afforded by the registers remains, of course, unaffected ; and these data, as they stand, seem to me to furnish evidence of so pronounced a character that it is at least improbable that the apparent fluctuation is fortuitous. The considerations on which I base this opinion are :— ; (1) That each series of eleven years, taken separately, shows a dominant fluctuation of that period, and these fluctuations show much accordance, both in their ranges and in the epochs of their critical phases. Simple inspection of the tabulated annual means is sufficient to convince one that there is no regu- lar fluctuation of anything like the same magnitude, differing much from the eleven-year period. (2) The range of the fluctuation as educed by the harmonic formula (restricted to two periodical terms), is four times as great as the mean deviation of the recorded amounts from the corresponding computed values. And this fact fulfils a condition which, in a less rigorous form, General Strachey suggested, I believe, as a test in his discussion of the Madras rainfall registers, communicated to the Royal Society in May 1877, and the failure of which he rightly assigned as a reason for doubting the reality of the supposed cyclical fluctuation of the Madras rainfall, That the second of these considerations is valid has been established in my former communication. The computed range of the fluctuation was shown to be 14 inches, and the mean annual deviation of the observed from the computed values + 3'5 inches. . To render the first more obvious, I have com- puted the harmonic constants, separately, from each of the two undecennial series, and therefrom the annual values in each case. The constants are :— ist Cycle. 2nd Cycle. 44! =-7'23 <4 --=:0°66 i = 4°22 pie gdlo eS 44 x 5 U! =.190° 1671.0" = 922" 10° | U = 233° 59... U" = 240° 14’ and the computed annual values— 1st Cycle. Inches. and Cycle. Inches. 1964 OE se 7 1875 — 814 18650 35 eee 1876 — 8°63 18666 CMe vig cen SS 1877 — 2°61 1867. i ic G2 1878 + 3°46 TOS. igo ee OO 1879 + 3°69 T8609. ceviahet ieee oes ae SO 1880 + 0°07 1870 seu pce eee eS ke 1881 — 1°46 1870) ete oe O70 1882 + 2°11 1392 |. ge ln er es 1883 + 6°71 18730 cc ea ee te Sor 1884 + 5°97 1574 ;... ete ee ke 1885 — 1°04 2 I quote from memory, not having the Proc. Roy. Soc. at hand. 29 4 NATURE [F¥uly 28, 1887 the average annual rainfall beinz, as before stated, about 35 iaches. These figures have, in themselves, as General Strachey truly observes, no physical signification, but they show that there is a very pronounced harmonic element, with a period of eleven years, underlying the observed quantities, and that in some of its most salient features it seems to be recurrent. Physical con- siderations only come in when, and in so far as, its features can be correlated with those of the solar variations ; a point already noticed in my former paper, and on which I need say nothing further. But of course it is the supposed connexion of the two classes of phenomena that constitutes the chief interest of the subject under discussion. HENRY F. BLANFORD. Folkestone, July 25. The Progress of the Scottish Universities. Your issue of July 14 (p. 252) set forth in vivid graph the rap'd increase in size of the Scottish Universities. But as we must not forget that in progress, advance of typ2 or improve- ment in quality is more important than increase of quantity, it behoves us to test the qualitative change of the Scottish Uni- versities, and to make sure that they are not ofthe nature of malignant tumours—rapidly-growing masses with tissues of an embryonic type. i ‘The test is not hard to find in the case of organisms with a unction so definite as the Universities. Increased efficiency x EpinB. MED ~~ — Fic. 1,—Efficiency. and decreased cost must be the tests, and the results are startling, as shown by the accompanying graphs of the official returns. The first shows the efficiency in the Arts Faculty in Glasgow, the Medical Faculty in Edinburgh, and for two points the whole Ieen face a ef Scotland as tested by the fraction Vict. Students * The second shows the quantity, in seconds, of Professor of Anatomy which the students can have for £1 in Edinburgh. | The result is an entire reversal of the usual optimistic picture of progress:by growth in quantity, and as I am both hopeful and DECREASE IN A. POUND'S| WORTH OF | _ ANATOMY |PROFES SOR: | AT EDINBURGH. | Fic. 2.—Ccst. anxious for the advance in quality of the Universities in which I have spent many years, I hope you will allow me to call attention to its urgency. M.A. ET MEDICUs. Floating Eggs. THE floating eggs which a correspondent in NATURE of July 14 (p. 245) describes and refers to Orthagoriscus, are appa- rently those of the angler or frog-fish (Lophius piscatorius), which are known to naturalists. They are laid, as Agassiz states (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. xvii. part iii. p. 280), ‘‘embedded in an immense ribbon-shaped band, from 2 to 3 feet broad, and from 25 to 30 feet long.” The ova of Ortha- goriscus do not appear to have been yet obtained, and Mr. Green’s description accords essentially with the features pre- sented by the egys of Lophius, though no colour is mentioned, whereas the eggs of the frog-fish are of a light violet-gray tint, and when the dark pigment develops in the young embryos the band assumes a blackish hue resembling crape.. Examples, I may add, have been obtained on the west coast of Scotland ; but, though ZoShius is extremely abundant at St. Andrews, and on the east coast generally, the ova have not been procured here, _ as yet. EDWARD E. PRINCE. St. Andrews Marine Laboratory, Scotland, July 16. Expression of the Emotions. IN reading the very interesting letter of “‘J. M. H.” (NATURE, July 14, p. 244), I was much struck with the similarity of purpose and singularity of expression in the robin and in a cat of mine, of which can equally be said, it ‘‘invented a note by which it called me to feed it. It was quite peculiar—hushed, short, and muttered, asit were.” This note is also used on other occasions, ? Fuly 28, 1887] NATURE 295 — when searching for me, or when exceeding joyous or high- Spirited. It is a kind of ‘‘ crowing,” and quite distinct from purring. Darwin, in his ‘‘ Expression of the Emotions,” does not mention it, Is it exceptional ? mh a Driffield. EDUCATION IN AMERICA Mee I N the Report of the American Commissioner of Educa- ei tion it is shown that the stimulating influence of the educational exhibits and conferences that formed a feature of the New Orleans Exposition is manifest in almost every department of education. A special Circular of Infor- mation respecting the Exposition is in preparation by General Eaton, who is at the head of this wide system. His successive Reports are mines of educational wealth ; they have aroused and stimulated educational workers everywhere. ; In the collection of essays included in Parts II. and ITI. of “Educational Exhibits and Conventions,” many educational subjects are dealt with by specialists. It is claimed on behalf of Massachusetts that it published the first periodical in the English language devoted to the advancement of education, viz. the American Fournal of Education, started January 1, 1826. The very broad views it sét out with are still urged in the United States: that education should be regarded as the means of fitting man for the discharge of all his duties, and that it accordingly includes much that is generally left to home influence. The editor of the Mew England Fournal of Education now carrying on the work there observes that “a history of educational journalism in New England culminates in Barnard’s ¥ournal of Education, full of instryction as to systems, institutions public and private, technical and special schools, history, biography, philo- : sophy, &c., &c.” The annual Reports of Horace Mann _ are “the very gospel of the new education, and are found in the libraries of every country,” and the acts of this apostle form an interesting chapter here. It is to be observed that in this model State, where less than two- fifths of 1 per cent. of its native children belong to the illiterate class, no technical education is supplied in the State schools, the old aim of widening the scholar’s mind being preferred to that of imparting information. A “noble showing,” observes General Eaton, though this last Report records a very small falling off. Massachusetts is, however, far ahead of some other States. With all the matter for congratulation which fol- lows, and although education is so popular that in Texas the enforcement of it among the few who need compulsory measures may be placed in the hands of the police, sur- veyors have to own to an increase of even the proportion of ignorance in the United States, which is nearly as alarming as ever it was in England. Over 2,000,000 voters, one in every five, are unable to read the ballots which they cast. As an effort to meet this illiteracy, it was suggested in the Congress of Educators that some 65,000,000 dollars should be allowed to various States from national funds, and the proposition of Dr. T. W. Bicknell, of Boston, was that the money should be allotted in proportion to the number of illiterates in every State between the ages of ten and twenty years, diminishing from four dollars a head for the first three years, to one dollar the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth years, when all such illiteracy ought to be overcome. The highest class of education does not seem to be gaining ground. Dr. Payne, of the Ohio Wesleyan Uni- versity, urged the importance of increased College educa- t “ Educational Exhibits and Conventions at the World’s Industrial and wa Cotton Centennial Expesition, New Orleans, 1884-85.’’ Part IJ. Proceed- ings of the International Congress 6f Educators. Part III. Proceedings of the ent of Superintendence of the National Education Association, and A delivered on Education Days. (Washington : Government gre mins Nike Cveciitestotdes of Education for the Y 884-85.”" . (Washington : Government. Printing Office, 1886.) settle isbeodt s: * tion, and of the personal example and influence of high: class teachers, calling attention to the fact that not Is per cent. of either doctors or lawyers in the United States are graduates of any University. He explains this un- popularity of College education by the great length of time which is given there to unpractical classics, which might easily be made familiar in a shorter way, more economical of time. He asserts that two years and a half might be made sufficient for the work done ina College in four years. Clever and painstaking pupils are yoked together with the idle and stupid; and the same energy and thrift of time by which the former would attain this result makes them reject a University education alto- gether. A similar reform is required with the object of economy in expenses. This same “ commercial spirit of the age,” Prof. Garnett laments, has caused the number of pupils in the Univer- sity of Virginia to fall off during the last twenty years. This institution is divided into nineteen distinct schools, and each pupil chooses from which he will make up his course of studies. Each school gives a certificate of pro- ficiency or a diploma of graduation, and the University gives the various titles of Bachelor or Doctor of Letters or of Science, of Philosophy or of Arts: also of Bachelor of Law or of Scientific Agriculture ; of Doctor of Medi- cine ; of Civil Engineer and of Mining Engineer. With the same desire for h’gher results, also, Colonel W. P. Johnston, President of the University endowed by “ that princely benefactor of education in Louisiana, Paul Tulane,” under the roof of which the papers were read, urged the need of a University doing what it could, if it could not do what it would. Much work, he pleaded, was required in a Louisiana University that a German University would reject. However, General Eaton remarks that 1884-85 was characterized .by great activity in all departments of College and University work, and by full and earnest discussion of important questions pertaining to the con- duct and development of these institutions, and especially as to the separate functions of Colleges and Universities. Apparently many enthusiasts have convinced themselves that the teacher now stands, not only in the place of the parent, but also of the State and of all guiding influences. Other writers here, besides General Eaton, Canadian as well as those of the United States, describe education as if the school-master would soon have the entire bring- ing up of the young, starting from the kindergarten school, superintending their games as well as their studies, and maintaining a hold over them till the technical school, seen already to be very near by General Eaton, has turned them out self-supporting citizens. Doubtless the wonder- ful division of labour and of knowledge into special departments makes it possible for teachers to bring up children with more science than formerly ; but surely the human race cannot afford to release parents from the duties which fall so naturally to them, and to waste the zeal and enthusiasm with which mothers especially enter upon these duties. General Eaton has much to say about the responsibilities of teachers. Dr. Mayo cautioned them that the United States were determined to have the best of everything. As the old coaches had been superseded by the Pullman cars, so inferior teachers must make way for superior. But to read these enthusiastic educationalists’ views of the duties of teachers, “the burden laid upon them seems greater than they can bear.” None urge the almost boundless importance and dignity of the office of teacher of the young with such fervour and consistency as Brothers Maurelian, Justin, and Noah, of the Christian School. All that they say is quite true except the idea that the ordinary assistant is able to judge of and then to guide the character of every child under his care. It is more than “fond” parents can do for their own children even ; and happy must the child be who finds a teacher more devoted than its own parents ! 296 NATURE [Fuly 28, 1887 Nowhere is the importance of high-class teachers better understood than among the Japanese. A short address given here by their Commissioner describes their eager search after European knowledge for several generations before the present reformed Government came into power, and now the rule is that all em- ployed in instruction—normal teachers at the end of seven years, ordinary teachers at the end of five—must be re-examined to ascertain whether they are keeping up with the progress of the age. But great efforts are made to render the profession in every way attractive. Teachers areexe:npt from military conscription. Titles, quasi-offices, and ran‘s are given to them, so that the profession may not be treated as alow or unimportant one. For a similar encouragement of learning, University men are also freed from military service; and even the students of the middle-class schools are exempt from conscription for six years. One speaker, who had been resident in Japan, but had travelled through Europe, claimed for Tokio also the best Froebel kindergarten that he had ever seen. It would not be surprising if the great experiment referred to above were really tried in Japan—such a system of school work as that described by Prof. Hailmann, com- petent to supersede home teaching altogether. He rather naively remarks that his mother was a natural kinder- gartner. The kindergarten work is a system of tech- nical instruction in which the scientific teacher undertakes to inculcate systematically what parents have hitherto taught as amateurs. Little science and little system are shown in most homes; in fact the kindergartners com- plain of home influences thwarting their teaching, and urge that young women should attend their schools to learn how to bring up their own families ; and one cannot read the principles laid down for a kindergarten school without feeling how appropriate they are for home rule. In the case therefore of those who can afford such a training, this seems the most efficient and desir- able way of carrying the work out; where, on the other hand, a mother has been debarred from such a training, the school may really supersede her home work with advantage. Kindergarten schools accordingly, from every State, were represented at the New Orleans Ex- position. The system can hardly, however, become uni- versal, for each child is to be taught in some different way, according to its character, and it is urged by Mrs. Ogden, “‘if we must crowd, let us crowd the big children, and not the little ones.” As illustrating the principles of kindergarten schools, Prof. Spring, of the Chautauqua School of Sculpture and Modelling, showed, in an experimental address, how much of science could be illustrated by moulding a lump of clay ; affirming that a young child caught at the character of various shapes as quickly as an adult. The Commis- sioner in his Report remarks a large increase in these schools in 1884-85—-28 in Pennsylvania alone, 33 in the south and west. Few are supported at public expense, yet the system has had a marked effect in improving the methods of teaching employed. Prof. W. Hudson, of Texas, lays it down that the interest which a lad can be induced to take in his lessons is a measure of the extent to which his perception, reason, and judgment will be drawn out. More life and reality can be put into a lesson in natural history or botany, and they are therefore more valuable school subjects, and far more useful, than classics. Such pursuits are interesting in leisure hours also, and will keep him out of the mis- chief to which unemployed energy is so prone. Many experiments in different schools are reported by General Eaton, but so far the only exercises of this kind that it has been found practicable to bring within the reach of the entire school populations are drawing, clay-modelling, and sewing. A paper was read by Mr. E. M. Hance, Clerk to the Liverpool School Board, on the experimental science instruction first introduced into English elementary schools by that Board. Colonel W. P. Johnston tried to show that technical education is the most beneficial that can be given to the black population. In, we fear, a rather too hopeful simile he compares these latter to the chosen people educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians befor their return to independence. He trusts that one of the great destinies is to re-people with a civilised race the old continent of Africa. Prof. W. J. Thom also urges ; technical education for the Negro—not a high-sche education, but a farm-labourer’s and domestic serva training. “Unless they know how to work and how | do work, their destruction seems a natural consequence.” He, however, looks forward to the black population reach- ing ten times its actual number, and its present far moi rapid increase than that of the white race renders probable enough. Presidents Fairchild and Long, on other hand, think that uniform education will heal breach between the races: the former predictin twenty-five years of mixed schools would set coloure men on a full equality with the most eminent whites, a1 hardly leave a vestige of the present “constitution: ineradicable antipathy,” which latter epithet we are i clined to judge from the past history of races gives truer view. He thinks it is a relic of slavery, and a: that the objection to mixed schools is, not that the a pathy will injure the schools, but that the schools annihilate the antipathy and bring about an unde social equality. Strongly pointing against the ab hopeful opinions is General Eaton’s reference toa tend among some trade-unions to exclude coloured ci from industrial training and employment. He ac ingly urges that all parties should promote this indus training by every means, both on the above account also as the best preparation of Negroes for new and re- munerative occupations which must spring up round them. The religious education of the Negro is becoming a special difficulty, and Prof. Thom fears the spread of Mormonism among a race which has neither tradition, habits and customs, nor reverence for law and religion. One matter to which he calls attention may perhaps be sign that there are influences telling against the blendi of the races, viz. that already there is a divergence — Negro dialect from the standard of the vernacular great as partially to “ destroy the uplifting idealism tained in the English tongue.” a (Se A most interesting paper, to an English reader cially, bearing on this matter is an account of the pres condition of the Negroes in Jamaica after fifty years of freedom. They have nearly doubled their number in time, and are in more comfortable circumstances. dwellings compare favourably with those of Ireland Scotland. Improvements are recorded of the i generally, exactly answering to the improvements in English town during the same time, and all done vol tarily and with far less labour than in the old slave tin If they do not love work, still as much voluntary labour! forthcoming as was required to make a railway, wi any difficulty on the part of the contractors. Camb Local Examinations are held in the island, and some honours have been taken. Such a sketch must be against the dark pictures usually drawn. General Ea too, in his Report, we are glad to see, thoroughly end the accounts of energetic improvement in educatio. taking place. A striking feature of the wide views of their dutie responsibilities which are now making their way am educationalists is well brought out in this compilati There are careful and interesting papers upon all t physical aspects of education; and much is laid dow about bodily exercises and training which, though lent in itself, seems hardly yet to belong to the dep. ment of the schoolmaster. The Commissioner ur in his Report that a gymnasium should be attached — oo —-¥uly 28, 1887] NATURE 297 every city system of schools, and quotes Germany’s __ example, followed by Austria after Sadowa. Credit is 5 Sia also to the Germans for leading the way in venti- lating school-rooms scientifically. In 1858 Pettenkofer’s _ method of testing the impurity of the air in a room came ‘into use, and a description is here given of a different simple apparatus for the same purpose. The conclusion is drawn that organic matter in “bad air” is more _ frequently the dangerous part of it than superabundant carbonic acid. England, while at the higher schools _ formally ignoring this branch of. education, never- _ theless really recognises it in the games which make _ themselves of so much importance at the Universities _ and the great schools that feed them. Physical training _was despised and repressed by the monks of old, who founded these schools, and taught that the body was at enmity with the soul, and that the more the former was weakened the more the latter was strengthened and puri- fied; and if with Mr. Galton we regret that all the soften- ing elements of human nature were eliminated by monastic celibacy, we may also console ourselves that, but for it, many jnjured constitutions must have been handed down as the result of such tenets. Schoolmasters now know that the difficulties of teaching are immensely increased by any physical disorder, and that an absolute incapacity to learn follows some bodily ailments. Im- perceptibly increasing from the sleepiness which follows upon a good dinner comes the dulness caused by the bad air of ill-ventilated rooms. There is a long and full paper on this latter subject prepared for independent publication by the Bureau of Education, of great value but too general in its teaching to be epitomised here. Another cause of what to thoughtless teachers seems irritating stupidity is partial deafness. Interesting ob- Servations upon the varieties of this infirmity among school children have been made by Dr. Sexton, of New York. Careful estimates show that only 5 per cent. of the entire population of the United States have normal hearing. Ten per cent. of pupils have such defective hearing as to make special placing and such like care for them in schools necessary. If a teacher has not made himself fully acquainted with the amount of this deafness, a very slightly deaf pupil will either be liable to be sent to the deaf-and-dumb school, or he will leave the ordinary school in disgust at the teacher’s harsh and unfair repri- mands. Prof. Graham Bell’s audiometer is found to answer well in the work of classifying defective hearers. On behalf of the deaf-mute school Mr. Dobyns boasted that theirs was the only universal language: when he met an educated deaf-mute not only from America but from France, Germany, England, or Japan, he could hold communication with him. From an examination of about forty thousand cases, a Committee on the subject draws the important conclusion that, while very few pupils indeed are short-sighted when they first enter school, “the number afflicted, and the degree or intensity of the disease, gradually but surely increase through the entire school life, from class to class, | from year to year, until, when the Colleges and Univer- | sities are reached, in many cases more than half the | students are near-sighted.”. This Committee strongly | recommends increased use of the black-board and less use | of books. This practice has been found to reduce the amount of myopia to one-half. A Report of a second | Committee on the causes of it recommends that the | head should not be bent forward too much over a desk. | Near-sightedness has increased in Alsace since German | letters have been used there. There is a special danger | of its being brought on at about fifteen years old, the age of puberty. While these deficiencies are to be found in so large a _| Proportion of children, however, Mr. Jepsen, teacher of | music in New Haven, limits the number of children who have really what is called “no ear” for music to less a f than 4 per cent., and he urges that it may profitably be taught in a thoroughly scientific way to be familiarly read. The Commissioner has felt the importance of this matter so much that through the co-opera- tion of a Music Teachers’ Association the heavily burdened Bureau has been already able to draw up and issue a Circular of Information on the study of music in public schools. It is remarked that singing seems to be despised as a school pursuit in the United States, and to be less popular and more neglected than in England. It is taught that mental culture comes chiefly through the eye; moral culture through the ear and voice. Sounds can be taught to children much more easily than numbers. To read music, again, is as great a superiority over singing it by ear as being able to read is better than having learnt a few pieces by heart. Bearing upon the same question of classifying children according to their powers is a short paper read by Mr. E. Chadwick, of educational celebrity in England, who urges the economy of dividing the bright children from the dull, so as to educate them in less time—a most desirable arrangement for all parties, where it is practicable. Two papers, one of them also by Mr. Chadwick, take up the subject of rewards and punishments: Mr. Chadwick protests against the useofthestick, while Prof. Barbour urges ‘first the needlessness, and then the danger, of giving prizes, which may breed a sordid character, supply unworthy and therefore unstable motives. They are,he thinks, of no value atallto any but a very few in each class. But in each case it is necessary to supply a motive which the very young can fully appreciate ; some terror must be held over the young transgressor’s head, and so long as terror is the motive power, the stick is as fair as any other, with the advantage that each culprit is an example to all who see his discom- fort, and the influence upon them is nearly equal to that of being caned themselves. The refined torture of solitary confinement, which is considered less degrading, has not this advantage. In like manner, everything in this world is done for a prize, even if that prize be a “ high calling,” and school-boys require some outward and visible sign of successful labour, books, marks, or class-places. The grosser methods of marking it might well be dropped as the children get older. But rewards we all strive for, and it is untrue that no higher and wider valuation of knowledge replaces the ambition to take home a prize which first led to a laborious pursuit of it. W. ODELL. ABSTRACT OF THE RESULTS OF THE IN- VESTIGATION OF THE CHARLESTON EARTHQUAKE. II. Bags us suppose an elastic wave to originate at a point C (Fig. 1) situated at the depth g, below the surface. Let the intensity of the shock (amount of energy per unit of wave-front) at the distance unity from C, be denoted by a. Since the intensity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance, the intensity at the epicentrum would be ea Take any other point on the surface of the earth at the distance x from the epicentre, and connect it with C by the line Cv = ~ The intensity at any such point will obviously be equal to <. If we denote the intensity by y, we shall then have the equation— a a A pe This equation expresses a curve which will serve as a * Paper read before the National Academy of Sciences at Washington, on April 19, 1887, by C. E. Dutton, U.S.A., and Everett Hayden, U.S.N., U.S. Geological Survey. Continued from p. 273. 298 NATURE graphic representation of the way in which the surface intensity varies along a line radiating from the epi- centre. The first noteworthy feature of this curveis the contrast between the rapidity with which the intensity diminishes near the epicentre and the slowness with which it dimin- ishes at remote distances. Thus, at a distance from the epicentre equal to the depth of the focus, the intensity has fallen one-half ; at twice this distance it has fallen to one-fifth ; and at three times the distance to one-tenth of | Fic. 1, the intensity at the epicentre. This suggests at once the possibility of making an approximate estimate of the depth of the focus, based upon the rate at which the intensity of the shock at the surface diminishes in the neighbourhood of the epicentre. If we were able to con- struct upon any arbitrary scale whatever a series of isoseismal curves around the central parts of the earth- uake with an approach to accuracy, this depth would ollow at once from the relations of these isoseismals to each other. In the case of a very powerful earthquake in Fic, 2.—Energy constant, depth varying in ratios 1, 2, 3, and 4. a region which is so flat and uniform in its features as the vicinity of Charleston, this can be done with a rough approach to accuracy. ; To appreciate more fully the validity of this mode of reasoning, let us take a series of these intensity curves and vary the values of the constants. And first let us suppose the.total energy of the shock measured by the constant, a, remains the same, while the depth of the focus varies. The first series of curves (Fig. 2) will enable us to make a comparison of the effect of two or more shocks of the same total energy but originating at ¢ ferent depths. The intensity at the epicentre being versely proportional to the square of the depth, shallower shock would be much more energetic tha deeper one; while at a great distance from the epi the two would be approximately equal in their The rate of diminution of intensity would be correspo ingly varied, and we might commit large errors in mating these ratios on the ground, while the error of - depth deduced for the focus would be less than our of estimate. In short, the method is not sensitive to sn or moderate errors of observation. Ne ae The second series of curves (Fig. 3) is conditior the assumption that the depth remains constant Fic. 3.—Depth constant, energy varying from energy of the shock varies. In these cu ates corresponding to any abscissa are each other in a simple ratio. In the first proportional to each other in a duplicate r The third series (Fig. 4) represents the both the energy and the depth in such intensity at the epicentre is constant. _ _ It will appear, therefore, that every some characteristic intensity curve, depe total energy and the depth below the su tensity at any point along the surface will there upon these two quantities: energy and ¢ remains to find some means of discrimi the intensity at any point is due to a m WSs Fic. 4 —Depth and energy both varying, but with constant stant in - epicentrum. Se: Nee eae shock deeply seated, or to a less energetic one 1 surface. The criterion issoon given, = = It is obvious that in any shock there is some f some particular distance from the epicentre at rate of diminution of surface intensity has a- value. As we leave the epicentre and proc in any direction, the intensity diminishes | and more rapidly, but further on diminishes less" rapidly. We wish to find the point at which the decline changes from an increasing to a de In the curve this point is represented at the flexion where the curve ceases to be concave the earth, and begins to be convex towards i the co-ordinates of this point we differentiate the NATURE 299 _of the curve twice, and equate the value of the second : | differential coefficient to zero, and deduce the correspond- _ ing value of the abscissa x— fea: dy _ 8a — 2a(g° +2") _.. at- ¢+x) which equation is satisfied when 8azx* = 2a(¢°' + x), tr= fk ee a3 _ In this value of x, it is seen that the constant, a, has dis- ee and the abscissa of the point of inflexion is therefore independent of the energy of the shock, and dependent upon the depth alone. The meaning of this is that the distance from the epicentre to the point where the rate of decline of the intensity is greatest is simply proportional to the depth of the focus, and is the same _ whetherthe energy be greater or less. This property of the intensity curves makes us independent of any abso- lute standard of measurement of the intensity, and all that we require is to find with reasonable approximation the points where the intensity falls off most rapidly. The depth of the focus follows at once. The determination of the epicentral tract is chiefly the work of Mr. Earle Sloan, of Charleston, a young civil engineer who immediately after the disaster made an extensive series of observations. In the brief time at his disposal he accumulated a surprisingly large amount of detailed information, and in searching for it exercised a discrimination and sagacity which would have been highly creditable to the most experienced and learned observer. Itisto be regretted that his business engage- ments prevented him from continuing the work. As it is, he has located with considerable precision the epicentral tract, and has furnished data which show well the varia- tion of intensity along several lines radiating from it. __ The summary obtained from the examination of Mr. Sloan’s data is as follows :—The tract which includes the most forcible action of the earthquake is an elliptical area about twenty-six miles in length, and with a maximum width of about eighteen miles. The major axis of this area is not a straight line, but a curve which is concave towards Charleston, and is situated from fourteen to sixteen miles west and north-west of that city. Along this line there are three points each of which has all the characters of an epicentrum, determined by as many distinct shocks, each having a focus of its own. - Much of the most powerful shock centres in the northernmost focus, though the other two were of suffi- cient energy to have occasioned great havoc if either of 1 had occurred alone. The southernmost was also considerably more energetic than the middle one. The distance between the northern and southern epicentres was about twelve miles. Within this tract, except near the edges of it, the motion was most conspicuously of subsultory character, 7¢. motion in which the vertical component predominated over the horizontal. The portions of this area, where the character of the movement changes, and where the intensity falls off most rapidly, seem to be very well indicated. = epee where the intensity most rapidly declines x one or two miles on both sides of the epicentres. The South Carolina Railroad crosses the tract in a straight _ very near the most forcible seismic vertical. The t point where the intensity falls off with greatest ty is near the ninth mile-post, measuring from the railway depot in Charleston, and so well marked upon }| the ground are .the indications of this change, that it | seems very improbable that this point is more than a } mile distant either way from the precise point we seek to confidently located with an error not exceeding locate. Passing north-westward through Summerville to the opposite side of the tract, we find the corresponding point of most rapid decline in the vicinity of the twenty- third mile-post. This gives us a base-line with which to measure the depth of the focus of the principal shock, The computed depth is twelve miles, with a probable error of one or two miles. The computed depths of the other foci are about the same, but the probable errors are somewhat larger. In speaking of a focal point of a shock, it must be understood as referring to the centre of all the forces, considered with reference both to amount and direction, which constitute a great seismic impulse. The presump- tion is that this impulse originates ina large subterranean tract, of which this ideal focus is merely the central point, or nearly so. The form of the subterranean tract may be anything ; and, within limits, may have its three dimen- sions, length, breadth, and thickness, of any magnitude, and bearing any ratios to each other. The form and dimensions of it we cannot of course determine, though it may be possible to obtain some notion of its most general features if the data are sufficient. This method of computing the depth of a seismic focus is here proposed for the first time. The method employed by Mallet, which consists in finding the angle of emerg- ence of a wave front from the earth by studying the configuration of cracks in buildings is believed to be valueless by nearly all seismologists. There is no definite angle of emergence of the nature he contemplates dis- closed at the surface. » Certainly in Charleston there was nothing of the kind'to be found. The method employed by Seebach is»sound in theory, but it requires such extreme accuracy of time determinations that very small errors of time give very large errors in the result. Our own method consists of finding two points on opposite sides of the seismic vertical, at which the changes in seismic action along a given line are most» strongly ‘marked. These points ought to be indicated in powerful earthquakes with a fair approach to precision, and the probable errors of determination should not usually exceed one or two tenths of the distance between the two points. The feebler the shock, however, the less is the degree of precision to be expected. Whatever may be the errors in the estimate of this distance, the resulting error in the computed depth is smaller than the error of observation in the ratio of the square root of three to two. How much the estimate may be vitiated by want of homogeneity in the superficial strata we have no means of determining, but we do not believe that it would be so affected to any great extent in such a region as South Carolina. Being independent of any absolute measures either of the surface intensity or of the total energy of the shock, the greatest difficulty of all is at once eliminated. Our opinion of this method is that it is incapable alike of very great precision and of very great errors. Probably the first thought occurring to anyone ex- amining this method will be that the determination of the two required points would be liable to very large errors. But if he will examine the varying values of the ordinates of the curve corresponding to varying values of the ab- scissee, and of the depth, we think he will be satisfied that the limits within which each of the two points of in- flexion must fall cannot be wide apart, and that an error in the determination of the base-line greater than two- tenths of its estimated length would, in such a country as Carolina, be very improbable. It will appear that the relations of these variables are such a; to restrict the locus within which the desired points are to be found to a very narrow annulus around the epicentrum. We think the method will greatly improve on acquaintance. We have endeavoured to apply our method of comput- ing the depth of the focus to other earthquakes, but have found difficulty in, obtaining anything more than very general results, such as the following :—The depth of the 300 NATURE Charleston earthquake was relatively great, and we find reason for believing that, among those great earthquakes of the last 150 years of whose effects we possess any considerable knowledge, none have originated from a much greater depth, and few from a depth so great. Our reasoning is this :—Very few earthquakes have been felt at a distance from the origin so great as 1000 miles. But the greitest distance at which the tremors are felt is the best measure of the total energy of the shock. On the other hand, the intensity of the Charleston earthquake in the epicentral tract was relatively low in comparison with other great earthquakes. If, then, any shock is more intense at the epicentre, without extending to a greater distance than that of the Charleston earthquake, it is certain that its focus was nearer the surface. This is true of the vast majority of recent earthquakes which have been sufficiently investigated. It is suggested that all estimates of the depth of foci much exceeding that of _ the Charleston earthquake are in need of re-examination. The city of Charieston is situated from eight to ten miles outside of the area of maximum intensity, and did not experience its most destructive power. Following the law which we have laid down, the intensity of the shock at Charleston was only three-tenths what it must have been at the epicentrum and about one-third the intensity at Summerville. -The diagram showing the long intensity curve stretching from Charleston to a point 20191817 16 15141272110 98 76 548210 5 10 20 N.W. a2 Fic. 5.—Intensity curve of maximum shock twenty miles each side of epicentrum. forty miles north-west of it will illustrate the position of the city with reference to the varying force of the shock. Had the seismic centre been ten miles nearer to Charleston, the calamity would have been incomparably greater than it was, and the loss of life would probably have been appalling. Another circumstance greatly broke the force of the shocks. All the coastal region of the Carolinas consists of a series of clays and quicksands, which have been penetrated by artesian borings to a depth of 2000 feet, and which are believed to have a much greater thickness. These beds of loose material no doubt absorbed and extinguished a considerable portion of the energy of the shocks. We have already remarked that a wave passing from firmer and more elastic material into material less firm and elastic produces at first an increased amplitude of wave-motion, which is liable to be more destructive or injurious to buildings. But if the mass of less consistent strata be very great, the reverse result is produced by reason of the rapid extinction of the energy in passing through a considerable length or thickness of very imperfectly elastic material. We cannot but think that Charleston owes in some measure its escape from a still greater calamity to the quicksands beneath the city. Another aspect of the same fact, if such it be, is found 100 miles west and north-west of Charleston. Here the loosely-aggregated sediments of Tertiary and Cretaceous age which cover the Carolina coastal plain have thinned ‘Mr. G. W. Holstein, of Belvidere, New Jersey, out, and the crystalline rocks appear at thesurface, thi: covered with soil and alluvium. All along the jun of these loose strata and superficial material wit metamorphics the intensity of the shocks was spicuously greater than to the eastward and south The loose covering of these firm rocks is just thick to give full effect to the increased amplitude of vib which occurs when the wave passes from very so elastic rocks to those which are less so. We have also endeavoured to reach some trustworth estimate of the amplitude of movement at the surface, bt the results are meagre and far from satisfactory. “ amplitude of the earth particle” in any earthquak question of great practical importance, and it is m be regretted that no better facilities for determining be obtained. There were, however, many occurrenct Charleston bearing upon this question, which ar tremely difficult to explain upon any valuation of amplitude less than 10 inches toa foot. Such amplitu: however, were most probably limited to spots her there, while in other spots it was probably much That within a small area the amplitude of move: the surface soil varies between very wide limits s be a practically certain conclusion from the obse In Charleston it appears to have been greatest ‘made ground,” where. ravines and sloughs were up in the early years of the city’s history. Thest on higher ground, though severely shaken, did ne so much injury. O72 ae With regard to the time data from which the propagation must be computed, we are not yetin tion to give final results, but can only state how t lem stands at present. The time reports placed in the hands of Profs. Rockwood and N: with the request that they would scrutinize and d them. But neither has been able to finish as yet thet he has so courteously undertaken. Probably the grea difficulty in the way of determining the speed tion arises from the ill-defined character of the ance at considerable distances from the origin and fro the very considerable duration of it. Wherever observation seems to be well authenticated, th remains in most cases the difficulty of decidin: particular phase of the earthquake the record And this difficulty is a very serious one. At Su the first shock came almost like an explosio1 people had time to think, they were pitched ten-pins. At Charleston there was a perceptibl estimated at from five to eight seconds from the of warning to the maximum of the great Savannah (ninety miles distant), the interval fro ginning to the first maximum was considerably probably ten to twelve seconds; at Augusta (II the interval was still greater. And, generally s the greater the distance the more the phenon “long drawn out.” The duration of the earth Charleston will probably never be known with But the general testimony ranges between fifty a seconds. At Washington (450 miles), Prof. - with his watch in his hand observed a duration ceptible tremors, with two maxima, lasting abou a half minutes. Prof. Carpmael’s magnetog) corded the disturbance, and he interprets the graphic traces as showing a duration of about four sho minutes very nearly as the observed duration other localities come well-attested observations durations of several minutes, though few of these to give the whole time with any accuracy. gressive lengthening of the shocks is a well-marked of the testimony. The explanation suggests itself The elastic modulus of compression being gre that of distortion, the speed of the normal waves greater while the waves of distortion lag behind. \ Fuly 28, 1887 | NATURE 301 ' It is obvious that the phase which it is desired to observe should be the arrival of the first impulses. But _ the great duration of the tremors has left much doubt on _ this point. Stopped clocks were plentiful all over the ‘country, but at what phase of the earthquake did they _ stop? So great, indeed, are the uncertainties on this point _ that the observations of intelligent men, with watches in _ their hands measuring a part of the shock and estimating the beginning, are in most cases to be preferred to stopped clocks, even though we know with certainty that the _ clocks had been accurate to the second. It matters little how we twist and turn the time data: the smallest estimate we can put upon the speed of propagation must prove to be a great surprise to seismologists. _ The time at Charleston of the occurrence of the main shock has been fixed at gh. 15m. 10s. p.m., 75th meridian or Eastern standard time.’ (All times in this paper, unless otherwise specified, are reduced to that meridian.) The uncertainty does not exceed ten seconds. The beginning of the first tremors at Charleston was from six to eight seconds earlier. The time at Summerville was probably less than four seconds earlier than Charleston. For all localities within 200 miles the time observations are of little value. So swiftly did the waves travel that a small error in the time record gives a very large uncertainty in the resulting speed. The nearest point which yields a valuable record is Wytheville, Va. (286 miles).2~ Mr. Howard Shriver was sitting at a transit instrument, waiting for the passage of a star, and at once noted the time at 9h. 52m. 37s. (re- duced to 75th meridian), giving a speed of about 3°3 miles (5300 metres) per second. There is some slight uncertainty about the precise phase of the shock corre- sponding to the observation. The Signal Service Observer at Chattanooga (332 miles) gives only the nearest minute for the principal shock at gh. 53m., corresponding to a speed of 3’02 miles per second, or 4860 metres. __ The best observation in our possession is that of Prof. Simon Newcomb himself, at Washington (450 miles), who gives the time of the beginning of the shock at gh. 53m. 20s., with an uncertainty not greatly exceeding ten seconds. The resulting speed is 3°46 miles per second, or 5570 metres. From Baltimore (486 miles), Mr. Richard Randolph, C.E., reports a very intelligent and carefully verified * For European readers it seems necessary to refer briefly to the American “standard time” system, which will assist them in estimating the character of these time records. Throughout the Atlantic Statés all clocks designed for accurate time-keeping are set daily to the time of the 75th meridian west of Greenwich. In the Mississippi Valley they are similarly set to the time of the goth meridian ; in the Rocky Mountains to that of the ro5th, and on the Pacific coast t» the 120th meridian. They are called respectively, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific time, and the differences are exact hours. At some convenient hour every day the wires of every railroad and telegraph company in the country are put into circuit with the clock of some astronomical observatory (or with some standard clock controlled by an astronomical clock), and time signals are sent to every railway station and telegraph office. The station agents, or telegraph operators, of these com- panies are held responsible that these epesls are received, and that their clocks are regulated by them daily. A failure to do so is a breach of discip- line. The greatest purveyor of accurate standard time is the Western Union Telegraph Company, which furnishes it at a small charge to some railways, to telephone exchanges, to town and city offices, to hotels, to private corporations ; in short, to anybody who wants it. For the Eastern and Southern States it takes its time by a special wire from the National Observ- atory at Washington. The system is essentially perfect, whereby clocks can be set once each day to exact standard time in every railway station and y sae 9 office inthe country, And at every such station and office it is the duty of somebody to see that it is carried out. How accurately this is done is another matter. It depends upon the discipline of the companies and the habits of individuals, in which there are no doubt varying degrees of precision, The clocks supplied are always ot ones, and ought not to have daily errors of over four or five seconds. But the best ek ever made will not keep good time unless properly managed. The demand for extremely accurate _ time throughout the greater part of the United States is enormous, and this acts as a constraint upon the companies and their emfloyés to carry out the system with precision. This same demand has led to the organization of eed a pag in wis towns or cities who receive time from the ern Union Telegraph Company and purvey it to private houses, hotel merchants, workshops, &e. pe eed as re . fe 2 The distances have been measured somewhat hastily with a scale upon the War Department map of the United States, taking the greater epi- centrum seventeen miles north-west of Charleston as the origin. observation of gh. 53m. 20s. as the beginning of the shock—exactly Prof. Newcomb’s time for Washington, giving a speed of 3°74 miles, or 6000 metres, per second. At Atlantic City, N.J. (552 miles), a large pendulum clock in the Fothergill House stopped at gh. 54m., very nearly. If this may be taken to be the beginning of the shock, the speed would be 3'26 miles per second, or 5250 metres. George Wolf Holstein, Belvidere, N.J. (622 miles), ’ gives 9h. 54m. forthe beginning of the shock and gh. 59m. for the end, and compared his watch next morning with the time of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The gradual and uncertain character of the beginning and end would not admit of precise determination to seconds. The speed, taking 9h. 54m. for the beginning, would be 3°66 miles, or 5900 metres. From New York City (645 miles) and its suburban towns and cities come many reports, all of which give either 9h. 54m. or 9h. 55m. as the nearest minutes. If we take, as a mean, 9h. 54m. 25s. at New York and Brooklyn for the beginning of the shock, the speed would be 3°31 miles, or 5330 metres. At distances greater than 600 miles the difficulty of associating the time records with particular phases of the shocks becomes very great. In most cases the motion was the swaying movement, with only faint tremors of the rapid kind, and those who felt them were slow in recog- nizing their character. Readers must form their own opinions as to the degree of approximation to the time of the earliest movements from the following records. We give them only as we received them, without attempting any discussion. J. O. Jacot, watchmaker and jeweller, at Stockbridge, Mass. (772 miles), was sitting by his regulator clock ; distinctly recognized the nature of the movement, and noted the time as 9h. 56m. The phase of the shock is uncertain. At Albany, N.Y. (772 miles), Mr. J. M. Clarke, of the New York State Museum of Natural History, heard the mortar falling down the chimney, and the creaking and straining of the building. As soon as he appreciated the character of the disturbance he noted the time by his - watch as gh. 56m. 30s. He did not ascertain the error of his watch. In the same city, Dr. Willis G. Tucker says he instantly looked at his watch, and after comparing it next morning with the time of the Dudley Observatory, and making correction of the error, gave 9h 55m., very nearly, with an error probably not exceeding twenty seconds. From Fonda, N.Y. (780 miles), Francis L. Yates reports gh. 55m. (no particulars). At Ithaca, N.Y. (695 miles), the regulator clock on the wall of the railway depot stopped at gh. 55m. “ exactly.” At Gowanda, N.Y. (666 miles), where the shocks were faintly felt, W. R. Smallwood, watchmaker and jeweller, noted the end of the perceptible shocks at gh. 55m. 30s. by his regulator clock. At Toronto (753 miles), the earthquake was recorded automatically upon the magnetographic traces in the observatory of Prof. Chas. Carpmael, Superintendent of the Meteorological Service of Canada. In his letter of September 14 he says :—“ I may state that at gh. 55m. p.m. all our magnetic needles were set in motion by earth tremors. The vibrations of the magnets were continued for about four minutes. I would say that from later and more careful measurements from our magnetic curves I make the time of the earth tremor at Toronto to be gh. 54m. 50s. p.m., standard; this time, I should say, would not be astray more than a few seconds.’’ As this record was automatic, and gave not only the time but the phases, it has been thoroughly investigated by Profs. Newcomb and Carpmael, assisted by Mr. C. A. Schott, of the U.S. Coast Survey. The final result of this re- . examination is to change Prof. Carpmael’s computation 302 * NATURE to oh. 56m. 18s. for the beginning of the tremors, with a probable error of fully one minute. This large probable error is due to the very small scale upon which the mag- netograph records time intervals (one-tenth of a milli- metre corresponding to twenty seconds), and to want of sharpness in the photographed traces. This time gives 2°66 miles per second, or 4250 metres, with a probable error of one or two tenths of the amount. The clock in the Western Union Telegraph Office at Pittsburgh (523 miles) was stopped at 9h. 54m. From Cincinnati and suburban towns (500 miles) come many reports. In this city local mean time is largely used, owing to the fact that it is nearly midway between the 75th and goth meridians, where the only inconvenience of standard time is at amaximum. The correction to the 75th meridian is + 37m. 40s. The Western Union Telegraph Office gives 9h. 54m. The Zzmes-Star news- paper gives, from the clock in its own office, 9h. 16m. “exactly” (oh. 53m. 40s. standard); at the Commercial Gazette office, 9h. 17m. 45s. local, 9h. 55m. 25s. standard (probably noted after the shocks were over). At the fire tower, after the principal shock, 9h. 16m. 17s. was noted ; clock error, twenty-three seconds slow, giving 9h. 54m, 2os. standard. Two other observers, noting by watches, give gh. 16m. ; and one notes an advanced stage of the shocks at gh. 17m., but give no means of estimating their errors. At Covington, Ky., across the Ohio River, I. J. Evans, watchmaker and jeweller, reports his regulator clock stopjged at 9h. 17m. 20s., Cincinnati local mean time. Phase of shock unknown. ~ From Crawfordsville, Ind. (622 miles), E. C. Simpson, C.E., reports through Prof. J. M. Coulter, of Wabash College: “ Suddenly felt my chair move, jumped up and said, ‘We are having an earthquake’ ; at once pulling out my watch I found it was 8h. 54m. p.m. standard time (Central).” Prof. Coulter adds that the watch was exactly with railroad time as shown at the railroad station, and also by the town clock. From Dyersburg, Tenn. (569 miles), Louis Hughes writes :—“ My time-piece was an English patent lever watch of Chas. Taylor and Son, London, which from business necessity I keep closely with railroad time at the station, which receives the time at 10 o’clock every morning. The railroad uses Central time. My first thought was that the shaking was caused by the children in the next room; but in the next moment, recognizing the peculiar sensation, I dropped the newspaper and observed the time, which was probably four to six seconds after 8h. 54m., and from that approximated it in even minutes.” Speed 3°25 miles, or 5230 metres. At Memphis, Tenn. (§90 miles), the Signal Service Observer reports a considerable number of stopped clocks, one at gh. 54m. and the others at 9h. 55m. For some unaccountable reason the seconds were not noted. The phase is unknown. The foregoing comprise those time reports which seem to justify the presumption that the errors do not exceed one minute.- There are others, which are obviously rude approximations, giving exact hours, quarter-hours, or tens of minutes. There are also some which look at first like good observations, but which surely involve some large unexplained error. As the discussion of the time data is now progressing, no further comment will be offered here beyond the remark that there can be no doubt that the speed of propazation exceeded 3 miles, or 5000 metres, per second. The only questions are how much this speed was exceeded and whether the speed along any given line was constant. As regards the latter question, the data are not yet precise enough to justify an opinion. This matter will be inquired into. The high rate of propagation will probably prove un- expected to European seismologists. We propose, how- ever, to follow it up with the suggestion that it is about waves at least) are probably erroneous in propor [ Fucy 28, 1887 the normal speed with which such waves ought to b expected to travel, and that all determinations of the rai of propagation in any former great earthquakes 1 are much less than 5000 metres per second (for no they fall short of the Charleston earthquake. Find the time reports accumulated that a speed in ey 5000 metres was indicated, and this presumption he become a conviction, we were led to inquire wh there was not some speed deducible from the theory wave-motion in an elastic solid to which all great earth quakes ought to approximate. mee In a homogeneous and perfectly elastic solid, the of propagation is, according to theory, dependent two properties of the medium: elasticity and de There are two coefficients of elasticity in solid bodies of which measures their resistance to changes of the other, to changes of form. Absolute experi determinations of the values of these coefficients never been made. If, however, we knew the r these coefficients in one substance to the homo coefficients in any other substance, and if we also the rate of propagation in either of them, the rate in 1 other would be at once deducible. The rate in steel has been the subject of much experimentation, and is g' by Wertheim, whose researches have been as cz any, at 16,800 feet per second. But as the wav steel bar are essentially waves of distortion, he m this result by 3 or 3 for the normal wave, gi speed of 21,090 feet per second. The elastic m«¢ steel for engineering purposes is’ usually taken 29,000,000. The corresponding modulus for su as granite and basalt in a vey compact state is ¢ 8,000,000. If we may assume that these moduli are portional to the two elasticities of the two subste spectively, we can compute the rate of propa; rock, This assumption may or may not be true; bu assume it to be so. Let V, be the rate of propagation steel, and V, the rate of propagation in rock, and let ¢ and ¢, be their true compressional elasticities, an D, and D, be their respective densities. Our a: tion is that 29:8::¢.:e- from which we may form th equation — i Vs ie “Pe “ere eu Vv, 5 - Taking the density of steel at 7°84, and of deeply. rocks in their most compact state at 2°85— v. eae x =3° = 115 nearly. Taking the rate of compressional waves in 6400 metres per second, gives 5570 metres for waves in very compact and dense rock. The corre ing rate for waves of distortion would be 4450 These results are so near to those deduced Charleston earthquake that they seem to be wi consideration. The experimental measurements of the rate of im obtained by Milne and Fouqué seem to us inapp The elasticity of the surface soil, we wns is nom be compared with that of the profo rocks: transmit the great waves of an earthquake than t elasticity of a heap of iron filings is to be compared 1 that of an indefinitely extended mass of solid steel. difference is ¢ofo cvlo. But the rate of propagati question of elasticity and density chiefly. The temperature we have not considered. Perhaps the striking experiment ever made with an artificial quake was at the Flood Rock explosion at Hell Gat New York, where General Abbott found a speed of pagation approaching very closely to that of the Char. earthquake. ee ney Bate --Fuly 28, 1887] NATURE 593 _ The question which is undoubtedly of deepest interest in this connexion is whether the Charleston earthquake ‘throws any new light upon the origin of such events. _ While we are not prepared to say that absolutely nothing _ will be added to our information on this question, we are pee to admit that we expect very little new light. Hitherto our efforts have been devoted to bringing to- rether the facts and to arranging and comparing them, and we have as yet given but little consideration to this inal question. It will, however, shortly engage our attention, and in anticipation of this we prefer to remain _ silent for the present, fearing that, if we commit ourselves _ here to any preference for a particular view, we may find _ ourselves encumbered with a bias arising from the in- _ tensely human propensity to defend, through thick and _ thin, utterances which have once been formally given. ON A POINT OF BIOLOGICAL INTEREST IN _ THE FLOWERS OF “ PLEUROTHALLIS ORNATUS,” RCHB. F. a December of last year (1886), in the Orchid-house at + Kew, a specimen of Pleurothallis ornatus * flowered. _ Not only is this the first time that it has done so at Kew, but I am informed by Mr. Watson, of the Royal Gardens, who drew my attention to it, that hitherto P. ormatus has not been known to flower in captivity. ‘ The flowers of this plant present a most interesting a ion, whereby to attract insects, of which I propose in this note to give a short account. The genus Pleurothallis is characterized . (generally eel by the prcensptrupmeness of its flowers, which, asa are of areddish-brown colour. The flowers are either solitary and axillary, or in few-flowered racemes. e outer perianth-whorl (sepals), though never. exceed- _ ing a few millimetres in length, is several times longer _ than the inner (petals). The sepals are sub-equal, and _ the lateral ones slightly connate at the base. The two _ lateral petals are small and wing-like on either side of _ the column. The short, superiorly-grooved labellum is _ always shorter than the petals, and articulates with the column by a narrow flexible neck. Such an arrange- ment, in consequence of which the labellum is more or less vibratile, and after a touch will oscillate several times, is found in several allied genera, ¢.g. Restrepia, and especially Bolbophyllum. The genus Pleurothaliis is tropical American, and epiphytic. Pleurothallis ernatus is especially distinguished from other members of the genus in the fact of its sepals possessing an extremely conspicuous fringe of white cirrhi, In no other species of the genus, of which I have been able to find figures or specimens, is anything of the kind seen.? The hair-like structures which form this fringe in P. ornatus average about 2 millimetres in length; and when it is remembered that the extreme diameter of an expanded flower does not exceed 1a millimetres some idea of the conspicuous part played by the fringe is obtained. Figs. 1 and 2 are respectively front lateral views of a flower, magnified about five diameters. Each hair it will be seen narrows very much at its proximal end, and is in this way rendered versatile. From the fact of the hairs being air-containing they are excessively light, and moved by every breath of air. The motion of course is an entirely fJassive one—they are simply swayed to and fro on the hinge formed by this tapering. In Fig. 3 is represented a. microscopic view of one of _¥ Described by Prof, H. G. Reichenbach in Wittmack’s Gartenzeitung, Oe Waceot ee tn Plowethalte pre which is described and figured by Knowles and Westcott in *‘The Floral Album,” vol. i. p- 40. Here, however, it is the Jeta/s which have a ciliated border. No description is i given of the hairs, though the authors mention having examined them micro- . The figure is a. ‘ one, and barely shows the existence of a the cirrhi detached. It consists simply of a prolongation of one of the epidermal cells at the edge of the sepal— and its lumen is continuous with that of the epidermal cell from which it originates (cf. Fig. 4). In form, the hair resembles that of a flattened club.. Its width, through- out most of its extent, averages o’2 millimetres. But it is flattened in the plane at right angles to this, so that its thickness is only about 0’025 millimetres. Externally the hair has a granular aspect, arising from numerous slight rugosities of its delicate cuticle (cf. Fig. 3). At its proximal end it narrows as it runs into the epidermal cell ‘from which it arose. In the expanded flower the hairs are air-containing, the protoplasm being entirely collapsed and dried up. The versatile hairs are inserted along the margin of the sepals at intervals of less than 1 millimetre. Towards the attached part of the sepals they become much shorter. Fic. 1.—View of the flower from in front, X 5 diameters. c, column: 7.f, petals ; Z, labellum : Z.0., lateral sepals ; 4.0.4, posterior sepal. Fic. 2.—Lateral view of same flower, x 5 diameters. References as in Ry - sey ; ! Fic. 3.—A single isolated vibratile hair, much magn-fied. The precise mode of insertion is seen in Fig. 4, which represents a transverse section of the edge of a sepal. The hair is formed from one of a group of small cells (4.c) at the extreme edge of the sepal. In the figure are seen its relations to the parenchyma, and to the upper and lower epidermis (#.¢ and 7.e) of the sepal. I have been unable to examine buds of the plant, con- sequently no account can be given of the development of these hairs. As regards its biological meaning, there can, I con- ceive, be little doubt but that the fringe serves to attract insects which fertilize the otherwise inconspicuous flowers. The white lustrous appearance of the cirrhi is a con- sequence of their air-content ; and it is as important a factor as their versatility, in successfully rendering the small brown flowers conspicuous to insects. As I have. 304 NATURE said above, the motion is provoked by the least possible breath of air. I do not remember a mechanism entirely like this elsewhere among either Orchids or other Phanerogams. Many Orchids are provided with long fringes, but these are due to excessive dissection of the sepals (as in Cirrhopetalum), or to hairs—often multicellular—which, however, are non-versatile. Mr. Rolfe, of the Kew Herbarium, reminds me of the case of Bolbophyllum lemniscatum. I need not here further mention the extra- ordinary appendages of the sepals: they are figured in the Botanical Magazine, Pl. 5967. The labellum in P. ornatus is quite small: in Fig. 1 it is shown at /, but in the lateral view (Fig. 2) it is hidden by. the two petals (7g). Like the labellum in so many allied Orchids, it moves readily on itsnarrowed neck if touched. The oscillations are performed especially in a vertical plane. The usually accepted view as to the meaning of this vibratility is that hinted at by Morren (“ Recherches sur le mouvement et l’anatomie du labellum du Megaclinium falcatum,’ 1841, p. 95) and Darwin (“Fertilization of Fic. 4.—Transverse section through the edge of a sepal, showing the inser- tion of one of the vibratile hairs. 4.c, cell bearing the hair (part of which is represented); Z.e, epidermis of lower side of sepal: z.e, epi- dermis of upper side. Orchids,” p. 171); z.e. that by the continued motion of the labellum caused by the wind, insects are led from motives of curiosity to visit the flower. This explanation will hardly hold for such a genus as Pleurothallis, where the labellum is extremely small, and its motion would be hardly obvious from outside the flower. Here the label- lum acts rather as a spring-board. The insect entering the flower will lean upon and displace the labellum, which, from the extreme elasticity of its neck, will oscil- late up and down in precisely the same manner as a spring-board would. By this is insured the insect’s head being thrust against the stigma or pollen-masses, and the act of pollinization promoted. Sometimes I have found that if the labellum be displaced by gently pressing down- wards it will be retained for a few seconds in the dis- placed position on removing the force. Soon, however, the elastic reaction overcomes the resistance of the sepals (by which it is temporarily jammed), and the labellum flies up again, considerably overstripping its normal position of rest. After one or more small oscillations, it comes to rest. Such a simple experiment as this shows well enough how such an arrangement can aid fertilization. I believe this is the chief part playe the vibratile labellum in Bolbophyllum, in which g the elasticity is especially manifest. This in no excludes the attractive function suggested by Dar This latter could only hold for cases where the label! is easily visible outside the flower, and for such cases Bb. barbigerum, B. tremulum, &c., where it is ri plumed. On the other hand, there is no reason \ the “spring-board” function should not operate every case of vibratile labellum; hence I regard tk as its primary significance, whilst the attractive one secondary only.. This is a question which I hope s to follow up. F. W. OL Jodrell Laboratory, Kew. a CUBIC CRYSTALS OF GRAPHITIC CARB 1 be the analysis of a meteoric iron found in 1884 i sub-district of Youndegin, Western Australia, : which two of the four fragments have been gene presented to the British Museum by the Rev. Charles Nicolay, Curator of the Geological Museum, Fremantle I have obtained some crystals, a description of whi be of interest to the students of carbon. The crystals were obtained as an insoluble resi treatment of 8°3200 grammes of the iron with aqua they are bright, opaque, grayish-black, have a me lustre, and present forms belonging to the cubic s As their characters were not recognized as belonging t any known mineral, it seemed unlikely that the nature the crystals could be completely determined, seeing the total weight obtained was only 3 milligran further, two fragments of the iron, weighing 2 an grammes respectively, had not yielded a single cryst and there was thus a possibility of their being so lo in the iron as to render impracticable an increase quantity of material available for experiment. e The crystals were about a hundred in number average thickness of the larger ones being 1/100 o inch. Many ofthem are sharply defined cubes ; some their edges truncated by the faces of the dodecahedr in others the edges are replaced by rounded faces ¢ tetrakishexahedron. Ba: Their hardness is greater than that of rock salt less than that of calcite: the streak is black and shini Of four crystals, two sank to the bottom and two mained near the surface of a solution having a specif gravity of 2°12. The crystals are unaffected by aci heated in a combustion-tube in a current of ox hydrogen, or chlorine, they are unattacked, even the glass begins to melt. Heated ina platinum caps with the table-blowpipe, they slowly disappear wi flame. Heated with potassium nitrate in a cru over a Bunsen burner, they are unaltered ; but — very slowly, without deflagration, when heated wi table-blowpipe. In density, colour, and streak, and in its ch behaviour, the residual mineral thus bears a clo semblance to native graphite, but it is conside harder, and it presents itself in well-defined cry: which belong, like those of the other crystallized ft of carbon, the diamond, to the cubic system: terrest graphite, when crystallized, is found only as tab crystals so indistinctly formed that doubt has I existed as to whether they should be referred to hexagonal or monosymmetric system. : In a paper entitled “ Graphite pseudomorphous 2 Iron Pyrites,” Haidinger, in 1846, described some grap! itic crystals which were doubtless similar to those nished by the Youndegin iron: his observation, howeve C] * Regarding the nature of the pollinia, and their mode of removal Pleurothallis, vide Darwin, @oc. cit. p. 166. : _ -Fuly 28, 1887] NATURE 305 s been forgotten, and is without record in modern eoric literature. The crystals—of the size, number, land completeness of which Haidinger makes no mention -were obtained by him from a nodule of graphite which ad dropped out of the Arva meteoric iron, and chiefly om a study of their form he inferred that they were seudomorphous after iron pyrites. Even yet no iron yrites, crystallized or massive, has been found in a meteorite, the meteoric sulphide of iron being, not the isulphide, but the protosulphide : further, Gustav Rose, sr examination of the crystals, expressed the opinion the replacement of the edges of the cubes was estive rather of holosymmetry than of hemisymmetry, an interpretation which would exclude iron pyrites as a possible antecedent mineral. _ The Youndegin graphitic crystals support the view entertained by Rose: the existence of the dodecahedron face, of which there is goniometrical proof, is of itself uite sufficient to show that the crystalline form is distinct m that of iron pyrites. The iron pyrites theory being discarded, and the fact being recognized that no mineral constituent of meteorites has yet been found which crystallizes in forms similar to those of the graphitic crystals, there naturally arises a feeling of doubt as to the correctness of the view accord- ‘ing to which they are of pseudomorphic origin, and thus ‘a question as to whether they may not possibly be a third allotropic condition of crystallized carbon presenting the a characters of graphite, but a crystalline form requent in the diamond, | Bischof denies the possibility of explaining the pseudo- jmorphism of terrestrial minerals by any other process than the slow action of water, of which there is no evi- dence in meteorites ; and though it would be unsafe to argue that only in this way could meteoric pseudomorphs ‘be produced, there is sufficient difficulty in their explana- tion to demand strong evidence before the pseudomorph- ism of the graphitic crystals is granted, more especially when we have regard to the fact that no other graphitic /pseudomorph has yet been established either in meteoric or in terrestrial minerals. | Examination of the Youndegin crystals under the |microscope shows that some of them are hollow, and appear to be built up of successive cubical shells: on several of the crystals there are globular growths cover- jing a large part of a cube-face, and occasionally the |globule is broken, and is seen to be merely a thin, now |empty, shell, of which the bottom is the face of the cube. | The crystals are easily frangible, and no cleavages were |observed : they appear to be quite homogeneous in their | material. Although some of these characters suggest a pseudo- morphic origin of the crystalline form, it cannot be said |that they prove it. Both of the recognized crystalline \forms of carbon, graphite and diamond, have long been standing difficulties for the crystallographer. As already pointed out, the crystals of graphite are rarely more than |mere tables, of which there is a controversy as to the crystalline system; those of the diamond are often so different in their geometrical characters from the crystals | of every other known substance, that it cannot be satis- factorily determined whether they are to be referred to a | holosymmetric or to a hemisymmetric type. | Hollow and skeleton crystals are often the result of a | hurried crystallization, as is so well seen in the artificial | crystals of bismuth and of common salt. The diamond, too, when in cubes, has faces more uneven than those of the Youndegin crystals, and shows usually the same replace- ment of its edges by rounded faces of tetrakishexahedra. It thus might be argued with some force that the Youndegin crystals have been the result of a hurried crystallization of carbon, and that, while striving to reach a dignity which has been assigned to cubes of diamond, they have been overtaken by misfortune and come out in cubes of the less honoured mineral, graphite. The obtuse, almost flat, square pyramid seen on some of the cube- faces, the hollow globular growths, the occasional parallel- ism of the grouping of the cubes are distinct, however, from what is met with in the diamond. And after consideration of all the observed characters of these crystals it will be seen that the explanation of thé occurrence of the crystals in the interior of a mass of iron by means of pseudomorphism is untenable. Though the easy frangibility, the absence of evidence of cleavage, the hollowness, and the occasionally crust-like structure, are more or less characteristic of pseudomorphic crystals, they are not incompatible with an independent crystalliz- ation: on the other hand, while the superior hardness distinguishes the crystals from those of native terrestrial graphite, the separateness, completeness, and general excellence of the crystals, the delicacy of various acicu- lar projections, and more especially of the obtuse, almost flat, square pyramid seen on some of the cube-faces, are sufficient to prove that the crystalline form never had a previous tenant. The delicacy of the acicular projections is such that the crystals must have been formed zm stu. In case of pseudomorphism the elements of the original mineral ought to be in the vicinity of the crystals, and there ought to be an excess either of the original mineral or of the replacing amorphous graphitic carbon : both are, however, conspicuous by their absence, and in this frag- ment of the iron the whole of the graphitic carbon is present as cubic crystals. On examination of a large graphitic nodule from the Cocke County meteoric iron, now in the British Museum, crystals of graphitic carbon, cubo-octahedral in form, are to be seen in some of the crevices. There can be absolutely no doubt that the graphitic crystals are the result of crystallization of the meteoric graphite, and that they represent a third allotropic condi- tion of crystallized carbon, the general characters being those of graphite, and the crystalline system that of the diamond. As this form of graphitic carbon is unknown among terrestrial minerals, and has so important a bearing on the formation of meteoric graphite, it may conveniently receive a special name; I suggest the term “cliftonite,” after Prof. R. B. Clifton, F.R.S., who has long been in- terested in the physical characters of minerals, and has done much to encourage their study. A full description of the meteoric iron itself and of the graphitic crystals will appear in the forthcoming number of the Journal of the Mineralogical Society. L. FLETCHER. NOTES. WE are glad to learn that at the Naval Review (some lessons suggested by which we may refer to in a future number) 120 official invitations were sent out to men of science, while many were hospitably entertained by the Peninsular and Oriental, the Orient, the British India, and the Cable-Laying Companies. Some time next century we may hope that the existence of science, of a Royal Society, and of eminent scientific men employed in the public departments, may dawn upon the then Lord Chamberlain. THE Jubilee dinner of the Electric Telegraph, which is going on as we go to press, is a brilliant affair, to which we shall refer at length next week. WE print to-day the text of the Technical Education Bill. It was absolutely necessary that some such measure should be introduced, and we may hope that as it has no relation to party politics it will be passed without much difficulty. One change in the Bill ought certainly to be made. According to the fourth clause, there is to be no payment out of the local rate in respect ofa scholar unless or until he has passed the sixth standard. This may be a very proper provision so far as boys are concerned ; 306 NA TURE but it must not be applied to the case of adults, many of whom should be encouraged to take advantage of the new system of technical instruction. A man of thirty would be extremely un- willing to go in for an examination in reading, writing, and arithmetic, but there is no reason why there should not be pay- ment out of the local rate on his behalf, if he is disposed to enter upon a regular course of technical education. The more adults who can be induced to attend technical schools, the better for the working classes and for the country. WE have received a circular bearing the signatures of W. E. Ayrton, Michael Carteighe, Alfred E. Fletcher, G. Carey Foster, Michael Foster, J. H. Gladstone, H. Forster Morley, William Odling, Sydney Ringer, H. E. Roscoe, W. J. Russell, and P. J. Worsley, who have either been pupils of Dr. A. W. Williamson during the thirty-eight years that he has been Pro- fessor of Chemistry in University College, London, or have been otherwise intimately associated with him. In this circular it is suggested that Prof. Williamson’s resignation of his Chair affords a fitting opportunity for recording, in some permanent manner, the high appreciation of his influence as a scientific teacher, and the feeling of personal regard for him as a man, which are so generally entertained by those who know his work and character. It is accordingly proposed to ask him to sit for a portrait to be presented to University College, and subscriptions are invited for this purpose. As it is expected that this proposal will be widely responded to, one guinea is suggested as the ordinary amount of a subscription. Dr. W. J. Russell, F.R.S., 34 Upper Hamilton Terrace, N.W., has agreed to act as honorary treasurer of the fund to be collected, and Michael Carteighe, Esq., 36 Nottingham Place, W., and Dr. H. Forster Morley, University Hall, Gordon Square, W.C., as honorary secretaries. THE Council of King’s College, London, has elected Mr. J. W. Groves—Demonstrator of Practical Biology—to the Chair_ of Botany, rendered vacant by the resignation of Prof. Robert Bentley. > Mr. W. L. Sciater, B.A., of Keble College, Oxford, has been appointed by the Trustees of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, to be Deputy Superintendent of their Museum in succession to Mr. Wood Mason, who has become Superintendent upon the resignation of Dr. Anderson. Mr. Sclater, who was a pupil of Prof. Moseley, took a first class in the final Examination for Natural Science in 1885, and has since been working under Prof. Ray Lankester and Mr. Sedgwick, and for the last three years has prepared the report on mammals for the ‘‘ Zoological Record.” Last winter Mr. Sclater passed several months in British Guiana, under the hospitable roof of Mr. E. F. im Thurn, and made collections in several branches of natural history, which have been ap ase in the Zoological Society’s Pro- ceedings. THE summer meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects were opened on Tuesday in the hall of the Literary and Philo- sophical Society, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Lord Armstrong began the regular business of the conference by reading a paper by himself and Mr. J. Vavasseur on the application of hydraulic pressure to gunnery. A paper was also read by Mr. F. C. Marshall on recent developments in marine engineering. After the meeting the members were conveyed in brakes to the Elswick Works, where they were shown over the ordnance and ship-building departments, and were entertained to luncheon by Lord Armstrong. AN Electrical Exhibition will be given in New York in the autumn by the New York Electrical Society. The Exhibition will be open from September 28 to December 3. It will include, says Science, ‘‘ all that relates to the science and application of electricity in its broadest sense.” As no electrical exhibition has ever been held in New York, it is Sari th will attract a large number of visitors. WE learn from Sczence that the American Comm International Congress of Geologists will present a approaching meeting of the American Association the positions to be taken by the representatives of geologists at the next session of the Congress in upon the more important questions of nomenclature, ¢ : and colouring, which will there be discussed. The requests that a -*3 may be set apart by Section = geologists (whether members of the American A not) shall be invited to attend this session and parti the work. : WITH respect to the recent small but exceed destructive cyclone, which literally effaced a station of the Bay of Bengal, called False Point (NaTU 136), a correspondent writes to us from Calcutta :- was an exceedingly interesting one, and some of its quite different from those previously recorded. It is» able in the fact that at the centre of the storm a lower was recorded than during any storm that I have pressure fell to nearly 27 inches at sea-level. The 1 which the pressure fell was also extraordinary.” PROF. PEDLER, Principal of the Presidency College, who is in charge of the Bengal Meteorological Dep notice of the existence of this terrible storm in the 1 Bay of Bengal five or six days before it broke over th was also able to give twenty-four hours’ notice of of the coast which the storm would (and did) cross. — warning signals in the river at Calcutta to prevent s ing. Unhappily one steamer went out in spite of the foundered, with about 900 people on board, every a was drowned. In obedience to the signals, six or vessels remained in safety. Among these vessels steamers going to the same port as the one which and having about as many people on board. of persons, therefore, owed their lives directly to science. It would be hard to conceive a more s! tion of the practical value of meteorology. WE have received the concluding part of the Weather Report of the Meteorological Office for the This volume is the third of the new series begun and contains charts showing mean meteorological co each month, a general summary of the weather for e and the usual tables giving the results derived from t of the seven observatories then co-operating with together with continuous curves of the ee n In an appendix is a paper by General R. Strachey, R. Chairman of the Meteorological Council, which will b able for agriculturists. By the use of the tables the am excess or defect of the daily temperature above or fixed minimum, below which active vegetation does may be easily obtained during the year from temperature observations usually made; this could be previously only by a laborious calculation. The 1 ‘accumulated temperature,” published in the Week Report of the Meteorological Office, are calculat tables. The Monthly Weather Report, which began and which is published nearly up to date, now tahey? of the Quarterly Reports. THE MMeteorologische Zeitschrift for July contains the ing portion of Dr. Képpen’s article on the class clouds (NATURE, June 30, p. 208), We are glad to 5 yuly 28, 1887] NATURE 307 second portion full justice is done to the recent researches of Hon. R. Abercromby, and a lengthy report is given of the ts of a conference between that gentleman and M. Hilde- dsson at Upsala at the end of 1886. This report points at the study of the forms of clouds may be undertaken different objects in view. If the object be weather-predic- puctaiied terminology is necessary, and for this purpose idebrandsson thinks Mr. W. C. Ley’s classification of the ideas is unsurpassed. One of the principal objects determination of the directions of the wind in the higher wish so many forms; but we must be sure (1) that these S$ are, generally speaking, everywhere the same, and (2) we determine the mean heights of the various forms by- direct easurements. With the view of settling the first point, Mr. bercromby has made two voyages round the globe. The second estion has been partially solved by the researches of MM. 1olm and Hagstrém at Upsala (NATURE, June 30, p. 206). is, however, necessary that such measurements should be dio at various other places, and the same gentlemen intend to uke further experiments elsewhere during this summer. Dr. Koppen concludes his article by some remarks on the history of ; development of clouds, and recommends a series of observa- é -in balloons similar to the celebrated ascents made many years ago by Mr. Glaisher. The same number of the Zeitschrift contains interesting articles on the results of meteorological "observations during solar eclipses, by Mr. Winslow Upton, and | on the method of counting the number of rainy days in various countries, and its influence on the resulting period of rain- frequency, by Dr. E, Briickner, of Hamburg. The amount of fall which is taken as representing a rainy day differs con- lerably in different countries. The author recommends the neral. adoption of 0’o05 inch, without reference to whether e. caused by rain, snow, dew, &c. The amount has not n definitely fixed by the Meteorological Congresses, but opted by this country is o’o1 inch (or 0’005 inch where rainfall is measured to thousandths of aninch), The Inter. ional Polar Committee have adopted o'r millimetre (=0'004 ) as representing a rainy day in all their publications, while Prussia twice that amount is taken as the minimum quantity. _ TIME-SIGNALLING on the German coasts began (we learn from a recent paper by Prof: Foerster) twelve years ago, and there are at present seven time-balls in action; viz. at. Bremerhaven, Cuxhaven, Swinemiinde, Neufahrwasser, Wilhelmshaven, Kiel, and Hamburg. In this respect, our country stands first. We began some thirty years ago, and have at present fourteen time- balls on ‘our coasts, also five other arrangements for the same end. In our colonies and dependencies there are twenty-six time-balls, France possesses four time-balls (and two other arrangements) ; Sweden and Norway, Austria-Hungary, Holland with Belgium, and the United States, have five each ; Den:nark has two ; Spain and Portugal one each. Italy has none as yet. Tue list of examples illustrating the law of isomorphism has just received a strong reinforcement at the hands of M. Charles Fabre, who describes in the last number of the Comptes rendus the result of his attempt to prepare a series of selenium alums isomorphous with the corresponding double sulphates. Following up the work of Wohlvil, Wéhler, and Pettersson, Fabre has succeeded in preparing double selenates of the general formula Al,(SeO,)3 . M,SeO,. 24H,0, in which M represents respectively potassium, sodium, cesium, rubidium, thallium,. ammonium, ethylamine, di- and tri-ethylamine, and propylamine. Each of these alums crystallizes in the cubic system, generally in colour- of aluminium and thallium, form exceptionally beautiful crystals. Further, the French chemist finds, as might be expected, that less octahedra ; and some of them, notably the double selenate + chromium forms a similar series of isomorphous double selenates, most of which build up splendid octahedra, black by reflected and violet by transmitted light. These alums are comparatively easy to obtain crystallized if the temperature be kept low, but at slightly elevated temperatures the small amount of chemical attraction by which the two constituent selenates are constrained to combine together in molecular proportions is overcome, and the alum can never be formed. THE last numbers of the Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (vol. xxi. Nos. 1 and 2) contain an interesting ‘‘symposium” on the question whether the Chinese should be taught Western science through the medium of their own or a European language. If the latter, no doubt the language would be English. The stumbling-block in the way of teaching science to the Chinese is the difficulty, not to say impossibility, of finding Chinese equivalents for the terms of our science. The Japanese have made the attempt at translation, but do not appear to be quite satisfied with the result. The missionaries who take part in the discussion appear to be of opinion that the Chinese language is the best medium, while on the other side it is contended that as long.as it is taught by foreigners it had better be taught in a foreign language, ‘‘ and probably by foreigners who have not had their faculties para- lyzed by the task of mastering the Chinese language.” Most of the laymen appear to be of this opinion. The question, after all, appears to be one of terminology; for if this difficulty can be overcome there is, we presume, no dispute that men, whether Orientals or Europeans, can best acquire knowledge through the medium of their native tongue.. In the terminology the ques- tion appears, in Japan at least—and the same is doubtless true of China—to be whether the terms of Western science should be translated approximately or transliterated app-oxi- mately. Should there be, for example, an attempt to reproduce by transliteration the words hydrogen, nitrogen, logarithm, &c., or an attempt to translate their meanings into concise terms which will take their places in Chinese and Japanese science? In either case the student will have to learn a new terminology, exactly as students in the West do. This is a point for Oriental scholars to decide, but it certainly does seem at first sight that transliteration is preferable to translation, for in the latter there is room for dispute and differences of opinion and practice, while the former has severe simplicity to recommend it. SEVERE earthquakes were noticed on July 11 in the Hungarian districts of Arad, Temesvar, and Torontal. On July 17 shocks of earthquake were felt at Catania, Lecce, Ischia, Livorno, and Parma. Oscillations were. felt in Rhodes, Crete, and Chios, and at Smyrna. Several houses were damaged at Canea, and in Rhodes a part of the fortress- wall and some chimneys were destroyed. M. Burcu says, in Cosmos, that in America he saw six wild geese, when flying in a storm, killed by lightning. THE French Academy of Sciences has received the Giffard legacy of 50,000 francs, and has resolved to employ the interest in grants to learned men in pecuniary difficulties. Pror. LunGe, of Zurich, has re-written and added to the treatise on ‘‘Coal-Tar Distillation” which he brought out in 1882. The new edition, with many new working drawings, will be ready very soon, and Meisrs. Gurney and Jackson, Mr. Van Voorst’s successors, are to publish it. In the Moniteur Belge of the 3rd inst., a Royal decree was published nominating the Vice-Presidents, Chief Secretary, and 308 NATURE [ aly 28, 1887 staff of the Scientific and Industrial Competition which is to be held in Brussels next year. M. Charles Mourlon is the Chief Secretary. Mr. HiLcKeEn, Librarian of the Bethnal Green Free Library, writes to us that the Library is greatly in need of one or two microscopes. ‘*We have received,” he says, ‘‘a present of interesting ‘ objects,’ but they are useless without microscopes. Many of our readers would gladly avail themselves of the use of such instruments.” Dr. R. H. Gunnino, of Rio de Janeiro and Edinburgh, has made the following munificent gifts in connexion with Her Majesty’s Jubilee:—To the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, a triennial prize of £105, to be named ‘‘ The Vic- toria Jubilee Prize for the Advancement of Science.” To the Council of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, £40 yearly, or £120 every three years, as they may prefer, to be named ‘** The Victoria Jubilee Gift,” the object of the founder being to assist experts to travel, with the view of ‘‘ examining other col- lections, and keeping the Edinburgh Museum as completely furnished with information and examples as possible.” To the Senatus of the University of Edinburgh, £200 per annum, to provide eleven post-graduation triennial prizes of £50 each. These are to be named the Monro, Sir Charles Bell, Edward Forbes, Hutton Balfour, Joseph Black, Christison, Lister, Gregory, John Thomson, Simpson, and Alison Prizes, and are to be administered by the Senatus, the incumbent of the Chair in connexion with which the prize is to be awarded having a wide choice in the subjects of examination. To the Royal Col- lege of Physicians of Edinburgh, £100 triennially, for a prize to bear the title ‘‘Dr. Gunning’s Cullen Prize for the greatest benefit done to Practical Medicine.” To the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh, £120 triennially, for a prize to be called ‘‘ The Liston Victoria Jubilee Prize,” which shall be open to all Fellows and Licentiates of the College, and shall be awarded for the greatest benefit done to practical surgery. To the Edinburgh Association for the University Education of Women, 440 annually for a bursary to be called ‘* The Victoria Jubilee Bursary.” In addition to the above, Dr. Gunning has intimated, through Lord Maclaren, a gift of £100 for the Ben Nevis Observatory. Dr. Gunning, who was long resident in Brazil, is a Dignitary of the Brazilian Empire, a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and a Fellow of the Society of Anti- quaries of Scotland. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Bonnet Monkey (MJacacus sinicus 8) from India, presented by Mr. Francis Yare ; a Cape Zorilla (/cetonyx zorilla) from Cape Colony, presented by Mr. J. A. Willet ; a Spotted Ichneumon (Herfestes nepalensis) from Nepal, presented by Mr. T. C. Bacon ; two Spotted Cavys (Celogenys paca) from South America, presented by Mr. William F. Kirton; an Arizona Squirrel (Sciurus arizinensis) from New Mexico, U.S.A., pre- sented by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt ; a Common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus), British, presented by Mr. W. M. Alexander ; a Lesser Kestrel (Zinnunculus cenchris), South European, presented by Mrs. M. Travers ; two Corn Crakes (Crex pratensis), British, presented by Mr. S. C. Hincks ; two Cardinal Grosbeaks (Car- dinalis virginianus) from North America, presented by Mr. Samuel Nicholson ; two Hybrid Herring Gulls (between Larus argentatus and Larus dominicanus), presented by Lord Lilford ; two Viperine Snakes (7vofidonotus viperinus) from North Africa, a Bordeaux Snake (Coronella girondica), South Euro- pean, presented by the Rev. T. W. Haines; a Grey Ichneumon (Herpestes griseus) from India, an Aldrovandi’s Skink (Plestiodon auratus) from North Africa, deposited; a Crested Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), born in the Gardens; two Slender Ducks (Anas gibberifrons), bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE TOTAL SOLAR ECLIPSE OF 1886.—Mr. W. H. Pick who observed the total solar eclipse of August 1886 at G W.I., communicates to Sczence, vol. x. No. 230, a brief of his results, in order that it may be published in time to service to the observers of the approaching eclipse on Augt It was found that, by using rapid gelatine plates, an of one or two seconds was sufficient to show the detail: inner corona satisfactorily with an ordinary telescope-lens. a portrait-lens, the ratio of whose aperture to its focus we one to five, the same exposure showed the outer corona factorily as far as a distance of 15’ to 30’ from the limb o moon. Beyond that the light was very decidedly fainter, was shown best by exposures of from eight to forty secon corona showed the usual short rays proceeding from t poles, and from the south-western quadrant a very co ray, appearing like a hollow cone, projected to a dis! about 20’. A number of prominences were seen near th tor, on both sides of the moon ; but the most conspicu was situated in the north-western quadrant. It exten: height of about 100,000 miles, and had apparently a: spiral structure. The spectra of the various prominent shown very clearly by the prismatic camera. In the equat ones the hydrogen and H and K lines were prominent, posed on a background of continuous spectrum; but large prominence the hydrogen lines were absent, alth H and K lines were strongly marked. The positi maximum density in the continuous spectrum of the p was found to be quite different from that of the coron former it is not far from G, whilst in the latter it lies | Gand F. A large number of persons observed the bands, which appeared before and after totality. The result of their observations indicated that the bands w 5 inches wide and 8 inches apart, that they were cole the spectrum, and that they moved with a velocity co with that of an express train ; at all events much faste: man could run. Before totality the bands lay N. 1: S. 12° E., and travelled west ; after totality they lay N and S. 60° W., and travelled north-west. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR T. WEEK 1887 JULY 31—AUGUST 6. (FO the reckoning of time the civil day, commenci Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours o: is here employed. ) Tee At Greenwich on July 31 Sun rises, 4h. 24m. ; souths, 12h. 6m. 9'Is.; sets, I decl. on meridian, 18° 18’ N.: Sidereal Time 16h. 24m, ! Moon (Full on August 3) rises, 17h. 15m.; souths, 21th. sets, th. 56m.*; decl. on meridian, 19° 37'S. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl.on: m. a h. m. ‘ Mercury 420°" qo =9e Ae 19°26 Ula oe Venus... 8 41 14 53 2 Ris Mars ... > Te IO 20 18 38.03: Jupiter... Li $6 0 07 oe 22 24) 44 Saturn. as 9 20s er ee 19 22 * Indicates that the setting is that of the following morning. Variable Stars. : R.A. Star. : Decl. ; . m. ° ‘ Z U Cephei © 52°3... 81 16 N.... Aug. 2? Algol 3°08... 40 SENG wae V Bodtis 2. 14 25°2 43°30 23° Nv 5 Libree we 1454'S 08 eee V Corone ... -.. 15 45'5 ... 39 55 N at R Ursz Minorls... 16 31°5 ... 72 30 Ne «c)uag Gee U Ophiuchi... ... 17 10°38... 1 20N.... July 31, 4 and at intervals of 20 W Sagittarii 27 57'S 20 35's T Herculis .. 8: 468: 13h Soa n Aquilze . 19 46°7... 043 N e S Sagittze » 19 50°9 ... 16 20H, +s § Cephei 22 25°0: Re Rota % Aug. 3, 22. M siznifies maximum ; 72 minimum. -¥uly 28, 1887] NATURE 309 4 Occultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). a Corresponding angles from ver- Mag. Disap. Reap. ‘tex to right for . inverted image. h. m. h, m. 6 ° eeak-oagittarii ... 5 O23 eh Bad 99 323 « 70 Aquarii $4500 ke a ee August 3.—Partial eclipse of the Moon. First contact with adow 19h. 36m. ; middle of eclipse 20h. 49m. ; last contact shadow 22h. 2m. Magnitude of eclipse = 0°419 of moon’s neter.. The moon will rise at Greenwich at Igh. 35m. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. _ THE rumour as to the death of Mr. Stanley is universally discredited in geographical circles, and among those directly in- terested in the Emin Pasha Expedition. The rumour seems yuite inconsistent with the news as to Mr. Stanley’s having left a Aruwimi River on June 3 for Wadelai. Had he been shot, as reported, it must have been after this date, and during the land journey, whereas one version of the rumour gives out that he was killed on the Congo. He may meet with Emin Pasha sooner than he expected. Emin, it seems, is at present exploring on the south of the Albert Nyanza, endeavouring to find the of the lake, and ascertain whether it may proceed from the Mwuta Nzige. So that he and Mr. Stanley may meet half way. Letters from Mr. Stanley are expected in this country early in August. THE Report of Dr. Hans Schinz on his exploration of the German colony known as Luderitzland (South-West Africa) has mg been panes. Dr. Schinz made two journeys : the first, in 1884, from Angra Pequena to Am-Hub on the Xamob, a _ sub-affluent of the Orange; and the second, in 1885, across _ Namaqua-land and Damara-land, and the little-known region which separates Damara-land from the Cunene River. The Report contains much valuable information, especially on the flora and the people of the region visited. The region is quite as sterile and hopeless as it has been painted by previous ‘visitors. It is only on the north of Etosha (18° S. lat.) that the flora and fauna become anything like abundant—bauhinia, palms, cassia, baobab. The population becomes more dense as ‘we approach the Cunene. But three-fourths, if not four-fifths, of the new German colony is unworkable and uninhabitable. In the new number of Zimehri the valuable serial published in British Guiana, will be found a condensed translation of Pére de la Borde’s ‘‘ History of the Origin, Customs, Religion, Wars, and Towns of the Caribs of Antilles,” the first of a series of reprints of the literature of West India and Guiana red men, which it is proposed to publish from time to time in the journal. A large part of the number is devoted to Mr. Im Thurn’s notes on the plants observed during the Roraima expedition. Tue last Annual Report of the Russian Geograpnica Society for 1886, which has just reached us, contains a good deal of useful information. An account of several interesting journeys is given. The publications of the Society were numerous and valuable. Seven fascicules of the Memoirs appeared during the year, containing the work on the geology of Lake Baikal, by M. Tchersky ; a hydrological inquiry into the Upper and Middle Amu-daria, by the late M. Zuboff; on the landslips at Odessa, by M. Jarintseff ; on the exposure of thermometers, by M. Savelieff; on a journey to North-West Persia and the Transcaspian region, by M. Nikolsky; on the province of Olonets, by M. Polyakoff ; and on the Votyaks, by M. Soko- lovsky. The Society published, moreover, a volume of the ** Works of the Siberian Expedition,” containing Fr. Schmidt’s ** Miocene Flora of Sakhalin,” and three volumes of obser- vations of the Polar stations on the Lena and on Novaya Zemlya. It is good news that the addenda to the capital ** Geographical Dictionary of Russia,” by P. Semenoff, are being rapidly prepared for the press. The great gold medal of the Society has been awarded to M. Potanin for his twenty years’ phical work ; and that of Count Liitke to M. Tchersky for remarkable geological explorations around Lake Baikal and in East Siberia altogether. Other gold medals have been awarded to MM. Nalivkin for their work “On the Position of Woman amidst the Settled Population of Ferganah,” published last year at Kazan; to M. Yastreboff for a work on Turkish connexions of the great affluent he discovered on the south side: Servians; to M. Makaroff for his researches into the double currents in straits; to MM. Skassi and Bolsheff for carto- graphical work ; and to M. Eigner for his work at the Lena Polar station. Many silver medals have been awarded for works of less importance. The Committee of the Russian Geographical Society for Pendulum Observations and the Meteorological Committee have done most useful work. THE TECHNICAL EDUCATION BILL. I. ‘THE following is the text of the Bill to facilitate the provision of technical instruction :-— Be it enacted by the Queen’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows : oi This Act may be cited as the Technical Instruction Act, I 7° 2. Any local authority as defined by this Act may pass a resolution that it is expedient to provide for supplementing by technical instruction the elementary education supplied in its district, and for that purpose to put in force the provisions of this Act. 3. (1) A local authority shall, before proceeding to carry into effect a resolution under this Act, cause the resolution to be published in the prescribed manner, and within the prescribed time, not being less than two months after the publication, fifty persons entitled to vote at the election of members of the local authority, or one-third of the total number of those persons, may, by a written requisition, require a poll of those persons to be taken as to carrying the resolution into effect, and there- upon the poll shall be taken in the prescribed manner, and in accordance with the prescribed regulations. Provided that— (a) the poll shall, so far as circumstances admit, be conducted in like manner in which the poll at a contested municipal elec- tion is directed by the Ballot Act, 1872, to be conducted ; and, subject to any exceptions or modifications contained in any order of the Department of Science and Art made in pursuance of this Act, the Ballot Act, 1872, shall apply accordingly ; and (4) all persons entitled to vote at the election of members of the local authority shall be entitled to vote at the taking of the poll; and (c) each of those persons shall be entitled to one vote only. (2) If the resolution is negatived at the poll it shall not be carried into effect, and shall not be again proposed until the amg of not less than twelve months after the taking of the poll. (3) This section shall not apply to the metropolis as defined in the Elementary Education Act, 1870. 4. (1) For the purpose of supplementing by technical instruc- tion the elementary education supplied in its district, a local authority may in pursuance of a resolution under this Act— (a) Provide technical schools for its district ; or (4) Combine with any other local authority for the purpose of providing technical schools common to the districts of both authorities ; or (c) Contribute towards the maintenance, or provision and maintenance, of any technical school ; or (d) Make such arrangements as to the local authority seem - expedient for supplementing by technical instruction the instruc- tion given in any public elementary school in its district. (2) The expenses incurred by a local authority for the purposes of this Act shall be defrayed out of the local rate. (3) Provided that no payment shall be made under this Act out of the local rate in respect of a scholar unless or until he has obtained a certificate from the Education Department that he has passed the examination in reading, writing, and arithmetic prescribed by the standard set forth in the schedule to this Act (being the Sixth Standard fixed by the minut es of the Education Department in force at the passing of this Act) or an examina- tion equivalent thereto. (4) Two or more local authorities may, with the sanction of the Department of Science and Art, enter into any agreement | which may be necessary for carrying into effect any resolution under this Act ; and any such agreement may provide for the appointment of a joint body of managers, for the proportion of the contributions to be paid by the respective authorities, and 310— NATURE for any other matters which, in the opinion of the Department of Science and Art, are necessary for carrying out the agreement. i 3 5. (1) Every school provided under this Act shall be con- ducted in accordance with the conditions specified in the minutes of the Department of Science and Art in force for the time being, and required to be fulfilled by such a school in order to obtain a grant from that Department. : ~ (2) Those conditions shall, amongst other things, provide that a grant shall not be made by the Department of Science and Art in respect of a scholar admitted to the school unless or until he has obtained such a certificate from the Education Department as is herein-before mentioned. ; (3) A minute of the Department of Science and Art not in force at the sassing of this Act shall not be deemed to be in force for the purposes of this Act until it has lain for not less than one month on the table of both Houses of Parliament. 6. (1) Every local authority providing a school under this Act shall maintain and keep efficient the school so provided. (2) For the purposes of providing and maintaining any such school a local authority shall have the same powers as a school board has for providing sufficient school accommodation for its district, but for the purposes of this Act the provisions of the Elementary Education Acts with respect to the exercise of those powers shall have effect as if the Department of Science and Art were substituted therein for the Education Department. (3) Where a local authority has provided or maintains any such school, it may discontinue the school or change the site thereof, if it satisfies the Department of Science and Art that the school to be discontinued is unnecessary or that the change of site is expedient. 7. (1) The managers of any technical school in the district of a local authority may make an arrangement with the local authority for transferring their school to that authority, and the local authority may assent to any such arrangement. (2) The provisions of section twenty-three of the Elementary Education Act, 1870, with respect to arrangements for the transfers of schools in pursuance of that section, shall apply in the case of arrangements for the transfers of schools in pursu- ance of this section, with this modification, that for the purposes of this section references to the school board shall be construed as references to the local authority, and references to the Education Department as references to the Department of Science and Art. 8. In this Act— The expression ‘‘ technical instruction”? means instruction in the branches of science and art with respect to which grants are for the time being made by the Department of Science and Art, or in any other subject which may for the time being be sanc- tioned by that Department; and the expression ‘‘technical school” means a school or department of a school which is giving technical instruction to the satisfaction of the Department of Science and Art. The expression ‘‘ local authority ” means a school board and the council of a borough for which there is no school board. The expression ‘‘ local rate’? means— (2) in a district for which there is a school board, the school fund ; (4) ina borough for which there is not a school board, the borough fund or borough rate. The expression ‘‘the Education Department” means the Lords of the Committee of Her Majesty’s Privy Council on Education. The expression ‘‘ prescribed ” means prescribed by the Depart- ment of Science and Art. 9. In thé application of this Act to Ireland the expression *‘borough” means a borough subject to the Act of the session of the third and fourth years of the reign of Her present Majesty, chapter one hundred and eight, intituled ‘‘ An Act for the regulation of municipal corporations in Ireland,” and the Acts amending the same. SCHEDULE. Standard V7, Reading.—To read a passage from one of Shakspeare’s his- torical plays, or from some other standard author, or from a history of England. Writing._-A short theme or letter on an easy subject, spelling, handwriting, and composition to be considered. An exercise in dictation may, at the discretion of the i substituted for composition. i Arithmetic.—Fractions, vulgar and decimal, simpli tion, and simple interest. —~ ‘ t us : : ae WE reprint from the. Zimes of July 21 the follo onthe Baill = 280 Y “Cae Be y The measure introduced late on Tuesday night by Hart Dyke, the Vice-President of the Council, may of far greater practical importance than many a n may for the moment loom larger in the public Government Bill for organizing throughout England at least the beginnings of a system of technical educ: Scotch Office is meanwhile preparing an analogous | Scotland, which it is hoped will proceed pari passu English Bill through the House ; and the Government if possible, to carry both measures this session. It time. There has been plenty of talk about technical e and we want action in the matter. The need is adi hands. It is a crying need, as much recognized in tative statements as the Report of the late Com the reports of examiners appointed by the Technical at South Kensington. The former admits the gre; riority of foreign nations over ourselves in and shows how both France and Germany : more serious and successful attempts than we to trail workmen in the theory as well as in the practice o trades. One result is the increased severity of forei tion, from which British industry is suffering in 2 What we lately stated, on the authority of the Commit London Chamber of Commerce, with regard to the c of German with English clerks in London and the no applied, with little change, to the foreign workmen. not above learning their trade. They know that ¢ depends on their excelling, and they strive to excel, \ Governments behind them, showing them, by carefully instruction, what is the best way. As yet, in E done little more, by way of meeting this activity of o than to build a fine Institute at South Kensington, that Institute is not doing good. __ Its very existence is against the inveterate English beliefin rule of thumb. yet only touched the fringe of the questions before while it has done something positive by such mean teachers, it has also done not a little to test the actual st: technical knowledge in many trades. Two months called attention to the reports of its examiners, and poi how unfavourable on the whole they were. In dyeing, cotton-spinning, paper-making, carriage- other industries, very few candidates showed any knowledge to speak of ; on the one hand they were the rudiments of chemistry, on the other of the ru drawing. Ina word, they failed to link the prima which they might be supposed to have received with th of their handicrafts. Meant The Government Bill proposes to do much to re state of things less common. So far as can be judged Vice-President’s speech, the Bill being not yet. pri Bill for enabling local authorities—generally School acting in concert with the Science and Art Department, vide technical instruction for pupils who have left the schools, and in certain cases for those who have 1 them. What the mover calls the operative clause e authorities to provide technical schools, and at the combine with other local authorities by way of saving The power of rating is given, but at the same time payers are to have a veto on ‘‘any proposal under The combination clause, which permits the joint action | we have referred, is that on which Sir William relies to convince the public that his Bill will be easily worked. Another, with the same object, is which enables the local authority to make any ar which it may deem expedient for supplementing the instruction at present given in the schools. As to the tural districts, and the teaching of agricultural su Vice-President admits that his Bill will not do very x indeed, it would seem that the provision of that instra was urged earlier in the evening, is beyond the pow Science and Art Department. The question of Lon the London vote when debatable questions arise, is one W ith the Government have foreseen, but on which they can- NATURE 311 saf some gel renee information. It Sa’: be Es - the Vice-President of the Council, to bring sn the chee voting power” of London on the ion of forbidding some scheme of the local authority ; and ently he has put himself into communication with the School Board, or rather with Sir Richard Temple, its hairman, to devise a way out of the difficulty. With the seems particularly pleased, but, as the proposal of Sir Temple is not made public, it is lawful to reserve our Then there is the question of the directing authority. to be the Education Office ; it is to be the Science and artment. Whether this will create any possible conflict orities it is difficult to say ; but as those two bodies have same head—the President and the Vice-President of the cil—it may be hoped that the conflicts will not be common It is not to be supposed that such a Bill as this, which creates #& new rating authority, and therefore threatens the pockets of ‘the ratepayers, will pass into law without a good deal of criti- ‘cism, or that it will be universally popular. Our correspondent, Daniel Watney, this morning gives utterance to a protest of the la e is strong, though the arguments are un- wincing. He admits that the old apprenticeship system has ‘broken down, and that some substitute must be found ; but any- ng like a “edn system of technical instruction, directed by cal authorities and the Science and Art Department, is ned out of hand. Mr. Watney seems to think that the proposal would give too much power to Professors, for whom he entertains the contempt of the ‘‘ practical man.” The practical man is commonly little more than an imperfect theorist ; ‘and just now, in England, his success in maintaining the com- ercial supremacy of the country is not such as to invest him with commanding authority. For our part we do not see where the Professors are to come in under Sir William Hart Dyke’s Bill ; but if they did come in, perhaps it might not be a bad thing for the improvement of our theoretical, and therefore our rue knowledge. As to the immediate prospects of the Bill, it would seem from its reception on Tuesday night that the House is favourable to it. Mr. Mundella made two objections : ‘one to the delegation of all power of initiation to the localities, ‘and one to the exclusion of all pupils below the sixth standard. ‘The objections stand on different grounds. The former is one of principle, the latter one of detail. It is not likely that the ‘Government will venture, so late in the Session, and at a time ‘when other difficulties have to be met and faced, to propose a sweeping measure for imposing technical instruction by the act of a central Department. The ratepayer must be humoured if his assent is to be won. As to the second objection, we think Mr. Mundella is probably right. The choice lies between prices Be, es children at school till they have passed the fifth technical and admitting fifth-standard children to whatever classes may be available. It would be unjust to deprive eons of learning whatever can be learnt about their trades. