sty PBA TuS ‘on ay sake ix us ah iat 8 Hf ae ae : ae Ntet: St May qs ; aT ‘titty wen ey Nines + Ne u4g Apvateesim ats Sa, ied hea" TPT Mey Ab ep: at kn Teaching, 359; Dust Photographs and Breath 364 ‘Choke Tact, the, Prof. Virchow, 487 Cross-Stri #3 of Muscle, the, Prof. Richard Ewald and Pref. Crystallised Gatos, 370 Crystallites, Ice, Rev. Dr. A. Rei, 126 Crystals ; Dendritic Forms, Sydney Lupton, 13 Crystals, “Growth of, Prof. Sollas, 213 Crystals, Two Experimental Verifications Relative to Refraction in, J. Verschaffelt, 428 inald), Comparative Sunshine, 150 oundations of Two River Piers ot Tower Crystals, Ice, C. M. Irvine, 31; B. Woodd Smith, 79 Cumming (L.), Science Teaching, 359 Cuneiform Tithet the Tell-el-Hesy, F. J. Bliss, 302 Cunningham (J. T. ), Blind Animals in Caves, 439, 537 Curie (P.), Magnetic Properties of Bodies at Different Tem- peratures, 96 ; Magnetic Properties of Oxygen, 240 Cuverville (Rear Admiral Cavelier de), Experiments in Use of Oil in Calming Waves, 279 Curzon’s (Hon, E. M.) Journey in Indo-China, 617 Cygni, Parallax of 8, Harold Jacoby, 399 Cyprus, the Vineyards of, M. Mouillefert, 517 Dairy Industry in Cape Colony, the, A. C. Macdonald, 471 Dairy Work, Manual of, Prof. James Muir, Walter Thorp, 555 Dall (William H. ae Hints for Collectors of Mollusks, 140 Dallinger (Dr. W. H.), on the Chromatic Curves of Microscope Objectives, 501 ; ; Prof. Biitschli’s experiments on the so-called Artificial Protoplasms, 526 Dallmeyer (J. R.), the new Telephotographic Lens, 161 Dante’s ‘‘ Questio de Aqua et Terra,” Edmund G. Gardner, 295 Danzig Naturforschende Gesellschaft, 150th anniversary of, 37. Darwin, a Criticism on, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 127 Darwin ‘aod After Darwin, Geo. John Romanes, F.R.S., 290 Darwin (Charles): His Life told in an Autobiographical Chapter and in a Selected Series of his Published Letters, 53 Darwin (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), the Geology of the Asiatic Loess, 30; Reduction of Tidal Observations, 402; Die Entwicke- iung der Doppelstern-Systeme, 1. J. J. See, 459; Roche’s Limit, 581 Daubrée (M.), Observations on the conditions which appear to have obtained during the formation of Meteorites, 432 Davidson (J. Ewen), Thunderstorms and Auroral Phenomena, 562 Davies (Thomas), Obituary Notice of, L. Fletcher, F.R.S., 371 Davis (Prof. W. M.), the General Winds of the Atlantic Ocean, 574 Davos Platz, Record of Medical Experience at, Dr. Spengler, 517 Dawson (Dr. Geo., F.R.S.), Lizard-Superstition of Shuswap Indians, British Columbia, 184 Dawson (Sir William, F.R.S.), Fossil Floras and Climate, J. Starkie Gardner, 582, 556 Day of the Week, a Simple Rule for finding the, corresponding to any given day of the Month and Year, 509 Day (Mr.), Experiments on the value of the Steam-jacket, 20 De Morgan (W.), Earthenware Manufacture in Egypt, 613 Dean (Bashford), Dionea, 423 Decapods : on the Minute Structure of the Gills of Pu/aemonetes varians, Edgar J. Allen, 261 December Meteors (Geminids), W. F. Denning, 226 Decharme (C.), Displacements of a Magnet on Mercury under action of Electric Current, 48 ' Decimal System, the, S. Montagu, M.P., Sir William Harcourt, J. H. Yoxall, 323 Decorative Art, the Evolution of, Henry Balfour, 606 Deduction, Induction and, Edward T. Dixon, 10, 127, Constance Jones, 78 Defence, Remarkable Weapons of, G, F. Hampson, E. Ernest Green, 199 Dehérain (M.), Influence of Manure on Development of Roots, 280 ; Drainage Waters of Cultivated Lands, 287 Delcommune’s (M. Alexandre) Lomami Expedition, 209 ; turn of the, 590 Demavend (Mt.), Sven Hedin’s Ascent of, 19 Dendritic Forms, Sydney Lupton, 13 Dendy (Arthur), an Introduction to the Study of Botany, with a special chapter on some Australian Natural Orders, 125 ; the Hatching of a Peripatus Egg, 508 Denning (W. F.), the New Comet, 77 ; December Meteors (Geminids), 226; coveries in 1892, 256 Densities of the Principal Gases, the, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., E. E. Re- Holmes’s Comet, 365 ; Astronomical Dis- 567 Deslandres (M. H.) Motion in the Line of Sight, 88; Proper