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Bulletin de la Société des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1887, No. 1.—The Scaphirhynchus, being an elaborate compara- tive anatomical description (in German) of the genus and its species, by N.Iwanzow (with two plates).—On the great comet (43) of 1886, by Th. Bredichin (with a plate).—Enumeration of the vascular plants of the Caucasus, by M. Smirnoff (in French). In this third paper the author discusses the relative moistness of the air in the Caucasus ; he gives most valuable tables from twenty- three Caucasian stations, and shows the cn Cope of moisture upon the prevailing winds ; he then gives tables as to the amount and frequency of rain in different parts of Caucasia, and discusses this climatic factor in comparison with the distribution of rains upon the Mediterranean region generally. This most valuable paper is to be continued.—On calorimetric methods for deter- aining minimal quantities of iron in mineral waters, by E. Kislakovsky.—Comparative discussion of the data collected in Russia as to the epochs of the blooming of plants which are freely growing or cultivated between the 44th and 60th degrees of de, by A. Deengingk, being a most valuable paper (in German), containing a list of the times of blooming of 270 different species at Pyatigorsk, Kishineff, Sarepta, Orel, them altogether, after they have left school, of the. Moscow, and St. Petersburg. This is followed bya note on the blooming of 225 plants at Pyatigorsk and Elizabethpol in the Caucasus, as also on trees and bushes, endemic and exotic, in the Caucasus, showing the origin of the exotic plants.—On the parasitical pteromalines of the Hessian fly, by Prof. Lindeman. Five parasites, all new species, are described (in German) and figured.—Entomological notes, by the same, on the Haltica vittula of Russia, the Scotylus amygdali of Transcaucasia, and the Cleigastra flavipes from Moscow.—On the tooth-plates of the Gulnaria, by Dr. W. Dybowski (in German),—On remains of the Ursus speleus in Transcaucasia, by N. Anutschin (in German).—On the species of 7araxacum and Glycyrhiza, and Athagi camelorum, by A. Becker. No. 2.— Comparative anatomical inquiry into the structure of the cord of fishes and its cuticular envelopes, by W. Lvoff (with three plates). A most elaborate inquiry into, preceded by an historical sketch of the literature of, the subject (summed up in German).—A study on the palzontological history of the Ungu- late in America and Europe, by Mary Pavlow (in French). After having summed up the ideas developed on this subject by MM. Cope, Wortman, and Schlosser, the author studies the group of Condylathra, and shows that its separate members may have been predecessors of some orders of Mammalia ; that it is a mixed group containing species which have the characters of Ungulatz as well as of Unguiculate ; and that it may be considered as standing at the head of the genetic tree of the Ungulate and Carnivores. Madame Pavlow shows, moreover, that the Condylathra have also representatives in Europe.— Notes on the remains of man and Ursus sfeleus in Trans- caucasia, by N. Anutschin.—The Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destruc- tor) in Russia, by Prof. Lindeman (in German), being an elaborate paper on the history of its spreading, its habits and devastations, and its development (to be continued). ier SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Entomological Society, July 6.—Dr. D. Sharp, President, in the chair.—Mr. McLachlan remarked that at the meeting of the Society in October 1886 he exhibited a quantity of the so- called ‘jumping seeds” from Mexico, containing larve of Carpocapsa saltitans, Westw. The seeds had long ceased to “jump,” which proved that the larve were either dead, had become quiescent, or had pupated ; about a fortnight ago he opened one of the seeds, and found therein a living pupa. On the 4th inst. a moth (exhibited) was produced.—The President, on behalf of the Rev. H. S. Gorham, exhibited the following Coleoptera, lately taken in the New Forest : Amoplodera sex- ‘guttata, Fab., wholly black variety; Grammopiera anaiis, Fab. ; Colydium elongatum, Fab. ; and a specimen of Zachinus elongatus, Gyll., with brownish-red elytra.—Mr. S. Stevens exhibited a specimen of Orsodacna humeralis, Latr. (Uineola, Panz., var.), taken by him at Norwood; he also exhibited a specimen of the same beetle taken by him fifty years ago in Coombe Wood ; during the interval he had never seen it alive. —Mr. G. T. Porritt exhibited, on behalf of Mr. N. F. Dobrée, of Beverley, a series of about thirty specimens of a Zeniocampa he had received from Hampshire, which had previously been referred to as a red form of 7. gracilis. Mr. Dobrée was in- clined to think they were not that species, but 7. stadilis.— Mr. A. C. Horner exhibited the following species of Coleoptera from the neighbourhood of Tonbridge :—Compsochilus palpaits, Esp. (5); Acrognathus mandibularis, Gyll. (4); Homalota atrata, Mann., HZ. vilis, Er., and 4. dificilis, Bris. ; Calodera rubens, Er. ; and Oxytelus ipes, Er. He also exhibited a Rhicophagus from Sherwood Forest, which appeared to belong to a new species ; and several specimens of Ho/opfedina polyport, Forst., also from Sherwood Forest, where he had found it in company with, and probably parasitic on, Cis vestitus.—Mr. Elisha exhibited two larve of Zelleria hepariella, Stn. Mr. Stainton remarked that as the greater part of the larve of Zelleria were attached to the Oleacez, it seemed strange that certain species had recently been found on Saxifrage.—Mr. Slater read a paper on the presence of tannin in certain insects, and its influence on their colours. He mentioned the facts that tannin was certainly present in the tissues of the leaf- wood- and bark-eating species, but not in the tissues of the carnivorous beetles, and that black colour on the elytra of certain beetles appeared to be produced by the action of iron on tannin. A NATURE | ¥uly 28, I djscussion ensued, in which Prof. Meldola, Mr. Poulton, Dr. Sharp, and others took part. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, July 18.—M. Janssen in the chair. —On the transition between the aromatic and fatty series, by MM. Berthelot and Recoura. By the synthetic process this transition is effected very clearly in the polymeric transformation cf acetylene, into benzene, and in the allied pyrogenous reactions. Some light has also been thrown on the more obscure problem of the transition in living organisms by Prunier’s experiments with quercite, and Maquenne’s with inosite. These studies are here subjected to further investigation by the measurement of the heats of formation of the various principles, themselves deduced from the heats of combustion. In all cases the passage of a body belonging to the fatty series to one of the aromatic series by deshydratation is shown to be accompanied by a considerable liberation of heat ; that is to say, by a loss of energy correspond- ing to the excess of stability acquired by the fundamental hydro- carbonated nucleus.—Comparative locomotion: action of the pelvic member in man, the elephant, and the horse, by MM. Marey and Pagés. ‘Their recent researches on the locomotion of the horse and elephant enable the authors to establish certain analo- gies and differences presented by the posterior member of these quadrupeds compared with the movement of the lower member in man. The parallelism, which is illustrated by several diagrams, bears both on the slow and rapid motion (walking and running) of the three types here under consideration. Contrary to the general opinion, there appears to exist in the step or pace of the quadru- peds a period of double rest more prolonged in the hind than in the fore-quarters. It is also shown that the trot in the horse corresponds unquestionably with the running action of man, but that elephants have no such action, just as man lacks the gallop of the horse, which in this respect thus stands at the head of the series. But, when urged to quicken their speed, the ele- phants broke into an action somewhat approaching that assumed by man when passing from a walk to a run. In general, both in slow and rapid motion, the action of the pelvic member remains essentially the same in all three types. The difference between them lies in the action on the concurrent limbs, which is slight between man and the elephant, much greater between these two and the horse.—On the habits of Phylloxera, and on the present state of the French vineyards, by M. P. Boiteau. During the year 1886 the author continued his experiments on the reproduction of Phylloxera, which he has cultivated for six con- secutive years. In 1885 he had reached the nineteenth generation by the parthenogenetic process, all necessary precautions being taken to prevent fertilized insects from coming in contact with those derived directly from the winter egg. At present he has reached a second generation for 1887, or a total of 24 or 25 altogether, all these agamous generations being very healthy, lively, and prolific. The condition of the vines, which suffered so much last year, is described as highly satisfactory, with every prospect of a good vintage in most of the wine-growing districts. —Comparison of the energies radiated by platina and silver in fusion, by M. J. Violle. By the process here described the total radiation of platina is found to be 54 times that of silver in fusion. Yet this relation, great as it is, is far less than that of the luminous intensities, which is superior to 1000, —Solidification of liquids by pressure, by M. E. H. Amagat. Theoretically, J. Thomson’s formula implies that at a given temperature solidi- fication becomes possible under sufficient pressure, provided the density be greater in the solid than in the fluid state. But no instance has hitherto been known of any liquid properly so called being solidified by pressure alone. Now, however, the author, after numerous experiments, has succeeded in solidifying the bichloride of carbon (C,Cl,), obtaining some crystals which are here figured, and which appear evidently to belong to the cubic system. This substance is solidified at the temperatures of — 19°°5, 0°, 10°, and 19°°5 C. under the respective pressures of 210, 620, 900, and 1160 atmospheres. This and other results would seem to imply that every fluid has a critical point of solidi- fication ; that is, a temperature above which solidification will take place under no pressure: just as there appears to be a temperature below which the body remains solid under the slightest pressures.—On the calorific conductibility of bismuth in a magnetic field, by M. A. Righi. The considerable increase of electric resistance, and the intense rotation of the equipoten- tial lines (Hall’s phenomenon) which occur when bismuth is introduced into the magnetic field, naturally led to the inference that a decrease of calorific con and a rotation of the isothermal lines should under the same conditions. The author has now a series of extensive experiments, which completely c supposition, and the summary results of which have b lished in the Aesoconti dell’ Accademia Reale dei Lincet 12; that is, eight days before the analogous commun’ recently sent by M. Leduc to the Comptes rendi Chlorema dujardini and Siphonostoma diplochai Joyeux-Laffuie. In reply to M. Kunstler, it is poin there is no ground for supposing that these two org identical, the former being from 15 mm. to 20 mm., 8cm. long.—On the earthquake of June 9, 1887, in Asia, by M. Venukoff. A detailed account is given ¢ disastrous effects of this disturbance,’ especially in Vern town of 17,000 inhabitants, where 1700 out of 2500 buildir brick and stone were levelled with the ground, e wooden houses remained almost uninjured. As ma persons perished in Vernoi, and over 800 in the s district, chiefly in the Ala-tau Mountains. The first g of June 9g has been followed by several others, which stil! obliging the inhabitants to take shelter under tents on the plains.—On a _hailstone inclosing a stony nucleus, by Tissandier. This specimen fell during a violent thu hailstorm in the Tarbes district on June 20. The nu sisted of some gypsum, which had clearly been work doubt sucked up by a water-spout to a thunder-clond, 1 became incrusted with ice. fae BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS REC Course of Practical Instruction in Botany, part ii. : Bower and Vii millan).—The Teaching of Geography : A. Geikie (Macmillan).— Second Edition, 1887 (Triibner).—Morality and Utility: G, P. B —The Scenery of Scotland, Second Edition: A. Geikie (Macm Forms of Nasal Obstruction: G. Macdonald (A. P. Watt).—Re Royal Commission for the Colonial and Indian Commission, 1887 Smithsonian Report, 1885, part i. (Washington). : CONTENTS. The Geology of Northumberland and Durham. Prof. A. H. Green, F.R.S. . Sige Physiological Psychology. . Our Book Shelf :— By } CL ee Be Me feed, hee ee A Schafer: ‘‘The Essentials of Histology.”—Dr. E Klein, FOROS. 0°... ae PS Richards: ‘‘ Aluminium” ..... Young: ‘‘ Questions on Physics ” en Greenwood: ‘‘ Eminent Naturalists” Letters to the Editor :— . The Carnatic Rainfall—Henry F. Blanford, F.R.| The Progress of the Scottish Universities: —-M. A. Medicus. (/ilustrated) .... Floating Eggs.—Edward E. Prince . Expression of the Emotions.—J. L....... Education in America. By W. Odell ...... Abstract of the Results of the Investigation of th Charleston Earthquake. II. By C. E. Dutt U.S.A., and Everett Hayden, U.S.N., U Geological Survey. (J///ustrated) . 2. . 1s «1 2's On a Point of Biological Interest in the Flowers Pleurothallis ornatus, Rehb. f. By F. W. Oli (Zdlastrated) ti ee ee Cubic Crystals of Graphitic Carbon. By L. F Notes * Our Astronomical Column :— The Total Solar Eclipse of 1886. ....... Astronomical Phenomena for the Week July 31—August6...... Geographical Notes The Technical Education Bill. ...... Scientific Serials Societies and Academies . . Cen eee fen Me la a ee 8 eee . . . . . . * BU . . . ®,, 0 Se 0 6 Le te Sel See ee eee ee See ee ce ee eed ees es er ee Sle Yes | Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . . NATURE 313 - THURSDAY, AUGUST 4, 1887. THE JUBILEE OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. T is something to have lived to take part in an epoch- 4 making event. Many monarchs have celebrated their jubilees; printing, steam, gas, have passed through this period in silence and disregard, but the first practical _ application of electricity has commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of its birth with an ¢c/a¢ and success that _ reflect the highest credit on the managers of the banquet who brought together such a distinguished gathering on July 27. It is remarkable that of all who were present not one took part at the birth of the electric telegraph. The pio- neers are gone, and their memory was silently toasted. _ Of those associated with Cooke, William Watkins, who carried out his early experiments, and who put up the _ first overhead wires between Paddington and Slough, _ alone remains, but the inexorable duties of the law com- pelled his attendance on a special jury at Exeter on the day when he ought to have been present at the Holborn Restaurant. No collaborateur of Wheatstone in his early work exists. John Greener, who had charge of the telegraph on Bidder’s celebrated rope railway between Fenchurch Street and Blackwall in 1842, was there, and _ many like Henry Weaver and J. R. France can date their _ telegraphic career from the incorporation of the first “telegraph company in 1846. _ One of the most interesting features of the meeting - was the gathering around Mr. Edwin Clark of his old lieutenants. Edwin Clark’s reforms in the early days of telegraphy (1850-54) still bear fruit. The footprints on the sands of telegraphic time are nowhere so deeply im- pressed as on the ground traversed by Clark. His mode of insulation, his underground work, his instruments, his test-boxes, still remain a type of English telegraphy everywhere. His work was well carried out by his brother and successor, Latimer Clark, and it is continued even in the present day by his pupil, Preece. The success of telegraphy in this country is due essen- tially to the superposition of scientific method on to the rude rules of practice. The rule-of-thumb principles of the early engineers were inoperative in telegraphy, for the exact laws of Ohm, Ampére, and Coulomb, the ex- perimental skill of Faraday, Joule, and Grove, the mathematical genius of Helmholtz, Thomson, and Max- well, have kept our electricians in the straight path, and prevented them from wandering in the wilds of guess- work and in the labyrinth of tentative troubles. It is impossible to say how much this influence has been re- flective. The science of electricity has been indebted as much to practice as practice has been indebted to science. Submarine telegraphy chronicles no failure. The first Atlantic cable raised the curtain. The conditions were evident. Thomson stepped in, and all was light. To telegraphy “all the world’s a stage.” The in- ventor has no nationality. Alongside of Wheatstone we find Morse and Siemens, Meyer, Hughes, and Edison, La Cour, Varley, Leclanché, and Minotto. This polyglottism is seen in the nomenclature of the units of VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 927. 4 measurement, ohm, farad, ampere, and coulomb, the only universal system of measurement, excepting that of time, extant. Telegraphy, without which railway traffic would be impossible, has followed the growth of railways, and it has revolutionized the procedure of commerce. Hence the great commercial nations, England and the United States, show the greatest development of its progress. One regretted to hear so little said about the great commercial spirits who set the ball a-rolling. John Pender, Cyrus Field, Tom Crampton, deserve all that was said of them, but where were Ricardo and Scuda- more in England, Orton and Vanderbilt in America? The story as told by the Postmaster-General reads like a romance of fairyland. The first five-needle instrument of Cooke and Wheatstone required five wires to transmit at most five words a minute: now five wires can transmit 2500 words in the same time. We can pride ourselves in England on being in advance of all other nations not only in the development of the business of telegraphy, but also in the invention and per- fection of apparatus. It is something to have in ten years increased the capacity of the wires for the trans- mission of messages ¢enxfold, and to have done that with- out patent, or any reward but the consciousness of having done well. Government officials are unfortunately placed in this respect. It is improper to patent an invention developed in the discharge of duty, while they are singularly liable to be assailed by the daily Press for their supposed shortcomings. The work they do is only known by their own writings, when they are allowed to write ; and even then they are subject to unfair and dubious criticism. The Press takes no. trouble to find out what isdone. The feeling is, “ What good can come out of Nazareth?” Yet the introduction into the Post Office system of high-speed repeaters and of shunted con- densers marks two epochs as successful, eventful, and meritorious as the introduction of duplex, of quadruplex, or of multiplex working. We were told that the rate of working between London and Dublin had gone up from 50 to 462 words a minute. Oxe cable will do the work of ten. What has been the reward? We venture to say, nothing; and that the Lords of the Treasury are profoundly ignorant of the good work that is being done in the service over which they preside—work which they are just as likely to reward with a kick as with a half-penny. The jubilee is now over, and we -have every reason to feel proud that Mr. Raikes, the present Postmaster- General, Sir Lyon Playfair and Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, his predecessors, had such excellent tales to tell, and so gracefully assisted at so successful a gathering. THE CLASSIFICATION OF ALG. Till Algernes Systematik. Nya bidrag af J. G. Agardh, (Femte afdelningen.) Transactions of the University of Lund, Tom. XXIII., 4to, pp. 180, 5 plates. «Maes indefatigable Dr. Agardh has recently issued the fifth instalment of his work on the systematic classi- fication of Algze. Although it bears a Swedish title, the work is in Latin. The subject treated is the interesting group of the Siphonez, Dr. Agardh mentions that but few observations have P 314 _ NATURE been made upon the fruit of the Siphoneze ; but the little that is known on this subject proves that great differences exist in the fructification of these Algz. Thus the organs of reproduction in Vaucheria differ from those of Botry- dium, while those of the latter vary from those of Bryopsis, Codium, Dasycladus, and Acetabularia. Of many other genera observations are deficient or in various respects uncertain and inconclusive. For interesting general remarks on the fructification of the Siphonez the reader is referred to page 10, and for special details to the observations on each genus and on the fruit of such of the species as are best known. Setting aside the true characteristics of the fruit, it becomes a question by what characters of the structure the Siphonez are to be distinguished from the Conferveze and Ulvacez, and their affinities determined. In Dr. Agardh’s opinion these characters are to be found in the filaments or utricles of the frond, being tubular, and not, as in the Confervaceze and Ulvacez, consisting of sub- divided cells. Good examples of the former are afforded by Caulerpa and Valonia, whose fronds, roots, stems, branches, and ramuli, though distinct, consist of a single cell. These remarks are followed by observations on the comparative structure in different genera and _ their affinities with each other. With the exception of Vaucheria and Botrydium, says Dr. Agardh, the Siphonez inhabit the sea. This is unquestionably the case as regards Botrydium, but it may be asked whether it be quite true as to Vaucheria, several of the British species of which are recorded by Dr. Nordstedt (‘‘ Remarks on British Submarine Vaucheriz,” Lund, 1886) as growing at the lowest tide-marks, and one species (V. pzlobolotdes, “ probably in quite salt water.” The greater number of the Siphonez are natives of the warmer seas, and are especially abundant on the shores of rocky islands of which the principal constituent is lime. They spread their fibrous roots among the sandy dédris, and are thus useful in holding together the particles of sand. Some of the Siphonez have creeping stems, as have the Caulerpeze. These plants, by extending the network of their creeping stems and roots over the sand, seem to exercise on the coast, within tide-marks, the same functions as the Maram (Psamma arenaria). This plant grows on the coast of Norfolk, and is found so useful in holding together the particles of sand, and thus aiding in the formation of land and preventing the inroads of the sea, that strict regulations are in force to prevent its destruction. In the same manner as the Maram spreads over the dry sands, the Caulerpeze extend on the sea- shore within tide-marks, and are thus uncovered at low water. When the tide is out, they resemble green meadows. The utility of these plants in protecting the land was, a few years ago, unexpectedly proved in the neighbourhood of Adelaide, South Australia. A farmer suffered his sheep to stray upon the coast where the Caulerpeze were exposed at low water. The sheep devoured the Algze ; the sea consequently broke in and established itself, and land was thus permanently lost. Many species, as Halimeda and Penicillus, have roots ! which are occasionally as large as simall hens’ eggs, formed of innumerable branched fibres which penetrate deeply into the sand. Some of the stipiform species emit flagelliform creeping “ propagula,” from which spring new plants ; hence, observes Dr. Agardh, the Siphonez be said to be social plants. Some Alga, as Anadyomene grow in shallow water exposed to the full influence ¢ light, while others, like Bryopsis, prefer deep wat which light scarcely penetrates. i Many, but not all, of the Algz belonging to Siphonez have, like the Corallina family, the pow absorbing lime from the water. Young plants are rally green, but the incrustation of lime, in species, increases with age. In some genera it ise absent, as in Codium; in others it is extremeh while in some species of Halimeda the whole frequently cased with a hard coating of lime, a like a gigantic frond of Corallina. i The disposition of the families of which the ‘Sir are composed must be attended with some diffi the fruit is more perfectly known. In the in Agardh proposes the arrangement adopted in The group has been considerably enlarged, includi now does the Dasycladez and Valoniacee. With to the former, the author observes that the D y' are quite distinct from all the other genera, with verticillate stems and external sporangia ; hence siders that they undoubtedly form a natural fa fructification nevertheless varies in different ge There appears no doubt as to the limits ¢ Caulerpez. These are set forth in the first pe present work (“ Till Algernes Systematik”), and some observations are still wanting as to the fru the Caulerpez form a very distinct family. The limits of the Valoniaceae are very di determine. In the form and size of their cells 1 the most part are very near the Caulerpex. T little more than ramulose prolifications ; hence the genera the structure varies from that of o Valoniz, and approaches near to that of Ulva, as seen in Dictyospheria and Anadyomene. Among the remaining genera are some whose consist almost entirely of compound tubes in with lime. qn these the normal ramification not coated with lime—it may be said to be | pin the fructification of these plants few observat recorded. In Udotea Desfontainsii and Halimec true sporangia have been observed. Both t Udoteaceze. Whether the Spongodiez, with their composite fronds, and the Bryopsidez, with filaments, should be separated from each other, o into one family, may be subject for consideration. Vaucheria and Botrydium are not trea present work: neither does Dr. Agardh know to family of the Siphonez they should be attached, The whole group, in which the Dasyclad Valoniaceze are now included, is thus arranged b Agardh :— ; 1. BRYOPSIDEA. (1) Bryopsis ; (2)? Derbesia. II. SPONGODIE#. (3) Codium,?? Cladothele. Z et 4, 1887] NATURE 315 III, UDOTEACE#, i aabroditsrnis ; (4a)? Avrainvillea; (5) Espera; “a ere ang (7) Rhipocephalus; (8) Callipsygma ; Udotea ; (92)? Rhipidosiphon ; (10) Halimeda. IV. VALONIACE. eae (an) Valonia; (12) Siphonocladus, ? Ascothamnion, _ ?Trichosolen ; (13) Apjohnia ; (14) Struvea ; (15) Chama- doris ; (16) Dictyosphzeria ; (17) Anadyomene. sg V. CAULERPE#, ee a sod es VI. DASYCLADE&., as) Dasycladus ; (20) Chlorocladus ; (21) Botryophora ; G9 Cymopolia; (23) Neomeris; (24) Bornetella; ‘Halicoryne; (26) Polyphysa; (27) Acetabularia, 3) ie a Rt will be. observed that the position of Derbesia, _ Cladothele, Avrainvillea, Khipidosiphon, Ascothamnion, and Trichosolen are not yet finally determined. Neither oes the author yet see his way to include Chlorodictyon st. Holm. 1870, Ofversigt No. 5, p. 427, tab. iv.) in the : present arrangement, Codiolum is also excluded. The Fe genus Balbisiana is mentioned (p. 10) once, but is not again referred to. Has Bryopsis Balbisiana been formed into a distinct genus under this name? Under Avrainvillea Dr. Agardh includes the Fradelia of Chauvin, the Chloroplegma of Zanardini, and the Rhipilia of Kiitzing. This genus has the habit of ' Udotea, a cylindrical stem, a coriaceous, flabellate _ frond, of a very dark colour, with lacerated apex, form- ing irregular lobes, in which the zones of Udotea are sent. Of the fruit nothing appears to be known. of Rhipidosiphon there is no description, and very _ little seems to be actually known about this Alga. To L Dr, Agardh it appears to be a young plant of Udotea. Our knowledge of Ascothamnion (Valonia intricata, C. Ag.) is very limited, although the plant has been found in most of the warmer seas. Trichosolen is a native of the Antilles, where it was found by Montagne. With Pleiophysa Dr. Agardh is acquainted only through Kiitzing’s figure (Zab. Phyc., vol. xvi. tab. 1). The habit and form of the sporidia agree with those of Halicoryne. Penicillus Phenix now appears as Rhifocephalus Phenix. The new genus Callipsygma is founded on an Australian Alga which bears a certain resemblance to the last-mentioned plant. The former has an undivided terete stem incrusted with lime, while in the latter the stem is two-edged, without incrustation, and from the margins issue pinnate ramuli. The fruit of both genera is unknown. Chlorocladus is between Dasycladus and Botryophora = Dasycladus occidentalis. These three genera are especially distinguished from each other by their fruit. _Ofthe whole group of the Siphonez three genera only have representatives on the British shores. These three genera are Bryopsis, Derbesia, and Codium. They have all a wide range. Of the nineteen species of Bryopsis, two are natives of these shores. Derbesia ranges from the Adriatic to the Faroe Islesand Norway. Dr. Agardh does not seem to be aware that D. zenuzssima has been found on the British coast. Although Codium has so extensive a range, no species has yet been recorded from the east coast of the United States, That remarkable plant, C. dursa, which is found on the southern coast of Britain, the Mediterranean and Adriatic, has recently been obtained from Victoria, Australia. On the Sussex coast it may sometimes be picked up after storms. Its range in depth of water is about the same as that of Ryi#- phiea pinastroides, with fragments of which, when hollow and torn, the frond is. sometimes filled. SPhacelaria plumula grows on it occasionally. Dr. Agardh mentions that three or four fronds often grow together. The writer possesses a specimen from Brighton, which consists of a group of ten fronds, one of which is fixed to a piece of chalk ; the others grow upon one another, a few filaments attaching the young plants to the older ones, In 1870 the Rev. E. S. Dewick was fortunate enough to pick up a specimen at Eastbourne, which, on examination, proved to be in fruit. He stated at a meeting of the Eastbourne Natural History Society (November 18, 1870) that “ the Coniocystze are produced on the outer surface of the clavate filaments, and differ from those of C. tomentosum only in being nearer the sep of the filaments, and smaller in proportion to their size.” Codium tomentosum was reputed to be nearly cosmo- politan. Dr. Agardh, however, shows that several species have been included under this name, and that the so-called Australian forms belong to C. Muelleri, C. Galeatum, and C. mucronatum. In the last two species the utricles are mucronate, as represented in Plate 1, Figs. 1, 2, 3. C. elongatum, in which the frond, instead of being cylindrical, as in C. somentosum, is compressed, is recorded by Dr. Agardh from Ireland. This fact is worthy the attention of British algologists. C. datum, found by M. Suringar on the coast of Japan, is not referred to in Dr. Agardh’s work, neither is the plant, apparently allied to Codium, called by M. Suringar Acanthocodium (see “ Alg. Jap.,” p. 23). This also is a native of Japan, and probably but very little known. Although so many points in the history of the Siphonee are still undetermined, this work of Dr. Agardh’s will be found full of interest and instruction. MARY P. MERRIFIELD. AMERICAN MINING INDUSTRIES. Report on the Mining Industries of the United States (exclusive of the precious metals.) By R. Pumpelly, 4to, pp. xxxviil.-1025. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1886.) HIS, the fifteenth and final volume of the Reports jNustrating the results of the census of the United States taken in 1880, is in great part devoted to descrip- tions of the principal districts producing iron ores in the United States, the condition of the mines during the census year being studied in considerable detail, and in many cases illustrated by sketches of the workings. A very large number of samples of the ores of the different mines were collected by specially appointed agents, who visited © every district and almost every mine of importance, and these were examined by a chemical staff at a special laboratory at Newport, Rhode Island. It was originally intended to make complete analyses of the greater number of the 1400 samples so collected, but the early exhaustion of the funds voted for the census necessitated an extensive ce 316 —wATURE— 2 ye VO EN eee curtailment of the plan, and only the more important minerals from the older rocks were completely analyzed ; while for the bulk of the remainder, the properties of the more important constituents, iron, phosphorus, and sul- phur, were alone determined, and the presence of titanium and manganese noted incidentally. The total number of samples investigated was 1250, 53 being completely and 1157 partially analyzed. The description of the methods of analysis adopted, and the tabulation of the results, occupy about a hundred pages, in addition to the 500, de- voted to the geology and topography of the iron ore mines and their statistics. The section devoted to coals, occupying eighty-seven pages, is mainly statistical, and has a very valuable intro- duction by Dr. Frederick Prime, Jun., which is perhaps the best condensed account of the nature and distribution of American coals that has yet appeared. A third section on the Cretaceous coals and lignites of the North-West is the result of an extensive exploration of the country traversed by the Northern Pacific Railway, made by the author subsequently to the completion of the census work proper, in 1882. This work, under the title of the Northern Transcontinental Survey, was suddenly stopped after about £20,000 had been expended upon it ; and in order that the results might not be lost the observations have been reduced, analyses of the coals have been made, and a systematic memoir on the whole subject has been produced, which, although not exactly in the place where we should expect to find it, is too valuable an addi- tion to American geology not to be welcomed in spite of its incongruous surroundings. The statistics of the base metals and minor minerals, occupying the remainder of the volume, are now of comparatively little interest, as these subjects have been treated from year to year in the returns published by the United States Geological Survey, and are available up to 1885. It must, however, be remembered that it is only in census years that returns from individual establishments can be obtained, and that therefore the figures for those years may be regarded as more authoritative than those of other dates. In any case, statistics five years old are tolerably ancient history. In conclusion, we must call attention to the author’s introductory paper on the geographical and geological distribution of the iron ores of the United States. This is a masterly abstract of the main subject of the book, and will be particularly useful to those who may wish to acquire some knowledge of the basis of the American iron industry without searching through the great mass of reports and surveys in which most of the detailed informa- tion is to be found. A plate of comparative sections of the strata in the principal iron-ore producing States is especially interesting as showing how the most important ore deposits are confined to the older rocks, such as the Archean regions of New York and New Jersey, the Huronian of Michigan and Wisconsin, and the great stratified belt of haematite or “fossil ore” in the Clinton group of the Upper Silurian ; while the most important iron-bearing strata of this country and Western Europe, the Lias and Lower Oolitic series, are entirely absent. Although the great activity of the iron trade in 1880-81 was the cause of very energetic explorations, very few discoveries were made in the older producing districts, and it became evident that to make these it was necessary ae ugust = 1887 to go into new fields, and in any case the author consider that the accessible rich ores may perhaps be practic exhausted within the life of the present generation. It will then be necessary to fall back upon the leaner kinds, — containing from 30 to 45 per cent. of iron, which known to exist in vast quantities, though generally removed from coal suited for smelting purposes. : OUR BOOK SHELF. Theory of Magnetic Measurements. By F. E. Nip h Professor of Physics in Washington Univers: (London; Triibner and Co., 1887.) THIS little work is intended to furnish information as the practical details of a magnetic survey. The desc tion of the instruments used is poor. Full details as the necessary calculations are given. The directio the use of the instruments involve in a few cases necessary precautions, while in others the meth suggested appears rather rough. Thus the statem that it is advisable not to make any observations wi dip needle till ten minutes after magnetization, is no think, borne out by experience. On the other han suggestion that the vibrations of a declination needle be checked by the finger would be likely to mi beginners. It would have been better to describe method of bringing the magnet to rest by means small auxiliary magnet. On the whole, English s will probably find all that they want, and with more ¢ reference to the Kew pattern instruments, in and Gee’s “ Practical Physics,” and are thus not likel make much use of Mr. Nipher’s work. A. W.. Studies in Life and Sense. By Andrew Wilson, F.R.S.E. (London : Chatto and Windus, 1887.) PREVIOUS works of this kind by Dr. Andrew Wilson a1 so well known, that a very few words will suffice to ir duce the present one to the notice of our readers. consists of a re-publication of essays on biological a psychological topics, which the author has from ti time contributed to sundry magazines. Although ther is little or no attempt at originality, the collection is y calculated to prove of use and interest to general reade The style is everywhere entertaining, and the follo a list of the subjects treated :—“ Human Resem to Lower Life,” “Some Economics of Nature,” “Mo “ Elephants,” “Past and Present of the Cuttle-Fishe: “‘ Migration of Animals,” “ The Problems of Distribution “ Songs without Words,” “ The Laws of Speech,” ** and Mind,” “ The Old Phrenology and the New,” “ Mind’s Mirror,” “ What Dreams are made of,” “ Coi of the Brain,” “ The Inner Life of Plants,” “ An Invi to Dinner.” Fermenti e Microbi. Saggio di Igiene Antimicrobica ¢ Italo Giglioli. (Napoli, 1887.) a TuIs book may be considered as marking a new depa in the teaching of hygiene. The enormous advances have been made of late years in the recognition of genic microbes, their life-history, and the condi affecting them one way or another, have added a Jai and important chapter to the study of sanitary sci It is this particular subject in all its bearings on s science which is treated in the volume by Prof. Gi The study of ferments, like yeasts, forms the introd tion: their life-history, physiological and chemical acti are described, and, owing to the accurate knowledge t we possess of them—thanks in a great measure to” researches of M. Pasteur—they form a fit starting-po in the study of schyzomycetes, bacteria, or micro proper. ie TA sag) 4. 188 eee 7) 317 _ The book treats of microbes from every aspect, mor- phological and physiological. The relation of microbes in pers to the nutritive media, their chemical products, and the relation of these to the microbes themselves ; the _ production of soluble ferments by them ; the influence of light, heat, &c., are passed in review and treated fully. The pathogenic organisms are next considered. Their relation to the animal body; the means by which they _ gain access to the animal system; the various influences - commonly understood to constitute “ predisposition ” ; _ the relation of pathogenic bacteria to food, air, soil, and _ water; the adverse influences, such as heat and light, disinfectants and antiseptics, &c., are all discussed with great lucidity and thoroughness. There is hardly any aspect under which the study of pathogenic microbes—including the question of attenua- tion—presents itself, which is not discussed in this volume. The arrangement of the subject-matter is systematic, and the method of treatment does great credit to the author, inasmuch as he is, as far as possible, objective. He carefully weighs and sifts evidence, and does not disdain to make references to the literature of England and France. He has, in fact, carefully read the literature of this country on infectious diseases, and thus attests that he is not guided by that spirit of narrowness which one often meets with in modern German.works. An English translation would, we have no doubt, be a valuable addition to our own literature. E. KLEIN. Photography of Bacteria. By Edgar M. Crookshank, M.B. (London: H. K. Lewis, 1887.) SINCE Koch first employed photography in bacteriology (* Biol. d. Pflanzen,” 1877, ii. 3) various attempts have been made in this country and on the Continent to advance the methods of photographing microscopic objects, such as Bacteria, with high magnifying powers. t fifteen years ago Dr. Woodward, of Washington, ‘published photographic plates of histological objects taken under tolerably high magnifying power (400and 500 diameters). These plates were brought out by the Surgeon-General’s Office, Army Medical Museum of the United States : they attracted at the time a good deal of attention owing to their comparatively high excellence. That good photographs of histological and other micro- scopic objects are of great value in themselves, owing to their exactness, and the various advantages for purposes of publication, may be taken as requiring no further proof, ian it seems equally obvious that indifferent photographs are of less value than accurate drawings. Now, comparing Dr. Crookshank’s photograms of histo- logical and bacteriological objects, published in the present volume, the former with those of Dr. Woodward, the latter with those of Koch, there can be little doubt that no real advance has yet been made in producing photograms that are to take the place of accurate draw- ings. By saying this I do not mean to convey the im- pression that in Dr. Crookshank’s volume there are not some good photographs—vzde his Plate XVI., further his Figs. 7, 8, 30, 35, and 45, all of which are really fine in many respects—but taking photography as a whole, as applied to the representation of microscopic objects under high powers, I think that the time has not yet come when it can be said to have supplanted good and accurate drawings. In connexion with this it must certainly appear remarkable that in the numerous and important publica- tions on Bacteria by Koch and his pupils since 1877 to the present time we do not find a single illustration represented by micro-photography. All their published illustrations are drawings. With the new apochromatic objectives and projection eye-pieces by Zeiss better results may be looked for, and Dr. Crookshank, with his great skill in, and knowledge || of, the technique, will, we have little doubt, be able to pro- || duce them. As a clear and detailed account of practical micro- photography, Dr. Crookshank’s book is of great merit, and will prove very useful and important. As the first treatise on the subject in any language it is sure to com- mand a high place. E, KLEIN. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space is so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts. | The Sense of Smell in Dogs. Ir is, I think, of some interest to supplement the very striking and exact experiments of Mr. Romanes on the scent of dogs, by an account of some experiments of a like kind made with a very different kind of dog, viz. a pug bitch. She was taught to hunt for small pieces of dry biscuit in a good-sized dining-room. The dog was put out of the room and a small piece, not much bigger than a shilling, of dry Osborne biscuit, was hidden ; and as long as the hiding-place was accessible to the dog she never failed to find it. Sometimes the biscuit would be placed under a heap of a dozen or more newspapers on a dinner waggon, sometimes under a footstool, or sofa-cushion, or fire-shovel, and on two or three occasions in the foot of a boot which had been just taken off, the hiding body being always carefully replaced before the dog was admitted into the room, and without exception the biscuit in a very short time was discovered. It was over and over again proved that the dog did not follow the trail of the person who had hidden the biscuit ; often the dog went by a different route, and in some cases one person hid the biscuit and another opened the door. The experiment which has now special interest is the following ‘one. Asmall piece of biscuit was placed on the floor under the centre of a footstool which was one foot square and six inches high, and standing on feet which raised it one inch from the ground. The dog, from the way in which she would set about moving the stool, not a very easy thing to do, as it stood in an angle of the wall, was evidently certain that the biscuit was Feneath, and as scent seemed the only means by which she could have come at this conclusion, I thought to entirely mask this scent and prevent her finding the biscuit by pouring eau-de-Cologne on the stool. I found, however, it had no such effect, the biscuit was as readily and surely found when the eau-de-Cologne was there as when absent. It seems, then, that not only well-worn boots leave behind a recognizable odour, as Mr. Romanes proved, but also that to us at least so odourless a substance as dry plain biscuit emits so much and so characteristic a smell that it immediately spreads, even through considerable obstacles, to a distance of several inches in a few seconds, for in most cases the biscuit was found in thirty to sixty seconds after it had been hidden; thus time was not allowed, one would think, for all the surroundings of the hiding-place to become saturated with the scent. W. J. RUSSELL. Units of Mass, Weight, and Force. MicuT I venture to suggest to Prof. Greenhill that it would be very interesting to mathematicians, and probably would throw great light on the above subject, if he would give us quotations from some work by a practical engineer in which the idea of inertia distinctly appears. Or, failing this, perhaps Prof. Green- hill could give practical instances (other than problems in gunnery) in which mass quite apart from weight enters into the engineer’s calculations. It seems to me that many practical engineers never have occasion to deal with acceleration, except that of circular motion, and consequently only need to consider the weight of stuff, and have no use for the dynamical unit of force. Gonville and Caius College, July 23. Joun B. Lock, 318 NATURE [August 4, 1887 i Chemical Affinity and Solution, IN continuation of my inquiry into the relation between chemical affinity and solution (NATURE, vol. xxxiii. p. 615, and and vol. xxxiv. p. 263) I would direct attention to some remark- able facts in connexion with the heats of formation of the sul- phates. Take H,SO,Aq, and assume that SO, acts on the O of water with the average energy with which the S acts on Og, and we have the following :— [H,,0] = 68360 [H,S,O,Aq] = 210770 [S,O,] = 103240 S,H,} = 4740 [SO;,0]= 34413 210753 = 210770 Now consider BaSOy, We have [Ba,S,O4] = 338070 and— [Ba,O] = 124240 [S,O,] = 103240 Difference = 110590 338070 = 338070 The difference 110590 is almost exactly equal to [Ba,S] = 109600, so that the heat of combination of BaO with SO, is practically equal to [Ba,S], and the whole of the affinity of S is used up so that it has no power to act on the O of water, and hence the salt is insoluble. Take again in the same manner SrSQ,, and the result is even more striking— [Sr,O] = 128440 [Sr,S,O4] = 330900 [S,O,] = 103240 Difference = 99229 330900 = 330900 Difference 99220 = [Sr,S] = 99200, and again we have an insoluble salt. This seems to me pretty strong evidence that the cause of these combinations is the affinity of S for the metal, and that the S cannot act on the water to cause solution, because of its intense affinity for the metal. Further, the heat of neu- tralization is the difference between the heat of solution of the oxide and SO, on the one hand, and the heat of [MS] on the other, thus :— [SrO, Aq] = 29340 [SO;,Aq] | = 39153 Neutralization = 30710 99203 = [Sr,S] = 99200 and so on in other cases, Now examine CaSO,, which is a sparingly soluble salt, and note the difference, we have— [Ca,O] = 130930 [Ca,S,O4] = 318370 [S,Og] = 103240 Difference = 84200 318370 318370 This difference, 84200, is not equal to [Ca,S], which is =92000, or 7809 units more, and accordingly we find this salt slightly soluble with a heat of 4440 units, because the S is somewhat free to act on water. Further, we have the remarkable fact that CaSO, combines with 2H,O, and evolves in so doing 4740 units of heat, which is exactly equal to [S,H,]. Evidently the whole of the affinity of S for Ca not being used up in CaO,SO; the S can act with its full energy on the H of the water. MgSQO,, which is a still more soluble salt, shows entirely analogous results, the freedom of the § to act on water being much greater than with CaSO,. : Take now an example of asomewhat different nature ; consider the following :— [Na,,O0] = 99760 [Nap,S,0,,10H,9] = 347810 [S,O3] = 103240 Difference = 144810 347810 = 347810 The heat of [Na.,S] is only 88200 units, but the heat of solution of Na,O is 55500, and these two make up very nearly the difference of 144810 units. Thus we have the affinity of the S entirely used up, but the affinity of the Na, for the oxygen the H,O is so great that it can combine as a crystal with t molecules, in addition to combining with the SO.. -If space permitted, these facts might be extended and into more minutely, and their complete agreement — particular with my theory of solution pointed out. I may add farther that the amount of salt dissolved in sate solutions which I have examined is in complete harmony that theory, as the following example will show :— Heat of Combination. Amount of Salt in Saturated [M,Cl,] re [M,O, Aq] MCl,] Ca = 20560 63 grains Sr = 26770 46" - 5, Ga Ba = 35980 3599 It is evident at once that the amount of salt in se almost exactly inversely as the difference of heat of [M, [M,O, Aq]. Wn. Du Early Perseids. From my observations in preceding years I fo great shower of Perseids commenced on about July 25, the last visible traces of it were seen on August 22, : duration of 29 days. SS This year a series of very clear nights occurred on July 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28, and 29, and I watched the sky ati throughout each one, with the idea of tracing, if pe earlier stages of this famous shower. On the 16th | certainly no Perseids visible, but on the 18th, at 1. saw a brilliant streak-leaving meteor in Andromeda, have belonged to this stream. On the rgth I recor seids (2 of which were brilliant), and the radian sharply defined at 19° + 51°. On the 20th and 2ist ] several other Perseids, but they were too di radiant, and the paths too few to indicate a good the 22nd, however, I saw 5 Perseids (one of wi bright as Jupiter), and the radiant now appeared at On the 23rd I registered 4 Perseids, apparently from the point of the heavens. Ste ENT The few ensuing nights were cloudy, but on the became partly clear, and in 3 hours I counted 38 which 5 were Perseids from a radiant at 29° + 54 28th in 33 hours I saw 47 meteors, though clouds prevalent all night, On this occasion 10 Perse from a centre at 30° + 55°, and there were 15 Aqu 337° - 12°. On the 29th the sky was almost uninter! and in 3} hours I recorded 52 meteors, including from 31° + 544. On the 3oth, clouds prevailed. Between July 16 and 29 I observed 287 meteors. were Perseids. These observations prove that the d begins a week earlier than that (July 25) given in m Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, p: 97. The displacement of the apparent radiant-point described is well confirmed by my new observations. D interval from July 18 to August 22 this point adva 19° + 51° to 77° + 57. i : I subjoin the observed paths of a few bright met during my recent observations :— 2 on Path. 1887. iim. mae. ai July 19 .« TI 43 we To. 3584 + II 43 +. I «. 298 +56 12/95 spe. hich Pe ey eae are 39. AMS oa BE SOL a Wiad yee preg | ae 1929s EL os XG! BS ace Mh gee IQ/S6 ieee Sam 99.27 10210 4Obere UL ape 325 13 2 ow» 2 oe 3194 + 164,, 308 +32 « “99 29 ee IX 28 oe DU oe 66 +7245, 114 +70 ov Many ‘others were seen of Ist mag. A perfectly s meteor of the 2nd mag., and sparkling like a star, was vis July 29 at 14h. 17m. at 337°-—12°, so that it was an Ac travelling directly in the line of sight. On the 22nd I registered some brilliant meteors, of p: the same visible type as the Perseids, froma radiant at 16° + ; or 3° south of 6 Andromede. Many meteors have also falling from the points 269° + 49°, 310° + 9°, 33 August 4, 1887] NATURE 319 335° + 49°, and 351° + 38°. All these are swift and short, and generally devoid either of streaks or trains. Bristol, July 31. W. F. DENNING. P.S.—In 1885 and some other years I have seen, on about July 13, a very definite shower of bright streak-leaving meteors from the point 11° + 48°, and it is a very probable conjecture that this radiant represents the earliest manifestation of the stream of Perseids.—W. F. D. Floating Eggs. REFERRING to the remarks of Mr. E. E, Prince in NATURE, July 28, p. 294, on the above subject, I wish to add that the spawn found by me had “‘the light violet-gray tint” and crape-like appearance he describes. I am very much on the water in “ec ania frequented by Lofhius, but never saw any of this spawn efore. We found it in a swirl of the tide off Bantry Bay, where the sea was over 40 fathoms deep, and in the midst of innumerable jelly-fish, which seem to congregate wherever the current is most swift. W. S. GREEN. Carrigaline. THE “ METEOROLOGISKE INSTITUT” AT UPSALA, AND CLOUD MEASUREMENTS. ‘pPae Meteorological Institute at Upsala has gained so much fame by the investigations on clouds which have been carried on there during the last few years, that a few notes on a recent visit to that establishment will interest many readers. The Institute is not a Government establishment ; it is entirely maintained by the University of Upsala. The sonnel consists of Prof. Hildebrandsson, as Director ; M. Ekholm and one other male assistant, besides a lady aie does the telegraphic and some of the computing wor The main building contains a commodious office, with a small library, and living apartments for the assistant. The principal instrument-room is a se, arate pavilion in the garden. Here is located Thiorell’s meteograph, which records automatically every quarter of an hour on a slip of paper the height of the barometer, and the read- ings of the wet and dry thermometers. Another instru- ment records the direction and velocity of the wind. This meteograph of Thiorell’s is a very remarkable instrument. Every fifteen minntes an apparatus is let loose which causes three wires to descend from rest till they are stopped by reaching the level of the mercury in the different tubes. When contact is made with the surface of the mercuries, an electric current passes and stops the descent of each wire at the proper time. The downward motion of the three wires has actuated three wheels, each of which carries a series of types on its edge, to denote successive readings of its owninstrument. For instance, the barometer-wheel carries successive numbers for every five-hundredth of a millimetre—760’00, 760'05, 760'1, &c. ; so that when the motion is stopped the upper- most type gives in figures the actual reading of the baro- meter. Then a subsidiary arrangement first inks the types, then prints them on a slip of paper, and finally winds the dipping wires up to zero again. An ingenious apparatus prevents the electricity from sparking when contact is made, so that there is no oxida- tion of the mercury. The mechanism is singularly beautiful, and it is quite fascinating to watch the self- acting starting, stopping, inking, and printing arrangements. We could not but admire the exquisite order in which the whole apparatus was maintained; the sides of the various glass tubes were as clean as when they were new, and the surfaces of the mercuries were as bright as looking-glasses. The University may well be proud that the instruments were entirely constructed in Stockholm, by the skilful mechanic Sérrenson, though the cost is necessarily high. The meteograph, with the anemograph, costs £600, but the great advantage is that no assistant is required to sit up at night, and that all the figures wanted for climatic constants are ready tabulated without any further labour. But the Institute is most justly celebrated for the re- searches on the motion and heights of clouds that have been carried on of late years under the guidance of Prof. Hildebrandsson, with the assistance of Messrs, Ekholm and Hagstrém. The first studies were on the motion of clouds round cyclones and anticyclones ; but the results are now so well known that we need not do more than mention them here, Latterly the far more difficult subjects of cloud heights and cloud velocities have been taken up, and as the methods employed, and the results that have been ob- tained are both novel and important, we will describe what we saw there. We should remark, in the first instance, that the motion of the higher atmosphere is far better studied by clouds than by observations on mountain-tops; for on the latter the results are always more or less influenced by the local effect of the mountain in deflecting the wind, and forcing it upwards. The instrument which they employ to measure the Fic. 1.—N. Exuotm MEaAsurRING CLoups. This figure shows the peculiar ocular part of the altazimuth, with the vertical and horizontal circles. It also snows the telephonic arrangement. angles from which to deduce the height of the clouds is a peculiar form of altazimuth, that was originally designed by Prof. Mohn, of Christiania, for measuring the parallax of the aurora borealis. It resembles an astronomical altazimuth, but instead of a telescope it carries an open tube without any lenses. The portion corresponding to the object-glass is formed by thin cross-wires; and that corresponding to the eye-piece, by a plate of brass, pierced in the centre by a small circular hole an eighth of an inch in diameter. The tube of the telescope is replaced by a lattice of brass-work, so as to diminish, as far as possible, the resistance of the wind. The vertical and horizontal circles are divided decimally, and this much facilitates the reduction of the readings. The general appearance of the instrument is well shown in the figure, which is engraved from a photograph I took of M. Ekholm while actually engaged in talking througha telephone to M. Hagstrém as to what portion of a cloud should be observed. ‘The lattice-work tube, the cross- wires in place of an object-glass, and the vertical circle are very obvious, while the horizontal circle is so much end on, that it can scarcely be recognized except by the tangent screw which is seen near the lower telephone. Two such instruments are placed at the opposite 320 NATURE [August 4, 1887 e ns extremities of a suitable base. The new base at Upsala has a length of 4272 feet ; the old one was about half the length. The result of the change has been that the mean error of a single determination of the highest clouds has been reduced from 9 to a little more than 3 per cent. of the actual height. At the same time the difficulty of identifying a particular spot on a low cloud is considerably increased. A wire is laid between the two ends of the base, and each observer is provided with two telephones—one for speaking, the other for listening. When an observation is to be taken, the con- versation goes on somewhat as follows :—-First observer, who takes the lead: “ Do you see a patch of cloud away down west?” “Yes.” “Can you make out a well- marked point on the leading edge?” “Yes.” “Well then; now.” At this signal both observers put down their telephones, which have hitherto engaged both their hands, begin to count fifteen seconds, and adjust their instruments to the point of cloud agreed on. At the fifteenth second they stop, read the various arcs, and the operation is complete. But when the angles have been measured the height has to be calculated, and also the horizontal and vertical velocities of the cloud by combining the position and height at two successive measurements at a short interval. There are already well-known trigonometrical formulz for calculating all these elements, if all the observations are good; but at Upsala they do farmore. Not only are the observations first controlled by forming an equation to express the condition that the two lines of sight from either end of the base should meet in a point, if the angles have been correctly measured, and all bad sets rejected ; but the mean errors of the rectangular co-ordinates are calculated by the method of least squares. The whole of the calculations are combined into a series of formulz which are necessarily complicated ; and even by using logarithms of addition and subtraction, and one or two subsidiary tables—such as for log. sin? . 2 specially constructed for this work—the computation of each set of observations takes about twenty minutes. Before we describe the principal results that have been attained, it may be well to compare this with the other methods which have been used to determine the height of clouds. A great deal of time, and skill, and money, have been spent at Kew in trying to perfect the photo- graphic method of measuring the height of clouds. Very elaborate cloud cameras, or photo-nephoscopes, have been constructed, by means of which photographs of a cloud were taken simultaneously from both ends of a suitable base. The altitude and azimuth of the centre of the plate were read\off by the graduated circles which were attached to the cameras ; and the angular measurements of any point of cloud on the picture were calculated by proper measurements from the known centre of the photographic plate. When all this is done, the result ought to be the same as if the altitude and azimuth of the point of the cloud had been taken directly by an ordinary angle-measuring instrument. It might have been thought that there would be less chance of mistaking the point of the cloud to be mea- -sured, if you had the pictures from the two ends of the base to look at leisurely, than if you could only converse through a telephone with the observer at the other end of the base. But in practice it is not'so. Noone who has not seen such cloud-photographs can realize the difficulty of identifying any point of a low cloud when seen from two stations half a mile or a whole mile apart ; and for other reasons, which we will give presently, the form of a cloud is not so well defined in a photograph as it isto the naked eye. At Kew an extremely ingenious sort of projector has been devised, which gives graphically the required height . of a cloud from two simultaneous photographs at oppo ends of the same base, but itis evident that this met. is capable of none of the refinements which have b applied to the Upsala measures, and that the rate vertical ascent or descent of a cloud could hardly determined by this method. But there is a far gre defect in the photographic method which at present skill can surmount. We saw that the altazimuth employed at Upsala lenses. The meaning of this will be obvious to an who looks through an opera-glass at a faint cloud. — will probably see nothing for want of contrast, and if any. thing of the nature of a telescope is employed, only | defined cloud outlines can be seen at all. The same of light and contrast occurs with a photographic and many clouds that can be seen in the sky are inv on the ground glass of the camera. Cirrus and cil stratus—the very clouds we want most to obs always thin and indefined as regards their form and « trast against the rest of the sky ; so that this defect of method is the more unfortunate. or But even when the image of a cloud is visi the focusing glass, it does not follow that any i will be seen in the picture. In practice, thin high clouds against a blue sky can rarely be taken at only under exceptional circumstances of illumi The reason seems to be that there is very little l flected at all from a thin wisp of cirrus, and what must pass through an atmosphere always more or I charged with floating particles of ice or water, earthy dust of all kinds. The light which is se and diffused by all these small particles is also: trated on the sensitive plate by the lens, and the negative shows a uniform dark surface for the sky with any trace of the cloud. What image there might h been is buried in photographic fog. Poe In order to compare the two methods of measur clouds, I went out one day last December at Upsala Messrs. Ekholm and Hagstrém when they were mez the height of some clouds. It was a dull afternoon foggy stratus was driving rapidly across the sky at level, and through the general misty gloom of a nor winter day we could just make out some striated stri strato-cirrus—low cirro-stratus—between the ope the lower cloud-layer. The camera and lens tha habitually for photographing cloud-forms—n angular height—-was planted a few feet from the al which M. Ekholm was observing, and while he measuring the necessary angles I took a picture o clouds. As might have been expected under the c stances, the low dark cloud came out quite well, bu was not the faintest trace of the strato-cirrus on the tive. MM. Ekholm and Hagstrém, however, suce in measuring both layers of cloud, and found that stratus was floating at an altitude of about 2000 feet while the upper strato-cirrus was driving from S. at an altitude of 19,653 feet, with a horizontal velo 81, and a downward velocity of 7°2 feet per second. is a remarkable result, and shows conclusivel superiority of the altazimuth to the photographic of measuring the heights of clouds. eae Whenever opportunity occurs, measures of clou taken three times a day at Upsala, and it may be glance at the principal results that have been ob The greatest height of any cloud which has yet satisfactorily measured is only 43,800 feet, which is less than has usually been supposed; but the hig! velocity, 112 miles an hour with a cloud at 28,000 is greater than would have been expected. It m interesting to note that the isobars when this high v was reported were nearly straight, and sloping towa: north-west. The most important result which has been obta from all the numerous measures that have been m — 4 * ‘ August 4, 1887] NATURE 321 the fact that clouds are not distributed promiscuously at all heights in the air, but that they have, on the contrary, a most decided tendency to form at three definite levels. __ The mean summer level of these three stories of clouds at _ Upsala has been found to be as follows: low clouds— _ stratus, cumulus, cumulo-nimbus, 2000-6000 feet ; middle clouds—strato-cirrus and cumulo-cirrus, 12,000-15,000 feet ; high clouds—cirrus, cirro-stratus, and cirro-cumulus, 20,000-27 ,000 feet. ___ It would be premature at present to speculate on the beg significance of this fact, but we find the same ee nite layers of clouds in the tropics as in these high _ latitudes, and no future cloud-nomenclature or cloud- _ Observations will be satisfactory which do not take the idea of these levels into account. But the refinements of the methods employed allow the diurnal variations both of velocity and altitude to be successfully measured. The velocity observations con- firm the results that have been obtained from mountain stations—that, though the general travel of the middle and higher clouds is much greater than that of the surface winds, the diurnal variation of speed at those levels is the _ reverse of what occurs near the ground. The greatest __ velocity on the earth’s surface is usually about 2 p.m. ; _ whereas the lowest rate of the upper currents is about * — midday. ___ The diurnal variation of height is remarkable, for they find at Upsala that the mean height of all varieties of clouds rises in the course of the day, and is higher between 6 and 8 in the evening than either in the early morning or at midday. _ Such are the principal results that have been obtained at Upsala, and no doubt they surpass any previous work that has been done on the subject. But whenever we see good results it is worth while to pause a moment to con- sider the conditions under which the work has been deve- d, and the nature and nurture of the men by whom the search has been conducted. Scientific research is a licate plant, that is easily nipped in the bud ; but which, under certain surroundings and in a suitable moral atmo- sphere develops a vigorous growth. _ The Meteorological Institute of Upsala is an offshoot of the Astronomical Observatory of the University ; and a University, if properly directed, can develop research which promises no immediate reward in a manner that no other body can approach. If you want any quantity of a particular kind of calcu- lation, or to carry on the routine of any existing work in an Observatory, it is easy to go into the labour market and engage a sufficient number of accurate computers | either by time or piece-work, or to find an assistant who will make observations with the regularity of clockwork. But original research requires not only special natural aptitudes and enthusiasm to begin with, but even then will not flourish unless developed by encouragement, and the identification of the worker with his work. It is rarely, except in Universities, that men can be found for the highest original research. For there only are young students encouraged to come forward and interest them- selves in any work for which they seem to have special aptitude. Now, this is the history of the Upsala work. Prof. Hildebrandsson was attached as a young man to the meteorological department of the Astronomical Observa- tory, and when the study of stars and weather were separated, he obtained the second post in the new Meteorological Institute. From this his great abilities soon raised him to the directorship, which he now holds with so much credit to the University. M. Ekholm, a much younger man, has been brought up in the same manner. First as a student he showed such aptitudes for the work as to be engaged as assistant; and now, as the actual observation and reduction of the cloud-work is done by him and M. Hagstrém, the results are published seni i under their names, so that they are thoroughly identified with the work. Upsala is the centre of the intellectual life of Sweden, and there, rather than at Stockholm, could men be found to carry out original research. It redounds to the credit of the University that it has so steadily supported Prof. Hildebrandsson, and that he in his turn has utilized the social and educational system by which he is surrounded to bring up assistants who can co-operate with him in a great work that brings credit both to himself, to them- selves, and to the Institute which they all represent. RALPH ARERCROMBY. A NEW COSMOGONY: I. « Wee volume before us is composed of a series of essays, first published in the Catholic periodical, Natur und Offenbarung, in 1885-86. By far the greater part of it is, nevertheless, of a purely scientific character. The opening chapter alone enters upon theological con- siderations, which we cannot here pretend to discuss, recommending merely, in passing, the broad and wise doctrines it contains to the notice of those well-meaning persons who apprehend danger to creeds from specula- tions as to origins. That of our planetary system is very actively in debate just now. The nebular hypothesis, as fashioned by Laplace, no longer fits in with all the known facts. There are so many of them that it would be surprising if it did, since the outside of its claim was to the plausible repre- sentation of possible truth. It had a part to play in the history of science, which it played with eminent success. This was to show that thought, safeguarded by right reason, might be trusted to run backward towards the beginnings of things—that, without visible discontinuity or breach of known laws, the present fair scheme of creation might have emerged from the brooding darkness of chaos, along paths not wholly inaccessible to human discursive faculties. But now the reiterated blows of objectors may fairly be said to have shattered the symmetrical mould in which Laplace cast his ideas. What remains of it is summed up in the statement that the solar system did originate, somehow, by the condensation of a primitive nebula. The rest is irrevocably gone, and the field lies open for ingenious theorizing. It has not been wanting. The newer cosmogonists are divided into two schools by the more or less radical tendencies of the reforms they propose. Some seek wholly to abolish, others merely to renovate, the Kant-Laplace scheme. The first class is best represented by M. Faye, the second by M. Wolf and Dr. Braun. Dr. Braun is, however, a more thorough-going renovator than M. Wolf. The edifice, as “restored” by him, shows, indeed, little trace of its original aspect. Scarcely the invisible foundations are the same ; the superstructure is unrecognizable. We will endeavour to sketch its main features. In widening the nebular hypothesis to embrace the whole sidereal world, our author demands as little as possible in the way of postulates: simply a co-extensive nebula, structureless, motionless, tenuous, its particles endowed with gravity and atomic repulsion. Such a nebula, if perfectly homogeneous, should give birth to one portentous, solitary sun. But, in point of fact, it would possess innumerable, almost imperceptible, local irregularities, which, forming so many centres of attrac- tion, would eventually lead to the breaking-up of the nebula into a vast multitude of separate fragments. On one of these, the destined progenitor of the solar t ** Ueber Cosmogonie syom Standpunkt christlicher Wissenschaft. Mit einer Theorie der Sonne.” Von Carl Braun, S.J. (Miinster: Aschendorff, 1887.) 322 NATURE system, we are asked to concentrate our attention. The manner of its development is, however, a widely different one from that traced by the great French geometer. Laplace asswmed the needful rotation, and left the rest to work itself out spontaneously. He permitted no external interference with the tranquil processes which he dis- cerned as progressing through the ages. Dr. Braun, on the other hand, assumes less to begin with, but invokes adventitious aid in emergencies. No single nebula thrown on its own resources sufficed, he finds, for the production of the solar system. The complicated pheno- mena which it presents demand a complex origin to explain them. The mass of cosmical matter in which they first began to unfold themselves was accordingly but the nucleus of what it afterwards became. It not only grew by the accretion of similar masses falling towards it from space, but acquired its gyratory movement by eccentric collisions with them. The consequences of such events elsewhere are visibly pictured to us in the spiral lines of light of certain nebula. The great whirl- pool in the Canes Venatici, for instance, betrays and records the fall of a comet, on the gigantic primitive scale, into an embryo sun. Only thus, in our author’s opinion, can the strange peculiarities of its structure be accounted for ; and only thus can the first impulse to axial rotation in our own system have been given. The visits of comets, as we now see them, feebly repre- sent, we are told, the colossal in-rushes from interstellar regions by which the machinery of planetary production was set going and modified. But it is difficult to allow to such bodies the independent origin implied in the claim for them of such illustrative significance. Comets can no longer be set down as mere casual intruders upon the solar system. They certainly share its translatory motion, since, if they were either overtaken or en- countered, they should seem to come most numerously from near the apex of the sun’s path. But they approach him indifferently from all parts of the sky. A further proof of the absence of relative motion is afforded by the shape of the tracks they pursue. M. Faye has remarked that, of 364 cometary orbits calculated, not one is a de- cided hyperbola (“Origine du Monde,” p. 146); and Laplace’s view that they are hyperbolic by nature, and elliptical only through perturbations, is thus seen to be the exact reverse of the truth. A fundamental objection to Laplace’s cosmogony is that it implies a far swifter axial movement in the central bodies of our system than they actually possess. For in the theory of annular separation, the rotation of the generating mass is strictly correlated with the revolution of its offspring by the principle of the conservation of areas, which requires that a rotating homogeneous globe should spin quicker, as it contracts, in the proportion of the square of its radius. Thus, if the solar nebula, when it filled the orbit of Neptune, rotated (as on the hypothesis in question it must have done) in Neptune’s period of 165 years, the period of the sun shrunken to its present dimensions, should have shortened in the ratio of the square of 2,780,000,000 (the mean distance of Neptune) to the square of 434,000 miles (the solar radius). In other words, the rotation of the sun should be accomplished in 127 seconds, in lieu of 25 days. Similarly, the ter- restrial rotation-period corresponding to the lunar revolu- tion in 27} days, is no more than 10% minutes ! It is true that in both these estimates (the latter taken from Dr. Braun’s pages), the effects of central condensation are neglected, although it must inevitably have made some progress before annulation began; but no-allowance on this score, however liberal, can possibly reconcile, though it contributes to lessen, the discrepancy. Dr. Braun adjusts the balance in this way. The solar nebula had never at any time, in his view, a uniform axial movement. He even ventures to consider the present unequal rotation of the sun as a survival of the primitive state of things to which the central deficiency of rotati¢ momentum is due. For the entire mass was, in~ beginning, set gyrating by external impacts, Moven was hence generated predominantly in its outer regi and was only by degrees and imperfectly communi to the nuclear parts. rae The device is marked by considerable ingenuity, is at any rate preferable to the eddying movem by which M. Faye evades the same embarrass: €! It is, however, scarcely needed by Dr. Braun, § the ‘‘ring-theory” of planetary formation is 1 and logically ought to be completely, abandon him. Difficulties have of late been thickening r it; they reached a climax when the conviction attained that, apart from the neutralizing effects of friction, it could only result in the retrograde moti all secondary systems. The plan of centres of conde tion is accordingly substituted by our author. This 1 the advantage of allowing planets to begin to forma where in the nebula. It emancipates them from strict conformity to the equatorial level which was inconvenient feature of Laplace’s hypothesis ; and t they necessarily tended, in the course of their g descend towards it, enough may perhaps remain of their primitive divergence to explain the observed slight deviz tions from the fundamental plane. Yet Dr. Braun's ec fidence in this vationa/e of the inclinations of the p ary orbits is so far from being unlimited that he hol reserve, in case of its failure, other means for bri about the same end. ats Each planet is roughly estimated to have started on : career at about five times its present distance from sun. In condensing, it descended towards it, swee} up materials as it went, until finally almost the wh the diffused gaseous stuff was concentrated in planets, and the intervening spaces were void. time, too, tangential velocity had come to balance gi and the slow inward approach ceased. But the resistance met with in the earlier stages of its history by the grow ing and falling planet had had one result of vital import- ance to its future. It had imparted to it a movement rotation. As it settled down in close spirals toward present orbit, its velocity must everywhere have. by a small amount, the velocity in the same dit of the medium in which it moved. The density of medium must, however, have increased towards the sun and the embryo-planet consequently experienced a slig excess of resistance on its inner side, resulting in a dire whirling movement. Dr. Braun endeavours to show th the rotation thus set on foot must have bel chiet to the external layers of the planetary nebula. His n is that of conciliating the swift circulation of satellites to be born from it with the comparatively sluggish sp of the parent mass. ea, Tidal friction he rejects as an agent of plane development, attributing to it barely the power to rendered absolute an already approximate coinci between the periods of rotation and revolution of lites. Perhaps he might here be induced to reco his position. At least in the case of the lunar-terrestri system, the evidence is overwhelming that tidal frictio was largely concerned in bringing about its present cor dition. We may further assure him that Prof. Darwin (whom he evidently identifies with the late C Darwin, his father) has not committed the blun imputes to him of ascribing to the moon a shorter p of revolution than that of the earth’s rotation, at the when it began, under the reactive influence of the wave, to travel slowly outward from near its surface. the contrary, a slightly inferior angular velocity i satellite is the assumed starting-point of all his subse | reasoning on the subject. ea: For the completion of the solar system in its details, Dr. Braun is driven to the expedient of colli Saeco memes ean - NATURE 323 — August 4, 1887] with some of the many nebulous fragments which con- tinued to be drawn towards it from unfathomed depths of space. Most of these became incorporated with the sun, but a certain proportion must have been intercepted by the planets, which, in their forming state, as possessing _ less mass and velocity, were more sensitive to such shocks _ than when fully formed. Thus, the plane of the ecliptic _ might have been altered, we are told, 1° by the impact upon the inchoate earth of a body possessing 1/1000 _ its present mass. Facilities even greater were offered _ for changing the elements of rotation ; that of the earth, _ when of seventy times its actual radius, might even have _ favourable circumstances, with a mass only 1/10600 the terrestrial. : But this method of explanation is radically unsatisfac- tory. It suggests the Deus ex machiné of an unskilled dramatist, and cannot be admitted without protest into scientific speculation. We have learned to regard cometary impacts as the last resource of the distressed cosmogonist. Such events are not impossible, but to resort to them in difficulties is to throw up the game of ordered inference. The conviction remains unalterable that the results visible to us were brought about by means _ less apparently fortuitous. Dr. Braun, for example, is _ obliged to suppose not only that, before the separation of _ the moon, the axis of the lunar-terrestrial nebula was iated, by extraneous agencies of the kind indicated, to the extent of 5° from its original position of perpendicu- wt they the plane of the ecliptic ; but that, subsequently to separation, further shocks continued the process upon the earth alone until the inclination attained its present value of 234°. Still less admissibly, the solar axis is assumed, after the formation of Venus, to have been tilted 5° by a number of successive impacts. A transcendent degree of improbability seems to be reached __ by this conjecture. __ In the order of planetary production, Dr. Braun follows _ Laplace. Neptune is his oldest planet. And the fact _ that it revolves very nearly in the “invariable plane” of the solar system is confirmatory of the view that it really was the first body (instead of being the last, as M. Faye -Supposes) to become severed from the primitive nebula, the rotation of which is likely to have been conducted in that plane (Wolf, Budi. Astronomique, t. ii. p. 228). Neptune alone, owing to the distinction of his retrograde rotation, is allowed by our author to have been formed ‘by the detachment and eventual condensation of a nebulous ring. But Prof. Kirkwood has raised an objec- tion to this orthodox mode of genesis which applies with especial force to the remotest planet. The coalescence intoa single globe of the fragments of a broken-up ring, if it happened at all (which is uncertain) would, it appears, have been an unconscionably slow process. Thus, two opposite portions cf a ring of the dimensions of Neptune’s orbit, could scarcely have come together in less than 150,000,000 years. It must be admitted that this is a startling demand on the time-exchequer even of the cosmos. Uranus is regarded by Dr. Braun as what Bacon called a ‘limiting instance” between the annular and the nuclear methods of generation. An abortive ring gave place to a centre of condensation, the result (helped, perhaps, by some well-aimed cometary shoves) being the indecisive character of the Uranian rotation on an axis lying prone in the plane of revolution. These, then, are the main outlines of the last and newest cosmogony. While dissenting from some of its conclusions, we readily admit that it is, in several ways, a ‘noteworthy effort. Its appearance may be said to mark the definitive abandonment, by sound thinkers, of the annular method of planet and satellite formation. The omar recomae of the conditions of that celebrated hypothesis ent it its charm, but has proved its ruin. Had they been _ been stopped altogether, by collision, under specially | less definite, it might have lived longer. But it gave, as it were, hostages to the future which it has not been able to redeem. It is gradually becoming clear that, while the various members of the solar family owned unquestionably a common origin, they can scarcely be said to have had a common history. Each ran through a cycle of develop- ment particular to itself, and appointed, without doubt, to adapt it to a special purpose. The biography of the earth and moon, as narrated by Prof. Darwin, is an ex- ample. Here influences predominated which, in every other secondary system, were comparatively unfelt. This growing persuasion of what we may call planetary individuality is reflected in Dr. Braun’s vigorous and original chapters. He has honestly, and with no small ability, worked out ad inztvo the problems that they deal with, and he finds them insoluble by the uniformitarian method of treatment. The expedients by which he seeks to obtain a diversity of results by introducing a diversity of vicissitudes, strike us perhaps as arbitrary and awk- ward ; but the admission of their necessity by an inquirer of such acuteness, and so well abreast of contemporary scientific thought, is highly instructive. We shall return later to the part of his interesting work devoted to solar theory. A. M. CLERKE. NOTES. On Tuesday Lord Hartington introduced to Sir W. Hart Dyke a deputation consisting of Sir Henry Roscoe, Sir Lyon Playfair, Mr. Rathbone, Mr. G. Howell, Mr. Cyril Flower, Sir B. Samuelson, and other gentlemen interested in education. They urged the desirability of the Technical Education Bill being passed, and of certain changes being made in the measure. Sir. W. Hart Dyke replied favourably on both points. He was of opinion that the prospects of the Bill were good, both in the House of Commons and in the House of Lords. THE list of foreign men of science who have accepted the invitation of the Local Committee to attend the Manchester meeting of the British Association is steadily increasing, and now numbers considerably over a hundred. Amongst those whose names have been received since the list we published on July 7, we note Prof. Cremona, of Rome; Dr. Neumayer, Director of the Hamburg Marine Observatory ; H. A. Rowland, Baltimore; Dr. Werner Siemens, of Berlin; Prof. Horstman, Heidelberg; Prof. L. Weber, Breslau; Prof. Capellini, Bologna ; Prof. Carvill Lewis, Philadelphia ; Prof. O. Biitschli, Heidelberg ; Prof. Carnoy, Louvain ; Prof. Erb, Heidelberg ; Dr. Treub, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Java; Capt. Coquilhat, Brussels; Dr. Godefroi, ’s Hertogenbosch ; Dr. Ludwig Wolf, Leipzig ; Signor Bonghi, the late Italian Minister of Education; Signor Luzzati, Rome; Dr. E. Atkinson, Director of the Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics; and Dr. G. Boissevain, Amsterdam. The King of the Belgians has. inti- mated his intention of nominating two representatives of the Congo Free State to attend the meeting, and of these General Strauch, Administrator-General of the Congo Free State, is ex- pected to be one. A correspondent in Paris writes to us that the Emperor of Brazil, who has lately spent some_time in the French capital, will probably attend the meeting of the Association. Mr. A. T. ATCHISON, Secretary of the British Association, is authorized to state that at the Manchester meeting space will be provided in the galleries of the Reception Room for the ex- hibition of specimens and instruments shown in connexion with and in illustration of papers read in the Sections. To secure admission a brief description of the specimens or instruments must be submitted to the Local Secretaries not later than August 10, together with a statement of the dimensions of the table or other fixture required. No motor power will be avail- able. The objects must be exhibited at the risk of the owners ; 324 — 3 NATURE [planet i # and the Local Committee, while it will endeavour to meet all reasonable wishes, reserves to itself the right to exclude all exhibits that may appear to it to be for any reason unsuitable. No objects shown for advertising purposes will be admissible. THE summer meetings of the Institution of Mechanical En- gineers were held this week on Tuesday and Wednesday in the University of Edinburgh, under the presidency of Mr. E. H. Carbutt. After the meeting on Tuesday, the members inspected the Forth Bridge and Works. ON Saturday, July 30, the statue of Paul Broca, close to the Medical School, Paris, was unveiled. Addresses were delivered by different persons connected with the Anthropological School. A CHAIR of Sanitary Engineering has been established in the Imperial University of Japan. It is believed to be the only Chair of the kind at present in existence. The Professor ap- pointed to fill it is Mr. W. K. Burton, lately senior Sanitary Engineer to the London Sanitary Protection Association. THE geographical habitat of Perifatus leuckarti, Sanger, is said (Archiv fiir Naturg. 1871, p. 407) by Prof. Leuckart to be ‘‘ New Holland.” Owing to the vagueness of our know- ledge of the subject, it may be of interest to state that two specimens of what appears to be this species have been found in the Queensland scrubs, near Wide Bay. These specimens have been presented to the British Museum by Mr. E. P. Ramsay, of the Australian Museum, Sydney. THE announcement of the discovery of more than a dozen new elements appears at first sight rather sensational, and were it not that the names of Kriiss and Nilson are sufficient guarantees of its authenticity the intimation would probably be received with more than a little caution. Such, however, is the startling result of the long, laborious, and exceptionally difficult researches of the Swedish chemists upon the nature of the rare earths con- tained in several sparsely-distributed minerals, and a detailed account of their labours will be found in the number of the Berichte just issued. A precise measurement of the wave- lengths of the lines and bands in the absorption-spectra of the nitrates of the rare earths contained in thorite of Brevig and Arendal, wohlerite of Breviy, cerite of Bastnas, fergusonite of Arendal and Ytterby, and in euxenite of Arendal and Hitterd, has resulted in the surprising observation that only a particular few of the lines supposed by former observers to belong to the nitrate of any one metal are present in the absorption-spectra of the nitrates derived from certain minerals, the other lines being absent in these, but present in the nitrate spectra of other minerals, while some that are present in the former are absent or very faint in the latter. For example, only one of the lines supposed to belong to the nitrate of holmium is present in any intensity in the spectrum of the nitrates from thorite of Brevig, while in the spectrum of nitrates derived from other minerals it is but an insignificant line among several holmium lines much more intense. The conclusion from most exhaustive spectral measurements is inevitable, that most of the so-called elements in these minerals are compound substances, the various ingredients of which are present in certain minerals and absent in others; further, the fractionation of the nitrates has led to the partial separation of a large number of the components themselves, Holmium, the metal which Soret called X, and which Lecogq de Boisbaudran separated into two components, is now shown to consist of seven distinct elements—Xa, XB, Xy, X8, Xe, X¢, and X7 ; erbium of two—Era and Er, which’ it is possible to separate by fractionation ; thulium, named by Cleve in 1879, also of two—Tma and Tm§; didymium which was shown by von Welsbach to consist of two components, praseodym and neodym, must, in the light of these spectral differences, consist of not less than nine distinct elements, while samarium, the name given by Lecoq de Boisbaudran to Marignac’s YB, is com- posed of at least two components—Sma and Smg. Hence, in place of He cobiens. Gudiiain, Py eal sam: we are constrained to accept the existence of more than j Kriiss and Nilson urgently invite assistance. THE United States Monthly Weather Review for March I April contains interesting notes, ¢.g. (1) Average storm over the United States during March, compiled from obse tions for the years 1873-85. The paths pursued by these torn centres are divided into four distinct classes, and are traced until the disappearance of the storms at various points Atlantic coast. (2) Rain frequency and wind rose for with charts constructed from all observations available commencement of the records until the end of 1886. have been prepared for use in the current weather the service. The Reviews also contain descriptions which occurred over the North Atlantic during each n their approximate paths are shown on charts, togeth distribution of icebergs reported. THE Jahres- Bericht of the Central Meteoroliogialll Grand Duchy of Baden, for 1886, contains the resul orders, and twenty-nine rain stations, of which heights above sea are given. The Central Of part in two Conferences during the year—one at to the investigation of the frequency, direction of and intensity of hailstorms ; and the other at with respect to a physical survey of the Lake of Consta proposals made at both Conferences are awaiting tl of the various Governments concerned. The Report panied by a chart giving the distribution of the the year 1886, and shows three districts with maxi 55 inches, in positions corresponding with those on the the previous year. The greatest amount was 79°56 it Todtnauberg, and the least 30°28 inches at Diedesheit contains hydrological observations at various statio Rhine and its larger tributaries. Dr. K. WeErHRAUCH, Director of the ot Dorpat, Russia, has published the mean values of the logical observations at that place for the twenty years giving (1) the results of the individual months and (2) the results for the twenty years combined. This | was established in December 1885 by the late Dr. Oettingen, and is one of the few stations that have published wind components, under each of the points. (in addition to the usual components N, - § whereby a better knowledge of the general d wind is obtained than when only two compon The highest mean monthly shade temperature, years, is 63°’2in July, the lowest 19°°6 in January, for the year 39°°9. The greatest mean monthly r inches in July, the lowest 1°02 inches in March, anc for the year 16°21 inches. The fourth volume of t observations, for the years 1881-85, is now being the publication having been delayed hitherto for want of THE work done at the Melbourne Observatory in with meteorology and terrestrial magnetism expands — every year. The importance attaching to rainfall supply renders it necessary to spread rain-gauges wherev: worthy observers can be secured, and we learn from th Report of the Observatory that 272 monthly returns : received, most of the observers being volunteers. _ register of Victorian rainfall has been prepared, shoy glance the annual and monthly rainfall, as well as t for a series of years and months. The issue of and forecasts for Southern and Northern Victoria regularly continued, and this service appears to appreciated. : weat NATURE 325, ; ie R. H. Scort, of the Meteorological Office, sends us some notices of earthquakes observed at North Unst and Sumburgh - Lighthouses. These notices he has come across while examin- _ ing Journals of Shetland Lighthouses, and it may be worth _ while to put them on record. The following are records from logs at North Unst Lighthouse: 1879, January 4, 5 minutes past I p.m. mean time, felt smart shock of earthquake, lasted about 4 seconds ; 1880, July 18, 20 minutes after midnight last, __ asmart shock of earthquake lasted from 34 to 35 seconds, then a second shock not so strong or of so long duration,—whole rock _ and building oscillated ; 1885, September 26, at Io p.m., we | __ felt the tower shake very suddenly,—men in bed as well as the man on the watch cannot account for it, unless a slight shock of an earthquake,—no heavy sea, and the wind light from north. At Sumburgh Head Lighthouse the following observation was made : 1876, November 28, at 6 p.m., a slight shock of earth- quake was felt at this station. For two or three seconds the lamp-glass in the tower shook violently. As my attention was taken up with the lamp, and fearing that the glass would fall, I therefore did not observe any other movement. The wind at the time was north by east, and light, accompanied with showers, and dark clouds hanging about. SOME time ago (vol. xxxiii. p. 491) we gave an account of some excellent papers on ‘‘ Technical Education, Applied Science, Buildings, Fittings, and Sanitation,” by Mr. Edward Cookworthy Robins. These papers, revised and admirably illus- trated, have now been brought together in a handsome volume entitled ‘* Technical School and College Building,” and pub- lished by Messrs. Whittaker and Co, The book is dedicated to Prof. Huxley. It will be very welcome to all who are engaged, or who look forward to being engaged, in the con- struction of technical school buildings. _A BOOK on ‘‘Canada and Newfoundland,” by Ernst von Hesse- Wartegg, is about to be published in Freiburg-im-Breisgau. The author has repeatedly visited the country he describes, and his work is the more likely to be appreciated in Germany, because the northern part of the American continent has hitherto been almost wholly neglected by German writers of books of travel. THE first number of the American Journal of Psychology will appear early in October. The object of the Journal is to record psychological work of a scientific as distinct from a speculative character. Pror. Geo, H. PALMER, of Harvard College, has published the results of some inquiries lately made by him as to the annual expenditure of Harvard undergraduates. Of the members of the graduating class, about one-fourth had spent from 400 to 650 dollars ; another fourth, from 650 to 975 dollars ; another, from 975 to 1200 dollars; and another, upwards of 1200 dollars. The lowest sum reported was 400 dollars ; the highest, 4oco. Addressing parents, Prof. Palmer says :—‘‘ If your son is some- thing like an artist in economy, he may live at Harvard under 600 dollars a year. If he is able to live closely, carefully, and yet with due regard to all that he requires, he may easily accom- plish it on between 600 and 800 dollars. If you wish him to live here at ease, from 800 to 1000 dollars may be well expended. I should be very confident that every dollar given him over 1200 dollars was a dollar of danger.” Ir seems, from a paper by M. Jammes, who lives in Camboja, that animals, as well as human beings, are liable to become addicted to opium-poisoning. In countries where the use of opium is prevalent, many animals remain beside their master while he takes a whiff at his pipe. Breathing an air containing a good deal of opium vapour, they become quite intoxicated, and appear to relish the sensation, This has been noticed con- cerning cats, dogs, and monkeys, The latter, according to M. Jammes, like the sensation so much that some of them take | to eating opium. THE Foreign Department of the Chinese Government (the Tsung-li-Yamén) has just addressed a very striking memorial to the Emperor proposing the introduction of mathematics and physics into the metropolitan and provincial competitive examin- ations for public employment. It is suggested that this should be done in all the provinces of the Empire, the successful can- didates being sent to Pekin to compete for higher grades. They are to be examined in the capital, in addition to the preceding subjects, in civil and military engineering, international law and history. Those whoare successful in obtaining the highest degree will receive an honorary official status, equivalent to a Fellowship, in the Foreign Language College at Pekin, together with official appointments in the capital or the provinces. This scheme has now received the Imperial sanction, and it is difficult for those unacquainted with China to appreciate the vast change which it will produce intime. Hitherto the competitive examinations which must be passed by every intending official, have been con- fined to the ancient Chinese classics, exercises in prose and poetical composition, and Chinese history, and they have been of the same kind for centuries. They were the ark of the covenant, which it was sacrilege to touch; but the Chinese have now introduced mathematical science into the curriculum. It will be interesting to see how the new and old subjects will fare respec- tively, now that they are brought together for the first time in the long history of China. THE first volume ofa new periodical specially devoted to botany has been issued in St. Petersburg. The periodical is pub- lished in connexion with the botanical garden of the St. Peters- burg University by Profs. Beketoff and Gobi, under the title of ** Scripta Botanica Horti Universitatis Petropolitanz.” The first volume contains an important work by Prof. Beketoff, on the flora of Yekaterinoslav, wbich not only gives a list of 1032 species of flowering plants (instead of the 536 species formerly found in the province), but contains a most interesting inquiry into the flora of the steppes of South Russia, as compared with those of the Hungarian fzsz/as on the one side, and the Caspian steppes on the other. The same volume contains a note by Prof. Gobi on a new form of fungi, Ceoma Cassandra, which is found in the peat-marshes of Finland as a parasite on the Andromeda (Cassandra) calyculata; and a paper on the vegetation of the Altai, by A. Krasnoff, containing the enumera- tion of plants found by the author. These plants were found on the Artemisia steppes, on the salt steppes, on black-earth, on meadows inundated during the spring, in forests, and on the higher Alps. While comparing the present flora of the Altai with the Pliocene flora of the same area, characterized by the predominance of the beech and other trees of the temperate region, the author points out that only feeble vestiges of the old flora survive in the present flora of the meadows inundated during the spring. The vegetation of the other sub-regions has completely changed since the Tertiary period, and continues still to change. Thus larch forests disappear with astonish- ing rapidity, and are succeeded by herbaceous steppes, while Artemisia steppes have taken the place formerly occupied by the lakes and brackish marshes which covered the bottoms of the valleys. A feature of the ‘‘ Scripta Botanica,” most wel- come to European botanists, is that the papers in Russian are followed by short abstracts in French or German. In the bibliographical section there are analyses of botanical works published in Russia since January 1, 1886. The works analyzed under this head are: Prof. Schmalhausen’s ‘‘ Flora of South-West Russia” (Kieff, Volhynia, Podolia, Poltava, Tchernigoff, and neighbouring regions), published at Kieff; Prof. W. Zinger’s work on the ‘‘Flora of Central Russia ;” Prof. Maximowicz’s ‘‘ Diagnoses Plantarum Novarum Asiati- » 356 NATURE [August 4, 18 carum,” fascicule vi. ; M. Kamenski’s ‘‘ Comparative Researches into the Development and Structure of Urticularia ;” and several botanical papers published in Russian scientific periodicals, THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two White-eared Bulbuls (Pycnonotus leucotis) from North-West India, presented by General W. H. Breton ; a Magpie (Pica rustica),’ British, presented by Mr. H. Stacy Marks, R.A., F.Z.S.; two Turtle Doves (Zurtur communis), British, presented by Mr. N. Brooks ; a Daubenton’s Curassow (Crax daubentoni) from Venezuela, presented by Capt. Rigaud, s.s. Larne; a Lozgerhead Turtle (Zhalassochelys caouana) from the Atlantic Ocean, presented by Mr. R. T. Ward ; two Green Lizards (Lacerta viridis) ; two Marbled Newts (AZolge marmor- ata), European, presented by the Rev. F. W. Haines ; a Crested Pigeon (Ocyphaps lophotes) from Australia ; a Secretary Vulture (Serpentarius reptilivorus) from South Africa; an Elliot’s Pheasant (Phasianus ellioti 6); a Temminck’s Tragopan (Certornis temmincki 6) from China; four Spotted Tinamous (Nothura maculosa) from Buenos Ayres ; two Indian Crocodiles (Crocodilus palustris) from India, deposited ; eight Ocellated Sand Skinks (Ses oce//atus) from Malta, purchased ; a Bennett’s Wallaby (Halmaturus bennetté 8) born in the Gardens ; a Com- mon Crowned Pigeon (Gowra coronata), a Cockateel ( Calopsitta nove-hollandie) bred in the Gardens. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE WEEK 1887 AUGUST 7-13. (FOR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at : Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on August 7 Sun rises, 4h. 35m. ; souths, 12h. 5m. 33°8s.; sets, 19h. 36m. ; decl. on meridian, 16° 27’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 16h. 40m. Moon (at Last Quarter on August I1) rises, 20h. 58m.* ; souths, 2h. 29m. ; sets, 8h. gm. ; decl. on meridian, 6° 14’ S. Planet. Rises. Souths Sets. Decl. on meridian. | ARS ig h. m h. m. = as Mercury B80 a 18 38 16 31 N. Venus. 8 44 14 42 20 40 1 148. Mars .. I 59 10 13 18 27 23 8N. aeeter, aL IS25 Gos VROCAS 21 58 10): 3258. aturn 2 NE OR REINO! Bae 18 57 20 37 N. * Indicates that the rising is that of the receding eveiniad Occultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). Corresponding August. Star. Mag. Disap. Reap. = paper inverted image. h. m. h. m. Bs BAC. St. 26h uy 355 we & SF 88 353 Biinsw 20 Ceti: 20. nee Ob nee 23 SY nk OP ce ines PQ Cet ns) nee OM ans 324 aus EG sec sis. 40 LAUT .:. 2 IG 25S oe 76 244 t Occurs on the following morning. ee h. I... Mercury stationary. arias Stars, Star. Decl. bon Sle h. m. U Cephei ... O 52°3... 81 16 N.... Aug. II, 20 49 m R Persei 9, Gann. 35 37.N. 3 a ee SV MPINIS.5,0:/ 0b RRO A xO 37 Se 5 og ee m Coron’... ... 15 13°C... 32° 4 N,...” |, or U Ophiuchi... ... 17 10°8 1-20. N: .)., 0a eee ea 3 21 50 m X Sagittanil.... 2... 17 40°5 ....27 47S. .. 5, 10, Seam T SOnpemae on! as; 1823'3...05 6 04 Ne ee M B Lyre... as tes 18459... 33 IGN... gy 10, BB we S Sagittze «1 19 509 :.. 16:20 N..... ., 0 cee eer S Cygni_ 1. BO OE... BT AON... ee M 5 Cephei - 22 25°0 ... 57 SON. ...° ,, 30, 2% O17 M signifies maximum 3 #z minimum. Meteor-Showers. The present season is generally the richest in the: , meteors, being the season of the Perseids, and the neig showers. R.A. Decl. Near 8 Andromede... 7 ... 32N.... Swift Per sttds,:- vis: wae ibd, i Rp a a ee From, Aries: sea) sen. AQ vase oh ie eu ee Near, @°Persei ... os. AO 5.) ee From ee ie Prone 06 we TENS Soe Near 6 Cygni ... 292... 52N.... Rather THE JUBILEE OF THE ELE TELEGRAPH. ue ON December 12, 1837, William Fothergill ke of himself and Charles Wheatstone, set his to Patent No. 7390, the subject of the speci ‘Certain apparatus or mechanism which is cons‘ ing to our said improvements for giving signals - alarums in distant places by means of electric c mitted through metallic circuits.” This, patent dealing with the electric telegraph, co of a thoroughly practical apparatus, as the I of July 25, 1837, made between Euston and proved. Unlike many other developments ¢ the commencement of the epoch when electric a practical success in this country can be what will become an historical event, viz of July 27, 1887, can strictly be said to be the electric telegraph. To say that the invention of which Cooke and were the pioneers has done more to transform human existence than any other except the some would add ‘‘ gunpowder,” is but to re: ledged fact. The electric telegraph has so chi ditions of our social existence as to become indis same, and we could almost as soon do without food ai as dispense with the power that has annihilated dis evolution of the electric telegraph as a means - intelligence from a distance did not, of cours the year when Her Majesty began her reign, — Ronald, Schilling, Watson, Sémmering, Schwei Lesage, and very many others, will at once occur give a moment’s thought to the subject, as workers in long before Wheatstone made his famous expel we think, will question the assertion that electr a commercial success distinctly dates from the y The commemorative dinner was held in the V the Holborn Restaurant on Wednesday evening, Right Hon. H, C. Raikes, M.P., the Postmast in the chair. A large number of represen' present (the company mustering about 250), last ten years or so death has sadly thinned **old hands,” of the Electric, U.K. and Magne Amongst the men of science and others who a’ Capt. Fonseca Varz, Mr. S. W. Silver, Dr. 5 Mr. C. B. Bruce, the Marquis of Tweedda : Crookes, F. es Mr. Edward Graves, Prof. ow, : M. Caél, ” Jacob Brett, Mr. H. Weaver, Pender, Mr. “C H. B. Patey, Mr. G. Shaw- Lord Onslow, Prof. Stokes, Sir Lyon Playfair, «| William Thomson, Sir Frederick Goldsmid, Sir Abel, Sir Douglas Galton, Mr. J. C. MacDonald, 8 Clark, Sir David Salomons, Sir George Elliott, | Andrews, R.A.," Mr. Matthew Gray, Sir ( nd Mr. Norman Lockyer, Mr. H. C. Fischer? Prof, Mr. W. H. Preece, Sir C. Bright, Major-General Mr. C. E. Spagnoletti, and Mr. Latimer Clark. pressing regret at non-attendance were received Marquis of Salisbury, Lord John Manners, Visco Mr. W. H. Smith, Sir H. Holland, Sir W. Grove. Gooch, Sir A. Borthwick, M.P., Dr. von Stephan (B William Siemens (Berlin), ° Mr. Cracknell (Sydney), Todd (Adelaide), and others. The Chairman having proposed the usual loyal to: posed the toast, “To the Memory of the Pioneers graphy,” asking the company to join in an expr NATURE 327 iFeverence for those great and illustrious men who have ceased igo be among us, by drinking the same in solemn silence. The Chairman then said :—We have most of us perhaps read of #that tumultuous sensation which the great Wheatstone confesses fto have experienced when the message which he sent on that little journey from Euston Square to Camden Town was sent back to him by Mr. Cooke. I am perhaps not exaggerating the ‘importance of that occasion when I venture to say that that evening as Wheatstone sat in the small cupboard of an office _ communicating with his colleague at a distance of some two miles, - was one of the great epochs in the history of human progress ; and if ever a spirit of prophecy has filled a man with something a divine enthusiasm, it may well be that the man with whose name the system of the electric telegraph must ever be in- separably connected, may have felt his heart throb with some- _ thing almost supernatural when he realized that the great work _ had been achieved, that the demonstration had been reached, and that the future of the science was assured. I venture to believe that when we look back upon the progress of those ke years, we shall find in them the materials for a greater hope of the future of humanity than in almost any other record of any other period in the history of our race. I would remind you that the instrument which was employed by Wheatstone and Cooke displayed five needles, and that it was from the movements ___ and combinations of those five needles that the whole of the _ alphabet was made up. Those five needles, we are told, were ___united by means of five copper wires laid in a groove in a tri- _ angular block of wood, and I am sure you will be interested to ____ know that a piece of that block is in my hand at the present time, __ and well deserves to be preserved among the archives of science. _ Well of course we are with the experience of this half century well aware that this system in the rst instance was crude and ; 5 gage Demonstrations had been arrived at, but perfection had to be reached. The difficulty that was immediately encountered in popularizing the system was obviated by the development of the railway enterprise of this country and the necessity which arose for rapid and certain communication along our lines of rail- way. However, some time elapsed before the real development __ of telegraphy in this country began. The London and Black- ___-wall Railway was, I believe, the first to utilize the system in a 4 gael In 1844 the Government of Sir Robert Peel were i first to realize how far the telegraph might be applied to the service of the State ; and that year saw the establishment of a telegraph line from Waterloo to Gosport, and that I think you ‘may say constituted the first public recognition of the value of the electric telegraph. In 1846 the first telegraph company was formed—the Electric Telegraph Company. In 1850 the first attempt was made to laya submarine telegraph cable. A gutta- ie wire, without any metallic covering, was laid between wer and Calais in August of that year, and you will be interested to know that I have also here a portion of that cable, which was fished up by a ship in the Channel so recently as the year 1875. In 1851 a cable was laid in substitution of this gutta-percha cable, which was protected by iron wires, and which was the commencement of a regular system of inter-communica- tion between England and the Continent, and this cable I believe _ Iam not wrong in associating with the name of one of those gentlemen who is happily still spared to be among us—I mean Mr. Crampton—and it must indeed be a great satisfaction to anyone who has been connected with great works of this sort to have lived, as Mr. Crampton has done, to witness their enormous development in the service of mankind. The first Atlantic cable was laid in 1858, and other companies arose during those years to compete with the first electric telegraph company, and multiplied throughout the length and breadth of England the agency of the telegraph. In 1870 the multiplication of the companies had become so great that their competition, though in some respects advantageous to the public, was yet so imperfectly regulated by State requirements, that the Government of the day determined to acquire the whole of their enterprises, and to place the telegraphs of the Kingdom under the direction of the Post Office. Now, I should like to say one or twowords with regard to the instruments of telegraphy. We are aware that the first eer apparatus employed by Wheatstone and Cooke was one which required five wires through which to transmit their message. It was found gradually that two wires would suffice to forward a message, and after that the progress of science enabled the operators to depend upon one. But after a time it became ascertained that a wire could be used for sending mes:ages in two directions, and after that time four messages came to be trans- mitted on a single wire, two in either direction ; and, as I dare say most gentlemen who are present to-night are aware, at the present time a single wire is being used at the central telegraph station in such a manner as to admit of six messages being sent in one direction, or one in one direction and five in the other, or any other combination of six messages. The first five-needle instrument was succeeded by the double needle, and the double needle by the single needle ; all those systems were visual. Then came in the system of printing on a band of paper. At first the signs representing the letters were embossed on the band. This was further improved by Prof. Hughes’s printing instrument, by which the actual letters were printed in ink, Then came yet another—the sounder instrument, by which messages are trans- mitted by sound without any record. With regard to speed, when the first electric telegraph was established the speed of transmission was from four to five words a minute on the five- needle instruments. In 1849 the average rate of transmission of a certain number of messages addressed to the 7imes news- paper was 17 words a minute. The present pace of the electric telegraph between London and Dublin, where the Wheatstone automatic instrument is employed, amounts to 462 words a minute, and thus what was regarded as miraculous fifty years ago, has multiplied a hundredfold in the course of one half century, Now you may perhaps like to know, though it is rather descending from the higher walk of this great subject, the number of telegrams which were sent through the Post Office in the United Kingdom last year. The number was 51,500,000; that is nearly 1,000,000 per week, and that number is still steadily increasing. 41,000,000, or rather more than that number, of these were inland messages, and of course a very great proportion of them were Press messages. I think you should realize the immense boon which the electric telegraph has bestowed upon the Press. I gather from such information as I have been able to obtain that the rate for Press messages, which as everybody is aware is very much less than the rate for other messages, is on the average not much more than 2d. per 100 words ; and it is owing to these extraordinary facilities, afforded by the Post Office to the trans- mission of Press news, that the whole of the United Kingdom is put in possession at its breakfast table every morning of every- thing which it is necessary or important for anybody to know, as well as of a great many things which are neither necessary nor important. I believe that I am not wrong in saying that the cost to the public revenue of this reduced rate to the Press is not less than tasibes a year, and that the newspapers of this country practically receive a subsidy of £200,000 a year in order to enable them to assist in the diffusion of intelligence. I imagine that the country is well satisfied that this should be so, and that there are very few people who would wish to abridge that privi- lege, having regard to the enormous importance to all classes of the community of being placed at the earliest moment in posses- sion of the fullest knowledge of what is going on. But it is a fact that, owing to the recent reduction in the tariff of telegrams, the value of the telegram on the average to the State is now only 8d., whereas two years ago it was 1s. Id. ; and before the State took over the telegraphs it amounted to as much as 2s. 2d, I think you may measure something of the enormous gain which the public has achieved by the acquisition by the State of the telegraph system when you look at these figures and reflect that the average price of a telegram at the present time is only about a third of what it was only seventeen years ago. I am saying this as if I were one of the public; but as Postmaster-General you must be aware that I have to regard this result with some- what mixed feelings, and I am endeavouring, as far as I can, to denude myself of any official prepossession in putting before you from the popular side the advantages which you have obtained by the State employment of the telegraphs. I would add that if you would wish to obtain further knowledge of this most interesting subject, put in the most terse and pregnant way, you cannot do better than study a paper communicated to the Society of Arts by my friend Mr. Preece. The great agency of telegraphy which seems to form the vital principle of this planet upon which we live, this great agency which has not only gone so far towards annihilating space, but which seems at the present time to be regenerating light and revolutionizing motion, has all the future before it. Those who are enrolled in its service are probably the disciples and the apostles of a new and absolutely beneficial dispensation, and with them rests the future, in no small degree, of the human race, and the means of linking not merely ourselves to our distant colonies—and my noble friend who is beside me (Lord Onslow) 328 NATURE [August 4, 1887 reminds me how important is the connexion between England and the younger Englands beyond the sea—but by going forward in connecting the various races of mankind by binding island to island and continent to continent. The telegraph is doing in its own quiet, its own noiseless, and its own unobtrusive way, more than all the noisiest missionaries of peace and universal brotherhood have ever accomplished. Mr. Edwin Clark, in acknowledging the toast on behalf of ‘« The Past,” described the origin of the Electric Telegraph Com- pany, in the organization of which he took a prominent part, the difficulties he had to encounter in curtailing expenditure, and in putting into a thoroughly sound state the wires and the system of insulation which then prevailed. He pointed out that the railway companies were really in its early stages the greatest benefactors of the telegraph. He had been deputed to examine the telegraph system prevalent in Europe in those early years in connexion with the railways, and he had recommended what had now become universal on the railway system of this country —the block system. Mr. John Pender, on behalf of ‘‘ The Present,” said :—My mission to-night is to tell you what submarine telegraphy has done. Iam one of those few commercial men who at an early period of telegraphy saw that there was in it the promise of a. beneficent instrument for the future progress of the world. I have gone into submarine telegraphy, not as an expert, but as . one of those who have come forward and taken science by the hand, and led it up to the glorious results which we have seen. Twenty years ago there was only something like 2000 miles of submarine cables ; now there are 115,000 miles ; and it has cost something like 438,000,000 or 439,000,000 sterling to put that amount of telegraph cable to the bottom of the sea. There was a prophecy long ago that the earth was to be girdled round in forty minutes. Why, we have got as much submarine tele- graph cable as will go round the world five times, and we can send a message round the world in twenty minutes at the present moment. You ask me where does all this submarine telegraphy extend, and I reply in those beautiful lines of the poet :-— “* Far as the breeze can bzar the billows’ foam Survey our Empire, and behold our home !”’ Wherever the British ship goes, or the British flag flies, there we have the submarine telegraph ; and at the present moment, while I am speaking to you, human thought is travelling like lightning to every part of the world. The future of that no man can tell. Of the 100,000,000 words which are now carried by submarine telegraphy, nine-tenths are for commercial purposes. When the history of these fifty years of Her Majesty’s glorious reign is written, telegraphy, and more especially submarine telegraphy, will be shown to have done more than anything else to federate the great colonies with the mother country, to spread civilization throughout the world, and to make this great world of ours as near as possible one common country. Sir William Thomson (who was warmly received) said :—I feel that when the telegraph has been so important a bond for all the nations of the world we ought to go even beyond our fifty years jubilee and think for a moment of the great names from other countries to whom the possibility of the jubilee of the electric telegraph has been due—the great apostles of electric science in France, Coulomb and Ampeére,—Ampére, whose work and whose discoveries constitute the foundation of the most important of modern telegraphic and electrical instruments generally ; Ampére, whose name has become Anglicized and is invariably used in measuring the currents which produce the electric light. Then Gauss and Weber, who made the first electric telegraph. The telegraph of Gauss and Wcber, and the Munich telegraph of Steinheil, and the Steinheil key, which is the manipulating telegraph key of the present day—those were the elements of telegraphy. We justly rejoice that in England so much was made of the work of those grand pioneers in science. In America the race of practical work commenced almost simul- taneously with our own in the splendid telegraph of Morse. In speaking of the telegraph we almost forget time and space, and I must go back to the previous work of Henry, ‘who anticipated in some points sone of the finest discoveries of Faraday, and laid a large part of the theory of current induction, which is at the very root of some of the most splendid realizations of modern electric science, not merely for the electric telegraph, but for electric lighting. By the work of 1857—a few years before the half of the jubilee—the two brothers, Edward and Charles Bright, and Whitehouse, those three men, with Mr. Cyrus ; unimportant they seemed, do everything in our power top ‘graphy. Field, reduced to practice that brilliant dream of Cyrus Field connect England and America by means of submarine te F Then there were the brothers Werner and William \ Siemens working in the same direction, and the great navigator ' Moriarty, who was out in the Agamemnon in 1857, and navi- gated the Agamemnon in 1868, and was on the Great Eastern a navigator with Sir James Anderson. In 1865 he picked up cable where it was broken, and in 1866, coming back a y. after to the same place, hit upon it just a quarter of a mile aw by his splendid navigational powers. Canning and Cli were also engaged in the work; then there were Var Jenkin (who was my special partner) with both of wl worked for many years. I alone am here to speak for th Willoughby Smith, who did such fine work in 18 testing the cable, applying the newest developments of se many of them his own inventions, to do what had never done before, to test a submarine cable with the delicacy was necessary under circumstances so peculiar, so utterly I am exceedingly sorry he is not with us this evening. can never forget that we scientists alone could not have what has been done. To two men, I believe, is « existence of the 1865 cable, and all the con oe followed from the 1865-66 cable—John Pender and Cyrus But I must remember that there are other things besides telegraphs. You have told us how splendidly the land tel: are worked ; you have pointed out how admirably under the fluence of the Government system, the application of science: telegraphy has been developed. I think you may feel p in knowing that under Government management within these seventeen years the applications of science to cap ee stood still, but, on the contrary, have been pushed vard | every possible energy and with the most marvellous success. - have told us that the rate of working between Dublin and has reached 462 words per minute, I think we may say 500 per minute, and that is ten times what it was ten years ago. is something for a Government department to be proud of for a Government I must say there is some little political ance in the fact that Dublin can now communicate its rec its complaints, and its gratitudes, to London at the rate of words per minute. It seems to me an ample demonstration the utter scientific absurdity of any sentimental need for ser Parliaments in Ireland. I should have failed in my du speaking for science if I had omitted to point out this, whic seems to mea great contribution of science to the political welfare of the world. edt Sir Lyon Playfair, M.P., proposed ‘‘ The Scientific Soci The scientific Societies, he pointed out, did not profess im they professed to lay down the laws of science and to % natural knowledge. Men who had contributed to the ¢ ment of natural knowledge, like Oersted and Ampere, 1 much discoverers of the electric telegraph as if they had selves actually aided in the invention. The duty of the si Societies was to cultivate the tree of knowledge. A great tion never came, as Minerva did, panoplied in complete from the brain of Jupiter. But even the brain of Jspie co not produce this wonderful product of evolution until 1 swallowed her mother, Metis, while in the first month o tion. Our great inventors swallowed science, the mother of vention, and then produced their progeny, always, however, a state of infancy. The steam-engine, which had done so m for human progress, has had so many inventors that a of law, reviewing the steps of invention, came to a solet decision that Watt had done nothing for the improvement - the steam-engine. Scientific Societies, looking to the advan ment of science for its own sake, laid the surest foun tions for industrial applications. Oersted and Faraday as true discoverers of the electric telegraph as Whea Cooke, or Morse. It was not the annihilation of space time which was the most wonderful result of the telegraph, it was the profound change which it had produced in ours tems of government and of commerce. Who at its introducti would have supposed that the whole system of commerce y have been transformed by it, that capital would have to ch the channels of its usefulness, and that the system of exch would undergo such profound alterations? If telegraphy one lesson which we should lay to heart it was this—t science should be studied for the sake of knowledge, beca discoveries in natural knowledge led inevitably to indust inventions. We should, in regard to all discoveries, ho t August 4, 1887] NATURE 329 -tmote their growth, and the growth of natural knowledge _ throughout the world. Prof. Stokes said :—Scientific men know well how fascinating _ is the pursuit of science. Some have even gone so far as to consider that it would be polluted, if I may so speak, by being ic el practically, An eminent foreign mathematician de- lighted in the theory of numbers because one could not conceive _ that it could have any practical application. An eminent Eng- _ lish mathematician 1 heard express a somewhat similar senti- ment. All honour be to those who are so immersed, if I may so speak, in abstract science, that they disregard and even dis- ) like its application. They pursue science with all the more _ zest, they pursue it in directions which possibly otherwise might - not have been followed out, and possibly in the end their own investigations may admit of applications which they never dreamt of, But for my own part my tastes do not quite lie in that direction. I like to see science connected with applications _ thereof, no matter to what purpose. Now, when we apply ab- _ stract science to physical subjects, we are not only enabled to investigate natural phenomena in a manner which could not _ otherwise be done, but the study reacts on the most abstract s of science, and enables us sometimes to see, as if it were y intuition, truths of an abstract nature, such as, for example, propositions in pure mathematics, which we perhaps should never have arrived at if we had not viewed them through the spectacles, so to speak, of their physical application. But this is not all. When science comes to be applied to the wants of life, scientific men are placed by the practical man in the con- dition of making experiments which oftentimes would otherwise be impossible. When science comes tobe applied to commer- cial purposes, it then becomes possible to construct instruments on a scale the expensiveness of which would have been utterly prohibitory to the purely scientific man. But when these instru- ments are constructed, it may be, for commercial purposes, the scientific man on his part is able by the favour of those who have constructed them, or of those for whom they have been constructed, to make experiments with them which oftentimes are of great interest from a purely scientific point of view. __ Dr. Gladstone, responding on behalf of the ‘‘ Royal Institu- tion, said :—At the Institution there were not merely memories binding them to all those who had passed away, but they had also many relics. They preserved the log-books of Davy, _ Faraday, and others, and not only that, but there a great number ___ Of pieces of wire, sealing-wax, and card, all damaged, and many _ other things which Faraday especially used to delight to work _ with and to carry out in the first experiments which were sug- gested by the ideas that were working in his brain, and these were preserved as germs of some of their great discoveries. And here he wanted to point out one of those germs connected with telegraphy. Those relics preserved at the Royal Institution were only worth originally a few pence orshillings. How different the monster wealth which had now become the capital of those great enterprises! As far as the Royal Institution was concerned, its connexion with the electric telegraph was to a certain extent not direct, and yet it was very real. Sir Humphry Davy worked there of course largely on galvanic electricity, but he belonged to the pre-telegraphic era, Faraday himself commenced to work early on these matters, and continued to try and image in his own mind what was taking place in these phenomena. It was an important point with him that the glories of science should conduce to the benefit of man. They knew his influence with Sir Charles Wheatstone was very great, and he got him into the dark chambers at the Royal Institution and talked to him about his investigations, and in the theatre brought before him some of those experiments which were afterwards performed with so much success in public. In one way and another Faraday had to do with the industrial applications of electricity, as well as with scientific discovery. They had the combination of the purely scientific man with the practical man, and then the two going together with slow, careful, conscientious investigation, ollowed by the — carrying out of the discovery in a form which benefited mankind. Mr, Shaw-Lefevre, M.P., in proposing the ‘“ Societies repre- _ senting Applied Science,” said :—When [ was a boy, at Eton, I fecollect well the extension of the telegraph from London to Slough, and an incident of which you are all aware, the arrest | of Tawell, which I believe brought the telegraph more into - fotice than anything else at that time. It might have been ex- pected that the authorities of Eton, seeing a great invention of this kind brought to their door, might have been desirous of : explaining it to the boys of the school, and might have been drawn out of their deep slumber of ages and done something for the scientific education: of the boys then at Eton. But no “thought of the kind ever entered into their minds, and the only notice taken of it at the time was that they set it as the subject for Greek verses. I and all the boys of my class commenced racking our brains to write some Greek iambics upon a subject of which we knew nothing, and to bring it into connexion with the mythology of the ancients, of which we knew a good deal. I refer to this for the purpose of showing you how little scienee was promoted then at our public schools. I am glad to say that things have been changed since then, but much has to be done in this direction, and there cannot be a doubt that if this country is to hold its own in the great industrial competition it must give a greater place to science in our schools, and equalize the endowments between the classical and scientific studies ; and it is only by doing that I am persuaded that we can hold our own. Mr. Bruce, President of the Institute of Civil Engineers, and Mr. Latimer Clark, past President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, replied ; and the latter, after alluding to the work done by the brothers Brett in submarine telegraphy, said :— I feel that we, as the representatives of applied science, have been somewhat neglected by the world. I feel that the poli- ticians, some of whom have honoured us by coming here this evening, have very much neglected us. I don’t allude to honours, for we shall be very well content with the position of things in that regard ; but I feel that they have robbed us of much of our credit for the fact that the great effects of the jubilee which we are now assembled to commemorate have been due to the agency of the applied sciences. Ido feel that poli- ticians have been permitted to claim for themselves the credit for the wondrous benefits civilization has received from the efforts of applied science. We hear that so many shillings have - been taken off a quarter of wheat, we hear that all the pro- sperity of the country has been due to free trade, but I say it is not so; I say they have robbed us of our honours in saying that ; I say as guild and craft we ought to proclaim loudly to the world that to our efforts most of all the prosperity of the last fifty years has been due. The population of this great city and of this country when it eats its breakfast to-morrow morn- ing will be consuming food a very large proportion of which has been brought to this country by means of applied science. It is that which has given us our prosperity. They have not taken 5s. or 10s. a quarter off wheat and corn and eatables, but they have taken off 60s,, 80s., and 1oos. Wheat will be brought to-morrow from places from which it could not have been brought fifty years ago for ten times what it now costs. Asa guild and craft we ought to proclaim loudly that the benefits which we have conferred are the real cause of the prosperity of the great Victorian era which we meet here to celebrate. The Earl of Onslow having proposed the health of the Chair- man in a suitable address, and the Chairman having responded, the proceedings terminated. The Postmaster-General, during the evening, despatched the following telegram to Sir Henry Ponsonby, at Osborne :—‘‘ A large dinner-party celebrating the jubilee of the electric tele- graph, remember with gratitude and pride that all the progress has taken place in the happy and prosperous reign of Her Majesty and under her fostering care.” To this the following reply was received :—‘‘ The Queen thanks you for your telegram. It gives Her Majesty much pleasure to reflect on the improvements which have been made in Wheatstone’s great invention, which was first practically tested in her reign.” THE CASE FOR A LONDON TEACHING UNIVERSITY. ‘THE questions connected with the proposal for the establish- ment of a Teaching University in London were discussed in a speech delivered by Sir George Young at the distribution of prizes in the Medical Faculty of University College, London, on June I, and in a speech delivered by Dr. J. E. Erichsen at the distribution of prizes in the Faculties of Arts and Laws and of Science, at the same institution on June 30. As the case for »a London Teaching University was stated by these two eminent authorities, we reprint part of what they had to say on the sub- ject from the point of view of University and King’s Colleges. 339 NATURE | [August 4, 1 88 iy Having referred to the drawbacks connected with ‘“‘the _ system of separation between institution and institution concern- 4ng University matters” in London, Sir George Young went on to say :— : I will touch upon some of these drawbacks—drawbacks which, as I have said, I do not impute as matters of fault to any man or to any set of men, but to the mischiefs of the system ; and I will draw my instances (and you are to consider that I could give you many others), as in duty bound upon this occasion, from the medical side of the question. Well, gentlemen, in the first place we are brought face to face with a very serious and very unpleasant condition of things in the fact that several of our students, we find, are in the habit of leaving us from time to time in order to finish their course of study at other institutions where degrees are conferred, in order to qualify for those degrees. We have always been, as Broke -said of the Shannon, ‘‘an unassuming ship,” and I am not going to boast. Let us admit that there may be elsewhere teachers as eminent as those I see around me. Let us admit that there may ‘be elsewhere possibilities of study comparable to those which are to be obtained in this place. But I will not admit—it is my duty to deny, and the point is conceded by others outside our limits —that there is anywhere a more eminent body of professors and instructors than that which has now, for two generations, led the van in matters of medical instruction of a university kind in this College. I will not admit that there is anywhere, in any part of the world, a field of study presenting greater opportunities to the student than that of London with its numerous medical schools, -and with its numerous facilities for scientific study. Next let me mention an evil, for which the University of Lyndon is not responsible—for which nothing, indeed, can be said to be responsible except the non-existence of that university which the University of London is not. Not only are medical ‘schools, as we know well, dependent upon hospitals, but also, what is not so generally known to the public, ho:pitals are dependent for their administration upon medical schools. As London has spread and as one general hospital after another has been founded, each has attached to itself its own separate medical school. Each school must provide, in order to satisfy profes- sional requirements, not merely that clinical teaching for the sake of which it is founded, but also scientific teaching of a multifarious and expensive character. In some of these schools, as is well known, it has been found impossible to provide this scientific teaching in a manner sufficiently effective for the pur- poses of the school. There need be no delicacy, gentlemen, in mentioning this, because, in fact, it has been most honourably acknowledged by several of these medica] schools in their recent action. It was lately brought to our notice that in the case of -several of them, they have practically, in some branches, given up the scientific training of their students, and have entered into an arrangement with the Government school at Kensington, by which their students should there receive that teaching which they found themselves unable to give. Well, gentlemen, at the Council of this College we had something to say—we had some objection to take—to that arrangement. With that I need not ‘trouble you further than to say that we thought a Government department ought not to lend itself to an exclusive arrangement of this kind. We thought that it would have been better for the students themselves and for the public if the matter had been ‘left open whether they should go to South Kensington for their chemistry and physiology, or come, if they so preferred it, to ourselves. But at the same time, gentlemen, you must not -consider me in this matter to be impeaching the conduct of the other schoo's. As men of the world, we are quite aware that medical schools are to a certain extent rivals, and we cannot expect, merely because we asked it, that the natural jealousies of rivals should be allayed, and that a medical school in so delicate a matter should freely accept our offers of instruc- tion for its students who, they might suppose, would perhaps be detached from their affection for their own school by frequenting this place. Well, gentlemen, what is the remedy that we should look to? I think that you will agree that we ought not, as a Council, to sit down and seek no remedy for such a state of things as this. Why, surely the remedy is that some central authority should be provided—some institution where we can meet our sister schools upon equal terms, not that wholesome -emulations should be extinguished, but that the mischiefs which arise from their excess should be obviated, where, in fact, teachers and administrators might meet together for the purpose, -a localized university ; for who will have the face of arranging for improvements in medical education upo common footing and without fear of mutual injury. This, among other instances of the same kind, many of wh I could give you, led some of us, as much as three years into a long inquiry into the matter, and eventually into a. ment for the foundation of a Teaching University in a London. The year before last, at the meeting of the Faculties, the Dean of the Faculty of Science, Prof. G (whom, I hope, we shall see before long among us resto: health), called our attention to the movement and expresse sympathy with it on the part of the Faculty. The Pr of the College, Lord Kimberley, expressed wise ile pathy with the movement, and said (I am quotin which will be found in the Report of the College ‘¢ There is nothing more dissati-fying to the minds and of educational men, than that in this great city not be some more complete establishment of some system. We may not see it accomplished. I do nm that anyone sees at present how the end is to be att I am quite certain that it would be for the benefit institutions of this great city that they should be gath and the teachers and managers brought into a close - diate contact.” With that encouragement we, many up the movement warmly, and it has now been brot practical stage of definite proposals and of a formal p We ask, in short, that the same privilege which has a conceded to country colleges through the Victoria shall be conceded also to us in London. Gentlemen, go to Manchester. We cannot so far ignore our t our history as to seek for admittance from the offspring. Besides, we ought not to be compellec Manchester. The system of the Victoria University indicated, is that of an imperfect university, arisi being scattered over several cities at great distances other. There is within our reach the more complete in this great population of something like four millions within limits admitting of daily intercourse there is n¢ enough—there is not ground enough—to support a local t university of its own ? age There were working with us for a long time, in the this inquiry, several active members of the Convocat University who had themselves been interested in si ments, and who desired to see the development of that in the direction to which our hopes and wishes also By their exertions, and as a consequence of our m Convocation and the Senate of the University of L been brought separately to consider this matter, and forward from time to time certain proposals for what ] a compromise, Those proposals have been ially cated to us through our President, and have been, say, carefully considered by the Council. They do n to that which we desire. They did not cover that claim. They are limited to this: in the first place, should be introduced in the Senate of the London 1 eight representatives of the four Faculties of the U two to each—such representatives to be chosen by as the Faculties, and the assemblies of the Faculties to c representatives of the institutions throughout England send up candidates to the University. There is also a ] for Boards of Studies to be constituted out of these s: ties to exercise purely consultative and deliberative fu think that is all—all, that is to say, of a practical There is no doubt—and it is an important matter c from the point of view of our argument—a osal that preamble, in the objects of the University, there should cluded a statement, that its purpose is to encourage edi especially in London ; and there is also a proposal that and opportunity are given, it shall have power to found sorships, provided that such Professorships shall not — unfairly with our own. But, passing over these two lat posals as not exactly of a practical character, I say — proposal to admit eight gentlemen, representatives of ass the constitution of which is not very clear to me, upon the of the University, and to appoint these Boards of Studi posed of representatives so gathered from all parts of E is not what we want. It does not meet our views; and several reasons. In the first place, the representation which would be this College on such a system in the governing body * August 4, 1887] NATURE 331 _ i | | _ University, if it is to be a teaching university and not merely an _ examining one, is entirely insufficient. In the next place, the _ Boards of Studies, the Faculties, and the new members of the _ governing body, would represent, not London, but all England, _ and therefore would constitute an organization entirely different - _ from that effective organization which we contemplate, which is _ to meet often, to take count of teaching-matters in London, and ) to do a great deal of work in the development of University § educationin this place. We therefore are obliged to reject these ) proposals, and to proceed, without any feelings of hostility and _ without any bitter words towards the University of London, to ask for that which we consider necessary for the effective carrying ) on of our own work. > _ Let us keep clearly before us what a teaching university really is. We need not go farther than this institution to see it, | _ provided only that were added to us which we want—the power to confer degrees. It has not merely to provide for—it has to » commend to its students the best possible teaching under the | best teachers obtainable in all the subjects of the University. A university which by its very constitution is indifferent to methods | of teaching and does not care how a man has obtained his knowledge, cannot be said ‘to commend to its students any particular methods or ways of obtaining that knowledge. It _ rather has a contrary effect. Under these circumstances it is _ useless to try to set up an institution which shall combine a mixture of two principles—the principle which considers degrees merely as the marks of a liberal education, tested, no doubt, by ' an examination, but covering very much more than the mere showing of knowledge in examination, and the other, the rival system, which, giving up the testing of methods of education— giving up the marking of a regular education as beyond its scope —confines itself to the setting of a mark upon performance in the answering of examination-papers. No, gentlemen, if the University of London were to move in __ this direction, it would spoil its own thoroughly good and honest work without doing ours. There will still remain when we have __ obtained this Charter, plenty of candidates for its degrees—- _ plenty of work for it to do—plenty of honour to those who | obtain them. But surely there is room for us by the side of it. _ There is room for an institution which shall comprise not merely this College, but King’s College and the Medical Schools _ of London, and which, organizing them together as a Teaching _ University, shall give us that which we want for the efficiency _ of our work—an institution in which the teaching which we give _ is duly honoured—is not placed in an inferior position beside _ the teaching which is given by other universities and in other university colleges. We ask, therefore, that a Charter to confer degrees upon all persons who have undergone a regular course of study in a college or medical school of the University and have passed the required examinations, shall be granted to a suitable governing body, upon which the governing bodies of this College and of __ King’s College shall be properly represented, and upon which _ the teaching staff not merely of this College and of King’s College, but also of the other Medical Schools of London, shall have their representatives. In order that the interests of the medical profession may be properly considered—in order that we may not seem to claim that which it is by no means our in- tention to claim—an unfair position for our own medical schools, we ask an alliance with the Royal College of Physicians and the Royal College of Surgeons, the official representatives of the medical profession in London, in order that by their means that representation may be secured upon the governing body of the University. It is obvious that from their number it would be difficult to represent directly the separate interests of eleven medical schools upon the governing body of a University ; but, in so far as the teachers of the various schools have their voice— and that voice, I can assure you, we do not intend should be a small one, in the councils of the University—in so far, we shall consider the teachers of other medical schools entitled to rank on equal terms with our own. .. . ; There is a movement at present on foot in the College of Physicians for a single-facultied University in London, or an in- Stitution in the nature of a University, for conferring medical degrees alone. That movement appears to us to be a part of our movement. By itself, and if the movers insist upon its being considered as essentially a separate movement, we could not look upon it with approval ; for we believe that it would be fatal to the prosperity of our medical school. I will put it to you, gentlemen, How would you, the students in this College, f regard a state of things under which you were called upon to work fora degree, either at the University of London at Burling- ton House, or at the Royal College of Physicians? If it were the case, as seems to be indicated, that the degree at Burlington House is to be connected with a very high, a somewhat un- usually high, standard, and if the degree which is contemplated by the College of Physicians is to be that creditable average degree which I have indicated as one which, personally, I think ought to be established, do you not see that those medical schools, which like our own, aim at the highest teaching, would have serious difficulties in the matter? Here would be two systems in neither of which we had the least voice, two systems of examining Universities outside us competing for our students ;. and what would our Professors do? They would be called upon, now to train for one system and now for another, and perhaps to keep up double sets of classes, so constituted as to fit the arrangements of two rival bodies, That is the position in which we should be placed. But if the movement on the part of the Royal College of Physicians (the Royal College of Surgeons joining in it) can be brought into accord with our own, then we shall have already obtained a part of what we seek, I will just mention one reason why I think it most desirable that you, the members of the medical profession, should take this matter seriously into consideration, and should exercise your influence with your colleagues in other institutions, in order that this point may be pressed home to them at the present stage. The visit which it was recently my duty to pay to the Privy Council Office, in order to obtain the forms neces- sary for carrying out our own proposals, revealed to me the fact that there exists already in that office a pile of petitions as high as this table against the proposal of the Royal College of Physicians. Now, gentlemen, against our-proposals there is no petition and there is no movement. So far as I know, there is no objection in the world. We do not conceal from ourselves that it is possible opposition may be offered as we goon. That opposition which above all others we should deprecate would be the opposition of the University of London. I have endeavoured to preserve a tone of friendship, such as I sincerely feel, towards that University. I most earnestly deprecate opposition on the part of that dis- tinguished body to the movement which is now on foot for obtaining a University in and for London such as London ought to have. I trust it will not be led into the fatal track of the older Universities, which, by thcir interference, did not prevent, indeed, the foundation of the University of London, but un- doubtedly spoiled it, fifty years ago. That such opposition may be apprehended by some of us we cannot ignore in consi- deration of the very serious matter to which I have lastly to call attention, the resignation, namely, of our President and of several members of the Council among us. Gentlemen, that these re- signations have been to some extent a surprise to us, that they have been a serious cause of anxiety to us, must be obvious ; but I think that they have been partly due to a misunderstanding of our aims. I think that the objections which have led to them will, toa large extent, vanish when our proposals come to be more carefully looked into. In the meantime, as for us who remain, we are not disheartened, we are not discouraged. We have at least the satisfaction, such as it is, that the Council of this College is now unanimous in the matter. We have the source of satisfaction which is afforded to us by the unanimous support of the general meeting of the College. We have at our backs the unanimous support of our distinguished body of Pro- fessors. We have at our side the unanimous assistance of the great College once our rival, but now our cordial ally. Besides King’s College we have friends in every medical school in Lon- don, who are corresponding with us and working in the same direction as ourselves. We have friends and well-wishers, I may say further, in every University in England. We have friends in the Press, and we have supporters in the public, and we have received the most encouraging intimations that it will not be long before we are able to fill our depleted ranks in the Council with names which will inspire confidence, and which will mate- rially assist us in carrying our work to a conclusion. Finally, gentlemen, we have this more than any other as a source of encouragement—that we see our way—that we know the work that has to be done and realize the way in which we hope to effect it. Three years of study and perhaps scores of — meetings and conferences have not left us entirely ignorant of the ground. We intend to make this institution greater, more splendid, more efficient, than it has been hitherto, and we expect 334 NATURE. ‘to succeed, because we are labouring not merely for our own aggrandisement, but for the foundation of a University in and for London which will be of incalculable benefit to University education in this mighty centre of population where we live. Il. Dealing with the objection that a new University cannot be mecessary in the capital, since we have already got the University -of London, Dr. Erichsen said :— I wish to speak with the very greatest respect of the University -of London, and I entertain the highest respect for the work that has been done in that great institution during the half century that it has been in existence ; and I think that everyone connected with University College must always speak and think of the Uni- versity of London with that affection with which a parent looks at this child, the University of London being the outcome of Univer- sity College. We may sometimes look upon it with that feeling of mixed affection and regret with which we contemplate a child ‘that we think has not always been so grateful as it might have been for the favours received in its early life. But, however that may be, we all speak of the University of London with, and we -all feel towards it, the greatest respect and a certain affection. But the University of London is, in truth, not a university in ‘any sense of the term. The title is misleading and is a misnomer. By a ‘‘university” is meant an association of teachers and of students, properly organized, destined for the increase and the transmission of all learning, of knowledge in all its branches, -and containing complete Faculties of Arts and Laws, Science and Medicine, and empowered to grant degrees to those of its pupils who are found to be sufficiently qualified for such a distinction. The University of London never has pretended to be a teaching ‘institution, and, so far as its present constitution is concerned, never can be a teaching institution. If it were to become a teaching university it would require to become so completely ‘altered in its constitution as practically to become a new in- stitution. The University of London has only performed one of the functions of a university—that of examining candidates for its degrees. It has performed that function admirably well. ‘The examinations have been carried to a very high standard, so much so that the ordinary pass-examination in some subjects is almost an honours examination. Yet it is only a degree-giving institution, -and not a university in the sense in which a university is generally known. Nor is it ‘‘ of London” ; for, as was truly said by the Dean of the Faculty of Science in that admirable report that we listened to at the commencement of these proceedings, it is an Im- perial University, which draws its candidates from almost every part of the habitable world. It has nothing to do with London except that its head-quarters are situated in Burlington House ; but, so far as London is concerned, it might just as well be situated anywhere else. The University of London, then, does not, in any way, supply the want that we wish to fill. With regard to London itself, I may say this, that even as an examining institution the University of London does not supply the desire that has sprung up of late years for academic distinctions. It does not supply the desire amongst the inhabitants of London itself. I can speak of my own pro- fession. Of late years there has been a craving in the medical profession for the possession of degrees. As Sir George Young stated very truly in distributing the prizes in the Medical Faculty about a month ago, if there were no degrees at all we should be none the worse for it; but one may also state something like the converse of that proposition, that if everybody ‘has got a degree nobody is a bit the better for it, and what is common to all can be an honour to none. However, that there exists a great desire for degrees and for academic distinctions there can be no doubt. Well, do the students of the medical schools in London go to the University of London for those degrees? Not at all. They go elsewhere. They go to Edinburgh ; they go to Cambridge ; they go to Oxford. At the present moment there are about nineteen hundred medical students at the University of Edinburgh, and nearly seven hundred of them are English. They are attracted there not so much by the superiority of teaching, because—and I say it with all respect to the University of Edinburgh, to which I have reason to be very grateful—the teaching, high as it is, and excellent as it is in all its depart- ments, is not better than the teaching in four or five of the principal medical schools in London ; but the students go there siraply in order to obtain a degree, because at the end of their studies, instead of coming out as simple Mr. So-and-So, they [August 4, 1887 come out as Dr. So-and-So. Well, the others who do not Edinburgh, go to Cambridge or go to Oxford; and thei very large medical school now at Cambridge also, frequen young men who are desirous of obtaining the degree distinguished University. The following incident will sho little the University of London supplies the need for d which is felt by London medical men. A few weeks ago was a vacancy at one of the large hospitals of London for assistant physician. There were no less than twelve or fo candidates, They were all graduates of British universities, an out of this large number of candidates, all London men cated more or less in London, and practising in Lond attending hospitals in London, there was only one — who was a graduate of the University of London. others were graduates either of Oxford or of Cambridge. therefore, that men go away from London to get their at the present day. They go to Edinburgh, they go to they go to Cambridge, they go elsewhere ; but the vast ma do not go to the University of Loudon. ‘That, as a deg giving institution, does not supply the needs of London itse! The proposed establishment of this new teaching and d giving university has been termed an act of hostility, declaration of war, against the University of London. N can say truly, speaking in the name of my fellow-member. the Council here, that there is no such feeling whatever. such feeling has animated, I believe, any one of the Cour any person connected with this institution. This university will compete, probably, to a certain extent, wi University of London, but it will compete much more other universities. It will compete much more with t versity of Edinburgh; it will compete much more 1 University of Cambridge. There is no direct com intended with regard to the University of London. no reason why a new university should not be es There is no more reason to complain of competition in th lishment of a new university than there is in the estab a new school. Every new school competes with eve hi school in existence. There isno more reason to complain than to complain of the introduction of a new member ini of the learned professions. Every man who becomes a or becomes a doctor may be said to compete with every exi lawyer or doctor. In the same sense the new universi established, might be said to compete, more or less, with e existing university in the kingdom, In this case there is a petition of friendly rivalry, but nothing else ; and beyond cannot admit that there is any special competition with res any existing university. ee If the University of London does not supply the want higher education, how is that want to be supplied in There are only one or two methods. You must eith existing institutions, or you must create a /ertium guid, 2 that ¢ertium quid may be I know not. But what existi tutions are we do know, and we do know that there institutions in this metropolis which for the last half have been doing the only work in London that app: the higher education, or approaches in any way whate university education. They have done that work diligent well under great difficulties and great disadvantages, but fair share of success. I mean this College and King’s Those are the two institutions ; and by the combination two institutions we may fairly look for the establishmen new university in London fully capable of discharging the tions of such an institution. eR». I happen, from circumstances, to be personally acqu with, I believe, every university in the kingdom; and I ¢ that so far as the equipment of universities is concerned, way of museums, laboratories, libraries, lecture-rooms, ¢ other appliances—what may be termed the ‘‘plant” of a versity—these two institutions taken singly are equal to’ this one certainly is, and taken in conjunction they are su to almost all, except the old Universities of Oxford and of bridge. I put them aside; but these institutions, Uni College and King’s College, taken in conjunction, are equal in all the requirements of a university to the other un sities in Great Britain, the Scottish universities and the universities of this country—one in the north and the oth the midland counties. I cannot speak with any precision of detail of King’s Colle but I can speak with precision of this College; and it may interesting to you to know what this College really is, and w NATURE See _ it can present to the public in the way of supplying the require- ments of a great teaching institution of university rank. _ This College, in the first place, has complete Faculties of _ Arts, Laws, Science, and Medicine, and a School of Fine Arts, as well as a Boys’ School. This College has fifty-eight profes- sorial chairs in operation. In addition to the fifty-eight pro- _ fessors, there is a large teaching staff both on the general and on _ the medical side,—teachers, lecturers, demonstrators, and so on, _ bringing up the whole members of the teaching staff to some- thing like one hundred. Last session this College had between nineteen hundred and two thousand students. There were five _ hundred and fifty boys in the school. The buildings of this - College, containing, as I have said, museums, libraries, lecture-halls, laboratories, and all the appliances of a univer- _ sity, are spread over seven acres, They cost £300,000 in con- struction. This College holds on trust no less a sum than _ £200,000, chiefly devoted to prizes, scholarships, and other objects of that kind; and it holds, besides, in trust a sum of _ £135,000 for hospital purposes. Its income is between £33,000 and £34,000 a year. ‘laking, therefore, this College alone, so far as its buildings, the contents of its buildings, and its pecu- _ niary resources are concerned, it stands on an equal footing with _ several of the universities in Great Britain ; and, taken in con- _ junction with King’s College, it stands undoubtedly superior to - some. To this College, therefore, in combination with King’s Col- _ lege, we may fairly look to the attainment of our object of _ establishing a Teaching University in London which will bring _ the higher education of London to the doors and within the 4 Lyre d resources of the less wealthy classes of the metropolis, so that the disgrace that has hitherto attached to the metropolis of not affording a higher education, and the discredit that ' umiversity education in England is to a very great extent a _ privilege of the wealthier and of the well-to do classes, may be wiped away. It should be within the reach of all, even of the student of the most humble means; and it would be well if this country were to take the example of Scotland in that respect, and to followit.... n this new Teaching University there are two requirements that we insist upon. One is that the candidates for its degrees should have spent a certain specified time in attendance on lectures and instruction within its walls; and the other is that _ the examinations should be superintended and conducted by the _ teaching body of the University. With regard to the first of these two points I wish to say a few words. . . There is something more than mere knowledge that is acquired in academic instruction. There is a culture of mind and a development of the moral and social nature that cannot be acquired by solitary study; and it is for these reasons amongst others that those who are in favour of this movement are desirous that-the candidates for the degrees of the new Uni- versity should prosecute a portion, at all events, of their studies within the walls of the institution, so that they may imbibe something of the spirit, and that they may be in some way, too, impregnated by the geniws loci. This has been stigmatized as retrograde ; but surely there can be nothing retrograde in that which has been found by universal experience to be the better system of education, and which is adopted in every teaching university in the country. There is another point, and that is in regard to examinations, and it is a very essential point. We feel, and we feel very strongly indeed, that the examinations should not be directed by an outside body on which there are perhaps no examiners and no teachers, but that the examinations should be conducted by the teachers themselves in the institution in which the candi- date learns. I do not say by the individual teacher of each class, but by the general body of the teachers, and that is a very different thing. And, as there would be more Colleges than one in the new Teaching University, a candidate need not in any way be examined by his own teacher, although he would be - examined under the direction, superintendence, and control of the general body of the teachers. In every university now, I believe, throughout the Kingdom the teachers are assisted in _ their examination by assessors or by extra-professorial aid, when- ever it is needed, and such, of course, would be the case in the new University. We feel that examinations ought not to lead teaching, and that if examinations are allowed to lead teaching, the teaching is fettered by the examination, and you get to a system of ‘‘ cram ” ; the higher education and the higher teach- ing are apt to be neglected. I recollect many years ago a cir- ip eeinet cies as oe ANN RN “cumstance illustrating this, occurring in this College in con- nexion with Prof. Sharpey, one of the mest distinguished men ever connected with this College, the first Professor of Physiology here and, indeed, in London. There was no course, properly speaking, of Physiology given in London until Prof. Sharpey began his lectures here in the year 1836-37. Prof. Sharpey gave an elaborate course of Physiology. From the commence- ment he attracted crowds of students. At that time there was connected with this College a most estimable and most amiable and most excellent old surgeon, who had grown grey within the walls, as it were, of the unreformed College of Surgeons, Mr. Samuel Cooper. He was an examiner of the College of Surgeons, and I speak of him with the greatest respect ; but he was never able to raise his mind beyond the requirements of the examinations of that institution. When he heard of what Prof. Sharpey was doing, he said, ‘‘ What is the good of Sharpey teaching them all this kind of stuff? We do not want it at the College of Surgeons. We have never asked for it at the College of Surgeons. Why should he teach itto them?” He had no conception beyond that, and that is the frame of mind’ that affects every mere examiner. He has a tendency to fetter and tie down the teaching to the level of his own examinations, and it is impossible to bring him or an examining institution above that level. We therefore wish that the instruction should lead the examination, and that the examination should follow in the wake of the teaching, and not the teaching in the wake of the examination. SCIENCE AND REVELATION} ON the present anniversary, which is the conclusion of my first year of office as President of this Institute, I propose to address a few words to you bearing on the object of the Insti- tute, and on the spirit in which, as I conceive, that object is best carried out. The highest aim of physical science is, as far as may be pos- sible, to refer observed phenomena to their proximate causes. I by no means say that this is the immediate, or even necessarily the ultimate object of every physical investigation. Sometimes our object is to investigate facts, or to co-ordinate known facts, and endeavour to discover empirical laws. These are useful as far as they go, and may ultimately lead to the formation of theories which in the end so stand the test of what I may call cross-examination by Nature, that we become impressed with the conviction of their truth. Sometimes our object is the determi- nation of numerical constants, with a view, it may be, to the practical application of science to the wants of life. To illustrate what I am saying, allow me to refer to a very familiar example. From the earliest ages men must have ob- served the heavenly bodies. The great bulk of those brilliant points with which at night the sky is spangled when clouds per- mit of their being seen, retain the same relative positions night after night and year after year. But a few among them are seen to change their places relatively to the rest and to one another. The fact of this change is embodied in the very name, planet, by which these bodies are designated. I shall say nothing here about the establishment of the Copernican system: I shall as- sume that as known and admitted. The careful observations of astronomers on the apparent places, from time to time, of these wandering bodies among the fixed stars supplied us, in the first instance, with a wide basis of isolated facts. After a vast amount of labour, Kepler at last succeeded in discovering the three famous laws which go by his name. Here, then, we have the second stage; the vast assemblage of isolated facts are co- ordinated, and embraced in afew simple laws. As yet, however, we cannot say that the idea of causation has enteredin. But now Newton arises, and shows that the very same property of matter which causes an apple to fall to the earth, which causes our own bodies to press on the earth on which we stand, suffices to account for those laws which Kepler discovered—nay, more, those laws themselves are only very approximately trué; and, when we consider the places of the planets, at times separated by a considerable interval, we are obliged to suppose that the elements of their orbits have slowly undergone slight changes. But the simple law of universal gravitation, combined, of course, with the laws of motion, not only leads to Kepler’s laws as a very close approximation to the actual motions, but also accounts for those slight changes which have just been mentioned as 1 Presidential Address delivered by Prof. Stok P.R.S., at the annual meeting of the Victoria Institute, on Tuesday, July 19. 334 NATURE oS [August 4, necessary to make Kepler’s laws fit observation exactly. We are inevitably led to regard the attraction of gravitation as the cause which keeps the planets in their orbits. But it may be said, what is the difference in the two cases? Is not the law of gravitation merely a simpler mode of express- ing the observed facts of the planetary motions just like the somewhat less simple laws of Kepler? What right have we to introduce the idea of causation in the one case more than in the other ? The answer to this appears to be that in the one case, that of Kepler’s laws, supposing them to be true, we have merely a ‘statement of what, on that supposition, would be a fact regard- ing the motions of the planets, whereas in the other case the observed motions are referred to a property of matter of the operation of which in other and perfectly different phenomena we have independent evidence. I have purposely omitted to mention the important difference between the two cases, which lies in the circumstance that Kepler’s laws require correction to make them applicable to long intervals of time, whereas the law of gravitation shows no sign of failure ; because, even if the former had been perfectly exact, however long the interval of time to which they were applied, I doubt if they would have carried with them the idea of causation. To take another simple illustration, let us think of the pro- pulsion of a bullet in an air-gun. We speak of the motion of the bullet as being caused by the elasticity of the compressed air. And the idea of causation comes in because we refer this particular instance of motion to a property of gas, of the existence and operation of which we have evidence in perfectly independent phenomena. It is thus that in scientific investigation we endeavour to ascend from observed phenomena to their proximate causes ; but, when we have arrived at these, the question presents it- self, can we in a similar manner regard these causes in turn as themselves the consequences of some cause stretching still further back in the chain of causation? If the motion of the bullet in an air-gun be caused by the elasticity of the com- pressed air, can we account for the elasticity of a gas? If the retention of the planets in their orbits be due to the attraction of gravitation, can we explain how it is that two material bodies should attract one another across the intervening space ? Peril a time well on in the present century, we could only take the elasticity of gases as a fact, and deduce the consequences which flow from it. But the researches of Joule and Clausius and Maxwell and Crookes and others have accumulated so much evidence in favour of the general truth of the kinetic theory of gases, that we are now disposed not to rest in the elasticity of gases as an ultimate property beyond which we cannot go, but to regard it as itself a consequence of the mole- cular constitution of bodies, and of the motions and mutual collisions of the ultimate molecules of a gas. Respecting the attraction of gravitation we have not at present made a similar advance. Speculations, indeed, have not been wanting on the part of those who have endeavoured to account for it. But none of these so fits into the known phenomena of Nature as to carry with it a conviction of its truth. Yet there is one in- dication that though we cannot at present explain the cause of gravitation, yet it may be explicable by what are called second causes. The mass of a body is measured by its inertia ; and, though we commonly think of a body of large mass as being heavy, and though we compare the masses of two bodies most easily and accurately through the intervention of weight, yet the idea of mass.may be acquired, and means might easily be - suggested by which the ratio of the masses of two bodies might be experimentally determined, without having recourse to gravi- tation at all. Now, according to the law of gravitation, the force with which a given body attracts another at a given dis- tance is strictly proportional to the mass of the latter. If we suppose the attracting body to be the earth, and the attracted bodies to be in one case a brass weight, and in the other a piece of marble, it follows that if they make equilibrium when placed in the pans of a true balance—I make abstraction of the effect of the buoyancy of the air—their masses are strictly equal, and, accordingly, that weight is a true measure of mass. But there is no reason @ griori, so far as with our present knowledge we can see, why this should be so. We know that if the bodies in the scale-pans were formed, one of brass and the other of iron, and there were a magnet concealed under the table on which the operator placed his balance, the masses would not be equal when there was equilibrium. But that the law and that, accordingly, weight is a true measure of mass. with the highest probability from the third of Kepler’s lay was proved experimentally by Newton, by experim pendulums. Newton’s experiment has since been rep Bessel, with all the refinements of modern appliances. result that so far as the most exact experiments en: decide the law is strictly true. This is perhaps the only: as Sir William Thomson remarked to me in conve which there is an exact agreement between two quan yet we are unable to give any reason why they should such is the case, holds out some prospect of scientific able some day to explain gravitation itself—that is, - as the result of some still higher law. Such is the nature of our progress in scientific We collect facts ; we endeavour to co-ordinate them tain the laws which bind them together; we endeat these laws to their proximate causes, and to proc step upwards in the chain of causation, Presently a stage at which, even after long trial, we do not going further. Yet we are not able to demonstrate progress in the same direction—that is, along secondary causation—is impossible. Science void which she cannot fill. ae It is on other grounds that we are led to beli who is the Author of nature. A conclusion mankind in general is not left to be establi investigations which few have the leisure out. Doubtless, where it is accepted, the larges our ideas respecting the greatness tends to keep in check notions of too anthrop character which we might form concerning Him. — subject-matter of scientific study is not, at least and there have not been wanting a few inst scientists who not merely rejected Christianit did not even believe in the being of a God. — The religious man, on the other hand, who k nothing of science, is in the habit of contemplati of Nature not merely as the work of God, but measure as his direct work. Of course, the concerns ¢ day life present innumerable instances of the and effect ; and few are now so ignorant of the very el of science as not to allow that the sequence of da of summer and winter, is proximately due to the r earth about its axis, and the oblique position of t! reference to the plane of the earth’s orbit. Bw ‘beyond the region of what is familiarly known, still we get outside the limits of well-ascertained scientific and enter a region which is still debatable groun: science are attempting to push forwards, an hypotheses with a view to the ultimate establishmen in case those hypotheses should stand the test examination,—when, I say, we get into this region, I have supposed may feel as if the scientists who w to explore it were treading on holy ground ; charge them with irreverence; perhaps he may openly them in a manner which implies that he attributes tc intention to oppose revealed religion. - 3 To take a particular example. I can imagine that a as I have supposed may have always been in the habi ing each one of the thousands and tens of thousands into which naturalists have divided the animal and kingdoms as having originated in an independent that the supposition may have become entwined religious beliefs. Such a man would be apprehensive attempt to introduce second causes in explanation of the c fact of the great multiplicity of species. i ak ee Akin to the feeling which I have attempted another, against which we must be on our guard. The man is strongly impressed with the truth of certain th lie outside the discoveries of reason or the inves science, and which bear on the whole conduct of h and on his hopes regarding a life hereafter. He be truths to be divine, and, accordingly, that no legiti tion of human reason is liable to come in conflict w But the precise mode in which a conviction of the tru things was arrived at depends, to a considerable extent man’s idiosyncrasy. His natural bent of mind, his early his later associations, have all a good deal to do with it. | truth is one thing ; our own apprehension of it, and the NATURE 335 liable to human imperfection, and we may not » them the infallibility which belongs to that which is Ve are not to confound the scaffolding with the nor, if we are anxious for the safety of the edifice, 1d wi therefore fear that, if the scaffolding were tampered , the whole might come tumbling down, nor should we a dynamiter a fellow-workman who would remove a oO. truth must be self-consistent, come from where it may, is m which nobody would dispute ; the only question can be, is truth? Now, there are truths which we know by n, such as the axioms of mathematics ; and there are again, which, though we do not perceive them by n, yet demonstrably follow from what we do so perceive ; for example, are the propositions of mathematics, Then ‘are other conclusions which we accept as the result of lication of our reason to a study of Nature. Here the ce is not demonstrative, and the conclusion may have all of support, from such overwhelming evidence as that on we accept universal gravitation, to what hardly raises the ion above the rank of a conjecture. On the other hand, conclusions which we accept on totally different namely, because we think that they have been revealed. accept a revelation at all, is a very wide question which here enter into. That we do accept it is implied in the hip of this Institute. But, granting the acceptance of ion, the question remains, What and how much is involved on? ‘That is a question respecting which there are es of opinion among those wh» frankly accept a revela- n, and with it the supernatural. . , the primary object of the establishment of the Victoria te was toexamine the questions as to which there was a primd ppearance of conflict between the conclusions of science e teachings of revelation. In order that such examination be usefully carried out, it must be undertaken in a thoroughly ial spirit, with a readiness honestly to follow truth may lead. It will not do to assume that the im- error which belongs to the divine belongs also to nsion of what constitutes the divine, and that there- conflict there be, the error must be on the side of It is true, that many statements which are really little scientific conjectures are represented, at least by those e their science at second or third hand, as if they were ablished conclusions of science. But it is true also the progress of science has corrected the assertions of a e theology. We are disposed nowadays to smile at the idea — between the Copernican system" and the sachin ation ; but we need not go back to the days of he persecution of Galileo to find an example of a well-supported _ scientific conclusion having met with a similar opposition, issuing inasimilar result. gauge thoroughly the amount of evidence on which an ed scientific conclusion rests, one ought to be well ac- nted with the branch of science to which it relates. Still e can get a fair general notion of the evidence by an amount ‘reading which is by no means prohibitive, or by conversing vith those who have made that branch a special study. It may the impression thus left on the mind will be that the aries of science, carried away by an excess of zeal in the mpt to discover the causes of natural phenomena, have i though honestly, overestimated the evidence. It may be, n the other hand, that the inquirer will perceive the evidence be weighty and substantial, in which case it behoves him to _ reconsider the supposition with which he started, that the con- clusion was o d to the teaching of revelation. _ One should always bear in mind the great responsibility one -ineurs, and the mischief one may do, by representing as bound ) with revelation that which really forms no part of it. Being hypothesis no part of it, but only erroneously tacked on to it, be false, and being false, it may be in opposition to a ion sppore by the weightiest evidence, it matters not t kind, but say scientific. What, then, will be the effect e error committed by the upholder of revelation? The man of science may see through the fallacy ; but will it a weapon into the hands of the infidel lecturer wherewith revealed religion ? whether we can agree or cannot agree with the conclusions | the scientific investigator may have arrived, let us,- above all things, beware of imputing evil motives to him ; of charging him with adopting his conclusions for the purpose of opposing what is revealed. Scientific investigation is eminently truthful. The investigator may be wrong, but it does not follow that he is other than truth-loving. If on some subjects which we deem of the highest importance he does not agree with us— and yet it may be he agrees with us more than we suppose—let us, remembering our own imperfections, both of understanding and of practice, bear in mind that caution of the Apostle: “Who art thou that judgest another man’s servant ? To his own master he standeth or falleth.” SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Rendiconti del Reale Istituto Lombardo, June 16.—On the importance of the qualitative bacteriological examination of potable waters, by Prof. Leopoldo Maggi. Attention is directed to the mistake made by many chemists, who occupy themselves exclusively with the gvantitative examination of potable waters, neglecting the much more important question of the specific quality of the germs, owing to the greater difficulty of distin- guishing between the various forms of these organisms. Waters largely charged with harmless Bacteria are condemned, although perfectly drinkable, while others apparently pure, but really containing deadly germs in small quantity, are declared to be quite safe, often to the great danger of the public health. It is in fact far more a question of gua/ity than of guantity, as shown especially by the recent researches of Chantemesse and Vidal on the Bacillus of typhus. On the other hand, Leone has experi- mentally shown that comparatively pure water is itself a medium of culture, so that a small quantity of innocuous Bacteria may largely increase in it without rendering its usedangerous. Some instructions are added for distinguishing between harmless organisms normally present in water as their natural element, and pathological germs, which render it quite unfit for human consumption.—Meteorological observations made at the Brera Observatory, Milan, during the month of May. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Chemical Society, June 16.—Mr. William Crookes, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following papers were read:—A study of the thermal properties of a mixture of ethyl alcohol and ethyl oxide, by Dr. William Ramsay and Dr. Sydney Young.—Derivatives of hydrindonaphthene and _ tetrahydro- naphthalene, by Dr. W. H. Perkin, Jun.—The synthetical formation of closed carbon chains in the aromatic series, by Dr. F, S. Kipping.—The product of the action of ethylene bromide on ethylic acetosodacetate, by Dr. P. C. Freer and Dr. W. H. Perkin, Jun.—The synthesis of hexamethylene-derivatives, by Dr. P. C. Freer and Dr. W. H. Perkin, Jun.—An attempt to synthetize heptamethylene-derivatives, by Dr. P. C. Freer and Dr. W. H. Perkin, Jun.—The composition of shale-spirit, by - Dr. A. K. Miller and Mr. T. Baker.—The magnetic rotatory power of the ethyl salts of maleic and citraconic acids and their isomers, by Dr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S.—The temperatures at which various sulphates undergo decomposition, by Dr. G. H. Bailey. —The reaction between sulphites and nitrites of metals other than potassium, by Dr. Edward Divers, F.R.S., and Mr. Tamemasa Haga.—The action of acetyl chloride on acetoximes, by Mr. Victor Meyer and Mr. A. Warrington.—Sulphinic compounds of carbamide and thiocarbamide, by Mr. George McGowan.—Anarcardic acid, by Dr. S. Ruhemann and Mr, S. Skinner. : EDINBURGH. Royal Society, July 4.—Mr. J. Murray, Vice-President, in the chair.—Prof. Tait communicated a paper by Mr. A. C. Mitchell on the thermal conductivity of iron, copper, and German silver. Mr. Mitchell made his experiments upon the same bars as were used by Prof. Forbes and Prof. Tait, but the - surfaces were nickelized so as to prevent oxidation. The results agree well with those of Prof. Tait, and are probably as correct - as the method admits of.—Mr. T. B. Sprague read a paper on the probability that a marriage, entered into by a man of any 336 NATURE age, will be fruitful.—Dr. A. B. Griffiths read a paper on the nephridia of Hirudo medicinalis, and communicated a paper by Mrs. Griffiths on degenerated specimens of 7udipa sylvestris.— Mr. J. T. Cunningham and Mr. Rupert Vallentin described the photospheeria of Vyctiphanes norvegica, Sars.—Mr. C.J. Burton read a paper on a Daniell cell for use as a standard of electro- motive force.—Prof. Tait read a paper on glories. He showed that the observations made upon glories on Ben Nevis make it certain that Young’s explanation of these phenomena (colours of thin plates) is not adequate. He considers that they are produced by diffraction of light reflected from the drops of water.—Mr. J. Murray submitted a report by Prof. Milnes Marshall and Mr. G. H. Fowler on the Pennatulide dredged by H.M.S. Porcupine. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, July 25.—M. Janssen in the chair. —Note on M. Gosselin’s scientific labours, by M. A. Richet. This memoir on the life and work of the distinguished anatomist and pathologist, who died at the end of last April, is intended to supply the place of the customary obituary notice, M. Gosselin having expressed a desire that no discourse should be pronounced in connexion with his funeral obsequies.—Obituary notice of M. Alfred Terquem, Corresponding Member of the Section for Physics, by M. Mascart. A rapid sketch is given of the brilliant career of this physicist, who was born at Metz on January 31, 1831, and died on July 16, 1887. His numerous scientific pub- lications deal mainly with acoustics, capillary phenomena, and heat. He is the author of an important treatise on ‘‘ Roman Science in the Age of Augustus,” and of a more comprehensive work on the history of physical sciences from the earliest times down to Galileo.—Note on the earthquake of February 23 at Nice, by M. Bouquet dela Grye. The diagram of the curve of the maregraph here figured as taken at the time of the seismic disturbance presents some points of considerable interest. It clearly indicates a rapid upheaval of the ground, followed by a slow subsidence, the sea returning to its normal level in about two hours after the first shock. The maximum of upheaval at Nice was 55 mm., which can scarcely have exceeded the natural elasticity of the earth’s crust. —On the meteorite which fell at Jati-Pengilon, Java, on March 19, 1884, by M. Daubrée. The analysis of this meteorite, which weighed 166 kilogrammes, shows bronzite 39, olivine 33°4, iron with nickel and traces of cobalt 21°3, troilite (sulphur of iron) 51, chromite, o’I ; mean density 3°747. The breakage presents some exceptional features, being especially remarkable for the myriads of minute cleavage facets with a sparkling brightness like that of mica. In its general appearance it may be compared to certain very fine-grained feldspar rocks, such as leptynite, and it evidently belongs to the extremely rare category represented by the meteorites of Ensisheim (1492), Erxleben (1812), Cabarras, North Carolina (1849), Morbihan (1869), and one or two others. —Fluorescences of manganese and bismuth: general remarks and conclusions, by M. Lecog de Boisbaudran. In concluding these protracted studies the author shows in a general way that the observations made with manganese and bismuth are also applicable to other fluorescences. He also concludes that two substances more or less active on a solvent may at times neu- tralize each other, reducing the two fluorescences to wi/. A similar result has been obtained by Mr. Crookes with the rare earths.—Solar observations made at Rome during the first quarter of the present year, by M. Tacchini. In supplement to his communication of April 18, the author shows that the faculze as well as the protuberances were most frequent in the northern solar hemisphere. The maximum of facule corre- sponds to the equivalent zone + 10°; the solar spots were con- fined to + 20°, while the protuberances reached + 80°.—Solar observations made at Rome during the second quarter of the present year, by M. Tacchini. During this period there was a perceptible increase of all the solar phenomena, and some metallic eruptions were also recorded.—On the determination of the coefficient of elasticity of steel, by M. E. Mercadier. In a recent communication the author proved that in the relation . BM of the constants of elasticity A is very nearly = p for glass. Here he shows that for cast steel A= 2u.—Danger of infection fromtubercu- lous substances, by M. ‘Galtier. The experiments here described fully confirm previous conclusions regarding the great resisting power of the virus of tuberculosis. It retains its activity after being subjected to temperatures ranging from 71° C. to 7° or 8° bel freezing-point. It also resists the action of water and desiccating {process, as well as strong pickle, so that the sumption of ‘fresh or corned beef from animals affected by monary diseases is always attended with some danger.—O chirus lacazit, by M. Edgard Herouard. A full description is of this new species of the genus Colochirus of the Holotht family, found by the author in the neighbourhood of Re and by him named C. /acaziz, in honour of M. Lacaze-Du —Contribution to the study of the evolution of the fresh Peridiniums, by M. J. Danysz. From his researches development of these organisms, as well as of the distal allied genera Gymnodinium and Glenodinium, the author cludes that they should be regarded rather as plants than: A close study of their successive phases of development, the nature of their substance, shows that they are true m of the vegetable kingdom.—Appearance of black rot in neighbourhood of Agen, by M. Prillieux, An examinatio some diseased grapes from this district shows clearly t have been attacked by black rot which had alent appearance in the Upper Hérault Valley two years which it was hoped would die out or spread no farth sealed paper deposited by M. A. Leduc on May 9, now opened at his request, describes two experimen that the calorific conductibility of bismuth is co. reduced when this metal is placed in a magnetic field. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECE Hand-book to Government Situations: B, D. K. (Stanford), Sections: G. Heppel (Baillitre, Tindall, and Cox).—Formal Li Edition : J. N. Keynes (Macmillan).— Psychology ; The Motive P McCosh (Macmillan).—Romantic Love and Personal Beauty : H. one ean Forests at the Cape of Good Hope: J. Oliver and Boyd). ie O° CONTENTS. The Jubilee of the Electric Telegraph. ..... The Classification of Alge. By Mrs. Mary P. Merrifield... . . 0s sd American Mining Industries ..... Our Book Shelf :— Nipher : Theory of Magnetic Measurements” . . Wilson : ‘‘ Studies in Life and Sense”. . . . . Giglioli: ‘‘Fermenti e Microbi.”—Dr, E, Kle Crookshank: ‘‘ Photography of Bacteria.”—Dr, Klein, F.R.S. reer Letters to the Editor :— a The Sense of Smell in Dogs. —W. J. Russell . Units of Mass, Weight, and Force.—Rev, John Tock 4s ants foe : Chemical Affinity and Solution.—Wm, Durham , Early Perseids—W. F, Denning , Floating Eggs.—_W. S. Green. . .. 1.4. = The ‘‘Meteorologiske Institut” at Upsala, a Cloud Measurements. By Hon. Ralph A Oe ees eee fend ae ie Be ee Sa ee ore Oe Se ae re cromby.: . (ZHustrated) 683 0° as Mee Ete GS A New Cosmogony. I. By A.M. Clerke.. . NORGE fg. cen 2s as bee ce Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1887 AURUS F-18 a e ; The Jubilee of the Electric Telegraph... . . The Case for a London Teaching University . Science and Revelation, By Prof. G. G. Stok PUR Sein] slic. 0 Mas ocean Scientific Serials 9.3.6 80. 2a Societies and Academies Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . .. 0.8 9...) 8s se Cio ae kee Se Tee Yee, be” NATURE 337 THURSDAY, AUGUST 11, 1887. THE TOPOGRAPHY OF GALLOWAY. Studies in the Topography of Galloway; being a List of nearly 4000 Names of Places with Remarks on their Origin and Meaning. By Sir Herbert Eustace Maxwell, Bart., M.P. (Edinburgh: Douglas, 1887.) IR HERBERT MAXWELL will strike a sympa- thetic chord in the minds of many readers, who have not themselves time to search for the origin of place-names over which they have pondered, and perhaps speculated, without avail. We do not mean that the limited district so thoroughly sifted by Sir Herbert Max- well affords illustrations for place-names everywhere, but his method of handling the subject serves as a model for the useful imitation of students in other districts where such a convenient hand-list is wanting. On a clear day, one ascending the backbone of England, say at Cross Fell, beholds, beyond the Vale of a Eden, far to the south, Ingleborough and the Shap Fells, on the west the Lake mountains, and towards the north a broad arm of the sea, which he recognizes as the Solway Firth, cutting off the wide-extended plain of the Vale of Eden, which lies spread like a carpet far below him. Beyond the Solway Firth there rises a huge hill capped with cloud and backed by hilly country, cut off by the sinuous coast-line as far as the eye can reach. The hill 38 Criffel, “a hill of 1850 feet,” called on a map in the - Bodleian Library, circ. 1330, “ Mons Crefel,” and by Pont, in Blaeu’s Atlas, 1654, “ Crafel,” a hill whose peculiar granite boulders lie scattered plentifully in the drift over the new red sandstone of the Vale of Eden. It is one of the outposts of Galloway, the origin and meaning of whose place-names form the subject of a most thorough and searching investigation in the present work. These names are conveniently arranged in dictionary form in 322 pages. Many are entered and left unexplained ; Sir Herbert Maxwell, with true statesmanship, leaving to others the invidious task of applying the unscientific knot- cutting, or “guessing etymology,” which he so scornfully repudiates in the, if anything, somewhat prolix introduc- tion of 44 pages. We in England, who do not all know our Bodel/oth and Bethluisnion as well as we might, come as learners to Sir Herbert Maxwell’s book, which displays much real learning and a fair amount of bibliographical research. Treating, as it does, of a language which is foreign to our ears, a language rejoicing not only in “ eclipses,” or a vast superfluity of unsounded consonants, but of “triphthongs” or sequences of three vowels, equally un- known to our modern English, Sir Herbert Maxwell’s task lies very much in expanding to the full Gaelic form the words from which the vast majority of the names are derived, and at first sight it seems almost as hopeless a task to follow him as to sit down unassisted to master _ Russian. We can only make one or two observations on ' the introduction, which digests much from O’Donovan and Joyce. ‘ The Basque word for water is ur,” hence “the rivers called Oure, Urr, Ure,” &c. Like most other VoL. XXXviI.—N0O. 928. words meaning a river, it also means a “ bank” of a river : e.g. beck; burn (bruinne, a drink); river (vipa), &c. “ Ur denotat rivos aquarum impetuose ex alto delaben- tium” (Junius; “ Alph. Run.,” 21); cf. Lat. ora, A.S. ore, Eng. ore, the shore. In Norway, uv is the rough slope of a mountain ; Irish, uv, a border, drink. The author, “dismissing as unattainable” all record of pre-Celtic speech, finds, “from the evidence of these names,” that the Pictish of Galloway “belonged to the Goidhelic or Gaelic rather than to the Brythonic or Welsh branch.” “No doubt,” he adds, “there are names whose forms would bear being assigned to a Brythonic origin, but with these I have not ventured to deal.” We will not venture either, but in such glaring cases as the “Rhinns” of Galloway ; “maiden craigs” (W. Meiddyn, a cliff, preci- pice), common in North England; “cors,” the fenny district on the coast of Kirkbean (Chalm. “ Caled.” iii. 234); “carse,” Kirkcudbright, ‘‘carse gowan,” “carse thorn,” “‘carse land,” in all of which the physical charac- ter answers to the Welsh ‘“‘cors,” ‘‘a marsh, according to the common acceptation” (Ed. Luid, “ Adversaria,” p. 268) ; and in “ Corsock,” New Abbey, Wel. “corsawg,” jenny (Chalm. “ Caled.”), and several others, it is plain that Welsh words do occur, and therefore have to be dealt with. With the principles admirably set forth in the introduction we fully agree. One or two slips occur, as (p. 41) where the author attributes to Pont, as original, a passage copied from Camden’s “Britannia.” Sir H. Maxwell seems to have followed Murray’s error (Note D, Append. to “Hist. of Gall.,” 1822). The sentence is “Neirunto this (Vigtoune) Ptolemee placed the city Leucophibia,” &c. Now, this sentence appeared in the original Latin edition of Camden, 1586, p. 480, “ Gallo- way . . . Hac regione Leucopibiam urbem statuit Pole- meus,” &c., published when Pont was about nineteen ; “and for comparison with the passage from Pont’s manu- script we give that from the first English translation o Camden, 1610 :— Neere unto this Ptolomee placed the city Leucopibia, which I know not to say truth where to seeke. Yet the place requireth that it should bee that episcopall seat of Ninian which Bede calleth Candida Casa, and the English and Scotish in the very same sense Whitherne : What say you then if Ptolomee after his maner (‘‘suo more,” 1586) translated that name in Greek Aed ovxidia [sz], that is Whitehouses,” &c. Again, the supposed identification of Rerigonium with Bargeny, attributed by our author (p. 42) to Heylin, 1669, should be attributed to Camden. Thus, under Carricta, Camden, 1610, has Rerigonium, “a towne. For which Berigonium is read in a very ancient copie of Ptolomee printed at Rome in the year 1480, so that we cannot but verily think it was that which ‘is now called Bargeney.” Sir Herbert Maxwell rightly points out the anachronism between Loukopibia and Candida Casa. Horsley—with several others who have discussed the Ptolemaic names—avoids the trap, saying, with a side glance at Camden, “others from a fancied ety- mology place it at Whithern,” which error the followers of Camden have perpetuated to our own day. The form “Tucotion” (“ Brit. Chorog.”), is conclusive. “ Brigo- mono,” however, in which form Rerigonium appears in “Brit. Chorog.” (given in Gale,and Horsley, “ Rom. Brit.” p. 490), does offer some suggestion of Bargeny. Q 338 NATURE [A ugust I 1, ae Of the forty-seven authorities given by the author, six- teen are works exclusively relating to Ireland. We suggest that many of the “ Gallowaie” place-names are well illustrated or explained in the following works not consulted by him, viz. :— (1) Hector Boethius, c. iii. “ The Description of Gal- lowaie (in Holinshed, 1587, p. 9), “ Aboue Nidderdale is Gallowaie,” &c. Thus “ the two other lakes, the Sa/se¢ and the Weutramen, of equall length and bredth with the Loch Mirton,” do not appear in Sir Herbert Maxwell’s list. Of the Mull of Galloway, Boethius writes, “ which the Scots call a mule or nuke... . The common sort name it the mules nuke,’ an evident reduplication, “newk,” which occurs several times in Maxwell’s list, being Old Norsk H7j#kr, common in North England for a projecting hill. The forms for “the two great lakes Rean and Lois” 3 ba and Luce) are also worth entering. (2) Chr. Irvine, “Historize Scotice Nomenclatura Latino-vernacula, multis flosculis, &c.,” “enriched with many select phrases from the ancient monuments of the Scots and the aboriginal language of the Gael,” Edin., 1682. Here (p. 84), “ Gallovidia et Wallowithia (for it is so named by the Welshmen) ” offers a form not found in Maxwell s.v. Galloway, and with many other forms we have before us is well worth entering. In the article (p. 186) on the word Galloway, Sir H. Maxwell, passing by Lloyd’s etymology (“ Church Government,” appended to Stillingfleet, “‘ Orig. Brit.,” vol. ii. p. 72), cites Skene for the “stranger-Gael,” but has he not observed how Prof. Rhys shakes his head at this (“Celtic Btn.,” 1882, p. 153)? The form Galwychya, in “ Bulla Innocenti V. De Holmcolt.,” 1207, is worth recording, but the com- plete list of fies; which is a very long one, should be given. (3) Sibbald, “ Hist. Animalium in Scotia,” 1684, Part 2, cap. iv., may be cited under Sir H. Maxwell’s “ Fumart Liggat » (p. 184), “ Fozna est Boethii.” “ Nostra arborea est. Sylvas incolat abiegnas. Nidumque super Abietes, ~ sciurorum instar struit.” The pine marten inhabits pine- woods and, squirrel-like, builds its nest in the fir-trees. (4) W. Baxter, “ Glossarium Antiq. Brit.,” Lond. 1719, ' deals with the Ptolemaic Galloway names ; but much more welcome are the “ Adversaria Posthuma” of the learned Ed. Lhuyd, given as an appendix to that work. The title is “ D. Edvardi Luidi de Fluvm., Montm., Urbm., &c., in Britannia nominibus Ad. Posth.” Sir H. Maxwell has -“Finen hill” (p. 182); Luid (p. 268), “ Fynnon though generally used for a well [ze spring], signified also the first or highest lakes of the great mountains.’ In Luid’s “ Adversaria” is a mine of wealth, from which we select two names, (p. 274) “Turch, dorcus,” (p. 267) Tiirch, a hog, in Brecknockshire. O'Reilly (p. 542) gives Irish, Turc, and (p. 528) Torc, Wel. Torch, a hog, swine. Sir H. Maxwell has “Turkey Hill” unex- plained (p. 306), which is translated by “Swinefell, the fell or hill of the swine” (p. 299). Again, ‘ Hespin” (p- 200) in Whithorn is left unexplained. ° Luid (p. 267) has, Wel. “‘ Hespin, a sheep that yields no milk. There are two or three drooks of this name about Ystrad Vehlte, in Brecknockshire, so called’ because their channels con- sisting of limestone have great caverns which in summer- time take up all the water the springs afford, so that, the channels being left dry, the brooks are called Hespin.” : vocabulary of the Irish dialect spoken by the Highlan: explains the name. (5) How could Sir H. Maxwell overlook Kirk’s list 0 over 400 Gaelic words in Append. II. p. 99, to Nicholson’s “ Scottish Hist. Liby.,” Lond., editn, 1776 of Scotland, collected by Mr. Kirk,” with a few w added by Ed. Lhuyd? ‘They are in twelve chapte several of which relate to Nature and her productiot and help to form place-names. (6) Horsley, “ Brit. Rom.,” Lond., 1732, cited. (7) “ Etymology of the Names of Places in Ireland,” a gentleman well versed in the language and anti of that country,” contributed by “C. L.” to Ant. Rep vol. iv. 1809, gives a list of eighteen words used in p names. (8) Thos. Murray, “Lit. Hist. of Galloway,” Edin. Append., Note D. He has also a fairly full artic forms of the name “ Galloway” in Note A, the | which, in a charter of Earl David, A.D. 1 is G [? Galweyia]. fe (9) W. Mackenzie, “ Hist. of Gall.,” Kirk Mercury ... 3 9 To 49 18 29 Venus... 8 45 14:28. san) OO TL2 Mars ... 35S bk cen: SO". wwe, Jupiter... BU ET nce, SPOUSE 21 31 Satara... “27 2:30 i. 20730 13. S20 * Indicates that the rising is that of the preceding | August. h. j Bias 16... — .. Wenus at her point of ¢ brilliancy. ‘ 165 35.-.°20 Mercury at greatest elongation fror ' 19° west. Gaels ree Mercury in conjunction with and - of the Moon. 19 — Total eclipse of the Sun. The of totality passes from south of across Europe, Asia, and 2 Greenwich and in England and § generally the sun will rise parti: a few minutes only before te the eclipse. In Ireland the ecl before sunrise. NATURE 351 | August 11, 1887] Variable Stars. R.A. Decl. h. m. e ’ h. m © 52°3...81 16N... Aug. 16, 20 28 m eS Biss CEOS Ns cca 34,4 20s Se i) 4 O'O..:. 40 31 Nu... 55) 19° 3 4 aise Derenices Ir §8°5 ...19 25 N.... 4, E5s M Mmrmanioris... 12 31°3...60 7 .N..... 55. 16, M Mee ~., (4 °54°9... § 4S. par ae 21, 3am nee Pe TSO. 32 wk NA ce, ap Wg O53 Oe inchi TUG BO Me a Ua 2 25 me 22 36 m A? are nc 27 ae S; spk Bhp 2ES 0: rE eae 2 EO PEM sc; dg Re he Om PED AS Ons 33 Ea Ns ava 99v Chr 4 OM BOS Oss) ASAO Whe occ cigp DOs m BOAO P25. O5AS Ne ccs, 53. BS OMe 22 250), $7 SON... 4, 20,50 O.m M signifies maximum ; # minimum. Metcor-Showers. R.A. Decl. y Andromede ... 25 42 N. ... Swift ; streaks. mrerse ..... 61 8 Draconis . 291 70 N. ... Swift ; short. ~NEW GUINEA EXPLORATION. ON March 15 last a private exploring Expedition, commanded _™— by Mr. Theodore Bevan, left Thursday Island for New Guinea in the steamer Victory, which had been placed for six weeks at Mr. Bevan’s disposal by Mr. Robert Philp, the owner. ¢. Bevan’s object in undertaking this expedition was to ascer- ry fain whether it was possible to reach the mountains in the rior of New Guinea by means of the Aird or other large lowing into the Gulf of Papua, and toestablish, if possible, ndly relations with the natives in the neighbourhood of the , with the view of paving the way for future explorations. _ We reprint from the Sydney Morning Herald of May 23 the following account of the expedition :— > ie: ition has proved the existence of spacious water- ways leading far into the interior of the island, the two most _ important—and magnificent rivers they seem to be—having been _ named the Douglas and the Jubilee. These discoveries may be _ destined to be of considerable importance to Australia, for a _ flourishing industrial European community may in the not very _ remote future settle on the banks of these waterways. Northern Queensland, from its situation, may naturally be expected to reap the greatest advantages from the opening up of New Slows bux, directly or inderect ly, the habitation of its fertile plains and valleys with pioneer settlers must prove beneficial to the n is of New South Wales, A comprehensive account of the expedition will be published in due course, illustrated by a chart ing the new discoveries, and by photographic views of new mountain and previously unknown tribes of natives, but a brief i ranges description of some of the principal dis- coveries made will probably be read with interest. Of the country in the vicinity of the Aird, very little up to the om is known, and at Thursday Island old experienced ands looked upon it as little short of madness, having regard to the treacherous channels existing, and the hostility of the natives, to attempt to enter the rivers which discharge their ba or thed. l no ‘evar paid little regard to grim | odings, and the ition was fortunate in reach- ing Cape Blackwood in the month of April, at a time when the waters are invariably smooth, and when there is little reason to ear uous weather. The exploring party soon set to work v minor streams were discovered, particulars con- cerning which will be given in due course, but, as already indi- 1, two new fresh-water rivers of magnitude were found, mboguing their waters through various mouths into the Gulf Both these pursue a devious course amidst ranges of ing the base at times of lofty mountains. The rivers gitudinally about 60 miles distant from each other. 49 N. ... Very swift ; streaks. : The first one—the Douglas—is reached by the Aird, up which the Victory steamed, and it became manifest that the Aird was only one of several mouths of the main stream, which was navi-- gated for a distance of 130 miles, but which, however, in reality tcok the party inland only about 80 miles, by latitude, northward of Cape Blackwood. The explorers left this river through a channel marked upon the Admiralty chart as dry land, and this brought them into Deception Bay. The existence of this passage, in which there is from four to eight fathoms of water, proves Cape Blackwood to be an island. It may here be stated that for the first 30 miles up the Aird the country was found to be of deltaic formation, with alluvial islands scattered here and there; but beyond that the main stream of the Douglas becomes a compact watercourse, flowing between rising ground on either side. The country about the delta is flat, covered with scrub, and the banks are well defined. On the higher waters of the Douglas there is a practically unin- habited forest country, which in parts could be easily cleared. Two important fresh-water tributaries to the Douglas were dis- covered, one of which has been named the Burns and the other the Philp. A new range of mountains observed in this vicinity was named by the leader after his uncle, Mr. Thomas Bevan, an ex- Sheriff of London. The Gulf of Papua has been explored up to Orokolo, and to the westward of that village are what appear to be fine rivers, but these were reported by the natives to be separate mouths of one river, and the natives’ report has been confirmed by Mr. Bevan, who, proceeding up a sixth large channel to the west of Bald Head, came upon the main river, which fed the delta and cut inland at right angles into the five other rivers. There was a heavy break on each bar of the first five openings, probably due to south-east weather on the Queensland coast, but a smooth- water passage was found into the sixth opening. The time at the disposal of the party was too limited to enable them to survey each opening of the river, so a westerly course was. pursued, and the Victory steamed up a large channel running in a northerly direction from Bald Head to the point of its con- fluence with other waters. A week was spent in examining the rivers coming in from the north-west, but although high land was seen it could not be reached by any branch in that direction. The easterly passages were next tried, and a channel was found running easterly and north-easterly, almost at right angles, into two other streams. ‘Taking the branch running inland, they proceeded a few miles further, and found it led into two other streams, one going inland and the other with a current towards the sea as before. Yet again did they meet two other streams, and still steaming up the one leading inland, they, om going 5. miles further, came upon another, and this time the last arm leading seaward. Here they found themselves on a fresh-water river nearly half a mile wide, with a steady current flowing towards the sea. A magnificent panorama of rising country was now opened up. Range over range of hills stretched into the dis- tance, capped by some towering blue mountain peaks, and so clear was the atmosphere that even the high mountains, which must have been leagues away, seemed close at hand. They were all clad with trees, and upon the face of them could easily be distinguished the water-gullies, brightly illuminated by the glistening rays of the sun. The river was navigated 110 miles from Bald Head, or about 50 miles in latitude from Orokolo, its chief trend beivg in an easterly and north-easterly direction, although the course was unusually serpentine. In honour of Her Majesty’s having completed the fiftieth year of her reign, this river, probably the finest in British New Guinea, has been named the Jubilee. The ranges into which the waters carried the little steamer, drawing 9 feet of water, were named the Albert Victor. Very little trouble was experienced with the natives during the expedition. Only once was the party attacked, and that was when going up the Aird—about 20 miles from its mouth— probably by the same tribe that attacked Capt. Blackwood forty-two years ago. The hostile blacks fired several flights of arrows, some of which fell harmlessly by the vessel’s side, but they dispersed at the sound of the steamer’s whistle, and after a few shots had been fired wide; neither the attacking nor attacked sustaining the slightest hurt. Through this untoward circumstance Mr. Bevan was unable to obtain the name of the tribe. Another tribe, who evinced their peaceful intentions by carrying green bows in their canoes, were found inhabiting the country behind Aird’s Hill. A third tribe was met with 48 miles inland, as the crow flies, from Cape Blackwood, and these 352 NATURE [4 ugust 11, 1887 called themselves the Tumu. At the confluence of the Douglas River with Deception Bay, a fourth, the Moko tribe, was found. The Kiwa Pori tribe, the fifth met with, were ascertained to be the inhabitants of the country close to Bald Head, in the Papuan Gulf. The Birumu tribe were seen about 16 miles north-west of Bald Head, and the Evorra, the seventh and last tribe, were found about the same distance north-east from Bald Head. With all, except of course the first, friendly relations were esta- blished. Mr. Bevan’s previous experience of New Guinea natives and knowledge of some of their habits and dialects were exceedingly serviceable to him ; and with the exercise of a little patience he was enabled to inspire them with the fullest con- fidence. Several natives were induced to go on board the steamer, and were photographed. Only three of the tribes could be spoken of as large, the. one possessing the greatest numerical strength being the Kiwa Pori, which numbered from 400 to 500 men. ‘The result of Mr. Bevan’s observations is that the couutry is practically uninhabited except along the coast. No natives were seen on the Jubilee River beyond 25 miles from the coast-line. The best of the land—and fine rich soil it is—appeared to lie between the head of the deltas of both rivers and the foot of the hills, where it looked exceedingly fertile, and covered in places with a palm scrub which could be readily cleared. Sago, tobacco, bananas, bread-fruit, and sugar-cane were found to be indigenous. As already stated, the country about the deltas is alluvial and flat, and then in turn come sandstone, limestone, and ironstone, as well as the stratified rocks which mark the earlier geological periods. Mr. Bevan hopes, at no distant date, to be able to complete the work of which this preliminary expedition he has now made is but the precursor. In the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, there is a splendid field for men of science. About eighty ornithological specimens have been obtained by the party, and a few snakes, lizards, and fishes, which will be examined at the Australian Museum. A large and varied ethnological collection has also been obtained by Mr. Bevan in exchange for trade from the tribes with whom he established friendly intercourse. Some of the prominent features in the landscape have been named after Mr. Richard Wynne, Mr. F. E. Joseph, Dr. Ramsay, Messrs. Harrie Wood, C. S. Wilkinson, E. Fosbery, and other well-known Sydney citizens. A word is necessary with regard to the climate, which is described as by no means unhealthy. The temperature varied from 72° F. at daybreak to about 86° in the shade at noon. The party returned to Thursday Island within the time stipu- lated by the owners of the Victory, in excellent health, and with unimpaired physique. The cost of the expedition was from 4500 to £600, but from this a considerable sum, repre- sented by the value of the collections, must be deducted. In response to Mr. Bevan’s application, the Government have placed at his disposal a competent draftsman to aid him in making up his plottings. THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS, ‘T HE Institution of Mechanical Engineers held their summer meeting last week, at Edinburgh, under the presidency of Mr. E. H. Carbutt. The meetings were held in the Library Hall of the University, the members being received by the Marquis of Tweeddale, the chairman, Sir William Muir, Prin- cipal of the University, and other members of the Reception Committee. The two papers first read on Tuesday related to the Forth Bridge and the machinery employed in its construc- tion. Both papers we reprint to-day. The discussion.on the first of them referred mainly to the subjects of expansion and contrac- tion under variations of temperature and to wind-pressure, and in reply the author of the paper, Mr. E. M. Wood, explained,that 14 inches per 100 feet was allowed for expansion, or double the amount usually thought sufficient ; whilst, as regards the wind- pressure, the highest registered had been 354 lbs. per square foot, whilst 56 lbs: was allowed for. All the speakers who discussed the paper of Mr. Arrol, the contractor for the bridge, referred in high terms to the skill and ingenuity exhibited throughout. Later on in the day the members made an excursion tothe Forth Bridge, Mr. Arrol and the heads of the various departments at the works acting as guides. A striking feature was the com- parative noiselessness with which the work was carri owing to the successful use of hydraulic power in riveti We regret to learn that on the day of the visit to th two men had lost their lives owing, it is believed, to the on which they were employed giving way ; this raises them that have been killed’at the Forth Bridge works to six the last two months, the number of men employed a between 3000 and 4000. The third paper read was by Mr. F. J. Rowan, on el magnetic machine tools, which were invented by him to come the difficulties of riveting by hand ; they perform thei in a very complete way. The conditions of the wor involve the separation of the riveting portion of the a from the bolster or holder-up, whilst the riveting process that the two portions of the machine should be rigidly he gether. This is effected by magnets s> arrange op sides of the plating with their poles of unlike denomi facing each other, that they are drawn towards each oth pressing the plates together, and insuring the proper for riveting. The riveting itself is effected by an motor, which by means of gearing and a cam, lifts the against a spring, the amount of compression impartec spring in lifting being regulated by hand. The first paper read on Wednesday was descri electric light on the Isle of May, by Mr. D. A. The machinery, boilers, and engines, are placed near the island, and close to the water-supply, as it was the saving which would be effected by not having to to the top of the island, or to pump up water, wouk sate for the loss of energy due to the resistance of of the electric conductor. The electric generators De Meritens alternate-current machines, each weighing The induction arrangement of each machine consists £4 of twelve permanent magnets, sixty in all, each m made up of eight steel plates. The armature, 2 f in diameter, is composed of five rings with twenty-four on each, arranged in groups of four in tension and si quantity, and makes 600 revolutions per minute. With the cit open, each machine develops an electromotive force of 80 v with the circuit closed through an are 40 volts. An average rent of 220 amperes is developed, thus yielding 8800 wat electrical energy, or 11°7 horse-power in the external circuit. the dioptric arrangement constructed by Messrs, Chance author’s design, the condensing principle has been carried than in any apparatus previously constructed. The pr consists in darkening certain sectors by diverting the ligh them and throwing it into the adjoining sectors so as to 1 their light. The author agreed with the conclusion a1 by the Trinity House that taking first cost and tenance into account, electricity should only be used portant landfall-lights ; where, however, the most pow was desired, independently of cost, the electric arc had na Some interesting observations have been carried on for five months which prove the electric light to be the n trating of all lights in all states of weather. Ev twelve o’clock the light-keepers at St. Abbs Head, tv miles distant, where there is a first-order flashing light, of the most powerful oil-lights in the service, observe May light ; whilst the keepers there observe the St. A The result of these observations has been that. the Isl light has been seen one-third more frequently than The paper was discussed by Sir James Douglas and seve! speakers. A paper was read on the construction of Viaduct, by Mr. F. S. Kelsey, the resident engineer. Th is two miles long, and has taken five years to been opened for traffic on June 20 last. A paper on th ing of the lower estuary of the Clyde, by Mr. C. A. St was read. Both these papers, which were fully discus technical rather than scientific interest. In the evening a conversazione was given by the Lord magistrates, and Council of the city in the Museum of and Art. Sir William Thomson gave a very exhausti on waves, concluding with an important suggestion. I to him that inasmuch as wave resistance depends almost on surface action, it might be diminished relatively v by giving a great deal of body below the water-line. — speeds of 18 or 20 knots might thus be obtained. mF ships like the old French ships, swelling out below the line, there would bea large additional displacement and ca power, and little addition to wave disturbance. Be August II, 1887 | NATURE 353 THE STRUCTURE AND PROGRESS OF THE FORTH BRIDGE. 4 A$ a visit to the works of the Forth Bridge is included in the _~ programme of the present meeting of this Institution, the _ author trusts that a short sketch of the preliminary proceedings, with a description of the structure and progress, from one en- _ gaged on the work from its outset, will prove of interest in ne the reasons and means adopted for connecting the railways on opposite shores of the Firth of Forth, at the site of the historic ferry and still existing Hawes Inn, whose time-table for the departures of the ferry-boat is so quaintly alluded to in “The Antiquary.” __ Previous Proposal.—For many years, suggestions for establish- -ing direct communication between the southern railways running into Edinburgh and the Fifeshire lines, with the object of more direct access to Perth and the north, had been frequently con- sidered by the companies interested in that route; but until an Act of Parliament was obtained in 1873 for the construction of a suspension bridge, designed by the late Sir Thomas Bouch, for crossing the Forth at the site of the present works, no proposal ‘fave prospect of successful issue. Although the type of bridge then proposed was not one generally considered applicable for € passage of railway trains, yet no positive objection seems to have been taken to it, inasmuch as a contract was entered into for its construction, workshops were erected at the site, and foundations were started. But after the severe gale at the close ‘of the year 1879, so destructive to a viaduct in an equally exposed _ position, it was deemed prudent to suspend operations ; and the | directors of the North-Eastern, Midland, and Great Northern __ Railway Companies, which each have an interest in obtaining di access to the eastern and northern districts of Scotland, _ fequested their respective consulting engineers, Mr. T. E. _ Harrison, Mr. W. H. Barlow, and Mr. (now Sir John) Fowler, _ to confer together and report upon the possibility of some other lan for making through communication between the existing _ lines at the point already selected. Tunnelling was out of the 5 aa on account of the depth of the water ; the proposals erefore took the form of bridges. esent Plan.—On May 4, 1881, the engineers submitted their t report, unanimously agreeing that the steel bridge on the ntilever and central-girder system, designed by Sir John owler and Mr. Benjamin Baker, was not only the least expen- sive, but the best suited for the situation. The soundness of this _ decision has since received confirmation in the fact that seven long-span bridges have been or are now under construction in different parts of the world, and many more are proposed on the principle adopted for the Forth Bridge. For the substitution of this design in place of the suspension bridge contemplated in _ 1873, the Forth Bridge Railway Company appointed Sir John Fowler and Mr. Baker their engineers, and obtained an Act of ae _ Eastern, Midland, Great Northern, and North British—tenders _ were invited for the work, and from the applications received _ two offers were selected ; and with the combined firm of Messrs. Tancred Arrol and Co. a contract was made in December 1882 for the entire execution of the work. __. General Dimensions.—The total length of the bridge will be _ 8300 feet, or 380 feet over one mile anda half. There are two _ main spans of 1700 feet each, two side spans of 675 feet each, _ with the ends counterbalanced and anchored to the masonry, and three intervening piers; these together make up about a mile of the total length, and the remainder is composed of _ fifteen approach spans of 168 feet each, and of masonry arches - and abutments. Fora length of 500 feet in the centre of each of the two 1700-feet spans there is a clear headway for naviga- tion of 150 feet above high water; the rails being placed at a level 6 feet higher. From the base of the deepest pier to the _ top of the cantilevers the total height is 450 feet, or only 10 feet less than the Great Pyramid of Egypt. __ The cross sections of the main spans are of trapezoidal form, 330 feet in height from centre to centre of the members over the ; bd and 33 and 120 feet in width across top and bottom re- _ Spectively, and tapering towards the ends of the cantilevers, thus vie a form which is eminently suitable for withstanding lateral pressure. The girders carrying the railway are supported at * Paper read by Mr. E. Malcolm Wood before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, on Tuesday, August 2. intervals inside the cantilevers, &c., by trestles or cross frames, and a continuous lattice-work parapet 44 feet above the rails extends the whole length of the bridge. Load, and Wind Pressure.—In addition to its own weight the bridge is being constructed to support, without exceeding in any member the unit stresses permitted by the Board of Trade, a load equivalent to trains of unlimited length equal to 1 ton per foot run on each line of railway, or passing trains consisting each of two engines and tenders at the head of sixty coal trucks weighing 15 tons each; and also to withstand a lateral wind pressure of 56 Ibs. per square foot of exposed surface of train and structure. The magnitude of the lateral pressure may be judged’ from the fact that over the mile length of main spans the esti- mated surface exposed to a point blank wind at right angles to the bridge amounts to a little more than 74 acres ; the pressure of 56lbs. per square foot on this surface would therefore be equivalent to a total of more than 8000 tons. In addition to lateral winds, the direction from any point of the compass has been provided for, even including the imaginary condition of each group of main piers Lecoming the centre of a whirlwind. Effects of temperature will be provided for in the rails, and at the junctions of the central girders with the cantilevers ; and the bearings on both the main piers and under the weighted ends of the cantilevers have provision made for allowing movements due to changes of temperature and to the elasticity of the cantilevers under lateral pre-sure. The lateral play allowed is limited, so that the whole of the piers may act in concert to resist combined actions of all forces tending to disturb the normal state of rest of the 50,000 tons of permanent load. Asa further provision 48 steel bolts of 24 inches diameter, secured 24 feet down in the masonry by anchor plates, hold down the bed plates with an initial tension of 2000 tons ; the nuts and saddle-plates are so arranged as to allow freedom of lateral movement to the skew backs ; but any lifting would at once be prevented by the anchorage coming into action, which however could only happen under the assumed circumstances of a wind pressure more than double that already mentioned, acting over the whole estimated surfaces. The maximum pressure on the base of the piers will be a little over 6 tons per square foot. forms of Parts.—The enormous forces to be resisted have been met by adopting the most suitable forms of parts for with- standing the stresses. Tubular members are used for compres- sion, and open-braced box-forms for tension. These parts vary in size as required. Though the tubular form has scarcely been used in this country for bridge members since its employment by the late Mr. Brunel, no difficulty has arisen in connexion with its use ; even the junctions are dealt with as readily as the generality of the work. Masonry.—The masonry for the main piers, above the whin- stone concrete filling of the caissons, consists of a casing of Aberdeen granite, inclosing and bonded into a hearting of Arbroath stone set in cement, and strengthened by three massive wrought-iron belts built into the stone-work. The deepest pier weighs about 20,000 tons. The remainder of the masonry of the piers and abutments is of a similar class, whinstone being largely used in the interiors. Stee/.—For the principal members of the superstructure subject exclusively to compression, the steel used has a tensile strength of from 34 to 37 tons per square inch, with at least 17 per cent. of elongation in a length of 8 inches; for the other parts 20 per cent. of elongation, with 30 to 33 tons tensile strength. The rivet steel has 25 per cent. elongation, and 26 to 28 tons tensile strength per square inch. The whole of the steel is manufactured by the Siemens process. No sheared edges or punched holes are permitted. Work started.—No time was lost by the contractors in start- ing the work. The land was at once entered on ; the old work- shops were put in order, and the extensive range of offices, stores, workshops, and yards was commenced, which now cover fifty acres. Meanwhile the centre line of the bridge was fixed, and the position of the piers determined. The foundations of those on land were begun simultaneously with the building of temporary jetties for gaining access to the piers that had to be sunk below water-level. These jetties, which are still used for conveying the material, are in themselves no small work ; the southern or Queensferry jetty extends 2200 feet from the shore, and is connected with the workshops by an incline worked by a rope driven by a stationary engine. In order that the operations might be carried on continuously day and night when needful, electric light installations, supplemented by lucigens, were laid 354 NATURE 4 [A gust 11, 188 over the works and piers ; and telephonic communication was established between the offices and all the centres of operations. The workshops and yards were rapidly completed, and furnished with tools, of which many are of a special and novel description. Ever since the commencement the work has progressed with- out interruption, and has gradually assumed the gigantic propor- tions of the present time. Over 3000 hands have been employed continuously for the last year ; and during the present summer months the number has been increased to 3600. The majority find lodgings in the neighbourhood of the bridge; and the remainder make use of a special train service to and from Edinburgh, and a steamer to and from Leith, put on for their use night and morning. Materials.—The materials for the permanent work have been obtained throughout from producers of repute: Aberdeen granite from Messrs. Fyfe; Portland cement from Messrs. Hilton and Anderson and Bazley White ; Siemens steel from the Steel Company of Scotland and the Landore Steel Works. All the steel has been subjected to rigid examination, and has passed the ordeal of specified tests before leaving the makers’ _ works ; a few specimens showing its high quality are exhibited. The materials delivered up to the present time have in- cluded— Granite : 550,000 cubic feet. Portland cement 21,000 tons, The amount thus far erected has been— Masonry in piers and abutments .... 129,500 cubic yards. Steel in approaches and main spans 19,000 tons. Steel for main spans, prepared ready for erection, about ie pet 20,000 tons. By the time the first consignment of steel arrived, the shops were ready for the preparatory operations, and the whole establishment was rapidly organized to dealin the most complete manner with the work to be executed. Hydraulic power is freely used, from the extremely neat form of shop crane to the 2000-ton press for curving the tube-plates. With the exception of the main-pier caissons, made by Messrs. Arrol Brothers of Glasgow, and the superstructure of the approach spans by Messrs. P. and W. Maclellan of Glasgow, the whole of the work has been turned out of the shops at the bridge, their present capacity being an output of 1300 tons of finished work per month. Shop Practice.—The procedure in the shops may be described as follows. The flat plates and bars are first straightened. The plates to be curved are heated to a uniform red heat in a gas furnace, and while red-hot are moulded in dies under hydraulic pressure to the required form, stacked and coated with ashes, and allowed to cool slowly and equally ; any subsequent warping is taken out by placing them again in the press when cold, and giving them a final squeeze into the correct shape. The butts of the bars are cold sawn, and the edges and butts of the flat plates are planed in the usual manner. The ends of the curved plates are planed in a novel form of machine, in which the tool travels in acircular path readily adjusted to the radius of the curved plate. On completion of the planing, the plates are taken to the tube yard, and are built up round the longitudinal ribs and internal stiffening frames, which have previously been fitted together in moulds to the exact diameter required: so that the plating of the framing at once gives the tube its proper form. The plates are in 16-feet lengths, and break joint alter- nately over the stiffeners at 8-feet intervals. Means are adopted to keep the tubes in line while the rivet holes are pierced by a travelling annular drilling frame, which is mounted on wheels and carries a boiler and engine driving ten drills by cotton ropes. A pair of drills are attached to each bed; and as the beds can traverse the circumference of the tubes, while the drills can traverse the length of the beds, the whole outside of the tube is commanded, and the holes are completed with accuracy to insure their precise coincidence when the patts are rebuilt at the site. _As fast as each section of 8 feet length is finished, the machines are propelled along the rails to take up a new position ; they thus travel gradually in successive stages over the whole length laid down. The tee and trough-shaped parts are built together in the shops, and the holes are drilled by adjustable vertical and horizontal drills, fitted to a travelling carriage ; the power is transmitted to the machines by ropes from the shop shafting. Numerous radial machines are also in use for the Secondary parts. For dealing with special parts, many inge and somewhat novel workshop appliances have from time to been brought into use, beyond those here mentioned. Al parts of the junctions are carefully fitted together_in the yai the exact positions they will relatively occupy in the After each member has been prepared, the pieces are marked, and stored until required for erection. founding Piers. —With the founding of the water commenced the more difficult part of the under without any sensible delay the whole of the pi ay cessfully sunk and completed. The fo tions for shallow water were put in either by tidal work or by op dams, and the excavation was carried down or rock. Though these were of individual int. from the size and difficulties met with, they are dw magnitude of the operations connected with piers, of which those in the south group are er boulder clay in one case at 90 feet below mean wat at Inchgarvie they rest on a level bench cut ¢ whinstone rock at a depth of 72 feet. as Caissons.—The caissons for all the deep piers diameter at base ; the cutting edges and shoe the upper parts of wrought-iron. They were fi on the south shore, and were launched with s board in the form of concrete to insure their si towed out to their berths at the end of the jetties, piles and dolphins were used to place them in corr Temporary wrought-iron cofferdams were built upe the caissons, timber working decks constructed, crete mixers fixed, air-pressure connexions n sinking operations commenced with a pressure i chamber sufficient to drive out the water; the machinery was placed on the jetty alongside. caissons‘had to be equipped with all these fittings the south jetty, so as to be ready for work on rocky bed. yee The working chamber was illuminated by electric communication was effected with it th thr air locks on the level of the upper deck. The 1 skips bringing up the excavated material were co horizontal sliding shutters, worked by hydraulic of the usual swing doors. The winding drum for | the skip from the working chamber was not in the lo driven by an engine outside. On arrival of the ski the lower slide was shut to, and the blow-off c releasing the pressure, the top slide drawn back, of the discharging crane was coupled to the skip b direct and rapid method ri transit Beatie: cavat reatly facilitated the sinking ; the operation - the skip in the lock to its removal lasted only quarters of a minute in ordinary worki he | movements being automatically controll The air locks in the third shaft for the men were cc a view of rapidly changing shifts, and had double c capable of holding seven men. The silt overlying the harder deposit was expeditio from the working chamber by means of ejection pip into water outside, the air-pressure being sufficie: charges of silt and water mixed in a box which comn a valve with the ejection pipes. On reaching the portable steel diggers, actuated by hydraulic ¢} between the roof and the implements, were brought break up this hard material. an At Inchgarvie a modification of this system was sinking the deep piers into the hard whinstone rock, natural slope cf 1 in 44. Bags of sand and coner posited in two piles on the deeper side of the site to by the caisson, which had been launched with m blocks in the chamber, to rest upon this artificial b blocks and the edge of the caisson touching the ro shallower side were the first bearings it took I site. The whole of these primary operations requir care to provide for differences of weight on the base, depth of water at different states of the tide. Then rock drills and ordinary quarrying operations insi chamber the rock was excavated until the caisson was level bench cut out of the sloping rock. .In these full pressure of air due to the head of water was during the sinking, and it was found advisable to gangs every four hours ; the maximum pressure ; : TS the by int EXC) ‘August 11, 1887] NATURE 355 le was 33 pounds per square inch above the atmosphere. The of these caissons was got down to its final depth in ‘October 1885. In sinking the southern group of caissons, the air-pressure rdly ever exceeded 22 pounds per square inch, the silt and clay as a lute; and the working shifts were of six hours’ duration, about twenty-seven men being down at a time. _ Recovery of Canted Caisson.—With the exception of the north- west pier in the southern group, the whole of the piers were completed with regularity. But the caisson for that particular er, weighing with concrete s»me 3000 tons, while ready at the ‘site for placing in its final position, by some means became waterlogged on New Year’s Day, 1885, and on the tide falling slid forwards on the mud about 15 feet, and canted over through 25°. After an ineffectual attempt to right it by pumping, a siege was laid to it; but not until the autumn following, er nine months of incessant work, was a timber jacket or cofferdam completed, which enabled the pumps at last to obtain _ command over the leaks. The caisson then floated again, and after ir was sunk in position in the ordinary manner, arriving at its final depth in 1886. After the excavation had been com- pleted, the chambers were rammed with concrete and grouted up, the concrete and anchorage and masonry were completed, and the temporary cofferdam was ready for removal. | Men Employed.—No difficulty arose in obtaining a sufficient ‘number of men inured to work under air-pressure, as M. _ Coisseau, of the firm of MM. Couvreux and Hersent, of Paris, _ brought his staff of trained excavators from the Antwerp harbour improvement works, and contracted for the work to be executed under air-pressure. | —- Raising Viaduct Girders.—After the masonry of the approach _ viaduct piers had been carried up to a convenient height, a __ temporary stage was built, upon which the girders were erected _ and riveted up. Steel cross-beams with pairs of hydraulic jacks _ were placed under the ends of the girders over the piers ; and a surrounding the piers was suspended from the main girders. From this platform the men in charge of the rams conducted the _ perations of lifting and blocking up the girders; and the ons afterwards completed the stonework in the vacant ces. By this plan the girders were raised to their final gut in July of the present year. The whole of the ten spans n the south side were lifted simultaneously as soon as they were riveted up. The materials for the piers were first raised in _ trucks, by a steam hoist on the jetty, to a tramway laid on beams between the bottom members of the girders, and afterwards “Jowered into — by winches over each pier, these winches being driven by running ropes from engines on the girders at alternate piers. These approach spans now require only the _ parapet and a few other details for completing them im all : sje “oer ready for the permanent way. 2. " the . ecting Steel Work over Main Piers.—-On the completion of ; , the operation of erecting the steel work was com- - menced on the northern piers early in 1885 by riveting up the bed plates, and lowering them into position over the heads of _ the foundation bolts. Their surfaces were afterwards smoothed _ by emery wheels, and coated with crude petroleum, to prepare _ them for receiving the bearing plates of the cantilever bases or _ skewbacks. These, as already mentioned, have freedom for a limited amount of sliding, and the gauges at present attached _ showthatthe sliding movements follow the changes of temperature as anticipated. _.. The skewbacks, forming the junction of five tubular and five ular members over the piers, were then erected, and were connected with the horizontal members at the same level, which had been built together on a stage. After the connexions had been riveted up, a commencement was made upon the upper parts over the piers ; these parts have since been erected without any form of fixed scaffolding, and the operation is still in progress over the Inchgarvie piers. The lifting gear for raising the erecting platforms con- sists of a pair of plate frames, one below the other, fixed inside each 12-feet pier-column, by pins passing through the wings of the frames and the ribs of the column. The lower frame supports aehydraulic lifting press; and upon the ram | ‘vests a through box-girder cross-beam, at right angles to the length of the bridge, passing through voids in vhe columns, where — are temporarily left out for this purpose. ‘These cross- S support lattice-girders in pairs, one o1 each side of the column, which extend a little more than the full length of the side of the quadrangle formed by the piers. Upon the top of all comes the main deck, furnished with gantries, cranes, oil- heated rivet-furnaces, &c., complete in all respects for carrying on the chief operations of erection. On the bottom level of the girders is a lower deck, with the ends housed in to form tem- porary shelters forthe men. The box and other girders are built up of parts which will eventually be used in the permanent struc- ture. Communication between the level of the jetty and the platf>»rms is made by hoists, drawn up between wire-rope guides by the winding engine on the level of the jetty, which lifts the material by wire ropes to the platform; safety clutches are attached to each cage, for seizing the guide ropes in case the haul- ing gear were to give way. During lifting operations, access to the platforms is gained by ladders laid up the cross-bracing be- tween the main columns over the piers. The process of raising the platforms is as follows. Water- pressure at about 30 cwts. per square inch is conveyed from pumps on the je‘ty to the lifting presses by wrought-iron piping taken up the inside of the columns, and is turned into a cyinder, lifting the load off the series of pins in the top frame. The pins are then withdrawn, and the ram lifts the box-girder, carrying with it the loose frame, until opposite the next series of holes in the ribs of the columns, into which the pins are then inserted ; the pressure is released, and the box-girder again rests upon the upperframe. In the return stroke the ram, hanging by its shoulders from the upper frame, by means of its piston form now hauls up the lower frame, from which the pins have been withdrawn ; and when this has been repinned, it is ready to support the press for another upward stroke. By this means the platforms have been gradually raised, generally through lifts of 16 feet at a time, until arrived at the summit. On their way up they have been utilized for building the tubular cross- braces and other work; and at the present time those at the southern and northern piers form the stage for erecting the top members between the heads of the main columns. The platforms at Inchgarvie are now only 4o feet below the height to which they will have ultimately to be raised. In building the pieces together, they are connected by service bolts, until the hydraulic riveters are brought into action. For the open work the riveters are of the gap type; but for the closed tubular work, a special adaptation was devised by Mr. Arrol, by which the rivets are closed in any part of the built tubes. When these machines arrive at the top of the columns, after having com- pleted the riveting on the way up, they are taken apart ready for application elsewhere. ; Erecting Cantilevers.—The building out of the first projecting bays of the cantilevers is being conducted on the system just described, with such modification as to suit the altered circum- stances. The bottom members are first erected, and have been built by means of overhanging frames in panels, resting upon the completed portions of the tube, and so constructed that, as fast as the work is riveted up by the annular riveting machines, and the forward portions of the cage-like framing are brought into bearing, the back frames can be unshipped and taken forwards to the working face. Upon the top of this framework a mov- able hydraulic crane is placed for lifting the pieces into position, which are brought alongside from the pier by carriers suspended from a single rail of angle bar. As soon as the limit is reached at which these members can support the projecting work, in- clined supporting stays are introduced, which connect the bottom member at this part with a temporary horizontal tie stretching between the main columns at about the level of the cross-bracing ; thence the inclined stays slope down again, and are attached to the bottom member on the other side of the pier. After this has been done, platform girders with decks are built at a convenient level to rest on cross-beams carried by rising frames, which are introduced between the corners of the first vertical member of the bridge : this member having been pierced beforehand with a series of pin-holes, in readiness for a lifting action similar to that used in the main columns. The ends of the platforms nearest the piers are raised by suspension bars, by the action of hydraulic rams attached to the main columns at a higher level. From these platforms, as in the previous cases, the erection of all parts commanded by them is carried on as they rise. The erection of the secondary parts proceeds simultaneously with that of the main members, the railway girders being built by corbelling out from the supports, and the other parts by light stages when the parts themselves cannot serve as a means of support to extend the work. As will readily be understood, the erection of these sections calls for greater nerve and judgment on 356 NATURE [August 11, 1 the part of the men employed than does that of the portions previously described. In conclusion, the author desires to express his indebtedness to Sir John Fowler and Mr. Benjamin Baker, through whose kindness he has been enabled to place before the Institution the foregoing particulars respecting an undertaking which, as shown by the magnitude of the works now being carried on, constitutes one of the greatest engineering feats ever attempted. THE MACHINERY EMPLOYED AT THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS? THE greater part of the machinery at the Forth Bridge works is original in design and novel in construction, chiefly because of the unusual nature of the work to be carried out. It may be roughly classed under the following heads : hydraulic bending and setting, planing, drilling, erecting, and riveting. In designing the machinery and tools to accomplish these different kinds of work, there had ever to be kept in view rapidity of production, with a very high quality of work in the finished structure. An idea of the quantity of machinery provided to deal with the material passing through the shops may be partly formed from the fact that it is capable of finishing 1500 tons in a single month. Hydraulic Bending and Setting Machinery.—To bend and twist the large steel plates required in the construction of the tubes and their connexions, a great variety of hydraulic presses had to be provided. The largest of these is capable of exerting a pressure of 1690 tons between the dies. It consists of four 24-inch cylinders, resting on two longitudinal girders bedded in concrete. From each cylinder rise two iron colums, which carry a fixed table overhead. On the top of the rams another table is placed, which can be raised or lowered at will. Between these two tables are placed the blocks which stamp the plates to the desired shape. In most cases this shape is the arc of a circle, but in others the form is very varying, while in some instances the plates are flanged as well as bent or twisted. In nearly every case, after a plate has been set while heated, it requires to be finally adjusted when cooled. To dispense with the heating of the plates gives unsatisfactory work, and is in many cases impossible. In no instance is this plan of bending adopted to any extent without annealing the plates both before and after the work has been put upon them. Much of the final adjusting of the plates is done by presses consisting of a simple ram fixed to the upper of two girders, which are bound together at the ends, the lower girder serving as the seat for the block on which the plate is placed. Numerous other forms of presses are employed for lighter work. Planing Machinery.—A special class of machinery is em- ployed to plane the edges of the plates. In the case of most of the plates this requires to be done very carefully, because in the structure of the bridge a certain percentage of the stress in compression is taken up by the plates butting, instead of wholly by the rivets as in the tension joints. This statement applies to all plates in the tubes. The sides are first of all planed on what may be looked upon as an ordinary planing machine. It is provided however. with special double side-cheeks, between which are two fixed swivel- ling tool-boxes, one on each side of the machine. These tool- boxes can when desired be transferred to a special cross-slide, as it is sometimes more convenient to work with one box in the cross-slide rather than with both between the side-cheeks. Both tools act together and cut continuously—that is, during the backward as well as the forward travel of the table. The plate to be cut is fixed upon a curved block, which in turn is securely bolted to the table. For planing the ends of the curved plates a special machine had to be designed and built, in which the plates are secured to a fixed table, while the tool is made to travel backwards and forwards in a swinging pendulum that receives its motion through a connecting-rod from a travelling saddle. The tool cae eee ways in this instance also, and is fed to its work by and. The planing machines employed to finish the rectangular plates for girder work are of the usual pattern for plate-edge * Paper read by Mr. William Arrol before the Institution of Mechanical Enginee's on Tuesday, August 2. planing, but with the addition of an end slide provided separate tool for planing one end of the plate at the sé that one of its sides is being sirnilarly treated. This finishes a plate at two settings, with the certainty that are at right angles to the sides. In some machines two saddles are upon the main sl others two tools are in one saddle; both devices advantages. The facing of the tees, angles, and ot! is done as a rule by cold steel saws, in order to s butting. i Drilling Machinery.—As will be inferred from t character of the work, the drilling is performed by classes of machines. The principle kept in view is possible, girders, tubes, &c., should be drilled only various parts are temporarily built and held together the position they will finally occupy in the finished this way the highest class of work is obtained. | For drilling the tubes, the machines, each comp are made large enough to embrace the entire ci the tube. They consist of a wrought-iron unc carriage, on which are placed the engine and boiler. also fixed two large cast-iron annular rings embracing the tube, round which ten drilling slides travel circumferentially. The slides are moved arot and consequently around the tubes by a worm gearing into a worm-wheel that forms part of motion of the drill-heads on the slides is le parallel to the tubes. These two motions easily f ten drills working at any part of the circumference comprised between the two annular rings, which en length of 8 feet. When this length is finished, the wh is travelled forwards, and is again ready to drill a new 8 feet. The tube rests on timber blocks, which from the front and placed behind as the machine t In the case of the lighter tubes, the rate of — 12 lineal feet of tube per shift of ten hours ; about 800 holes drilled ere The booms of all girders are drilled separately on thus leaving the bracings to be drilled to template, whit by radial drills at another time. The machines drill the booms are of a wholly different kind fr for the tubes. They are moved along rails, running on | of the blocks upon which the booms are built, and paral them. They consist of a double carriage with upright co connected together by means of a cross-beam and sundr framing for carrying the shafts, pulleys, &c. To thee and cross-beam are secured slides, to which the fix are bolted on the front of the machine ; while to attached radiating arms, each carrying a single d way there are both fixed and swinging drills on the the machine, capable of drilling holes in either a vertical plane. The fixed drills serve for all holes pitch, while the movable drills take what may be holes, such as those where the struts and ties are to to the booms. All the fixed drills are self-feedir movable ones are fed by hand. The number of taneously at work varies greatly ; at times as many have been employed together on a single boom. Other machines having radials with only single used for a special class of drilling, and are great advantage. With the exception of a few spe the remaining drilling is done by radials capable complete circle round the column on which they ar Tables are placed on each side of these machines, is fixed on one of the tables; and as the drills a convenient distance from one another, all the drilling easily accomplished without a second shifting of the Erecting and Riveting Machinery.—To erect and large quantities of material at the immense height : of it requires to be done demands a large qual plant for riveting and other purposes. The ordin riveting is accomplished by means of small port consisting of two arms held apart by links and sta: acts as the holder-on, while the other carries t cylinder for supplying the power, the cylinder and forming one casting. For some of the more ¢ where neither could this form of riveter be employed ne the work be done by hand, small direct-acting hydraulic ¢} were used ; the die for forming the rivet-head was here the piston. Two 4-inch cylinders were usually emp August 11, 1887] NATURE 357 their work either by hard wood packing placed against the nanent structure, or by temporary girders brought into proper dosition. In these machines the pressure employed was 3 tons sr square inch. A large amount of excellent work was per- ed by these machines in positions where it was practically ssible to do it otherwise. he riveting of the vertical columns of the piers is done by veting machines attached to the under sides of the lifting plat- orms. They are lifted with the.platforms, and do their wo k while the platform is at rest. They consist of two longitudinal ders or uprights, one on the outside and the other on the in- de of the column. Along the face of each girder a riveting “eylinder is raised or lowered by hydraulic power. The inside irder has a trunnion at top and bottom, fitting intoa step in two diaphragms for supporting the thrust of the rams in It is turned round on the trunnions at will, so as to rivet up an entire length of 16 feet of the tube both circum- fer ntially and longitudinally. The outside girder and riveting sylinder when at work always face the inside. The outside ‘girder is attached at top and bottom to two wrought-iron rings, hich encircle the column, and not only furnish the necessary rt but also permit of the machine being moved round the _ column by hydraulic power as required. Over 800 rivets have _ been closed in a day by one of these machines. In the erection of the large piers of the bridge, hydraulic power is utilized to a great extent. The principle adopted is to ild the piers from off a platform raised by hydraulic pressure the work of erection proceeds, utilizing the piers themselves process of building as the support of the rising platform. | THE CHEMISTRY OF THE RARE EARTHS. ]t is now nearly twelve months since the chemical world was agitated by the memorable departure made by Mr. Crookes, in his address to the Chemical Section of the British Associa- tion, in attempting to translate into language thoughts which had — irresistibly forced home to the minds of many men of ‘science as to the insufficiency of the theories of our modern chemical philosophy to account for the presence in our midst of hose objects of ever-increasing interest, the chemical elements. It will be remembered that, both in the address referred to and ‘in his lecture at the Royal Institution on the ‘‘ Genesis of the Elements,” Mr. Crookes based a large portion of his arguments ‘upon the remarkable experiences which he himself had met with ‘in endeavouring to separate the constituents of the rare earths contained in several sparsely distributed minerals. It may be of ‘interest just to recall the main conclusions drawn by the lecturer from his experiments upon the substances yielded by the laborious but fruitful process of fractionation. Yttrium, which only two years ago was supposed to be a simple substance, fell under that #z/ desferandum sorting influence into five com- ‘ponents, each of which presented a distinct phosphorescent ‘spectrum ; samarium, one of the constituents of old didymium, was found to consist of two and possibly of three ingredients ; and finally, the two components of didymium itself, into which it had been separated by Dr. Auer von Welsbach, were shown by Mr. Crookes, M. de Boisbaudran, and M. Demargcay to consist themselves of several. Contemporaneously with the work which has been carried on by these and other experimenters, Drs. Kriiss and Nilson, who have at their disposal tolerably large quantities of Scandinavian minerals containing rare earths, have been engaged upon work of a similar nature, and have lately published in the Berichte of the German Chemical Society results of the highest interest, not only confirming the conclusions above referred to, but an- nouncing that, ‘‘in place of the rare metals erbium, holmium, thulium, didymium, and samarium, we must now accept the existence of more than twenty elements.” - Considering the interest which Mr. Crookes’s addresses have called forth, and the important bearing of this contemporaneous work upon a subject of such paramount importance to the first principles of chemistry, it may be of advantage to give a short description of the experiments which have led to results of such magnitude. ¢ minerals examined were specimens of thorite from Brevig and Arendal, in the province of Christiansand, of wohlerite from Brevig, cerite from Bastnias, fergusonite from Arendal and Ytterby, and of euxenite from Hitter6 and Arendal. The nitrates of the earths contained in these minerals gave very beautiful absorption-spectra, and a precise measurement of the positions of the lines and bands in these spectra resulted in the surprising observation that in certain minerals only a particular few of the absorption-bands of the nitrates of some of the rare earths were visible ; thus, only one line out of all the lines con- sidered to belong to the nitrate of holmium, the metal which Soret called X, was visible in any intensity in the spectrum of the nitrates from thorite of Brevig ; moreover, this particular line is but insignificant, among many much more intense, in the usual spectrum of the nitrate of holmium. The more intense lines were either not at all or only faintly visible in the spectrum of thorite of Brevig; hence it is concluded that Soret’s X must consist of at least two ingredients, of which one is found a in thorite of Brevig, and gives this one line of wave-length 428°7. In these observations a single 60° prism of dispersion A - H, = 4° 18’ was preferred, inasmuch as weak lines or bands cannot be distinctly seen with more dispersion, and the position of maximum darkness becomes more difficult to fix ; the spectro- scope was fitted with the most refined micrometer arrangement for the accurate determination of the wave-lengths, so that the whole of the work may be checked by future observers. Before passing to the discussion of the main results of the experiments, a brief description of the procedure in case of one of the minerals examined may not be without interest. Thorite of Brevig is a typical specimen of the Scandinavian rare earth minerals, and its treatment was as follows. After removal of the thoria, which was required for the purpose of determining the atomic weight of thorium, the solution in ice-cold water of the sulphates of the mixed earths was precipitated by oxalic acid, leaving the iron, manganese, and uranium in solution, The oxalates were then ignited and the residual earths again con- verted to sulphates ; the sulphates were converted to hydrates by precipitation with ammonia, and the hydrates dissolved in nitric acid, by which a lovely pink solution of the nitrates was obtained. As small quantitities of thorium and cerium were still contained in the mixture, the nitrate solution was evaporated to dryness, and the residue ignited, whereby the thorium and cerium nitrates were converted into insoluble basic salts. The filtered solution of the residue then contained the nitrates of the didymium and yttrium metals, and gave the following absorption- spectrum :— Thorite of Brevig. Observed position of max. darkness. Fe Previously observed ae Intensity [ee absorption- * wave- Ss. Poe | ume | eagsh. meter. length. 23 34 728°3 728°3 Di Tolerably strong. 2381 708°2 | 708°2 Di Very faint. 2411 686'0 | 684°0 Tm Extremely faint. 2420 679°3 679'°4 Di Faint. 2457 | 654°! 654°7 Er Faint. 640°6 640°4 x Very faint. 2505 | 626°1 626°1 Di Faint. 2568 591°5 591°5 Di Faint. 2596 579'2 579'2 Di Tolerably faint. 2605 575°4 | 575°4 Di Faint. 2689 | 539°6 ay ? Very faint. 2713 531°3 | 531°3 Di Faint. 2721 529°2 530°0 Di Extremely faint. 2740 5,23°6 523°1 Er Strong. 2747 | §21°6 | 521°5 Di Very faint. 2781 512°2 512°2 Di Faint, broad. 2872 | 485°9 | 485°5 x Very faint. 2888 482°3 | 482'0 Di Very faint, but sharp, 2913 | .476°5 | 477°7 Sm Faint. 2944 469'2 | 469'0 Di Strong. 2974 462°3 463°2 Sm Faint. 3068 | 445°6 | 445'1 Di Very strong. 3076 | 444°2 | 444°7 Di Very strong. 3164 | 428°7 | 428°5 x Strang, 3240 | 417°3 | 416°7 Sm Stronz. Sage ase & 358 NATURE . [A ugust ia Similar observations were made upon the nitrates derived from the other minerals above mentioned, the actual wave-lengths being in every case determined so that the position of the lines can be open to no doubt whatever. Ten years ago the erbium earths were considered as the oxide of asingle element, but we now know that they consist of the oxides of scandium, ytterbium, thulium, erbium, terbium, hol- mium, and yttrium. Out of the rich data furnished by the present observations the observers believe they can prove that all | those erbium*earths whose nitrates give absorption-spectra are not oxides of simple bodies, but mixtures of the oxides of various’ new elements. Yttrium, as before mentioned, has already been shown by Mr. Crookes to consist of five constituents, and it will be interesting to see what light the workers in Stockholm have thrown upon the nature of some of the remainder. M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran showed that by fractionation of Soret’s X two new substances were arrived at, which he named holmium and dysprosium, but these are now shown to be them- selves compound, for one part of dysprosium is not present in thorite of Brevig or cerite of Bastnas, although present in the mixture called X ; in fact, de Boisbaudran’s dysprosium lines Dya, Dy, and Dyé are found to belong to three different elements ; and the other constituent, the holmium of de Bois- baudran, is probably made up of no less than four distinct components. As the introduction of fresh names is rapidly increasing the difficulty of work in this direction, Kriiss and Nilson prefer to simply label the components by affixing the letters of the Greek alphabet to already accepted symbols. The metal called by Soret X is therefore constituted as follows :— Waye-length of characteristic line in absorption-spectrum of nitrate. Xa 640°4. XB 542°6 Xy 536°3 XS 485°5 Xe 474°5 x¢ 451°5 Xn 428°5 of which Thorite of Brevig contains... Xa, X68, X7. - Arendal mm XB, Xy, Xe, XG Xn. Wohlerite of Brevig - Xy, Xq, Xn. Cerite of Bastnis -_,, a, Xn. Fergusonite of Arendal ,, XB, Xy, X85, Xe, XG Xn. Fergusonite of Ytterby and euxenite of Arendal and Hitter6 contain Xa, XB, Xy, X5, Xe, XC Xn. We are now accustomed to distinguish as erbium that body whose nitrate solution exhibits, in addition to a large number of lines in the violet and ultra-violet, two principal lines of wave- lengths 523°1 and 654°7 respectively, of which the former is the most intense. But in euxenite of Hitter6 much greater differ- ence is shown, one being extremely strong, while the other is barely visible ; therefore here again the observers consider themselves in face of at least two elements, Era and Erf, one giving 523°1 andthe other 654°7. Moreover, they have succeeded in separating the two almost completely by a method of fraction- - ation similar to that employed by Mr. Crookes. Cleve, in 1879, gave the name of thulium to the metal whose oxide formed the strongest base present in the mixture of erbium earths ; and its salts, according to Thalén, exhibit two absorption- bands, 684’0 and 465:0, of which the former is the most intense. Again, the variations are found to be too great for the supposi- tion of a single earth to be tenable, one line being entirely absent in fergusonite and thorite of Arendal, while the other is strong ; hence thulium must also consist of two ingredients, Tma and Tm. The observations with regard to didymium are all the more interesting as entirely confirming Mr. Crookes’s statements, and Drs. Kriiss and Nilson even go further in proving either that our interpretations of the indications of spectrum analysis are grossly wrong or that didymium is composed of not less than nine distinct elements. Dr. Auer von Welsbach’s symbols for praseodymium and neodymium, the two.constituents of didymium which he actually separated, are discarded, and the same nomen- clature adopted as in the case of holmium. Characteristic line in - absorption-spectrum of ‘ peer Dia a ae wth Digs ade ase se 679°6 in Diy Ree Sa Ps 579°2 and 575° Did ia oa ny 21°5 ; Die oi oe ae a oa Di¢ ene ae 482'0 Din Nee yi 4690 Dié ae bie 445'1 Dir 444°7 The name samarium was given by M, de Boisbau element identical with Marignac’s Y8, an ingredient didymium. The nitrate of this metal gives seve bands according to Thalén, but it is surprising that i and euxenite of Arendal the line 416°7 is tolerably st: even very strong, without another samarium line to bes spectrum ; the conclusion is inevitable that there mu: substance a constituent whose nitrate gives the line to this the name Sma is given, all other samarium lir provisionally supposed to belong to SmBp. The main result of this splendid work, there be that, instead of holmium, erbium, thulium, samarium, we must, if we follow Kriiss and the existence of at least twenty-two new elements, | some of which may be, in the near future, to be subjec further subdivision. If we add to these the - obtained by Mr. Crookes with respect to yttri ing reveJation is presented to us that instead ot ourselves in face of twenty-seven, or a clear gain twenty-one new elements, reg But now comes the vital question—Are these elements, or are they only different molecular aggrega atoms of a few, as suggested by Mr. Crookes? seems very remarkable that so large a number of element: be crowded together about the central series of t system, and we appear to have a repetition of same menon, in a much intensified degree, as obtains nickel and cobalt, rhodium, ruthenium, and iridium, osmium, and platinum. It may, hoy in this connexion to remember that this precise s was predicted by Mendelejeff himself (Aum. C Suppl. 8, p. 158), and in no way militates aga element theory. Kriiss and Nilson, rather than be have recourse to the introduction of new or auxiliar spectrum analysis, prefer to rest upon the simpler a more straightforward assumption that these s nitrate spectra show such marked differences, are i new elements. The accuracy of this view will strongly contested, but in any case the result ap be equally striking ; for, if future work shows it ance with facts, then an entirely new field of res opened, and the generally accepted ideas of the matter must of necessity undergo a complete met . SOCIETIES AND ACADEMI LONDON. © ia Royal Society, June 16.—‘‘On Figures of E Rotating Masses of Fluid.” By G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., Fellow of Trinity College and Plumi the University of Cambridge. of: The intention of this paper is, first, to inv which two masses of fluid assume when they rev proximity about one another, without relative motion parts ; and secondly, to obtain a representation of form of equilibrium which must exist when the proach so near to one another as just to coalesce mass. When the two masses are far apart the solution | lem is simply that of the equilibrium theory of the mass may, as far as the action on the other is treated as spherical. When they are brought another this approximation ceases to be sufficien departure from sphericity of each mass begins to sensible deforming influence on the other. ce. _ The actual figure assumed by either mass may be gust 11, 1887] NATURE 359 rmation due to the influence of the other considered as a re, on which is superposed the sum of an infinite series of rmations of each due to the deformation of the other and of fae F it each mass is deformed, not only by the tidal action of her, but also by its own rotation about an axis perpen- lar to its orbit. The departure from sphericity of either + due to rotation also exercises an influence on the other n itself, and thus there arises another infinite series of ations. shown in the paper how the summations of these two of reflected influences are to be made, by means of solution of certain linear equations for finding three sets of ents. e first set of coefficients are augmenting factors, by which tide of each order of harmonics is to be raised above the ‘which it would have if the perturbing mass were spherical. second set correspond to one part of the rotational effect, belong to terms of exactly the same form as the tidal terms, which they ultimately fuse. The third set correspond to rest of the rotational effect, and appertain to a different of deformation, which are in fact sectorial harmonics of ent orders. The term of the second order represents the city of the mass due to rotation, augmented, however, by ‘influence. All the terms of this class, except the second, “are very small ; their existence is, however, interesting. From the coasideration that the repulsion due to centrifugal shall exactly balance the attraction between the two masses, agular velocity of the system is found. It is greater than id be the case if the masses were spherical. ; _ The theory here sketched is applied in the paper numerically, and illustrated graphically in several cases. _ When the masses are equal to one another they are found to be shaped like flattened eggs, and the two small ends face one other. Two res are given, in one of which the small _ nearly touch, and in the other where they actually cross. the latter case, as two portions of matter cannot occupy the _ space, the reality must consist of a single mass of fluid isting of two bulbs joined by a neck, somewhat like a p-bell. In the figure conjectural lines are inserted to show verlapping of the masses must be replaced by the neck Section perpendicular to axis of rotation. 4 Section through axis of rotation. _ A comparison is also made between the Jacobian ellipsoid of equilibrium with three unequal axes and i diunb beat It Gi age with the same moment of momentum the angular ity is nearly the same in the two figures, but the kinetic cncre? is a little less in the dumb-bell. he intrinsic energy of the dumb-bell is, however, greater than that of the ellipsoid, so that the total energy of the dumb-bell is slightly greater than that of the ellipsoid. ‘Sir William Thomson has remarked on the ‘‘ gap between the unstable Jacobian ellipsoid... .. and the case of the smallest moment of momentum’ consistent with stability in two equal detached portions.” ‘‘ The consideration,” he says, ‘“ of how to fill up this gap with intermediate figures is a most attrac- tive question, towa answering which we at present offer no | contribution.” !_ This paper is intended to be such a contribu- tion, although an imperfect one. M. Poincaré has made an admirable investigation of the forms of equilibrium of a single rotating mass of fluid, and has spe- cially considered the stability of Jacobi’s ellipsoid.2 He has shown by a difficult analytical process, that when the ellipsoid is moderately elongated, instability sets in by a furrowing of the ellipsoid along a line which lies in a plane perpendicular to the longest axis. It is, however, extremely remarkable that the furrow is not symmetrical with respect to the two ends, and there thus appears to be a tendency to form a dumb-bell with unequal bulbs, M. Poincaré’s work seemed so important that, although the figures above referred to were already drawn a year ago, this paper was kept back in order that an endeavour might be made to apply the principles enounced by him, concerning the stability of such systems. The attempt, which proved abortive on account of the imperfection of approximation of spherical harmonic analysis, is given in the appendix to the paper, because, notwithstanding its failure, it presents features of interest. The calculations in this paper being made by means of spherical harmonic analysis, it is necessary to consider whether this approximate method has not been pushed too far in the computation of figures of equilibrium which depart consider- ably from spheres. A rough criterion of the applicability of the analysis is derived from a comparison between the two values of the ellipticity of an isolated revolutional ellipsoid of equilibrium as derived from the rigorous formula and from spherical har- monic analysis, As judged by this criterion, which is necessarily in some respects too severe, the figures drawn appear to present a fair approximation to accuracy. Since, as above stated, the rigorous method of discussing the stability of the system fails, certain considerations are adduced which bear on the conditions under which there is a form of equilibrium consisting of two fluid masses in close proximity, and it appears that there cannot be such a form, unless the smaller of the two masses exceeds about one-thirtieth of the larger. It seemed therefore worth whilé to find to what results the analysis would lead when two masses, one of which is twenty-seven times as great as the other, are brought close together. As judged by this criterion the computed result must be very far from the truth, but as the criterion is too severe, it seemed worth while to give the figure. The smaller mass is found to be deeply furrowed in a plane parallel to the axis of Fic, 2. Ratio of masses 1 : 27. rotation. Upper half of figures section through axis of wer half section perpendicular to axis. rotation, so as to be shaped like a dumb-bell, and although this result can only be taken to represent the truth very roughly, yet it cannot be entirely explained by the imperfection of the analytical method employed. It appears then as if the smaller body were on the point of separating into two masses, in the same sort of way that the Jacobian ellipsoid may be traced through the dumb-bell shape until it becomes two masses. M. Poincaré has commented in his paper on the possibility of the application of his results, so as to throw light othe genesis of a satellite according to the nebular hypothesis, and this * Thomson and Tait, ‘‘ Natural page nnl (1883), § 778 (i). He also remarks elsewhere that by thinning a pace jan ellipsoid: in the middle, we shall get a at's of the same mom:nt of m>mentum and less kinetic enerzy. 2 Acta Math, vii. 3 and 4, 1885. 360 nvestigation was undertaken with such an expectation. He re- marks, however, that the conditions for a separation from a mass which is strongly concentrated at its centre, are necessarily very different from those which he has treated mathematically. However, both his investigation and the considerations ad- duced here seem to show that, when a portion of the central body becomes detached through increasing angular velocity, the portion should bear a far larger ratio to the remainder than is observed in our satellites, as compared with their planets ; and it is hardly probable that the heterogeneity of the central body can make so great a difference in the results as would be necessary if we are to make an application of these ideas. It seems then at present necessary to suppose that after the birth of a satellite, if it takes place at all in this way, a series of changes occur which are still quite unknown. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, August 1.—M. Janssen in the chair. —On the silicates of thorine, by MM. L. Troost and L. Ouvrard. It was lately shown by the authors that the study of the double phosphates formed by thorine and zircon with phosphoric acid and potassa or soda furnished no argument for associating thorine with zircon. Their further researches on the combinations of thorine and silica have yielded a compound substance, in which this base seems to be still further removed from zircon. The silicates of thorine were prepared by heating a mixture of ‘silica and thorine with the chloride of calcium used as a solvent, ani by varying the conditions two silicates were obtained, differing entirely in their composition and crystalline form. The crystals belong to the orthorhombic system, with density 6°82 at 16° C., analysis yielding 18:o1 silica and 81°80 thorine. This com- pound corresponds to the formula 2ThO . SiO, (Th = 58°1), or Th’O, . SiO, (Th’ = 116'2)._ There is no isomorphism between this silicate of thorine and zircon ZrO, . SiO, ; but here thorine may be regarded as playing the part of a bioxide. This conclusion has been confirmed by the recent experiments of MM. Kriiss and Nilson, who, when determining the yapour- density of thorium, obtained numbers approaching, but always inferior to, that corresponding to the formula Th’Cl,.—New fluorescences with well-marked spectral bands, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran. The new fluorescences here described are specially remarkable both for the number and the position of their dis- tinct rays. They are often very bright, and are obtained by taking as agents the oxides of Sn, Za, ZB, and as solid solvents alumina or gallina. Alumina with 1/50 of samarine shows a red, an orange, and a green band, whose positions differ little from those occupied by bands obtained from the inversion of the induction-spark on a solution of chloride of sama- rium. The red is extremely weak, the orange more visible, the green easily distinguished, although less luminous than the orange.—Fluorescence of spinel, by M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran. The natural spinels give both a red fluorescence, whose spectrum has been carefully described by M. Edm. Becquerel, and also occasionally a greenish fluorescence. It is here shown that the former is due to the presence of chromium, the latter to that of manganese. By introducing 1/1000 of MnO into the composition of artificial spinel, the beautiful green fluorescence gives the same green band, but considerably more intense. By replacing the manganese with 1/100 of oxide of chromium, there is developed a magnificent red fluorescence presenting all the characters of that of the ordinary natural spinels.—Heat of formation of some crystallized tellurides, by M. Ch. Fabre. It is shown that several metallic tellurides may be obtained by heating in nitrogen a mixture of powdered tel- lurium and filings of the metal. The tellurides of iron, nickel, cobalt, and thallium not hitherto obtained, are crystallized, resisting hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid at a low tempera- ture, but slowly changing in a moist atmosphere. Reduced to a fine powder they are easily dissolved in bromine and the water of bromine yielding the corresponding bromide, hydrobromic acid, and tellurous acid. A comparison of the heats of forma- tion of the crystallized tellurides and selenides seems to show that in the same group, according as the equivalent weight of the metalloid combined with the metal increases, the quantity of heat liberated by the combination diminishes. But inorder to verify this hypothesis, it would be necessary to determine the heat of formation of the corresponding crystallized sulphides.—On the succinimidoacetic and camphorimidoacetic ethers, by MM. Alb. Hallerand G. Arth. In orderto obtain these ethers, the authors cuprous chloride, and consequently is not acetylen: simplest formula would seem to be CH,—C=C—C=C —Remarks in connexion with the observations of M. on the preparation of the chromates of aniline and their tions, by MM. Ch. Girard and L. L’Hote. The authors that they were the first to isolate and study the bichror aniline, a crystalline salt, of which they gave the formula chemical properties, and from which they have succee preparing certain colours such as mauvéine, pheno-sa: violaniline, &c.—On the effects of salting on pig’s flesh by charbon, by M. F. Peuch. The experiments here dk show that even in thoroughly salted bacon the charbon killed, but its virulence is destroyed.—On a new microbe mining indigotic fermentation and the production of blue by M. E. Alvarez. The author’s experiments show that is a product of fermentation determined by a special mi greatly resembling those of pneumonia and rhinosclerome, also have the power of setting up indigotic fermentation. microbe of indigo also possesses pathologic properties dete ing either a passing local inflammation, or even rapid « with congestions of the viscerze and fibrine exudations, BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEI\ A New Mode of Geometrical Demonstration, with Examples ; D. Ma (Brown, Aberdeen).—Terra: A. A. Anderson (Reeves and : Annales de _|’Observatoire de Nice, tome it. (Paris).—Food tion and its Detection: J. P. Battershall (Spon).—Electricity : (Longmans).—British Dogs, Nos. 9 and 10: H. Dalziel (Gill Bee-keeping, vol. ii. parts 9, 10, 11: F, R. Cheshire (Gill).— versity Annual Calendar, Faculty of Medicine (Montreal).—On tion of Engineers: H. Dyer (Munro, Glasgow).—Hints to M Observers, 2nd edition (W. Marriott (Stanford).—Archives N des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles, xxi. (Harlem).—Brain, pz (Macmillan).—Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorol (Stanford).—Meteorological Record, vol. vi. No. 24, vol. vii. No. ford).—Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1837, No. 84 (Leipzig).— u den Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 1887, No. 7 (Leipzig). CONTENTS. The Topography of Galloway. By Joseph L Our Book Shelf :— - Candler: ‘‘The Prevention of Consumption.”—I E. Klein, F.R.S. Millis : ‘‘ Metal Plate Work” Lindley : ‘‘ Walks in the Ardennes” ... . + Letters to the Editor :— a The Parietal Eye in Fishes.—J. Beard .... Physiological Selection.—Dr. George J. Roman PRG ey The Droseras.—J. Rand Capron ....... Comrades,—-B, R. .. ... > + A New Cosmogony. II. By A. M. Clerke . . . Music in Nature. By Dr. William Pole, F.R.S.. . The British Museum (Natural History Branch) By Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S........ Notes Astronomical Phenomena for the Week August 14-20 . New Guinea Exploration . The Institution of Mechanical Engineers. . The Structure and Progress of the Forth Brid By E. Malcolm Wood ..... The Machinery employed at the Forth Bri Works. By William Arrol ..... The Chemistry of the Rare Earths. Tutton . ae Societies and Academies ......+-e-e+e-e Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . ... « eee eee ee We ee Ro © 6 | e262 50 at ee eee 0) ie eee By A. aoe wr meet Mele 8 (a) eae Sie Lie eee have employed the sodified derivatives of succinimide and cam- NATURE 361 THURSDAY, AUGUST 18, 1887. : THE PHYSIOLOGY OF PLANTS. Lectures on the, Physiology of Plants. By Julius von Sachs. Translated by H. Marshall Ward, M.A., _F.L.S. (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1887.) [T is significant of the progress which the science of L botany has made in the last twelve years that the uecepted text-book of Sachs, which was published in 873 as a single volume of 850 pages, is now represented by three volumes with an aggregate of about 1900 pages. he anatomical treatment in the original text-book was ondensed, and wanting in detail ; it is now replaced by he comparative anatomy of De Bary. Book II. of the ext-book, which dealt with special morphology, has been e-edited by Goebel as a separate work, a translation of which has recently appeared (see NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 577). he physiological portion of the original text-book, entirely 4 modelled and re-written by its author, appeared in ‘Germany in the form of the “ Vorlesungen itiber Pflanzen- hysiologie,” a translation of which is the book now under sview. In producing this as the last of the series of three volumes above mentioned, the Clarendon Press has completed an undertaking which must earn the heartiest hanks of English students of botany. Itis not improbable that the publication of this volume will mark a stage in the history of the science in this ‘country. The period of dependence mainly on translated ‘text-books has now been of some duration, and it is not to be expected or desired that translation should altogether ‘cease. Nevertheless it is unsatisfactory to receive the bulk ‘of our supply at second hand, and subject to those delays which necessarily attend translation. It is to be confi- dently hoped that a period of home production, which has already begun, will now ensue, and thus demonstrate at once the healthy growth of the science amongst us, and the fact that there is still alive that skill of exposition in which this country has not been deficient in the past. _ Written in the lecture form, and in an easily-flowing style, which the translator has successfully reproduced, the book is aimed at, and should surely attract as well as satisfy, “students and cultivated readers.” The first five lectures are devoted to organography, and writing as a physiologist, with the express purpose of preparing the way for a physiological treatment of the subject, the author has adopted a method of “ physiological organo- graphy,” protesting against that “ purely formal morpho- logy,” which has been prevalent during the last thirty or forty years, and which he complains of as having left the physiological relations of organs eatiemy out of account. In eying down his system of “physiological organo- rraphy,” the author ranges all organs in five categories: '1) root, (2) shoot, (3) sporangia and spores, (4) arche- ronia, (5) antheridia. It will be noted at once that the erm shoot is used in a comprehensive sense including eaf and stem where these are distinguishable. The shoot is a whole is thus co-ordinated with the root, a method vyhich commends itself physiologically as more suited to he time than the old distinction of stem, leaf, and root ls co-ordinate categories. Secondly, it will be observed aat the time-honoured attempt to recognize in the VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 929. sporangium the result of metamorphosis of some part of the vegetative system, in fact, to define it as repre- senting a metamorphosed leaf, pinna, &c., is abandoned, and Goebel’s generalization that the sporangium is an organ of independent nature is accepted. The author then proceeds to apply his method of treatment to the vegetative organs. Referring, by way of illustration, to numerous plants, he distinguishes as ¢yfical forms of root or shoot those which “ present the essential peculiari- ties in great perfection,” he recognizes as rudimentary those parts of plants low in the scale, in which “the organic differentiation generally is not so far advanced as in the typical ones,” and as reduced forms those in which it may be assumed “ that, in consequence of special modes of life, more simply organized forms have again arisen from those more highly organized.” Lastly, he designates as metamorphosed forms those “which have, it is true, been derived later from the typical ones, but which contribute to the greater perfection of the entire organism,” such as flowers, tendrils, &c. In the application of this system the rhizoids of mosses, of fern prothalli, and liverworts, the organs of attachment of various Algz, and even the mycelium of Fungi, are designated “ roots,” while the term “ shoot,” including the distinctive parts of stem and leaf, where these are dis- tinguishable, is applied indiscriminately to the aérial parts of vascular plants, mosses, Algze, and even to the fructifica- tion of the Fungi. While accepting this method as throw- ing a certain light on the various forms of plants, when regarded from the physiological point of view, it cannot be too strongly impressed upon us that it is in no sense a substitute for the purely formal morphology. This is clearly stated by the author himself, when he says (p. 72) that his method “is by no means intended to exclude the purely formal comparison as it has hitherto been con- ducted under the name of morphology ; its effect on the latter is only to be that of explaining and enlightening.” While reading these admirably-written lectures, some whose bent is strongly physiological may think that pure morphology has had its day, and is effete, while the true and only point of view is the physiological ; but it is not the author’s object to teach this doctrine, and it is to be regretted that, in order to avoid any uncertainty of interpretation, a more distinct terminology was not introduced. The author, who draws a clear distinction between the morphological “ member” and the physio- logical “organ,” might well have devised a system of terms applicable exclusively in this physiological sense, and so have both cleared the way for his own views and have saved from risk of error those whose morphological sense is dull. A concise exposition of the internal structure of the plant follows, the cellular character of most plants being contrasted with the structure of the Coeloblasta, which Sachs has designated “non-cellular plants.” This part, though illustrated by many of the familiar figures from the old text-book, has been entirely re-written in accord- ance with more recent researches. It is not merely a descriptive and comparative treatment ; the physiological end is constantly kept in view, so that the first twelve lectures may be regarded as preparatory to the more purely physiological part which follows. After a short explanation of the external conditions of vegetable life, R 362 “NATURE and of the physical properties of plant-tissues, the re- mainder of the book is assigned to physiology properly so called, and it is divided into four parts dealing respec- tively with nutrition, growth, irritability, and reproduc- tion. It is impossible, within the limits of a short review, to give an adequate idea of this comprehensive work ; but it may be stated at once that it is as a whole decidedly preferable to the physiological part of the old text-book, which it has replaced. Its superiority is based not solely on its more modern view and larger sphere of observation, but also on its more clear construction. The information it contains is more easily accessible to the student, and to this end the addition by Prof. Marshall Ward of a thorough working index will materially conduce. It remains to mention certain points in the book which for various reasons will be of special interest to English readers. Sachs’s views on the transfer of water in plants are well known from his other writings. Here he puts forward in a concise form his opinion that the transfer is effected through the substance of the lignified walls. Much has been written since the first publication of these lectures to shake confidence in Sachs’s view, and a defence of his position against recent attacks would now be of greater interest than the plain statement of his own case which is here given. In the succeeding chapters, on the regulation of the stream of transpiration, and the con- sequent supply of salts in solution, and on the general nutrition of plants, there is little to demand. detailed notice. The writing is clear, and works up the results of recent investigation in a very readable form. In the next part, which treats of growth, there is much fresh material to interest English readers, the most notable being that in Lecture XXVII. Here Sachs gives a really masterly epitome of his researches on the arrangement of cells in embryonic tissues, reducing to a system what was before 1878 a chaos of isolated observations, and leading up to the important conclusion that “ the mode of cell-division depends only upon the increase in volume, and the configuration of the growing organ,” and further, that apical cells, where they occur, are merely to be re- garded as gaps in the system of construction. After a series of seven lecture; on irritability, the volume closes with a discussion of reproduction, both from the com- parative and physiological points of view. Regarded as a whole the book is certainly a remarkable one. Prof. Sachs isa man who does not undervalue his own work, and who has no fear of stating his own convictions; and this volume may fairly be taken as expressing his opinion on vegetable physiology in 1882, In this respect it will always be a valuable work, and will maintain an historic interest long after the actual views expressed in it are either superseded, or have passed out of the range of controversy. F, ©; B: A DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY. A Dictionary of Philosophy in the Words of Philo- sophers. Edited, with an Introduction, by J. Radford Thomson, M.A., Professor of Philosophy in New Col- lege, London. (London: R. D. Dickinson, 1887.) e 5 as those who like to pick up information in a scrappy way, this volume will no doubt prove useful. Chanzing, for example, on the word realism, and feeling la concluding: section on the immortality of m somewhat hazy as to its exact meaning, the in reader turns to his “ Dictionary of Pailosophy under the head “ Realism or Dualism ” finds a ste from Fleming of the theory “as generally held,” short paragraphs descriptive of (1) Sir W. Hai natural realism, (2) Herbert Spencer’s transfigured (3) the reasoned realism of George H. Lewes, intuitive realism, McCosh. Still unsatisfied, he 1 the “ Theories of the Concept,” and learns of trine of realism from Monck, Whately, and Mill; varieties (extreme realism and moderate realism) Ueberweg; of its origin from Ferrier, Ma Ueberweg ; of its truth and error from Noah Whately ; and he is perhaps rather shocked, in con to learn from Mill that it is “ an abandoned doct An introduction (of 35 pages) has been written editor, “ for the sake of beginners in philosoph with the view of affording to such readers a gen vey of the field of thought before them. 4 Wet for explanations to the body of the works”? whether the beginner would gain much from of the History of Philosophy” so short as thz the fourth part of the introduction. We c¢ of example, the description of post-Kan philosophy, with one sentence of which we plete accord :— e “The course of philosophy in Germiny of Kant has been very remarkable, but is thoroughly to trace. The following are, chief developments :—(1) German idealism very rapid strides. It is common to say that subjective idealism was followed by the obje of Schelling, and that by the absolute idealism But such a description can convey no mean ordinary reader. (2) In reaction from this the modern German materialism, expounded 1 schott, Vogt, and Biichner—a modification of atomism, according to conceptions of modern (3) A development of one side of Kant’s phil the pessimism of Schopenhauer and Von — According to the former of these, the absolute which Kant held to be unknown is will, whil lays the greatest stress on the unconscio thinkers are, however, better known for the human life, of which both take a gloomy a: view. (4) Herbart by no. means_ accomp gress of post- -Kantian idealists; he is charac Schwegler as ‘extending the monadology of (5) Ulrici and Lotze may be taken as 2S philosophers who hold by the spiritual in inte: human nature.” The arrangement of the body of tHe rol lows :—Two preliminary sections are devoted to (1) “Designations, Definitions, and Divisi (2) “The Mind.” In the latter are subdi (1) mind, (2) the intellect, (3) faculties of : (4) personality and the ego, (5) the nature” (6) consciousness. Then follow four main (A) the psychology and philosophy of cogn ing three sections on ancient, medizval, schools; (B) the psychology and philosophy 0 with paragraphs on esthetics ; (C) the psych philosophy of the will, with a section on free- determinism ; and (D) moral philosophy of NATURE 363 P (0 Mee sections on cognition do not seem to be very happily arranged; but a double index—an index of names and an index of subjects—renders it easy to make use of the volume as a dictionary. It would have been well, how- ever, if a synoptical table of contents had also been added. _ Turning now to one or two points of more special in- terest to the man of science, we think that the promise in @ preface that “a fair representation has been secured f the teaching of the physiological and evolutional psychologists of our own time,” is by no means fully re- _ deemed. Barely a page and a half is devoted to “The _ Brain and Nervous System.” The page on “ Sensibility and Muscularity” is not very satisfactory; while the information conveyed in the three pages or so devoted to _ “The Five Senses” is sufficiently meagre. Such obser- vations as Goldscheider’s on “pressure-spots” and “tem- _ perature-spots” are not alluded to. We have come across no mention of Lotze’stheory of local signs. But it would _ be easier to enumerate the few elementary points that _ are mentioned than the many important generalizations _ that are ignored. Looking up evo/uézon under “ Modern Philosophical _ Schools,’ we find Mr. Herbert Spencer's well-worn defini- tion preceded by that given by Mr. Sully in his article in the “Encyclopedia Britannica,” an extract happily chosen. Two or three paragraphs on mental evolution from ‘* The Principles of Psychology” are then cited, _ Mr, Sully’s criticism of the Spencerian position is suc- a ceeded by Mr. Stirling’s sweeping and not very acute _~eriticism of the evolution theory in general. A paragraph _from Mr. Fiske, on evolutional religion, concludes the two _ pages and a quarter devoted to this subject. There are _ indeed other incidental quotations, but we cannot say that the doctrine of evolution is adequately represented. Nothing, however, is easier than to find fault with the execution of a work of this kind. We trust the labours of the editor and of the “collator of experience” have not been expended in vain. There are in this “ Diction- ary” a great number of well-selected passages from philosophers of all shades of opinion ; and there must be many men with but little leisure for philosophic study who will be glad to make or to renew acquaintance with the thoughts and the speculations here presented. C. Lu. M. OUR BOOK SHELF. Hay Fever and Paroxsymal Sneezing. By Morell Mac- kenzie, M.D. Fourth Edition. Bo. 96. (London: J. and A, Churchill, 1887.) PERHAPS none of the minor ills to which humanity is prone has given rise to so much discussion as the subject under review. We have the views of those who regard it as a complaint due to “pollen”; of those, again, who look upon it as a neurosis, in which the much maligned _ and little understood “ sympathetic system ” is considered to play the chief part ; and of others who attribute this and kindred disorders to the hurtful consequences of the _ presence of swellings, exostoses, bony ridges, &c., in the nasal cavities. The latter school relies on a mode of treatment which in its endeavours to clear the nose of all so-called obstructions, by the free use of the saw, the drill, the gouge, the dental engine and electric motor, &c., reminds one more of the efforts of a mechanic, anxious to bring the nasal cavities into comparison with a polished eburnated cylinder, than of the intelligent practitioner. This kind of thing is being carried to excess, and an earnest protest must be made against the officious and meddlesome surgery of the nasal passages which is advocated amongst a certain class of modern specialists. It is an old idea that hay-fever is produced in persons having a certain nervous erethism, or predisposition, by the contact of the pollen of certain flowering grasses with some portion of the upper respiratory tract, or the conjunctiva. Dr. Mackenzie is an advocate of this view, and he regards the action of this pollen as more depen- dent upon its “ vital, than chemical or physical character- istics.” Those grains with the longest pollen-tubes (Liliaceze) arelessirritating than the pollen of Graminacez, the pollen-tubes of which are quite rudimentary. Pollen rubbed into the noses of hay-fever patients is exceedingly irritating, and is more active than alum or tannin. Dr. Mackenzie thinks that the absence of vibrissz, or want of mobility of the alee nasi, or dryness of the mucous mem- brane, leads to the entry of pollen into the nasal cavities. Many interesting facts are referred to in this book which substantiate the author’s views; and it is difficult to come to any other conclusion, in the face of such an able exposition, than that, whatever may be the condition of the sympathetic or central nervous system, which in a word constitutes the necessary “ predisposition,” the introduction of pollen into the eyes, nose, or throat, is necessary for the production of “hay-fever.” Some interesting experiments are related by Dr. Mackenzie on dredging the atmosphere during the hay-fever season, with the object of counting the pollen-grains floating in the air. While these were enormously increased during the month of June when hay-making was general, and diminished during July in the country, even the air of the streets of London was only on one or two days during this season found to be free from pollen-granules. Thus persons, even in the heart of a large town, are not free from this external irritant. The section on paroxysmal sneezing is very good. The author regards the affection as one of the respiratory centre, the afferent impulse of which is conveyed by the trigeminal nerve-fibres. Dr. Mackenzie rightly condemns much of the unscientific jargon written about the power of isolated ganglia, such as Meckel’s ganglion, to be directly concerned in these conditions, and justly refers the nervous mechanism to the cerebro-spinal centres, quoting at length Gaskell’s recent researches on the sym- pathetic nervous system, on which, indeed, he founds his views. The author’s ideas are set forth with great ability and moderation, and this book forms a valuable contribu- tion to the discussion of this much-vexed subject. The treatment of these complaints is fully dealt with in the book. The Owens College Course of Practical Organic Chemistry. By Julius B. Cohen, Ph.D., F.C.S. (London: Mac- millan and Co:, 1887.) WHATEVER may be the failings of this little book, there is no doubt it is a step in the right direction—that of making what is called organic chemistry really a prac- tical study, as is the case with inorganic. The intro- ducers of the author, in a short preface, seem to imply that the practical study of organic chemistry should of necessity be connected with, and indeed lead up to, research. Now, however desirable it may be that a con- siderable number of people should do organic research, there are a great many cases where the student of che- mistry will gain as much as will be useful to him by simply making some careful preparations, just as_ is done with ordinary quantitative analysis, with no intention of making analysis a profession. It has no doubt been a standing disgrace in this country that, up to within the last few years, organic chemistry 364 NATURE e [ August 18, 1887 has been a “d/ack-board” subject in most, if not all, schools; and for this neglect there is little excus:, for a great number of most important experiments may be made without more expenditure than in the case of ordinary quantitative analysis. A somewhat similar plan of work to the one in this little book has been followed for the last three or four years at the summer course of the Normal School of Science, and no doubt other Colleges where chemistry is a leading subject will have adopted some plan of prac- tical organic instruction. The publication of this book will save some trouble to teachers in directing the pre- parations. The book is divided into two parts, and, curiously enough, what is generally considered the easier, viz. marsh-gas derivatives, are put in the second part. The author gives as his reason for this, that the selected examples offer fewer difficulties. That is a matter of opinion to some extent, and may depend on the course of lectures the student is hearing at the time. In Part I., after the purification of alcohol, ether, ben- zene, and short descriptions of boiling-point determina- tion and fractional distillation, we pass on to formation of benzene derivatives, commencing with bromobenzene, ethyl benzene, &c., to typical members of different fami- lies, ending with ethyl benzoate. The descriptions of process to be followed are short, but generally to the point, and are preceded in each case by references to the literature on the subject, which is a very valuable addition, and should be useful to beginners. The ap- pendix, consisting of notes on the preparations, is very good, but would have been better placed, probably, in the text, or in connexion with the most typical substance of a group or family. As to the physical constants, melting and boiling points and specific gravity only are men- tioned. Surely a great number of substances, the prepara- tion of which is described, allow of their vapour-densities being taken by Victor Meyer’s method? Beyond that there is little to complain of. The book is fairly well adapted for its ostensible purpose. My Microscope. By a Quekett Club Man. Roper and Drowley, 1887.) IT is impossible to give in a small volume of some sixty pages a clear description of the microscope and the wonders it reveals. Still the author has managed to make his little essays interesting ; and if there is not much depth in his work, he has perhaps written enough to induce some of those who are not already the pos- sessors of a microscope to get one. It is surprising that he has not laid more stress on the advantages of a binocular over a monocular instrument. (London : LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space isso great that tt ts tmpossible otherwise to tnsure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Sun and Fire Symbolism. THERE is a phase of sun and fire symbolism in our very midst which seems hitherto to have received but little attention, viz. the presence of such symbols as crests or in the coats-of-arms of many of the oldest noble families and landed gentry of the British Isles. We find them in the greatest numbers in the armorial bearings of our Scottish families, and those belonging to the most northern counties of England ; probably for the same reasons that they are most numerous on objects which have been found in the northern portions of Scandinavia, 7.4. that the light and warmth of the sun were naturally prized in such districts, and also because they have there survived longer, owing to the isolated position of the inhabitants depriving them of free intercourse with the outer world. oe In a letter in NATURE (vol. xxxv. p. 558) headed ** The Svastika both as Sun and Fire Symbol,” I gave illustration of some of the emblems of the sun and of the svastika as a fire” symbol, and also alluded to the wheel as being in use in some countries to this day as a preservative against fire. A type of fire symbol exists in some parts of England at our very doors. In Gloucestershire and Herefordshire—possibly also in some of th other south-western counties of England-—it is not an uncommo: circumstance to see on the external walls of some of the older houses one or two pieces of iron in this form & ani sometimes thus It seems evident that they could not have added much support to the building, since | were bolted on to it at one point only—the centre. Reh ss A most interesting explanation of them was given a few ago by anold servant of our family who died about fiy: ago; his age went with the century. He was a Glouces man, and on being asked the reason of the S these irons, he replied ‘‘ that they were made thus in ore protect the house from fire, as well as from falling down. In the little village of Kingstone, in Herefordshire, it is: the custom for the people on the eve of May-day to take two ‘J short pieces of wood and nail them in this form the door of a house or a stable, removing the one o previous year. On inquiry why this was done, the ; was, “To scare the witches or the evil spirits away.” (te In the crests and armorial bearings of many of our families we find at least three distinct forms of sun and fire symboli (1) The szz in splendour. RB ala (2) Fire, represented sometimes by a mountain in flames. (3) The sam as a ring, or as a simple circle, the I terms for this latter type being amulets (Collins’s *‘ P England,” London, 1779) and annulets (Sir Bernard Bi ‘‘ Peerage, Baronetage, and Knightage,” London, 1880). I propose now to give examples of a few of the most of each kind. ee Blount, Bt.—This family is of French extraction formerly Lords of Guisnes, in France ; their crest is an foot inthe sun. Motto, Lax tua via mea. - “ee Blunt, Bt.—Probably originally the same family. latter have for a crest the sun in glory, charged in the c with an eye, issuing tears. ee In the Earl of Clancarty’s arms—the Trenches came Poitou in 1575—on the first and third quarters is the sun splendour, and in the centre an escutcheon with the co a Marquis of the Netherlands, charged with a wheel ) spokes. (The wheel is still used as a preservative aga: both in Holland and in Denmark.) : oi ae Musgrave, Bt., of Hayton, has, for his crest, two armour embossed, sustaining the sun; so has also Musgra Bt., of Tourin, co. Waterford ; and their arms are the same, The rising sun and the sun in his splendour is also borne— By the Marquis of Lothian, by the Earls of Stamford Warrington, by Lords Polwarth and Hammond—Lord warth’s crest is a lady richly attired, holding a sun in her hand and a half moon in her left ; and it also forms the : Tyrwhitt, Bt., Fairbairn, Bt., the Earls of Antrim, Nicho Bt., where it is placed between two stars of eight points, a many more families. : j We find fire symbols in connexion with the san in the armo: bearings of Macleod of Lewis. Their crest is the sun in s| dour, and in their arms they have a mountain in flames on ~ August 18, 1887 | NATURE 365 __ first quarter and the three-legged Manx man in the second quarter; the motto belonging to this latter is Quocunguez jeceris stabit.* The Duchess of Sutherland (Countess of Cromartie) bears this symbol in her arms for Macleod, in the first and third quarters. _ The crest of the Earls of Seafield is a salamander in flames ; the Marquis of Hertford has a phcenix in flames out of a ducal coronet ; Mackenzie of Scatwell, co. Ross, has on the second _ quarter of his arms a rock in flames, and on the third quarter three legs of a man armed, for Macleod of Lewis; Lord Ongley, a phcenix in flames holding in its beak a fire-ball ; Verney, Bt., a demi-phcenix in flames looking at the rays of 1¢ sun; and Carmichael, Bt., has in the second and third a of his arms, a cup with flames of fire issuing there- rom. __ We will now turn to the third portion of our subject—the sun as aring, or a simple circle—bearing in mind that the former pe is in heraldry called amulets or annulets, and that the ame circle is styled a dezant. e Earl of Lonsdale has in his coat-of-arms six annulets forming a triangle ; the Earl of Bantry one annulet in the first, and ten bezants in the fourth quarter of his coat-of-arms ; Barron, Bt., on a Saltier gu., five annulets. Amory Bagge, and Bailey, Bts., bear also annulets. In the possession of a member of the writer’s family is a seal of rock crystal, on which is the motto Luceo non uro ;? beneath this is a baron’s coronet (for the Barony of Strange, which came the Dukes of Athole through the female line), and below _ this, again, the sun in glory. It is believed (but none are now living who know this for a fact) that this seal formerly belonged to Marjory, second wife of the fourth Duke of Athole, eldest aan ier of James, sixteenth Lord Forbes, and widow of John Lord Macleod, who died s.p. in 1789 ; she married the Duke in 1794, and died in 1842, having had by him a son and a daughter _who predeceased her. _ The Isle of Man belonged at one time to the Macleods—when, _ is apparently not known—but in 1405-6 it came into the pos- _ Session of the Stanleys (afterwards Earls of Derby), through Sir Jobn Stanley, Kt., who in conjunction with Roger Leke received a commission to seize the city of York and its liberties, id also the Isle of Man upon its forfeiture by Henry Percy, of Northumberland. The Stanleys held the Isle of Man until the death of Ferdinando, the fifth Earl, without male heirs, when the Barory of Strange—which title had been borne by the second Earl, who died in 1522—fell into abeyance between his = ee ata and the earldom went to his brother William, sixth farl, who bought from his nieces their claims on the Isle of _ Man. His son, again, the seventh Earl, was summoned to Parlia- _ ment in 1627 as Baron Strange, under the impression that his _ father had enjoyed it ; this was, however, not the case, and the _ summons was virtually a new peerage, which eventually devolved upon the ducal house of Athole, through the marriage of _ Amelia Anna Sophia, youngest daughter of the seventh Earl of _ Derby, by his wife Charlotte de la Trémoille, daughter of the Due de Thours in France, with John, second Earl and first _ Marquis of Athole. Failing male heirs to her father, Charlotte, _ daughter of the second Duke of Athole, became Baroness _ Strange on his death in 1764, and also succeeded to his rights in _ the Isle of Man. She married her cousin, John Murray, who _ became the third Duke. __Another seal, also in the writer’s family, has an impression _ which differs essentially from the armed legs of the Isle of Man. | It is known to have been the private seal of the fourth Duke. _ The Manx emblem correctly described is ‘‘the three legs of a man armed ppr. conjoined in the centre at the upper part of the thighs, placed in triangle garnished and spurred or”: but on this seal the three legs are bare, and conjoined in the centre by a sun with rays. In fact, it is the trinacria of Sicily. Harriet G, M. MurRAY-AYNSLEY. Bishop’s Ring.—The Sky-coloured Clouds. DuRING a recent visit to the Alps I carefully looked for Bishop’s ring, and found that it was generally visible at high altitudes in the middle of the day when the sky was clear. On the whole, the higher one ascended, the plainer it was, up to a height of 9000 feet, beyond which I did not go. On one occa- sion it was visible nearly or quite as low down as Chamounix, _ * Signifying, ‘‘ However you throw me I stand.” This is true of the , a fire symbol likewise. _ 2 “IT give light, but I do not burn.” altitude 3400 feet ; but this was the lowest point I saw it from. It was always extremely faint, so much so that if I had not seen it previously in its greater brightness I should not have noticed it at all,—indeed, it could usually only be detected by a careful comparison of the colour of different parts of the sky. Its dimension seems the same as heretofore. About sunrise and sunset’ this circle continues occasionally conspicuously visible here, but it is long since I saw it in the middle of the day, when the sky has been really clear; some- times, however, I have seen a similar circle, but with much duller colours and extremely feeble, giving one the impression that it was lower in the atmosphere than Bishop’s ring as caused by the volcanic dust, and that it might be caused by smoke. Last evening, and still more this morning, there was a bright display of the ‘‘sky-coloured clouds” (if I may so call them). I seldom or never saw them more brilliant than they were this morning, when I observed a circumstance as regards their colour that I have not noticed before: the greater part of them was coloured as usual, the lower part a dull yellowish green, and the upper part a bright, though light, blue ; but there was a border of yellow above the blue, very faintly lit up it is true, but unmis- takable. The display was almost confined to that part of the horizon between north-north-east and north-north-west, the cloud-mass evidently not extending further east or west to any extent, and the upper border after 2 a.m., at least, was evidently the actual southern edge of the cloud sheet. I had the opportunity of watching these clouds gradually fade away in the increasing daylight, showing that in all probability they did not evaporate, but simply became invisible owing to the increasing light of the sky, and perhaps also to their losing light themselves. It is again evident, therefore, that they are of an exceedingly filmy and transparent nature, and indeed can hardly be considered real clouds at all. ~ Their motion was very slow,. but appeared on the whole much as usual—viz. from a north-easterly direction. Sunderland, July 30. T. W. BACKHOUSE. The Electricity of the Contact of Gases with Liquids. SINCE the delivery of Helmholtz’s famous Faraday Lecture, “the charge on the atom ” has been assumed by physicists, not- withstanding the very serious objections urged by Maxwell against such a theory. A re-perusal of the latter, some eighteen months ago, excited me to make some experiments on the subject. It occurred to me that by allowing such solutions as potassic iodide and chlorine water to react in an insulated vessel some informa- tion might be obtained as to the equality or inequality of the atomic charges. My object at present is not to give an account of the many experiments of this kind which I made, but briefly to call atten- tion to one result to which they led, and I shall describe only such experiments as are necessary for this purpose. One of the electrodes of a quadrant electrometer was ‘* put to earth,” the other was connected to an insulated stand on which was placed a porcelain dish containing a small quantity of dis- . tilled water. The instrument was in a rather sensitive state. A high-resistance Daniell, through which a current never passed, gave a deflection of 94 divisions either way. A small fragment of potassium was cast on the water. The spot went rapidly to the left, indicating a negative charge on the porcelain dish, and a positive charge on the escaping hydrogen. A second fragment of K was thrown on the liquid in the insulated dish. The spot moved 28 divisions to the left, then turned and went up the scale to the right 300 divisions. A third piece of K was thrown on the liquid in the insulated basin, and the spot moved 40 divisions to the right. This behaviour was extremely perplexing. The connexions were looked up, and the experiment repeated with like irregular results. Na was used instead of K, and although the deflections then’ obtained were also irregular, the tabulated results showed a contrast. When Na was used, 40 per cent. of the deflections were first to the left ; when potassium was used, 70 per cent. of the deflections were first to the left. Speaking broadly, this seemed to indicate that with K the hydrogen came off charged positively, with the sodium it came off charged negatively ; and as I thought that such a result would throw some light on the atomic charges I tried very hard to eliminate what I then believed to be accidental exceptions, and to prove that in reality such was the case. But I tried in vain. Retaining the same method of testing the electrification, other 366 NATURE [August 18, 1887 4 combinations, such as H,SO,4 and Na, H,S0, + Zn, HNO, and K, &c., were tried, and-in most cases irregular deflections such as those above described were obtained. Ultimately I got two constant and definite results: (1) Na thrown on strong and pure acetic acid invariably left a positive charge on the insulated dish, the escaping hydrogen being negative ; (2) a fragment of zinc thrown into strong HC] invariably left a nezative charge on the insulated dish, the escaping hydrogen being positive. This last isa gross and unmistakable result.. In fact its very magnitude was for some time a source of embarrassment. I shall not stop to describe the steps by which the next experimeat was reached, but shall proceed at once to describe. it; and I shall venture to give it somewhat in detail, as the title at the head of the paper is mainly founded on it: The electrometer was not in:a very sensitive state. The high- resistance Daniell aforesaid gave a deflection of 38 divisions on either side. A glass beaker 74 inches high and 5 inches in diameter was placed on the insulated stand. A porcelain dish, 2} inches in diameter and 14 inches high, was nearly filled with a Io per cent. solution in distilled water of strong HCl, and placed:at the bottom of the glass beaker just described. The insulated stand was now connected te one pair of quadrants, the other pair were put to earth. The ‘‘ spot” stood at 378 on the scale. Three small fragments of granulated zinc were now dropped into the dilute HCl in the insulated dish. A very slight effervescence at once appeared. This gradually increased but never became violent. No trace of spray could be detected at the end of the experiment above the lower half of the beaker. In 4 minutes from dropping the zinc the spot could be perceived moying, and in 44 minutes more it moved 28 divisions to the left, indicating the charge on the dish negative and the escaping lrydrogen positive. The insulated stand, &c., was now discon- nected from the quadrants. The spot maintained its position on the scale. In 14 minute after, the quadrants were again con- nected to the insulated stand: the spot moved instantly 20 divi- sions more to the left. In 14 minute more it had moved: Io divisions further to the left,-but with a slower pace, and it presently stopped and turned back, at first slowly, taking 5 minutes to go back the 68 divisions to the zero. In 4 minutes more it had moved 80 divisions to the right. The insulated stand was.once more disconnected from the quadrants, and at the end of 2 minutes they were re-connected, when the spot instantly bounded up 55 divisions further to the:right. It con- tinued. to move in the same direction until the effervescence ceased:owing to the acid being exhausted, A quantity of the zinc survived. On short-circuiting the quadrants the spot returned to within 4 divisions of the original zero. As the reaction between zinc and hydrochloric acid. proceeds, the quantity of chloride of zinc in solution continually increases, and so it appears demonstrated that. when hydrogen passes through hydrochloric acid it acquires a positive charge, when it passes through chloride of zinc it acquires a negative charge. I believe that this inference may be safely very much generalized, but for the present I forbear. In confirmation of it, however, it may be well to mention that at any stage of the last experi- ment a deflection may be obtained to right or left as required by adding an excess of saturated chloride of zinc (for the first), or of hydrochloric acid (for the second), When it is known that the sign of the charge on escaping hydrogen depends upon the substance it has been in contact with, the very irregular results with K and Na already mentioned become less mysterious. J. ENRIGHT. Newton’s Laws of Motion. THERE is a point in connection with Newton’s laws of motion which the text-books on dynamics, which found the science upon those laws, seem to me to leave very inconveniently and unnecessarily mysterious. The point to which. I allude is the meaning of the words ‘‘ rest or uniform. motion in a straight line ” in the first law. The difficult. words are “ uniform” and “ straight,”’ which of course are each of them meaningless until it is explained what the motion is with reference to; but this explanation. is not given explicitly in any of the books on dynamics which. I am acquainted with; and a comparison of their various statements leaves me in some doubt as to what is intended to be implied. May 1 therefore appeal to those of your readers who accept Newton’s laws to say whether the following is correct ? I find. that Law III. is interpreted by the most influential ‘and opposite forces between two portions of mitter. I am average European girl of 13. The most ancient mum the West Coast of Africa, are always attractive, and. my in! authorities, such as Maxwell and Tait, to mean that force cout only as one side of a mutual action, consisting of two therefore led to suppose that the freedom from force action, — which is spoken of in Law I., should be explained (by means of Law III.) as meaning isolation from the influence of all other matter; and that Law I. must be considered as containing definition of an arbitrary meaning to be given in dynamics to the words ‘‘rest or uniform motion in a straight line,” ely, that it is the motion possessed by any particle isolated from influence of all other matter, which influence is to be traced: t its mutual character. Law I. would then go on to: say, as. experimental result, that all isolated particles move ence to one another in a way consistent with this definiti In order to reach this conclusion I find it necessary te pret some statements in text-books in a somewhat av fashion (e.g. Maxwell, ‘‘ Matter and Motion,” article xl. to suppose some others to be incorrect ; my appeal for their resolution. August 9. On the Constant P in Observations of Terrestrial Magnetism, ; ON page 304 of vol. ii. of their excellent treatise on “F re Physics,”’ Messrs. Stewart and Gee give the usual eens the constant depending upon the distribution of pair of magnets employed for measuring terrest force ; namely— A A ea ee ss, ? re Instead of this awkward and troublesome: suggest which can be readily deduced from Gauss’s o and is much better adapted to logarithmic co cially when 7 and 7, remain constant thro observations, and Gaussian logarithms are factor (1 — A’/A). WM Washington, D.C., August 1. 1 The Stature of the pre In your. ‘‘ Notes” of last issue, Pitt- Rivers conducting a. party of fe Royal ir tute to Woodcutts, where skeletons dug out. serps hat who inhabited the ancient Romano-British village were o inferior stature, the males being only on. ~ Pei i= inches, and the females.4 feet 10 inches. think it would very interesting inquiry to ascertain the fae human race in the past, as it appears. to me from eg have been able to collect that the human race has c c increased in averagestature. I havemeasured agreat n coffins, where I happened to come across them, and shows that the Roman could not have greatly exceeded 5 inches. In taking measurements of ancient armneeney E the English aristocracy have decidedly increased in averag within 500. years, Fora paper I read before our local. measured twenty-five mummies in the British Museum: as I could through the cases, making estimate yo ping, and I found the average height of males 6: females 55 inches. The mummy of the celebrated € measures about 54 inches, about the height of the pi an Egyptian king yet discovered measured 52 inches. W research I have no doubt interesting data could be obt iin on this subject. Limiting the matter to my own ob-e have formed the idea that the average stature of the h increases at about the rate of 1°25 inches per 000 years. Wo. F. STA Cumberton, South Norwood, August 13. ‘ A Spider al'owing for the Force of Gravity. THE manceuvres of the small hunting spider, so comm August 18, 1887] NATURE 367 _ in them had been specially aroused by seeing a house-fly, which _ had previously narrowly escaped capture, swoop down on his _ mortal enemy and touch him on the back with his claws (as though twitting him on his failure), the spider apparently taking “no notice whatever. On seeing, therefore, one of these spiders stalking a small moth on my wallin Cape Coast Castle, I devoted my attention to the operation. After moving off several times the moth at length settled on the cei and I thought the chase was over. The spider, however, followed on to the ceiling, and approaching within striking distance (about two inches) anchored his web ; then moving round in a circle from the moth until he was about equi-distant from his anchor and his prey, he made his spring. He had evidently aleulated how much loose web he would require to reach his prey, for when he fell (as was inevitable from the force of gravity) he was suspended in mid-air by the loose web. The spider re- pained the ceiling by his own web, having narrowly missed a ood meal. C. B, LystTer. 19 Waterloo Crescent, Dover, August 12. PS . oe ee The Lunar Eclipse of August 3. _ Ir would be interesting to know if the following phenomenon was observed at other places. At 9.30 p.m., local time, at “Hamburg, a small cumulus cloud was observed a little distance ow the moon, and the darkened part of the lunar surface was taken to be part of the cloud, from its upper edge being flat- tened. Ten minutes later the cloud had passed away, but the €ketch of Lunar Eclipse of Wednesday, August 3, 1887 (as observed at amburg). flattened appearance on the moon remained, and it was evident that the earth’s shadow was distorted, as seen in the annexed - sketch. Several persons noted the peculiarity, which was visible until about 10.30 p.m. in a very clear sky. iy a & August 8. 1 BOTANY OF SAN DOMINGO. . oe vegetation of this, the largest of the West India 1 Islands next to Cuba, has long been almost totally ‘| unknown to botanists. The absence of all but the > scantiest data about its flora has made any general con- | clusions as to the main facts of the geographical distri- ) bution of plantsin the West Indies very uncertain. It has usually been supposed that any attempt to explore any part of the island botanically would present almost | insuperable difficulties. The following extracts from a ®) letter from San Domingo received at Kew from Baron )) Eggers, who has laboured so assiduously in the investiga- tion of West Indian botany, will be read therefore with much interest. W. T. THISELTON DYER. Puerto Plata, Sto. Domingo, July 11, 1887. *] HAVE now been about three months in this island. I arrived in Samana on April 14, and the following day in this place. After having spent a couple of weeks inexploring the lower mountains here (2600 feet), I proceeded to Santiago, where again I spent some time in exploring the Vega Real and the Monte Christi range. From Santiago I went further into the interior to Jarabocon and the Valle de Constanga (3860 feet), from where I made an ex- pedition up to the highest peaks I could find (Pico del Valle, 8680 feet), and which I succeeded in climbing, though with considerable hardship and fatigue. From this Sierra I returned to Santiago, and from thence to Puerto Plata, where I have latterly been exploring the region to the east towards the rivers Yasica and Jamao. This, in short, is an outline of my travels here. I have been so far very fortunate, as I have succeeded in pene- trating to regions where no European seems ever to have been before: my collections are very rich—about 1200 species—and my health has not suffered from the rather hard life here. This island is, to a considerable extent, in a state of uncivilization : the roads are frightful, and hardly deserve that name; in fact, there is not one single good road in the whole island. You could hardly believe that the principal road from Santiago to Puerto Plata; on which the greater part of the traffic of the island goes, in the rainy season is impassable often for weeks. With regard to the vegetation, it does not strike me as being very luxuriant. It is much less so than I expected, and is certainly less luxuriant than that of Dominica. The Cacti, which are a good criterion with respect to dryness of climate, are seen very frequently in the Vega by Santiago ; higher up, the mountains in the interior are covered with pine forests to an immense extent. There the soil is gravelly and rather sterile. I found the pine growing from 600 feet up to the very highest peaks. The Sierra and Monte Christi, a coast range, consists of Tertiary limestone, and has no pines at all. But here you find also Cacti, Acacias, and Agaves not unfre- quently. Palms are comparatively scarce—only about six or seven species are known (Oreodoxa, Sabal, Thrinax, Euterpe, and one called “ Yarey ” here, which I believe is a species of 7hrinax), comparatively few Orchidee, and no Cycade@ at all. I believe in the south, near San Domingo, there is a Zamia,; and, on the whole, the eastern part of the island is more moist, especially near Samana Bay and along the river. Of remarkable plants I have found here a C/avija, which seems to be known only from Trinidad among the West India Islands, Phy/locoryne jamaicensis, a Stan- hopea or Lelia, and several tree ferns. In the high mountains, of course, I found a greater number of inter- esting species : several 7upe, two Ericacee, two Fuchsias, of which one has a most beautiful large pendulous flower, Ranunculacee, Ferns, Loranthus, and others which of course were all unknown there. The /ug/ans cinerea grows here at a height of about 1800 feet ; I obtained a number of seeds. Among Covifere 1 should especially mention.a splendid Taxodium, the wood of which is dark red and very odorous. It is called Sabium here. The Caciz are, no doubt, very rich and interesting, but as they require to be preserved in alcohol, and the means of transport are so very difficult, 1 have not made any collections of them this time. The beautiful Audo/phia rosea grows from the coast up to 4000 feet. On the stems of the pines a number of curious Brome- liads are growing, none, however, very conspicuous ; at about 1000 feet a bulbous Oxalis with white flowers is found, commonly among the pines in the sandy soil. A number of herbaceous Synantheree were found among grasses in the upper regions above 7000 feet. The Podocarpus of Jamaica I did not see here at all. A number of beautiful Zchztes are found in the lowlands, as well.as some striking Orchids (Aletta, Leliopsis) ; also two remarkable Coccolobas, the immense-leaved C macrophylla, and another species. with somewhat lesser 368 NATURE leaves. The first-named has, as you know, large dark purple flower spikes of 2 feet long; the other, on the other hand, only short spikes with small white flowers. On these Coccolabas are found several nice Epi- dendrums. The savannahs are frequent and extensive here, and afford a number of smaller plants of various descriptions. In several parts of the island there are tracts. of mahogany, which are cut for export. The climate is generally cooler than in the smaller islands. I found the nights quite fresh. In the higher mountains, of course, it was quite cold at night. On the Pico del Valle I passed one night. We had a large fire blazing all night ; in the morning, at 6 o’clock, the thermo- meter only showed 11° C. Rivers and brooks are innumerable, but on account of the freshets and the violent current after rain, hardly any aquatic plants are seen, at least in this part of the island. I missed the beautiful Ponwtedera of Porto Rico. I send you to-day, by mail, seeds of the only palm which I have been able to obtain, a species of Euterfe, which is common here above 1200 feet, and the fruit of which is much eaten by half-wild hogs. It is called ; Manacla” here, and grows to a height of about 30 to 40 eet. Towards the end of the year I propose continuing my explorations of the West Indies, having in view a further investigation of this island, especially of the east and south, and furthermore of the Bahamas (especially Andros) and the two islands of Tobago and Grenada, both of which, I believe, are very little explored. The northern part of Dominica is also still terra incognita, unless something has been done there since my visit in 1879 and 1880. This island is particularly interesting to me. I believe it is one of the most luxuriant of the West India Islands. CONSTITUTIONAL FORUULA AND THE PROGRESS OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. F the mere increase in the number of known facts were an accurate measure of the growth of a science, the _ question as to the progress of organic chemistry would be easily answered. Let the reader open a text-book on chemistry of fifty or sixty years ago, and he will find, sheltering itself under the wing of the inorganic chemistry of that day, the half-fledged science of organic chemistry. Then let him turn to Beilstein’s gigantic Handbuch der organischen Chemée, with its more than two thousand large closely-printed pages—a mere classified catalogue of the known facts, written moreover in the highly-condensed elliptical style appropriate to catalogues. Here is in- crease. But life is not measured by days, nor chemistry by new compounds ; and the reader might resent the invitation to appraise the progress of organic chemistry by this rough quanuiane method. A qualitative analysis is necessary ere. But how? The really important facts, even with the aid of the most judicious selection, could hardly be packed within the compass of a single article ; nor would they be interesting, or, in such compression, even intelligible, to the non-chemist. There are of course the usual pzdces de ré- ststance in the shape of the coal-tar colours, and the various naturally-occurring compounds that have been artificially prepared; but probably the general reader has heard enough of these already, and might feel inclined to ask ee organic chemistry has nothing further to say for itself. There is, however, a peculiarity of organic chemistry which distinguishes it from the remainder of the science. The aim of all chemistry is to ascertain the constitution of matter, and the said peculiarity of organic chemistry is, | dugust 18, 1887, that it expresses its views on this important subject greater detail, more precisely (or, as some will hav more dogmatically), than inorganic chemistry. Its of belief on this head are embodied in its constitu formule. ; e Here we touch on matter which every chemist 1 once recognize as debatable. But, for good or for these constitutional formule are, apart of course the dry facts, the main scientific outcome of org chemistry: they form the particular contribution whic organic chemistry has been able to make towards solvi the central problem of all chemistry—the constitution | matter. At present they crown the edifice of orga chemistry. Are they the keystone of an arch, or meaningless architectural embellishment? This most general question which organic chemistry can pi itself at the present moment, and an attempt to answ is the most fitting mode of reviewing the past wo science. Let us therefore turn our attention to constitutional formule, and ask ourselves what the: what their meaning is, their scope, their justification. According to some unfriendly critics, constitu formule have done incalculable harm to chemi causing chemists to desert accurate experin observation for idle speculation—to substitute arduous work of the laboratory the easy task of si together atomic symbols, according to certain paper. There may in some cases have been som? measure of truth in this accusation—in other wore may have been some occasional abuse of | formule ; but the injustice of the accusation is sufficiently proved by the fact that the cessful experimenters of the day in the domai chemistry are enthusiastic supporters of « formule, and confess to having been guic formulz at almost every step of their rese: actively-hostile attitude towards constitutio fortunately becoming daily rarer. . Another class, not of detractors, but of ra friends, of the constitutional formula, regard it venient mnemonic device, by the aid of which position of otherwise hopelessly complex compoun be successfully impressed on the memory. It is px true that constitutional formule do perform thi function ; but an impartial review of the case wil imagine, lead to their being rated somewhat more h than this. : A third class may be described as the undiscrimi admirers—the injudicious friends—of the con formula. To them the constitutional formula expression of the position of the atoms in the a picture of the molecule itself. This is a pha: which many pass through in making their first ance with organic chemistry, and its existence the circumstance either that the teacher is engrossed in impressing the complex array of theories upon the mind of the student that he time to introduce philosophic limitations and d that he considers such an addition only calc render an already somewhat tough intellectual fa indigestible by a beginner. However this may certain that the faith of the beginner is quite as appealed to as his reason. We shall best be in a position to discern the and to estimate the value of these constitutional if we consider to what necessity they owe th and how far they fulfil the purpose for which devised. The atomic theory, as propounded by Dalton, sat for a time the requirements of chemists. For properly-analyzed compound a more or less simpl proportion could be calculated, and this atomic ] tion was expressed in the empirical formula of t pound. These empirical formule were combi ¥ August 18, 1887] NATURE 369 equeens and the equations formed a complete expression _ of the reactions, so far as the weights of matter taking part in them were concerned. Now it was experimentally _ proved that every definite compound possessed a constant . qualitative and quantitative composition, and it seemed _ to chemists as something of the nature of an axiom that _ to a given composition one and only one compound could _ correspond. So convinced were they of the truth of this _ unproved and, as the event showed, totally erroneous _ proposition that, when in 1823 and 1824 the first cases of _ tsomerism, or identity of composition together with _ diversity of properties, were discovered by W6hler and _ Liebig, the results obtained by these eminent chemists were generally set down to faulty analysis. But the cases of isomerism multiplied rapidly, and chemists had to make their account with this altered state of things. But here the inadequacy of the empirical formule became evident. Wherever a case of isomerism occurred, the empirical formula was ambiguous, and the equations in which it was employed were neither a complete nor a pre- cise expression of the reactions. _ To some, the discovery that constancy of composition ‘no longer involved constancy of properties may have seemed to sap the very foundations of chemistry as then understood. But this was not the case. The discovery necessitated an extension of the atomic theory, not its abolition. In fact, isomerism afforded a remarkable proof of the correctness of the view that matter con- sisted of atoms. On the alternative hypothesis that matter fills space continuously and homogeneously, isomerism is incapable of explanation; as it is incon- ceivable that the same given quantities of the same given kinds of matter, continuously and homogeneously filling space, should produce more than one compound. A dif- » ference of properties in such a case bespeaks a difference _~ of arrangement of the component parts; and further, as each such compound displays, even in the state of the _ finest mechanical subdivision, perfect uniformity, the _ component parts, by the arrangement of which the dif- ference of properties is produced, must be exceedingly small. We are thus led back to the atomic theory, whilst at the same time the extension is indicated which it was necessary to make in this theory in order that isomerism might find its proper place and explanation under it. It was necessary to determine, so far as possible, the sode of arrangement of the atoms in the various compounds, _ The results of this attempt are embodied in the constitu- tional formulze which have been employed by chemists at various times. The method resorted to in solving this problem was very similar to that which had been employed in deter- mining the ultimate composition of compounds. Just as when, after isolating from a compound, or introducing into a compound, some particular kind of elementary matter, chemists concluded that the compound actually contained that particular kind of matter, so, when in a reaction a particular group of atoms was eliminated bodily from a compound, or introduced bodily into a compound, they concluded that this group existed as such in the compound. Unfortunately, tne conclusion is not always quite so warrantable in the case of atomic groups asin the case of elements. The reaction, for example, by which anatomic group is eliminated from a compound involves the destruction of the parent compound, and in this process, which is generally more or less violent, it is only too easy for the atomic groups to undergo re-arrange- ment. In this way, alcohol (C,H,O), from the fact thatit may be split up into ethylene (C,H,) and water (H,O), was at one time regarded as containing these two atomic ups—a view which at all events is not that at present held. We thus see that from two different reactions, two totally distinct and mutually incompatible constitutional formulze may be deduced for the same compound. It would carry us too far to trace all the steps by which constitutional formule gradually became more precise and less self-contradictory, but a few important disco- veries may be mentioned which have mainly tended to bring about this result. In the first place, the develop- ment of the idea of the molecule as distinct from that of the atom, and the discovery of a means of determining the molecular weight of bodies, led to the division of isomerides into two classes: those in which the propor- tions of the various atoms were the same, but the total number of atoms in the molecule was different—this mode of isomerism being distinguished as polymerism ; and isomerism proper, in which both the proportions of the various atoms, and the total number in the mole- cule, are the same in the different compounds. But the knowledge of the molecular weight aided chiefly in the construction of constitutional formule by determin- ing the exact number of atoms in the molecule, and thus facilitating the task of arranging these atoms by stating precisely how many atoms had to be arranged. The law of valency also exercised a most important influence, simplifying matters by greatly limiting the number of legitimate arrangements. In fact, in the case of some of the simpler compounds, such as methane (CH,), ethane (CH;.CHs), propane (CH,. CH,.CH;), methyl alcohol (CH,.OH), and others, only one mode of arrangement is, according to the laws of valency, possible for each compound. A modern constitutional formula, therefore, takes the various atoms of a compound in the proportions. indicated by the empirical formula, and in the absolute number prescribed by the molecular weight, and arranges them in that way which, within the limits of the laws of valency, will best account for the reactions of the compound. Let us consider what elements of uncertainty are in- volved in each of the various operations here enumerated. The correctness of the empirical formula of a compound, as calculated from its percentage composition, depends upon the correctness of the atomic weights assigned to its component elements. In the case of organic com- pounds, to the consideration of which we shall confine ourselves here, the atomic weights of the component elements may be regarded as determined with a degree of probability approaching to absolute certainty. (This does not, of course, refer to the question whether the atomic weight of an element has been determined within 1/10,000 more or less of its true value, but whether, for example, in the case of carbon the atomic weight is 12, or some multiple or sub-multiple of 12.) The empirical formule of correctly analyzed organic compounds may therefore be regarded as standing on as suré a foundation as almost anything in the range of science which is a matter of deduction and not of direct observation or experiment. As regards the second point, the molecular weight, an almost equal certainty may be said to prevail in most cases in which the compound can exist in the state of vapour. Avogadro’s law, that “when two gases or vapours. are at the same temperature and under the same pressure, the number of molecules in unit of volume is the same in both gases or vapours ”—this law, originally advanced as an hypothesis, has been shown to followas a mathematical deduction from the kinetic theory of gases, a theory almost as well established at the present day as the atomic theory itself. Avogadro’s law places in our hands a means of determining the molecular weight of substances which are capable of existing in the form of vapour, the only uncertainty attaching to its determina- tions being that occasioned by the tendency which many compounds exhibit, either to undergo decomposition, or to be incompletely vaporized, in passing into the gaseous state. But in the case of all compounds capable of existing undecomposed in the gaseous state throughout any considerable range of temperature, the molecular weight may be determined with a very high degree of probability. In cases where the compound is not volatile 37° NATURE without decomposition, recourse must be had to indirect means in the determination of the molecular weight, and there is consequently more or less uncertainty in such determinations. As regards the third operation in the construction of a constitutional formula—the arrangement of the atoms so as to satisfy their valencies, and at the same time to account for the reactions of the compound in question—both parts of this process, but particularly the latter, involve more or less uncertainty. The valency of an element is frequently a variable quantity, and the validity of a constitutional formula for a compound will depend upon our attributing to each element the valency which it really possesses in that compound. In the case of organic compounds, however, this source of uncertainty is reduced to a minimum. Carbon is, with one certain and one or two doubtful exceptions, always a tetrad; hydrogen and oxygen are constant in their valency ; and the character of nitrogen as a triad or as a pentad is generally easy to determine. The chief source of uncer- tainty lies in the difficulty of expressing the reactions of a compound by its constitutional formula, great scope being left here for arbitrary interpretation. To this is due the fact, on which the opponents of constitutional formule lay so much stress, that in the case of numerous com- pounds the accepted formulz have varied from time to time. This could, however, scarcely be otherwise. A formula constructed on the basis of an insufficientnumber of reactions would have to be altered as soon as new re- actions were discovered with which it was not in harmony. And it must be admitted that, in the case of most well- studied compounds, very few changes have been made in the constitutional formulz since these were constructed on the principles of valency. In the case even of the more complex compounds, the constitutional formulz show a tendency to become finally settled as soon as sufficient experimental material has been accumulated. In this light, then, a constitutional formula is to be regarded as a symbolic expression, constructed according to the laws of valency, and embodying in a very condensed form the reactions of a compound. By a knowledge of the rules according to which such a formula is constructed —by a knowledge of chemical precedent, as it were—we ought, from an inspection of the formula, to be able to predict the reactions of the compound; to say before- hand, for example, how many substitution-products of a particular class a given compound ought to yield, and ‘so on. The value of a good working hypothesis lies in the fact that it can predict: if it can predict nothing, it is worth nothing. Now, with regard to the question before us, we find that if we correctly embody ina constitutional formula a certain number of reactions—a number sufficient to warrant its construction—it will correctly predict an enormous number of reactions which were not in the least contemplated during its construction. Let us take the example of acetic acid :— Starting with methyl iodide, which admits of only one constitutional formula, we convert it into methyl cyanide by heating it with potassium cyanide, CH,1 + KCN = CH,(CN) + KI, thus substituting a monad group, CN, for the monad iodine atom. ‘The constitution of this methyl cyanide is, however, not rendered clear by this reaction : it might be either CH,.CN or CH,. NC accord- ing as the cyanogen group is united to the carbon of the methyl by means of carbon or by means of the nitrogen. Both these compounds are in fact known. The one formed in the foregoing reaction has the first of these two constitutions, inasmuch as, when heated with acids or alkalies, it parts with its nitrogen in the form of ammonia, yielding acetic acid, CH,;.CN + 2H,O = CH;.COOH + NHs. In this Aydrolysis, or decomposition‘of the com- pound with assumption of the elements of water, the nitrogen atom of the cyanogen group is removed, whilst the carbon atom remains in combination ; and we there- fore conclude that it was by means of this carbon atom, [ dugust 18, 1887 = and not by means of the nitrogen atom, that the CN- group was united to the carbon of the methyl group—a conclusion confirmed by the behaviour of the isomeric methyl cyanide, in which the carbon atom of the NC- group can be eliminated, leaving the nitrogen attached to methyl. The only question remaining to be solved is the constitution of the monad group, COOH, which might be O O a ‘ | ~~ me either —C—O—H, or ao From what is known from other sources concerning the mechanism of the cess of hydrolysis, the first formula is the more probab that it is correct is shown by the behaviour of acetic ac towards the trichloride of phosphorus, by which rea the hydroxyl group (OH) can be removed and replac by a monad chlorine atom, whilst the resulting ac chloride (CH. COCI) may be reconverted by the acti of watér into acetic acid (CH;.CO.OH). Acetic a therefore contains a monad group, OH, exchangeabl chlorine ; and the first formula is correct. Uniting COOH-group (carboxyl) to the methyl group, and exp ing these radicles, we have the fully-dissected formula Ld acetic acid, ao re H What does this formula tell us? What does it p Of the four hydrogen atoms, three are directly u carbon, and one is distinguished from the others by b indirectly united to carbon by means of oxygen. know that hydrogen, when directly united to oxygen ( example, in water) may be displaced by electro-po elements such as metals ; and we find that in acetic acid one hydrogen atom is distinguished from the others by this property. We know that hydrogen atoms in direct union with carbon (as in the hydrocarbons) may be dis- placed by electro-negative elements such as the halog This we find to occur in the case of acetic acid: there art three atoms of hydrogen which may be successively di placed by chlorine and other electro-negative a groups. That these three chlorine atoms are attac the same atom of carbon, and that therefore the atoms of hydrogen which they have displaced are so attached, is shown by the fact that potassium chloracetate, when warmed with a solution of | hydroxide, yields chloroform (CH Cls)— CCl, CO. OK. H- OK The same reaction with ordinary potassium acetate ( higher temperature being, however, required in this cas yields marsh gas (CH4)— rey CH,+CO 708, one H- OK ae. In both these reactions the molecule is divided at tht point of union of the carbon atoms. Apart from thi disruption, each carbon atom retains the same atoms 1 combination with it after the separation which we attached to it before. In the reaction with phosphoru trichloride already referred to, the molecule of acetic: is divided at the point of union of the hydroxyl (OH) with the acetyl group (CHs.CO). That separations are possible without disturbing the ai arrangement of the separated groups renders the struction of constitutional formule possible. But the point tu be noted is that all the foregoing reactions an many others—in fact all the reactions of acetic acid—ar 90 ta NATURE 371 _ satisfactorily explained by the constitutional formula, and re, so to speak, embodied in-the formula. A constitutional formula is thus founded on reactions _ and predicts reactions. In this lies its chief valu2 A _ constitutional formula which is not founded oa reactions 1 — a very slight value indeed. The constitutional formula of a complex mineral silicate, for example, is not an expression of the reactions of that silicate, inasmuch asthe silicate has not hitherto been induced to yield any variety of reactions worth mentioning: it is merely the | simplest, and perhaps the most symmetrical, way of _ arranging the component atoms consistently with their _ valency, and in accordance with certain analogies in the constitution of salts of oxygen-acids. Not even the mole- cular weight of the silicate is known, and this knowledge is the first step towards the construction of aconstitutional _ formula which shall have any great value. But the _ beginner, who has not always the genesis of the various formule before his eyes, is apt to put all constitutional formule into one category, and to view all with equal trust or distrust according as his temperament happens to be sanguine or sceptical. The chief opponents of constitutional formule are to be found among inorganic chemists. Constitutional formule are essentially a creation of organic chemistry. We have seen that they mainly originated in the necessity of explaining the phenomena of isomerism. Now iso- merism, which is the rule in organic chemistry, is entirely the exception in inorganic chemistry. The constitutional formule of inorganic chemistry are thus an artificial growth: they are the result of an attempt to transplant iato inorganic chemistry methods and analogies derived _ from organic chemistry, and it cannot be affirmed that these borrowed growths have altozether flourished in the new soil. Where the organic formule have guided the chemist through the labyrinths of the various classes of ompounds, predicted reactions, laid down the number of oss isomerides, and shown the way to the synthesis Pnatural compounds so high in the scale of complexity as alizarin and indigo, the same methods applied to in- organic chemistry have led to no tangible result higher than that of checking a few doubtful formule by means _ ofthe laws of valency, The reasons of the failure have _ already been indicated. But the partial failure of consti- _ tutional formulze in inorganic chemistry is hardly an argu- _ ment against their use in organic chemistry, where they - have achieved the most signal success. Upto this point we have regarded the constitutional _ formula simply as a symbolic device, by means of which _ reactions and cases of isomerism may be expressed and : dicted. The question now arises: Is it anything idand this? A constitutional formula is primarily a _ certain definite arrangement of atomic symbols. Is there anything like this atomic arrangement in the molecule itself, or even anything corresponding with it? _ Itis inthe highest degree improbable that there is any- thing /’£e it in the molecule itself, but quite possibly there _ issomething corresponding with it. That the constitu- tional formula cannot be like the molecule in the sense of being a picture of it is manifest from a variety of con- siderations. To mention one out of several: a constitu- tional formula represents the atoms as points connected with one another in a certain definite way by lines of attraction, without reference to any actual positions in spice which these atoms may be supposed to occupy ; for the sake of convenience they are represented as lying in the plane of the surface on which the formula is drawn. Now the kinetic theory of gases informs us that the atoms within the molecule are not to be conceived of as _ occupying their positions in a state of rest : each executes some form of vibration or rotation. This view is quite compatible with the existence of definite relations of attraction between given atoms within the molecule. To borrow an illustration from astronomy, we might in the constitutional formula of acetic acid, for instance, regard the two carbon atoms as the two suns of a double star, and the atoms directly attached to the carbon suns as planets—one with a satellite. The parts may execute their respective motions without disturbing the stability of the whole, any more than the stability of the solar system is disturbed by the motions of its parts. Now, it is evident that a constitutional formula which represents the atoms as motionless ina plane cannot be a true image of the molecule—cannot be /7#e it. That the constitutional formula, however, in some way corresp mds with the molecule, is shown, not only by the chemical evidence which we have already discussed, but, what is more important, by a number of physical con- siderations. That the physical properties of a substance are dependent on the arrangement of the atoms within the molecule is evident from the fact that im isomeric compounds the -melting-point, boiling-point, specific gravity, and other physical properties generally vary for each isomeride. A comparison of the physical pro- perties of similarly-constituted compounds shows that in many cases very definite relations can be traced between constitution and physical properties. Very important information has been gained in this way by studying the behaviour of organic compounds towards light. Thus a number of these compounds when in the liquid state, or in solution, cause the- plane of a ray of polarized light, if passed through them, to turn through a certain angle. It was observed by Le Bel that all such optically active substances contained in their constitutional formule at least one asymmetric carbon atom—that is,a carbon atom united to four dissimilar atoms or groups; and an ingenious hypothesis has been put forward by Le Bel, and in greater detail by Van’t Hoff, to account for this concatenation. The researches of Glad- stone and Dale, Landolt, Briihl,and others‘on the molecular refraction of organic liquids have demonstrated an intimate connexion between the refractive power of a liquid on the one hand and its constitution on the other, so that obser- vations on the refractive pawer may be employed in ascertaining the constitution of such compounds; and Perkin has recently shown that the “ magnetic rotatory power” of organic liquids—the power which such liq ids possess, when placed in a strong magnetic field, of turning the plane of the polarized ray—may be utilized in the same manner. Again, the selective absorption which organic liquids exercise on light of different wave-lengths is closely connected with the constitution of these liquids ; and the presence of certain organic radicals in the formula of a compound is manifested by certain definite absorption- bands which make their appearance in the photographed spectra of the infra-red (Abney and Festing) and of the ultra-violet (Hartley). Other remarkable relations between constitution and physical properties are manifested in what is termed the molecular volume of organic liquids at their boiling-points —a subject first investigated by Kopp, and later by Thorpe, Ramsay, Lossen, and others. By the molecular volumes of compounds are understood the relative volumes which quantities of these compounds taken in the pro- portion of their molecular weight occupy. Kopp found that the molecular volume of a liquid organic compound at its boiling-point isthe sum of the atomic volumes of its elements ; and that, whereas the atomic volumes of carbon and hydrogen are constant, the atomic volume of oxygen varies with its mode of combination, having two distinct values: one value for an oxygen atom attached with both its affinities to the same atom of another element, and a second value for an oxygen atom attached to two different atoms.! Sulphur exhibits a similar definite variation in atomic volume in accordance with the mode of distribu- tion of its affinities. * Kopp distinguished “ intraradical” and ‘‘extraradical’’ oxygen: The above is a re-statement of his views in terms of modern fo-mula, 372 NATURE In all the foregoing instances we have a successful correlation of the results of physical chemistry with those obtained by the pure chemist in the deduction of constitu- tional formule. Many who withheld judgment, or even condemned, when the chemist was his own witness, may listen tohim more favourably now that he is supported by the independent testimony of the physicist. These investigations into the physical properties of organic compounds are of relatively recent date. There is little doubt that as they are extended new and impor- tant laws will be deduced. Much is to be hoped from thermo-chemistry, incoherent as many of its utterances as yet are. By following the path of physico-chemical re- search, chemists may even hope to arrive at a dynamical representation of the molecule which shall be as much more powerful as an instrument of research than the present merely statical constitutional formula, as that is more powerful than the empirical formula which preceded it. It is hazardous to try to fix a limit to scientific advance in any direction, but it is probable that the modern constitutional formula represents the limit to what purely chemical research can accomplish in determining the constitution of matter. Much will still have to be done by purely chemical research in working out the details of the existing system: the constitution of the more complex compounds will be ascertained on the lines of our present formulz ; new valuable natural compounds will be synthesized. But mere chemical reactions can probably never settle questions of intramolecular dynamics; in these help must come from _ physical chemistry. Moreover, the physical methods of research supplement the chemical methods in one important particular. By chemical methods we can never study the molecule as it actually exists. Our synthetical methods give us information concerning the molecule only at the moment of its formation; our analytical methods equally confine themselves to the moment of its destruction. The physical methods supply this want: they enable us to study the existing compound. Of these physical methods, one of the most promising, although one of the most recent, is the optical method, which has yielded results of the utmost importance both in inorganic and in organic chemistry. The ray of light which passes from the fixed star to the earth gives us information con- cerning the composition of the atmosphere of the fixed star ; and it is perhaps not too much to hope that the ray of light which has threaded its way through and between the molecules of a compound, and has been modified by its contact with these, will, if properly interrogated, furnish some information concerning the structure of these molecules. Indeed, in the case of the rotation of the plane of polarized light by organic liquids, of their absorption spectra and their indices of refraction, this information has in a measure been obtained. To sum up. The constitutional formula is not an ultimate expression of the whole truth as regards molecular structure. But it is certainly a very useful and convenient symbolical expression of certain aspects of the truth. We all hope that it may one day be superseded by some higher and more complete generalization. But it will be absorbed and assimilated, not rejected and contradicted, by that generalization. Mon omnis morietur. THE YALE COLLEGE MEASUREMENT OF THE PLEIADES} Ape Messrs. Repsold have established, and for the present seem likely to maintain, a practical monopoly in the construction of heliometers. That com- pleted by them for the Observatory of Yale College in * “Determination of the Relative Positions of the Principal Stars in the Group of the Pleiades.”” By William L. Elkin. Transactions of the Astronomical Observatory of Yale University. Vol. I., Part I. (New Haven: 1887.) 1 appear perfectly secure, so far as they go. 1882 leaves so little to be desired as to show excellet not to be the exclusive result of competition. In mer size it does not indeed take the highest rank ; its is of only 6 inches, while that of the Oxford he is of 74; but the perfection of the arran adapting it to the twofold function of a and micrometer, stamps it as a model not easy to passed. Steel has heen almost exclusively used mounting. Recommended as the material for the obj cell by its quality of changing volume under variatic temperature nearly Jari Passu with glass, its emplo was extended to the telescope-tube and other port the mechanism. The optical part of the work was by Merz, Alvan Clark having declined the of dividing the object-lens. Its segments are to the extent of 2°, and through the contriv: cylindrical slides (originally suggested by Bessel definition is preserved in all positions, giving a : of accurate measurement just six times that wi micrometer. (Gill, ‘““Encyc. Brit.” vol. xvi, — Fischer, Szréus, vol. xvii. p. 145.) yale ae This beautiful engine of research was in 188 in the already practised and skilful hands of He lost no time in fixing upon a task suited the powers of the new instrument and to employ the highest advantage. a The stars of the Pleiades have, from the earliest t attracted the special notice of observers, whether s: or civilized. Hence, on the one hand, their pr in stellar mythology all over the world; on the: unique interest for purposes of scientific study parison. They constitute an undoubted cluster say, they are really, and not simply in appea together in space, so as to fall under the sway of mutual influences. And since there is, perha stellar cluster so near the sun, the chance of displacements among them in a moderate la] is greater than in any other similar case. At regarding them, besides, have now been so | that their fruit may confidently be expected at begin to ripen. we Dr. Elkin determined, accordingly, to repeat of the Pleiades executed by Bessel at Kénigsbe about twelve years previous to 1841. Wolf and had, it is true, been beforehand with him; but— scattering of the grouped stars puts the filar m at a disadvantage in measuring them, produci errors which the arduous conditions of the render of serious account. The heliometer, th no doubt, is the special instrument for the p it was, moreover, that employed by Bessel; so K6nigsberg and Yale results are comparable in a sense than any others so far obtained. One of Bes:el’s fifty-three stars was omitted Elkin as too faint for accurate determination. He however, seventeen stars from the Bonn Durch so that his list comprised sixty-nine, down to 9 tude. Two independent triangulations were ex him. in 1884-85. For the first, four stars sit the outskirts of the group, and marking the 4 quadrilateral by which it was inclosed, were che reference-points. The second rested upon mi of distance and position-angle outward from (yn Tauri). Thus, two wholly unconnected sets tions were secured, the close accordance of which strongly to the high quality of the entire work. — were combined, with nearly equal weights, in © results. A fresh reduction of the Kénigsberg tions, necessitated by recent improvements in of some of the corrections employed, was the p to their comparison with those made, after an in forty-five years, at Yale College. The conclusio laboriously arrived at are not devoid of significan NATURE 373 ; It has been known for some time that the stars of the _. Pleiades possess a small identical proper motion. Its _ direction, as ascertained by Newcomb in 1878, is about _ south-south-east ; its amount is somewhat less than six _ seconds of arc inacentury. The double-star 61 Cygni, in fact, is displaced very nearly as much in one year as Alcyone with its train in one hundred. Nor is there _ much probability that this slow secular shifting is other than apparent: since it pretty accurately reverses the course of the sun’s translation through space, it may be __ presumed that the dackward current of movement in _ which the Pleiades seem to float is purely an effect of _ our own onward travelling. Now the curious fact emerges from Dr. Elkin’s inquiries that six of Bessel’s stars are exempt from the general drift of the group. They are being progressively left behind. The inference is obvious, that they do not in reality belong to, but are merely accidentally projected upon, it: or, rather, that it is projected upon them; for their apparent immobility (which, in two of the six, may be called absolute) shows them with tolerable certainty to be indefinitely more remote— so remote that the path, moderately estimated at _ 21,000,000,000 miles in length, traversed by the solar ____ system during the forty-five years elapsed since the _ KGnigsberg measures, dwindles into visual insensibility : when beheld from them! The brightest of these six far-off stars is just above the eighth (7°9) magnitude ; the others range from 8°5 down to below the ninth. A chart of the relative displacements indicated for Bessel’s stars by the differences in their inter-mutual posi- tions as determined at Kénigsberg and Yale, accompanies the paper before us. Divergences exceeding 0”'40 (taken as the limit of probable error) are regarded as due to real -__ motion ; and this is the case with twenty-six stars besides tel ‘the half-dozen already mentioned as destined deserters __~ from the group. With these last may be associated two __ stars surmised, for an opposite reason, to stand aloof _ from it. Instead of tarrying behind, they are hurrying on _ in front. An excess of the proper movement of their companions belongs to them; and since that movement __ is presumably an effect of secular parallax, we are justified ‘in inferring their possession of an extra share of it to signify their greater proximity to the sun. Hence, of all the stars in the Pleiades these are the most likely to have a measurable annual parallax. One is a star a little above the seventh magnitude, distinguished as s Pleiadum ; the other, of about the eighth, is numbered 25 in Bessel’s list. Dr. Elkin has not omitted to remark that the con- jecture of their disconnexion from the cluster is confirmed by the circumstance that its typical spectrum (as shown on Prof. Pickering’s plates) is varied in s by the marked - character of the K line. The spectrum of its fellow- traveller (No. 25) is still undetermined. It is improbable, however, that even these nearer stars are practicable subjects for the direct determination of annual parallax. By indirect means, however, we can obtain some idea of their distance. All that we want to know for the purpose is the va¢e of the sun’s motion ; its direction we may consider as given with approximate accuracy by Airy’s investigation. Now, spectroscopic measurements of stellar movements of approach and recession will eventually afford ample materials from which to deduce the solar velocity ; though they are as yet not accurate or numerous enough to found any defi- nitive conclusion upon. Nevertheless, M. Homann’s pre- liminary result of fifteen miles a second as the speed with which our system travels in its vast orbit, inspires con- fidence both from the trustworthiness of the determina- tions (Mr. Seabroke’s) serving as its basis, and from its intrinsic probability. Accepting it provisionally, we find the parallax .of Alcyone = about 002, implying a distance Of 954,000,000,000,000 miles, and a light-journey of 163 years, Jt is assumed that the whole of its proper motion of 2”°61 in forty-five years is the visual projection of our own movement towards a point in R.A. 261°, Decl. + 25°. Thus, the parallax of the two stars which we suspect to lie between us and the stars forming the genuine group of the Pleiades, at perhaps two-thirds of their distance, can hardly exceed 0”'03. This is just half that found by Dr. Gill for ¢ Toucani, which may be regarded as, up to this, the smallest annual displacement at all satisfactorily deter- mined. And the error of the present estimate is more likely to be on the side of excess than of defect. That is, the stars in question can hardly be much nearer to us than is implied by an annual parallax of 003, and they may be considerably more remote. Dr. Elkin concludes, from the minuteness of the de- tected changes of position among the Pleiades, that “the hopes of obtaining any clue to the internal mechanism of this cluster seem not likely to be realized in an imme- diate future ;” remarking further : “ The bright stars in especial seem to form an almost rigid system, as for only one is there really much evidence of motion, and in this case the total amount is barely 1” per century.” This one mobile member of the naked-eye group is Electra; and it is noticeable that the apparent direction of its displace- ment favours the hypothesis of leisurely orbital circula- tion round the leading star. The larger movements, however, ascribed to some of the fainter associated stars are far from harmonizing with this preconceived notion of what they ought to be. On the contrary, so far as they are known at present, they force upon our minds the idea that the cluster may be undergoing some slow process of disintegration. M. Wolfs impression of incipient centri- fugal tendencies among its components certainly derives some confirmation from Dr. Elkin’s chart. Divergent movements are the most strongly marked ; and the region round Alcyone suggests, at the first glance, rather a very confused area of radiation for a flight of meteors, than the central seat of attraction of a revolving throng of suns. There are many signs, however, that adjacent stars in the cluster do not pursue independent courses. “ Com- munity of drift” is visible in many distinct sets; while there is as yet no perceptible evidence, from orbital motion, of association into subordinate systems. The three eighth-magnitude stars, for instance, arranged in a small isosceles triangle near Alcyone, do not, as might have been expected a frior, constitute a real ternary group. They are all apparently travelling directly away from the large star close by them, in straight lines which may of course be the projections of closed curves; but their rates of travel are so different as to involve certain progressive separation. Obviously, the order and method of such movements as are just beginning to develop to our apprehension among the Pleiades will not prove easy to divine. A. M. CLERKE. NOTES. STRENUOUS efforts have been made to secure that the arrange- ments for the observation of the total solar eclipse of August 19 shall be adequate. ‘‘ A large number of astronomers,”’ says the Times of the 15th inst., ‘will be distributed along the central line, fully equipped with instruments suited to the particular work they intend to do. The Russians themselves have most energetically organized a very complete set of observations, meteorological and otherwise, at widely-distant stations, viz. Krasnoiarsk in Siberia, Perm in the Ural Mountains, and Viatka in Central Russia; while Prof. Mendeljew goes to Pavlovsk, near St. Petersburg; Prof. Bredichin, of the Moscow Ob- servatory, to Kineshma; and Dr. Podsolnotschnaja will be stationed near Tver. Several foreign astronomers will also visit Russia, and have received very hospitable treatment at the hands of Prof. Struve and the other Russian authorities. From 374 NATURE [4 ugust 1 8, 1887 England, Dr. Copeland, of Lord Crawford’s Observatory, and Father Perry, of Stonyhurst, have accepted an invitation from Prof, Bredichin to two members of the Astronomical Society, and have already joined him at Kineshma; and Mr. Turner, from the Greenwich Observatory, will occupy a station selected by Prof. Struve. Prof. Young and Prof. M’Neill, from America, have gone to Tver; and two other American astronomers will also make observations. Prof. Tacchini and Dr. Riccd, from Italy, have gone to Viatka ; and two German delegates and one French have also been sent.” We may add that there will be an American photographic and spectroscopic station in Japan. SEVERAL very good speeches were delivered last Saturday in the course of the debate on the Education Estimates. Mr. Mundella did excellent service by insisting, as he had often done before, on the necessity for a higher standard of education in our elementary schools. A great many people seem still to be of opinion that the State discharges all its obligations in this matter if it secures that children shall learn to read and write. Rut what is the good of teaching children to read and write if they are not also taught how to put the power, when they have acquired it, toa proper use? The chances are that reading and writing, if education goes n> further, will soon be forgotten. Long ago this was pointed out by M. Thiers, who showed that children in France who could read and write at the age of eleven ceased to be able to do either before they entered the army as conscrip's. If education is to be of real value, it must be carried onto an age when boys and girls are capable of taking an interest in “‘ things of the mind,” and they must receive instruc- tion in subjects which they are likely to find attractive. This was urged with much force by Sir John Lubbock, who argued that history and natural science shoald receive far more atten- tion than is now. devoted to themin.elementary schools, and that manual instruction ought to be added to the list of the optional class subjects. From the Aiken (South Carolina) Recorwer of the roth ult we learn that Dr. Henry William Ravenel died on July 17, after a protracted illness. He.was.a native of the State in which he died, and early in life botany was his favourite pursuit, and fungi his specialty. Soom after graduating he engaged in cotton planting, and continued it for twenty years. Subsequently he devoted more time to botany, and during the last few years of his life he was Botanist to the South Carolina State Department of Agriculture. The infirmity of deafness prevented him from taking any other post. He published a few short papers, chiefly on the plants of his native State ; but he was more widely known from his. ‘‘ Fungi Caroliniani Exsiccati,” of which he issued a number of fasciculi; and the ‘‘ Fungi Americani Exsiccati,” which he prepared in conjunction with Dr. M. C. Cooke. He was a member of several scientific Societies, and in 1886 the degree of LL.D. was conferred on him by the University of North Carolina. THE Curatorship of the Natural History Department of the Science and Art Museum of Dublin is now vacant, owing to the resignation, through ill-health, of Mr. A. G. More. Mr. More has been associated with the Institution for twenty years. He succeeded,to the Curatorship six years azo, on the death of Dr. Carte, and the condition of that portion of the Museum over which he presided testifies to-day to his abilities as an admin- istrator, and to the exceptional skill of himself and those who have been associated with him. As a botanist he is best known as joint author with the late Dr. Moore of the ‘‘ Cybele Hiber- nica” ; asa zoologist his name is honourably associated with British ornithology. Numerous notes and papers, scattered throughout various journals, give evidence of his scientific at- tainments and activity; and by no means an inconsiderable portion of his experience lies buried in publications on the Irish fauna and flora, for, with characteristic good-nature, h has always been willing to help local naturalists with his expe- rience and critical knowledge. His lossis greatly to be deplored, and we wish the directorate good fortune in the choice of his successor. Tue Autumn Congress of the Sanitary Institute of Great Britain will be held at Bolton on September 20° and following — days, under the presidency of Lord Basing. The Council i papers on subjects included in the programme, and will be very glad to receive the personal co-operation and support of as } are interested in the diffusion of sanitary knowledge. __ ON Saturday last, M. Jovis, accompanied by M. Mallet, a balloon ascent from Paris, hoping that he might reach ak greater than that attained by any previous aéronaut. loon began to ascend at 7.15 a.m., and was visible until’ 8.1 when it disappeared, having reachol as was supposed, a of between 7009 and 8000 feet. About eleven o’clock i down in Belgian Luxembourg. The altitude reached was. feet. This is far below the ‘‘ record” of Messrs. Glaisher Coxwell, who rose to a height of 37,000 feet. Tue eighth Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information from the Royal Gardens, Kew, has just been published, — contains a series of valuable notes on the Tree. Tomato ( mandra betacea), the Chocho (Sechium edule), the. (Arracacia esculenta), and the Cherimoyer (Anona © é All these food-plants have been recently introduced West Indies to the East Indies. The notes are pi the following statement :—‘* The introduction of the was first attempted, at the instance of the Government in 1879, but, after many failures, was only successfully plished in 1883. The Chocho was introduced to means of a single plant, which survived the journey } Jamaica to Ceylon, in January 1885. The Tree To Cherimoyer were introduced by seeds, which travel well more convenient for distribution than plants. In a few yea no doubt, all these plants will be widely distributed through¢ the East, and they will be found useful additions to th able diet of both Europeans and natives: Already the ¢ introduced to Ceylon as recently as 1885, is to be fe local markets; and the Tree Tomato: is mentioned ‘ as: valuable acquisition to Southern India.’ All the four here mentioned are likely to thrive at hill-stations in all districts suitable for coffee and cinchona cultivat are sub-tropical rather than tropical in. their require hence no doubt they will be found of service in South in certain parts of Australia, Northern New Zealand, hilly districts generally throughout our tropical po: The information here summarized will indicate their v as food-plants, and the sources both in the Old and New from which future supplies of seeds and plants may conve be obtained.” . Some doubt has existed as to whether the Chinese one or more kinds of plants in use as ginger that are un elsewhere. In the Annual Report on the Botanical Afforestation Department, Hong Kong, for the year 188 Charles Ford, Superintendent, says he has taken steps for vating all the kinds of plants generally included by the as ginger, with the hope that he may be able to study such a manner as to secure all possible information in with this subject. While at San Ui he was fortunate taining from cultivated plants good flowering specimens. he dried, and, together with specimens of the roots ( rhizomes); forwarded to the Director of Kew Gardens for: of them to be made there, where they can be compared other kinds, or with specimens of the same kind fron places. The specimens he procured were, without . NATURE 375 Zingiber officinale, the species commonly in cultivation in other parts of the world. It is possible that some other _ plant, which is not a true ginger, may be used in making the celebrated Canton preserved ginger, but all the information Mr. Ford has yet obtained points to the species Zingider officinale as the only kind which the Chinese use for this purpose. The ginger cultivated on the Lo-Fau Mountains has a wide reputation amongst the Chinese as being of unusual efficacy in medicine. This superior quality may be derived from peculiarities of soil or climate which communicate to the plant exceptional properties. ___ A REMARKABLE relation is shown to exist by Dr. C, Bender (Ann. der Physik und Chemie, 1887, 8 B., p. 873) between certain physical constants and chemical valency. In experiment- ing upon the density, expansion, and electrical resistance of several salt solutions, and mixtures of the same, the curious fact _ was noticed that a very simple relation existed between the __ number of gramme-molecules of the various salts required per _ litre of water at 15° C. to make up solutions the physical con- _ stants of which should remain unaltered on mixing. It is a well- __ known fact that on mixing two chemically-inactive salt solutions _ the physical constants generally diverge very considerably from _ the arithmetical mean of those of the constituents. But Dr. _ Bender finds that it is possible to prepare “corresponding” _ unchanged, the constants of the mixtures forming the arith- metical means of those of the constituent solutions ; and further, the strengths of these ‘‘ corresponding” solutions expressed in gramme-molecules per litre bear extremely simple relations to _ each other. For example, with respect to density and expan- _ sion, a solution of sodium chloride containing 1 gramme-mole- cule per litre at 15° corresponds*with a solution of potassium _ chloride also containing a gramme-molecule, or a barium chloride Solution containing half a gramme m>lecule, barium being divalent ; corresponding with these are also a solution of ammonium chloride containing § gramme-molecule, and a lithium chloride solution in which $ gramme-molecule is dissolved in a litre of water. With respect to electrical conductivity, the following also correspond :—Solutions of NaCl, LiCl, and 4(BaCl,), each containing 7 gramme-molecules ; and of KCl and NH,Cl, each containing 3 gramme-molecules per litre. Hence “‘corresponding solutions” are those whose gramme-molecule contents, respect being had to valency, stand in a simple relation to each other. THE American Meteorological Journal for the months April to July last contains a reprint of a lecture delivered by Prof. Cleveland Abbe, in December last, before the Franklin Insti- draw attention here to a very few of the points taken up. The author first attacks the astro-meteorological predictions made up for a long time in advance, and shows that every effort to demonstrate any appreciable influence of the moon or planets on our atmosphere has signally failed. He refutes the singular belief that animals or birds know more about future weather than man himself, and attributes their migrations and hibernating habits to the results of experience of many past ages, or to natural causes beyond their control ; and he shows that what is true of animals is still more clearly true of vegetables, so that nearly all the rules for weather-prediction founded on the behaviour of plants, on the falling of soot in the chimney, &c., relate simply _ to hygroscopic phenomena, of which.a hygrometer will give more _ accurate indications. The efforts to show that the destruction or growth of forests affects the climate are objected to on'the ground that we have not enough observations of rainfall and temperature properly comparable with each other to justify any conclusion whatever. With reference to the fact of less rainfall being caught in gauges high above the ground, the author solutions, which on mixture shall retain their physical-constants - tute, on some popular errors in meteorology. We can only . explains that, although the drops grow as they descend through clouds, they rarely grow after they have nearly reached the ground ; the stronger winds to which the gauge is exposed when set high up, carry the drops to one side, and so the higher gauge catches less than the lower one. THE Monthly Weather Review of the United States for May contains much useful information, and possesses additional interest from the fact of its publication so soon after date. Eleven barometric depressions are traced in the North Atlantic, two of which traversed the ocean from coast to coast. Among the notices of meteors, one of extraordinary size seems to have fallen in a field near Wellsburg, N.Y., making a pit 4o feet wide and 20 feet deep; ‘an effort is to be made to find the meteor. A special feature in these Monthly Reviews is the reports of fogs in the vicinity of the banks of Newfoundland and in the trans-Atlantic routes. Notes on their possible pre- diction have been published by Sergeant E. B. Garriott in the last three issues of the Review, and ship-masters have been requested to send special reports relative to the fog-banks observed. From the observations already made it is assumed that the differences in the temperature of the air which cause the development of dense fog, are occasioned by the deflection of the regular prevailing air-currents by cyclonic areas advancing from the interior of the continent. A knowledge of the move- ments of these cyclonic areas would, in the opinion of Sergeant Garriott, allow of the prediction of fog in time to send tele- graphic warning to ships leaving British ports. Further investi- gation of the subject by the Signal Office will show whether these hopes are capable of practical realization. THE Danish Meteorological Institute has published its Me’eorologisk Aarbog for 1885, with the exception of that portion relating to the colonies, which appears to be one year © in arrear of the other parts. The work is divided into three sections. (1) Observations taken in the kingdom of Denmark at 10 principal stations, 102 climatological stations, and 171 for rainfall. At 8 of the principal stations the observations are ‘printed im extenso; and there are also monthly and yearly résumés. Thecorrection for gravity at lat. 45° is given for the means of the barometric observations, in accordance with the recommendation of the International Meteorological Committee (Paris meeting, 1885). (2) Colonial stations, containing ob- servations in the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland, and one station at Santa Cruzin the West Indies. (3) Observations of air and sea temperature, &c., taken on 21 light-vessels round the Danish coasts, These latter observations are very valuable for determining various questions connected with the range of sea-temperature of the coasts, and the migrations of fish, &c. The Reports of the Meteorological Council show that such observations have been taken for some years in this country, although not regularly published. The Danish observational system dates from 1861, when it was under the charge of the Agricultural Society. The Meteorological Institute has published jts year-books since 1873. AT a recent meeting of the Pekin Oriental Society, Dr. Dudgeon read a paper on “* Kung-fu, or Taoist Medical Gym- nastics.” A’wng-fu means labour, and is applied to the science of movement, including, among other things, massage, sham- pooing, and other operations on the body practised with the object of preventing and curing disease, and for the comfort and sense of bracing which they confer. One of the thirteen depart- ments in the Chinese great Medical College is that of pressing and rubbing. An early Chinese work on this subject was trans- lated by the Jesuits in 1779, and first drew the attention of Europe to the subject and stimulated inquiry. Ling, a Swede, introduced the movement cure into Europe; but here it rests on definite anatomical knowledge, whereas in 376 NATURE China it can lay claim to no such foundation. The Taoists adopted the practice at a very early period to ward off and cure disease; but in later times charms, incantations, and magic seem to have taken its place. Dr. Dudgeon described the general principles of the art, including active, passive, and breathing movements, and the rationale of the Chinese system of medicine on which itis founded. Tue life of man. depends upon the existence of air circulating throughout thesystem. The vital principle is supposed to reside at a point one inch below the navel; from here the two principles of natureemanate. Thence, according to Chinese notions, proceeds the breath in expiration, and thither it goes in inspiration. The great object of life and also of Xung-fu is to nourish this original air, and avoid disease by preventing the admission of depraved air. Dr. Dudgeon gave a description of the various movements prescribed for various diseases. Some of these are complicated, and many ridiculous, but the practice aPPME to hold its place still in Chinese medicine. AT a recent meeting of the French Société @'Encoutagement, M. Grosfils, of Verviers, described a new method he had hit upon for preserving butter. The principle of it is, to hinder the crystallization of salicylic acid added to the butter, and so maintain its antiseptic power indefinitely. This he effects by means of lactic acid, which is a pretty strong solvent of salicylic acid. The composition he had arrived at consists of 98 parts of water, 2 parts of lactic acid, ands, of salicylic acid. This will preserve good butter indefinitely, even at high temperatures and in hot countries. M. Grosfils estimates that the butter, sup- posing it retains 5 per cent. of its weight of liquid, will retain I part of salicylic acid to 100,000. Lactic acid beyond 2 per cent. gives a slightly acidulated taste which might affect the saleability of the butter: this may be removed by simple washing with water, or, better, with skim-milk containing a little bicarbonate of soda. The preparation of a kilogramme of butter by M. Grosfils’ process does not cost more than one or _ two centimes. Ir appears that, after some years’ experiment, M. Jovis, Director of the Aéronautic Union of France, has found a satisfactory varnish for textile materials. It is of great flexibility, contains no oleaginous base, and, while adding little to weight, confers great impermeability. A piece of calico coated with it will retain hydrogen several days, and is not only not disaggregated by the matters applied, but even by use increases their dynamo- metric force ; a matter of great importance for marine cordage, sails, tents, &c. The varnish is also suitable for paintings, wainscoting, &c., and it is exempt from mouldiness. It can be exposed to very varied temperatures without alteration. Lastly, the sub-products can be utilized for coating walls, railway- sleepers, &c. Such is the account presented to the Sociétéd d’Encouragement, to which the Aéronautic Union has applied for help to give this new industrial branch a worthy development. WE have received the Transactions of the Norfolk and Nor- wich Naturalists’ Society for 1886-87. This is the eighteenth annual volume issued by this flourishing Society. The papers are numerous and varied, beginning with the presidential address of Sir Peter Eade, which is devoted to the subject of germ life, more particularly as it affects human and animal life. Mr. See- bohm follows with two papers on the birds of the Lena Delta and of the extreme north of -Alaska, and Mr. Harvie-Brown contributes a paper on the birds of Priest’s Island. Sir Peter Eade gives an account of two land tortoises (Testudo greca) in confinement ; and there are two papers on mew or rare Norfolk plants. Mr. J. W. Gurney, Jun., has a paper ‘* On the Periodic Movements of Gulls on the Norfolk Coast,” and the Rev. H. A. Macpherson writes on ‘* Hybrid Finches,” Mr. Francis Day gives descriptions of some remark- | recovered brightness by gh.. On April 19 another mite Southwell has a paper on the ‘‘ Smelt Fishery in Norfolk well as his annual report on the herring fishery from the of Yarmouth and Lowestoft. Mr. A. W. Preston cont his meteorological notes. Two papers of more than interest are contributed by Lieut.-Colonel Feilden an Herbert Geldart, the former on zoological, the botanical, researches carried on during a voyage to Hud: Bay on board the A/ert, which, in the summer of 1886, and relieved the various meteorological stations in that There are some interesting communications in the “* Miscellaneous Notes and Observations” ; and last, but ) means least, is Part 11 of the ‘* Fauna and Flora of Nor being Section II. of a list of the birds observed in the cow Messrs, Gurney and Southwell. THE journal Cawcase states that the Imperial Society ‘*friends of natural science, ethnography, and anthrop are devoting particular attention to the zoology of the Ca In 1885 the Society sent a misSion to study the fauna of and of the coast of the Black Sea, and this year it has ser two expeditions, one to study the fauna of the coast o Caspian, the other that of the environs of Tiflis and bi: Gotchka, Paleoston, and others. 4 THE death is announced of Dr. Johann Krejei, P1 Geology at the University of Prague and a member Bohemian Parliament. THE Imperial Leopold-Caroline Academy of Nat Halle, celebrated its two-hundredth anniversary on A A VOLCANIC eruption lately occurred in the Island onthe Algerian coast. The streams of lava were num the light of the fire was visible for forty miles around, — 6.29p.m. Great damage was done in many cities, but ( suffered most, many of the houses falling in, and others b seriously damaged. Shocks of earthquake were also several places in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, and eastern banks of the Missouri. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens past week include a Red and Blue Macaw (Ara Central America, presented by Dr. and Mrs. T. W. All a Carrion Crow (Corvus corone), European, presented George Nicholson ; a Fieldfare (7urdus pilaris), p Colonel Verner; a Hive of Bees, . presented by Bates Blow; four Geckos, four Frogs from Lineated Chalcis (Chalcides lineatus) from the France; two Dark-green Snakes (Zamenis atrovt: Natterjack Toads (Bufo calamita) from Germany, purch Bennett’s Wallaby (Halmaturus bennett:), two Viscac stomus trichodactylus), three Wood Hares (Lepus s born in the Gardens; a Bronze-spotted Dove ( chalcospilos), two Hybrid Spotted Zenaida Doves Zenaida maculata 6 and Z. auriculata?), bred in the OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN New VARIABLE OF THE ALGoL TypPE.—Mr, E. announces in No. 159 of Gould’s Astronomical Jon covery that the star 155 (Uran. Argent.) Canis Majo variable of the Algol type. A diminution in the ligh star was first observed on March 26 ; the star was then o again on March 29 and 30, and April 6, 7, 9, and appeared on each occasion to be of about its normal b: On April 11 at 8h. 15m. it was again found to be faint August 18, 1887] NATURE “SI7 observed and the recovery of light successfully watcled. The next night seemed to show the commencement of another mini- _ mum, but the star was low at the time of observation. The epoch would appear therefore to be some aliquot part of eight days ; if the observation of April 20 is accepted, it will be about Id. 3h. It is uncertain, as yet, whether the star has been observed at actual minimum; but the diminution of light remarked has amounted to about half a magnitude. As the ‘Star is the first certainly variable “star in the constellation, it will pechebly be called R Canis Majoris. The place of the _ variable for 1875‘0 is R.A. 7h. 13m. 49s., Decl. 16° 9'°7 S. ___ Mr. Sawyer gives in the same number of the Astronomical Journal some observations of Y Cygni, the new Algol-type variable discovered by Mr. Chandler last December. They ive a general confirmation of the period, viz. 2d. 23h. 56m., ieduced by Mr, Chandler from his own observations. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA FOR THE } ee WEEK 1887 AUGUST 21-27. a e OR the reckoning of time the civil day, commencing at ; A ie bho? & : ee Greenwich mean midnight, counting the hours on to 24, is here employed.) At Greenwich on August 21 Sun rises, 4h. 56m. ; souths, 12h. 3m. I°Is.; sets, 19h. tom. ; ay on meridian, 12° 9’ N.: Sidereal Time at Sunset, 17h. 9m. Moon (at First Quarter August 25, 20h.) rises, 7h. 37m. ; souths, 14h, tom. ; sets, 20h. 30m. ; decl. on meridian, 2° 55’ N. Planet. Rises. Souths. Sets. Decl. on meridian, h, m. h. m. a eh ae Mercury 3 Be ose. 20 Ba 18 33 17 49 N. Fou > - Venue... Bese) | AA IO. yas. 19 48 6 18S. bee Tapit eee PR ee ORO hy Be UE ee aE AO Tec lang upiter... 10 49 Ee Get ita) SER § 6 ccc tO AOS. aie turn 218 10 13... 18 8 ... 20 16N. Occultations of Stars by the Moon (visible at Greenwich). Corres ponding August. _— Star. Mag. _ Disap. Reap. pe gpedate be inverted image. rere h. m. h. m. a é 22 ... 65 Virginis ...6 ... 20 34... 21 26 92 307 apis ALC. GO8r ... 6 ... 17-59 ... 19 14 51 277 August. h. BR ce TA Venus in conjunction with and 9° 13’ south of the Moon. 22... © ... Venus at greatest distance from the Sun. 24S el’ TZ Jupiter in conjunction with and 4° 12’ south of the Moon. er Sheir is 2 Mercury at least distance from the Sun. Variable Stars. Star. RA Decl. h. m e ‘ h. m. U Cephei ... O 52°3...81 16N... Aug. 21,20 8 m 26, 19 47 m Algol ... S70. 40 GON. cS! jy 2a 3h me Sym eae 2h ah” ie 5 Libre 14 54°9 Sia. ic Gs. Oy Sl Oo U Corone ... 55320 ... 32. '4.N. :.. 5, 22, 22 30 we U Ophiuchi... 17 10°8 Pee. at oe te and at intervals of 20 8 X Sagittarii... 17 40°5 ...27 47S. .. Aug. 24,22 Om W Sagittarii We G7 20 SS Oe aes’. pi 24s 20 OM U Sagittarii... ES 20 ee 8) FS e ies gt aT; OOM, B Lyre... 1 A6°O...: 34 14 No... |, 43, 2b OO we oer e Oe 5 Cephei eM BGO a3. OT SONG ik. Gg 27, OO M signifies maximum ; #z minimum. Meteor-Showers. R.A. Decl.: From Pisces ... 60 ... 11 N Swift. Near « Cygni 291 60 N Slow, brilliant trained , meteors. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES, THE Bollettino della Societd Geografica Italiana for June contains a valuable contribution to the study of the ethnica relations in the Ogoway and Lower Congo basins, by the Cavaliere A. Pecile, who was associated for three years with Count Giacomo di Brazzi in his exploration of the new French protectorate in the equatorial region north of the Congo. All the multifarious tribes of this extensive region, which stretches from the coast inland to the Ubangi affluent of the Congo, are divided into two essentially distinct groups, that is to say (1) the original settled populations, either aborigines in the strict sense of the term, or such as have occupied their present homes from prehistoric times ; and (2) those that have made their ap- pearance in comparatively recent times on the Ogoway and Lower Congo continually pressing forward from the interior towards the coast. To the former group belong the Batekes, Adumas, Avumbos, Mbocos, Ondumbos, Mboshi, and many others ; to the latter the Bakales, Pauens (Fans), Okandas, and Obambas of the Ogoway, and the Apfurus, Bayanzi, and others of the Congo and its northern affluents. One of the most im- portant results of the author’s researches is the light that he throws on this mysterious forward movement of the inland tribes, which is not confined to the equatorial regions, but extends almost uninterruptedly northwards to Upper Guinea and Senegambia. Here the chief aggressive populations are the Toucouleurs (mixed Berbers), Fulahs, and Mandingans, all now Mohammedans ; in the Ogoway and Congo basins the Bakales, Fans, and Bayanzi, all still pagans, and mostly cannibals. These have already reached the coast at many points, pressing forward from a vast and almost impenetrable forest zone, which stretches from the seaboard eastward probably to the Niam-Niam country in the heart of the continent. But the author believes that he has discovered the very cradle of the fierce Bakale and Fan peoples about the head waters of the Ivindo (2° 30’ N.), where the old settlements still exist whence the first waves of migration flowed westwards. This general westward movement is de- scribed as taking place unconsciously, or through a sort of vague instinct attracting the over-crowded inland populations towards the centres of trade on the coast. Their interests naturally impel them in the direction whence come the European commodities so much coveted by all the inland populations. The Bakales appear to have preceded the Fans by many years, their migrations being chiefly directed towards the lagoons of the Lower Ogoway, where they are now settled between the local Galoa and Inenga tribes. The Bayanzi, who have acquired the ascendency along the right bank of the Lower Congo, seem to have come originally from the same regions as the Fans, whom they resemble in physical appearance, character, language, and usages. But while the latter are ‘‘land-lubbers,” displaying absolute horror of the water, the Bayanzi have always been great fluvial navigators, so that their original home may have been the Upper Ubangi, slowly advancing down this great artery to its junction with the Congo. In general the settled aborigines are of blacker complexion and more decided Negro type ; the in- truders much fairer, taller, with more regular features, less woolly hair, more animated and intelligent expression. At the same time they are also more ferocious and very decided cannibals. This point, about which some doubts had been expressed, was confirmed in a startling way by the fate of three Aduma boatmen belonging to the Expedition, who happened to be left behind near a Fan village on the banks of the Ogoway, and whose skeletons were afterwards found carefully picked (di/- gentemente scarnati) by the villagers. The Fans are continually on the look-out for captives to supply their cannibal feasts, whereas the somewhat more pacific Batekes are anthropophagists rather through the necessity of procuring a flesh diet in their present territory, which is nearly destitute of large game. A chief source of their supplies are the unfortunate slaves, or the humbler members of the tribe, who are denounced by the medicine-men as the cause of any calamity, such as the sickness or death of a chief, and who are always sacrificed and eaten to propitiate the evil spirits, and at the same time to satisfy the craving for human flesh. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. Ji HE Manchester meeting of the British Association promises to be brilliantly successful. It will probably be attended by a larger number of persons than have been present at any 378 NATURE [A ugust 18, 1887 former meeting ; and, as we have repea‘edly noted, ample pre- parations are being made for the hospitable reception of visitors. The meeting will be rendered especially interesting by the foreign men of science who will take part in the proceedings. To the lists, already printed, of these distin- guished visitors we may now add the names of the American chemist Dr. Alfred Springer, and Dr. H. F, Weber, of Ziirich, Dr. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S.,-of Montreal, has also expressed his intention of being present. From an article in the Zzmes of the 15th inst. we reprint the following account of the work which is expected to be done in most of the Sections :— ‘*Coming down to the Sections, we find the Presidential Chair of Section A (Mathematics and Physics) occupied by the Astronomer-Royal of Ireland, Sir Robert S. Ball, who is not only among the most eloquent of scientific orators, but one of the two great recognized wits of the Association, the other being a brother Irishman, Dr. Haughton. We may therefore expect something unusual in the way of presidential address from Sir Robert. The subject of the address will, we believe, be that part of the science of theoretical mechanics known as ‘ The Theory of Screws.’ Its treatment will be peculiar and some- what imaginary ; it will indeed be ‘a dynamical parable,’ and contain alittle more humour than is usually met with in such addresses. The general proceedings of the Section are likely to be of considerable interest. The report on the very import- ant subject of electrolysis may possibly lead to a lengthy dis- cussion, in which some of the more distinguished foreign visitors may be expec‘ed to take part. There may also be a di movement of 7} millimetres, was one of those referred to near the ' end of this paper as having been obtained on the stiff elevated soil where the University is built, and where the amplitude of the motion was little more: than’ one-third of the motion shown by seismographs of the same construction on the lower alluvial soil. minutes, during which time no less than sixty distinct shocks occurred, The maximum velocity and maximum acceleration, which measure the overthrowing and shattering power of earth- quakes, have been calculated from the above: numbers, and found to be respectively 26 mm, and 66 mm. per second. These numbers, considering the range of motion, are small ; or, in other words, the oscillations of the ground were comparatively gentle and slow, which serves to explain the fact that but little harm was done to property in the capital. In Yokohama, Hipp’s seismograph registered a horizontal motion of 35 mm. The origin of the shock was in a narrow band of country running from west to east in the province of Sagami, parallel to the coast, at a distance from it of about seven miles. It emanates from the western or mountainous parts of the pro- vince, passes through the southern foot of Oyama (4125 feet above the sea-level), and reaches the Bay of Yokohama in a total distance of about 30 miles. I believe the most pro- bable cause of the shock to have been faulting or dislocation of the earth’s crust alongthe band above named. This inference is supported by the fact that the parts of the country through which the western half of the band passes consists of rocks of different geological formations, interwoven in such a way that their junctions present lines of weakness favourable to earth- snaps. The topographical features of the district—high moun- tains on the north, and comparative low plateau and sea-shore on the south—also lend strength to this conclusion. Unequal dis- tribution of loads on the earth’s surface tends to facilitate bending and folding of the rocks. It is along the above-named axis or band that the effects were most striking. They were mainly confined, however, to a small breadth on either side of it, so that places as little as two or three miles to the north or south experienced a well- marked diminution of seismic energy. This is not the first instance in the history of the severer shocks in which the de- structive effects have been -practically limited to a small area near the origin. More especially on the hilly or western portion of the origin, land-slips and cracks were numerous, The cracks mostly took place in banks, hill-sides, or other situations favourable for their formation. The writer counted no fewer than seventy-two in a distance of seven miles, the largest measuring a foot wide and five hundred feet long, and all of them running parallel to the axis of origin, which is also parallel to the general contour of the country. Several wells became turbid. In some of artesian character the water permanently decreased ; in others it in- creased. There is a ferry across the large river Banyii where it is crossed by the axial band ; but the water was so agitated by the shock that for some time afterwards the boat could not be used. The water in one of the rivulets on the west became muddy. The shock was severely felt on board of vessels in Yokohama harbour, the people in many of them rushing on deck under the impression that they had been run into. The effects upon these vessels were doubtless caused partly by motion communicated through the cables, and partly by agitation of the water due to movements of the sea-bottom. The earthquake was preceded by the usual warning roar or rumbling, as of distant cannon, emanating apparently from the western part of the origin-band. In that district, too, the after-shocks on the same night were five in number, while in Toky6 there was only one. There were four tremors near the origin during the night of the 16th. Dwelling-houses in country towns and villages are always built of wood. Their frame-work is of timbers from four to seven inches square, crossing one another at right angles. The uprights are placed about three feet apart, and stand on rows of squared stones or boulders, the intervening spaces being filled with bamboo-laths, on which is laid the mud-plaster that forms the walls. Tiles and straw are principally used for the roof- covering. In the district near the origin these wooden houses shook with great violence. Several of them were more or less twisted, cracked, or unroofed, Sliding doors, covered with paper or of wood, which serve as shutters, partitions, and win- dows in Japanese houses, broke and were shot out of their grooves. The joints between the frames were in some cases badly loosened. Although there are thousands of wrecked houses, in the district of origin, on the verge of falling down, and looking as if a strong breeze would be enough to blow them over, the buildings of this class nevertheless withstood the vio- lence of the earth movements so far as to escape: actual demoli- tion, The-writer saw only two small rotten hovels which had 380 NATURE been thrown down. This circumstance shows the tenacity of wooden framed structures. Prof. T. Mendenhall, in a report * on the recent catastrophe at Charleston, says :—‘‘ As was to be expected, buildings constructed of wood suffered much less than those of brick. The interior of wooden buildings, however, would often exhibit a scene of total destruction, furniture, book-cases, &c., having evidently moved with great violence.” Fire-proof stores, or Aviva, suffered severely as to their walls. These buildings have wooden frames, strongly joined by hori- zontal and vertical pieces, and closely covered with laths, the whole making up a compact box-like structure. The roof is tiled, and carefully plastered with a mud which has a slight cementing property, to the thickness of from three to nine inches. This plaster is put on in several layers, each layer being added after the preceding one has dried. |The whole process is an expensive one. The walls, on account of their great thick- ness and the poor tenacity of the mud, are easily cracked or stripped. As many as sixty or seventy per cent. of the Kura suffered from the recent shock. It is evident that these thick- walled structures should be replaced by brick buildings, which are equally fire-proof and much stronger. It may be mentioned, however, that the frameworks of Azra, after having been entirely stripped, have withstood the most violent earthquake on record. In Yokohama, houses are built of different types and with a variety of materials, so that they afford a fair field for the comparison of seismic effects. It is very fortunate that, judging from the effects wrought by the recent earthquake on both land and buildings, the seismic intensity in this town was less than one-third of that in the western or hilly parts.of the origin-band. But for this, the results would have been highly disastrous. The houses which suffered most were the composite structures of wood and stone. They are built of wooden frames encased with stone blocks, each of the latter measuring 2 feet 9 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 6 inches thick, and being clamped to the wooden planks inside by three iron nails. The nail, called Kasugai, is § inches long and 3% inch square, and bent at right angles at its two ends. The stone is soft and brittle, being volcanic rock of the worst quality. In time the iron nails get rusty, and the stones are so acted on by rain and frost as to be easily cracked, or detached from the wooden frames, even by moderate shakings. These buildings, erroneously called Euro- pean houses, already exist in abundance, and unfortunately in- crease each year in number. They are generally constructed with bad materials and on faulty principles ; the object of the builders being to attain fair protection from fire, along with the appearance of a stone building, at the least practicable cost. Two brick structures received serious damage, cracks having been formed, as usual, at the corners of the buildings and over the windows. The seismic vibrations, however, left no traces on the Town Hall, the Custom House, Prefectural Office, and other well-built structures of brick or stone. In Yokohama, wooden houses sustained no damage worth mentioning.. Joints were more or less loosened and tiles occa- sionally fell down from the roofs. The tiles that are fastened to the framework of wooden houses, to form walls, were in some cases detached in large quantities. There are decidedly many improvements which might be made in the present wooden buildings, both of Japanese and so-called European styles, espe- cially in the arrangements of their joints, the scientific distribu- tion of materials, &c. If these and other defects were properly remedied, such dwellings might be made pretty safe as against earthquakes. _In sites little liable to danger from fire, one may find, in this country, wooden houses built three and even four centuries ago. Wood, no doubt, will continue for along time to be the chief building material in this country. In Japan, however, fire is a more constant and even more dread enemy than earthquakes, while terrible conflagration; are often brought about by destructive shocks. Hence, brick and stone should, and probably will in time come to be largely em- ployed for building, especially in towns. The question, then, is to select certain types of brick or stone houses which are best calculated to resist earthquake shocks. Sheet and bar iron houses, as used in Australia, would make very efficient earth- quake-proof buildings, although they are not free from several objections. After the terrible catastrophe of 1883 in the Island of Ischia, * The Monthly Weather Review, U.S. Signal Service, August, 1386. the Italian Government appointed a Commission? to cons the reconstruction of the buildings in that island. The Comm sion, after investigating the different modes of construction mo suitable for earthquake countries, submitted models of houses ir wood, and in combinations of wood and masonry, which were adopted. The Commission recommended that buildings should be chiefly constructed with an iron or wooden framework, ¢: fully joined together by diagonal ties, horizontally and vertical the spaces between the framework being filled in with mason of a light character. Not more than two stories above grow were to be allowed, &c., &c. ae In Italy, brick houses are joined by iron tie-rods ; and similar devices are now, to a certain extent, used in this country. Con- cerning the erection of brick or stone houses in Japan, much ~ valuable information is to be obtained from the Italia who, like ourselves, have lived for centuries amidst terrible shakings, and who, no doubt, have gained much experience in the constructive arts suitable to the conditions of our existence here. ee aie A prominent feature in the effects of the recent earth: was the overthrowing of brick chimneys in Yokohama, esp¢ on the Bluff. Soon after the shock, circulars were sent ; the principal residents, asking for information as to the effects « the shock on the buildings occupied by them. More than fifty answers were received, and the facts embodied in them > been of great value in preparing this paper. The writer this opportunity of expressing his warmest thanks for the assistance thus rendered to him. From these answers, fro Police Reports, and from actual observations, fifty-three chi appear to have been destroyed. In one instance a hea’ chimney fell in a large mass through the roof, and s strong beam of 1 foot by 8 inches on the second story, p to the ground floor. : About one-half of the chimneys thrown down during shock were cut in two at their junction with the roof some dislodged the tiling and did sundry other da buildings at their points of contact. Evidently the chi and the houses moved with unequal range and with d vibrational periods. Prof. Milne has more than once mended that chimneys should be built thick and without heavy ornamental mouldings or copings; an possible, disconnected from the roofs. Those houses in whi his suggestions had been adopted suffered no damage January 15. hiya: ies Generally, the relations of the seismic effects to the gical, topographical, and other features of the various 1 were found to corroborate previous experience. That the vibrations in hard ground are very much less than was well illustrated on the recent occasion. At the U where the ground is hard and firm, the seismograph r only 8 mm. horizontal motion, as compared with 21 mm. tered by a similar instrument placed on soft soil a mile dis Totsuka is a small town, with a single long street running al the foot of a hill; one side of the street, however, is built made-up ground. Most serious damage was done on that while the opposite houses suffered very much less, tho more than twenty feet distant. Houses built on cliffs an brows received more damage than those situated at the on the flat summits of the same hill. To observe the effects marginal vibration, the writer recently placed one s at the steep edge of a loamy hill thirty-eight feet in and another similar instrument at its foot. The motions, far measured, at those two levels are found to be in the of 2 to 1. A third instrument will shortly be set up + flat summit of the same hill. | Observations of a similar na on different rocks and at various heights, will form the subj a further paper. It is probably owing to marginal vibration houses on the Bluff of Yokohama are always heavy sufferer: earthquakes. ' i The extensive and rapidly increasing use of kerosene lamps Japan constitutes a grave danger in severe shocks. The lan now in common use ate of very brittle materials, contain most combustible of oils, and are usually poised on ill-ba stands. In the great earthquake of 1855, at a time kerosene was unknown in this country, fire broke out in Yedoa more than thirty points, setting a very large part of the city blaze. In the event of another such shock, the mischief w would be produced from this cause alone is awful to con Che Geo od t Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, vol. Ixxxiti., § 1885-86, part 1. NATURE 381 et a late. Great credit will be due to any one who can invent a convenient earthquake safety-lamp, which, it is to be observed, will also constitute a valuable safeguard in ordinary daily life. t is true, so-called safety-lamps are sold in Tdkyd, but they are ineffective and miserable affairs. The use of metallic oil- ers would doubtless greatly les:en the danger. been broken in the recent earthquake. In one instance the kerosene caught fire, and it was with great difficulty that the idents extinguished it by the aid of wet mats. MINERALS AT THE AMERICAN EXHIBITION. : ONE of the most conspicuous features of the American Ex- _~—' hibition is the remarkable collection of minerals brought wer and exhibited by Mr. A. E. Foote, of Philadelphia. Many the specimens, which are extremely fine, have been obtained | collecting-expeditions undertaken by Mr. Foote himself, ‘several new species and varieties have been made known to ence through his indefatigable labours. The central feature is a hexagonal pavilion covered with mica, ~ and surmounted by a model of a snow crystal. Each side of the vilion is devoted to a separate mineral region of the North .merican continent—except the first, which is filled with a col- ion of gems and ornamental stones. Here are rough and ut specimens of a precious ruby, topaz, opal, williamsite, with _ examples of malachite and azurite beautifully banded and taking a fine polish. __ A lapidary who has had several years’ experience in making = a for the British Museum is constantly employed close by. } inerals from the region near the Pacific coast come next. Wulfenite, a rare species, some the finest specimens ever seen, is here exhibited in large groups of orange-red crystals ; also lliantly red vanadinites and large bright crystals of chessylite azurite associated with velvet tufts of malachite. All these from the marvellous country that Humboldt called New n. The deep-red garnets from Alaska in their sombre s of gray mica-schist are especially noteworthy. Among minerals of the Rocky Mountain region are wonderful ls of the green Amazon-stone ; ore from the famous Bridal amber at Lake Valley, New Mexico, so rich that the heat a match will cause it to melt and fall in drops of nearly pure silver. A space the size of a moderate-sized room produced about £100,000. The precious turquoise comes from Los Cerrilloz, New Mexico, where Montezuma got his chalchuhuitls that he valued above gold and silver. The Indians still make ae pilgrimages for the sacred stone. ost striking among the minerals of the Mississippi Valley and Lake % are the blendes and galenas from South-West i Missouri, a district that now produces over one-half of all the _ gine mined in the world. It was formerly so abundant that farmers built their fences with it. Masses of the lead-ore weighing ten tons were found within 12 feet of the surface. _ Here Indians formerly procured the lead for their bullets, placing _ the ore in hollow stumps and building a fire over it. _ From Arkansas come fine rock-crystals or hot-spring dia- _monds, with powerful lodestones, arkansites, and hydrotitanites. _ From the Lake Superior region come copper, chlorastrolites, _ and zonochlorite, a remarkable gem-like mineral. In the case devoted to the North Atlantic coast region is rhodonite, so much used by the Russians in their ornamental _ work, in fine crystals. The mines at Franklin, N.J., produce so many minerals found nowhere else in the world, such as ranklinite, named after the illustrious philosopher ; anomolite, new species recently described by Prof. G. A. Kénig, of the University of Pennsylvania; troostite, jeffersonite, blood-red cite, &c., &c. Cacoclasite, a new species in fine crystals, associated with pink titanite, comes from the same region, as do the remarkable crystals of apatite. These are among the finest Specimens ever seen, and associated with them are the brilliant in-zircons. From the apatite are manufactured hypophos- phites to stimulate the appetite, and superphosphates to grow _ wheat and corn. The last case devoted to the South Atlantic coast region con- amethysts, sapphires, aquamarines, tantalite, gummite, and uranolite, huge sheets of mica, &c., &c. _ Next to the wall opposite is a very extensive collection illus- ine During his inquiry the writer was shown sixteen lamps that. trating the mineralogy of Pennsylvania, which, besides the well-known coal, iron, and other ores that have made the State famous, includes very extraordinary specimens of the rare mineral brucite, from which the medicine, Epsom salts, may be made ; diaspore in fine crystals, corundum for polishing purposes, chromite for producing brilliant yellows, &c., &c. Adjoining, in cases and drawers, are the college and educa- tional collections indispensable for the studies of mineralogy, geology, and chemistry. The collection of American Geological Surveys and other scientific works is very extensive, over fifty volumes from Penn- sylvania alone being shown. We have devoted so much space to the description of the extensive exhibit made by Mr. A. E. Foote, of Philadelphia, that we can only refer to the minerals shown by Kansas and other States, by the Denver and Rio Grande and C. B. and Q. Railroads, and by various mining companies, THE FOLK-LORE OF CEYLON BIRDS. A CORRESPONDENT of the Ceylon Observer of Colombo, referring to the interest excited by Mr. Swainson’s new book on ‘* The Folk-Lore and Provincial Names of British Birds,” notes some points in the folk-lore of the birds of Ceylon, obtained largely in conversation with natives. - The devil-bird (Syrnium indrant) stands facile princeps for his evil reputation ; his cry heard in the neighbourhood of villages is a sure harbinger of death, and the superstitious natives are thrown into great consternation by its demoniac screech. The legend about the bird is as follows :— A jealous and morose husband doubting the fidelity of his wife killed her infant son during her absence and had it cooked, and on her return set it before her. She unwittingly partook of it, but soon discovered that it was the body of her child by a finger which she found in the dish. In a frenzy she fled to the forest, and was transformed into a ulania, or devil-bird, whose appalling screams represent the agonized cries of the bereaved mother when she left her husband’s house. The hooting of owls in the neighbourhood of houses is believed to bring misfortune on the inmates. The magpie robin, though one of the finest of the song-birds of Ceylon, is similarly tabooed ; it has a harsh grating screech towards evening, which is considered ominous. The quack of the pond heron flying over a house is a sign of the death of one of the inmates, or of a death in the neighbourhood. If the green pigeon (Mila kobocya) should happen to fly through a house, as it frequently does on account of its rapid and head- long flight, a calamity is impending over that house. Similarly with the crow. But sparrows are believed to bring luck, and are encouraged to build in the neighbourhood of houses, and are daily fed. The fly-catcher bird of Paradise is called ‘‘ cotton thief,” because in ancient times it was a freebooter, and plundered the cloth merchants. As a penalty for its sins it was transformed into a bird and doomed to carry a white cotton attached to its tail. The red wattle lapwing, the alarm bird of sportsmen, has the following legend connected with it :—It is said to represent a woman who committed suicide on finding herself robbed of all her money, amounting to thirty silver pieces, by her son-in-law. The cry of the bird is likened to her lament: ‘‘ Give the silver, give the silver, my thirty pieces of silver.” Its call is heard at all hours, and the stillness of night is broken with startling abruptness by its shrill cry. Another story about it is that when lying in its nest ina paddy field, ora dry spot in a marsh, it lies on its back with its legs in the air, being in continual fear that the heavens will fall and crush its offspring. The story current about the blue-black swallow-tailed fly-catcher (Kawudu panikkia) and its mortal enemy, the crow, is that the former, like Prometheus of old, brought down fire from heaven for the benefit of man. The crow, jealous of the honour, dipped its wings in water and shook the drippings over the flame, quenching it. Since that time there has been deadly enmity between the birds. The Indian ground thrush (Pitta coronata) is said to have once possessed the peacock’s plumes, but one day when bathing the peacock stole its dress ; ever since the Pitta has gone about the jungle crying out for its lost garments. According to another legend, the bird was formerly a prince who was deeply in love with a beautiful princess. His father sent him to travel for some years, and on his return the princess was dead. He still wanders disconsolately about calling her name. It is also said that the peacock, being a bird of sober plumage, borrowed the brilliant 382 NATURE [August 18, 18 coat of the /z¢ta to attend a wedding, and did not return it. The disconsolate /z¢¢a wanders through the jungle calling on the peacock to restore its dress—hence the cry, ayittam, ayittam (my dress, my dress). The cry of the hornbill (Xandetta) is inauspicious and a sure signof drought. The bird is doomed to suffer intolerable thirst ; not being able to drink from any stream or rill, it has the power only to catch the rain-drops in its bill to quench its thirst, and keeps continually crying for rain. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. THE following is the list of candidates successful in the com- petition for the Whitworth Scholarships, 1887 :—James Whitaker, 21, engineer student, Burnley, 4200; John Calder, 20, mechan- ical engineer, Glasgow, £150; John Smith, 22, carpenter, Belfast, £150; Nicholas K. Turnbull, 21, mechanical engineer, Glasgow, £150; James C. Talbot, 23, engineer, Southampton, 4150; Arthur F. Horne, 25, mechanical engineer, Moreton-in- Marsh (formerly of Glasgow), £150; Edward J. Duff, 23, engineer, Glasgow, £150; Robert N. Blackburn, .20, engineer apprentice, Liverpool, £4150; William Thomson, 20, engineer apprentice, Glasgow, £1503; William W. F. Pullen, 20, engineer apprentice, Cardiff, £100; Edwin Griffith, 20, engineer ap- prentice, Glasgow, £100; Frederick C. Tipler, 23, assistant chemist, Crewe, £100; Thomas H. M. Bonell, 24, analytical chemist, Swindon, £100; Richard J. Redding, 22, metallurgist, Plumstead (Woolwich), and Arthur W. Sisson, 25, mechanical draughtsman, Lincoln (equal), £100 each; Arthur H. Abbott, 22, engineer, Great Yarmouth, £100; George Hough, 23, engineer, Wolverton, £100; Harry G. Christ, 19, engineer apprentice, London, £100; Harry D. Griffiths, 21, engineer apprentice, Cardiff, £100; Denholm Young, 24, engineer ap- prentice, Edinburgh, £100; Benjamin G. Oxford, 20, engineer apprentice, Liverpool, £100; Bernard H. Crookes, 21, engineer student, Liverpool, 4100; George J. Wells, 23, engineer, London, £100; John. Eustice, 23, engine fitter, Camborne, #100; Augustus H. H. Bratt, 24, engineer, Plumstead (Wool- wich), £100. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Entomological Society, August 3.—Dr. D. Sharp, Presi- dent, in the chair.—Mr. J. W. Peers and Mr. R. G, Lynam ‘were elected Fellows.—Jonkeer May, the Dutch Consul- General, exhibited a pupa and two imagos of Cecidomyia destructor (Hessian fly) which had been submitted to him by the Agricultural Department.—Mr. W. White exhibited, and made remarks on, a specimen of Philampelus satellitia, Linn., from Florida, with supposed fungoid excrescences from the eyes. Mr. Stainton said he was of opinion that the supposed fungoid growth might be the pollinia of an Orchis. Mr. Poulton ex- “pressed a similar opinion, and the discussion was continued by Mr, Pascoe and Dr. Sharp.—Mr. White also exhibited a speci- men of Cate¢hia alchymista, bred from a pupa collected last autumn on the south coast.—Mr. McLachlan sent for exhi- bition a number of oak-leaves infested by Phylloxera punc- tata, Lichtenstein, which he had received from Dr. Maxwell Masters, F.R.S.—Mr. Champion exhibited two rare species of Curculionide from the Isle of Wight—viz. one specimen of Baridius analis, and a series of -Cathormiocerus socius. He remarked that C. maritimus, Rye, had been placed in recent European Catalogues as a synonym of the last-named species, but that this was‘an error. He also exhibited a series of Cicin- dela germanica, from Blackgang.—M. A. Wailly exhibited, and made remarks on, a number of living larvee of Antherea perny?, A. mylitta, Telea polyphemus, Platysamia cecropia, Attacus cynthia, Callosamia promethea, and other silk-~producing species. He also exhibited imagos of the above species, imagos of Antherea yama-mai, and a number of species of Diurni from Sarawak.—Mr. Poulton exhibited crystals, of formate of lead obtained by collecting the secretion of the larva of Décranura vinula on 283 occasions, The secretion had been mixed with distilled water in which oxide of lead was suspended. The latter dissolved, and the acid of the secretion being in excess the normal formate was produced. Prof, Meldola promi subject the crystals to combustion, so that their constity would be proved by the final test. =! EDINBURGH. : Royal Society, July 15.—Special Meeting. —Dr. Vice-President, in the chair.—Prof. Tait submitted a cation by Sir W. Thomson on the stability of the steady r of a viscous fluid between two parallel planes.—Sir ¥ ir communicated a note by Mr. George Brook on the epib origin of the segmental duct in teleostean fishes, and bir Prof. T, R. Fraser read a preliminary note on the cher strophanthin.—Mr. J. J. Coleman described a new diffus and other apparatus for the study of liquid diffusion,—A by Mr. Frank E. Beddard was communicated | W. Turner.—Dr. Murray read a paper on the mean the land of the globe. The lower limit he gives numbers, 1900 feet. The higher limit, which he b more nearly correct, is about 2100 feet.—Mr. J. ham, of the Scottish Marine Station, read a Chetopoda sedentaria of the Firth of Forth. July 18.—Sheriff Forbes Irvine, Vice-President —The Chairman intimated the foundation by D: the Victoria Jubilee Prize, and the conditions of have been approved by the donor. The firs prize was made to Sir W. Thomson, for a rema papers on hydrokinetics which he has commur Society.—Mr. W. Durham read the second part the laws of solution.—Prof. Tait communicated a Prof. W. Burnside on the partition of energy bet translatory and rotational motions of a set of non-hon elastic spheres. The rotational energy is equal the translational energy.—Dr. H. R. Mill submitted the salinity, temperature, &c., of the Firth of F: communicated a paper by Mr. Albert Campbell o measurement of the Peltier effect. Mr. Camp mented with three pairs of metals. His results case with Prof. Tait’s thermo-electric diagram. © in the case of iron and nickel is of special imp Alex. Scott communicated a paper on yapour-d temperatures.—Prof. Tait read a paper by Dr. | determination of the curve, on one of the co- which forms the outer limit of the positions contact of an ellipsoid which always touches the of reference.—Mr. Buchan read a paper by Mr. A. the mean temperatures of the various winds at E Observatory.—Prof. Crum Brown read a Pap ron cyanide as a reagent for detecting traces of re cin 2 This reagent gives a test depending on the productio colour, which is a more delicate test than one whic! 1 its disappearance.—Prof. Tait communicated so compressibility of water, of mercury, and of glass. compressibility of a 20 per cent. aqueous solution of salt per atmosphere for the first 100 atmospheres is It diminishes rapidly with the percentage of salt in The compressibility of common lead glass is 0000 temperature of 19° C.—Prof. Berry Haycraft scription of experiments to show the truth of § theory of coagulation.—Dr. Murray communicated a p Mr. Adam Dickie on the chemical analyses of sea-y the Clyde sea-area.—The Chairman mentioned papers read during the session, classifying them — heads. He also read the Jubilee address which ha sented to Her Majesty by the Secretary of State on Society. Nae PARIS, mK Academy of Sciences, August 8.—M. Janssen —Observations of the minor planets, made with meridian instrument of the Paris Observatory duri quarter of the year 1887, communicated by M. Ma right ascensions and polar distances are given Sophrosyne, Undine, Hebe, and nine other minor various dates with Paris mean time, all compar referred to the ephemerides published by the Berlin /a. except those of Undine, which are referred to those in No. 288 of the circulars of the Berlin observations were made by M. O, Callandreau.—F ‘ ments on the relations existing between the chemic mechanical work of the muscular tissue, by M. A, C A NATURE 383 ~ with the co-operation of M. Kaufmann, In order to complete his series of preparatory determinations on the mechanical work of the muscular tissue, the author has attempted to determine the quantity of heat produced by the muscles which: function effectively in the physiological conditions of the normal state. ___ By the methods and new processes here described he claims to have overcome the great difficulties inherent to studies of this mature. His experiments show once more that a large amount of heat is generated while the muscle operates, and of this only a small quantity is absorbed by the work performed. Repeated i iments will be needed accurately to determine this quantity. _ From the experiments already made, he infers that it mostly _ ranges from one-seventh to one-eighth of the total, the coefficient of the latter being 0°000323 calories, and that of the heat trans- formed into work generally from 0°000041 to 0°000034 calories. — ~ New fluorescences with well-defined spectral rays, by M. Lee>q de Boisbaudran. Here the author studies alumina with the earth Za,O, ; but as this earth has not yet been obtained in a _ pure state, he has been compelled to employ a substance still mixed with some other rare earths, notably Z8,O3; Za, however, being greatly in excess of Z8. Alumina containing 1/1200 of Za,0 impure, heated with sulphuric acid and moderately cal- cined to a red (between the fusions of silver and copper), yields 4 a greenish-yellow fluorescence, faint and without measurable spectrum. With 1/50 of Za,O, in the alumina, a green fluor- —__ escence is obtained, slightly yellow and dull. The spectrum consists chiefly of the bands of ZS, which apparently differ but little from those obtained by reversion with a solution of - ~ ZBCl,. The presence of Za is indicated to the right of the two a yellow and blue bands; but the green band of Z@ is the est in the spectrum, having two nebulous maximums, of which that to the right is the most intense. The author also announced that he had obtained some very fine fluorescences by highly calcining alumina containing a little didymium or praseo- dymium.—The partial lunar eclipse of August 3, observed at the Observatory of Bordeaux, by M. G. Rayet. Under a three- prismed spectroscope, mounted on the great equatorial (0°38 metre) the transition from the adumbrated to the luminous part of the disk appeared very abrupt. While the spectrum -~_ of the former was limited by the lines D and F, with a maximum of intensity towards E, that of the part_,in transi- tion extended abruptly towards the red as far as Angstrém’s __ atmospheric group a. But the spectrum of the moon espe- cially near the eclipsed part, was too pale to permit the use of - aslit narrow enough to show the atmospheric lines. The a - group and the yoy numerous lines near D were alone distinctly visible under the form of bands.—On the tides of the Tunisian coast, by M. Heéraud.. The observations made during the hydrographic survey of this coast have enabled the author to study the tidal movement, the existence of which in the Gulf of Gabes and on the adjacent seaboard has long been demonstrated. These tides appear to be the most important and regular in the whole Mediterranean basin ; but they are perceptible only on the section of the coast to the south of Mehediah. They con- tinually increase in magnitude as far as Gabes, where they acquire a maximum of 2 metres at the mean spring-tides, thence decreasing to 1 metre at Zarzis and on the Tripoli frontier. The tidal wave appears to come from the east, the mean period being apparently about 24 hours. All the observed circumstances would seem to show that the relation of the lunar to the solar wave is less than that of the absolute actions of the sun and moon.—A. comparative study of the old, eruptive and sedi- mentary rocks of Corsica and the Eastern Pyrenees, by M. Ch. Depéret. During a recent trip to Corsica the author had an opportunity of determining some very close analogies between these two geological systems. Thus the central part of the granitoid mass at Ajaccio is formed of a porphyroid granite dis- seminated with black mica, passing thence on either side insensibly to a granulitic granite, a true transitional formation between the ulite type and granite. Analogous formations occur in the Eastern Pyrenees, as, for instance, in the granitoid mass stretching east and west between the valleys of the Aude, Tét, and Boulsane. Here also the central part, extending from the forest of Salvanére to Belesta, consists of a porphyroid granite passing on both sides lopenocntiely, over to a granite with two micas and granulitic texture. comparative study of the eruptive and sedimentary rocks in both regions reveals similar resemblances. 1n Corsica the Cambrian limestone everywhere worked as marble is absolutely identical with that of the Pyrenees, that the logarithmic: decrement at first diminishes, |, when the vibrations have become extremely small, increases BERLIN. Physiological Society, July 1.—Prof. du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Martius communicated the results of his researches, by the graphic method, on the movements of the heart. When asound is passed into the cesophagus, and connected with a Marey drum, cardiopneumatic curves are obtained whose interpretation is still a matter of controversy. In order to arrive at an experimental decision on this point, Dr. Martius has recorded simultaneously on the same individual the cardiopneumatic curves from the cesophagus and the curve of impulse of the ventricular apex as obtained from the wall of the thorax. It appeared from this that the curve of ventricular im- pulse is of doubtful interpretation ; its shape was always the same; but it was impossible to determine with any certainty which part of the curve corresponds to the systole, and which part to the diastole. Dr. Martius has therefore registered the occurrence of the heart-sounds by auscultation and making signals which were recorded on a rotating drum on which the curves of cardiac impulse were being registered, having first ascertained that his personal equation was without influence on the results. In this way he was able to show that the first sound of the heart, corre- sponding to the closing of the auriculo-ventricular valves, coin- cides with the first rise of the curve from the base-line, while the second sound, or closing of the semilunar valves, coincides with the second smaller rise of the curve. The first rise and fall of the curve corresponds therefore to the cardiac systole. The speaker explained the shape of the whole curve as follows :— At the commencement of the systole the auriculo-ventricular valves are shut, as also are the semilunar valves since the aortic blood-pressure has not yet been overcome. During this period the contracting cardiac muscles alter the shape of the heart, the apex moves forward, and so the curve rises. As soon as the pressure in the ventricle is greater than that in the aorta, the semilunar valyes open and the blood begins to pour out of the ventricle ; as the result of this the apex of the heart moves back, and the curve falls till it reaches the base-line at the conclusion of the systole and commencement of the diastole. At this instant the semilunar valves close and the shock thus produced is com- municated to the heart, and makes itself evident on the curve as the second or valvular rise. Thus finally the first rise of the curve of cardiac impulse corresponds to that period of systole during which all the valves are closed ; the first apex of the curve marks the instant at which the semilunar valves open ; the first fall of the curve indicates that portion of*the systole during which blood is flowing out of the ventricle ; the systole ends with the commencement of the second or smaller rise in the curve. Dr. Martius has been able to strengthen this analysis of the cardiac movements, so important both physio- logically and pathologically, by observing that the duration of the rise and fall of the curve of systole varies in different indi- viduals: thus he finds, conformably with the explanation given above, that in patients with low aortic blood-pre-sure, the rising portion of the curve of cardiac impulse is very short, while the fall- ing part is considerably lengthened, resulting from the low aortic pressure allowing the semilunar valves to open sooner. On the other hand, in a case of arterial sclerosis, he found the rising part of the curve considerably lengthened, since the aortic blood-pressure was greater, and was only overcome at a later period of the systole. —Dr. Goldschneider presented and explained plates illustrating the topography of the sense of temperature. The sense of heat and cold was determined for the whole surface of the body, and arranged in a series corresponding to twelve degrees of intensity. Asa general result, it was found that the sense of cold is more extended than that of heat; that both senses are more developed on the trunk than on the extremities ; that the sense of temperature is less acute in the median line of the body; that the distribution of this sense over the surface: of the body is quite different from that of the sense of touch ; and that the points of exit of the nerves possess little or no sense of temperature. July 15.—Prof. Munk, President, in the chair. — Dr. Jacobsen gave an account of some acoustical experiments which he has carried out with a view to determining the law according to which the amplitude of vibration of a tuning- fork diminishes as it gradually comes to rest. According to theory, the diminution in the amplitule of vibration takes place:in geometrical. progression ;, Hensen had, ares — and then, 384 NATURE [August 18, 1887 . again. The speaker has made experiments with tuning-forks, recording the vibrations of the arms by means of brushes writing on a rotating drum ; in another series of experiments, which are not yet concluded, he has photographed the vibrations at equal intervals of time. The result of his work is that the vibrations diminish in geometrical progression, thus according with theory. —Dr. Wertheim gave an account of his experiments to deter- mine the number of visual units in the central portions of the retina. In continuation of the experiments of Dr. Claude du Bois-Reymond, who has determined the number of visual units in the fovea centralis and found them equal in number to the cones, Dr. Wertheim, employing the same method, has deter- mined the number of visual units to a distance of 2°5 millimetres from the centre. A sheet of tinfoil pierced with uniform holes was illuminated from behind, and then the distances were measured at which the holes began to be just visible as separate objects, as their image was made to fall on parts of the retina szccessively further and further towards the periphery. After having found in the fovea centralis the same number of visual units as had Dr. du Dois-Reymond, he then observed that their number decreases rapidly towards the periphery up toa distance of 1°5 millimetres, then remains constant for a short space, then diminishes again rapidly, and then gradually as far as the limits of the retinal area which he investigated. The speaker found that the first rapid decrease extends as far as the limits of the macula lutea, The anatomical statements respecting the limits of the yellow- spot and the number of cones outside this area did not permit of his drawing any conclusion, other than the above, from the optical experiments. The same numbers were obtained when red and green light was used.—Dr. Goldschneider has carried out a series of experiments to test Leyden’s theory that ataxy, when not of central origin, is caused by injuries to centripetal nerves. By passing strong electric currents through the first phalanx of one finger he anzsthetized the second and third phalanx, and then found that the movements of flexion and extension of the finger no longer gave a regular curve of rise and fall as traced by the tip of the finger: the movements executed by the finger were irregular, sometimes going beyond and some- times falling short of the desired extent. The sensation of passive movement was also considerably lessened. The speaker hence concluded that the ataxic movements are caused by the interference with the sensations arising from passive movements of the limbs. He added to this an hypothesis as to the nature of ataxy and the seat of the muscular sense in the limbs. July 27.—Prof. Munk, President, in the chair.—Dr. Sand- mann spoke on respiratory reflexes originating in the nasal mucous membrane. In order to study the possible connexion between asthma and diseases of the nose, which has been so often supposed to exist, the speaker has made experiments on the respiration in rabbits and cats whose nasal openings had been completely occluded. In addition to confirming the phenomena which had been already described by earlier observers, he found that the changes in volume of the thorax were the same as in normal animals, whereas the intra- thoracic pressure was considerably increased when breathing was carried on entirely by the mouth ; similarly the respiratory undulations of the blood-pressure tracing were increased in amplitude. He next investigated more closely the respiratory reflexes which originate in the nasal mucous membrane ; of these three are known—namely, inhibition of respiration, sneez- ing, and coughing, as a result of stimulation of the nose. Inhi- bition of respiration was observed to occur, according to the strength of the stimulation, either in the phase of expiration, or of inspiration, or merely as a more pronounced expiration. Sneezing was brought about by tickling the nasal mucous mem- brane, and was found to consist of a deep inspiration with simultaneous closing up of the pharynx and mouth by the appli- cation of the tongue to the palate, followed by an explosive expiration. When the stimulation is slight, only the deep inspiration is produced; if the stimulation is strong, the deep inspiration is followed by a somewhat lengthy inhibition of the same, which is frequently accompanied by slight expiratory movements ; when the stimulation is of moderate strength an ordinary sneeze is the result. After section of the phrenic nerves the deep inspirations were no longer observed. Dr. Sandmann, by section and removal of the mucous membrane in rabbits, has further examined the various regional areas of the same, and found that sneezing can only be produced by tickling a limited area of the mucous membrane. On the rabbit this area is found in the entrance to the nose on the anterior surface of the lowest nasal muscle ; but in addition to this place, the same reflexes may be produced by stimulation of the foe part of the septum and roof of the nasal cavity. Sneezing cannot be produced by stimulation of any other portion of the nasal mucous membrane. In man the region of the posterior nasal openings is also connected with the reflexes involved in sneezing in addi- tion to the regions mentioned above. An anatomical investi- gation of the areas whose stimulation leads to sneezing showed that they are supplied entirely by the ethmoid nerve. Stimula- tion of this nerve in the orbit was followed regularly by sneezing, which could therefore be produced to a certainty by stimulating the trunk of the nerve. The third kind of respiratory reflex— namely, coughing as a result of nasal stimulation—could not be experimentally produced in the cats and rabbits used in these experiments. Fa Pele BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED The Distribution of Rain over the British Isles, 1836: G. J. Syme (Stanford).—First Lessons in Science: Dr. J. W. Colenso Mp Se Treatise on the Principle of Sufficient Reason: Mrs. P. F. Fitzger. (Laurie).—Prolegomeni di Filosofia Elementare, Terza Edizione (To —Bulletin de l’Académie Royale des Sciences de Belgique, No. 6, (Bruxelles).—Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, August ii and Norgate).—Bulletin of the California Academy of Sciences, vol. No. 6.—Boletin de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias en Cord £ 1886 (Buenos Aires).—Journal of the Anthropological Institute, May August 1887 (Triibner). : CONTENTS. The Physiology of Plants. .... A Dictionary of Philosophy ...... Our Book Shelf :— ae Mackenzie : ‘‘ Hay Fever and Paroxysmal Sneezing” Cohen: ‘*The Owens College Course of Practical Organic Chemistry” . .°. < ss ass sie *{ My Microscope”: s.. + 5.6 Wee Letters to the Editor :— a Sun and Fire Symbolism.—Mrs. J. C. Murray- Aynsley. (J//ustrated) . . Svice eis Bishop’s Ring.—The Sky-coloured Clouds.—T. W. Backhouse ...-4: soins The Electricity of the Contact of Gases with Liquids. —J. Enright. Newton’s Laws of Motion —W. . . On the Constant P in Observations of Terrestrial — Magnetism.—Wm. Harkness . Z The Stature of the Human Race.—Wm, F. Stanley A Spider allowing for the Force of Gravity. —Major C.-B. Lyster ss ae : The Lunar Eclipse of August 3.—H. H. (///ustrated ) | Botany of San Domingo. By W. T. Thiselton — Dyer, C.M.G., F.R.S. ; Baron Eggers : Constitutional Formule and the Progress of Organic — Chemistry >i. iui gore eg The Yale College Measurement of the Pleiades, — By A. M/ Ciletke’ 5 2-3 . Notes Our Astronomical Column :— New Variable of the Algol Type © « <°. 5 sg eees Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1887 — AULUSE 21-27 78 8 eee Sie A Geographical Notes ........ The British Association, 4.40... 75 se The Japan Earthquake of January 15, Prof. S$, Sekiya . cures : Minerals at the American Exhibition ....... | The Folk-Lore of Ceylon Birds . . °. 2. e245 se University and Educational Intelligence Societies and Academies Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received . ee ee rs ee > 2 te oe ¢ 8° 8+ 8 8 * 6) 8. ee eee oO Paes Ce ee wae Se Re OE Eb Se) See © 0 8 Oe! ee ee ee ee @ @€ © © © © 0 6) 8. 8 e506) ee ee eee 1887, By a NATURE 385 THURSDAY, AUGUST 25, 1887. THE HEALTH OF NATIONS. The Health of Nations. A Review of the Works of _ Edwin Chadwick, with a Biographical Dissertation. _ By Benjamin Ward Richardson. 2 vols. (London: _ Longmans, 1887.) R. RICHARDSON’S two volumes afford much 4 matter for reflection for all those who have _ endeavoured to improve the condition of the working classes in England during the last half century. _ They form a panegyric on Mr. Chadwick, and boldly claim for him the credit of having brought forward the principal social improvements of the Victorian era. _ We think that these wide claims are somewhat to be ‘regretted, as they compel criticism where we should be anxious to speak only in praise ; for we are scarcely pre- 4 pared to go the length of ascribing almost entirely _ to Mr. Chadwick’s influence the vast improvements in _ the social condition of the people which have taken place _ during that period. Mr. Chadwick’s active life commenced at a time when _ the dawn of a new state of things was appearing in this _ country, and indeed over the world ; when, by the develop- _ ment of new means of communication and intercourse, _ all society was beginning to be completely revolu- _tionized. He was a deep thinker, and seems to have k | sadiérstood intuitively the social problems which were _ arising ; but he undoubtedly had the despot’s view that _ whatever he thought good ought to be carried out. He _ may be said to have begun his career as Secretary ' to the Poor Law Board, and then as Commis- _ sioner. He was the member of that Board who most _ persistently urged the extension of the areas of adminis- - tration, and the employment of paid officers instead of gratuitous service which rewarded itself by favouritism and jobbery. The Poor Law as amended at that time, _and as worked by the then Poor Law Commissioners, was _ devised to abolish out-door relief to the able-bodied, and _ to apply a labour test for all able-bodied persons who _ sought the temporary relief of the workhouse ; and Mr. _ Chadwick’s fearless administration of that rule brought _ upon him much enmity from the supporters of the former _ system of local jobbery. In the half century which has elapsed since that time, there has undoubtedly been a gradual. drifting back to the old methods ; and it would certainly be an opportune time to make a new inquiry into the administration of the Poor Law on the lines pursued by Mr. Chadwick in 1832. The investigations of the Poor Law Commissioners brought to light the vast importance of the sanitary problem, which, of all the social problems of that day, was probably the one that cried most for consideration, The chief advance in medical science during the hundred years previous to the Victorian era seems to have re- sulted from the discoveries by Jenner in regard to small- | pox. Beyond this the art of prevention of disease, at ' the Queen’s accession, rested mainly on the laurels gathered by Lind and Meade in the eighteenth century, and by Pringle during the great war. The principle of VOL. XXXVI.—NO, 930. prevention enunciated by these early pioneers still re- mains the foundation of our sanitary system; but the practical application of those doctrines has received an enormous extension during the last fifty years ; and the various essays and reports by Mr. Chadwick, collected by Dr. Richardson, show that he was undoubtedly the first person who made it his business to impress the nation with the fact that public health was a public question. From the official position occupied by Mr. Chadwick during the earlier years of the Queen’s reign, he had an immense influence, which he exercised with all the energy of his nature, in bringing to the front the question of public health ; and it may be safely affirmed that the remarkable Report of the Poor Law Commissioners in 1842, which was drawn up by Mr. Chadwick, laid down almost all the sanitary principles upon which the sanitary legislation of the last forty years has been based. The Report of 1842 led to the Health of Towns Com- mission and other inquiries into public health, and paved the way for the Public Health Act of 1848. In one sense Mr. Chadwick was admirably adapted for this service. He was gifted with indomitable perseverance, and with a clear insight into what he wanted to obtain. He sought nothing for himself. His only object was to promote the views which he considered beneficial to the public, and to compel their adoption in whatever way he could. But unfortunately he was not gifted with that most valuable quality which may go a long way to secure results which talent alone may fail to obtain, viz. tact. Through this quality alone many of those changes and improve- ments, which necessarily injuriously affect some persons or classes of the community, can be brought into opera- tion. Had Mr. Chadwick possessed tact, and been satis- fied with obtaining reform in instalments and by slow degrees, he would probably have become one of the greatest powers in the country. But Dr. Richard- son’s description of the way in which Mr. Chadwick acted at the Poor Law Board shows how impossible it was for a man of his nature to remain long in a public department. Whilst, however, Mr. Chadwick had the foresight to shadow out, in the Report published by the Poor Law Commissioners in 1842, all the improvements which have taken place up till this time, the working out of the various problems has been due to many others besides himself : and, prepared as we are to award a full meed of praise to Mr. Chadwick for his foresight and energy, by which he, and he alone, made the health of the nationa public question, we regret that the author of these volumes should have somewhat ignored the efforts of many of those who were mainly instrumental in raising the superstructure on the foundations laid by Mr. Chadwick. For it cannot be denied that in the early efforts at sanitation made by the Poor Law Commissioners, and enforced by the Board of Health, many grievous mistakes were com- mitted. For instance, in the Report of 1842 the Poor Law Commissioners recommended, and their recom- mendation was largely adopted, that all refuse should be at once discharged into the drains and sewers, as the cheapest means of getting rid of it-from the houses, although the sewers were avowedly at that time not con- structed to remove the faecal matter, and no provision was made to prevent it from lodging in them as fcetid Ss 386 NATURE _ mud, or passing into and polluting the water-courses: indeed, the Report stated that that danger was a smaller evil than the retention of refuse in the houses. This recommendation entailed a new class of evils, which has resulted in a very large expenditure and loss of life. No doubt the removal of refuse in this way was fairly simple, and certainly economical, until it created new evils whose remedy was very costly; but no one can say that the retention of the refuse in the houses might not have been prohibited, and the removal effected in some other manner, which, although possibly more expensive at the time, would not have been followed by disastrous consequences. As an instance of the evils which the want of fore- sight entailed in the earlier introduction. of the water- carriage system, the drainage of Croydon may be men- tioned. This was executed directly according to the then views of the Board of Health. Soon after its in- troduction a most virulent fever broke out in Croydon, owing to the fact that the system totally ignored the ven- tilation of the sewers in any other way excepting into the houses themselves. The application of sanitary science to practical life has arrived at its present state like most English matters, where action comes first and reflection afterwards; that is to say, in the elaboration of the early ideas at a great ex- penditure of money and experience, many blunders have been committed and many failures have ensued.. The present condition of the practical application of sanitary science to the health of the nation rests upon the labours of many men. But although we may perhaps regret that Dr. Richardson’s volumes attribute to Mr. Chadwick a larger share in the social changes which have taken place during the last fifty years than he is actually entitled to, yet all sanitarians are ready and willing to accord to him a very high place as a leader in the sanitary movement during Queen Victoria’s reign. So long as he retained his office at the Poor Law Board, or in the General Board of Health, Mr. Chadwick laboured unceasingly to lay the foundations of our present system of public health ; but in the erection of the superstructure we owe our gradual approach to practical perfection to many others, of whom it is only necessary to mention two er three. Dr. Farr placed the vital statistics of the country upon a scientific basis. Mr. Humphry tells us that Dr. Farr received, in 1838, his appointment under the first Regis- trar-General, in consequence of his papers. on benevolent funds, life assurance in health and disease, and various other statistical papers, and on the recommendation of Sir James Clark. Dr. Sutherland was an energetic worker in the Health of Towns Commission, and he, with Miss Nightingale, was the chief adviser of Mr. Sidney Herbert in his efforts to place army sanitation on a sound basis ; and he has ever since continued.as sanitary adviser of the War Office and India Office. Sir Robert Rawlin- sonis acknowledged to be the highest authority on modern sewerage. Sir John Simon began his admirable reports with the Public Health Act of 1848, and continued them until soon after the formation of the Local Government Board in 1875. Having thus briefly mentioned some of those to whom credit should be given as prominent among the origin- ators of the health movement which has prevailed in - stances, the labourer, or his wife or child, spends what are the broad principles which underlie the rep and papers of Mr. Chadwick, edited by Dr. Richard: and which, indeed, are the doctrines accepted to~ by most sanitarians. Practically, they advocate — socialism ; and it is impossible to maintain large munities in a due state of health and a due condition morality in any other way than under some form of St socialism. Our population is aggregating more and into towns; but how little do we attend to the decenc or the amenities of life in the masses of population allow to assemble! A leading sanitarian some years ago wrote :— RS “Tf there be citizens. so. destitute that they can < to live only where they must straightway die—renting twentieth straw-heap in some lightless fever- squatting amid rotten soakage, or breathing fi cesspool and the sewer; so destitute that they no water—that milk and bread must be impov meet their means of purchase—that the drugs so! for sickness must be rubbish or poison; surely no ci community dare avert itself from the care of this orphanage. é “It may be that competition has screwed doy of wages below what will purchase indispensable foc wholesome lodgment. But all labour below that m masked pauperism,. Whatever the employer gained at the public expense. When, under sional month or two in the hospital, that som infection may work itself out, or that the impen of an eye or a limb may be averted by animal when he gets various aid from ‘his Board of Gu all sorts of preventable illness, and eventually i penses of interment, it is the public that, too late man’s health or independence, pays the arrears of which should have hindered this suffering and sor “ Before wages can safely be left to find their ov in the struggles of an unrestricted competition, should be rendered absolute and available in sa for the ignorant poor—first, against those dete: of staple food which enable the retailer to disguise Since these words were written it has been mi care of the community to remove refuse, to insure water-supply, to prevent adulteration of food, and to unhealthy dwellings ; but many wretched dwellings e and starvation wages still remain. a disgrace to a cov which calls itself Christian. The whole of Mr wick’s papers, and indeed the arguments of all t advanced sanitarians, are a protest against the of “laissez-faire,” which emanated from the s political economists in the earlier part of the ceni And we are daily becoming more and more alive t fact that this doctrine of “ laissez-faire” is incomps form of socialism is one that should comme to all thinking men, for it is quite certain that days of advanced intercourse and universal edu helot class consisting of the many living in by side with the few living in luxury is a fact that Mr. Chadwick was the first person to bt this subject prominently forward and to compel Par 387 of the Forestry of West Africa, with Particular Reference to its Principal Commercial Products, By Alfred Moloney, C.M.G., of the Government of the Colony of Lagos. (London ; Sampson Low, Marston, peels, and Rivington, 1887.) T° HIS, as its title indicates, i is intended to form a hand- book to the economic plant-products of Western Africa. Although the author is Governor of a British colony in this region, his remarks are by no means con- fined to British possessions, but are intended to include all that is.at present known of economic interest connected : | the plants of Western Tropical Africa. Following Prof. Oliver, the author deems it expedient ) divide Western Tropical Africa into two principal geographical regions. The first, called U pper Guinea, cludes the western coast region from the River Senegal on the north to Cape Lopez immediately south of the between these limits, and the small islands of the Gulf, The second region, called Lower Guinea, includes West _ Tropical Africa from Cape Lopez southward to the Tropic of Capricorn, including Congo, Angola, Benguela, and Mossamedes. Within the limits here indicated we British possessions represented by “colonies” and territories,” and we have numerous possessions med by the French, Portuguese, Spanish, and German Governments, some of which have only lately been ac- _ quired in the European scramble for African territory. ‘Tt is only right to mention that the term “ possessions,” _ as here applied, is somewhat a misnomer. _ practically possessed, even by ourselves, except a slender _ coast-line: the interior is described as having no “ terri- torial definiteness,” and it is politically, no less than _ scientifically and commercially, unexplored. Capt. _ Moloney has wisely not attempted to treat separately of the economic products of these possessions. He has - taken their present economic botanical productions in order of export value, and we find that these consist chiefly of palm oil, ground nuts, india-rubber, coffee, gum, dye-woods, cacao, cotton, fibres, and timbers. Palm oil, the produce of E/eis guineensis, a plant which covers immense tracts of country in Western Africa, is ‘imported to this country to the value of nearly a million and a quarter annually. The yellow palm oil is obtained from the outside fleshy portion (sarcocarp) of the nut, while a white solid oil is obtained from the kernel. India- rubber is another West African product obtained chiefly from climbing vines belonging to the genus Landoalphia. The author was one of the first to draw attention to the value of Landolphia owariensis as a rubber-plant, and it ' must be gratifying to him to find that the exports of “white African rubber,” as the produce is called, have _ during the last four years risen from almost nothing toa value of nearly £36,000, What is known as “Yoruba” or derived from a largetree, Lonchocarpus cyanescens, equator; the interior drained by rivers intermediate _Fernando Po, Prince’s Island, St. Thomas, and Anniabon. There is little : has evidently a commercial value, but at present it is used to mix with butter or “shea” to make the negroes’ hair a fashionable gray ! Numerous West African plants are cited as yielding either gum tragacanth, copal, frankincense, gum-arabic, bdellium, or resin; what is called “ogea” gum, derived from an unknown tree, Danie/lia sp., is used powdered on the body and as a perfume by women. The true frankincense-tree of Sierra Leone is Daniellia thurifera. Camwood, used largely as a dye, is derived from Baphia nitida ; but although barwood is generally said to be de- rived from the same source, it fetches only one-sixth the price of the former. The medicinal properties possessed by numerous West African plants is a subject full of interest. Various species of Strophanthus, the active principle of which was formerly used for poisoning arrows and is known to be of incalculable benefit in cardiac diseases, and the merits of the “ miraculous berry” (Sideroxylon dulcificum) of the Akkrah and Adampe districts, which is credited with rendering the most sour and acid ‘sub- stances “intensely sweet”, and of the “oro” plant of Sierra Leone, said to act as an irritant poison cumulative in its effects (which has been ascertained at Kew to be a species of Euphorbia), are among the numerous sub- jects requiring further investigation. A most cursory glance at this book cannot fail to sug- gest the wonderful wealth both of botanical and industrial problems which are yet unsolved in connexion with West Tropical Africa. The “Flora of Tropical Africa,” by Prof. Oliver, of which three volumes are published (the last in 1877), has made a beginning in the work of elucidating some of these problems ; but in recent times few men have systematically pursued West African botany, and the entire absence of a resident botanist or of a properly-equipped botanical establishment in any of our West African colonies has left the plants of a most important region to be known only by the intermit- tent collections of travellers who have either perished there before their mission has been completed or have hastened home to avoid the effects of the deadly climate. Nearly 200 pages of Capt. Moloney’s book are taken up with condensed notes and references to the economic plants of Western Africa arranged in natural orders according to the “Genera Plantarum” of Bentham and Hooker. To many people both in West Africa and at home these notes, brought together by the assistance of an officer connected with the Kew Museums, will prove of great value. In the appendices are given a copy of the instructions for collecting plants, seeds, and useful plant-products issued by the Royal Gardens, Kew ; an ornithology of the Gambia, by Capt. Shelley; a list of Coleoptera and of diurnal Lepidoptera of the Gambia, by the same writer; and a list of reptiles, batrachians, and fishes collected at the Gambia by Capt. Moloney in 1884-85. The book is well got up and clearly printed, but it has the unpardonable defect of being published without a good alphabetical index. This greatly detracts from its value as a book of reference. It, however, is the chief fault we have to find with a work full of interesting matter for the first time brought together, and evidently prepared with great care. ay Se 388 NATURE [August 25, 1887 OUR BOOK SHELF. Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. Edward C.. Pickering, Director. Vol. xvii. (Cambridge : John Wilson and Son, 1887.) THIS volume of the Annals of the Harvard College Observa- tory contains the description and theory of the instrument invented by Mr. S. C. Chandler, and called by him the almucantar, as well as the reduction and discussion of a series of observations made with it at the Observatory in 1884 and 1885. The instrument consists of a telescope mounted upon a base that floats in mercury, and the observation consists in noting the time of transit of a star across an almucantaral (or horizontal) circle, the particular horizontal circle which the inventor has found most con- venient being that passing through the Pole, which he has called the “co-latitude” circle. If, therefore, the tele- scope be clamped at the given altitude, “the sight-line will mark accurately in the heavens a horizontal circle: and the transits of stars, as they rise or fall over this circle in different azimuths, will furnish the means of determining instrumental and clock corrections, the lati- tude, or right ascensions and declinations.” Mr. Chandler believes that an instrument on the almucantar principle is capable of giving results more free from both accidental and systematic errors than those obtained from a meridian circle, and certainly the discussion of his observations contained in the volume before us goes far to justify such a belief. The probable accidental error of a single observation in zenith distance is + 0’:404, whilst for stars north of 60° declination it is as small as + 0”°379; the probable accidental errors of the clock corrections from a complete transit (including the residuals for Polar stars) are + 0'047s. and + 0'043s. for two observers. And these results have been obtained, it must be remembered, with a telescope of only 4 inches aperture and less than 44 inches focus. The chief advantage of the system is, how- ever, that it gives measurements of both co-ordinates of a star which are absolutely free from the effects of flexure, and also of refraction as far as it depends on zenith distance. The almucantar certainly appears to be a valu- able addition to our means-of attacking difficult problems of practical astronomy. The Distribution of Rain over the British Isles during the Year 1886. Compiled by G. J. Symons, F.R.S. (London: E. Stanford, 1887.) MR. SYMONS explains that the delay in the appearance of this volume is due chiefly to the exceptional character of many of the phenomena of the year 1886, and partly to some observers not having had sufficient health, or courage, or interest in their records, to induce them to face the snowstorms of March 1 and December 26. The volume contains, besides articles upon various branches of rainfall work, the results of observations made at nearly 2500 stations in Great Britain and Ire- land. In the various sections the compiler has brought together an immense mass of information, and he has taken great pains to present his facts clearly. There are several illustrations, in one of which he shows the fluctua- tions of annual rainfall from the year 1726 to 1886. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his pie Agomeeaie Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. Siate Ripples on Skiddaw High Man. THE slate ripples on Skiddaw are not, so far as I am aware, mentioned by writers on the Lake District, geological or other - wise. Their peculiar character puzzled me so much, af noticing them on Saturday, July 23, that I visited the spot a on the 30th to see whether the origin which suggested it me was probable. Following the pathway from Keswick, you pass througl small gate a little way up the final ascent, from the dip betwe Skiddaw Low Man and High Man. Turning to the left alo the wire fence, one comes, where it ends, to the best-devel of these peculiar ripple marks ; but they extend upwards fr here on the left (south) side of the pathway until you are n than half-way up to the first cairn. On the right (north) the ripples begin later, extend higher, but are less distin They cease, apparently, simply from want of the clay {oun which is an essential feature in their development. = = The rippled areas are patches of bare clay or soil, from af yards to half an acre or so in extent, coated with a thin layer the slates, which elsewhere form the cap of Skiddaw High Mz The slate fragments, however, instead of being confused, fo more or less regular lines, generally running north-west a south-east, but varying towards north and south or east and we when the patches are small and longest in these directions. T greater the slope the greater appears to be the average size of slates. The larger fragments average a foot by Or | inches, always lying lengthwise along the lines, which are se or eight inches apart. The clay is washed out beneath stones, which therefore do not rise above the general level. 7 clayey intervals have numerous smaller bits of slate, and scored at right angles to the lines by the action of rain — wind on these. Of course there are always loose fragments on the chief lines. z: Obviously the slates are arranged by the wind, app without much aid from water, as the slopes would not le lect. But it would be very interesting to have a com explanation of the lines. f ee A suggestion, largely confirmed by my second visit, ma any rate help to solve the point, even if it is pre by it: The hurricane force of Skiddaw storms, mostly 1 the sou west, no doubt drives before it the loose slates, sliding over t surface of the slates below. On reaching a bare patch, the firc edges of the slates are stopped by the clay. Finally a | gust tilts them over. Thus a first line is formed. ore sla slide, or are tilted over, upon the first layer, which have mez while worked down to the general level by rain action second set slide over the first set and are in their turn tiltec on reaching the far side. Thus a second line is formed, - rest follow in the same way. On slopes larger fragn moved than on the level; hence such are there found lines. In small areas, with their long axes not perpendicul the prevailing winds, the general direction is modified natural position (according to the explanation here sug¢ the first line. ids There was a moderate gale on my first visit, and o breeze on my second, neither enough to move stones. — the latter occasion, hearing a strange hissing noise, I and saw a violent; eddy, 20 or 30 yards across, whir slates 20 to 40 feet into the air. This advanced from th west at the rate of 8 or Io miles an hour, coming so some of the fragments fell around and on me. Probably the lines are stationary, although the st pass from one to another. To test this, if possible, I on the second occasion seven small Permian sandstone from the shore and placed them a foot or less apart on t ward edge of a conspicuous line, sheltering each behind a slate, hammered firmly into the ground. I am not likel up again, but should any of your readers be on the spe months hence they might find the line in question by as the path until the line of the Helvellyn range is above § Low Man by about the breadth of a pencil held at arm’s The line lies twenty-seven paces to the left of the path. I might mention that the thermometer was at 45° on about half-past one or two, when the sun was clouded, — after four, at Crosthwaite, the same thermometer was at the shade. J. EDMUND CLA August 2. ie i 4. gla — ALTHOUGH I feel indebted to Dr. Klein for his apprecia' of my work as expressed in his review in NATURE of Augus (p. 317), still I must ask him to allow me to correct a st NATURE 389 THE LANDSLIP AT ZUG. x Ba judge by the glimpses which I obtained of English __ & newspapers during my late visit to the Alps, con- _ siderable misapprehension has prevailed in this country _ as tothe nature of the disastrous landslip at Zug. For _ instance, one of the most important journals had a leading __ article on the subject, describing learnedly the fall of the _ Rossberg, the destruction of Plurs, and other like Alpine _ instances, with which the late calamity has no more con- _ nexion than the slipping of a piece of the Thames Em- bankment into the river would have with the fall of a peak of Snowdon. Hence, as | had the opportunity a short _ time since of visiting Zug, and in company with my fellow-traveller, the Rev. E. Hill, forming an opinion as _ to the cause of the accident, it may be worth while to _ give a few details. In drawing up this account I have _ used the abstract of a report by Prof. Heim, which takes the view which I had already adopted from examination _ of the locality, and has supplied me with a number of important details. The newer part of the town of Zug stands on a plain which extends back from the lake to a considerable dis- tance inland. Generally almost level, this at last shelves gently down, falling perhaps a dozen feet in the last hundred yards. The older part of the town occupies slightly rising ground between the water and hills which in England we should call mountains. Both parts, how- ever, are not founded upon the rock, but upon a detrital deposit. Where are now the streets of Zug was once the lake ; the streams from the adjoining hills have encroached upon its waters, and the town stands upon the delta which they have formed ; the older upon the coarser more pebbly material, the newer upon the finer and sandy, where, in prehistoric times, the piles of lake-dwellings were driven. A few years since the people of Zug thought to improve and beautify their town by building an esplanade in the place of the old irregular shore of the lake. It is faced by a wall of solid granite, which rests on a foundation of concrete, supported by piles. Outside this the water deepens rather rapidly: still no great depth is reached. Twenty metres from the edge of the quay it is 9 metres ; at a distance of 100 metres it does not exceed 20, and even at a distance of 800 metres from the shore has only attained 45. The portion of the quay completed at the beginning of the present summer terminated for a time _with a sort of bastion ; north of that the piles had been driven for some distance, but no masonry had been laid. Rather more than t!oo yards in this direction from the end of the new wall was a steam-boat pier, constructed as usual of wood. 0 ETAT ae arn si ft % Thess, Twice already in its history has Zug been the scene of disastrous landslips, once in the year 1435, andagain in 1594; so that some few months back, when formidable cracks and indications of settlement began to appear in the new quay wall, considerable anxiety was aroused. Prof. Heim, among others, was consulted, and was not able, as a geologist, to offer much consolation, for he could only say that the foundation on which the whole place rested was, as will be seen, naturally defective. Still, as things had on the whole held together in the past, so, after this protest on the part of Nature, they might continue in the future. Certain remedial measures were suggested, and a careful watch was kept upon the new structures, The catastrophe, however, occurred without further warning on July 5. Suddenly, about four o’clock in the afternoon, a large piece of land, occupied by houses and gardens, between the bastion and the steam-boat pier, seemed to break up, descend almost vertically, and become ingulfed in the lake. It was a scene of wild and awful confusion, unhappily not unaccompanied by loss of life. A steam-boat had just come up to the pier: the waves broke the hawser and drove the vessel more than a hundred yards back into the lake. Here, however, all PART DESTROYED ea escaped unhurt, but the occupant of a small boat was upset and drowned, and the landlord of an adjoining restaurant, who had gone from his garden with some guests to see what was happening (for the ground seems to have gone in a series of quickly successive slips, not in one single fall), when the earth cracked beneath his feet, sprang in the wrong direction and was ingulfed in the muddy whirlpool. Three children also perished in one of the fallen houses. Again about seven o’clock another and a larger slip took place ; the destruction of property was greater, but this time without loss of life, for the people had taken the alarm and evacuated the houses. The dust from this ruin rose like a cloud, and was seen from the Rigi. Since then there has been no further slip ; indeed, as we read, no further movement; for the cracks in neighbouring walls have been sealed up in many places, so that even a slight settiement could readily be detected. The result of the landslip is as follows. A few months since there was a street in Zug running roughly parallel with 390 NATURE the shore, terminated by a road Jeading to the steam-boat pier, and at the end, on the land side, was a good-sized hotel, while between the shed and the lake were gardens with cottages and other buildings. Where once were houses and gardens thereis now a kind of bay ofthe lake. Itis as though a pit had been excavated parallel with. the shore, which, about 120 metres wide at the water-side, extends inland from 60 to 80 metres, widening as it does so on the eastern side to about 150 metres. This “harbour” is bounded by a low cliff, which rises gradually from a little above the water’s edge to a height of about four yards; the surface, however, instead'of being occupied by vessels, isa scene of the wildest confusion: slabs of pavement here, a pile of bricks there, the broken framework of a roof with its. displaced tiles, a group of beams, some trees yet living, in one place the wooded gable of a house, pro- ject from the surface of the water, which is covered thick with timber and floating debris. A sadder scene of ruin it would be difficult to imagine. On the land side, part of the pavement of the street yet crests the little cliff, dis- placed near its edge by a series of vertical faults, with a throw of a few inches. Below, large slabs, with the squared blocks still in contact, lie at various angles on a slope of rubbish which just rises above the water. Houses, cracked and shattered; with their fronts in some cases partially fallen, loo down on the scene of ruin, and not a few more in the neighbourhood are so injured that they will have to be rebuilt. It is stated that thirty-eight buildings were destroyed in the actual landslip, of which twenty-five were inhabited houses. The cause of the landslip is made obvious by examina- tion of the sections which the broken ground affords. That beneath the broken street will serve as an example. Under the pavement for about a yard is a stony deposit, the upper part probably made ground, the lower resembling a coarse gravel. As is natural, it is difficult to decide where undisturbed ground begins: it is enough to call the whole a stony soil, many of the fragments being from the size of the fist to nearly as big as the head. Probably, however, the lowest foot has been little disturbed. Then comes about fifteen or eighteen inches of a well- stratified gravel—rather iron-stained, the pebbles not exceeding a couple of inches in diameter; under this is about the same thickness of a rather peaty silt-—either an old soil, or part of the lake floor, on which aquatic plants have grown; for what seem to be dead rootlets are abundant. Then comes a thick mass of gray silt. It ex- tends downwards below the level of the lake—probably to a depth of many metres. This it is which has been the prime cause of the catastrophe. The thick substratum of silt, at times little better than a quicksand, has always formed an unsafe foundation. Too heavy a load, either locally by building too large a house, or generally by building many smaller dwellings, any weakening of the cohesion. of the mass, exceptional seasons,! may at any time suffice to pull the trigger of a weapon which, so to say, is always charged. It is doubtful whether this part of the town can ever be regarded as absolutely safe: at the same time there have been but three slips in four centuries and a half, and no doubt precautions will be taken to reduce the danger toa minimum. It is possible that the building of the esplanade has been the immediate cause. Prof. Heim, however, does not so regard it, though I cannot say that his arguments entirely satisfied me. However, this is certain, that of the completed building only a few feet were damaged ; the frontage which slipped was that into which piles alone had-been driven. The most remarkable thing about the slip is that the displacement has been nearly vertical. There has been but little outward lateral movement of the ruined build- * It is stated that the-weather changed: om the evening of July 5; storms and rain succeeding to a long period cf dry weather. At the time the “* ground water” beneath tne town was rather above, the lake rather below, its usual level, lent zoologist (Koren) whose able work on the Al of which two belong to Clavularia, one to Symp -one to Nidalia, and the rest to the several new Voeringia of a nervous system. On the uppermost - ) ings. As Prof. Heim words it in the above-named “Ground which formerly was from 6 to 2 metres the water is now from 2 to 6 metres below it.” The substratum must have flowed outwards into the water, or in some way been displaced laterally to alloy the surface thus sinking. In accordance with this it stated that the piles driven for the new wall—whi fixed in the silt alone—were thrust outwards for of from too to 300 metres from the shore, and pushed up above the level of the water. The cata: then, cannot be numbered with the bergfalls, or e the ordinary landslips, though perhaps an analo be established with some sea-side slipping of cliffs ; is none the less lamentable, for, in addition to five de many families have lost their all—goods, house, and the site itself being destroyed; and great additional penditure will be required before the neighbourhood be regarded as safe. THE NORWEGIAN NORTH ATL EXPEDSTIO“N. = ae N OT surpassed by the records of the Austrian ANTIC Reise, nor by those of our own dition, is the account of the Norwegian Ex North Atlantic, the latest part of which is a the Alcyonida, by D.C. Danielssen. Like the c of this Report the present forms a quarto or ra folio volume, and contains over 160 2s of plates.and a map giving the details of the distribution. « The author was one of the staff on board the and he now has the pleasure of describing the spec collected, but he has not had the assistance of that e of Norway had been executed in partne Danielssen, and whose death all those natural science have to deplore. The Alcyonids collected during the dition are almost exclusively deep-sea forms ; th varying from 38 to 1760 English fathoms. Am there are no less than nine new genera, which to the sub-family of the Alcyonine, with 33 Norwegian Ex * There is also a new sub-family with a new gem species described. The author says quite truly, that, of allthe large of the Alcyonaria, none have been treated mo ficially by recent zoologists than that of the Al No doubt there are many reasons for this; the of their structure, combined with the difficulties | preservation in a state for minute investigation, some extent made their study a difficult one; : the repeated endeavours of Mr. Danielssen to ¢ them in a recent state were unsuccessful. In classification, the author for the moment follows Milne Edwards; in this we think he is correct thoroughly azree with his reasons; for until the material in the museums of Europe and America properly worked out, and much fresh material he collected, any attempt to give a definite classifica the group will be so much lost labour. ee In the diagnosis of the genera and species, | of the latter, the form of the spicules, as well arrangement and position on the polyps, have beenf of great value, though minuter histological details not been used as much as they possibly will be near future. One very important and interesting fa mentioned, viz. the discovery in a species of a new gi - NATURE 391 the ventral surface of the cesophagus there is to be nd a group of large ganglion cells containing extremely urge nuclei with viscid protoplasm and prolonged fila- ments. Mention is also made of the grooves lined with long flagelliform cells, which, however, were some time since described by Hickson in a paper published in peace Transactions under the name of f yphe. ther novel phenomenon was observed in a species where several of the polyps seemed to be reproductive, and in them as soon as fertilization effected, the tentacles became incurved over the oral f, re, which then became plugged with a viscid _ mucous, and apparently during the gravid period these ‘ oe were nourished by the other polyps of the ‘Yo _ We must content ourselves with giving but a very brief “summary of the forms described. The genus Veeringia $ established for a series of branched Alcyonids with etractile polyps, in this differing from those of Duva; eight new species of this genus are described, to which so the Al/cyonium fruticosum, Sars, is referred. Eight new species of the beautiful genus Duva are recorded. vy genus, Drifa, is established for an arborescent , the spicules in which differ from those of both ‘ceringia and Duva ; of the two species, one, D. /s/andica, hibits an interesting structure ; around the mouth and between its external opening and the base of the entacles, there are eight little fringe-like protuberances, which form a ruff. An appearance of the same kind, only outside the circle of the tentacles, we have observed in _a Plexaurid, but we are not certain but that it may be due to the sudden immersion of the polyps into strong spirits. For a graceful arborescent form with auto- and siphono- | zooids, which reminds us of Anthomastus, Verrill, the genus _ Nannodendron is proposed ; the polyps are completely ~retractile. Fu//a schiertzi is a new genus and species of _ another branching form with a somewhat flattened stem, owing a distinct bilateral symmetry, the branches only Springing from the opposite sides of the main axis. Three new species of Nephthya are enumerated. For a species in which in addition to a well-marked siphonoglyphe there are also in the first part of the cesophagus two _ flap-like protuberances, the genus Gersemiopsis is made. _ The only species, G. arctica, was dredged in a ‘depth of 658 fathoms. A new genus, Barathrobius, is made for ___ two new species, in which the basal part of the colony is hard and often dilated, the polyps are retractile, appear- _ ing only, when fully withdrawn, as slight elevations above _ the mass of the branches. Sarakka crassa (n. g. et sp.) is a species with a very peculiar structure in its oesophagus, _ which seems to be constricted laterally into two indepen- _ dent portions ; while Crystallofanes polaris is a form with _ few polyps on the stem but with a summit rich in polyps, _ borne on short branches which are placed in whorls _ round the stem ; the polyps are retractile. A new sub-family is made for a new genus and species _ Organidus nordenskjoldi ; in this species the polyp cells - are long, connected together so as to form an axis ; these polyp cells are long, cylindrical, calcareous, with both the polyp body and its tentacles well provided with spicules. e author thinks that this sub-family shows some affinity _ tothe Tubiporine, but it would appear to us to show more relationship to such forms as Gersemia and Eunephthya. C/avularia frigida and Sympodium _ abyssorum are described as new species. This memoir is published in both Swedish and English, in parallel columns, for which the student cannot be too _ thankful; true, the English may strike the reader asa little quaint, and in the nomenclature of the spicules it is _ somewhat novel, but criticism would be out of place in _ the presence of so great a boon. The day is coming | when.a new classification:of the spicules of the Alcyonaria _ must be made; at present, while new types are constantly being discovered, any such would be but premature, and we must be content with that laid down for us by Kolliker, Had the value of the labours of Valenciennes been properly appreciated, this might not now be the case. The almost overcrowded plates have been drawn by H. Bucher, Jun., with all that skill which we have before admired, though perhaps the drawings of the spicules convey too much the notion of their being perfectly solid. We shall wait with great expectancy the publication of future memoirs of the other families of the Alcyonaria. THE COLOURS OF THIN PLATES. HE physical theory, as founded by Young and per- fected by his successors, shows how to ascertain the composition of the light reflected from a plate of given material and thickness when the incident light is white ; but it does not and cannot tell us, except very roughly, what the co/our of the light of such composition will be. For this purpose we must call to our aid the theory of compound colours, and such investigations as were made by Maxwell upon the chromatic relations of the spectrum colours themselves. Maxwell found that on Newton’s chromatic diagram the curve representative of the spectrum takes approximately the simple form of two sides of a triangle, of which the angular points represent a definite red, a definite green, and a definite violet. The statement implies that yellow is a compound colour, a mixture of red and green. In illustration of this fact,an experiment was shown in which a compound yellow was produced by absorbing- agents. An infusion of litmus absorbs the yellow and orange rays; a thin layer of bichromate of potash re- moves the blue. Under the joint operation of these colouring-matters the spectrum is reduced to its red and green elements, as may be proved by prismatic analysis ; but, if the proportions are suitably chosen, the colour of the mixed light is yellow or orange. When theslit of the usual arrangement is replaced by a moderately large cir- cular aperture, the prism throws upon the screen two circles of red and green light, which partially overlap. Where the lights are separated, the red and green appear; where they are combined, the resultant colour is yellow. On the basis of Maxwell’s data it is possible to calcu- late the colours of thin plates and to exhibit the results in the form of a curve upon Newton’s diagram. The curve starts at a definite point, corresponding to an in- finitely small thickness of the plate. This point is some- what upon the blue side of white. As the thickness increases, the curve passes very close to white, a little upon the green side. It then approaches the side of the triangle, indicating a full orange; and so on. In this way the colours of the various orders of Newton’s scale are exhibited and explained. The principal discrepancy between the curve and the descriptions of previous ob- servers relates to the precedence of the reds of the first and second orders. The latter has usually been con- sidered to be the superior, while the diagram supports the claim of the former. The explanation is to be found in the inferior brightness (as distinguished from purity) of the red of the first order, and its consequent greater liability to suffer by contamination with white light. Such white light, foreign to the true phenomenon, is always present when the thin plate is a plate of air inclosed between glass lenses. To make the comparison fairly, a soap film must be used, or recourse may be had to the almost identical series of colours presented by moderately thin plates of doubly-refracting crystals when traversed by polarized light. Under these circumstances the:red of the first order is seen to be equal or superior to that of the second order. * Abstract of Lecture delivered by Lord Rayleigh at the Royal Institution on March 25, 1887. or | NATURE °°. yee FIFTY YVEARS’ PROGRESS IN CLOCKS AND | general abandonment in watches of the fusee (AA, Fig WATCHES.—I. a contrivance of considerable antiquity, a picture of wh H OROLocyY being one of the oldest arts anb used to appear in nearly every popular book on mecha branches of science, it is almost} inevitaeld ere peiAdeal” a that advances in it should be of a mediocre and modest character, and not of a nature to claim great attention in these days of startling and sensational. discovery. But nevertheless during the period we refer to much good work has been done. In chronometers, the secondary compensation error has been discovered and means found to rectify it. In clocks, the same has been done for the barometric error. More- over, the difficulties connected with the correct working of gravity escapements have been over- come ; so that scarcely a good turret clock is made without one now. Electricity also has been largely applied for driving or controlling clocks, or for controlling chronometers ; and the measurement of minute fractions of a second has been attained by chronographic appliances of extreme accuracy. Articles explanatory of these subjects have ap- peared in the pages of NATURE? from time to time. In addition there has been a mass of sub- sidiary improvements which it is impossible to classify, and of which we shall have to describe the leading features in a somewhat desultory manner in the succeeding pages. . Fic. 3.—Going Barrel and Stop-work. a few years ago. The discovery of such mecha not made all at once; at first it was applied solel | i li RB iM ii il {i : A Hiri lll Fic. 1.—Barrel and Fusee. Naturally, the first subject to claim our attention is that important mechanism which enables us to wind up and Fic. 2.—Prest’s Keyless work. set the hands of our watches without a key. And it is to be remarked that its introduction has led to the almost * See vols. xiv. pp. 529, 554, 573: XV- 95 XX. 345} xxiii. 59; xxvi. 107, | PUFPOSe of winding up the watch. The conception 369. present form of winding from the pendant is due to | Fic. 4.—Rocking-bar Keyless work. . August 25, 1887] NATURE 393 5 of Chi; ell, and Fig. 2! shows his plan. 2 may be con- sider __ applied in winding, and the wheel A is fastened to it and the same as the square to which the key would be is geared to B, which in turn engages the pinion 3, which is part of the stalk 4, passing through the pendant 8, and terminating in the crown-piece 5. On turning 5, A will revolve, winding up the watch in doing so; the clicks 6 6 prevent A from returning. It is now clear why the fusee 4 must be dispensed with. With a fusee (whilst the watch : ee 4s going) the square which you wind travels backwards, it would naturally turn the crown-piece in doing so ; this latter, meeting with resistance in the pocket, would _ obviously stop the watch. Fig. 3 shows the mechanism which takes the place of the fusee. It will be seen that the main wheel is attached to the barrel ; the shaft (squared at its extremities) which passes through the barrel is con- nected with the main-spring ; when the shaft is turned the seme li is wound. The shaft, being held by the intervention of the clicks, cannot return, and the out- side of the barrel being urged to follow it by the pulling of the main-spring, impels the main wheel and drives the train. Overwinding is prevented by means of the star wheel and finger-piece shown in the diagram. Every turn of the shaft causes the star to move on one division, but on passing the last division the circle, out of which the finger is cut, meets a convex instead of a concave surface, and further movement is arrested. There is much less difference between the pull of the main-spring when the watch is wound up and nearly down than might be expected. To obtain as much uniformity as possible a long thin main-spring is used, it is tapered, and very few turns of it are brought into service. AVA AVATAY: Fic. 5.—Chronograph with Swiss Keyless work. About twenty-five years elapsed before any satisfactory method was established of causing the keyless mechanism to set the hands of the watch in addition to winding it. The method which was first adopted had the draw- back that the hands could not be put backward when the watch was fully wound. At present two systems are arse employed, they are known as the English and wiss. Fig. 4 shows the English or rocking-bar plan. Wheel 4 is in connexion with the crown-piece, and com- municates with the square of the shaft passing through the barrel by means of the wheels 7 and g. Wheels 7 and # are on a lever, or rocking-bar, pivoted about the * We are indebted to Mr. David Glasgow, Vice-President of the British Horological Institute, and the Messrs. Cassell for the use of Figs. 2, 3, and and to Mr. F. J. Britten, Secretary of the British Horologicai Institute, or the use of Figs. 5, 6, and 7. centre of 4. fis a push piece acting against c, which is a part of the rocking-bar. When / is depressed by the finger or thumb, it lifts 7 and forces down 4 into con- nexion with /, which communicates with the pinion of the minute-hand ¢. If the crown-piece now be turned, the hands will follow ; no winding is performed, because z has been lifted away from g. When the pressure is removed from 7, a spring, s, puts the rocking-bar back again into its normal position, 7 engaging g, and / quitting 77 The Swiss system is different in this : that connexion with the winding or set-hands wheels is made by a pinion faced with teeth on both sides, sliding up and down the stalk of the crown-piece. The normal position (as in the English system) is engagement with the winding-wheels, but when the push piece is depressed the pinion moves away from its engagement with the winding-wheels, and 394 NATURE [ August 25, : 1887 ‘takes up with the set-hands wheels. In Fig. 5, which we shall refer to again further on, this arrangement can be readily perceived. To understand repeating work—in which a good deal of progress has been made—it will be as well at first to refer to Fig. 6, which shows the mechanism of a clock chiming the quarters. On the left will be seen an anchor- shaped piece with teeth in it, called a “rack.” At the foot of the rack will be seen a star wheel carrying a piece This piece is called the in form similar to a snail. “snail,” and it has twelve gradations corresponding to” the twelve hours. On the right will be seen another rack and snail which do duty for the four quarters. Both the — quarter and hour racks are at present held free of their respective snails by the hooks shown in the diagram. — The method of action is as follows :—At each hour the ~ quarter rack, by means of mechanism connected with the — going train of the clock, gets itself liberated from the hook — | and falls upon its snail. The distance through which it — | falls is determined by the depth of the depression in the ET em a Te eee Le ee Fic. 6.—Hour anj Quarter striking mechanism. snail which is opposite to it. The quarter train having also got freed at the same time, proceeds to run, and winds up the rack again in doing so. The distance through which the rack has fallen determines the length of time the quarter train runs, and consequently the length of the chime. In falling the quarter rack also discharges the hour rack. The hour train is held until the quarters are finished ; at their conclusion the hour rack is wound up by the hour train through the distance it has fallen which depends upon the depth of depression in its snail opposite to it), and the number of the hour proportion. The light which the foregoing throws. upon repez work is with regard to the snail and rack arrangemeé When you move the slide of a repeating watch you do things. You wind up the main-spring, which actuates repeating train, and the extent to which you are ablet do so depends upon the depth of the depression in the snail which is opposite to the piece which you moving. When you reach the bottom and press agai struck is 4 NATURE 395 nail, it is so arranged that the snail shall give a ‘he small play the snail has, the distance it can r pressure, is sufficient to discharge the quarter its snail. In repeating work the quarter rack ‘Snail no blows are struck, so it is not possible for the repeating work to give you a false answer. Fig. 7 illustrates repeating action. Clock-watches are watches which strike the hours and quarters spontaneously ; their is also an “all or nothing piece,” for this reason, that until it is discharged the hammer which strikes the hours is hung up, and should you not press down the slide sufficiently to reach the bottom of the depression in the Fic. 7.—Repeating mechanism. action is exceedingly complicated, and, unless their mechanism is seen, is almost incapable of explanation. HENRY DENT GARDNER. (To be continued.) THE RECENT DROUGHT. , pee spell of dry weather recently experienced over the United Kingdom has been so unusually pro- ____ longed, and its effects have in many instances been so ___ disastrous, that a brief inquiry into its history and general _ results may not be without interest. In the present _ article it is therefore: proposed to take into consideration, —firstly, the conditions of barometrical pressure under which the drought occurred; and secondly, the actual deficiency of rainfall experienced in various parts. of the country. With respect to the first point it will readily be sur- mised by those who are in any way acquainted with the subject of our meteorological changes that the general distribution of pressure during the recent dry spell was anticyclonic. At times, and notably during the second half of June, the middle of July, and the early part of August, the anticyclonic conditions ruled supreme over the entire Kingdom. On other occasions, however, the influence of the high-pressure areas was confined to a _ portion of our islands, the favoured localities being | usually those included within the eastern or the southern ie half of Great Britain. With these latter conditions the extreme western and northern districts were influenced to a very partial extent by the anticyclone, and to a much greater extent by areas of low pressure, the centres of which were, however, in nearly all cases at a considerable distance from our shores. Ona few rare occasions the main disturbances were accompanied by shallow subsi- diary depressions, which advanced directly over us, and occasioned the temporary bursts of showery weather which occurred from time totime. The most important and general instances of this kind were observed during the second week of July and towards the end of the same month ; but in the former case there were isolated portions of our southern and south-eastern counties which re- mained altogether unaffected by the disturbed weather, while in the latter instance the showers were in many districts far too insignificant to be of any real value. Although an endeavour has thus been made briefly to account for the unusual drought which occurred, one cannot.but feel that beyond and irrespective of the various pressure movements which were reported from time to time there was a distinct Zendency for the weather to remain dry and warm. Instances were not wanting ofthe prevalence of very disturbed conditions of pressure without any corresponding break up in the atmospherical appear- ance. Of this, two recent examples may be cited. On the afternoon and evening of August 12, a depression formed 396 NATURE directly over England, while another appeared over Ireland. Under such circumstances a good deal of rain might naturally have been anticipated in all districts, and in ordinary seasons there can be no doubt that it would actually have fallen. As a matter of fact, how- ever, in those parts of England which lay directly under the influence of the growing depression, the weather remained persistently fine, the appearance of the sky even giving but little indication of the atmospherical change which was in progress. On the evening of August 11 a similar though not quite so decided a move- ment in pressure also passed over without any rain in the districts more immediately concerned. The subtle influence which determines whether a season shall be dry or wet, hot or cold, is at present a profound mystery, but that something of the kind exists is abundantly | evident to all who have endeavoured to work out the causes of our seasonal weather changes. As regards our second point of inquiry, viz. the actual nature and extent of the recent drought, the meteoro- logical records tell a most remarkable tale. The period embraced by the spell of dry weather began with the early part of June, and lasted in most districts until the middle of the present month, or about eleven weeks in all. I have therefore taken the trouble to abstract and total for this period the rainfall values given in the Weekly Weather Report of the Meteorological Office for 78 stations situated in various parts of the United Kingdom. The general results of the investigation are shown in the accompanying map. A very brief examination of the map will suffice to show that during the extended period in question the aggregate rainfall was less than the average in all parts of the British Islands, with the exception of the Shetlands and a portion of Caithness. Over England (including also South Wales), the eastern and central parts of Scotland, and the southern half of Ireland, the total amount of rain was less than half the average. Over the north of England, the county of Hertfordshire, the greater part of the south-western district, comprising the counties of Somerset, Devon, and Cornwall, and a small tract of country surrounding Dublin, the aggregate amount was less than a third of the average ; while in the north-east of England, in portions of Devon and Cornwall, and at Rothamsted, the rainfall did not amount to one- fourth of the average. The only exceptions to these general rules occurred over some portions of Eastern England, where, owing to heavy local thunderstorms, the aggregate was much greater than at surrounding, or even at neighbouring, stations. At Attleborough, in Norfolk— a station which is not included in the official report, and which has therefore not been employed in the prepara- tion of the map—as much as 2°03 inches of rain were measured on July 31 in the short space of an hour anda half. Avery similar local plump occurred at Ingatestone in Essex, where, during a severe thunderstorm on July 16, a fall amounting to 1°8 inch was recorded in about two hours. So far as I am aware, no local falls of anything like so heavy a nature were experienced either over our midland or our southern couties. With regard to the frequency, or rather in the present instance to the rarity, of the summer rainfall, it appears that over the greater part of the midland, southern, and south-western districts the number of rainy days was less than 15 out of a total of 77. At Cirencester, Hastings, and Southampton, the number did not amount to more than 12, at Oxford to 11, and at Hurst Castle to 10 ; while at Dungeness there were only 8 days with rain, or about one-fourth of the average number. In the south-west of England the number of rainy days varied from 13 to 25, in the north- east from 15 to 23,and in the north-western district, including North Wales, from 19 to 26. One other very important feature in connexion with the drought has been the prevalence of unusually lo Wg periods of absolutely rainless weather. in many of the English districts as many as 25 to 28. numbers were greatly exceeded. example, there was no rain between June 7 and July former instance from June 4 to July 8, and in the latte from June 3 to July 7. As regards the London d appears that the drought in its absolute sense was | than any experienced since the year 1865. Betwee first week in June and the beginning of July there v London 25 consecutive days without rain; in June the number was 26. between 1865 and the present year there were on! instances of an absolute drought lasting for as lo three weeks. [August 25, 1887 | Between early part of June and the beginning of July there w secutive days without rain, and in some localities th At Falmouth, period of 31 days, while at Dungeness and Cullomp there were periods of 35 rainless days, lasting in > £5 SS Districts in which rainfall was in excess of the average... nS 3, Was less than half the average eA ay was less than one-third of the average ” a9 sd 3, was less than one-fourth of the average In the period of 21 years interv FREDK. J. BRODIE. _ southern suburbs. NATURE 397 _ THUNDERSTORM IN LONDON. q Am exceptionally severe thunderstorm was experienced #R in London and the suburbs on the evening of the 17th inst. It commenced with distant thunder at about 5.30 p.m., and by 6 o’clock the storm was fully over the The lightning was very vivid, and the _ flashes were very frequent, following each other occa- _ sionally with but an interval of a few seconds. The thunder was very heavy, and at times quite deafening, the crash often following the lightning-flash almost instanta- neously. The greatest violence of the storm occurred between 6.30 and 8 p.m., throughout the whole of which time the lightning and thunder were most intense. Thunder was heard till 9.30 p.m., and distant light- ning seen till 10 p.m., so that the storm was over London for about four hours and a half. There was no evening as far as daylight was concerned, night setting in at the close of the afternoon, and the heavy clouds which covered the sky had the appearance of being doubly massive in contrast to the lightning as the flashes illumined the whole sky. The rain which accompanied the storm was very heavy, but the fall varied very considerably in different parts of the metropolis. Unfortunately at present the measurements at hand are by no means numerous, but a careful discussion of the rainfall of this storm would probably be of consider- able scientific interest. The falls as yet available are: Brixton Hill 2°02 inches, Camden Town 1°42 inch, Clap- ham 0°97 inch, Greenwich 0°54 inch, Westminster 0°50 inch, and East Finchley 0°16 inch. At Brixton Hill the rain was intensely heavy for twenty minutes from about 6.10 to 6.30 p.m., during which time by far the larger part of the fall occurred ; the observer not being on the spot until later in the evening, measurements were not made during the progress of the storm. There is ample evidence, however, to confirm the heavy fall at Brixton, as the roads were flooded in parts to the depth of from 12 to 18 inches, and the water rushed down the roadways with such force that it was thought a large reservoir had burst. Mr. Wallis, writing from the head-quarters of the “ British Rainfall” at Camden Town, states that the total fall there was 1°42 inch, and heavy rain did not commence till 6°30 p-m. He gives the following rates of fall:—7 to 8 p.m. 1°24 inch, 7 to 7.30 p.m. 0°45 inch, 7.30 to 8 p.m. 0'79 inch; in 22 minutes, from 7.42 to 8.4, the amount measured was 0°66 inch; and in 10 minutes, from 7.45 to 7.55, the heavy fall of o'50 was measured. The primary cause of the storm was due to a somewhat shallow barometric depression, the mercury at the centre standing at 29°7 inches, which passed completely ‘over London during the evening. This disturbance was central over the north of Devon at 8 a.m. 17th, and by 8 a.m. 18th was situated over North Germany, but from some cause, not yet under- stood, its rate of travel when passing over London was very much slower, and its energy more intense, than at any other stage of its existence. The weather had been dry during the first twelve days of August, as well as at the close of July, especially in the southern and eastern districts of England, where, indeed, a second drought, during the present summer, had prevailed, but which was much less marked than the drought of June and the early part of July, but yet severe, following as it did so closely on its predecessor, with so small a fall of rain intervening, After the 12th, however, the weather over England be- came disturbed, and the anticyclone which had prevailed gave place to cyclonic conditions, and a series of disturb- ances passed over our islands ; it was one of these which resulted in thissevere thunderstorm. Very little rain fell over the country generally in connexion with this storm, but other falls of rain occurred in many places about this time. In London, as well as in the Midlands, and the southern and eastern districts of England, a thunderstorm had been experienced in the early morning of the same day ; the total fall of rain in London, as the result of the two storms, was 2°62 inches, a fall 0°34 in excess of the total average for August, all of which fell in less than twenty-four hours. CHAS. HARDING. SPENCER F. BAIRD. HE news of Prof. Baird’s death will be received by English naturalists with the most profound regret, the more so as no intimation of the indisposition of the celebrated American man of science had been communi- cated to his friends in this country, and the intelligence was therefore unexpected. By Englishmen who knew Prof. Baird personally the loss must be especially felt, but there are many who had never met him in the flesh, to whom the news of his decease must come as that of a dear friend. As one of the latter class, we venture to express our sympathy with our scientific brethren in America on the decease of one of their most eminent and respected colleagues. As chief of the Smithsonian Institution, Prof. Baird possessed a power of conferring benefits on the world of science exercised by few directors of public museums, and the manner in which he utilized these powers has resulted not only in the wonderful success of the United States National Museum under his direction, but in the enrichment of many other museums which were in friendly intercourse with the Smithsonian Institution. We know by ex- perience that the British Museum is indebted beyond measure to Prof. Baird, and we need only refer to the recent volumes of the “ Catalogue of Birds” to show how much our national Museum owes to the sister Museum in America for hearty co-operation. We had only to write and express our wants, and immediately every effort was made, by Prof. Baird’s instructions, to supply all the desiderata in our ornithological collection, and this with- out the slightest demand for an equivalent exchange, though of course in the case of the British Museum every effort was made to reciprocate the good feeling shown towards that institution by the great American Museum. There must be many private collectors in this country who will indorse our acknowledgments to Prof. Baird for the unrivalled liberality which he has always shown in the advancement of the studies of every ornithologist who invoked his aid. Of the celebrated trio, Baird, Cassin, and Lawrence, who together wrote “ The Birds of North America,” the last-named naturalist is now the only survivor, but Baird lived long enough to see the results of that great under- taking, which placed American ornithology on a sound working basis, and established an era from which progress has been both sound and rapid, until there is perhaps no country in the world where birds have been so thoroughly and scientifically studied as in America. This result is undoubtedly due to the influence of Prof. Baird in directing the scientific studies of his colleagues in the New World. His “ Review of North American Birds” is really a wonderful work, and, though published twenty- five years ago, is of the greatest service to students of Passerine birds at the present day. Our only regret is that it was never completed. The celebrated paper on the distribution of North American birds, published in 1867, laid the foundation of the division of the Nearctic Region into natural sub-regions, which the multitudinous labours of travellers in recent years have tended to elaborate and confirm. Prof. Baird’s last great effort in the cause of ornithology was the publication of the “ History of North American Birds,” in conjunction, this time, with Robert Ridgway and T. M. Brewer. After the completion of that important work he was occu- pied chiefly with his duties as head of the Smithsonian Institution, and of the United States National Museum, 398 NATURE and with the United States Fish Commission, of which he was also President. In 1884 the 4u% announced that the bird-registers of the United States National Museum had reached 100,000 specimens in number, this splendid collection having been based on the nucleus of 3696 skins, the private collection of Prof. Baird ; and the same journal states :—“ As being, more than any other living person, entitled to the privilege, specimens numbered 100,000 and 100,001 are entered as donations from Prof. Baird, to whom they were presented by Mr. Geo. N. Lawrence, the oldest active American ornithologist. One of these, a common Crossbill, was shot by Mr. Lawrence, in New York City in 1850, ’and the other, a Flicker, on Long Island, in 13862.” We may add that, during an experience of twenty years, we have never heard from any ornithologist, European or American, a single unkind word concerning Prof. Baird, either in his public or private capacity. This is something to say in this age of jealousies and back- bitings. R. BOWDLER SHARPE. NOTES. Last year the New South Wales Government, through their Agent-General, invited the British Association to meet at Sydney in January. The invitation has now been withdrawn. Strangely enough, the matter was treated as a party question in the New South Wales Parliament. Tue American Association for the Advancement of Science met in New York from August I0 to 17. Prof. S. P. Langley, the President, in his opening remarks, congratulated the members on the fact that the meeting promised to be most successful. Prof. E. W. Morse, of Salem, Mass., the retiring President, chose as the subject of his address, ‘‘ What American Zoologists have done for Evolution.” ‘‘ Eleven years ago,” said ‘Prof. Morse, ‘‘I had the honour of reading before this Association an address.in which an attempt was made to show what American zoologists had done for evolution. My reasons for selecting this subject were, first, that no general review of this nature had been made; and, second, that many of the oft - repeated examples in support of the derivative theory were from European sources, and did not carry the weight of equally im- portant facts the records of which were concealed in our own scientific journals. Darwin was pleased to write to me that most of the facts I had mentioned were familiar to him, but, to use his own words, he was amazed at their number and import- ance when brought together inthis manner. The encouragement of his recognition has led me to select a continuation of this theme as a subject for the customary presidential address—a- task which is at best a thankless if not a profitless one. Had I faintly realized, however, the increasing number and importance of the contributions made by our students on this subject, I should certainly have chosen a different theme.” Prof. Morse _ laid much stress upon the fact that ‘ American biological science stands as a unit for evolution.” In Europe the weather rendered al.nost useless the elaborate preparations which had beea mile for observations of the total solar eclipse of August 19. From the German stations the Berlin Observatory received a series of dismal telegrams, such as, *“Fog and rain; no observations,” ‘‘ Nothing done; quite cloudy,” ‘Cloudy; observed nothing.” Partially successful observations were made in Germany only at Nordhausen and Eisleben. In European Russia observers were almost equally un- fortunate. At Klin all attempts to get a glimpse of the eclipse were “* completely frustrated by the dull gray sky and thick Scotch mist which quickly damped both one’s clothes and one’s spirits.” At the last moment Prof. Mendeleieff, who was stationed at Klin to observe the form of the corona, its spectrum, ani the course ' seconds. of the shadow, went up alone in a balloon, but he was t to obtain important results. A balloon which went up a was met in its ascent by torrents of rain. A glimpse of tl was obtained at Tver only twice—at the contact, and w was about seven-eighths obscured. At Spirovs, nearer Petersburg, totality is said to have been visible for twen At Petroffsk, in the Government of Jaroslay, Glasenapp, of St. Petersburg, was lucky enough to be make six drawings and to get two photographs, whi Stanoievitsch, of Belgrade, was successful in observing photographing the spectrum of the corona. Fortunately was a clear sky at Tomsk and other stations in Siberia. Ir is worth noting that an extraordinary amount « was excited on the Continent by the eclipse. It is that in Berlin and the neighbourhood no fewer than. persons were waiting in the hope of seeing it, and great numbers of people flocked to many points of obsé This may, we hope, be taken as an indication that Russia and Germany there is a growing popular apy some of the more striking truths of physical .. Sept. «2, MW U Ophiuchi... 17 10°83 1 20N.... Aug. 31, 4 46 m and at intervals of 20 8 X Sagittarii... 17 40'5 ...27 47S Aug. 31, 22 Om W Sagittarii 17 57°8 ... 29 35S 2, Oe R Scuti 18 41°5 5 50S ee. m R Lyre ©... 18 51°9... 43 48 N. » 3i, M S Vulpeculze 19 43°83 ...27 oS Sept. 2, m x Cygni 19 46'2 ... 32 38 N Aug. 29, m S Sagittze EG 50°O".55. 16: 20UN. i455 30pm M signifies maximum ; 77 minimum. THE FACTORS OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION. WHILE reviewing, a short time ago, Mr. Herbert Spencer’s essay on the above subject (NATURE, vol. xxxv. p. 262), I promised to consider the present sanding of the question as to whether, or how far, use and disuse admit of being regarded as true causes of change of organic type. Of course there is no question about the effects of use and disuse as regards the individual : the only question is as to whether, or how far, these effects admit of being inherited, so that modifications of structure which are produced by modifications of function in the individual become causes of corresponding, and therefore of adaptive, changes of structure in species. The importance of this question is second to none in the whole range of biology. For not only is it of the highest importance within the range of biology itself— governing, by whatever answer we give it, our estimate of the importance of natural selection, and thus requiring to be dealt with on the very threshold of biological philosophy—but its influence extends to almost every department of thought. For, as Mr. Spencer remarks in his preface, upon the answer which this question may finally receive will depend in chief part the sciences of psychology, ethics, and sociology. If functionally- roduced modifications are inheritable, the phenomena of instinct, innate ideas, moral intuitions, and so forth, admit of a scientific explanation at the present moment ; otherwise they do not, or, at least, not in so distinct nor in so complete a manner. There- fore, we can hardly feel that Mr. Spencer exaggerates the im- portance of this question when he says of it, ‘‘ Considering the width and depth of the effects which our acceptance of one or other of these hypotheses [namely, that functionally-produced 402 NATURE modifications are inherited, or that they are not] must have upon our views of Life, Mind, Morals, and Politics, the question— Which of them is true ? demands, beyond all other questions whatever, the attention of scientific men.” That functionally-produced modifications are inherited was the great assumption upon which Lamarck founded his theory of evolution. Erasmus Darwin adopted the assumption, and it was also accepted by Charles Darwin as representing a highly im- portant factor of organic evolution, although subsidiary to that of natural selection. Lastly, Mr. Spencer has always upheld the assumption, and, as we shall subsequently see, has done more than anybody else in the way of its justification, On the other hand, of late years a growing tendency has been di:played by those evolutionists who out-Darwin Darwin, not only to assign to natural selection’ monarchical government over the whole realm of organic Nature, but also, and consequently, to deprive use and disuse of those lesser sovereignties which were so freely accorded to them bythe ‘‘ Origin of Species.” This tendency has now reached a climax in the publication of an essay, by no. less an authority than Prof. Weismann, wherein the Lamarckian principles of use and disuse are denied 77 ¢oto.1 We may there- fore best begin our stock-taking of the whole subject by consider- ing what Prof. Weismann has said ; for assuredly the doctrine of use and disuse as themselves useless could nowhere meet with an abler champion. In the first place, he is committed to this doctrine as a necessary consequence of his own theory of heredity, according to which azy change acguired by the individual cannot be trans- mitted to progeny. This theory regards the individual organism as nothing more than what may be termed a temporary receptacle of ‘‘germ-plasma”’—this germ-plasma being handed on from generation to generation, without ever being affected by any changes that may take place in the organisms which contain it. And the only reason why such affears to be the case—or why in the course of generations one specific type gradually changes through inherited modifications into another—is because the germ-plasma itself is liable to variation, and when the variations happen to be of a kind which lead to favourable modifications of the store-houses (organisms), these store-houses are preserved by natural selection, and with them the peculiar variations of the germ-plasma, which are thus carried on to the next generation. Hence natural selection is really at work upon variations of the germ-plasma, and hence also no change occurring in an organism during its own life-history can at all affect its progeny—any more, for instance, than the chipping or the twisting of a vessel can modify the chemical constitution of whatever substance the vessel may contain. In short, it is only so-called congenital variations—or variations. of germ-plasma—that can be inherited ; and, therefore, it is only upon such variations that survival of the fittest is able to act. All variations afterwards superinduced in the organism—whether by way of mutilation, disease, acquisi- tion of faculty, or degeneration of structure—are destined to be immediately extinguished by the death of the organism. Now, from this general theory it necessarily follows that the effects of use and disuse in the individual cannot be transmitted to progeny ; for, if they could, the fact would be fatal to the theory. Henceit is; as above observed, that Prof. Weismann is committed by his theory of heredity to a denial of the Lamarckian assumption, which, as we have seen, was accepted by Darwin. But besides this merely a friort ground of deduction from his own theory, Prof. Weismann stands upon the affirma- tion that there is, as a matter of fact, no real evidence of the effects of use and disuse being inherited. For, he maintains, all the supposed evidence on this head admits of being fully interpreted by quite another principle. When an organ (or any structure) falls into disuse, in the course of genera- tions it atrophies, becomes rudimentary, and finally disappears. This fact is generally taken as proof of the inherited effects of disuse—seeing that it is so strikingly analogous to these effects in the case of individual organisms. But there is an alternative possibility. The xatson d’étre of the organ before it fell into disuse, was its utility: it was originally built up under the nursing influence of natural selection solely on account of its serviceability. When therefore from changed conditions of life, or for any other reason, the organ ceased to be serviceable, the premium which had been previously set upon it by natural selection was withdrawn ; individuals which happened to present the organ of a size below the average were no longer eliminated in the struggle for existence, but were allowed to propagate. Thus, by free intercrossing, the average size became less and x “Ueber den Riickschr:tt in der Natur” (Freiburg, 1886). less in every succeeding generation, until eventually, acco to Weismann, it must altogether disappear. In short, as organ was originally built up by natural selection, when natu selection was withdrawn, is any other explanation required the fact that the organ progressively dwindled ? Unknown to Prof. Weismann, this principle, under the ‘* Cessation of Selection,” was enunciated by the present in a series of articles published in these pages so long ago 1873-74. Attention is now drawn to this fact nee for sake of informing biologists that the principle met with t approval of the late Mr. Darwin, and also to state exactly shape in which it was thus approved by him. For in one two particulars the idea as published in NaTuRe differs fron that which has been recently and independently arrived Prof. Weismann, As the issues of NATURE in question of print, and as the matter cannot be more briefly st than it was stated then, I may best begin by reprin portion of these articles which sets forth the principle cessation of selection, as this was accepted by Mr. Darwin. ‘‘In a former communication (NATURE, vol. ix. p. promised to advance what seemed to me a probable additional to those already known—of the reduction structures. As before stated, it was suggested to me b penetrating theory proposed by Mr. Darwin (NATURE, ‘vo! pp. 432 and 505), to which, indeed, it is but a supp Epitomising Mr. Darwin’s conception as the es n of impoverished conditions progressively reducing the size of a useless structure by means of free interer present cause may be defined as the mere cessation of tive influence from changed condition of life. = ‘* Suppose a structure to have been raised by natural from 0 to average size 100, and then to have become less. The selective influence would now not only be’ but reversed ; for, through Economy of Growth—w by this term both the direct and the indirect ir selection—it would rigidly eliminate the variations &c., and favour the variations 99, 98, 97, &c. F definition we shall neglect the influence of economy Ico, and so isolate the effects due to the mere W selection. By the conditions of our assumpti above 100 are eliminated, while below 100 indis tion is permitted. Thus, the selective premium 99 being no greater than that upon 98, 98 would ha chance of leaving offspring which would inherit and variation as would 99 ; similarly, 97 would have as good a as 98, and so on. Now there is a much greater chance of tions being perpetuated at or below 99, than at or ab for at 100 the hard line of selection (or cconewey: while there is no corresponding line below Ico. the quence of free intercrossing would therefore be to re average from 100 to 99. Simultaneously, however, w reducing process, other variations would be surviv in greater numbers than above 99; consequently tl would next become reduced to 98. There would thus operations going on side by side—the one ever de symmetry of distribution ’ round the average, ‘and the tending to restore it.’ It is evident, however, that the r average is reduced by this process of indiscriminate variatior less chance there remains for its further reduction, Whe instance, it falls to 90, there are numerically (though not a because of inheritance) 89 to 9 in favour of diminutic when it falls to 80 there are only 79 to 19 in such favour. theoretically, the average would continue to diminish at a and slower rate, until it comes to 50, where, the cha favour of increase and of diminution being equal, it remain stationary. ai ‘‘Having thus, for the sake of clearness, cons! principle apa:t, let us now observe the effect of sup it the influence of the economy of growth—a princi which i's action must always be associated, Briefly, t As stated in the text, the leading idea in Mr. Darwin's sugge: that impoverished conditions of life would accentuate the p Economy of Nutrition, and so assist in the reduction of useless l free intercrossing. Now, inthis idea that of the cessation of sele really implied ; i neither in his own article nor ina subsequen Mr. George Darwin on the same subject (NATURE, October 16. 18 exhibited as an independent principle. _ It was inarticulate} the much less significant principle of impoverished conditions. Aft however, Mr. Darwin expressed himself as fully persuaded of the 1 dent character of the more important principle, which he was really to perceive, althcugh not clearly to express. _Moreover, he was probably a principle of universal application, not only as regal mentary organs, but also as regards degenerated structures in gene = NATURE 403 influence would be that of continually favouring the variations onthe side of diminution, the effect of its presence would be that of continuously preventing the average from becoming fixed at 50, 40, 30, &c. In other words, the ‘hard line of selection’ which was originally placed at 109, would now become progres- sively lowered through 90, £0, 70, &c.; always allowing indiscriminate variation below the barrier, but never above it.* It will be understood that by ‘cessation of selection from ged conditions of life,’ I mean a change of any kind which s the affected organ superfluous. Take, for example, the converse of Mr. George Darwin’s illustration, by supposing of cattle to migrate from a small tract of poor pasture to ze tract of rich. Segregation would ensue, the law of would become less severe, while variation would be ed in a cumulative manner by the increase of food. The males with shorter horns would thus have as good a of leaving progeny as ‘their longer-horned brothers,’ the average length would gradually diminish as in the other Of course, as the predisposing cause of impoverished would now be absent, the reducing process would take at a slower rate. Moreover, it is to be remarked that this ciple differs in an important particular from that enunciated . Darwin, in that it could never reduce an organ much the point at which the economy of growth, together with ceases to act. For, returning to our numerical illustra- se this point t» be 6, the average would eventually come fixed at 3. That the principle thus explained has a real existence we safely conclude, theoretical consid:rations apart, from the ogy afforded by our domestic races ; for nothing is more certain to. breeders than the fact that neglect causes degeneration, even though the strain be kept isolated.” _ Evidence of the wide-reaching operation of this principle under Nature must be sought for in cases where it is impossible: that disuse can have had any part in the reducing*process—seeing that we cannot all agree with Prof. Weismann in dismissing the ency of disuse on a@ frisri grounds of deduction from his ry of germ-plasma. Now, although it is not at all an easy _ thing to find cases where the influence of the cessation of selection + of being demonstrably dissociated from the possible fluence of disuse, the following appear to meet the requirements . LO of the proof :— Pies ele multitude of instances where recapitulative es are absent from the: developmental history of an embryo stand for so many proofs of reduction without the agency of For, inasmuch as.none of the structures represented in e phases elsewhere can ever have-been of any ws¢to the embryo from: which they have disappeared, it is sufficiently evident that their obliteration can never hive been due to disuse. asmuch as such structures persist in the embryos of a//ied species, it appears.equally evident that their reduction cannot be ascribed to natural selection acting through the economy of nutrition ; for, were this the case, natural selection ought to have effected the reduction in the embryos of all the species. (2), Even in adult organisms we meet with many structures which, although of obvious wse in the sense of affording ates tion, yet cannot be said ever to be wsed in the sense of being amen employed, or of being employed in any way that could possibly lead to their structure being modified by their function. Of such, for example, are the hard coverings of animals and of parts of plants. It is impossible that the thickness of shells, for instance, can ever have been increased by their ‘‘ use ” as pro- tective coverings, seeing that the use is here wholly passive—is not of the active kind which determines a greater flow of nutri- tion to the part. Hence, we can only attribute the formation of such structures to the unaided influence of selection. But, if so, we can only attribute to the cessation of selection their subsequent T [tis desirable to remark that this numerical mode of representing the principle is adopted only for the purposes of exposition. The exact point at which equilibrium would reached in actual fact we have no means of ascertaining, since such would depend in any given case upon the original force of inheritance, or the persistence with whic heredity would assert itself when left entirely to itself —and of th's we have no means of judging. There- fore, I adopt the numerical mode of representing the progressive decline of a structure uader the cessation of selection merely to show that at whatever point we may suppose equilibrium to be reached—or a state of balance be- tween heredity and indiscriminate variation to be attained—this point must become ee ae by the superadded influence of the econony oo t may, however, be remarked that the initial stages of reduction id probably take place more rapidly than subsequent stages, seeing that the maxinum efficiency of a structure is maintained, not only by heredity, but also by the continued influence of selection. Therefore, when the in- fluence of selection is withdrawn, indiscriminate variation would rapidly degrade the structure through the in‘tial stages of its reduction. / leaves. . And, for- | degeneration in all cases—such as that of male cirripedes, hinder parts of hermit crabs, &c.—where changed conditions of life _ have rendered these parts no longer needful in the struggle for ' existence. : Here, indeed, economy of growth may have assisted in the reduction; but, whether or not, disuse can scarcely have done so, and this is the point with which we are at present concerned. (3) In many species of social Hymenoptera the neuter insects have lost their wings. Now, as these neuter insects never have progeny, it is evident that the reduction of their wings cannot possibly have been. due to the inherited effects of disuse. We must, therefore, set. it down to the cessation of selection, joined, perhaps, with the economy of growth. This is a particularly cogent line of proof, seeing that in some species the head, jaws, and other parts of the neuters have been enlarged, in order the better to fit them for heavy work where strength or fighting is required. Had such an enlargement beew met with in the case of an animal which leaves progeny, the fact might well have been attributed to the inherited effects of increased wse. But, as the matter stands, these neuter insects are available as a demonstra- tive and a double proof of the possibility both of the development and the degeneration of important structures without the aid either of use or of disuse. (4) In his essay on ‘‘Degeneration,” Prof. Lankesternames three distinct sets of conditions as those under which the process has taken place, and all these are conditions under which the cessation of selection must have taken place. First, ‘* Any new set of conditions occurring to an animal which render its food and safety very easily attained, seem to lead as a rule to degener- ation. . . . The habit of parasitism clearly acts upon animal organisation in this way. Let the parasitic life once be secured, and away go legs, jaws, eyes, and ears.” In other words, so soon as these organs, which were originally built wp by natural selection for the purpose of securing ‘food and. safety,” are rendered superfluous by food and safety being otherwise secured, all selective premium on their efficiency is withdrawn, and so they are allowed to degenerate by indiscriminate variation. Second, ‘‘ Let us suppose-a race of animals fitted and accustomed to catch their food, and having a variety of organs to help them in the chase—suppose such animals suddenly to acquire the power of feeding on the carbonic acid dissolved in the water around them just as green plants do. This would tend to degeneration ; they would cease to hunt their food, and would bask in the sun- light, taking food in by the whole surface, as plants do by their .. These vegetating animals .... show how a degeneration of animal forms may be caused by vegetative nutrition.” Now, to ‘‘cease to hunt their food” is here equivalent to their ceasing to be under the influence of natural selection with respect to their food-hunting organs, just as in the previous case. Third, ‘‘ Another possible cause of degeneration appears to be the indirect one of minute size. . . . The needs of a very minute creature are limited as compared with those of a large one, and thus we may find heart and blood-vessels, gills and kidneys, besides legs and muscles, lost by the diminutive degenerate descendants of a larger race.” But, if “the meed's of a very minute creature are limited as compared with those of a large one,” this is the same as to say that in the ‘‘ diminutive descendants of a larger race” natural selection will no longer operate for the maintenance of structures which have become needless. In fact, in this passage Prof. Lankester comes very near an express statement of the principle of the cessation of selection. ; The sundry instances given in the above paragraphs may, I hope, be held sufficient firmly to establish this principle, and to show that it is one of universal application, wherever an organ or a structure has ceased to be of service to the species presenting it.1 Now, quite apart from the reference in which we have © Or; if these instances are not held sufficient for this purpose, I may refer to Prof. Weismann’s essay, where further instances are given, and also supplement them with the following passage from my old articles in NATURE :— i : “Tf it be supposed that disuse is the chief cause of atrophy in wild species, then it has not produced so much effect in tame species as we should antece- dently expect. . . . For, supposing the cessation of selection to be here the only cause at work, what degree of atrophy should we expect to fini? Be- fore I turned to the valuable measurements given in the ‘ Variation of Plants and Animals under Domestication,” I concluded (cf. Nature, vol. ix. p. 441) that from 20 to 25 per cent. is the maximum of reduction we should ex- pect this unassisted —v to accomplish, in the case of natural as dis- tinguished from artificiaily-bred organs. Now on calculating the average afforded by each of Mr. Darwin's tables, and then reducing the averages to arts of 100, I find that the highest average decrease is 16 per cent., and the 5 5; the average of the averages being rather less than ra. Only four 404 NATURE hitherto been considering this principle—or with reference to use and disuse—we have here a consideration of great importance in regard to the subject of Prof. Lankester’s essay above quoted. Apparently without having either heard or thought of the prin- ciple of cessation, Dr. Dohrn was led to attribute an important part in the drama of evolution to the effects of cessation, as these are witnessed in the phenomena of degeneration.1 About the Jacts of degeneration there can be no doubt, and to this naturalist belongs the credit of having first perceived the wide range of their importance. But, on account of having missed the principle of cessation, both Dr. Dohrn and his English expositor, Prof. Lan- kester,? fell into an omission of zxterpretation. For they both at- tributed the facts of degeneration to a reversal of natural selection ; they represented that degeneration could only take place under a change in the conditions of life such that organs or structures previously useful become, not merely useless, but deleterious. Degeneration was thus regarded as always the result of what may be termed active hostility on the part of natural selection ; not as the result of a merely passive disregard. Hence the sphere within which the phenomena of degeneration might be expected —or admitted of being satisfactorily explained—was needlessly limited. For instance, Prof. Lankester writes: ‘‘It is clearly enough possible for a set of forces such as we sum up in the term ‘ natural selection’ to so act on the structure of an organism as to.... . diminish the complexity of its structure.” But in order ‘‘to diminish the complexity ” of any useless structure, it is not necessary that natural selection should ‘act on the structure ” : the complexity, like the size, of the structure would necessarily diminish under the mere withdrawal of selection. And hence the phenomena of degeneration do not require, either that the organism presenting them should ever have found its useless organs actively deleterious, or that there should ever have been any ‘‘ Functions-wechsels ” in the case.? The case of degenerated complexity proves that the cessation of selection may effect degradation without assistance from the economy of nutrition. Iam therefore more disposed to think that the s¢ze of any useless structure may be reduced to a greater extent by the mere cessation of selection (apart from economy), individual cases fall below 25 per cent., and of these two should be omitted (cf. ‘Variation,’ p. 272). Thus, out-of eighty-three examples, only two fall below the lowest average expected (¢.e. on the supposition that disuse has not had anything to do with the reduction). Moreover, we should scarcely expect disuse alone to affect in so similar a degree such widely different tissues asare brain and muscle. The deformity of the sternum in fowls also points to the cessation of selection rather than to disuse. Further, the fact that several of our domestic animals have not varied at all is inex- licable upon the one supposition, while it affords no difficulty to the other. e have seen that disuse can only act by causing variations; and so we can see no reason why, if it acts upon a duck, it should not also act upon a goose. But the cessation of selection depends upon variations being supplied to it; and so, if from any reason a specific type does not vary, this principle cannot act. Why one type should vary, and another not, is a distinct ques- tion, the difficulty of which is embodied by the one supposition, and excluded by the other. For, to say that disuse has not acted upon type A, because of its inflexible constitution, while it has acted on a closely allied type B, because of its flexible constitution, is merely to insinuate that disuse, having proved itself inadequate to cause reduction in the one case, may nct have been the efficient cause of reduction in the other. But the counter-supposi- tion altogether excludes the idea of a causal connection, and so rests upon the more ultimate fact of differential variability, as not requiring to be ex- plained. Lastly, it is remarkable that those animals which have not suffered reduction in any part of their bodies are likewise the animals which have not varied in any other way, and conversely ; for as there can be no causal con- nection between these two peculiarities, the fact of the intimate association between them tends to show that special reduction depends upon general variability, rather than that special variability depends upon special reducing causes. * “Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere wechsels ”’ (Leipzig, 1875). : a ** Degeneration : a Chapter in Darwinism ”’ (London, 1880). is The same considerations apply to the size of an organism asa whole. If for any reason it ceases to be an advantage to be kept up to the ancestral standard of size, the cessation of selection as regards size would result in a gradual diminution of size, even though the ancestral standard of size were not actually deleterious. Yet, in the last of the passages above quoted from rof, iankester—and the passage in his essay where he most nearly approaches the principle of selection as withdrawn—the context shows that he only has in view the principle of selection as reversed. For he says :—‘‘It cannot be doubted that natural selection has frequently acted on a race of animals so as to reduce the size of the individuals. The smallness of size has been favourable to their survival in the struggle for existence.’? Of course it cannot be doubted ” that this has been so in many cases ; but as little can it be doubted that it has not been so in all. In any given case of diminu- tion, it Is not necessary to suppose that ‘‘the smallness of size has been favourable in the struggle for existence” : it is enough if the previous large- ness of size has ceased to be so, or that smallness of size is no longer delete- vious. Moreover, the same considerations apply to instincts. For example, it can scarcely ever have been a fatal disadvantage to the slave-making ants that they should be able to eat their own food; therefore the loss of their original instincts, which now renders them dependent on their slaves for being fed, can only have been brought about by the cessation ofselection—not by its reversal. und der Princip des Functions- observes, ‘‘ rudimentary organs are so extremely comme than I thought when writing the articles above quoted. — however, we must remember that the hold which heredity upon complexity is much less than that which it has upon This is evident, not only from obvious considerations priort kind, but also from such cases as those of the bli crabs of Kentucky. Here the disused eyes have been 1] while the foot-stalks which originally supported them have been retained. Now, we can well understand why the should have been the first to disappear under the cessat selection, seeing that they were structures so highly org that the continuous influence of selection must have been requ ir to preserve them in a state of efficiency before the animals beg to inhabit the dark caves ; and, therefore, that when the ani did begin to inhabit these caves, such refined and structures would rapidly degenerate through the mere wit of selection. But if we were to attribute any large share process of rapid degeneration to the economy of nutri should be unable to explain the persistence of the foot Therefore, the cessation of selection, when acting alone, is proved capable of reducing a complex structure more qui it can reduce a larger but less complex structure, in the species and under the same conditions. Be It is true that in a passage above quoted, and » published two years before Dr. Dohrn’s essay, I myself ati the phenomena of degeneration to a ‘‘reversal of nat tion.”? But I alluded to such reversal only in so far as it ; from the economy of nutrition (¢.2. I did not suppose th generation can only occur when useless parts become deleterious, and therefore require the active agency of to remove them) ; and the effect of reading the sul published literature on the subject of degeneration has t make me attribute more importance to the cessation of s and less importance to the economy of nutrition. Ne I still believe that these principles are inadequate to final and total obliteration of organs which by their c action they have rendered rudimentary. ine And these remarks lead me to indicate the points hypothesis of the cessation of selection differs from has recently been published by Prof. Weismann. Brie does not mention the assistance which this principle derive that of the economy of nutrition, and he believes that it is itself sufficient to explain the final and total obliteration of 1 parts. Having already given my reasons for pea >: views with regard to both these points, it will now suffi to re-state the principles which I suggested in the N. articles as having been most probably concerned in this fir total obliteration of useless parts. These principles are number, and are both quite independent of those which hitherto been considering, The first of them is inh earlier periods of life, which progressively pushes development of a useless rudiment toa more and more stage of growth ; and the second is the eventual failure principle of inheritance itself. For, ‘‘ whether or not in Pangenesis, we cannot but deem it in the highest probable that the influence of heredity is of unlimited d This view of the matter renders it abundantly intel it is that, when once the cessation of selection—co-ope! the economy of nutrition—has with comparative rapidit any useless organ to a rudiment, the latter should th for so enormous a length of time that in the result, as M ey scarcely one species can be named which is wholly free : blemish of this nature.” bears We have seen that in the cessation of selection recognise one of the principal causes of atrophy in speci in whatever measure we hold the presence of selection planatory of evolution, in a corresponding measure hold the withdrawal of selection accountable for deg But from this it does not necessarily follow that no o' either of evolution or of degeneration are to be found naturalists who adopt the light and easy method of out-Da Darwin, or close their eyes to every other “‘ factor” save natural selection, may indeed rest satisfied with these plementary principles as in themselves adequate to 1 Prof. Weismann christens the principle which I have called Ce Selection, Kehrseite der Naturstichtung ; but, for reasons above gi not think that this is so good aname as that which he e incidentally, and which, indeed, is an unconscious translation of my 0 —namely, Nachlass der Naturstichtung. ; ? Natures, doc. cit., where sée for a fuller discussion of the cau to eventual and total suppressicn. E NATURE 405 the facts both of progress and of regress. But, unless we are satisfied to walk upon the high frori road to the exclusion of very other, we must not too readily assume that the presence and the absence of selection have been the only factors at work. In particular, we have now to consider whether use and disuse have co-operated with the presence and the absence Selection in bringing about the existing state of matters organic Nature as a whole. Now, the only way in which this inquiry can be conducted is the method of difference. We must search through organic ure in order to ascertain whether there are any cases either of tion or of degeneration where it is manifestly impossible either the presence or the absence of selection can have had hing to do with the process. If we can find any such cases, we 1 not merely save Darwin from his friends by justifying his ance of the Lamarckian assumption: we shall prove that mably in a// cases where the presence or the absence of lection has been concerned in either building up or breaking down organic structures, these principles have been largely assisted in their operations by the inherited effects of use and disuse. For if it can be proved that these effects are inherited cases where it is impossible that the principle of selection— its cessation—can have obtained, it would be irrational to. y that they are also inherited in other cases where these principles do obtain. _ Seeing that so accomplished a naturalist and so philosophic a thinker as Prof. Weismann has declared that there is no one case to be found such as those of which we are in search, we must be red to expect some difficulty in meeting with examples of _ the uncompounded influence of use and disuse—even supposing use and disuse to be the true causes of specific modification that they were taken to be by Darwin. In order to show the kind of difficulty that here besets inquiry, I will quote a passage from Mr. Spencer’s recently-published essay upon the subject. ‘* When discussing the question more than twenty years ago (‘ Principles of Biology,’ § 166), I instanced the decreased size of ae jaws in the civilised races of mankind as a change not unted for by the natural selection of favourable variations ; ince no one of the decrements by which, in thousands of years, reduction has been effected would have given to an individual in which it occurred such advantage as would cause his survival, ther through diminished cost of local nutrition or diminished eight to be carried. . Reconsideration of the facts not show me the invalidity of the conclusion drawn, that his decrease in the size of the jaw can have had no other cause than continued inheritance of those diminutions consequent on diminutions of function, implied by the use of selected and well- prepared food. Here, however, my chief purpose is to add an instance showing, even more clearly, the connection between change of function and change of structure. This instance, allied in nature to the other, is presented by those varieties—or, rather, sub-varieties—of dogs, which, having been household pets, and habitually fed on soft food, have not been called upon to use their jaws in tearing and crunching, and have been but _ rarely allowed to use them in catching prey and in fighting.” There follows an account of a somewhat laborious examination of dogs’ skulls in the Museum of Natural History, the result of which was to show that ‘‘ we have two, if not three, kinds of _ dog, which, similarly leading protected and pampered lives, show _ that in the course of generations the parts concerned in clenching the jaws have dwindled ;” after which the passage proceeds as follows :— ‘*To what cause must this decrease be ascribed? Certainly not to-artificial selection ; for most of the modifications named __. make no appreciable external signs: the width across the zygomata could alone be perceived. Neither can natural selec- tion have had anything to do with it; for even were there any struggle for existence among such dogs, it cannot be contended that any advantage in the struggle could be gained by an indi- vidual in which a decrease took place. Economy of nutrition, too, is excluded. Abundantly fed as such dogs are, the consti- tutional tendency is to find places where excess of absorbed nutriment may be conveniently deposited, rather than to find eee where the cutting down of the supplies is practicable. Nor, again, can there be alleged a possible correlation between these diminutions and that shortening of the jaws which has probably resulted from selection ; for in the bull-dog, which has also relatively short jaws, the structures concerned in closing them are unusually large. Thus, there remains as the only conceivable cause, the diminution of size which results from diminished use.” * Evidently Mr. Spencer has never heard or thought of the cessation of selection, either as explained thirteen years ago by ‘myself, or as republished within the last few months by Prof. Weismann. For it is evident that, far from his having excluded all conceivable causes of the diminution save that of diminished use, it would be difficult to find a case more favourable to the influence of the cessation of selection. The dogs in question have been ‘* habitually fed on soft food, have .not been called on to use their jaws in tearing and crunching, and have been but rarely allowed to use them in catching prey and in fighting.” In other words, for at least a hundred generations these dogs have been ‘leading protected and pampered lives,” wholly shielded from the struggle for existence and survival of the fittest. Never having had to use their jaws either in ‘‘ tearing, crunching, catching prey, or fighting,” they, more than any other dogs— even of domesticated breeds—have not been “ called on” to use their jaws for any life-serving purpose. Clearly, therefore, if the cessation of selection ever acts at all as a reducing cause in species, here is a case where it is positively bound to act. And, of course, the same remark applies to the analogous case of the diminished size of the jaws in civilised man. Be it observed, I am not disputing that disuse may in both these cases have co-operated with the cessation of selection in bringing about the observed result. Indeed, I am rather dis- posed to allow that the large amount of reduction described in the case of the dogs as having taken place in so comparatively short a time, is strongly suggestive of disuse having co-operated with the cessation ofselection. But at present I am merely pointi out that Mr. Spencer’s investigations have here failed to exhibit the crucial proof of disuse as a reducing cause which he assigns to them ; it is not true that in these cases disuse ‘‘ remains as the only conceivable cause.” Far more successful, however, is his second line of argument. Indeed, to me it has always appeared, since I first encountered it fifteen years ago in the ‘‘ Principles of Biology,” as little short of demonstrative proof of the Lamarckian assumption. Therefore, if, as a result of reading the passage above quoted, one feels disposed to regret that before publishing it Mr. Spencer did not have his attention called to Prof. Weismann’s essay on the cessation of selection, still more must one regret that before publishing that essay Prof. Weismann should have failed to remember the ‘‘ Principles of Biology.” For, had he done so, it seems impossible that he could ever have committed himself to the statement that there is no evidence of functionally-produced modifications being inherited, and thus he might have been led to pause before announcing—at least in its present shape—his theory of germ-plasma. The argument whereby in my opinion Mr. Spencer succeeds in virtually proving theftruth of the Lamarckian assumption is expanded in his recently-published essay, from which, therefore, I will quote. ‘* Tf, then, in cases where we can test it, we find no concomi- tant variation in co-operative parts that are near together—if we do not find it in parts which, though belonging to different tissues, are so closely united as teeth and jaws—if we do not find it even when the co-operative parts are not only closely united, but are formed out of the same tissue, like the crab’s eye and its peduncle ; what shall we say of co-operative parts which, besides being composed of different tissues, are remote from one another ? Not only are we forbidden to assume that they vary together, but we are warranted in asserting that they can have no tendency to vary together. And what are the implications in cases where increase of a structure can be of no service unless there is con: comitant increase in many distant structures, which have to join it in performing the action for which it is useful ? ** As far back as 1864 (‘ Principles of Biology,’ § 166) I named in illustration an animal carrying heavy horns—the extinct Irish elk ; and indicated the many changes in bones, muscles, blood- vessels, nerves, composing the fore-part of the body, which would be required to make an increment of size in such horns advantageous. Here let me take another instance—that of the giraffe : an instance which I take partly because, in the sixth [last] edition of the ‘ Origin of Species,’ issued in 1872, Mr. Darwin has referred to this animal when effectually disposing of certain arguments urged against his hypothesis. He there says :— ***Tn order that an animal should acquire some structure specially and largely developed, it is almost indispensable that several other parts snould be modified and co-adapted. Although every part of the body varies slightly, it does not follow that the necessary parts should always vary in the right direction and to the right degree’ (p. 179). 406 NATURE * . [ Asepust 25, ‘¢ And in the summary of the chapter, he remarks concerning the adjustments in the same quadruped, that ‘ the prolonged use of all the parts, together with inheritance, will have aided in an important manner in this co-adaptation’ (p. 199): a remark probably having reference to the increased massiveness of the lower part of the neck ; the increased size and strength of the thorax required to bear the additional burden ; and the increased strength of the fore-legs required to carry the greater weight of both. But now I think. that further consideration suggests the belief that the entailed modifications are much more numerous and remote than at first appears; and that the greater part of these aresuch as cannot be ascribed in any degree to the selection of favourable variations, but must be ascribed exclusively to the inherited effects of changed functions.” The passage then proceeds to trace these modifications of structure in detail ; showing that the changes in the fore-quarters entail corresponding changes in the hind-quarters, which when . running ‘‘ perform actions differing in one or another way and degree from all the actions performed by the homologous bones and muscles in a mammal of ordinary proportions, and from those of the ancestral mammal which gave birth to the giraffe.” Thus it is shown that bones, muscles, blood-vessels, nerves, and indeed. nearly all the constituent structures of the body, have everywhere been more or less modified as to relative size and function, in order to adapt the giraffe as a whole to the unusual development of its neck : this unusual development has entailed changes, and changes, and counter-changes, which have eventually spread throughout the whole organisation of the animal. Now, it appears to me that we have in this a most cogent argument in favour of the inherited effects of use and disuse. For, seeing how immense must be the sum of the organic changes required to produce this mutual co-adaptation of many structures, the chances against their all happening to occur to- gether by way of fortuitous variation must be, as Mr. Spencer observes, infinity to one. Yet unless they all did occur together in the same organism—and this repeatedly—the co-adaptations in question cannot have been due to natural selection. With more or less success Mr. Spencer develops several other lines of argument ; but as they cannot well be reproduced without occupying more space than can here be allowed, I will conclude by adding to his material yet another consideration which appears to me to be entitled to great weight. When we search through the animal kingdom, we meet with certain instincts which cannot reasonably be supposed to subserve any such life-preserving function as that which has led to the survival, through natural selection, of instincts in general. Now the existence of instincts which are thus not of vital importance to the species presenting them can only be explained by the hereditary effects of function. For instance, it is difficult to suppose that the instinct, which is still inherited by our domesticated dogs, of turning round and round to trample down a-comfortable bed before lying down, can ever have been of so life-preserving a character as to have been developed ‘by survival of the fittest. Or, if this instance be held doubtful, what shall we say to the courting instincts in general, and to the play-instincts of the bower-bird in par- ticular, which are surely quite without meaning from any utilitarian point of view? And these instincts naturally lead on to the zesthetic faculties of mankind, few of which can be possibly ascribed to natural selection, as Mr. Spencer very conclusively shows. _ And here it becomes needful again to say a few words on Prof. Weismann’s essay, by way of criticism. For he, too, has there considered the case of instincts, but this in a manner which can scarcely be termed fortunate. For example, he particularly instances the case of hereditary fear of enemies as one which “supports his argument against the inheritance of functionally-pro- duced modifications, Now, this happens to be one of the instincts which I have elsewhere specially chosen as yielding par- ticularly good proof of the hereditary transmission of individual experience, apart from natural selection, And the proof consists | merely in showing, from abundant testimony, that * the original tameness of animals in islands unfrequented by man gradually | passes into an hereditary instinct of wildness as the special | experiences of man’s proclivities accumulate ; and that such instinctive adaptation to newly developing conditions may take place without much aid from selection is shown by the short time, or the small number of generations, which is sufficient to allow for the change.” But although I think that Prof. Weismann’s — selection of this instinct is a particularly unfortunate one for the | * Mental Evolution in Animals,” p. 197, where see for evidence. i cessation of selection is itself assisted by the economy purpose of showing that its acguisition can only be natural selection, I quite agree with him in holding that generation in our domesticated animals is due to the witl of natural selection—at least in considerable part. Again, he argues that if acquired mental proclivities are inherited we should expect the human infant, without individual instruction, to converse. For, he argues, ever § man became human he has been a talking animal, a fore, if there were any truth in the view that knowledge acc by individuals tends to be transmitted to their progeny, h a case where the fact ought to admit of abundant proc every child requires to be taught its mother-tongue individual experience. Now, without waiting to show the manifest unfairness example—seeing how enormously complex a system of relations the speaking of even the simplest Jan e im is enough for our present purposes to observe been itself the product of an immensely prolonged elaborate evolution. Although it is true that man — been a talking animal, it is very far from true that. talked the same language, As a matier of fact, he hz thousands of different languages, and if the genetic hi one of them could now be traced back to its original b probability is that it would be found to have passed some hundreds of phases, no one of which would have intelligible to the generations which spoke the others, — quently, even if we were to adopt the impossible supp any length of. time could be sufficient to enable elaborate so huge an amount of instinctive acquisi be required to render the knowledge of any lan there would still remain this answer to Prof, Weis namely, that if a child cou/d talk by instinct, it would re astonish its parents by addressing them in at least unknown tongues, before arriving at the one whi could understand. ie So much, then, by way of answer to Prof, supposed difficulty. But the matter does not end for if he had searched the whole range of hu he could scarcely have found a worse exampl support of his argument, seeing that it admits against that argument with the most overwhelm argument is that the fact of speech not being ins’ that acquired knowledge is not transmitted, Now, we seen it to be manifestly impossible that so elaborate, recent, a body of acquired knowledge should be even though it were true that many instincts had be this way. Nevertheless, it might still be —as, indeed, Weismann says—that the simpler serve to characterise all spoken languages alike, and fore, have always constituted the common elements as such—it might reasonably be urged that these simpl which are thus common to all languages might by this time to have become instinctive, if there is in the Lamarckian doctrine of the inherited effects | function. Butthisis exactly what we find, Theonly ele are common to all languages are the simplest eleme Ss lation ; and it is now established beyond doubt that infant is endowed with the instinct of making a Long before the powers of understanding are suffic to admit of the child making any rational use: begins to babble meaningless syllabic utterances. these utterances are extremely simple when contrast enormous complexity which they are soon destined t intelligible speech, yet, regarded in themselves, hereditary endowments, the evolution of represent is by no means contemptible, For they highly peculiar as well as highly co-ordinated moy: larynx, tongue, lips, and respiratory muscle=, not ta special innervation which all this requires, or special cerebral conformation which it betokens. illustration of spoken language, far from ma ! doctrine of Lamarck, is one of the best illustrations adduced in its favour ; for surely it is in itself an fact that the young of the only talking animal should sent the instinct of making articulate sounds—just as presents the instinct of alternately placing one leg other, in a manner suited to walking in an erect posit Upon the whole, then, I conclude that the ef disuse are certainly inherited ; that the reducing influ latter are largely assisted by the cessation of selection ; * NALURE ; 497 vhich constantly depresses the average size of any useless struc- re; and that in a comparatively few cases, where changed. con- ditions of life have rendered a previously useful organ actively injurious, the influence of selection may not only be withdrawn, yut reversed. And if in justification of these views I were re- red to adduce any single tests as crucial, I should point on one hand to the neuter ants, and on the other hand to the bower-birds. For the neuter ants prove to demonstration the «t of developing such important structures as enlarged and rengthened jaws through the agency of selection, and of totally ‘such important structures as wings through the cessation ection —in both cases under circumstances which effectually ude the possibility of any inherited effects of use and disuse. ‘On the other hand, the bower-birds no less conclusively prove the fact of developing highly elaborate and most remarkable in- stincts, which are entirely without reference to any life-preserving function, and therefore can be ascribed only to the inherited effects of functionally-acquired peculiarities. _ If this paper has been at all successful in its objects, it must have brought into prominence one point which I am particularly anxious to make clear—namely, that it is a pre- carious thing to differ, in any point of biological doctrine, from the matured judgment of Charles Darwin. The more deeply his work is studied, the more profoundly is the conviction im- , that even though he did not always give it, he always a reason for the faith that was, in him, Therefore, before is followers venture to question a doctrine which was sanctioned by him, common prudence should dictate a careful pondering of the matter. Some of the readers of NATURE may have been led to suppose that as to this I am myself living in a glass house, For my recent suggestion of an additional ‘‘ factor of organic evolution” has had the effect of bringing many stones about my head with regard to this very point. But these have mostly been thrown by men who have not taken the trouble to acquaint selves with the exact nature of Mr. Darwin’s final judg- upon the points in question. As a matter of fact, there is ‘one point upon which I have deviated at all from the latest litions of Mr. Darwin’s works—namely, as to the degree in ich free intercrossing is inimical to natural selection—and, usly enough, this is just the point which my critics for the part disregard. I am blamed for my arrogance in dis- g the universally adaptive character of specific distinctions, rming the generality of some degree of sterility between vies, and so forth; but all these criticisms only serve to mplify the truth of what I am now saying—namely, that before anyone ventures to write about Darwinism he should take the trouble to ascertain exactly what it was that Darwin thought. ; GEORGE J. ROMANES. THE AUGUST METEORS OF 1887. “THE circumstances attending the recurrence of this celebrated meteoric display were by. no means favourable in the pre- sent year. On August ro and ri the moon rose before Ir p.m., so that during later hours the smaller and more numerous class of meteors, many of which would have been visible on a dark _ sky-ground, were obliterated. Apart from this, the night of the 11th was much overcast, and comparatively few observations could be secured. But, making every allowance for hindrances of this character, the recent shower has proved itself decidedly inferior to many of the conspicuous returns recorded in previous ears. . But if this notable stream has been deficient in numerical strength, it has exhibited some features which, though previously observed, have never been capable of being so definitely and - satisfactorily traced in their development as during the present I refer to the displacement of the apparent radiant point amongst the stars, and to the visible duration of the shower, both of which form important elements in determining the physical nature of the system and in theoretical investigations as to the perturbations which our earth may have exercised upon it during the frequent rencontres with its materials in past “eT he very clear weather recently experienced enabled the pro- of the display to be watched on fourteen nights between July 19 and August 14, and the radiant point on each one was determined separately, as by combining the results of several nights the changes in its position would have been rendered more difficult of detection. I first pointed out this change in the radiant in NATURE, vol. xvi. p. 362, and subsequently ~ further details were {published in the Afonthly Notices for De- cember 1884, pp. 97-98. In Narurg, vol. xxxiv. p. 373, will also be found the observations of this peculiarity made here in 1836, but they were not so complete as during the present year, when the radiant centres were successively derived as under. Great Perseid Radiant Point 1887. Night. Radiant... Meteors. Night. Radiant. Meteors. a ; a i} ° oO ° ° DWY, 29: a0. 29-4: SE. vee 6 August r ww. 35 +56 wm ¢ 22 «se 25 52 ee § 6 ee 42 +55 we 5 23 we 25-52 ee 4 T 0 43 £56 we 5 27 we 29454 om 5 BS un 43. + 56 6 22 ose 30 + 55, ccm IO IO. so 424 + st 22 29 ww. 3% + 5th -» IO IX, os 45. + 57 16 31 35 +54 o II 14 53 + 5% ««. 8 It will be noticed that these figures do not show a perfectly regular progression of the radiant in the direction of east-north- east. This is, however, en:irely owing to observational errors — which cannot be wholly eliminated from such determinations. Thus the radiant given above for August 6 is no doubt slightly east, and the one for August 10 slightly west, of the true positions. But these trivial discordances in individual positions do not affect the general result, which shows in the clearest manner possible that there is a rapid advance of the radiant from night to night. From .all my observations since 1867, which include several thousands of Perseids, I believe this shower extends over a duration of at least forty days, from July 13 to August 22. The earliest visible meteors of the stream emanate from a point between Cassiopeia and Andromeda, while the latest ones diverge from the space separating Auriga and Camelopardus. From its first oncoming to the epoch of culmination on the night of August Io it does not gradually intensify but reaches a somewhat sudden maximum. I have sometimes found these meteors rather scarce on August 6, 7, and 8, and not much ex- ceeding their observed frequency at the end of July. But on August 9 there is a marked increase, and on the following night it is apparent the shower, attains its most brilliant effect. As to the displacement of the radiant this seems to be accelerated during the declining stages of the display. In July I find the degrees of right ascension of the shower nearly correspond with the days of the month, the diurnal advance being equivalent to about 1° of R.A., whereas on nights succeeding the maximum the change amounts to 2° of R,A. oreven more. This difference in place is so striking that any observer may determine it for ‘ himself by watching the region of Perseus at the right epoch and charting, with the utmost accuracy, the directions of such meteors as presumably originate from the Perseid stream. These meteors generally leave streaks which furnish a ready means of fixing the paths with a degree of precision that could not be otherwise attained, In NATURE for August 4, p. 318, I described my observations up to July 29 last. On July 31 I recorded 42 meteors in a watch of 3} hours, but the moonlight interfered considerably with the work, as it also did on following nights. The Perseids formed one-fourth ef the visible meteors on July 31. I saw 25 meteors on August I in 3} hours, but the Perseid display was only just recognizable. At 12h. 18m. I observed a splendid fireball Sag somewhat slowly from 338° + 43° to 164° + 70°. It eft a bright streak or thick train in the latter part of its course, and it was evidently a member of the July Aquariads. At first it was scarcely brighter than a third magnitude star, but when near Polaris it became very brilliant, and afterwards lit up the northern sky with a flash much stronger than the moonlight. I saw 7 other Aquariads on the same night. On August 6 observations were continued, and 28 meteors were seen in 4} hours. Besides the usual shower of Perseids I was much interested in finding a companion radiant at 31°+ 49°, which was very sharply defined. I observed a shower on August 11-13, 1880, from 30° + 46° which may be the same ; and there is a great probability that this system is connected with Comet I. 1870, which passed. near the earth’s orbit and would give a radiant near that of the meteor shower and at the same epoch. On August 7, 23 meteors were seen in 2}? hours. Oaly 5 Perseids were recorded. On August 8, 14 meteors were seen in. 2} hours during moonlight, and of these one appearing at roh. 34m. was as bright as Jupiter. Its course was from 6° + 674° to 302° + 604°, and it left a bright streak. At 11h. 28m. a fireball was seen moving rather swiftly from 349° + 15° to 9° + 14}°, so that its path was one of 20° just above y Pegasi. At its end 408 NALTORE point the meteor burst out with a great accession to its brilliancy, and there was a vivid flash, though the moon was near. The radiant of this fine meteor was probably near Delphinus at 304° + 11°. On August 10, before midnight, the Perseids were by no means numerous. Only 22 were seen during 1}h., and after the moon rose the display was not critically watched, as observa- tions made during moonlight are not comparable with those obtained under more favourable conditions. There were fine meteors now and then, but the phenomenon never developed into an imposing shower. On August 11 the sky was much overcast, and not many shooting-stars were discerned. In 1 hour before 11h. 30m., when the firmament was fairly clear, I counted 21 meteors, of which 16 were Perseids. On August 14 the weather became very fine, and I enumerated 45 meteors in a 4% hours’ watch. There were only 8 Perseids, and amongst the meteors I registered were about 5 Aquariads from the same radiant as at the end of July. I also noticed the Aquariad shower at the middle of August in 1877, and in 1879 on August 21, 14 meteors were traced from 339 — 10°, so that it would appear this system is prolonged until the end of the third week in August, and without any apparent displacement of the radiant point. The members of the latter stream are widely dissimilar in their visible aspect to the Perseids, and move slowly, often covering considerable arcs before extinction. In its chief rich- ness the shower belongs to the July meteoric epoch, though sometimes, as in the present year, remaining conspicuous until the middle of August or even later than that, as in 1879. Bristol. W. F. DENNING. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. Paris. Academy of Sciences, August 16.—M. Janssen in the chair. .—Note on the work recently carried out at the Observatory of Meudon, by M. J. Janssen. Special reference is made to the many successful solar photographs already obtained, representing the history of the solar disk for the last ten years. The processes are now so perfected that on the same plate the details are taken both of the brighter and less luminous parts, such as the edge of the disk and the penumbre of the spots. Photographs ten times enlarged were exhibited of the extremely interesting spots taken on June 22, 1885, and last June. ‘The striz of the penumbra and the: faculz surrounding the former consist of granulations, in form and size resembling those constituting the entire solar surface. The same phenomenon reappears on the large round spot photographed last July, so that it seems all but demonstrated that the whole solar disk has a uniform constitution, and that the so-called granulations are in fact the constituent elements of every part of the surface of the sun.—Fresh re- searches on the relations existing between the chemical and mechanical work of the muscular tissue (continued), by M. A. Chauveau, with the co-operation of M. Kaufmann. Here a determination is made of the coefficient of the quantity of mechanical work produced by the muscles performing useful work in the physiological conditions of the normal state. By trans- lating into absolute measurements the indications furnished by the dynamograph already referred to, it is shown that the muscular work performed may be estimated at about 31 to 35 millionths of calorie. —Some further remarks on the radicular nature of the stolons in Nephrolepis, by M. A. Trécul. In reply to M. Lachmann’s recent note, the author again shows that these stolons are not stems or stalks, but true roots. No matter what their length, they never produce leaves, have always the structure of roots, and as they alone represent the primary roots of Nephrolepis, the expression ‘‘ radicular stolons,” applied to them by the author, is fully justified.—New fluorescences with well-defined spectral rays (continued), by M. Lecog de Bois- baudran. The author here treats fully the combination of alumina and the earth Z6,O3, which, without being pure, 1s very rich in Z8 and poor in Za, Alumina with 1/50 of this earth heated with sulphuric acid and moderately calcined shows a somewhat yellowish-green fluorescence, much more vivid than that of alumina containing the same quantity of Za,O3 impure. The fluorescences have also been examined of calcined alumina containing the oxides of Ce, La, Er, Tu, Dy, Yb, Gd, Yt, and U. During these researches several rays were noticed ap- parently belonging to none of the already determined elementary bodies. Some of these rays may perhaps correspond to the sub- The Colours of Thin Plates. By Lord Rayleigh, — stances announced by Mr. Crookes; but each case will have t be determined for itself.—Determination of the longitude ¢ the Observatory of Tacubaya, Mexico, by MM. Anguian and Pritchett. Continuous observations spread over six months” show a definite longitude of 6h. 36m. 46°56s. west of Green- wich, which will require a correction of close upon 5s. for the accepted longitude of the capital of Mexico.—Electric excite- ~ ment of the liver, by MM. Gréhant and Mislawsky. Th question is discussed, whether the excitement of the liver y electricity increases the quantity of urea contained in the ble In opposition to the views of M. Stolnikow the experiments here described show that variations in quantity occur only the arterial blood, and that the blood of the supra-hepatic presents no change in the weight of the urea after el excitement of the liver.—Dissemination of the Bacillus of tub culosis by flies, by MM. Spilmann and Haushalter. Observ: tions recently made in consumptive-hospitals seem to show the virus (Koch’s Bacillus) may easily be disseminated by th house-fly.—Note on Hzematocytes, by M. Fokker. The autho recently showed that the protoplasm taken from a health animal and protected from microbes survives and may p S fermentations. Here he continues his researches, sho’ this protoplasm is capable of generating a vegetable ent from that under which it existed in the animal o But the Hzematocytes thus produced do not multiply elves in a cultivating medium, and their development should perha be described as a case of heterogeny. Mee = BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECE} the Linnean Society of New South Waies, 2nd series, vol. it. Part 1 (C hame, Sydney).—Verhandlungen der Naturhistorischen Vereines, Folge, 4 Jahrgang, Erste Halfte (Max Cohen, Bonn). pl CONTENTS. The Health of Nations . The Forestry of West Africa Our Book Shelf :— on ** Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard — College”. eres Symons: ‘ The Distribution of Rain over the British — Isles during the Year 1886 ” ‘ Letters to the Editor :— Slate Ripples on Skiddaw High Man,—J. Edmund » Clatlecs ssh Carer ence ome Ger Dr. Klein and ‘‘Photography of Bacteria.”—Dr. Edgar Crookshank .. . eae The Landslip at Zug. By Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S..° (ifustrated ) 0. cs ce ee The Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition o 6. Cee eS Se eae oi fe (eS ee . > Fifty Years’ Progress in Clocks and Watches. I. By Henry Dent Gardner. (Jilustrated) ... . The Recent Drought. By Fredk J. Brodie. (Z//us- trated ) 1 0 0 0s 6 les Some Thunderstorm in London. By Chas. Harding. . - 397 Spencer F. Baird os ae ee Notes . 2.6 5 es ee ee ble Our Astronomical Column :— ae Magnitudes of Mautical Almanac Stars «+ + + . 401, Comet 1887 ¢ (Barnard, May 12) - ee ee 408 Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 1887 — August 28—September 3.4.9. = + s/s) 8 sear = The Factors of Organic Evolution. By Dr. George J. Romanes, F.R.S The August Meteors of 1887. By W. F. Denning . Societies and Academies . . be Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . . « + si Pe ee ea We ce Bi ee NATURE 409 | THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 1, 1887. er HIGHER ALGEBRA. ‘ Higher Algebra: a Sequel to Elementary Algebra for - Schools. By H. S. Hall, M.A., and S. R. Knight, B.A. (London: Macmillan, 1887.) ONE who imagined from the shortened title of f “ Higher Algebra,” which appears on the back of this volume, that the work extended to that higher region of algebra to which Salmon’s well-known “ Lessons” are “ introductory,” would be surprised to find that it contains little beyond what may fairly be regarded as “‘ elementary algebra.” Indeed it appears to us that much that is con- _ tained in the earlier chapters would have found its place more appropriately in the same authors’ “ Elementary Algebra for Schools,” using their own device of an asterisk to indicate those articles which might, in the _ case of the ordinary school-boy, be omitted or reserved for a second reading ; and thus the awkwardness of breaking up such subjects as ratio, proportion, and progressions into separate parts, by an arbitrary division into lower and higher, would have been avoided. Apart from this defect of plan, the work before us has great merits as a text-book adapted to the wants of the ordinary student of algebra and to the exigencies of examinations. It is a development and improvement upon “ Todhunter,” as “ Todhunter” was a development and improvement upon “ Wood.” The main framework -is the same: many of the proofs of algebraical theorems have been replaced by better proofs, and new matter has been introduced. Still it remains essentially an artificial _ framework and has no claim to be regarded as an organic _ growth from a few central principles, with a correspond- ing natural relation and affiliation of parts. Thus we find the fundamental laws of algebra for the first time gathered together and discussed in the thirty-fourth chapter (p. 429) of this volume, a chapter of “ Miscel- laneous Theorems and Examples” for which apparently no fitting place could be found in the framework. It also includes such a fundamental theorem as that known as the “remainder theorem ”—that /(a) is the remainder when the rational integral function /(x) is divided by x — a—some of its applications, as well as some discussion of symmetrical expressions and identi- ties. An elementary algebra, written by a master of modern - algebraical science in the light of the higher views of the essential nature of algebra which modern investigations have established, and yet with such simplicity that it may be put into the hands of the school-boy, is a desideratum the advent of which is perhaps foreshadowed, though not _ fully realized, in respect of simplicity at any rate, in Prof. Chrystal’s recent work. Jt would be obviously unfair to criticize the present work from this point of view: our remaining remarks on it, therefore, will be confined to some matters of detail in the order of the chapters of the book itself. Perhaps the strongest part of the book is the ex- amples, both those which are worked out, and those which are added to each chapter as exercises for the pupil. As far as we have been able to examine them, VOL, XXXVI.—NO. 931. they are sufficiently numerous, well chosen, and in- structive, and also well arranged in each exercise in the order of their difficulty. We are surprised to find in the chapter on “ Miscellaneous Equations” that there is no hint or caution given that the root obtained may not satisfy the original equation unless the sign of one or more of the radicals involved in it is changed. In fact, in the example worked out on p. 99, the root x = 6a gives by substitution in the equation 2a — 6a = 4a! Wehold that in all such cases the student should be required to show with what signs of the radicals in the equation each solution is consistent, and what combinations of their signs are impossible; otherwise more than half the instructiveness of the example is lost. The chapters on ratio and proportion need no remark ; but that on variation, as in most books of algebra, is in our opinion unsatisfactory, from the fact that the attention of the student is not called to the distinction between a magnitude and its numerical measure. If A stand for the distance and B for the time, when the speed is uni- form, “ A varies as B” is a statement true of the magni- tudes themselves independent of any particular mode of measuring them’; but when from this is deduced the equation A = mB, either A and B must be regarded as numerical measures of the distance and time with refer- ence to some particular units, in which case 7 will havea value depending on the units selected ; or else m isa multiplier which, besides altering the numerical value of B into that of A, converts a time into a distance, an ex- tension of the notion of multiplication which, if admitted, ought to be very carefully noted and explained. After chapters on progressions, we come to one on scales of notation, though there is no reason, apart from the traditional place it has occupied in books on algebra, why such simple questions as are discussed in it, which, if arithmetic were rationally taught, would have been treated in connexion with the theory of decimal numera- tion and notation, should be regarded as forming a chapter of “ Higher Algebra.” The algebraical formule which encumber this chapter should only be introduced as summing up what has been previously proved in par- ticular instances by direct reasoning from first principles, not in order to prove the propositions themselves. It would have been well if the chapter on the theory of quadratic eguations had been made one on that of quadratic expressions. By not doing this the oppor- tunity is lost of exemplifying the notion of conéinuity in the changes of such expressions with the change of the variable both in magnitude and sign and their maximum and minimum values, as well as the introduction of the graph (as Prof. Chrystal has done), to illustrate these changes. The authors state in their preface that the part of algebra which is concerned with permutations and com- binations “is made far more intelligible to the beginner by a system of common-sense reasoning from first principles than by the proofs usually found in algebraical text-books,” a proposition with which we heartily agree, only that we see no reason why it should be confined to this particular part of algebra. When we turn, however, to the chapter on permuta- tions and combinations, except that there is a greater variety of proofs, we fail to find any further appeal to | ' 410 NATURE [Sepz. 1, 1887 “ common-sense reasoning from first principles” than. in other text-books. In fact, in some of the proofs the crucial point of the proposition, instead of being elaborated, is so condensed as to make it very difficult to understand, though it is certainly put in a form which may be easily catried into an examination to the perplexity of the examiner, who may well be-in doubt whether the examinee who reproduces the words really sees the point of the proof. We hold that the true way of appealing to “common sense” is to take particular cases first, and when these are grasped, the general proof becomes easy. Thus, to find the number of permutations of 4 things (a, 6, c, @) taken 3 together, it is plain that the arrange- ment a bi Sees b c ad PS PN C2 Boas OP pO ae repeated for each of the 4 letters in the top line will give all possible permutations, and that the number is there- fore 4 X 3 X 2, and further that the principle of arrange- ment may be extended to any number of things. Thisis the essence of the proof given on page 116. It may be said that such exemplification is in the province of the teacher rather than in that of the text-book, but we fear there are many teachers who fail to make things clear in .this way to their pupils. _The proof, or rather proofs, of the binomial theorem for positive integral indices are distinct improvements on the cumbrous proof given in Todhunter, the theorem being shown, as it should: be, to be a direct consequence of the multiplication of 2 binomial factors. Euler’s proof for any index is carefully stated, and its crucial point emphasized by a preliminary discussion. Following the binomial theorem comes a chapter on logarithms, which in our opinion would have better followed the chapter on indices in the “ Elementary Algebra,”-as that on interest and annuities might have followed those on progressions. The exponential and logarithmic series would then have followed naturally as a development of the binomial theorem. The authors have given a chapter on the convergency and divergency of series, in which this important subject is treated with unusual care. We may perhaps demur to the sweeping character of the statement (p. 249) that “the use of divergent series in mathematical reasoning leads to erroneous results,” but the student cannot be too early or too emphatically warned that a result obtained by the use of divergent series should be verified by other means. The chapters which follow treat of intermediate co- efficients, partial fractions, recurring series, continued fractions, indeterminate equations of the first degree, re- curring continued fractions, and indeterminate equations of the second degree, summation of series, the usual ele- mentary theorems of the theory of numbers, the general theory of continued fractions, and probability: All these subjects appear to us to be judiciously and adequately treated, though we should have been glad to see a little more of ‘‘common-sense reasoning from first prin- ciples ” in the elementary chapter on continued fractions, by which it might easily and with advantage have been made to take its place among the chapters of the “Ele- mentary Algebra.” In the chapter on summation of _ series, the authors, as they tell us in the preface, have _ laid much stress on the “ method of differences.” As they have gone so far, we think it is a pity that they have not introduced the notation and the elementary propositions of the calculus of differences, which seem to us very naturally to fall within the limits of algebra. __ In any case, in their use of the symbol = they should _ not have deviated from its proper meaning by making >, for instance, include the term z instead of a by it the series ending with #—-1. : Here the ordinary treatises on algebra end. Ques authors have, however, very wisely added a chapter on determinants, containing a satisfactory and sufficient discussion of determinants of the second and third orders, Hh witha useful series of examples of their application, and an indication of the general properties of determinants of any order. The study of this chapter will enable the student to read, without difficulty, treatises on analytical - Ei geometry, and afford a good introduction to special works on determinants in general. Following this is the chapter on miscellaneous theorems _ and examples, of which we have before spoken, contain- ing a short discussion of the fundamental laws of algebra, then the “remainder theorem,” and synthetic division, symmetrical and alternating functions, and elimination. — While the end of ordinary algebra andits various direct applications is undoubtedly a suitable place for a re- discussion of its fundamental laws, as preliminary to the — interpretations of double algebra and to the various higher algebras with different fundamental laws, it is strange that our authors have not found the desirability, — indeed the necessity, of introducing the other subjects — of this chapter, with the exception perhaps of elimina- __ tion, at a much earlier stage, and as part of a regular sequence in the development of algebraic operations. — The book concludes with a chapter containing the - elementary parts of the theory of equations—on the | as whole judiciously selected. We note it, however, as a _ defect in this, as in all other treatises we have met with, that Horner’s process for approximating to the roots of numerical equations is barely mentioned. We hold that the simplicity and generality of this process is such that it ought to be taught, as a rule (without proof), for finding the roots of numbers, in all treatises on arithmetic, to the exclusion of the cumbrous, uninstructive, and utterly use- less method of finding cube roots only, which is usually — given; while the proof of the process, which may be made quite easy and intelligible, and its general applica- _ tion to numerical equations, ought to occupy a prominent — . and early position in every treatise on algebra. Every-— one who has made himself expert in the use of Horners method will, we are sure, agree with us that it gives a power in discussing an algebraical expression with numerical coefficients, which can be obtained in no other ~ way. ts Ba: OUR BOOK SHELF. Outlines of Quantitative Analysis. By A. H. Sexton. (Charles Griffin and Co,, 1887.) IT is perhaps as great an evil to err on the side of trying too much as to do too little where more might be done. In this book, intended, as the author tells us, to be put Sepi, 1, 1887] NATURE All into the hands of students who have but little time to spare and may not intend to become professional chemists, a very wide analytical field is got over; indeed a little toe much is attempted in the space, and sacrifices have in nearly all cases to be made where “ shortness and simplicity” is the combined ruling idea. We fully agree with what the author says as to the educational value of quantitative analysis. It is indeed high time that our more elementary students should have the long courses of qualitative analysis shortened, and some more exact exercises substituted. In the course of the 127 pages of this book, including six for tables, we are introduced to the balance, and it is much to be regretted that more has not been said about it. What is said is purely practical—how to turn up the handle and put on the weights. The first exercises are the determination of water in a carbonate and the ash in several substances, after which a couple of specific gravity methods are given, and then we pass to “simple gravimetric analysis,” iron, silver, barium, lead, &c. In the silver exercise the factor 0'75276 is introduced to get the actual silver from the weight of chloride found, and this “factor” is given in all other analyses. Itis not of much use any way, and for beginners it is not advisable, as it binds them down to the book, and no appreciable time is saved for ordinary analysis calculations. The directions for volumetric analysis are very good, and the exercises are well arranged in order of difficulty. The separation exercises and miscellaneous examples will need some attention from the teacher. In the description of organic analysis—combustion of carbon compounds—the closed-tube process is well de- scribed, and a student might be able to do a combustion from the description only; but we are not informed, when the open tube is spoken of, whether the same length, viz. 18 inches, will be sufficient or not. By infer- ence it will. We venture to say that a very doubtful analysis, especially of a volatile body, would result from the use of an open tube only 18 inches long. The description here is much too slight to work by. The tables at the end are sensible—only just those wanted in the course of the work in the book itself. Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By Dr. C. Remigius Fresenius. Tenth Edition. Translated and edited by Charles E. Groves, F.R.S. (London: J. and A. Churchill, 1887.) THE fifteenth German edition of this well-known book contains many emendations and additions, especially in the concluding portions devoted to the reactions of the alkaloids and the systematic methods of detecting them. Of this edition of the original work the present edition of the English translation is as nearly as possible an exact reproduction, and much credit is due to the translator and editor for the care with which he has accomplished a very difficult task. Various styles of type and other typo- graphical improvements have been introduced, in the hope, as Mr. Groves explains, that the book may thereby be rendered more handy and useful to students. Melting and Boiling Point Tables. Vol. 11. .By Thomas Carnelley, D.Sc., and Professor of Chemistry in Uni- versity College, Dundee. (Harrison and Sons, 1887.) THE issue of vol. ii. of this important work completes it. It is not too much to say that these two volumes will be found in every laboratory. Their compilation represents an amount of patient work from which most men would have recoiled ; and the total result, which has cost ten years of effort, reflects the highest credit upon Prof. Carnelley. Part II., dealing with organic compounds, brings the data down to 1885. Part III. deals with vapour tensions and boiling points of simple substances, and freezing and melting points of cryohydrates, including facts recorded in 1886, LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to heep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it is impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] The Law of Error. EVERYONE interested in the theory of statistics is aware how strongly Quetelet was under the conviction that there is only one law of error (or curve of facility, to use the corresponding ex- pression for the graphical representation of the law) prevalent for the departure from the mean of a number of magnitudes or measurements of any natural phenomenon. I have done what I can to protest against this doctrine as a theoretic assumption ; and recently Mr. F. Galton and Mr. F. Y. Edgeworth have shown in some very interesting and valuable papers in the Philosophical Magazine and elsewhere how untenable it is, and how great is the importance of studying the properties of other laws of error than the symmetrical binomial, and its limiting form the exponential. I have been making some calculations recently, principally in the field of meteorology, and I should be extremely glad of the Dow pf oO. 4 ‘9 | 8 “7 "6 “5 { ‘4 “3 +2 NU @ © 6 judgment and criticism of any of your readers who may be better versed in this science than myself. It must be carefully under- stood that the questions here raised are solely these :—(1) Do the magnitudes, when arranged in order of their departure from the mean, display a symmetrical arrangement? (2) If so, is this arrangement in accordance with the binomial or exponential law ? The first diagram represents the grouping, in respect of re- lative frequency, of 4857 successive barometric heights. They are from the observations of Mr. W. E. Pain, of Cambridge, and show the readings at 9 a.m. on successive mornings for about thirteen years from January 1, 1865. They are the results of the same instrument, which has required no correction ‘or alteration during that period. They are given to the first decimal place. ‘ 412 NATURE [ Sept. 1, 1887 The second diagram refers to a similar set of 4380 ther- mometric observations (1) of the 1 aximum, (2) of the minimum temperature on successive days! from January 1, 1873. In regard to the first diagram the asymmetry isobvious. Ihave tested the conclusion in the usual way. For instance, the total of 4857 observations was composed of seven batches of a little less than .two years each.. Precisely the same asymmetry, in varying degrees, is displayed by each of these batches. The asymmetry is of course obvious to the eye in the diagram, but various numerical tests may be proposed. For instance, we may compare (1) the position of the mean value (in this case 29°91) between the extreme values, (2) the relative positions of the maximum ordinate and the mean ordinate, (3) the comparative magnitudes of the ‘‘mean errors” to the right and the left of the mean ordinate.. They all yield a result in the same direction. I should be very glad if any of your readers could confirm (or correct) these results by those of more extended observations, or by results taken from other districts: That something of this kind should be displayed where, as here, we are dealing with a one-ended phenomenon—z.e. with one in which unlimited variation was conceivable in one direction but not in the other— seems to me in itself reasonable. But I was certainly surprised to find it so marked, considering how small is the fluctuation in relation to the actual magnitude of the variable phenomenon. Fic. 2. It seems to suggest that the common theoretic assumption of a sort of fixed mean or type which is swayed about by a large number of equal and opposite independent disturbing causes, does not hold good in this case. As regards the second diagram, the two curves are (especially that of the minima) tolerably symmetrical, but they depart widely from anything approaching to Quetelet’s supposed fixed type. Anyone looking at the curve of maxima would say at once that it mingled the results of two distinct means (in Quetelet’s phrase), as if we were to group together the observed statures of a great many Scotchmen and Frenchmen. That we are ming- ling results of distinct means seems true enough, but not of two such,-and I cannot account for the two peaks in the curve. What I should have expected would have been something of this kind: Each day has its own appropriate mean maximum (subject to the usual fluctuation), and these mean maxima are themselves grouped about ¢ieirv mean, hence the true mean-of all ought to be decidedly the commonest result, z.e. the curve should have a single vertex. The facts are quite otherwise. The depression towards the * In this case, as the lengths of the successive ordinates from the original data were very irregular, 1 have smoothed the curve out by taking the mean of three successive heights. For instance, to take the actual figures, the number of occasions on which the-maxima were 58°, 59°, and 60°, were respectively 108, 99, and 124; I have assigned the number r10 to 59°, and so on, centre is far too deep to be accidental, and the final mean (¢.2. about 57°) is very far from being the commonest value. Somewhat similar remarks may be made about the curve of minima. ‘There is some evidence (though not conclusive) of a depression towards the centre in this case also, and the curve is very fairly symmetrical. But the true mean of all the minima cannot claim any numerical preponderance over any other value between 32° and 52°. I am far too deeply conscious of the numerous pitfalls which lurk about the statistician’s path to offer these results with any great confidence. But considering how large is the number of observations included, it certainly seems to me that they call for some explanation. There may of course be some blunder in the calculations, but I have done my best to guard against this. What I trust is that these results may be the means of calling forth some discussion by practised experts in this branch of statistical inquiry, which may serve to confirm or correct my results, and in the former case to offer some explanation of the causes of the phenomena. Very likely this practical inquiry has been already undertaken elsewhere, but the statistics of meteorology are so vastly extensive that it is impossible for any but a professional student of the subject to be acquainted with what goes on in it. J. VENN. Cambridge. The Sense of Smell in Dogs. WILL Mr. Russell (whose letter in NATuRE of August 4 I have just read) be so good as to make another experiment with his pug bitch? He says that she had been ‘‘ taught to hunt ” for biscuit ; probably she was also enjoined to ‘* find it,” or something similar, when she came into the room. Can he manage to try her powers without awakening her expectation ? I ask it because it seems to me that in this case (and many others) we have something different to observe than mere quick- ness or keenness of sense, and something well worthy of obser- vation ; namely, exclusive direction of the attention of a sense— if I may so term it. We may note this mysterious power in ourselves to a certain extent. In the case of a dog or bird, or any other in which there is little brain work going on to cause distraction, it may be much greater, and account for many wonderful things. It may be said that this is trying to explain the unknown by the even less known ; nevertheless, by gathering together many and varied instances of the action of any power some light must be thrown upon it. The mesmerizer seems to deal with this one when he closes all avenues to the senses of his subject except the one he wishes to keep.open. The sense of hearing in some birds seems as wonderful and discriminating as that of smell in dogs. I haye»wateched with astonishment.a thrush listening for worms—as their manner is— and very evidently hearing them too, within two yards of a noisy lawn-mower on the other side of a small hedge of roses. Probably the worms came nearer to the surface in consequence of the vibration caused by the machine—they are said to do so —but that the thrush Zeard and did not see them was evident. Robins appear to be able to distinguish the voices of their own offspring and parents from a number of others, and at a great distance. I say affear, for in such a case one cannot be quite sure, still less can one give all the small details of long-continued observation that make up the evidence in favour of it. All these cases have a common and mysterious element. It is as if a window were opened in one direction and all others closed ; or a chord set vibrating that answers, as a struck glass answers, only to one note ; or as if all the available energy were directed along one narrow path. At any rate there is something more than mere keenness of sense. J. Mea Sidmouth. Electricity of Contact of Gases with Liquids. WILL you allow me to ask Mr. Enright (NATURE, p. 365) how he proved that the ‘charge of the escaping hydrogen was positive ” or negative, as the case may be? That the escaping spray was electrified by friction, after the manner of the steam spray in Armstrong’s old hydro-electric machine, is a natural explanation of these capricious effects; but that gas should be thus electrified, and that this electrification should have any relation whatever to the subject of ‘‘atomic charge,” are propositions which strike one as improbable. OLIVER J. LODGE, Sept. 1, 1887] NATURE 413 2 é “ae ‘The Lunar Eclipse of August 3. watching continuously, but observed it at a little before 9, and I onseRVE the account given by “H. H.” (p. 367) of the again repeatedly between 9 and 10. BM. Ce eclipse of the moon as seen at Hamburg on August 3. Here the | was certainly unusual ; at least I never saw any- t ike it. The shadow cast on the moon (with a perfectl cloudless sky) was irregular and jagged. I at first thought it was a cloud, but, on looking repeatedly at intervals, I continued to observe the same appearance ; allowance being made for the progress of the eclipse. I was prevented by circumstances from La Tour de Peilz, August 22. As seen from Killin, on Loch Tay, the shadow on the moon had no form similar to that given by ‘‘ H. H.,” in your issue of August 18 (p. 367); the sky was clear, and it seems possible that the clouds caused the straight lines shown in the diagram. Hi. P. MALET. MASAMARHU ISLAND. CAPTAIN MACLEAR, commanding H.M.S. Flying Fish, obtained, during his voyage home in April last, two sections of the slope of the coral reef surround- SECTIONS OF CORAL REEF ing the small island of Masdmarhu, situated in the Red Sea in lat. 18° 49’ N., long. 38° 45’ E. as accurate sections of reefs standing in deep water are comparatively rare, I have thought that a permanent record of them in the pages of NATURE will render them oF MAsAMARHU, RED SEA. Scale of Feet 500 1000 1500 2900 1 1 n 1 1 i i 1 i i 1 4 j Ory Edy, 7 5 —— SE SS SS i Neri Nitra oe ae ai este St Nt ee ' H ~ tine ar t ' ‘ 'sland | bd : ui it ! ' : bg Brae chs 2 wes i \ Ves ‘ , ’ f ne ! ' ' 4 rag ) Res ‘ 500 + ‘ H t 8! eat c Pe H 3 ve 2 ‘ { FE oa | a> ‘ ' ' ‘ 1000- boot i] ‘ ! ' 4 ‘ ’ * ' H i 4 = ' 3 $ : ‘ rs 3 ' 7 3 3 % ‘ : 5 3 4 ' t : zs : 1500 3 i g te be = . No. 1. i Scale of Feet Dry Edg 5 1 bs 1 4 4 ise 4 1 n n a 3 n 4 cd rnd H H o ’ i 7B MES ‘sland MS - 5s MS ' BN : 3 2 at & Es ' Ee El 60077 5 es . ae : & § cdl 4 ° i i | | 1000-4 i 4 | 4 , i~ 4 3 | =2 o es ee t 3 B 1 Sketch of Masdmarhu I. £ a} _ . | showing approximate = Sy ition of Sections me 5 5 Lat.1850!N. Long. 3845-6. = 3 6 ‘abled $ ; 1 SEA MILE No. 2. more available to those interested. The reduced copies of _ lines show where the soundings were obtained. Speci- these sections, appended, show most of the more important , mens of coral sand brought home were not from depths suffi- features. They are drawn on equal scales vertical and | cient to show the changes of the life on the coral slopes. Mr. horizontal, showing the true slope. The dotted vertical , John Murray, who has examined them, reportsas follows :— 4b NATURE [Sepz. 1, 1887 — “The fragments of coral belong to Stylophora palmata, Blain., a common Red Sea species ; and the others to the genera Stylophora and Echinopora, but too frag- mentary for specific determination. “The beach sand has a mottled red and white appear- ance. The particles are nearly all rounded, and have an average diameter of 3 or 4 millimetres. They consist of corals, Echinoderms, calcareous Algze, Gasteropod and Lamellibranch shells, and many Foraminifera. Among the latter the following could be recognized: Paneroplis portusus, Forsk.; Orbitolites complanata, Lam.; Rotalia calcar, VOrb.; Amphistegina fessonii, @ Orb. : “The hardened rock, ‘from high-water line near section 2, solid and firm in the sand and similar to the - slabs of the south-east shore, is made up of precisely the. same particles as the sand above described, cemented by the infiltration of carbonate of lime among the particles. No mineral particles other than those of organic origin were observed in the sand or hardened slabs.” W. J. L. WHARTON. THE OWENS COLLEGE NATURAL HISTORY BUILDINGS. < Be recently completed Natural History Museums and Laboratories form an important addition not merely to the Owens College itself, but to the teaching appliances of the country at large. The buildings, which, like the older part of the College, are from the plans of Mr. Alfred Waterhouse, R.A , extend along the north and east sides of the College quadrangle, the main frontage being towards the Oxford Road. They include a lofty central tower and entrance gateway, large and convenient museums for the various departments of natural history, and a very extensive and well-equipped — series of laboratories for zoology, botany, geology, and ~ mineralogy, with lecture-theatres, class-rooms, and private ~ rooms for the professors and demonstrators. The total cost, including fittings, will not be less than £80,000. _ The general appearance of the new buildings from the north-east is shown in the illustration. The Museum block extends along the eastern or Oxford Road frontage, and is approached from the main entrance beneath the central tower; it is also in free — communication with the several laboratories. It consists of two main stories, the upper of which has its floor area almost tripled by two very wide galleries, in addition to _ Future Extension for Library and Examination Hall. Museum Block. Laboratory Block. ViEW OF THE NEw BUILDINGS FROM THE OxFrorD ROoaD. which there is very extensive storage space in the roof. The ground floor is divided into geological and mineralo- gical museums, measuring respectively 90 feet by 50 feet, and 65 feet by 26 feet, the former extending along the Oxford Road, the latter facing north, towards ‘Coupland Street. These are lighted from the sides, and will be divided into bays by the main cases, which are placed at right angles to the walls, extending from them to the pillars supporting the roof. In the centre of each bay there will bea large table case, and a smaller one under the window. ' This arrangement gives at once a maximum of light and a maximum of what is practically wall space ; while the division into bays greatly facilitates the classifi- | cation of the collections, and the different forms of case. in each bay enable objects of all kinds to be displayed to | advantage. The upper museum, which is approached by a very handsome staircase in the tower, is similarly divided into zoological and botanical portions. It is lighted both from the sides and above, and the general arrange- _ment of the cases will be the same as in the lower museum, with the addition of long rows of table cases round the edges of the galleries. Two large rooms, for use as articulating and preparation rooms, open directly on to the floor of the museum. © . ae Owens College already possesses very important Sept. 1, 1887] NATURE 415 natural history collections, though owing to want of space it has been impossible up to the present time to arrange or utilize them in a proper manner. ‘The nucleus ‘is formed by the collections previously in the possession of the Manchester Natural History and Geological Societies, which were transferred to the College in 1867 and 1869 respectively: to these, very valuable . additions have since been made by gift, bequest, or _purchase. The general Geological collection is a very good one; the Tertiary collections, including those made by Prof. Boyd Dawkins and by Mr. Waters, being of exceptional importance, and the Coal Measure series being one of the best in existence. In Mineralogy the David Forbes Collection, which was purchased by the ‘College in 1877,is well known. In Zoology there is a good osteological series ; and the collections of shells, including those presented by Mr. Cholmondeley and by Mr. Walton, and of insects are unusually complete, and in exceed- ingly good condition. The Botanical Museum contains _a very fine British herbarium, and Prof. Williamson’s unique collections illustrating the Carboniferous flora. The Museum will thus start very fairly equipped, and it may reasonably be hoped that the stimulus caused by the opening of the new buildings will lead to additional gifts and bequests, which will speedily render the collection one worthy in all respects of the College and of the city which has created it. In the Laboratory block, which occupies the north side of the quadrangle, between the older buildings and the Museum, and is shown in the right-hand corner of the illustration, the ground floor contains on the inner side two lecture-theatres, seating 200 and 80 respectively, with convenient preparation and diagram rooms. On the other side, facing the street, are the mineralogical and petrological laboratories, geological laboratories, geologi- cal drawing room, a laboratory for applied geology, and private rooms for the professors and lecturers. The Botanical Department is on the second floor, and _ comprises a large laboratory 42 feet by 28 feet, private rooms for the professor and for the demonstrator, and a dark room for physiological experiments. Provision is also made for a greenhouse 20 feet square, in direct _connexion with the Laboratory. The Zoological Laboratories occupy the third and part _f the second floor. The Junior and Senior Laboratories, which are in free communication with each other, measure 42 feet by 37 feet and 42 feet by 16 feet respectively ; they are 29 feet high, -and are extremely well lighted and equipped. In the - Junior Laboratory the tables run north and south; each student has his own locker and drawer at his side, and - gas- and water-supply in front of him; larger sinks with hot-water spirals are in the corners of the rooms; _a large demonstration-table, with drawers and cupboards ‘beneath, occupies the centre of the room; and a lecture- _ table and black-board are placed against the north wall. . In the Senior Laboratory the tables face north. A gal- lery runs along the east and west walls of the labora- tories, but has not yet been fitted up. Besides these laboratories there are a Zoological Re- search Laboratory 42 feet by 16 feet; private rooms for the professor and for the demonstrators; a very con- venient tank-room ; and large storage space. The building has concrete floors throughout ; the heat- ing is by hot water, and there is a very efficient system of ventilation. At each floor there is free communication » between the Laboratory and Museum blocks, and the lift is placed midway between these two. ' The Zoological and Botanical Laboratories have been in use since Christmas ; the Museum will not be fitted up till October. An excellent opportunity for seeing the buildings is afforded by the meeting of the British Asso- ciation. The ground-floor museum is being used for the reception-room and post-office, and the upper museum for reading- and writing-room, ladies’ room, smoking- room, &c. ; while the quadrangle is occupied by temporary luncheon-rooms and lavatories. The Section Rooms are partly in the College and partly in its immediate neigh- bourhood. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. MANCHESTER, 7uesday Evening. © P to the present the third Manchester meeting of the British Association promises to be as successful as everyone expected it would be. Probably no Local Com- mittee has ever made more strenuous exertions to com- mand success than that which for many months past has been busying itself with preparations for the present meeting. It would be difficult to suggest any improve- ments on the local preparations. The Reception Room in Owens College is spacious and is entirely confined to business. The Reading Rooms, Ladies’ Rooms, Smoking Rooms, and Exhibition Galleries are all upstairs away from the crowd and noise. The Luncheon Rooms can accommodate hundreds, and the Sectional Rooms have had the special care of the Committee, several of whom know well the practical requirements of Sectional work. It is perhaps unfortunate that the rooms for D, E, F, and G are a long way from the Reception Room; but that has been unavoidable. The exhibition in the galleries of the Reading and Writing Room is of special interest. The anthropological collections contributed by Dr. Fritsch, Mr. Coutts Trotter, and others, are extensive and varied and highly instructive. Besides these there are collections of physical instruments by Sir William Thomson and Mr. W. H. Gee, and a fine series of models and apparatus for teaching practical physics in schools and colleges, exhibited by the Owens College Physical Department. In Section C, Prof. Boyd Dawkins exhibits several museum appliances, and Mr. J. H. Teall a series of specimens illustrating his paper on “The Origin of Certain Banded Gneisses.” Other exhibits come under Sections D, G, and H, and the whole collection is likely to attract many visitors. p3 It is not expected that in numbers the present meeting will exceed the Newcastle meeting of 1863, when 3335 persons were present, or even the last meeting in this city in 1861, when the number reached 3138. But of course at present it is impossible to say. Some weeks ago the number who had taken tickets exceeded 2000, and to-day and to-morrow it is probable that at least another 1000 will be added. Whatever may be the number, it is certain that few past meetings of the Association will have surpassed the present in quality and weight. The marked feature is the number of foreign men of. science who have promised to attend. The names of most of them have already appeared in NATURE. Their presence is entirely due to the exertions of the Local Committee, and especially, we believe, of Dr. Schuster. Nearly every man of any eminence in science abroad had a cordial letter of invitation to come to Manchester as a guest of the Local Committee, and the result is that over 100 have accepted. Among those who have arrived in Manchester to-day are Prof. Riley, of Washington ; Prof. Rowlands, of Baltimore; Prof. Langley, of Michigan ; Prof. Dewalque, from Belgium; and Prof. Fittica, of Marburg. Among others who are expected to-morrow I need only mention such names as those of Cleveland Abbe, Neumayer, A. C. Young, Asa Gray, Mendeléeff, Pringsheim, G. Wiedemann, Wislicenus, F. Zirkel, De Bary, Cohn, His, and the two Saportas. Several important discussions have been arranged for. One between Sections C and D on the arrangement of natural history museums, will be led off by Dr. Wood- ward on Friday morning. ‘There will be then other dis- cussions in Section D on questions of the greatest scientific interest, while electrolysis will come up again, 416 NATURE [ Sept. 1, 1887 ~ I believe, in Sections A and B. A joint discussion on gold and silver has been arranged between Sections C and F. As these discussions will be real, and as several eminent foreigners are expected to take part in them, the meeting on the whole promises to be lively. The social distractions—conversaziones, receptions, dinners, and excursions—are perplexingly numerous. The hand-books for the excursions have been got up with much care and thoughtfulness. There is, indeed, a separate little hand-book for each excursion, the whole set being done up in acase. Another hand-book of about one hundred pages gives an epitome of the history, anti- quities, meteorology, physiography, flora and fauna of Manchester and the district. Thus, so far as the officials are concerned, everything has been done to make the Manchester meeting a suc- cess. At the present moment the weather is not quite what could be wished ; it is raining hard, and the weather is oppressively sultry. Wecan only hope it will improve before active operations begin. INAUGURAL ADDRESS BY SIR HENRY FE. Roscog, M.P., CL. LL.D. PHD. FeRSS VV. P.€.S.,5° PRESIDENTE, MANCHESTER, distinguished as the birthplace of two of the greatest discoveries of modern science, heartily welcomes to-day, for the third time, the members and friends of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science. On the occasion of our first meeting in this city in the year 1842, the President, Lord Francis Egerton, commenced his address with a touching allusion to the veteran of science, John Dalton, the great chemist, the discoverer of the laws of chemical combination, the framer of the atomic theory upon which the modern science of chemistry may truly be said to be based. Lord Francis Egerton said :—‘* Manchester is still the residence of one whose name is uttered with respect wherever science is cultivated, who is here to-night to enjoy the honours due to a long career of persevering devotion to knowledge, and to receive from myself, if he will condescend to do so, the expression of my own deep personal regret that increase of years, which to him up to this hour has been but increase of wisdom, should have rendered him, in respect of mere bodily strength, unable to fill on this occasion an office which in his case would have received more honour than it could confer. I do regret that any cause should have prevented the present meeting in his - native town from being associated with the name ”—and here I must ask you to allow me to exchange the name of Dalton in 1842 for that of Joule in 1887, and to add, again in the words of the President of the former year, that I would gladly have served as a doorkeeper in any house where Joule, the father of science in Manchester, was enjoying his just pre-eminence. For it is indeed true that the mantle of John Dalton has fallen on the shoulders of one well worthy to wear it, one to whom science owes a debt of gratitude not less than that which it willingly pays to the memory of the originator of the atomic theory. James Prescott Joule it was who, in his determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, about the very year of our first Manchester meeting, gave to the world of science the results of experiments which placed beyond reach of doubt or cavil the greatest and most far-reaching scientific principle of modern times; namely, that of the conservation of energy. ‘This, to use the words of Tyndall, is indeed a generalization of con- spicuous grandeur fit to take rank with the principle of gravita- tion ; more momentous, if that be possible, combining as it does the energies of the materia] universe into an organic whole, and enabling the eye of science to follow the flying shuttles of the universal power as it weaves what the Erdgeist in ‘‘ Faust” calls **the living garment of God.” It is well, therefore, for us to remember, in the midst of the turmoil of our active industrial and commercial life, that Man- chester not only well represents the energy of England in these practical directions, but that. it possesses even higher claims to our regard and respect as being the seat of discoveries of which the value not only to pure science is momentous, but which also lie at the foundation of all our material progress and all our industrial success. For without a knowledge of the laws of chemical combination all the marvellous results. with .which modern industrial chemistry has astonished the world could not have been achieved, whilst the knowledge of the quantitative -cannot trust his chemical principles to conduct the affairs of ‘disease or death. The picture presented to the student of t relations existing between.the several forms of energy, and the possibility of expressing their amount in terms of ordinary © mechanics, are matters which now constitute the life-breath of every branch of applied science. For example, before Dalton’s discovery every manufacturer of oil of vitriol—a substance now — made each week in thousands of tons within a few miles of this spot—every manufacturer had his own notions of the quantity of sulphur which he ought to burn in order to make a certain weight of sulphuric acid, but he had no idea that only a given weight of sulphur can unite with a certain quantity of oxygen and of water to form the acid, and that an excess of any one of — the component parts was not only useless but harmful. Thus, — and in tens of thousands of other instances, Dalton —— rule of thumb by scientific principle. In like manner the ap-— plications of Joule’s determination of the mechanical equival of heat are even more general; the increase and measurem of the efficiency of our steam-engines and the power of dynamos are only two of the numerous examples which might be adduced of the practical value of Joule’s work. er: If the place calls up these thoughts, the time of our me also awakens memories of no less interest, in the recolle that we this year celebrate the Jubilee of Her Most Gra Majesty’s accession to the throne. _It is right that the memb of the British Association for the Advancement of Sei should do so with heart and voice, for, although science requires and demands no royal patronage, we thereby express the feeling — which must be uppermost in the hearts of all men of science, the feeling of thankfulness that we have lived in an age whi has witnessed an advance in our knowledge of Nature, and consequent improvement in the physical, and let us trust also ii the moral and intellectual, well-being of the people unknown ; an age with which the name of Victoria will associated. ue To give even a sketch of this progress, to trace even merest outline the salient points of the general history of s during the fifty momentous years of Her Majesty’s reign. task far.beyond my limited powers. It must suffice for point out to you, to the best of my ability, some few of the: of that progress as evidenced in the one branch of science which I am most familiar, and with which I am more closely cerned, the science of chemistry. #f In the year 1837 chemistry was a very different science from that existing at the present moment. Priestley, it is true, had discovered oxygen, Lavoisier had placed the phenomena of com- — bustion on their true basis, Davy had decomposed the alkalies, — Faraday had liquefied many of the gases, Dalton had enunciated the laws of chemical combination by weight, and Gay-Lussac — had pointed out the fact that a simple volumetric relation governs the combination of the gases. But we then possessed no know- ledge of chemical dynamics, we were then altogether unable explain the meaning of the heat given off in the act of chemi combination. The atomic theory was indeed accepted, but were as ignorant of the mode of action of the atoms and as | capable of explaining their mutual relationship as were ancient Greek philosophers. Fifty years ago, too, the conn existing between the laws of life, vegetable and animal, and tl phenomena of inorganic chemistry, was ill understood. The ide: that the functions of living beings are controlled by the sa forces, chemical and physical, which regulate the changes ocet ring in the inanimate world, was then one held by only a very fey of the foremost thinkers of the time. Vital force was a term everyone’s mouth, an expression useful, as Goethe says, to guise our ignorance, for - ‘* Wo die Begriffe fehlen, Da tritt ein Wort zur rechten Zeit sich ein.” Indeed the pioneer of the chemistry of life, Liebig himself, not quite shake himself free from the bonds of orthedox opini and he who first placed the phenomena of life on a true body, but makes an appeal to vital force to help him out of difficulties ; as when in the body politic an unruly mob req the presence and action of physical force to restrain it an bring its members under the saving influence of law and orde so too, according to Liebig’s views, in the body corporeal a con- tinual conflict between the chemical forces and the vital Fo" : occurs throughout life, in which the latter, when it prevai 5 ike sures health and a continuance of life, but of which defeat insure is a very different one. We now believe that no such conflict possible, but that life is governed by chemical and physical Sept. 1, 1887] NATURE 417 forces, even though we cannot in every case explain its pheno- mena in terms of these forces ; that whether these tend to con- tinue or to end existence depends upon their nature and amount, and that disease and death are as much a consequence of the — of chemical and physical laws as are health and life. Looking back again to our point of departure fifty years ago, let us for a moment glance at Dalton’s labours, and compare his views and those of his contemporaries with the ideas which now prevail. In the first place it is well to remember that the key- stone of his atomic theory lies not so much in the idea of the existence and the indivisible nature of the particles of matter— though this idea was so firmly implanted in his mind that; being juestioned on one occasion on the subject, he said to his friend the late Mr. Ransome, ‘* Thou knowst it must be so, for no man can split an atom ”—as in the assumption that the weights of these particles are different. Thus whilst each of the ultimate particles of oxygen has the same weight as every other particle of oxygen, and each atom of hydrogen, for example, has the same weight _as every other particle of hydrogen, the oxygen atom is sixteen times heavier than that of hydrogen, and so on for the atoms of every chemical element, each having its own special weight. It was this discovery of Dalton, together with the further one that the elements combine in the proportions indicated by the relative weights of their atoms or in- multiples of these proportions, which at once changed chemistry from a qualitative to a quantitative science, making the old invocation prophetic, ‘‘ Thou hast ordered all things in measure and number and weight.” The researches of chemists and physicists during the last fifty years have not only strengthened but broadened the foundations of the great Manchester philosopher’s discoveries. It is true that his original numbers, obtained by crude and inaccurate methods, have been replaced by more exact figures, but his laws of com- bination and his atomic explanation of those laws stand as the great bulwarks of our science. , On the present occasion it is interesting to remember that within a stone’s-throw of this place is the small room belonging to our Literary and Philosophical Society which served Dalton as his laboratory. Here, with the simplest of all possible apparatus—a few cups, penny ink-bottles, rough balances, and self-made thermometers and barometers—Dalton accomplished his great results. Here he patiently worked, marshalling facts to support his great theory, for as an explanation of his laborious experimental investigations the wise old man says: ‘‘ Having been in my progress so often misled by taking for granted the results of others, I have determined to write as little as possible but what 1 can attest by my own experience.” Nor ought we when here assembled to forget that the last three of Dalton’s experimental es:ays—one of which, on a new method of measuring water of crystallization, contained more than the germ of a great discovery—were communicated to our Chemical Section in 1842, and that this was the last memorable act of his scientific life. In this last of his contributions to science, as in his first, his method of procedure was that which has been marked out as the most fruitful by almost all the great searchers after Nature’s secrets ; namely, the assumption of a certain view as a working hypo- thesis, and the subsequent institution of experiment to bring this hypothesis to a test of reality upon which a legitimate theory is afterwards to be based. ‘‘ Dalton,” as Henry well says, **valued detailed facts mainly, if not solely, as the stepping- ‘stones to comprehensive generalizations.” Next let us ask what light the research of the last fifty years has thrown on the subject of the Daltonian atoms: first, as regards their size ; secondly, in respect to their indivisibility and mutual relationships; and thirdly, as regards their motions. As regards the size and shape of the atoms, Dalton offered no opinion, for he had no experimental grounds on which to form it, believing that they were inconceivably small and alto- paid beyond the grasp of our senses aided by the most power- ul appliances of art. He was in the habit of representing his atoms and their combinations diagrammatically as round disks or spheres made of wood, by means of which he was fond of illustrating his theory. But such mechanical illustrations are not without their danger, for I well remember the answer given by a pupil toa question on the atomic theory: ‘‘ Atoms are round balls of wood invented by Dr. Dalton.” So determinedly indeed did he adhere to his mechanical method of representing the chemical atoms and their combinations that he could not be prevailed upon to adopt the system of chemical formule introduced by Berzelius and now universally employed. In a letter addressed to Graham in April 1837, he writes: ‘‘ Berzelius’s symbols are horrifying. A young student in chemistry might as soon learn Hebrew as make himself acquainted with them.” And again: ‘* They appear to me equally to perplex the adepts in science, to discourage the learner, as well as to cloud the beauty and simplicity of the atomic theory.” But modern research has accomplished, as regards the size of the atom, at any rate to acertain extent, what Dalton regarded as impossible. Thus in 1865, Loschmidt, of Vienna, by a train of reasoning which | cannot now stop to explain, came to the con- clusion that the diameter of an atom of oxygen or nitrogen was 1/10,000,000 of a centimetre. With the highest known magni- fying power we can distinguish the 1/40,000 part of a centi- metre ; if now we imagine a cubic box each of whose sides has the above length, such a box when filled with air will contain from 60 to 100 millions of atoms of oxygen and nitrogen. A few years later William Thomson extended the methods of atomic measurement, and came to the conclusion that the distance between the centres of contiguous molecules is less than 1/5,000,000 and greater than 1/1,000,000,000 of a centimetre ; or, to put it in language more suited to the ordinary mind, Thomson asks us to imagine a drop of water magnified up to the size of the earth, and then tells us that the coarseness of the graining of such a mass would be something between a heap of small shot and a heap of cricket balls. Or again, to take Clifford’s illustration, you know that our best microscopes magnify from 6000 to 8000 times; a microscope which would magnify that result as much again would show the molecular structure of water. Or again, to put it in another form, if we suppose that the minutest organism we can now see were pro- vided with equally powerful microscopes, these beings would be able to see the atoms. Next, as to the indivisibility of the atom, involving also the question as to the relationships between the atomic weights and properties of the several elementary bodies. Taking Dalton’s aphorism, ‘‘’Thou knowst no man can split an atom,” as expressing the view of the enunciator of the atomic theory, let us see how far this idea is borne out by sub- sequent work. In the first place, Thomas Thomson, the first exponent of Dalton’s generalization, was torn by conflicting beliefs until he found peace in the hypothesis of Prout, that the atomic weights of .all the so-called elements are multiples of a common unit, which doctrine he sought to establish, as Thorpe remarks, by some of the very worst quantitative determinations to be found in chemical literature, though here I may add that they were not so incorrect as Dalton’s original numbers. Coming down to a somewhat later date, Graham, whose life was devoted to finding what the motion of an atom was, freed himself from the bondage of the Daltonian aphorism, and defined the atom not as a thing which cannot be divided, but as one which has not been divided. With him, as with Lucretius, as Angus Smith remarks, the original atom may be far down. But speculative ideas respecting the constitution of matter have been the scientific relaxation of many minds from olden time to the present. In the mind of the early Greek the action of the atom as one substance taking various forms by unlimited combinations was sufficient to account for all the phenomena of the world. And Dalton himself, though upholding the indi- visibility of his ultimate particles, says: ‘* We do not know that any of the bodies denominated elementary are absolutely inde- composable.” Again, Boyle, treating of the origin of form and quality, says: ‘‘ There is one universal matter common to all bodies—an extended divisible and impenetrable substance.” Then Graham in another place expresses a similar thought when he writes: ‘‘It is conceivable that the various kinds of matter now recognized as different elementary snbstances may possess one and the same ultimate or atomic molecules existing in different conditions of movement. The essential unity of matter is an hypothesis in harmony with the equal action of. gravity upon all bodies.” What experimental evidence is now before us bearing upon these interesting speculations ? In the first place, then, the space of fifty years has completely changed the face of the inquiry. Not only has the number of distinct well-established elementary bodies increased from fifty-three in 1837 to seventy in 1887 (not including the ¢wenty or more new elements recently said to have been discovered by Kriiss and Nilson in certain rare Scandi- navian minerals), but the properties of these elements have been studied, and are now known to us with a degree of precision then undreamt of. So that relationships existing between these 418 NATURE [Sept. 1, 1887 bodies which fifty years ago were undiscernible are now clearly manifest, and it is to these relationships that I would for a moment ask your attention. I have a'ready stated that Dalton measured the relative weights of the ultimate particles by assuming hydrogen as the unit, and that Prout believed that on this basis the atomic weights of all the other elements would be found to be multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, thus indicating that an intimate constitutional relation exists between hydrogen and all the other elements. Since the days of Dalton and Prout the truth or otherwise of Prout’s law has been keenly contested by the most eminent chemists of all countries. The inquiry is a purely experimental one, and only those who have a special knowledge of the diff- culties which surround such inquiries can form an idea of the amount of labour and self-sacrifice borne by such men as Dumas, Stas, and Marignac in carrying out delicate researches on the atomic weights of the elements. What is, then, the result of these most laborious experiments? It is that, whilst the atomic weights of the elements are not exactly either multiples of the unit or of half the unit, many of the numbers expressing most accurately the weight of the atom approximate so closely to a multiple of that of hydrogen, that we are constrained to admit that these approximations cannot be a mere matter of chance, but that some reason must exist for them. What that reason is, and why a close approximation and yet something short of absolute identity exists, is as yet hidden behind the veil; but who is there that doubts that when this Association celebrates its centenary, this veil will have been lifted, and this occult but fundamental question of atomic philosophy shall have been brought into the clear light of day? But these are by no means all the relationships which modern science has discovered with respect to the atoms of our chemical elements. So long ago as 1829 Dobereiner pointed out that certain groups of elements exist presenting in all their properties strongly marked family characteristics, and this was afterwards extended and insisted upon by Dumas. We find, for example, in the well-known group of chlorine, bromine, and iodine, these resemblances well developed, accompanied moreover by a pro- portional graduation in their chemical and physical properties. Thus, to take the most important of all their characters, the atomic weight of the middle term is the mean of the atomic weights of the two extremes. But these groups of triads appeared to be unconnected in any way with one another, nor did they seem to bear any relation to the far larger number of the elements not exhibiting these peculiarities. Things remained in this condition until 1863, when Newlands threw fresh light upon the subject, showing a far-reaching series of relationships. For the first time we thus obtained a glance into the mode in which the elements are connected together, but, like so many new discoveries, this did not meet with the recognition which we now see it deserves. But whilst England thus had the honour of first opening up this new path, it is to Germany and to Russia that we must look for the consummation of the idea. Germany, in the person of Lothar Meyer, keeps, as it is wont to do, strictly within the limits of known facts. Russia, in the person of Mendelejeff, being of a somewhat more imaginative nature, not only seizes the facts which are proved, but ventures upon prophecy. These chemists, amongst whom Carnelley must be named, agree in placing all the elementary bodies in a certain regular sequence, thus bringing to light a periodic recurrence of analogous chemical and physical proper- ties, on account of which the arrangement is termed the periodic system of the elements. In order to endeavour to render this somewhat complicated matter clear to you, I may perhaps be allowed to employ a simile, Let us, if you please, imaginea series of human families : a French one, represented by Dumas ; an English one, by name Newlands; a German one, the family of Lothar Meyer; and Jastly, a Russian one, that of Mendelejeff. Let us next imagine the names of these chemists placed in a horizontal line in the order I have mentioned. Then let us write under each the name of his father, and again, in the next lower line, that of his grandfather, followed by that of his great-grandfather, and so on. Let us next write against each of these names the number of years which has elapsed since the birth of the individual. We shall then find that these numbers regularly increase by a definite amount, Z.e. by the average age of a generation, which will be approximately the same in all the four families. Comparing the ages of the chemists themselves we shall observe certain differ- ences, but these are small in comparison with the period which has elapsed since the birth of any of their ancestors. Now each individual in this series of family trees represents a chemical element ; and just as each family is distinguished by certain idiosyncrasies, so each group of ‘the elementary bodies thus arranged shows distinct signs of consanguinity. But more than this, it not unfrequently happens that the history and peculiarities of some member of a family may have been lost, even if the memory of a more remote and more famous ancestor may be preserved, although it is clear that — such an individual must have had an existence. In such a case Francis Galton would not hesitate from the characteristics of the other members to reproduce the physical and even the mental peculiarities of the missing member ; and should genea- logical research bring to light the true personal appearance and mental qualities of the man, these would be found to coincide with Galton’s estimate. ; Seabee Such predictions and such verifications have been made in the case of no less than three of our chemical elements. Thus, Mendelejeff pointed out that if, in the future, certain lacunze in his table were to be filled, they must be filled by possessing chemical and phy-ical properties which he ely specified. Since that time these gaps have actually been stopped by the discovery of gallium by Lecoq de Boisbau of scandium by Nilson, and of germanium by Winkler, their properties, both physical and chemical, as determined their discoverers, agree absolutely with those predicted by the Russian chemist. Nay, more than this, we not unfreqaently h had to deal with chemical foundlings, elements whose parent is quite unknown to us. A careful examination of the pers ality of such waifs has enabled us to restore them to the fan from which they have been separated by an unkind fate, and give them that position in chemical society to which they a entitled. Ries These remarkable re-ults, though they by no means furn proof of the supposition already referred to, viz. elements are derived from a common source, clearly point in this direction, and lend sone degree of colour to the speculat of those whose scientific imagination, wearying of dry revels in picturing to itself an elemental Bathybius, and in apply- — ing to the inanimate, laws of evolution similar to those which — rule the animate world. Nor is there wanting other evidence rezarding this inquiry, for here heat, the great analyzer, is brought into court. The main portion of the evidence consists — in the fact that distinct chemical individuals capable of existence at low temperatures are incapable of existence at high ones, but split up into new materials possessing a less complicated ture than the original. And here it may be well to en the distinction which the chemist draws between the atom the molecule, the latter being a more or less complicated gation of atoms, and especially to point out the funda difference between the question of separating the atoms in molecule and that of splitting up the atom itself. The dec positions above referred to are, in fact, not confined to comfy bodies, for Victor Meyer has proved in the case of iodine that the molecule at high temperatures is broken to atoms, and J. J. Thomson has added to our knowledge by showing that thi breaking up of the molecule may be effected not only by | vibrations, but likewise by the electrical discharge at a com- paratively low tenperature. Anan How far, now, has this process of simplification been carried ? Have the atoms of our present elements been made to yield? To this a negative answer must undoubtedly be given, for even the highest of terrestrial temperatures, that of the electric span has failed to shake any one of these atoms in two. That this is the case has been shown by the results with which spectrum analysis, that new and fascinating branch of science, has enriched our knowledge, for that spectrum analysis does give us” valuable aid in determining the varying molecular conditions. matter is admitted by all. Let us see how this bears — question of the decomposition of the elements, and let us st 3c for a moment that certain of our present elements, instead of being distinct substances, were made up of common ingredients, and that these compound elenents, if I may te allowed to use so incongruous a term, are split up at the temperature of the electric spark into less complicated molecules. Then the spec- troscopic examination of such a body must indicate the existence of these common ingredients by the appearance in the spat spectra of these elements of identical bright lines. Coincidenc of this kind have indeed been observed, but on careful examina- tion these have been shown to be due either to the presence \ 3 | Sept. ie 1887] NATURE 419. some one of the other elements as an impurity, or to insufficient observational power. This absence of coincident lines admits, however, of two explanations—either that the elements are not decomposed at the temperature of the electric spark, or, what to me a uch more improbable supposition, each one of the numbers of bright lines exhibited by every element indicates the existence of a separate constituent, no two of this enormous uumber being identical. _ Terrestrial analysis having thus failed to furnish favourable svidence, we are compelled to see if any information is forth- coming from the chemistry of the sun and stars, And here I vould remark that it is not my purpose now to dilate on the wonders which this branch of modern science has revealed. It s sufficient to remind you that chemi-ts thus have the means laced at their disposal of ascertaining with certainty the pre- ence of elements well known on this earth in fixed stars so far listant that we are now receiving the light which emanated from hem perhaps even thousands of years ago. - Since Bunsen and Kirchhoff’s original discovery in 1859, the abours of many men of science of all countries have largely in- reased our knowledge of the chemical constitution of the sun nd stars, and to no one does science owe more in this direction han to Lockyer and Huggins in this country, and to Young in he New England beyond the seas. Lockyer has of late years levoted his attention chiefly to the varying nature of the bright ines seen under different conditions of time and place on the olar surface, and from these observations he has drawn the aference that the matching observed by Kirchhoff between, for nstance, the iron lines as seen in our laboratories and those isible in the sun, has fallen to the ground. He further explains his want of uniformity by the fact that at the higher transcen- ental temperatures of the sun the substance which we know ere as iron is resolved into separate components. Other expe- imentalists, however, while accepting Lockyer’s facts as to the ariations in the solar spectrum, do not admit his conclusions, nd would rather explain the phenomena by the well-known ifferences which occur in the spectra of all the elements when 1eir molecules are subject to change of temperature or change f position. Further, arguments in favour of this idea of the evolution of 1e elements have been adduced from the phenomena presented y the spectra of the fixed stars. It is well known that some of yese shine with a white, others with a red, and others again ith a blue light; and the spectroscope, especially under the ands of Huggins, has shown that the chemical constitution of vese stars is different, ‘The whitestars, of which Sirius may be iken as a type, exhibit a much less complicated spectrum than 1e Orange and the red stars; the spectra of the latter remind s more of those of the metalloids and of chemical compounds ian of the metals. Hence it has been argued that in the white, resumably the hottest, stars a celestial dissociation of our ter- sstrial elements may have taken place, whilst in the cooler stars, robably the red, combination even may occur. But even in the hite stars we have no direct evidence that a decomposition of ny terrestrial atom has taken place ; indeed we learn that the ydrogen atom, as we know it here, can endure unscathed the conceivably fierce temperature of stars presumably many times ore fervent than our sun, as Sirius and Vega. Taking all these matters into consideration, we need not be prised if the earth-bound chemist should, in the absence of lestial evidence which is incontestable, continue, for the pre- snt at least, and until fresh evidence is forthcoming, to regard 1e elements as the unalterable foundation-stones upon which his ience is based. Pursuing another line of inquiry on this subject, Crookes has dded a remarkable contribution to the question of the possibility f decomposing the elements. With his well-known experi- yental prowess, he has discovered a new and _ beautiful series of henomena, and has shown that the phosphorescent lights emitted y certain chemical compounds, especially the rare earths, under n electric discharge in a high vacuum exhibit peculiar and naracteéristic lines. For the purpose of obtaining his material rookes started from a substance believed by chemists to be omogeneous, such, for example, as the rare earth yttria, and icceeded by a Jong series of fractional precipitations in obtain- ig products which yield different phosphorescent spectra, though when tested by the ordinary methods of what we may m high temperature spectroscopy, they appear to be the one ibstance employed at the starting-point. The other touchstone y which the identity, or otherwise, of these various products might be ascertained, viz. the determination of their atomic weights, has not, as yet, engaged Crookes’s attention. In ex- planation of these singular phenomena, the discoverer suggests two possibilities. First, that the bodies yielding the different phosphorescent spectra are different elementary constituents of the substance which we call yttria Or, if this be objected to because they all yield the same spark-spectrum, he adopts the very reasonable view that the Daltonian ato.n is probably, as we have seen, a system of chemical complexity ; and adds to this the idea that these complex atoms are not all of exactly the same constitution and weight, the differences, however, being so slight that their detection has hitherto elu.led our most delicate tests, with the exception of this one of phosphorescence in a vacuum. To these two explanations, Marignac, in a discussion of Crookes’s results, adds a third. It having been shown by Crookes him- self that the presence of the minutest traces of foreign bodies produce remarkable alterations in the phosphorescent spectra, Marignac suggests that in the course of the thousands of separa- tions which must be made before these differences become mani- fest, traces of foreign bodies may have been accidently introduced, or, being present in the original material, may have accumulated to a different extent in the various fractions, their presence being indicated by the only test by which they can now be detected. Which of these three explanations is the true one must be left to future experiment to decide. We must now pass from the statics to the dynamics of chemistry ; that is, from the consideration of the atoms at rest to that of the atoms in motion. Here, again,,we are indebted to John Dalton for the first step in this direction, for he showed that the particles of a gas are constantly flying about in all direc- tions ; that is, that gases diffuse into one another, as an escap > of coal gas from a burner, for example, soon makes itself per- ceptible throughout the room. Dalton, whose mind was con- stantly engaged in studying the molecular condition of gases. first showed that a light gas cannot rest upon a heavier gas a; oil upon water, but that an interpenetration of each gas by the other takes place. It is, however, to Graham’s experiments, made rather more than half a century ago, that we are indebted for the discovery of the law regulating these molecular motions of gases, proving that their relative rates of diffusion are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities, so that oxygen being 16 times heavier than hydrogen, their relative rates of diffusion are I and 4. But whilst Dalton and Graham indicated that the atoms are in a continual state of motion, it is to Joule that we owe the first accurate determination of the rate of that motion. At the Swansea meeting, in 1848, Joule read a paper before Section A on the ‘‘ Mechanical Equivalent of Heat and on the Constitution of Elastic Fluids.” In this paper Joule remarks that whether we conceive the particles to be revolving round one another accord- ing to the hypothesis of Davy, or flying about in every direction according to Herapath’s view, the pressure of the gas will be in proportion to the ws viva of its particles. ‘‘ Thus it may be shown that the particles of hydrogen at the barometrical pres- sure of 30 inches at a temperature of 60° mut move with a velocity of 6225°54 feet per second in order to produce a pres- sure of 14°7141bs. on the square inch,” or, to put it in other -words, a molecular cannonade or hailstorm of particles, at the above rate—a rate, we must remember, far exceeding that of a cannon ball—is maintained against the bounding surface. We can, however, goa step further and calculate with Clerk Maxwell the number of times in which this hydrogen molecule, moving at the rate of 70 miles per minute, strikes against others of the vibrating swarm, and we learn that in one second of time it must knock against others no less than 18 thousand million times. And here we may pause and dwell for a moment on the reflec- tion that in Nature there is no such thing as great or small, and that the structure of the smallest particle, invisible even to our most searching vision, may be as complicated as that of any one of the heavenly bodies which circle round our sun, But how does this wonderful atomic motion affect our chemistry? Can chemical science or chemical phenomena throw light upon this motion, or can this motion explain any of the known phenomena of our science ? I have already said that Lavoisier left untouched the dynamics of combustion. He could not explain why a fixed and unalterable amount of heat is in most cases emitted, but in some cases absorbed, when chemi- cal combination takes place. What Lavoisier left unexplained Joule has made clear. On August 25, 1843, Joule read a short 420 NATURE communication, I am glad to remember, before the Chemical Section of our Association, meeting that year at Cork, contain- ing an announcement of a discovery which was to revolutionize modern science. This consisted in the determination of the mechanical equivalent of heat, in proving by accurate experi- ment that by the expenditure of energy equal to that developed by the weight of 772 pounds falling through 1 foot at Manches- ter, the temperature of 1 pound of water can be raised 1° F. Tn other words, every change in the arrangement of the particles is accompanied by a definite evolution or an absorption of heat. In all such cases the molecular energy leaves the potential to assume the kinetic form, or vice versd. Heat is evolved by the clashing of the atoms, and this amount is fixed and definite. Thus it is to Joule we owe the foundation of chemical dyna- mics and the basis of thermal chemistry. As the conservation of mass or the principle of the indestructibility of matter forms the basis of chemical statics, so the principle of the conservation of energy constitutes the foundation of: chemical dynamics. Change in the form of matter and change in the form of energy are the universal accompaniments of every chemical operation. Here again it is to Joule we owe the proof of the truth of this principle in another direction, viz. that when electrical energy is developed by chemical change a corresponding quantity of chemical energy disappears. Energy, as defined by Maxwell, is the power of d>inz work, and worx is the act of producing a configuration in a system in opposition to.a force which resists that change. Chemical action produces such a change of con- figuration in the molecules. Hence, as Maxwell says, ‘A com- plete knowledge of the mode in which the potential energy of a system varies with the configuration would enable us to predict every possible motion of the system under the action of given exter- nal forces, provided we were able to overcome the purely mathe- matical difficulties of the calculation.” The object of thermal chemistry is to measure these changes of energy by thermal methods, and to connect these with chemical changes, to esti- mate the attractions of the atoms and molecules to which the name of chemical affinity has been applied, and thus to solve the most fundamental problem of chemical science. How far has modern research approached the solution of this most diffi- cult problem? How far can weanswer the question, What is the amount of the forces at work in these chemical changes? What laws govern these forces? . Well, even in spite of the results with which recent researches, especially the remarkable ones of the Danish philosopher Thomsen have enriched us, we must acknowledge that we are yet scarcely in sight of Maxwell’s position of. successful prediction. : Thermal chemistry, we must acknowledge, is even yet in its infancy ; it is, however, an infant of sturdy growth, likely to do good work in:the world, and ‘to be a credit to him who is its acknowledged father, as well as to ’ those who have'so carefully tended it in its early years. But recent investigation in another direction bids fair even to eclipse the results which have been.obtained by the examination of thermal phenomena. And this lies in the direction of elec- trical chemistry. _Faraday’s work relating to conductivity of chemical substances has been already referred to, and this has been since substantiated and extended to pure substances by Kohlrausch. It has been shown, for. example, that the resist- ance of absolutely pure water is almost’ an: infinite quantity. But a small quantity of.an acid, such as acetic or butyric acid, greatly increases the conductivity ; but more than this, .it is possible by determination of the conductivity of a’ mixture of water with these two acids to arrive at a conclusion as to the partition of the molecules of the water between the acids. Such a partition, however, implies a change of position, and there- fore we are furnished with a means of recognizing the motion of the molecules in a liquid, and of determining its amount. Thus it has been found that the hindrance to molecular motion is more affected by the chemical character of the liquid than by physical characters such as viscosity. We have seen that chemical change is always accompanied by molecular motion, and further evi- dence of the truth of this is gained from the extraordinary chemical inactivity of pure unmixed substances. Thus pure anhydrous hydrochloric acid does not act upon lime, whereas the addition of even a trace of moisture sets up a most active chemical change, and hundreds of other examples of a similar kind might be stated. Bearing in mind that these pure anhy- * “The total energy of any mater'al system is a quaatity which can neither be increased nor diminished by any action between the parts of the system, though it may be transformed into any * the forms of which energy is susceptible.” —MAaAxwELL. that an intimate relation exists between chemical activity a conductivity. And we need not stop here; for a method is indicated indeed by which it will be possible to arrive at a measure of chemical affinity from determination of conductivity. It has indeed been already shown that the rate of change in the — saponification of acetic ether is acta proportional to the | conductivity of the liquid employed. ie Such wide-reaching inquiries into new and fertile fields, in = which we seem to come into nearer touch with the molecular state of matter, and within a measurable distance of accurate — mathematical expression, leads to confident hope that Lord Rayleigh’s pregnant woids at Montreal may ere long be realized : i “‘Itis from the further study of electrolysis that we may expect — to gain improved views as to the nature of chemical reactions, — and of the forces concerned in bringing them about; and I be cannot.help thinking that the next great advance, of which we already have some foreshadowing, will come on this side.” : There is, _perhaps, no branch. of our science in which the doctrine of the Daltonian atom plays a more conspicuous part © than in organic chemistry or the chemistry of the carbon com-~ pounds, as there is certainly none in which such wonderful gress has been made during the last fifty years. One of the most striking and perplexing discoveries made rather more than half a century ago was that chemical compounds could exist which, — whilst possessing an identical chemical composition, that is con-— taining the same percentage quantity of their constituents, are essentially distinct chemical substances exhibiting different - properties. Dalton was the first to point out the existence of such substances, and to suggest that the difference was to be ascribed to a different or toa multiple arrangement of the con-— stituent atoms. Faraday soon afterwards proved that this position was correct, and the research of Liebig and Woh the identity of composition of the salts of fulminic and acid gave further confirmation to the conclusion, leading Fara-— day to remark that ‘‘ now we are taught to look for bodies com- posed of the same elements in the same proportion, but differing | in their qualities, they may probably multiply wpon us.” How true this prophecy has become we may gather from the fact that we now know of thousands of cases of this kind, and that we are able not only to explain the reason of their difference by virtue of the varying position of the atoms within the molecule, but even to predict the. number of distinct variations in which any given chemical compound can possibly exist: How large this number may become may be understood from the fact that, me example, one chemical compound, a hydrocarbon containi thirteen atoms of carbon combined with twenty- eight atoms hydrogen, can be shown to be capable of existing in no less ‘haa 802 distinct forms. ‘Experiment in every case in which it has been antine has. proved the truth of such a prediction, so that the chemist has no: need'to apply. the cogent argument sometimes said to be used experimentalists enamoured of pet theories, ‘‘ When facts do nee agree with theory, so'much:the worse forthe facts”! This pa of successful prediction constitutes a high-water mark in ha for it indicates that the theory Bpon which such a power is is a true’ one, Bao But if the Daltonian atom forms the founda‘ion of this theory, it is upon a knowledge of the mode: of arrangement of these atoms and on a recognition of their distinctive properties tl the superstructure of modern organic chemistry rests. Certainly it does appear almost to verge on the miraculous that chemists: should now be able to ascertain with certainty the relative posi- tion of atoms in a molecule so minute that millions upon millions, ‘like the angels in the schoolmen’s discussion, can stand on a needle’s point. And yet this process of orientation is one which is accomplished every day in ou laboratories, — one which more than any other has led to results of a startli character. Still, this sword to open the oyster of science wou have been wanting to us if we had not taken a step farther his Dalton did, in the recognition of the distinctive nature of the elemental atoms. We now assume on good grounds that the atom of each element posse:ses distinct capabilities of combina- tion : some a single capability, others a double, others a triply and others again a fourfold combining capacity. The germs this theory of valency, one of the most fruitful of modern chemical ideas, were enunciated by Frankland in 1852, but the definite explanation of the linking of atoms, of the tetrad nature of carbon atoms, their power of combination, and of the difference in structure between the fatty and aromatic series of compounds, ish 33%, #4 . : Sept. T; : isomeric bedies, which otherwise baffled our efforts. _ tHoff, in the first instance, and more recently to Wislicenus, * 1887] NATURE 421. ‘was first pointed out by Kekulé in 1857 ; though we must not forget that this great principle was foreshadowed so long ago as 1833 from a physical point of view by Faraday in his well- ‘known laws of electrolysis, and that it is to Helmholtz, in his celebrated Faraday Lecture, that we owe the complete elucida- tion of the subject; for, whilst Faraday has shown that the number of the atoms electrolytically deposited is in the inverse ratio of their valencies, Helmholtz has explained this by the fact that the quantity of electricity with which each atom is associated is directly proportional to its valency. Amongst the tetrad class of elements, carbon, the distinctive element of organic compounds, finds its place ; and the remark- _ able fact that the number of carbon compounds far exceeds that of all the other elements put together receives its explanation. For these carbon atoms not only possess four means of grasping other atoms, but these four-handed carbon atoms have a strong partiality for each other’s company, and readily attach them- selves hand in hand to form open chains or closed rings, to which the atoms of other elements join to grasp the unoccupied carbon hand, and thus to yield a dancing company in which all hands are locked together. Such a group, each individual occu- pying a given position with reference to the others, constitutes the organic molecule. When, in such a company, the individual members change hands, a new combination is formed. And as in such an assembly the eye can follow the changing positions of the individual members, so the chemist can recognize in his molecule the position of the several atoms, and explain by _ this the fact that each arrangement constitutes a new chemical compound possessing different properties, and account in this way for the decompositions which each differently constituted molecule is found to undergo. Chemists are, however, not content with representing the arrangement of the atoms in one plane, as on a sheet of paper, but attempt to express the position of the atoms in space. In this way it is possible to explain certain observed differences in To Van chemistry is indebted for work in this direction, which throws _ light on hitherto obscure phenomena, and points the way to still _ farther and more important advances. It is this knowledge of the mode in which the atoms in the _ molecule are arranged, this power of determining the nature of _ this arrangement, which has given to organic chemistry the _ impetus. which has overcome so many experimental obstacles, and given rise to such unlooked-for results. Organic chemistry has now become synthetic.. In 1837 we were able to build up ‘but very few and very simple organic compounds from their _ elements ; indeed the views of chemists were much divided as to the possibility of such a thing. Both Gmelin and Berzelius ‘argued that organic compounds, unlike inorganic bodies, cannot be built up from their elements. Organic compounds were generally believed to be special products of the so-called vital force, and it was only intuitive minds like those of Liebig and Wahler who foresaw what was coming, and wrote in 1837 strongly against this view, asserting that the artificial production in our laboratories of all organic substances, so far as they do not constitute a living organism, is not only probable but certain. Indeed, they went a step farther, and predicted that sugar, morphia, salicine, will all thus be prepared ; a prophecy which, I need scarcely remind you, has been after fifty years fulfilled, for at the present time we can prepare an artificial sweetening principle, an artificial alkaloid, and salicine. In spite of these predictions, and in spite of Wohler’s memor- able discovery in 1828 of the artificial production of urea, which did in reality break down for ever the barrier of essential chemical difference between the products of the inanimate and the animate world, still, even up to a much later date, contrary opinions were held, and the synthesis of urea was looked upon as the exception which proves the rule. So it came to pass that for many years the artificial production of any of the more complicated organic substances was believed to be impossible. Now the belief in a special vital force has disappeared like the zgnis fatuus, and no longer lures us in the wrong direction. We know now that the same laws regulate the formation of chemical compounds in both animate and inanimate nature, and the chemist only asks for a knowledge of the constitution of any definite chemical compound found in the organic world in order to be able to promise to prepare it artificially. But the progress of synthetic organic chemistry, which has of late been so rapid, was made in the early days of the half-century only by feeble steps and slow. Seventeen long years elapsed between Wohler’s discovery and the next real synthesis. ‘This was accomplished by Kolbe, who in 1845 prepared acetic acid from its elements. But then a splendid harvest of results gathered in by chemists of all nations quickly followed, a harvest so rich and so varied that we are apt to be overpowered by its wealth, and amidst so much that is alluring and striking we may well find it difficult to choose the most appropriate ex- amples for illustrating the power and the extent of modern chemical synthesis. Next, as a contrast to our picture, let us for a moment glance back again to the state of things fifty years ago, and then notice the chief steps by which we have arrived at our present position. In 1837 organic chemistry possessed no scientific basis, and therefore no classification of a character worthy of the name. Writing to Berzelius in that year, Wohler describes the con- dition of organic chemistry as one enough to drive a man mad. **It seems to me,” says he, ‘‘like the tropical forest primeval, full of the strangest growths, an endless and pathless thicket in which a man may well dread to wander.” Still clearances had already been made in this wilderness of facts. Berzelius in 1832 welcomed the results of Liebig and W6ohler’s re-earch on benzoic acid as the dawn of a new era; and such it really was, inasmuch as it introduced a novel and fruitful idea—namely, the possibility of a group of atoms acting like an element by point- ing out the existence of organic radicals. This theory was strengthened and confirmed by Bunsen’s classical researches on the cacodyl compounds, in which he showed that a common group of elements: which acts exactly as a metal can exist in the free state, and this was followed soon afterwards by isolation of the so-called alcohol radicals by Frankland and Kolbe. It is, however, to Schorlemmer that we owe our know- ledge of the true constitution of these bodies, a matter which proved to be of vital impotance for the further development of the science, Turning our glance in another direction we find that Dumas in 1834 by this law of substitution threw light upon a whole series of singular and unexplained phenomena by showing that an ex- changecan take place between the constituent atoms in a molecule. Laurent indeed went farther, and assumed that a chlorine atom, for example, took up the position vacated by an atom of hydrogen and played the part of its displaced rival, so that the chemical and physical properties of the substitution-product were thought to remain substantially the same as those of the original body. A singular story is connected with this discovery. At a soirée in the Tuileries in the time of Charles X. the guests were almost suffocated by acrid vapours which were evidently emitted by the burning wax candles, and the great chemist Dumas was called in to examine into the cause of the annoyance. He found that the wax of which the candles were made had been bleached by chlorine, that a replacement of some of the hydrogen atoms of the wax by chlorine had occurred, and that the suffocating vapours consisted of hydrochloric acid given off during the com- bustion. The wax was as white and as odourless as before, and the fact of the substitution of chlorine for hydrogen could only . be recognized when the candles were destroyed by burning. This incident induced Dumas to investigate more closely this class of phenomena, and the results of this investigation are embodied in his law of substitution. So far indeed did the interest of the French school of chemists lead them that some assumed that not only the hydrogen but also the carbon of organic bodies could be replaced by substitution. Against this idea’ Liebig protested, and in a satirical vein he informs the chemical public, writing from Paris under the xom de plume of S. Windler, that he has succeeded in substituting not only the hydrogen but the oxygen and carbon in cotton cloth by chlorine, and he adds that the London shops are now selling nightcaps and other articles of apparel made entirely of chlorine, goods which meet with much favour, especially for hospital mse.) 2 But the debt which chemistry, both inorganic and organic, thus owes to Dumas’ law of substitution is serious enough, for it proved to be the germ of Williamson’s classical researches on etherification, as well as of those of Wurtz and Hofmann on the compound ammonias, investigations which lie at the base of the structure of modern chemistry. Its influence has been, how- ever, still more far-reaching, inasmuch as upon it depends in great measure the astounding progress made in the wide field of organic synthesis. It may here be permitted to me to sketch in rough outline the 422 NATURE principles upon which all organic syntheses have been effected. We have already seen that as soon as the chemical structure of a body has been ascertained its artificial preparation may be certainly anticipated, so that the first step to be taken is the study of the structure of the naturally occurring substance which it is desired to prepare artificially by resolving it into simpler constituents, the constitution of which is already known. In this way, for example, Hofmann discovered that the alkaloid coniine, the poisonous principle of hemlock, may be decom- posed into a simpler substance well known to chemists under the name of pyridine. ‘This fact having been established by Hofmann, and the grouping of the atoms approximately deter- mined, it was then necessary to reverse the process, and, starting with pyridine, to build up a compound of the required constitu- tion and properties, a result recently achieved by Ladenburg in a series of brilliant researches. ‘lhe well-known synthesis of the colouring matter of madder by Graebe and Liebermann, preceded by the important r:searches of Schunck, and that of indigo by Baeyer, are other striking examples in which this method has been successfully followed. Not only has this intimate acquaintance with the changes which occur within the molecules of organic compounds been utilized, as we have seen, in the synthesis of naturally occurring substances, but it has also led to the discovery of many new ones. Of these perhaps the most remarkable instance is the production of an artificial sweetening agent termed saccharin, 250 times sweeter than sugar, prepared by a complicated series of reactions from coal-tar. Nor must we imagine that these discoveries are of scientific interest only, for they have given rise to the industry of the coal-tar colours, the value of which is measured by millions sterling annually, an industry which Englishmen may be proud to remember was founded by our countryman Perkin, Another interesting application of synthetic chemistry to the needs of every-day life is the discovery of a series of valuable febrifuges, amongst which I may mention antipyrin as the most useful. An important aspect in connexion with the study of these bodies is the physiological value which has been found to attach to the introduction of certain organic radicals, so that an indication is given of the possibility of preparing a compound which will possess certain desired physiological properties, or even to foretell the kind of action which such bodies may exert on the animal economy. But it is not only the physiological properties of chemical compounds which stand in intimate relation with their constitu- tion, for we find that this is the case with all their phy-.ical properties. It is true that at. the beginning of our period any such relation was almost unsuspected, whilst at the present time the number of instances in which this connexion has been ascertained is almost infinite. Amongst these perhaps the most striking is the relationship which has been pointed out between the optical properties and chemical composition. This was in the first place recognized by Pasteur in his classical researches on racemic and tartaric acids in 1848; but the first to indicate a quantitative relationship and a connexion between chemical structure and optical properties was Gladstone in 1863. Great instrumental precision has been brought to bear on this question, and consequently most important practical applications have resulted. I need only refer to the well-known accurate methods now in every-day use for the determination of sugar by the polariscope, equally valuable to the physician and to the manufacturer. But now the question may well be put, is any limit set to this synthetic power of the chemist? Although the danger of dog- matizing as to the progress of science has already been shown in too many instances, yet one cannot help feeling that the barrier which exists between the organized and unorganized worlds is one which the chemist at present sees no chance of breaking down. It is true that there are those who profess to foresee that the day will arrive when the chemist, by a succession of constructive efforts, may pass beyond albumen, and gather the elements of lifeless matter into a living structure. Whatever may be said regarding this from other standpoints, the chemist can only say that at present no such problem lies within his province. Proto- plasm, with which the simplest manifestations of life are associated, is not a compound, but a structure built up of com- pounds, component molecules, but he has no more reason to look forward to the synthetic production of the structure than to imagine that | energy is so well known, warmly attacked them, throwing The chemist may succes-fully synthetize any of its | the synthesis of gallic acid leads to the artificial production gall-nuts. Although there is thus no prospect of our effecting a synthesis of organized material, yet the progress made in our knowledge of the chemistry of life during the last fifty years has been very great, and so much so indeed that the sciences of physiological and of pathological chemistry may be said to have entirely arisen” within this period. ; In the introductory portion of this address I have already” referred to the relations supposed to exist fifty years ago be- tween vital phenomena and those of the inorganic world. Let me now briefly trace a few of the more important which have marked the progress of this branch of sciem during this period. Certainly no portion of our science greater interest, nor, I may add, of greater complexity, than which, bearing on the vital functions both of plants and animals, endeavours to unravel the tangled skein of the chemistry of life, and to explain the principles according to which our bodies live, and move, and have their being. If, therefore, in the less complicated problems with which other portions ir science have to deal, we find ourselves, as we have seen, | far from possessing satisfactory solutions, we cannot be sur to learn that with regard to the chemistry of the living body— whether vegetable or animal—in health or disease we are still farther from a complete knowledge of phenomena, even ° fundamental importance. See It is of interest here to recall the fact that nearly fifty ago Liebig presented to the Chemical Section of this Associ: a communication in which, for the first time, an attem made to explain the phenomena of life on chemical and phys lines, for in this paper he admits the applicability of the principle of the conservation of energy to the func animals, pointing out that the animal cannot generate m than is produced by the combustion of the carbon and h of his food. cae ‘The source of animal heat,” says Liebig, ‘‘ has p been ascribed to nervous action or to the contractic muscles, or even to the mechanical motions of the body, these motions could exist without an expenditure of force [e to that] consumed in producing them.” Again he compares | living body to a laboratory furnace in which a complicated of changes occur in the fuel, but in which the end-produ carbonic acid and water, the amount of heat evolved dependent, not upon the intermediate, but upon products. Liebig asked himself the question, Does ¢ of food go to the production of heat ; or can we disti the one hand, between the kind of food which goes to’ warmth, and, on the other, that by the oxidation of which motions and mechanical energy of the body are kept up thought that he was able to do this, and he divided food i two categories. The starchy or carbohydrate food is th he, which by its combustion provides the warmth nec the existence and life of the body. The albuminous genous constituents of our food, the flesh meat, the glut casein out of which our muscles are built up, are not a for the purposes of creating warmth, but it is by the was those muscles that the mechanical energy, the activity. motions of the animal are supplied. We see, said that the Esquimaux feeds on fat and tallow, and this burr his body keeps out the cold. The Gaucho, riding on the pa lives entirely on dried meat, and the rowing man and f¢ trained on beefsteaks and porter, require little food to keep the temperature of their bodies, but much to enable them meet the demand for fresh muscular tissue, and for this purpc they need to live on a strongly nitrogenous diet. Thus far Liebig. Now let us turn to the present state of ot knowledge. The question of the source of muscular power i one of the greatest interest, for, as Frankland observes, it corner-stone of the physiological edifice and the key to nutrition of animals. i ae Let us examine by the light of modern science the trt Liebig’s view—even now not uncommonly held—as to functions of the two kinds of food, and as to the cause muscular exercise being the oxidation of the muscular tis: Soon after the promulgation of these views, J. R. Mayer, wl name as the first expositor of the idea of the conservation the hypothesis that all muscular action is due to the combus of food, and not to the destruction of muscle, proving his by showing that if the muscles of the heart be destroyed in doit Wks, NATURE 423 amechanical work the heart would be burnt up in eight days! What does modern research say to this question? Can it be . t to the crucial test of experiment? It can; but how? ell, in the first place we can ascertain the work done by a man ny other animal ; we can measure this work in terms of our hanical standard, in kilogramme-metres or foot-pounds. We ‘next determine what is the destruction of nitrogenous at rest and under exercise by the amount of nitrogenous ial thrown off by the body. And here we must remember vat these tissues are never completely burnt, so that free nitrogen “never eliminated. If now we know the heat-value of the int muscle, it is eay to convert this into its mechanical iquivalent, and thus measure the energy generated. What is he result? Is the weight of muscle destroyed by ascending the Faulhorn or by working on the treadmill sufficient to produce on sombustion heat enough when transformed into mechanical cercise to lift the body up to the summit of the Faulhorn or to he work on the treadmill? Careful experiment has shown at this is so far from being the case that the actual energy eloped is twice as great as that which could possibly be pro- duced by the oxidation of the nitrogenous constituents eliminated om the body during twenty-four hours. That is to say, taking e amount of nitrogenous substance cast off from the body, not y whilst the work was being done but during twenty-four urs, the mechanical effect capable of being produced by the uscular tissue from which this cast-off material is derived would nly raise the hody half-way up the Faulhorn, or enable the risoner to work half his time on the treadmill. Hence it is clear that Liebig’s proposition is not true. The trogenous constituents of the food do doubtless go to repair waste of muscle, which, like every other portion of the y, needs renewal, whilst the function of the non-nitrogenous od is not only to supply the animal heat, but also to furnish, its oxidation, the muscular energy of the body. We thus come to the conclusion that it is the potential energy the food which furnishes the actual energy of the body, ssed in terms either of heat or of mechanical work. t there is one other factor which comes into play in this ion of mechanical energy, and must be taken into ant ; and this factor we are as yet unable to estimate in our lterms. It concerns the action of the mind upon the body, , although incapable of exact expression, exerts none the less important influence on the physics and chemistry of the body, that a connexion undoubtedly exists between intellectual ctivity or mental work and bodily nutrition. In proof that there as a marked difference between voluntary and involuntary work, _ ave need only compare the mechanical action of the heart, which mever causes fatigue, with that of the voluntary muscles, which become fatigued by continued exertion. So, too, we know well that an amount of drill which is fatiguing to the recruit is not felt by the old soldier, who goes through the evolutions auto- _ matically: What is the expenditure of mechanical energy which _ accompanies mental effort, is a question which science is _ probably far removed from answering. But that the body _ experiences exhaustion as the result of mental activity is a well- ized fact. Indeed, whilst the second law of thermo- _ dynamics teaches that in none of the mechanical contrivances for _ the conversion of heat into actual energy can such a conversion __ be complete, it is perhaps possible, as Helmholtz has suggested, _ ithat such a complete conversion may take place in the subtle mechanism of the animal organism. The phenomena of vegetation, no less than those of the animal world, have, however, during the last fifty years been placed by the chemist on an entirely new basis. Although before the publication of Liebig’s celebrated report on chemistry and its application to agriculture, presented to the British Association in 1840, much had been done, many fundamental facts had been -established, still Liebig’s report marks an era in the progress of this branch of our science. He not only gathered up in a masterly fashion the results of previous workers, but put forward his own original views with a boldness and frequently with a sagacity which gave a vast stimulus and interest to the questions at issue. As a proof of this I may remind you of the attack which he made on, and the complete victory which he gained over, the humus theory. Although Saussure and others had already done much to destroy the basis of this theory, yet the fact remained that vegetable physiologists up to 1840 continued to hold to the opinion that humus, or decayed vegetable matter, was the only source of the carbon of vegetation. Liebig, giving due consideration to the labours of Saussure, came to the con- | 4 t clusion that it was absolutely impossible that the carbon deposited as vegetable tissue over a given area, as for instance over an area of forest land, could be derived from humus, which is itself the result of the decay of vegetable matter. He asserted that the whole of the carbon of vegetation is obtained from the atmospheric carbonic acid, which, though only present in the small relative proportion of 4 parts in 10,000 of air, is contained in such absolutely large quantity that if all the vegeta- tion on the earth’s surface were burnt, the proportion of carbonic acid which would thus be thrown into the air would not be sufficient to double the present amount. That this conclusion of Liebig’s is correct needed experimental proof, but such proof could only be given by long-continued and laborious experiment, and this serves to show that chemical reseirch is not now confined to laboratory experiments lasting perhaps a few minutes, bat that it has invaded the domain of agriculture as well as of physiology, and reckons the periods of her observations in the field not by minutes, but by years. It is to our English agricultural chemists Lawes and Gilbert that we owe the complete experimental proof required. And it is true that this experiment was a long and tedious one, for it has taken forty- four years to give the definite reply. At Rothamsted a plot was set apart for the growth of wheat. For forty-four successive years that field has grown wheat without addition of any carbonized manure ; so that the only possible source from which the plant could obtain the carbon for its growth is the atmo- spheric carbonic acid. Now, the quantity of carbon which on an average was removed in the form of wheat and straw from a plot manured only with mineral matter was 1000 pounds, whilst on another plot, for which a nitrogenous manure was employed, 1500 pounds more carbon was annually removed; or 2500 pounds of carbon are removed by this crop annually without the addition of any carbonaceous manure. So that Liebig’s prevision has received a complete experimental verification. May I without wearying you with experimental details refer for a moment to Liebig’s views as to the assimilation of nitrogen by plants—a much more complicated and difficult question than the one we have just considered—and compare these with the most modern results of agricultural chemistry? We find that in this case his views have not been substantiated. He imagined that the whole of the nitrogen required by the plant was derived from atmospheric ammonia ; whereas Lawes and Gilbert have shown by experiments of a similar nature to those just described, and extending over a nearly equal length of time, that this source is wholly insufficient to account for the nitrogen removed in the crop, and have come to the conclusion that the nitrogen must have been obtained either from a store of nitrogenous material in the soil or by absorption of free nitrogen from the air. These two apparently contradictory alternatives may perhaps be recon- ciled by the recent observations of Warington and of Berthelot, which have thrown light upon the changes which the so-called nitrogenous capital of the soil undergoes, as well as upon its chemical nature, for the latter has shown that under certain con- ditions the soil has the power of absorbing the nitrogen of the air, forming compounds which can subsequently be assimilated by the plant. Touching us as human beings even still more closely than the foregoing, is the influence which chemistry has exerted on the science of pathology, and in no direction has greater ‘progress been made than in the study of micro-organisms in relation to health and disease. In the complicated chemical changes to which we give the names of fermentation and putrefaction, the views of Liebig, according to which these phenomena are of a purely chemical character, have given way under the searching in- vestigations of Pasteur, who established the fundamental principle that these processes are inseparably connected with the life of certain low forms of organisms. ‘Thus was founded the science of bacteriology, which in Lister’s hands has yielded such splendid results in the treatment of surgical cases ; and in those of Klebs, Koch, William: Roberts, and others, has been the means of de- tecting the cause of many diseases both in man and animals ; the latest and not the least important of which is the remarkable series of successful researches by Pasteur into the nature and mode of cure of that most dreadful of maladies, hydrophobia. And here I may be al'owed to refer with satisfaction to the results of the labours on this subject of a Committee the formation of which I had the honour of moving for in the House of Commons. These results confirm in every respect Pasteur’s assertions, and prove beyond a doubt that the adoption of his methoi has prevented the occurrence of hydrophobia in a large proportion of persons 424 NATURE bitten by rabid animals, who, if they had not been subjected to_ this treatment would have died of that disease. The value of his discovery is, however, greater than can be estimated by its present utility, for it shows that it may be possible to avert other diseases besides hydrophobia by the adoption of a somewhat similar method of investigation and of treatment. This, though the last, is certainly not the least of the debts which humanity owes to the great French experimentalist. Here it might seem as if we had outstepped the boundaries of chemistry, and have to do with phenomena purely vital. But recent research indi- cates that this is not the case, and points to the conclusion that the microscopist must again give way to the chemist, and that it ‘is by chemical rather than by biological investigation that the causes of diseases will be discovered, and the power of removing them obtained. For we learn that the symptoms of infective diseases are no more due to the microbes which constitute the infection than alcoholic intoxication is produced by the yeast-cell, but that these symptoms are due to the presence of definite chemical compounds, the result of the life of these microscopic organisms. So it is to the action of these poisonous substances formed during the life of the organism, rather than to that of the organism itself, that the special characteristics of the disease are to be traced ; for it has been shown that the disease can be communicated by such poisons in entire absence of living organisms. If I have thus far dwelt on the progress made in certain branches of pure science it is not because I undervalue the other methods by which the advancement of science is accomplished, viz. that of the application and of the diffusion of a. knowledge of Nature, .but rather because the British Association has always held, and wisely held, that original investigation lies at the root of all application, so that to foster its growth and encourage its development has for more than fifty years been our chief aim and wish. Had time permitted I should have wished to have illustrated this dependence of industrial success upon original investigation, and to have pointed out the prodigious strides which chemical industry in this country has made during the fifty years of Her Majesty’s reign. As it is I must be content to remind you how much our modern life, both in its artistic and useful aspects, owes to chemistry, and, therefore, how essential a knowledge of the principles of the science is to all who have the industrial progress of the country at heart. This leads me to refer to what has been accomplished in this country of ours towards the diffusion of scientific knowledge ~ amongst the people during the Victorian era. It is true that the English people do not possess, as yet, that appreciation of the value of science so characteristic of some other nations. Up to very recent years our educational system, handed down to us from the Middle Ages, has systematically ignored science, and we are only just beginning, thanks in a great degree to the pre- vision of the late Prince Consort, to give it a place, and that but an unimportant one, in our primary and secondary schools or in our Universities. The country is, however, now awakening to the necessity of placing its house in order in this respect, and is beginning to see that if she is to maintain her commercial and industrial supremacy the education of her people from top io bottom must be carried out on new lines. The question as to how this can be most safely and surely accomplished is one of transcendent national importance, and the statesman who solves this educational problem will earn the gratitude of generations yet to come. In conclusion, may I be allowed to welcome the unpre- cedentedly large number of foreign men of science who have on this occasion honoured the British Association by their presence, and to express the hope that this meeting may be the commencement of an international scientific organization, the only means nowadays existing, to use the words of one of the most distinguished of our guests, of establishing that fraternity among nations from which politics appear to remove us further and further by absorbing human powers and human work, and directing them to purposes of destruction. It would indeed be well if Great Britain, which has hitherto taken the lead in so many things that are great and good, should now direct her attention to the furthering of international organiza- tions of a scientific nature. A more appropriate occasion than the present meeting could perhaps hardly be found for the inauguration of such a movement. But whether this hope be realized or not, we all unite in that one great object, the search after truth for its own sake, and [ Sept. 1, “ we all, therefore, may join in re-echoing the words of ‘The worth of man lies not in the truth which he possesses believes that he possesses, but in the honest endeavour whic puts forth to secure that truth ; for not by the posse truth, but by the search after it are the faculties of ‘4 enlarged, and in this alone consists his ever-growing bese Possession fosters content, indolence, and pride. If God sh hold in His right hand all truth, and in His left hand the e active desire to seek truth, though with the condition of petual error, I would humbly ask for the contents of the pat, saying, ‘F ee give me this; pure truth is only ee, aoa SECTION A. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE, OPENING ADDRESS BY SIR RoBERT S. BALL, LL.D., FR PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION, : A Dynamica! Parable. THE subject I have chosen for my address to you ais been to me a favourite topic of meditation for many years. is that part of the science of theoretical mechanics which is ust known as the ‘‘ Theory of Screws.” A good deal has been already written on this theory, b may say with some confidence that the aspect in which I s invite you now to look at it isa novel one. I propose to. an account of the proceedings of a committee appointed t¢ vestigate and experiment upon certain dynamical phenom It may appear to you that the experiments I shall describe 1 not as yet been made, that even the committee itself has as yet been called together. I have accordingly ventured to this address ‘* A Dynamical Parable.” ae There was once a rigid body which lay peacefully uae committee of natural philosophers was appointed to mz experimental and rational inquiry into the dynamics < ' body. The committee received special instructions. — to find out why the body remained at rest, notwithstanding certain forces were in action. They were to apply impuw forces and observe how the body would begin to move. 1 were also to investigate the small oscillations. These b settled, they were then to But here the chairman ir posed ; he considered that for the present, at least, there sufficient work in prospect. He pointed out how the quest already proposed just completed a natural group. — “Let it su for us,” he said, ‘‘ to experiment upon the dynamics of thist so long as it remains in or near to the position it now « We may leave to some more ambitious committee the of following the body in all conceivable gyrations universe.’ The committee was judiciously chosen. Mr. “Anh: undertook the geometry. He was found to be of the ut value in the more delicate parts of the work, though his thought him rather prosy at times. He was much aided two friends, Mr. One-to-One, who had charge of the ho graphic department, and Mr. Helix, whose labours will be: to be of much importance. As a most respectable if rather fashioned member, Mr. Cartesian was added to the commit but his antiquated tactics were quite out-manceuvred by ‘tho: Helix and One-to-One. I need only mention two more nai Mr. Commonsense was, of course, present as an ¢x member, and valuable service was even rendered by” Querulous, who objected at first to serve on the committee at He said that the inquiry was all nonsense, because everybody k as much as they wished to know about the dynamics of a 1 body. The subject was as old as the hills, and had all 1 settled long ago. He was persuaded, however, to lool occasionally. It will appear that a remarkable result of labours of the committee was the conversion of Mr. Quem himself. The committee assembled in the presence of the oe bod commence their memorable labours. There was t rest, ‘a huge amorphous mass, with no regularity in its shape- uniformity in its texture. But what chiefly alarmed the ¢ mittee was the bewildering nature of the constraints by w the movements of the body were hampered. They had | accustomed to nice mechanical problems, in which a sm body lay on a smooth table, or a wheel rotated on an axle, body rotated around a point. In all these cases the constra NATURE 425 of a simple character, and the possible movements of the ere obvious. But the constraints in the present case were ng complexity. There were cords and links, moving axes, with which the body lay in contact, and many other rical constraints. Experience of ordinary problems in would be of little avail. In fact, the chairman truly ed the situation when he said that the comstraints were erfectly general type. 1¢ dismay with which this announcement was received sommonsense advanced to the body and tried whether move at all. Yes, it was obvious that in some ways the d be moved. Then said Commonsense, “‘ Ought we o study carefully the nature of the freedom which the Ought we not to make an inventory of inct movement of which the body is capable? Until make any geometrical theory of the mobility of a body knowing all about the constraints? And yet you are ing to do so with perfectly general constraints of which wnothing. It must all be waste of time, for though wre many books on mechanics, I never saw anything the gentle voice of Mr. Anharmonic was heard. ‘‘ Let et us simply experiment on the mobility of the body, and thfully record what we find.” In justification of this Mr. Anharmonic made a remark which was new to most s of the committee ; he asserted that though the con- nis may be of endless variety and complexity there can ly a very limited variety in the types of possible mobility. as therefore resolved to make a series of experiments with imple object of seeing how the body could be moved. Mr. n, having a reputation for such work, was requested to the inquiry and to report to the committee. Cartesian Operations in accordance with the well-known f his craft. He erected a cumbrous apparatus which his three rectangular axes. He then attempted to push parallel to one of these axes, but it would not stir. He move the body parallel to each of the other axes, again unsuccessful. He then attached the body of the axes and tried to effect a rotation around that gain he failed, for the constraints were of too elaborate to accommodate themselves to Mr. Cartesian’s crude shall subsequently find that the movements of the body cessarily of an exquisitely simple type, yet such was the hess and the artificial character of Mr. Cartesian’s ery that he failed to perceive the simplicity. To him it ed that the body could only move in a highly camplex ner ; he saw that it could accept acomposite movement con- 2 of rotations about two or three of his axes and simultaneous ations also parallel to two or three axes. Cartesian was a skilful calculator, and by a series of experiments even with insympathetic apparatus he obtained some knowledge of the ct, sufficient for purposes in which a vivid comprehension of + whole was not required. The inadequacy of Cartesian’s ometry was painfully evident when he reported to the com- 1 on the mobility of the rigid body. ‘‘I find,” he said, the body can neither move parallel to x, nor to y, nor 2; neither can I make it rotate around x, nor y, nor z; but could push it an inch parallel to x, provided that at the same me I pushed it a foot parallel to y and a yard backwards arallel to z, and that it was also turned a degree around x, half degree the other way around y, and twenty-three minutes and nineteen seconds around 2.” Ts that all?” asks the chairman. ‘‘Oh no,” replied Mr. Cartesian, ‘‘there are other proportions in which the ingredients may be combined soas to produce a possible movement,” and he was proceeding to state them when Mr. Commonsense = “Stop! stop!” said he, ‘‘I can make nothing all these This jargon about x, y, and z may suffice for your calculations, but it fails to convey to my mind any clear * concise notion of the movements which the body is free to make.” ; ; _ Many of the committee sympathized with this view of Common- sense, and they came to the conclusion that there was nothing | to be extracted from poor old Cartesian and his axes. They felt that there must be some better method, and their hopes of dis- covering it were raised when they saw Mr. Helix volunteer his ! 5 . services and advance to the rigid body. Helix brought with him» no cumbrous rectangular axes, but commenced to try the mobility- of the bodyin the simplest manner. He found it lying at rest in. a position we may call A. Perceiving that it was in some ways - mobile, he gave it a slight displacement to a neighbouring position, B. Contrast the procedure of Cartesian with the pro- cedure of Helix. Cartesian tried to force the body to move- along certain routes which he had arbitrarily chosen, but which the body had not chosen ; in fact the body would not take any- one of his routes separately, though it would take all of them together in the most embarrassing manner. But Helix had no- preconceived scheme as to the nature of the movements to be - expected. He simply found the body in a certain position, A, and then he coaxed the body to move, not in this particular way or in that particular way, but any way the body liked to any new position, B Let the constraints be what they may—let the position B lie - anywhere in the close neighbourhood of A—Helix found that he could move the body from A to B by an extremely simple - operation. With the aid of a skilful mechanic he prepared a screw with a suitable pitch, and adjusted this screw in a definite - position, The rigid body was then attached by rigid bonds to- a nut on this screw, and it was found that the movement of the body from A to B could be effected by simply turning the nut on: the screw. A perfectly definite fact about the mobility of the body has thus been ascertained. It is able to twist to and fro on a certain screw. Mr. Querulous could not see that there was any simplicity or geometrical clearness in the notion of a screwing movement ;: in fact he thought it was the reverse of simple. Did not the screwing movement mean a translation parallel to an axis and a rotation around that axis? Was it not better to think of the rotation and the translation separately than to jumble - together two things so totally distinct into a composite notion ? But Querulous was instantly answered by One-to-One. ‘* Lamentable, indeed,” said he; ‘‘ would be a divorce between» the rotation and the translation. Together they form the unit of rigid movement. Nature herself has wedded them, and the- fruits of their happy union are both abundant and beautiful.” The success of Helix encouraged him to proceed with the - experiments, and speedily he found a second screw about which - the body could also twist. He was about to continue when he was interrupted by Mr. Anharmonic, who said, ‘‘Tarry a: moment, for geometry declares that a body free to twist about two screws is free to twist about a myriad of screws. | These form the generators of a graceful ruled surface known as the - cylindroid. There may be infinite variety in the conceivable constraints, but there can be no corresponding variety in the character of this surface. Cylindroids differ in size, they have no difference in shape. Let us then make a cylindroid of the - right size, and so place it that two of its screws coincide with those you have discovered ; then I promise you that the body can be twisted about every screw on the surface. In other words, if a body has two degrees of freedom the cylindroid is : the natural and the perfect general method for giving an exact specification of its mobility.” A single step remained to complete the examination of the freedom of the body. Mr, Helix continued his experiments, and presently detected a third screw, about which the body can also - twist in addition to those on the cylindroid. A flood of geometrical light then burst forth and illuminated the whole - theory. It appeared that the body was free to twist about ranks upon ranks of screws all beautifully arranged by their pitches on » a system of hyperboloids. After a brief conference with Anhar- - monic and One-to-One, Helix announced that sufficient experi- - ments of this kind had now been made. _ By the single. screw, the cylindroid, and the family of hyperboloids, every - conceivable information about the mobility of the rigid body - can be adequately conveyed. Let the body have any constraints, . however elaborate, yet the definite geometiical conceptions just stated will be sufficient, With perfect lucidity Mr. Helix expounded the matter to the - committee. He exhibited to them an elegant fabric of screws, each with its appropriate pitch, and then he summarized his : labours by saying, ‘“‘ About every one of these screws you can displace the body by twisting, and what is of no less importance - it will not admit of any movement which is not such a twist.” The committee expressed their satisfaction with this information. It was both clear and complete. Indeed, the chairman remarked |! ie ane -with considerable force that a more thorough method of specifying the freedom of the body was inconceivable. The discovery of the mobility of the body completed the first ‘stage of the labours of the committee, and they were ready to commence the serious dynamical work. Force was now to be used, with the view of experimenting on the behaviour of the body under its influence. Elated by their previous success the -committee declared that they would not rest satisfied until they had again obtained the most perfect solution of the most general problem. ‘* But what is force?” said one of the committee. ‘‘ Send for Mr. Cartesian,” said the chairman, ‘‘ we will give him another trial.” Mr. Cartesian was accordingly requested to devise an engine of the most ferocious description wherewith to attack the rigid body. He was promptly ready with a scheme, the weapons being drawn from his trusty but old-fashioned armoury. He would erect three rectangular axes, he would administer a tremendous blow parallel to each of these axes, and then he would simultaneously apply to the body a forcible couple around each of them ; this was the utmost he could do. **No doubt,” said the chairman, ‘‘what you propose would be highly effective, but, Mr. Cartesian, do you not think that while you still retained the perfect generality of your attack, you ‘might simplify your specification of it? I confess that these three blows all given at once at right angles to each other, and these “three couples which you propose to impart at the same time, rather confuse me. ‘There seems a want of unity somehow. In short, Mr. Cartesian, your scheme does not create a distinct geometrical image in my mind. We gladly acknowledge its suitability for numerical calculation, and we remember its famous achievements, but it is utterly inadequate to the aspirations of this committee. We must look elsewhere.” Again Mr. Helix stepped forward. He reminded the com- ‘ mittee of the labours of Mathematician Poinsot, and then he -approached the rigid body. Helix commenced by clearing away Cartesian’s arbitrary scaffolding of rectangular axes. He showed how an attack of the most perfect generality could be delivered in a form that admitted of concise and elegant description. ‘‘I shall,” he said, ‘‘ administer a blow upon the rigid body from some unexpected direction, and at the same instant I shall apply a vigorous couple in a plane perpendicular to the line of the blow.” A happy inspiration here seized upon Mr. Anharmonic. He knew, of course, that the efficiency of a couple is measured by its moment—that is, by the product of a force and a linear magnitude. He proposed, therefore, to weld Poinsot’s force and couple into the single conception of a wrench on ascrew. The force would be directed along the screw while the moment of the - couple would equal the product of the force and the pitch of the screw. ‘‘A screw,” he said, ‘‘is to be regarded merely as a directed straight line with an associated linear magnitude called the pitch. The screw has for us a dual aspect of much significance. No small movement of the body is conceivable which does not con- sist of a twist about a screw. No set of forces could be applied to the body which were not equivalent to a wrench upon a screw. Every one remembers the two celebrated rules that forces are -compounded like rotations and that couples are compounded like translations. These may now be replaced by the single but far more compendious rule which asserts that wrenches and twists are to be compounded by identical laws. Would you unite geometry with generality in your dynamics? It is by screws, and screws only, that you are enabled to do so.” These ideas were rather too abstract for Cartesian, who re- marked that as D’Alembert’s principle provided for everything in dynamics screws could not be needed. Mr. Querulous sought to confirm him by saying that he did not see how screws helped the study either of Foucault’s Pendulum or of the Precession of the Equinoxes. Such absurd observations kindled the intellectual wrath of One-to-One, who rose and said, ‘‘In the development of the natural philosopher two epochs may be noted, At the first he becomes aware that problems exist. At the second he discovers their solution. Querulous has not yet reached the first epoch, he cannot even conceive those problems which the ‘Theory of Screws’ proposes to solve. I may however inform him that the ‘ Theory of Screws’ is not a general dynamical calculus. It is the discussion of a particular class of dynamical problems which do not admit of any other enunciation except that which the theory itself provides. Let us hope that ere our labours have ended Mr. Querulous may obtain some glimmering of the subject.” ; piles The chairman happily assuaged matters. ‘‘ We m he said, ‘‘ the vigorous language of our friend Mr. O His faith in geometry is boundless. In fact he is said t that the only real existence in the universe is anharmo It is also his opinion that if a man travelled sufficientl a straight line in one direction he will ultimately a1 point from which he started. The committee would see Mr. Querulous making the trial.” It was obvious that screws were indispensable the application of the forces and for the observation | ments. Special measuring instruments were devised | the positions and pitches of the various screws could be ascertained, All being ready the first experiment menced. A screw was chosen quite at random, and a great it wrench was administered thereon. In the infinite m cases this would start the body into activity, and it wot mence to move in the orly manner possible—z.¢. i to twist about some screw. It happened, howe experiment was unsuccessful; the impulsive wrench operate, or at all events the body did not stir, ‘I would not do,” shouted Querulous, though he i when One-to-One glanced at him, rag : Much may often be learned from an experiment wh and the chairman sagaciously accounted for the doing so directed the attention of the committee to branch of the subject. The mishap was due, he some reaction of the constraints which had net of the wrench. He believed it would save ti investigations if these reactions could be first number and position ascertained. sana To this suggestion Mr. Cartesian demurred. it would involve an endless task. ‘‘ Look,” he complexity of the constraints : how the body rests faces here ; how it is fastened by links to those how there are a thousand-and-one ways in which originate.” Mr. Commonsense and other mem! mittee were not so easily deterred, and they out the subject thoroughly. At first they di clearly, and much time was spent in misdirectec length they were rewarded by a curious and covery, which suddenly rendered the obscure transparent. A trial was being made upon a body whi : degree of freedom ; was, in fact, only able to twist « single screw, X. Another screw, Y, was $ oun that a wrench thereon failed to disturb tl occurred to the committee to try the effect of relation of these screws. They accordingly ar body should be left only free to twist about Y, was applied on X. Again the body did not stir, ance of this fact immediately arreste1 the attention intelligent observers, for it established the folle law: If a wrench on X fails to move a body about Y, then a wrench on Y must be unable only free to twist about X. It was determined to s screws when related in this manner as rectfrocal. Some members of the committee did not at significance of this discovery. Their difficulty aros« restricted character of the experiments by which the I procal screws had been suggesteJ. They said, ‘‘ You us that this law is observed in the case of a bod twist about one screw at a time; but how does th ach thing of the general case in which the body is free to twist whole shoals of screws?” Mr. Commonsense — ; showed that the ‘discovery could be enunciated in objectionable form. ‘‘ The law of reciprocal screw: ‘does not depend upon the constraints or the limi freedom. It may be expressed in this way: Zwo reciprocal when a small twist about either can do no wi a wrench on the other.” ae hy This important step at once brought into x geometry of the reactions. Let us suppose that the the body was such that it could twist about all the s system which we shall call U. Let all the possib form wrenches on the screws of another system, V.— appeared that every screw upon U is reciprocal to upon V. A body might therefore be free to twist ab screw of V and still remain in equilibrium, notwiths presence of a wrench on every screw of U. A body NATURE . 427 — ut all the screws of V can therefore be only partially se V must be one of those few types of screw system liscussed. It was, accordingly, found that the single 2 cylindroid, and the set of beoaieitias completely every conceivable reaction from the constraints just as ribed every conceivable kind of freedom. Thé committee much encouragement from these discoveries ; they felt must be following the right path, and that the bounty e had already bestowed on them some earnest of the hey were ultimately to receive. ith eager anticipation that they now approached the nical question. They were to see what would happen ve wrench were not neutralized by the reactions of nts. The body would then commence to move— to twist about some screw which it would be natural to instantaneous screw. To trace the connexion between sive Screw and the corresponding instantaneous screw uestion of the hour. Before the experiments were com- some shrewd member remarked that the issue had not esented with the necessary precision. ‘‘I under- said, ‘that when you apply a certain impulsive body will receive a definite twist velocity about a screw ; but the converse problem is ambiguous. Unless be quite free, there are myriads of impulsive screws ng to but one instantaneous screw.” The chairman the difficulty, and not in vain did he appeal to the instinct of Mr, One-to-One, who at once explained phy of the matter, dissipated the fug, and disclosed sauty in the theory. quite true,” said Mr. One-to-One, ‘‘ that there are impulsive screws, any one of which may be regarded respondent to a given instantaneous screw, but it sly happens that among these myriads there is always 7 So specially circumstanced that we may select it as ident, and then the ambiguity will have vanished.” al members were not endowed with the geometrical assessed by One-to-One, they called on him to explain special screw was to be identified; accordingly he pro- -** We have already ascertained that the constraints per- ly to be twisted about any screw of the system, U. myriads of impulsive screws corresponding to a single us screw it always happens that one, but never more lies on U. This is the special screw. No matter 1¢ impulsive wrench may lie throughout all the realms ‘it may always be exchanged for a precisely equivalent lying on U. , we have neatly circumscribed the problem. For one fe screw there is one instantaneous screw, and for one htaneous screw there is one impulsive screw.” he experiments were accordingly resumed. An impulsive was chosen, and its position and its pitch were both noted. impulsive wrench was administered, the body commenced to t, and the instantaneous screw was ascertained by the motion marked points. The body was brought to rest. A new im- screw was then taken. The experiment was again and repeated. The results were tabulated, so that for each sive screw the corresponding instantaneous screw was - hough these investigations were restricted to screws be- ging to the system which expressed the freedom of the body, t the committee became uneasy when they reflected that é screws of that system were still infinite in number, and ut consequently they had undertaken a task of infinite extent. ess some compendious law should be discovered, which nected the impulsive screw with the instantaneous screw, experiments would indeed be endless. Was it likely that a law could be found—was it even likely that such a law d? Mr. Querulous decidedly thought not. He pointed how the body was of the most hopelessly irregular shape d mass, and how the constraints were notoriously of the most ing description. It was therefore, he thought, idle to h for any geometrical law connecting the impulsive screw the instantaneous screw. He moved that the whole inquiry abandoned. These sentiments seemed to be shared by er members of the committee. Even the resolution of the nan began to quail before a task of infinite magnitude. A was imminent—when Mr, Anharmonic rose. ~ “Mr. Chairman,” he said, ‘‘Geometry is ever ready to help even the most humble inquirer into the laws of Nature, but Geometry reserves her most gracious gifts for those who interro- Without the sacrifice of a particle of. subject was too great for his comprehension. gate Nature in the noblest and most comprehensive spirit. That spirit has been ours dming this research, and accordingly Geo- metry in this our emergency places her choicest treasures at our disposal. Foremost among these is the powerful theory of homographic systems, By a few bold extensions we create a comprehensive theory of homographic screws. All the impul- sive screws form one system, and all the instantaneous screws form another system, and these two systems are homographic. Once you have realized this, you will find your present difficulty cleared away. You will only have to determine a few pairs of impulsive and instantaneous screws by experiment. The num- ber of such pairs need never be more than seven, When these have been found, the homography is completely known. The instantaneous screw corresponding to every impulsive screw will then be completely determined by geometry both pure and beautiful.” ‘To the delight and amazement of the committee, Mr. Anharmonic demonstrated the truth of his theory by the supreme test of fulfilled prediction. When the observations. had provided him with a number of pairs of screws, one more ~ than the number of degrees of freedom of the body, he was able to predict with infallible accuracy the instantaneous screw corresponding to any impulsive screw. Chaos had gone. Sweet order had come. A few days later the chairman summoned a special meeting in order to hear from Mr. Anharmonic an account of a discovery he had just made, which he believed to be of signal importance, and which he was anxious to demonstrate by actual experiment. Accordingly the committee assembled, and the geometer pro- ceeded as follows :— ‘* You are aware that two homographic ranges on the same ray possess two double points, whereof each coincides with its . correspondent ; more generally when each point in space, re- garded as belonging to one homographic system, has its corre- spondent belonging to another system ; then there are four cases in which a point coincides with its correspondent. These are known as the four double points, and they possess much geo- metrical interest. Let us now create conceptions of an analo- gous character suitably enlarged for our present purpose, . We have discovered that the impulsive screws and the corresponding ~ instantaneous screws form two homographic systems. There will be a certain limited number (never more than six) of double screws common to these two systems. As the double points in the homography of point systems are fruitful in geometry, so the double screws in the homography of screw systems are fruitful in dynamics.” ets A question for experimental inquiry could now be distinctly stated. Does a double screw possess the property that an im- pulsive wrench delivered thereon will make the body commence to move by twisting about the same screw? This was imme- diately tested. Mr. Anharmonic, guided by the indications of homography, soon pointed out the few double screws. One of these waschosen ; a vigorous impulsive wrench was imparted there- on. The observations were conducted as before : the anticipated result was triumphantly verified, for the body commenced to twist about the identical screw on which the wrench was imparted. The other double screws were similarly tried, and with a like result. In each case the instantaneous screw was identical both in pitch and in position with the impulsive screw. ** But surely,” said Mr. Querulous, ‘‘ there is nothing wonder- ful in this, Who is surprised to learn that the body twists about the same screw as that on which the wrench was administered ? I am sure I could find many such screws. Indeed, the real wonder is not that the impulsive screw and the instantaneous screw are ever the same, but that they are ever different.” And Mr. Querulous proceeded to illustrate his views by ex- periments on the rigid body. He gave the body all sorts of impulses, but, in spite of all his endeavours, the body invariably commenced to twist about some +crew which was wo¢ the impul- “You may try till Doomsday,” said Mr. Anhar- sive screw. monic, “you will never find any besides the few I have indicated.’ It was thought convenient to assign a name to these remark- able screws, and they were accordingly designated the principal screws of inertia, There are, for example, six principal screws of inertia when the body is perfectly free, and two when the body is free to twist about the screws of a cylindroid. The committee regarded the discovery of the principal screws of inertia as the most remarkable result they had yet obtained. Mr. Cartesian was very unhappy. The generality of the- He had an- 428 NATURE [ Sepe. jinvincible attachment to the x, y, z, which he regarded as the e plus ultra of dynamics. ‘‘ Why will you burden the science,” he ‘sighs, ‘‘ with all these additional names? Can you not express © ‘what you want without talking about cylindroids, and twists, and wrenches, and impulsive screws, and instantaneous screws, and all the rest of it?” ‘* No,” said Mr. One-to-One, ‘‘there can ‘be no simpler way of stating the results than that natural method we have followed. You would not object to the lan- guage if your ideas of the natural phenomena had been suffi- ciently capacious. generality, and it would involvea sacrifice of generality were we to speak of the movement of a body except as a twist, or of a system of forces except as a wrench.” ‘* But,” said Mr. Commonsense, ‘can you not as a conces- -sion to our ignorance tell us something in ordinary language which will give an idea of what you mean when you talk of your ‘principal screws of inertia?’ Pray for once sacrifice this generality you prize so much and put the theory into some extreme shape that ordinary mortals can understand.” Mr. Anharmonic would not condescend to comply with this "request, so the chairmrn called upon Mr. One-to-One, who somewhat ungraciously consented. ‘‘I feel,” said he, ‘‘ the ‘request to be an irritating one. Extreme cases generally make bad illustrations of a general theory. That zero multiplied by ‘infinity may be anything is surely not a felicitous exhibition of the perfections of the multiplication table. It is with reluctance *that I divest the theory of its flowing geometrical habit, and present it only as a stiff conventional guy from which true grace ‘has departed. ‘* Let us suppose that the rigid body, instead of being con- strained as heretofore in a perfectly general manner, is subjected merely to a special type of constraint. Let it, in fact, be only free to rotate around a fixed point. The beautiful fabric of ~screws, which so elegantly expressed the Jatitude permitted to the body before, has now degenerated into a mere horde of lines all stuck through the point. Those varieties in the pitches of the screws which gave colour and richness to the fabric have valso vanished, and the pencil of degenerate screws have a mono- tonous zero of pitch. Our general c»nceptions of mobility have ‘thus been horribly mutilated and disfigured before they can be adapted to the old and respectable problem of the rotation of a rigid body about a fixed point. For the dynamics of this prob- ‘lem the wrenches assume an extreme and even monstrous type. Wrenches they still are, as wrenches they ever must be, but they sare wrenches on screws of infinite pitch ; they have ceased to possess definite screws as homes of their own. We often call tthem couples. ‘Yet so comprehensive is the doctrine of the principal screws of inertia that even to this extreme problem the theory may be -applied. The principal screws of inertia reduce in this special “case to the three principal axes drawn through the point. In ‘fact, we see that the famous property of the principal axes of a rigid body is merely a very special application of the general ‘theory of the principal screws of inertia. Everyone who has a particle of mathematical taste lingers with fondness over the ‘theory of the principal axes. Learn, therefore,” says One-to-One ‘in conclusion, “how great must be the beauty of a doctrine which ° cao page the theory of principal axes as the merest outlying etail.”’ Another definite stage in the labours of the committee had ‘now been reached, and accordingly the chairman summarized the results. He said that a geometrical solution had been ob- tained of every conceivable problem as to the effect of impulse ‘on a rigid body. The impulsive screws and the corresponding instantaneous screws formed two homographic systems. Each ~screw in one system determined its corresponding screw in the other system, just as in two anharmonic ranges each point in one - determines its correspondent in the other. The double screws of “the two homographic systems are the principal screws of inertia. He remarked, in conclusion, that the geometrical theory of homography and the present dynamical theory mutually illustrated :and interpreted each other. : _ ,_ There was still one more problen which had to be brought into shape by geometry, and submitted to the test of experiment. The body is lying at rest though gravity and many other forces are acting upon it. These forces constitute a wrench which must lie upon a screw of the reciprocal system, inasmuch :as it is neutralized by the reaction of the constraints. Let the body be displaced from its initial position by a small twist. The ‘wrench will no longer be neutralized by the reaction of the con- We are dealing with questions of perfect. straints ; accordingly when the body is released it wi to move. So far as the present investigations are these movements are small oscillations. Attention w: directed to these small oscillations. The usual obser made, and Helix reported them to be of a very perple: ‘* Surely,” said the chairman, ‘‘ you find the body tw some screw, do you not?” ‘‘ Undoubtedly,” said He body can only move by twisting about some screw ; tunately, this screw is not fixed, it is indeed moving a an embarrassing manner that I can give no intelligib of the matter.” The chairman appealed to the comm leave the interesting subject of small oscillations in suc satisfactory state. Success had hitherto guided their them not separate without throwing the. light of this obscure subject. ieee Mr. Querulous here said he must be heard. He against further waste of time ; there was nothing for th Everybody knew how to investigate small oscil equations were given in every book on mechanics, only to write down these equations, and scribble a got out something or other. But the more intelligen of the committee took the same view as the chairm did not question the truth of the formulee which t seeme’ all-sufficient, but they wished to see what geom do for the subject. Fortunately this view prevailed, experiments were commenced under the direction of harmonic. He first quelled the elaborate oscillations wh so puzzled the committee ; he reduced the body to rest introduced the subject as follows :— mA ‘The body now lies at rest. I displace it a little it in its new position, The wrench, which is the the varied forces acting on the body, is no longer con neutralized by the reactions of the constraints. Inde: feel it in action, Our apparatus will enable us to intensity of this wrench, and to determine the screw acts.” eee A series of experiments was then made, in whicl was displaced by a twist about a screw, which was d while the corresponding evoked wrench was determi! pairs of screws so related were carefully tabulated. remember the infinite complexity of the forces, of the c and of the constitution of the body, it might seem task to determine the connexion between the two screws. Here Mr. Anharmonic pointed out how exactly geometry was adapted to supply the wants of dy two screw systems were homographic, and when < pairs, one more than the degrees of freedom of th been found, all was determined. ‘This statement we test. Again and again the body was displaced | fashion, but again and again did Mr. Anharmonic precise wrench which would be required to maint in its new position. © - ** But,” said the chairman, ‘‘ are not these results. How -do they throw light on those elab tions which seem at present so inexplicable?” ‘This I shall explain,” said Anharmonic ; ‘‘b you to give me your best attention, for I think th small oscillations will be found worthy of it. _ . ‘‘Let us think of any screw, a, belonging to the which expresses the freedom of the body. instantaneous screw, there will of course be a co impulsive screw, 0, alsoon U. If the body be dis position of equilibrium by a small twist about a, the compensated forces produce a wrench, ¢, which, with generality, may also be supposed to lie on U. Accor screw a moves over U so will the two correspondi! and @ also move over U. The system represen homographic with both the systems of @ and of @ But two systems homographic with the same system graphic with each other. Accordingly the @ system and system are homographic. There will therefore be a number of double screws (not more than six) com systems @ and ¢. Each of these double screws will have its correspondent in the a system, and we may a, %, &c., their number being equal to the degrees of the body. These screws are most curiously re small oscillations. We shall first demonstrate by « the remarkable property they possess.” : The body was first brought to rest in its position of equ One of the special screws a having been carefully dete = NATURE 429 position and in pitch, the body was displaced by a twist this screw and was then released. As the forces were nsated, the body of cOurse commenced to move, but the 1s were of unparalleled simplicity. With the regularity ulum the body twisted to and fro on this screw, just as actually constrained to this motion alone. The com- e were delighted to witness a vibration so graceful, and, g the complex nature of the ordinary oscillations, d to Mr. Anharmonic for an explanation. This he , not by means of complex formule, but by a line of that was highly commended by Mr..Commousense, hat even Mr, Querulous could understand. tty movement,’ said Mr. Anharmonic, ‘‘is due to of the screw a,. Had I chosen any screw at random, ions would, as we have seen, be of a very complex or the displacement will always evoke an uncompensated in consequence of which the body will commence to move g about the instantaneous screw corresponding to that ; and of course this instantaneous screw will usually be ferent from the screw about which the displacement was t you will observe that a, has been chosen as a screw tantaneous system, corresponding to one of the double the @ and @ systems. When the body is twisted about ch is evoked on the double screw, but as a, is itself the cous screw, corresponding to the double screw, the only the wrench will be to make the body twist about a). that the body will twist to and fro on a, for ever. we can show that the most elaborate oscillations the ssibly have may be produced by compounding the brations on these screws a,, a,, &c.”” lightenment was now diffused over the committee, Mr. Querulous began to think there must be something unanimity prevailed among the members, and it 2 reigae suggested that the screws of simple vibra- d be called harmonic screws, This view was adopted chairman, who said he thought he had seen a similar n in ** Thomson and Tait.”’ meeting showed that real dynamical enthusiasm had in the committee. Vistas of great mathematical opened out in many directions. One member the theory of screws could be applied not merely to id body but’to any mechanical system whatever. He eometrical conception of what he was pleased to call ain, by which he said he could so bind even the most ‘system of rigid bodies that they would be compelled m to the theory of screws, Nay, soaring still further le he showed that all the instantaneous motions olecule in the universe were only a twist about one while all the forces of the universe were but a wrench ae , One-to-One expounded the ‘‘ Ausdehnungslehre,” and d that the theory of screws was closely related to parts of great work; while Mr. Anharmonic told how in his celebrated ‘‘ Neue Geometrie des Raumes,” had some distance towards the theory of screws, but still touched it, imax of mathematical eloquence was attained in the h of Mr. Querulous, who, with new-born enthusiasm, ied into appalling speculations. He had evidently been is ‘* Cayley,” and had become conscious of the poverty trical conception arising from our unfortunate residence of an arbitrary and unsymmetrical description. = dimensions,” he said, ‘may perhaps be enough for igent geometer. He may get on fairly well without a dimensioned space, but he does most heartily remonstrate a flat infinity. Think of infinity,” he cries, ‘‘as it be, perhaps even as it is. Talk not of your scanty line at infinity and your miserable pair of circular points. assert that infinity is an ample uaiee, and not the mere of one; and then geometry will become what geometry tobe. Then will every twist resolve itself into a right and a left vector, as the genius of Clifford proved. Then he ‘theory of screws’ shed away some few adhering ities, and fully develop its shapely proportio»s. Then —” But here the chairman said he feared the dis- 1 was beginning to enter rather wide ground. For his tt he was content with the results of the experiments, aa h they had been conducted in the vapid old space of - He reminded them that their labours were now com- ted, for they had ascertained everything relating to the rigid = body which had been committed to them. He hoped they would agree with him that the inquiry had been an instructive one. They had been engaged in the study of Nature.” They had approached the problems in the true philosophical spirit, and the rewards they had obtained proved that ~ ** Nature never did betray The heart that truly loved her.’’ NOTES. AT a public meeting held on Tuesday in Newcastle, under the presidency of the Mayor, Sir B. L. Brown, it was finally decided, on the motion of the Sheriff, Alderman W. H. Stephenson, seconded by Prof. Philipson, head of the medical staff at the Royal Infirmary, that a cordial invitation should be sent to the British Association to hold their annual meeting in Newcastle in 1889. It was stated that the necessary amount to cover expenses would be £4000, and of this £1700 had been already subscribed. . THE-New York meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science seems to have been very successful, although the attendance was not so large as had been expected. The next meeting will be held in Cleveland, O. An invitation from Toronto came just too late. The following are the officers for the next meeting :—President, J. W. Powell, of Washing- ton; Vice-Presidents, Ormond Stone, of the University of Virginia, (Mathematics and Astronomy), A. A. Michelson, of Cleveland, (Physics), C. E. Munroe, of Newport, (Chemistry), Calvin M. Woodward, of St. Louis, (Mechanical Science), George H. Cook, of New Brunswick, (Geology and Geography ), C. V. Riley, of Washington, (Biology), C. C. Abbot, of Trenton, (An- thropology), C. W. Smiley, of Washington, (Economic Science and Statistics) ; Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, of Cam- bridge, office, Salem, Mass.) ; General Secretary, J.C. Arthur, of La Fayette ; Secretary of the Council, C. Leo Mees, of Athens ; Secretaries of the Sections, C. L. Doolittle, of Bethlehem, (Mathematics and Astronomy), A. L. Kimball, of Baltimore, (Physics), William L. Dudley, of Nashville, (Chemistry), Arthur Beardsley, of Swarthmore, (Mechanical Science), George H. Williams, of Baltimore, (Geology and Geography), N. L. Britton, of New York, (Biology), Frank Baker, of Washington, (Anthro- pology), Charles S. Hill, of Washington, (Economie Science and Statistics). THE twenty-fourth annual meeting of the British Pharma- ceutical Conference-was opened on Tuesday in the Chemical Theatre of Owens College, Manchester. There was a large attendance of members of the Association. Mr. S. R. Atkins, of Salisbury, occupied the chair, and in his presidential address invited the attention of the Conference to ‘‘a brief review of the Victorian era as it more especially affected themselves as pharmacists.” THE International Astronomical Congress met at Kiel on Monday, in the large hall of the University, under the presidency of Privy Councillor Dr. Auwers, of Berlin. There was a large assembly of astronomers, including delegates from Austria, France, Sweden and Norway, and America. The delegates were received on behalf of the Government by Herr Steinmann, Civil Governor of the province of Schleswig-Holstein, and on the part of the University by the Rector, Prof. Harsen.. Dr. Auwers, in replying, thanked the Prussian Government for the interest which it had manifested in the Congress. THE Hygienic Congress, which will meet in Vienna next month, will be attended by over 1400 delegates from all countries. The programme includes excursions to the Kahlen- berg, the Semmering, Buda-Pesth, and Abbazzia. THE Academy of Aérostation of France has presented a medal to M. Mendeleieff, in recognition of the pluck exhi- bited by him at Klin on August 19, when he went up alone 430° NATURE [Sept 1 “in a balloon, although he had never been in one before. The Russian Ambassador in Paris has undertaken to transmit the -medal to M. Mendeleieff. THE Ceylon Observer of August I announces the death on July 31 of Mr. W. Ferguson at the age of sixty-seven. Mr. Fer- -guson arrived in Ceylon in December 1839, and at once entered upon the arduous duties of Surveyor to the Government, a post which he filled for many years. He finally relinquished it very much shattered in constitution from exposure to climate. He ‘was an enthusiastic naturalist, and employed the opportunities ‘his profession afforded him for observation with pleasure to him- ‘self and advantage to others. Botany especially profited by his knowledge and exertions. He contributed largely to Thwaites’s ‘“*Enumeratio Plantarum Zeylaniz,” and also to other works ‘relating to the vegetation of Ceylon ; and his aid was warmly cacknowledged by the various authors whom he assisted. He was of much service to the Eclipse Expedition of 1871. Tue death is announced of Dr. Vincenz Kosteletzky, formerly Professor at the University, and the Director of the Botanical ‘Gardens, at Prague. He died on August 19 at the age of eighty- ‘Seven. THE Council of the Institution of Civil Engineers has issued a list of subjects on which it invites original communications. For approved papers the Council has the power to award pre- miums, arising out of special funds bequeathed for the purpose. THE Zimes of Tuesday printed some notes about the eclipse which had reached German papers from Siberia and various stations in the Russian eastern provinces.. At Tomsk the astro- ‘nomers were able to observe not only the total eclipse but the -corona in a very satisfactory way. In most houses it was necessary to light candles or lamps. The eclipse began at 10,22 a.m., and ended at 11.46. The weather was very fine and the sky clear. At Krasnoyarsk, in the Government of Yeniseisk, the corona was very well photographed. At Irbit -the period of absolute totality was at 8.44 a.m., and lasted 14 minute. Prof. Stanoievich, from Belgrade, was very success- ful in his observations at Petrovsk; he saw and photographed .the green line in the corona. Prof, Kononovich, of Odessa, was. equally fortunate, obtaining photographs of the whole spectrum. At Ekaterinburg the eclipse began in a cloudless sky at 7.25 a.m., and lasted till9.30, The temperature fell-from 19° C, to 13° (about 554° F.) at 8.37 a.m., and rose to 24° (over 75° F.) after the eclipse. At Novocherkask the sky was cloud- less, but only about a quarter of the sun’s surface was obscured, the appearance presented being a reaping-hook with the handle and point uppermost. Photographic sketches were taken every five minutes. At Savidovo the sky became suddenly clouded as the moment of the eclipse approached, and the sun was not visible till noon. The actual moment of the total eclipse could only be noted by the intense darkness which suddenly spread over the whole district. Here and there a yellowish or leaden- gray tint could be distinguished in the clouds, ‘presenting a ‘most weird appearance ; and the strangeness of the scene was heightened by the profound disquiet and fear which seemed to have taken possession of the birds and the cattle in the fields, Pror. YounG has returned from Russia, and is atteading the Manchester meeting of the British Association. THERE is a chance that, although the English Technical | Education Bill has been abandoned, the corresponding Scotch measure may become law. The House of Commons went into Committee on the Bill on Monday night. ACCORDING to the Meteorological Council, the telegrams re- ceived from the Ben Nevis Observatory have been of no service whatever as aids to the issue of storm warnings from the Meteorological Otfice. Mr. A, Bachan, in a letter to Mr. R. H. Scott, complains that the memorandum in judgment is pronounced is very misleading. ‘‘ The memorandum,” says Mr. Buchan, ‘‘is that the teleg from the Ben Nevis Observatory are absolutely Meteorological Office in issuing storm warnings. is so incomplete that we do not think that in memorandum for your report the instructions have b view which were sent to Mr. Omond, in accordance y letter of December 3, 1883, a copy of which, so far as this matter, is herewith sent. A copy of this sent to Mr. Omond, with instructions to carry wishes to the best of his ability. Now, in th to Mr. Omond no special mention is made or storm warnings ; and certainly neither the d staff at the Observatory have ever supposed that it by the Meteorological Office that a telegram was be every storm that had actually broken out or threatened. This, however, is the assumption ofthe We therefore think that in these circumstances memorandum will be misleading to those of the pub! little or no knowledge of meteorological matters, nature of the information asked from Ben News. C ing that weiter” telegrams from Ben Nevis Obsery less will be indorsed by them. As you are aware, offered the Meteorological Office, in their letter of | and the low-level station at Fort William, This the Meteorological Council did not see their way | on the ground of the expense ; but asked for ever any very striking change of conditions phenomenon of great interest was recorded. This by Mr. Omond, and, so far as the directors are plication has been made by the Meteorological Fi frequent telegrams or for any other information. 2 in view, then, of the limited nature of the information would have been surprised if any other result had than that stated in the memorandum.” In Mr. Symons’s ‘‘ British Rainfall,” which v last week, it is shown that the total fall in 1886. the average, but not exceptionally so, the amount England and Wales 37°53 inches, for Scotland 37°31 for Ireland (four stations only) 41°61 inches, The stations was 37°59 inches, or about 7 per cent. above for a long series of years. Some one ought n the observations with the view of showing the rainfall for each month, and also with the view of s seasonal rainfall for the whole period now available. Mr. EDWARD SANGER SHEPHERD has sent us photograph of lightning taken by him at Norfolk Tex bourne Grove, W., during the thunder-storm of August 17. While the storm lasted Mr. Shepherd e plates, seven of which were successful. The appara a half-plate square box camera and a portrait lens aperture ; the plates used were ‘ Ilford extra rapid.” In a letter to the Zimes of Wednesday Prof. attention to the very imperfect way in which light: are often set up. Some years ago a rock lighthouse of Ireland was struck and damaged by lightning ; facts were brought before Prof. Tyndall, as scientifi the Trinity House and Board of Trade, he found th ning conductor had been carried down the lighthouse lower extremity being carefully embedded in a stone to receive it. ‘‘If the object,” says Prof. Tyndall, to invite the lightning to strike the tower, a better arran could hardly have been adopted. I gave directions te NATURE / 431 luctor immediately prolonged, and to have added to it a large inal plate of copper, which was to be completely submerged 1e sea. The obvious convenience of a chain as a prolonga- the conductor caused the authorities in Ireland to propose I was obliged to veto the adoption of the chain, The : of link with link is never perfect. I had, moreover, be- € a portion of a chain cable through which a lightning had passed, the electricity in passing from link to link ring a resistance sufficient to enable it to partially fuse ain. The abolition of resistance is absolutely necessary in ‘ing a lightning conductor with the earth, and this is done ely embedding in the earth a plate of good conducting al and of large area. ‘The largeness of area makes atone- or the imperfect conductivity of earth. The plate, in ‘constitutes a wide door through which the electricity passes yinto the earth, its disruptive and damaging effects being y avoided.” Prof. Tyndall understands that lightning tors are frequently set up without any terminal plate It is said that the Bishop of Winchester’s palace at m is *‘ protected” in this way. « If this is true, the Bishop e interested to hear that the “protection” is ‘‘a mockery, ion, and a snare.” have received the twelfth Report of the Bradford yphical Society. This institution was revived two years d we are glad to see from the Report that it has ‘‘a prospect of success.” The Society is closely associated group of affiliated Societies in Bradford, and it has been d that this plan works well. ‘‘ The joint programme of the ties,” says the Report, ‘‘is one that reflects great credit on own, and members of the Philosophical Society would do ‘to avail themselves (as their membership allows) of the us lectures and excursions of the united Societies. Members ne Society may be assured of a hearty welcome.” The ted Societies are the Historical and Antiquarian Society, croscopical Society, the Naturalists’ Society, the Scientific ciation, and the Browning Society. EUT. WiSSMANN, the well-known African traveller, has edat Mozambique. He intends to proceed to Zanzibar on yay back to Europe. REE large packages containing rare plants and specimens ndia have been received from Calcutta by the Keeper of Ethnographical Department of the British Museum. HOCK of earthquake was felt in Mexico at seven o’clock day morning. The houses were shaken and the inhabit- h terrified, but no damage was done. The direction of ock was from north to south, The shock was also felt at mcingo, where two arches ofan arcade in the main square molished, at Orizaba, Tlaltan, and Otumba, RGE proportion of the salmon fry hatched out by the Fishery Board at the new hatchery at Worcester this being reared by Mr. William Burgess in his ponds at Wells, pending their transference to the open river. hy of note that the fry may be seen rising continually He fly. Seeing that they inhabit the bottom of the river in | wild state and do not rise, this is rather remarkable. Their growth does not seem to be so fast as that of other fish, tigh their present position is well suited to their require- additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the ek include a Rhesus Monkey (M@acacus rhesus) from » presented by Miss Austin; a Capuchin (Cedzs ) South America, presented by Mr. J. H. Williams; two ed Lizards (Phrynosoma cornutum) from North America, mted by Mr. Maxwell Blackie ; two Common Boas (Boa constrictor) from Dominica, W.I., presented by Mr. A. Nicholls ; Smooth Snake (Corovella /evis) from Hampshire, presented by Mr. Sidney G. Smith; a Lion Marmoset (A/idas rosalia), a Peba Armadillo (7a/usia peba), two Blue-bearded Jays (Cyano- corax cyanopogon), an Ariel Toucan (Ramphastos ariel), three Bahama Ducks (Dafila bahamensis), a Laughing Gull (Larus atricilla) from Brazil, a Black-handed Spider Monkey (Aéeles melanochir @ ) from Central America, eight Blanding’s Terrapins (Clemmys blandingt) from Michigan, U.S.A., purchased ; two Hybrid Australian Ibises (between /d7s strictifennis and Ibis berniert) bred in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN VARIABLE STAR IN THE RING NEBULA IN LyrA.—Herr Spitaler draws attention in the —M. C.; Malet Masamarhu Island. By Capt. W. aS 4, w F.R.S. (Jlustrated) . The Owens College Natural “History Builai (Lilustrated ) oo 0 ga The British Association ays yet eras Inaugural Address by Sir Henry E. Ros D.C.1L., LL.D,“ Paybs Rie President ; Section A.—Mathematical and Physi Opening Address by Sir Robert S, F.R.S., President of the Section . Notes 82 sare i oe: Our Astronomical Column: — Variable Star in the Ring Nebula in Lyra New Variable Star ..... Discovery of a Comet . . Astronomical Phenomena for the Week 8 September 4-Io .. Societies and Academies 0 tial Se Sr 0: je ie! Se ela oe eu Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. . .. . « NATURE 433 THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 8, 1887. HYDROPHOBIA. | ae culmination of scientific knowledge in any special direction frequently appears to the casual observer as a sudden and unforeseen event, although actually the result of a combination of well-ascertained facts accumu- lated during many years. The introduction of rabies from among the inexact to among the more exactly known diseases has been however so rapid as to very fairly substantiate this popular belief. It is now scarcely more than three years ago since the self-sacrificing labours of M. Pasteur helped us to pass from superstition to accurate knowledge of the real nature of rabies or hydrophobia, and this passage from the pre-scientific to the scientific epoch of the subject was actually perfectly abrupt. Nearly the same thing may also be said of the discovery by Koch of the Baczl/us tuberculosis, for in both cases the scientific grasp of the subject undoubtedly commenced with the discovery how the virus might be isolated for purposes of experiment. While, however, this is strictly the case with tuberculosis, it is but partially true for rabies, for though there cannot be a shadow of doubt that the micro-organism which is the virus of rabies will soon be demonstrated in pure cultivations, this one factor is yet wanting to place it on the same level as that of tubercu- losis. This difficulty in obtaining pure cultures, though a serious defect in our information, is yet most interesting, for it affords a distinct interpretation of several facts in the etiology of the disease, which, as we shall see directly, proved obstacles to early inquirers, and which yet at the same time, when viewed in the present light of science, are most encouraging to those who are anxious to see this miserable evil extinguished for ever. All observers, notably Mr. Dowdeswell, are agreed that a micrococcus can be demonstrated in the tissues of the spinal cord of animals affected with the disease, but unless we accept the doubtful results of Fol no one has yet succeeded in cultivating this micrococcus. Those familiar with the difficulties of “rearing” pathogenic organisms will readily understand this obstacle in a disease with such a long incubation period as rabies. M. Pasteur at the outset of his investigations attempted to solve the problem in this direction, but fortunately for science soon abandoned it in view of the probability that the virus would best be dealt with by endeavouring to obtain it in quantity from the central nervous system, since from the symptoms it evidently there produced its greatest effect, and so might be expected to be more especially present. He therefore made an emulsion by crushing in sterilized douz/lon portions of the central nervous system, specially the spinal cord. With this emulsion he inoculated the disease from animal to animal by injecting a small quantity of it beneath the dura mater. By this simple procedure he established the first of his most important discoveries, viz. the real incubation period of the disease. At the same time too, as is usual in instances of a genuine scientific advance, the one important dis- covery led to a further one, since he has thus presented science with an infallible means of determining whether an animal had really suffered from the disease or not. VOL. XXXVI.—NO. 932. To the public this test has already been of the utmost value, since, as is well known, the characteristic lesions ir the alimentary canal, &c., being absent or but feebly marked in the early stages of the disease, the possibility of thus giving a definite opinion in cases of doubt by the aid of Pasteur’s method has frequently been the means o' affording the utmost relief to the minds of those who have been victims to the lingering dread of hydrophobia. We are not aware however that the slightest public expressior of gratitude has ever been expressed in this country towards that experimental science which in M. Pasteur’: hands has led to such an important result, or that we, whc by reason of rabies being endemic among us are profiting and will profit, enormously by the light thus shed on the subject, have acknowledged our indebtedness to him ir any way. From his researches M. Pasteur was led on to formulate certain deductions which might be accepted as the logica consequence of the theory of the disease thus shown by him to be indubitably zymotic. In the first place, M. Pasteur considered it probable that he could attenuate the virus which he had just dis. covered the possibility of handling with certainty, and we may add safety. This he soon accomplished by the method of drying. It might naturally be supposed that, having proceedec thus far, he would have been led to attempt protectior from, and prevention of, the evil effects of the disease by inoculating with this attenuated virus. Indeed it i: unfortunately the popular belief that he did do this, anc that his efforts to cure the malady are conducted upor this plan. As a matter of fact, however, M. Pasteur, with a muck wider prescience of the facts and theories of zymoti disease in general, considered that the well-known arres' of development which happens to virulent organisms as a consequence of their growth in tissues or in artificia culture media was due to the production by thei metabolic processes of katalyzed substances whos¢ presence was inimical to the active growth of the microbe, and that therefore these substances might bé regarded and used as antidotes to the virus. Acting or this assumption, he proceeded to endeavour to protect animals by injecting into them considerable quantities not of the virus, as generally supposed, but of these antidotal substances, or possibly of one alone. 0; course, knowing that as a rule attempts to isolate in <¢ state of chemical purity such products usually failed o1 seriously altered them, and having already ascertainec that the baleful influence of the virus could be abrogated or rendered nugatory by the process of drying, he pro- ceeded to employ the simple method of injection emul. sions of dried spinal cords. The injection of such emulsions was naturally performed understanding that the drying would probably also impair to a certain ex- tent the protective value of the antidotal substance; to insure, therefore, the introduction into the animal of as large a quantity as possible he considered it advisable to inject emulsions on successive days from spinal cords which had been dried for shorter and shorter periods, til] ultimately, having commenced by inoculating from cords which had been dried for fourteen days, and which had been proved to be perfectly innocuous, he arrived at a U 434 NATURE [ Sept. 8, 1887 cord which had been dried for only twenty-four hours. Of course the introduction of such virulent matter as this had no effect on systems already armed by the pre- vious inoculations of antidotal substance. It is greatly to be regretted that owing to general ignorance of this fundamental principle of M. Pasteur’s method the many and violent discussions upon his treatment have been rendered absolutely useless. We trust, therefore, we may be excused for having dwelt thus at length upon it. As soon as M. Pasteur had demonstrated to the French Academy that he could secure the protection of dogs by injecting them in the manner above described, he was induced to attempt the prevention of the disease in man by similar injections after the bite. This attempt soon developed into a regular practice, from the numbers of patients who flocked to Paris seeking treatment in con- sequence of the unhappy prevalence of rabies in those European countries which had neglected to provide for its easy extermination by suitable legislation. From the Report of the Committee commissioned by the Local Government Board to inquire into M. Pasteur’s treatment, it would appear, as might have been expected, that a comparatively large proportion of M. Pasteur’s patients were bitten by dogs which were not rabid ; but it | is also evident from the same Report that when deduc- tions have been made for these cases the death-rate among the remainder was far lower than even the lowest estimate ever formed of the mortality from hydrophobia among persons bitten by reputedly rabid dogs. While this gratifying result was accomplished, it was at the same time evident that the method was by no means perfected, and the lamented death of Lord Doneraile (from the bite of a tame fox which had been infected by a dog), affords an illustration of this, for the deceased nobleman was subjected to treatment within a few days after receiving the virus. But while the inoculations did not prevent a fatal issue, there seems. good reason to believe that they notably modified the distressing features of the malady, for in a brief account before us it is stated that the inability to swallow fluids only appeared twenty- four hours before death, and there was at no time spasm produced by swallowing moist solid food. The same gratifying modification appears to have also been present in another case that recently was observed in St. George’s Hospital. Should this modification prove to be general, M. Pasteur will have deprived the malady of its worst tortures. Before leaving the consideration of this part of the subject it is to be noted that the virulent opposition with which M. Pasteur’s efforts in the cause of humanity were met went to the length of charging him with having actually caused the death of some of his patients by his inoculations. This charge, though not supported by any exact evidence whatever, was also inquired into by the above-mentioned Committee appointed by the Local Government Board. Indeed, they had a special oppor- tunity of doing’so, for one of the laboratory servants of Mr. Horsley, (who carried out the experiments for the Committee), being bitten most severely by a rabid cat, died six weeks later (the usual incubation period of the disease) with. the paralytic form of hydrophobia rather than the excitable form. Rabbits inoculated from the spinal cord of this man died with the shortest possible period of incubation. As the Committee point out, this would seem to have lent colour to the idea that the inoculations themselves were fatally virulent, had not similar instances of short incubation periods been occa- sionally observed to follow inoculation from similarly — rabid animals. Stress was also laid upon the mode in which the man was inoculated—namely, by what M. Pasteur called the intensive treatment, and which he adopted in cases of very severe injury. But the whole question was dismissed by M. Pasteur altering this mode of treatment in order that there should not even be the semblance of the possibility of such an accident. elles It seems to us that, in England at any rate, there is quite another view to be taken of this question of rable and its scientific prevention—in fact, that its complete — extermination should be ensured in pi to a J SS to treat it after it has attacked anyone. The data upon which legislation should be based are + now fortunately at hand. The House of Lords recently appointed a Select Committee, under the al of Lord Cranbrook, the President of the Privy Council, to inquire into the whole question of the social bearing — of the disease, and the means which have been adopted to get rid of it in foreign countries. The Report of that. Committee is published, and we have been permitted in~ addition to inspect the evidence laid before it. This’ evidence is a most instructive comment upon the manner in which the facts of modern science are sometimes treated” as being of only equal value with the most absurd | statements dictated by charlatanism and abandoned self- interest. ‘As a whole, however, the Report is one with which we have good reason to be satisfied in many ways, for it recognizes the great value of the simplest means of pre- venting the spread of the disease, viz. the muzzle. Those of us who remember the senseless anti-vivisec- tionist opposition which met the police edict enforcing this salutary measure in London, will not be surprised of course to find in the evidence before the Committee the same thing repeated, but, as was inevitably the ber ahs deprived this time ofall its deceptive influence. : For the experience of the working of the ciate - London, where it brought-the number of deaths from — hydrophobia down from 27 in 1885 to o in the last quarter — of 1886, and indeed we believe we may also say the first six montis of 1887; the experience of its working in Nottingham, where the cases of rabies varied directly in number according to the way in which the muzzle regula-_ tions were enforced; of Prussia, where the disease isalmost _ extinct, being one-fiftieth part of that in Great Britain; of Scandinavia, where it is"absolutely extinct—all disproved _ the baseless theories and assertions of those who, under z the guise of pseudo-zoophilism, endeavour to perpetuate — in man and the lower animals the torments,of this horrible | “us disease. As will doubtless have been already surmised, the whole of this factious opposition to the above-men- — tioned beneficent legislation came from the small clique — of anti-vivisectionists who were unhappily represented) on the Committee itself in two of its members, viz. Lords” 4 4q ‘Mount-Temple and Onslow. The Lords’ recommendation of the muzzle, however, is marred by one defect, and that a very serious one. ss Sept. 8, 1887] NATURE 435 Here is a disease, a zymotic disease, the virus of which, as we have just seen, is most difficult of isolation, and evidently easily destroyed by ordinary conditions when it has left living tissues ; a disease, too, which is fortu- nately infrequent compared to many others, and again fortunately one which would become extinct if not kept in existence by transmission from dog to dog; a disease, in short, which needs nothing but the firm adminis- tration of the most ordinary rules of preventive medicine to be destroyed utterly,—and yet, in deference to the professional agitation before mentioned, the Lords’ Com- mittee only recommend the use of the muzzle when the disease is “prevalent.” If this means, and it is capable of being interpreted in two ways, that the Lords’ Com- mittee think the muzzle should be applied only when the disease is epidemic, nothing more regrettable can be imagined. To the scientific mind it seems almost in- credible that a legislative body should hesitate to grasp the opportunity, the easiest ever offered, of eradicating a disease so painful and utterly incurable when once the symptoms have declared themselves; but here unfor- tunately is the example we referred to above of scientific fact overridden by vulgar prejudice. For this disease, acknowledged by all who have studied it to be trans- mitted solely by inoculation of one animal by another, is endemic in Great Britain, is paramount in the manu- facturing districts and great cities; and yet the Lords’ Report, instead of recommending the universal appli- cation of the muzzle, which would abolish the evil from these its centres, is content to leave it to the local authority—Heaven save the mark !—to apply the remedy when the disease has already made sufficient havoc (!) as to call for its suppression. _It is sad, too, to see that this view, which we must call narrow, runs through the whole Report, but it is gratifying to find that that Committee, at any rate, fully appreciates the high worth of M. Pasteur’s invaluable test of the disease. In conclusion the Lords say that, should M. Pasteur’s method of treating the disease be found of value, pro- vision should be made for its introduction into England, While heartily concurring in this recommendation, we cannot but feel grieved that the necessity for itin England should be permitted to exist ; for in this conntry, like Scandinavia, the introduction of the disease can be pre- vented ; so that if proper measures were taken England would enjoy the same complete immunity from it that Sweden does at the present day. With reference to the adoption of M. Pasteur’s mode of treatment into this country, a most fundamental difficulty arises at the outset, viz. that we have no public laboratory where investigations of this kind could be carried on for the nation, and that therefore an institution of the kind would have to be established for this and kindred subjects of inquiry. At the present time there is, unfortunately, little hope that this want—which we have before so frequently pointed out is nothing short of anational disgrace—will be adequately met; and, as a matter of fact, questions of this sort are usually decided at the Brown Institution, the nation being thus lamentably dependent upon the assistance ofa private charity. Oddly enough this necessity has just been provided for in France by the institution of a gwasz-private labora- tory—the Pasteur Institute. We are, however, strongly of the opinion that questions of this kind are of an Imperial character, and as such should be dealt with by the central Government in a properly-fitted institution. Hydrophobia from time immemorial has been the most dreaded of all diseases, and justly ; but no doubt this dread has been intensified by ignorance of its causation, an ignorance which, having existed for more than 2000 years, has just been dissipated to an enormous extent by the scientific labours of M. Pasteur. This advance is, of course, a source of vexation to the misanthropic anti-vivi- sectionists, who are shamefully endeavouring to bolster up the exploded theory of spontaneous generation in order to hamper the efforts of preventive medicine to stamp out the disease, regardless also of the evidence from countries where it has been so rooted out, and where, owing to its importation being prevented, it has never appeared again. And while we have made this great step forward in our knowledge of the nature and etiology of the disease, we have at the same time learnt, thanks again to M. Pasteur, how to protect animals from its ravages, how to prove or disprove its existence in the absence of clinical or anatomical evidence, and, although this is still sab judice, apparently how its fatal effects may be warded off in the human being, and, if not successfully prevented, possibly ameliorated. Finally, a most satisfactory outcome of this increase in our scientific knowledge is the revelation to us that by the adoption of certain legislative means we may destroy the evil once and for all. POPULAR BOOKS ON BIRDS. Ocean Birds. By J. F. Green. With a Preface by A.G Guillemard, and a Treatise on Skinning Birds, by F. H. H. Guillemard, M.D. With Illustrations by Frances E. Green. 4to, pp. vili-93. (London: R. H. Porter, 1887.) Bird Life in England. By Edwin Lester Arnold 8vo. (London: Chatto and Windus, 1887.) WO books deserving the above title are before us. I is well known that some of the most interesting works on ornithology have been written by men who dc not profess to be scientific naturalists, but who exhibi! an intelligent acquaintance with their subject and alsc possess a faculty of description the want of which add: so much to the dullness and heaviness of style with many more ambitious writers. Anyone who has made an ocear voyage knows full well that the hours are often apt tc hang heavy on the hands of the passengers ; and if this i: true on board a steamer, it is much more true in the case of a sailing-vessel. Mr. Green therefore has compilec a volume which aims at giving assistance to voyagers ir the southern oceans, providing short descriptions of the species of sea-birds most commonly met with ; and as the author has travelled much by sea himself, it may be taken for granted that he knows the wants of an ornithological inquirer on board a vessel, and has done his best t¢ supply the information. A “Glossary of Terms,” anc a chapter on the preparation of bird-skins, have beer furnished by the author’s friend Dr, Guillemard, whose excellent account of the voyage of the JZarchesa is one of 436 NATURE [Sept. 8, 1887 the most readable of modern books of travel. The work is divided into three parts, the first treating of the petrels, the second of the frigate-birds, gannets, and tropic birds, and the third of the gulls and terns. Mr. Green has given a very correct account of all the best-known species belonging to these groups, and for a second edition he may find a few useful notes on some of his marine friends in the volume published by the Royal Society on the Transit of Venus Expedition to Kerguelen Island. One at least of the notes here published is given by Mr. Green, but only as an extract from our volume of “Aves” in “ Cassell’s Natural History.” The illustrations which accompany the work may be sufficient to identify the various species represented, especially the albatrosses, but they are rather roughly done, and that of the flying petrel is nothing but a caricature. No figures taken from mounted birds are ever satisfactory, and Miss Green’s illustrations are no exception to the rule. Mr. Arnold’s little work will rank with any that we know of for pleasant reading, either from a sportsman’s or an ornithologist’s point of view. Some of the descrip- tions of game and wild-fowl shooting are exceptionally good, and carry with them a scent of the moor and the sea. Despite an acquaintance with several standard works on birds, the author seems to cling with respect to some of the more pretentious but second-rate books which pass muster as histories of British birds. It is, however, somewhat of a treat to find His Royal and Serene High- ness the Prince of Mantua and Montferrat (!) spoken of under his original title of Groom Napier, though we should never call him a “first-class” authority. Many well- known names are wrongly spelt throughout the book, and these shortcomings should be corrected in a subsequent edition, when we should also like to see that Seebohm’s excellent “History of British Birds” has come under the author’s ken. It is to works on natural history like Mr. Arnold’s, where real instruction is conveyed in elegant English, so that the acquisition of knowledge is rendered pleasant and easy, that we owe so much of the interest which has of late years been awakened in scientific pur- suits ; and we should be captious indeed were we to point out small errors in a book the perusal of which has given us so much enjoyment. Not the least useful feature of the work is a chapter by Mr. Brodie Innes on “ Grouse Moors and Deer-Forests.” Should the works under review pass into a second edition, we should be glad to point out to the authors certain emendations which have occurred to us, of too little moment, perhaps, to mention in a review, but which would add somewhat to the finish of the volumes. R. BOWDLER SHARPE. OUR BOOK SHELF. First Lessons in Science; designed for the use of Children. By the Right Rev. J. W. Colenso, D.D. (London: Ridgway, 1887.) THIS book was written more than a quarter of a century ago for the use of a class of natives of the diocese of Natal, who were learning to read English. Since then the greater part of it has been rewritten in order to adapt it to the necessities of European children. As far as possible the earlier lessons are written in words of one syllable, so that they are well fitted for the use of those for whom they are intended. The object of the work is to furnish the readers with useful information concerning the things around them, in place of the usual childish stories contained in the first books of English; at the same time presenting only such facts as ought, according to the good Bishop, and we quite agree with him, to be known by everyone. We — venture to think that in this respect the native students under Bishop Colenso’s care were much better off, having these lessons in their possession, than the boys and girls” of our own schools who were learning English at the same time. By far the greater part of the book is devoted to astronomy, to which subject it forms really an admirable introduction. This of course necessitates the introduc- tion and explanation of many geometrical and o terms, all of which are put forth in the best possible way. The physical features, and orbital and apparent motions of all the members of our system, including comets and meteorites, are fully considered, as are also the apparent motions-of the stars. The reasons are also given why the observed place of a heavenly body should be corrected for refraction, paral- lax, aberration, precession, and nutation. Kepler’s laws and the law of gravitation also come in for a fair share of attention. Soke Some of the figures should be brought up to date. We are told that the earth is 96,000,000 miles from the sun, and that between forty and fifty minor planets are known whereas the distance of the sun is between 92,000,000 pe 93,000,000 miles, and no less than 268 minor planets = now on our lists. It is to be regretted that books of this kind, written in clear, simple language, are not more appreciated by those — responsible for the selection of reading-books for our — elementary schools. 4 LETTERS TO THE EDIFGR, [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions — expressed by his correspondents. Neither can he under- take to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. : [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to heep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his spac is so great that it ts impossible otherwise to insure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] On the Constant P in Observations of Terrestrial ra Magnetism. “IN regard to the quantity P, depending on the distribution of magnétism in a pair of magnets employed for m terrestrial horizontal force, for the calculation of which bee Harkness, in NATURE for August 18, p. 366, gives a simplified 7 expression, may I be allowed to mention that a yet more simple modification of the ordinary formula has been used in the Greenwich observations since the year 1878, in be the P diiference between A and A, being small, : 1 (72-77) modulus When the two distances employed are, as is usual, always the same, the factor becomes a constant, being, for = 1’0 foot and ~ 7, = 1°3 foot, = 5°64. The advantage of the form is that as, in the calculation, the logarithms of A and A, are first arrived at, — their difference multiplied by 5°64 at once gives P. Mention of — this is made in the introduction to the Greenwich Magnetical — Observations for 1878, and in those for some followitie 4 years, although omitted from the more recent volumes. og WILLIAM ELLIs. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, August 24. P = (log A-log A,) X time has caused walls to give way or bulge outwards. ee ee Pe, Sept. 8, 1887] NATURE 437 The Svastika on English Walls.—The Solar Eclipse _ of August Ig. I GREATLY fear that practical builders will be uncourteous enough to smile at Mrs. Murray-Aynsley’s idea (NATURE, August 18, p. 364) that the §-shaped iron bars seen on the walls of houses are fire-emblems or survivals of sun-worship. They are common enough in every county of England and elsewhere ; in fact, wherever the scamping of jerry builders or the lapse of The bolt in the centre is not merely to hang them up, but is the end of a long and strong iron bar passing right through the building and attached to a similar curved brace on the other side, or at any rate fixed to some firm unyielding part of the masonry. The curved shape is simply chosen as that which embraces and gives support to the greatest area of brick or stone surface without the necessity of having a solid, continuous plate. A propos of sun-worship, it is sad to reflect how much good a little of it might have done in inducing that august but capricious luminary to show himself to the thousands who looked in vain for him on the morning of the recent eclipse. He seems to have shone in splendour in longitudes east of the Urals, where his worshippers abound, but to have hid himself in anger from nearly the whole of unbelieving, scientific Europe. At Twer, between St. Petersburg and Moscow, where I was myself, the early dawn was beautifully clear ; but first a dense ground-mist enveloped us, and then, when enough wind sprang up to clear this away and give us a glimpse of the sun about six- tenths eclipsed, a heavy bank of rain clouds came up and put an en to all hopes of observation. ‘The commencement of totality was pretty well marked by a sudden intense gloom, not, how- ever, greater than (if even as great as) a London fog. At Berlin placards were extensively posted up a little later in the day stating that ‘‘in consequence of the unfavourable weather the eclipse was postponed until the next day.” This might have been believed in France or Ireland, but it is harder to take in the Teuton than the Celt. H. G. MADAN. Eton College. Large Meteors. - A PEAR-SHAPED fireball, rivalling Venus in brilliancy, passed ever Cardigan and Radnor in Wales on August 21 at 11h. 2m. It was observed by Mr. D. Booth at Leeds, and by the writer at Bristol ; but the two paths, though likely to be very accurate as regards the direction of flight, are somewhat discordant in the beginning and end points. The radiant of the fireball was at i + 61° in Draco, and agrees with the two following showers :— 1871 August 20-25 as : 264 + 64 Tupman. 1887 August 14-23 Ee vials 264 + 62 Denning. The meteor referred to appears to have been observed at Bristol much earlier in its track and when considerably higher in the atmosphere than when noticed at Leeds. The mean of the two places gives a height of 80 miles over a point 6 miles east of Aberystwith to 45 miles above a place 7 miles west of Rhaya- dergwy. The earth point was near Hay, Herefordshire. It would be important to hear if this fine meteor was observed at any stations in the Midlands, in Wales, or on the south-east coast of Ireland. As seen from Leeds it passed through Scztum Sobieski, and at Bristol close to the star « Draconis. _ Another fine meteor about equal to Venus was observed here on August 30 at 14h. 25m. It left a bright streak in its path of 18° from 19° + 27° to 5°+ 14°. Radiant at 46° + 43° near B Persei. W. F. DENNING. Bishopston, Bristol, August 31. Colliery Explosions and Atmospheric Pressure. THERE are few questions so much in need of a satisfactory solution as the relationship which exists between colliery ex- plosions and changes of atmospheric pressure. Before anything was known of the weight, and variations in the weight, of the air, before the barometer was discovered, miners had learned to connect the state of their working-places with weather changes. The old pits were very shallow, the workings very limited, and the ventilation practically left to take care of itself, so that it is not difficult for us to understand the effect of temperature rather than pressure on the atmosphere of the mine. ‘‘ Trefoil damp,”’ ‘* pease bloom damp,” &c., sufficiently indicate the summer pre- valence of the danger ; in winter ‘‘the damps were scarcely felt or heard of.” In the early part of the present century Mr. John Buddle, the Newcastle viewer, having watched his barometer and the mining reports became strongly of opinion that ‘‘acci- dents from fire-damp always occur with a low barometer.” Faraday and Lyell’s Report on the Haswell disaster of 1844 dwelt upon the importance of officials taking into account the variations of the barometer in the management of mines. Since then numerous public Commissions and private inquirers, English and foreign, have investigated the connexion supposed to exist be- tween the exudation of gas and a fal/ing barometer. The earlier decisions may be said to favour Mr. Buddle’s opinion, but of late years there appears to be a tendency to declare that the effect of a low or falling barometer has been considerably over-rated— that in reality it has little or no influence. Under whatever conditions of pressure explosions formerly occurred, it is perfectly clear from the experience of recent years that disasters take place, as a rule, when there is an excess and not when there is a deficiency of pressure. Mr. Dobson’s Report to the British Association in 1855 showed from a large, though imperfect, number of observations that up to the year 1854 accidents from fire-damp were most frequent in the summer months June and July, the minimum at the end of January ; the results being taken to prove indisputably the general dependence of explosions upon the seasons of the ear. In the papers communicated to the Royal and to the Meteoro- logical Societies between 1872 and 1874 by Messrs. Scott and Galloway, it was however shown from 1369 accidents in twenty consecutive years that the maximum occurred at the end of January, the minimum in the middle of September. These very different results may be regarded as indicating the great revolution which has taken place not only in the time at which explosions occur, but also in the conditions of mining operations. Pits are now of enormous depths, with most extensive galleries, and the ventilating appliances are of the most elaborate description. Possibly these changes have modified very greatly the effect of weather variations. It must be remembered that gas exists in mines under two quite distinct conditions, that in the goaves and waste places being free and in direct contact with the air, while the gas occluded in the solid coal or imprisoned in faults is not in direct contact with the atmosphere. In the former case it is generally agreed that the accumulations of gas expand or contract with the changes of atmospheric pressure. In the latter case we know that the gas exists in the coal at a pressure of many atmospheres, so that it is highly improbable that it is affected directly by the rise and fall of the barometer. Indirectly, however, it would seem that a very important effect results, but in direct opposition to the idea that it escapes only with a falling barometer. Serious explosions are almost exclusively confined to deep mines, where the management is perfect, and where every care is taken to insure safety. Mystery surrounds each disaster, and it is left to individuals to trace them to coal-dust, gas, or some other favourite theory. Fortunately the illiterate manager has given way to a different order of men, and from the interest taken by mining engineers there is reason to believe that much of the uncertainty which at present envelops the question will be removed before long. Barometers are now common to all mines, and they are studied with more or less -interest by the officials. For years past it has become clear to them that there is no apparent connexion between the escape of gas and a falling barometer: the firemen “in ordinary cases can forestall the barometer by from twelve to twenty-four hours.” This con- clusion, based upon the ordinary observations of officials during their daily routine of duty, has been confirmed by more precise and carefully-planned systems of collecting information. Following the Seaham disaster of September 1880 (when the centre of an anticyclone was over the northern counties), Mr. Corbett arranged hourly observations, day and night, for several months, showing the atmospheric pressure, the measurements of gas which had escaped into the workings, and by means of water-gauges the movements of the gas in parts of the workings sealed from contact with the air. The water-gauges indicated an out-bye pressure as much as 33, 35, 41, and 48 hours before the barometers began to fall, while gas in measurable quantities was to be found many hours before the mercury gave signs of | falling. On the Continent somewhat similar observations have 438 NATURE ~ [ Sept. 8, 1887 been made at Saarbriick and Karwin. The Austrian inquiry showed that ‘‘ where after a rapid rise of the barometer it. con- tinued to rise slightly, or remained stationary for some time at its maximum, a gradual increase in the volume of gas in the air” would set in; or if, after a rapid fall in the barometer, it con- tinued to fall gradually, or remained stationary at its lowest point, a decrease in the quantity of gas would become apparent.” Evidently, therefore, from these researches the greatest danger is not, as a rule, to be apprehended when the barometer is low or falling, and this is supported by actual disasters, the majority taking place under anticyclonic conditions of pressure. While Mardy, Pendlebury, Penygraig, Seaham, and many others add to the verdict, it will suffice to deal with some explosions of the present year, and see if they do not bring home to us a new view of the natural forces at work far down below the surface of the earth. From the simultaneous observations made at 6 p.m. on Friday, February 18, the Meteorological Office reported :—‘‘ The baro- meter is now rising in all parts of the United Kingdom, and an anticyclone is apparently advancing from the westward.” An hour later thirty-nine lives were lost in an explosion in the Rhondda Valley. The anticyclone continued on its course to | the Continent, and by the morning of Wednesday, February 23, when so much damage was wrought by the earthquake, the centre had reached Southern Europe. On March 1 the anti- cyclone was a little further north, and over the neighbourhood of the Chatelus Mine, near St. Etienne, where ninety lives were sacrificed. Still moving northward, the night of March 4—5 found the highest barometer readings over Belgium and the Netherlands, when 144 miners perished at Quaregnon, near Mons. In the last week of May another anticyclone moving from south to north was marked by the loss of one life at DarcyjLever on the 25th, three lives near Wigan on the 26th, and seventy lives at Udston, near Glasgow, on the 28th. An anticyclone over Western Germany on the night of June 7-8 marked about sixty deaths at Gelsenkirchen. As this area moved to the westward, a slight earthquake was felt near Stras- burg on the 11th, and a severe one in La Vendée on the 15th. Clearly Mr. Buddle’s strong opinion is not applicable to the second half of the century. The knowledge that gas is found escaping with a rising barometer, and that so many explosions take place as indicated, has led mining officials to blame the mercury for not falling even before the gas begins to escape, their idea being that pressure has actually decreased, but that barometers are many hours before taking up the changes. The idea may be dismissed as an erroneous one. The cause must be sought for in another direction, not the direct action of variations of atmospheric pressure on the gas as it leaves the coal, but the effect on the earth’s crust and indirectly on the occluded gas. Whatever be the true cause of earth- quakes, there seems to be no reason to doubt that fluctuations of atmospheric pressure cause undulations of the earth’s crust. Prof. Darwin, taking a probable estimate for the elasticity of rocks, has calculated that with a range of two inches of the barometer we are at least three or four inches nearer the earth’s centre when the instrument stands very high than when it is very low, and concludes: ‘‘ It may be that the incessant strain- ing and unstraining of the earth’s surface is partly the cause of earth-tremors, and we can at least understand that these strains may well play the part of the trigger for precipitating the ex- plosion of the internal seismic forces.” The seismological records of Japan show that earthquake shocks are twice as numerous under the predominant anticyclone of the winter months, as they are in the summer with lower pressure. As a result of the discussion of earthquakes in Jamaica, Mr, Maxwell Hall concludes that ‘‘at the time of an average earthquake shock the barometer is a little above its average height. This is due to the circumstance that the winter months, December, January, and February, when the barometer is above its monthly average, are more liable to shocks than other months of the year; and that the hours from 8 p.m. to"2 a.m., when the barometer is above its diurnal average, are similarly more liable to shocks than other hours of the day.” Explosiens of fire-damp follow a similar rule; they are most numerous in the winter months, when the range of pressure is greatest, and usually when the barometer is very high. Allowing for the flexure of the eartn’s surface, we can conceive that with the downward movement under increasing pressure the pent-up gases are forced into the workings of our deep mines; it may be indeed these movements cause infinitesimal fissures in the coal-seams through which the gas passes into the workings at a time when it has been customary to believe there was least danger. There is some degree of probability in this from the fact, so frequently noted in great explosions, that there is a suddenness in the appearance of the gas which is not a common experience in — shallow workings. Taking into consideration all the recorded facts, they point — tothe conclusion that far greater weight should be attached to a period of high atmospheric pressure than has hitherto been deemed necessary. In any future discussion of this important. subject it is to be hoped further evidence will be forthcoming, and that instead of endeavouring to connect every disaster with a low barometer, the distribution of pressure as a whole be taken into account. ; ; The influence of coal-dust upon explosions has not been touched upon, but it may be remarked that the dry atmosphere of an anticyclone renders the dust more inflammable than the dampness of a low-pressure system, so that there is a double reason for giving closer attention to mines under anticyclonic conditions, Hy, HARRIES. MEASUREMENT OF SPECIFIC HEAT. — HAvy G regard to the comparatively large experi- mental error introduced by thermometers into specific heat measurements, a null method appeared te be desirable. The following method ae % about two months ago, but not having access to atphysi- cal laboratory, I have not been able to practically test its accuracy. FE Two exactly similar calorimeters (A and B) are taker each containing a coil of thin Pt wire of resistance” so arranged as to be completely immersed in the liqui A contains a mass, M (including water equivalent), water ; B the same mass of substance the specific heat which is being measured. The wires are arranged in bridge fashion, so that the ratio of the currents flowing — through the two wires may be made to take any value. q B A , a c Feces] sa \y Es E ¥3604, A differential thermometer (not indicated in the sketch, — for sake of clearness) shows the least difference of tem- — perature between A and B. Probably the most delicate — and convenient arrangement is to use two thin Pt wires — balanced in the arms of a bridge, using a very sensitive — galvanometer. es First consider the calorimeter B containing the sub- — stance. It receives a quantity of heat, H, from a current, — C, flowing through a resistance, R, for a time, 7. Hence se oP" aie fk: a ie “Lae (where @ is the rise of temperature, and S the mean 4 specific heat for that interval). Similarly in A, containing water, eS ae = §M Sept, 8, 1887] NATURE ' 439 For by the conditions obtained 6 is the same in both A 2 » \2 and B. Hence S = < ) = () , where ~ and ~ are the A r resistances of the two circuits. It is obviously unnecessary to make the resistances, and the masses of liquids, equal, but the equation is thus simplified. If a smaller mass of m Yr a water, #, betaken,then S = a (2) , thus increasing the delicacy of the method. Since in the adjustments a considerable amount of time would be necessary to allow the calorimeters to attain thermal equilibrium after each trial, the following Eaeration may prove more simple and more practi- cal :— The calorimeter B is arranged so that by a switch-key, C, the current can be diverted through a wire of exactly equal resistance, 4,so that the current is the same by either path. The resistance from D to E is the same either way. The key F is pressed down for a time, ¢, Fie. 2. until the needle is largely deflected ; then the current is switched from B and passed through A alone, until the needle is just brought back to zero, in total time, T. Then, neglecting for the present the slight error due to cooling, 2 2 BAM - SX? inp...emsa CRs = = Since T and ¢ can both be made large, this should give very accurate results. It is evidently especially applicable to the measurement of the rate of increase of specific heat with temperature, since the liquids may have any initial temperature. In conclusion, I may say that I should not have pub- lished this method in such an incomplete state, and “unsupported by experiment, but I noticed to-day (Sep- tember 5) that Profs. Stroud and Gee intend to read a paper before the British Association on “ A Null Method in Electro-Calorimetry,” and it is possible this may refer to a similar method. GEORGE N. HUNTLY. THE HESSIAN FLY. I AM sorry to say that reports from correspondents ac- quainted with the attack of the Hessian fly show its presence now in an almost continuous line along the northern and eastern coast from Cromarty on the Moray Firth in Scotland down to Kent. I have this morning received specimens of the puparia from the parish of Urquhart, in Morayshire, the most northerly locality from which I have at present received the so-called “ flax-seeds.” The amount of presence varies very much, In the locality _ above mentioned (that is, the district from Aberdeen to Cromarty), the traces of attack are reported as to be found from 25 to 30 miles inland, but the injury slight, not. more than one straw in fifty being affected, and the grain of fair quality. It is severe in some parts of Perth- ‘shire, and is found also in the eastern counties adjacent. — In East Lothian, Haddington, and Berwickshire attacl is only reported from a few places at present, and it Northumberland from one locality. Beginning again on the two sides of the Humber th attack widens much in area as it is traced south. It passe through Lincolnshire and Cambridgeshire, touching a easterly part of Northamptonshire, till it extends over th district commonly known as the eastern counties, includ ing besides great attack in Hertfordshire, and some i Bedfordshire ; and it also occurs in Kent. In the southerly or westerly parts of England it occur at Lymington and Petersfield in Hampshire, and to a con siderable extent near the College of Agriculture, Downton near Salisbury ; and I have one report of it from nea Bridgwater, and it also occurs at Goring Heath, Oxford shire. The above localities are where I know of its presenc from specimens sent to myself, or, in a few cases, fron information given me by correspondents whom I know te be acquainted with the appearance of the puparium, anc the characteristics of the attack. It very likely may occur elsewhere, but I am only jus giving a general sketch of extent of infested area fron personal knowledge. : It strikes me as a very curious point that the attach should so markedly cling to the sea-side, excepting in < few isolated instances, or where the inland area is con tinuous with the sea-side district. It is very satisfactory to observe that although the season has been so altogether extraordinarily favourable to various kinds of insects affecting corn-stems, yet thai in very many instances reported to me the injury caused to wheat by Hessian fly has been slight On this fact I venture to think we may ground a hope that, either from the varieties of wheat which we use being kinds suited to do what is called “resist” attack, or from circumstances of our cultivation, we may find that ou wheat at least does not suffer as much as in some othe countries. Also the enormous prevalence of the two stem attacks caused respectively by the corn sawfly (Cephus pygmaeus). and by the dipterous fly, the Chlorops teniopus (attacks which far exceed in amount any which have been brought under my notice as caused by these insects), give a hope that the climatal circumstances which usually prevail here will have an effect in checking the attack of the Ceczdo- myta destructor, as well as the above-named crop pests, as we see that all three kinds have been exceptionally thriving in the exceptional heat and drought. It is unnecessary to point out to your highly informed and thinking readers that the statements now appearing of the Cecidomyia destructor having been a corn pest in this country for many years have not the slightest foundation. ELEANOR A. ORMEROD. THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. MANCHESTER, Tuesday Evening. BOUT the success of the Manchester meeting there seems to be only one opinion. In mere numbers— the most popular gauge of success—it has by several hundreds surpassed all former meetings ; the number of tickets sold very closely approaches 4000. As a natural result, the amount of money collected and available for the purposes of research is unprecedentedly great, as will be seen by the list of grants which have been allotted to the various Committees. The great increase in attend- ance over all former years is to a considerable extent due to the large number of foreign visitors, who have formed a marked and prominent feature of the present meeting. In the proceedings of nearly every Section the representatives of foreign science have taken an active 440 NATURE [ Sepz. 8, 1887 part, with the result that the time of the whole meeting has been more intensely scientific than in the case of any previous meeting. This has been especially shown in the case of the important discussions which had been arranged for, and which most of them bore the character of real debate ; the only exception, we believe, being the case of electrolysis, in Sections A and B, the “ discussion” con- sisting mostly of the reading of a series of papers. Quite otherwise, however, was it with the discussions on heredity, introduced by Prof. Lankester, and on the cell theory, introduced by Prof. Schafer, in Section A —discussions in which the subjects were threshed out very thoroughly. To some extent it is generally conceded that the great mixture of foreigners has to some extent solved the problem of an International Scientific Congress, which in any formal way is generally considered im- practicable. Their presence here has certainly added a stimulating variety to the meeting, and the honour has been duly appreciated by the Corporation and citizens of Manchester. The foreigners have all been hospitably entertained as guests, and there have been not a few special entertainments got up for their special behoof. At the great dinner to be given to-morrow by the Mayor and Corporation nearly half of the. guests will be foreigners. One of the pleasantest gatherings of the meeting was at a little dinner given on Sunday night by a few of the biologists to a select few of- their foreign co-workers, especially botanists, at which De Bary delighted everybody present. The number of papers read at this meeting has been quite comparable with its other excepticnal features. Sections that have never split before have been compelled to split now. Biology, though it has thrown off Section H, has this year split into two sub-sections,—Botany and Physiology,—and there is even some fear, perhaps hope, that these divisions may become permanent. On Saturday every Section met except E, and to-morrow the majority will have to sit close up to the General Committee-meet- ing. Out of all this rush of papers no doubt some good comes, but most of those interested in the welfare of the Association admit that it would be well to moderate it, or perhaps still more completely to organize it. For one thing the custom of reading one paper in several Sections is greatly to be deprecated, and this year it has been carried still further than ever, greatly to the indignation of those Sections which had to submit to hearing the story retold. This came toa crisis in Section E, where an eminent geologist, who condescended to read a paper to some extent already given to his own Section, was told in almost so many words that Section E had no time to listen to geological lectures. Here indeed the battle between the geologists and geographers was fought out, greatly it was thought to the discomfiture of the former, who are loth to think that there is anything worthy of the name of geography outside of their own lines. In spite of the persistently unfavourable weather, the public lectures have been quite successful. The lecture on the rate of explosions by Prof. H. B. Dixon kept a large audience intensely interested from beginning to end ; and nothing could be more striking and instructive than his experiments, some of which were on a gigantic scale. Equally attractive was the lectureto working men on Satur- day evening on electricity by Prof. George Forbes. The biggest audience of any, however, assembled in the Free Trade Hall on Monday evening to listen to Sir Francis De Winton’s lecture on exploration in Central Africa. The audience was evidently a popular one, and the lecturerhad the warmest reception. Unfortunately, the lantern used to show maps and pictures on the screen was rather a failure. Distinctly popular as it was, probably even the specialists were glad to get a convenient summary of recent work in Central Africa, pleasantly conveyed. The address of the President of the Association, Sir Henry Roscoe, was very numerously attended. Sir Henry was evidently audible all over the place, and his reception, as might have been expected, was enthusiastic. — Manchester is rather badly off for excursion places, and — on Saturday, we believe, quite as many people spent the day in Manchester as elsewhere. Indeed, most of the Sections were so busy with work that they had no time to think of play. The little dredging excursion was joined in by about fifty men, who all seemed highly satis- fied with the results, in spite of the weather. One of the most popular of the coming excursions will be that to the Isle of Man from Friday to Tuesday, under the guidance of Prof. Boyd Dawkins. There is also some talk of an excursion to the Lakes, but the weather does not encourage holiday enterprise in so notoriously rainy a region. One popular and distinctly useful feature in connexion with the present meeting has been the Anthropometric Laboratory which has been established in connexion with Section H, under the care of Dr. Garson and Mr. Bloxam. It has been very largely frequented by the members of the Association, who have had themselves weighed, measured, and tested in a variety of ways. The object, we believe, — is to obtain data from the most cultured classes to com- pare with those collected by Mr. Francis Galton,at South Kensington, from all and sundry. The result, it is ex- pected, will be highly interesting. We have already referred to the very varied exhibition which has been arranged in the galleries around the attractive reading-room. This has received various additions during the week. Prof. Boyd Dawkins shows some very instructive exhibits in various rooms belonging to the Geological Department of Owens College, includit William Smith’s first geological map and an auto letter. Another exhibit deserving mention is the collection of wax models, illustrating vertebrate morphology and embryology, shown by Prof. His, of Leipzig, on behalf of Dr. A. Ziegler, of Freiburg. Naturally the model of the Manchester Ship Canal has attracted much attention, but not more than the great variety of interesting anthropo- — logical exhibits, which include the collection of casts and photographs from Egyptian monuments contributed by Mr. Flinders Petrie. Great complaints have been made of the way in which the Press has reported the proceedings of the meeting. This may partly be due, no doubt, to the fact that Parlia- — ment is still sitting and takes up much of the space of the papers ; but is also to be ascribed to a larger extent to the fact that ordinary reporters are hardly equal to the — work of the British Association. When there are printed — abstracts the matter is simple enough, but when discus- — sions have to be reported the failure is almost absolute. — This is certainly to be regretted, as it could not but be of — the greatest service to have such discussions widely cir- — culated. Surely it is quite worth while for the Sections to — organize adequate reporting arrangements for their own ~ sake. ‘i The next meeting, at Bath, will be presided over by a Sir Frederick Bramwell. In 1889 the Association will meet _ in Newcastle, and it is expected that an invitation will — come from Leeds for 1890. eh The following is the list of grants which have been — made this year by the Association :— a A.—Mathematics and Physics. Ben Nevis Observatory Electrical Standards . Magnetic Observations