Motions, 115 ; a new Method of Photographing the Corona, 327 XiV Lndex Supplement lo Nature, une 1, 1893 Destruction of Immature Fish, the, Ernest W. L. Holt, 160 Development, cn a Supposed Law of Metazoan, R. Asshetcn, 176 Devenish (S.), the Alligator’s.Nest, 587 Dew, Herr Wollny, 398 Dew and Frost, Hon. R. Russell, 210 Diamond in Meteoric Iron, the, C. Friedel, 192 Diamond, the Chemical Properties of the, M. Moissan, 472 Diatoms, the Cultivation of, Signor Macchiati, 23 Diatoms, Fungus internally parasitic in, C. H. Gill, A. W. Bennett, 118 Dickson (H. N.), the Characteristic Form of the Coast Line as Affecting the Physical Conditions of the Waters of the English Channel, 235 Diener’s (Dr. Karl), Geological Expedition in Himalayas, 133 Digestion, Influence of Bodily Exertion on Process of, Herr Rosenberg, 62 Diller (J. S.), Geology of Taylorville Region in Sierra Nevada, California, 39 Dimensions of Physical Quantities to Directions in Space, Williams on the relation of the, Profs. Fitzgerald, Henrici and Rucker and Dr. Sumpner, 69 Dines (H. W.), Anemometry, 143 ; Measurement of Maximum Wind Pressure, 118. Dinornithide, on the Cranial Osteology, Classification, and Phylogeny of the, Prof. T. Jeffrey Parker, F.R.S., 431 Dionea, Dr. Macfarlane, Bashford Smith, 423 Dipnoi, Dr. Kudolf Burckhardt, 339 Disease Germs, Flies and, 499 Diseases, Nervous, the Alleged Increase with Growth of Civili- sation of, Dr. Brinton, 280, 374 ; Disinfectant, Aminol a True, Dr. E. Klein, F.R.S., 149, 247 ; Hugo Wollheim, 246 Ditte (M. A.), on the Industrial Preparation of Aluminium, 479 Dixey (F. A.), Epidemic Influenza, 244 Dixon (A. E.), Desulphurisation of the Substituted Thioureas, 405 ; an Isomeric Form of Benzylphenylbenzylthiourea, 551 Dixon (Charles), The Migration of Birds: an Attempt to Reduce Avian Season-flight to Law, 169° Dixon (Edward T.), Induction and Deduction, 10, 127 Dixon (Prof. Harold B.), the Rate of Explosion in Gases, 299 Dixon (Henry H.), on the Walking of Arthropoda, 56; onthe Germination of Seedlings in the Absence of Bacteria, 287 Dobbie (J. A.) a New base from Corydalis Cava, 479 Doberck (W), Severe Frost at Hongkong, 536 Dodge (Frank S.), Kilauea in August 1892, 499 Dokoutchaiev (Prof. W. W.), Russian Steppes Past and Pre- sent, 523 % Domestic Electric Lighting treated from the Consumer’s Point of View, E. C. De Segundo, 172 Dominica, Earthquake in, W. R. Elliott, 562 Donkin (Bryan, jun.), Experiments on the Value of the Steam- jacket, 20 Durp (W. A. van), on some Isoimides of Camphoric Acid, 288 Double-Star Observations, Burnham’s, 281 Double Stars, the Evolution of, T. J. J. See, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 459 Douglas (James), the Copper Resources of the United States, 132 Douglass (A. E.), Indications of a Rainy Period in Southern Peru, 38; Comet Swift (a 1892), 546 Douglass (G. M.), Assumption of the Male Plumage by a Peahen, 71 Dowson (J. Emerson), Gas Power for Electric Lighting, 284 Dromedaries in German South-west Africa, Capt. von Frangois, 3 Dry Pla'es, Photographic, Arthur E. Brown, 11 Dublin Royal Society, 167, 287, 431 Dudley (Wm. L.), Colours of the Alkali Metals, 175 Dunbar on the Question of the Separate Identification of Typhoid and Coli Communis Bacilli, 472 Duncan (Mr.), Fishes and Water-oxygenation, 280 Dundas (Commander F. G.), the Juba River, 186 Dundas (Robert), Improvements in Railway Rolling Stock, 131 Dundee Whaling Fleet, Return of the, 473 Dunell (Mr.), the Screw Propeller, 21 Duner (Dr. Nils C.), Lord Kelvin, 110 Dunn (E. J.), Notes on the Glacial Conglomerate, Wild Duck Creek, 55 Dunstan (W. R.), the Identity of Caffeine and Theine and the Interactions of Caffeine and Auric Chloride, 311; on Isaco- nitine (Napelline), 430 ; the Composition of some Commercial — Specimens of Aconitine, 430 Durham College of Science: Appeal for Relief from Financial Difficulties, 585 Durham (James), the Ordnance Survey and Geological Faults, 510 Durston (A. J.), Experiments on the Tiansmission of Heat through Tube-plates, 521 Dust Photographs, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., 341; F. J. Allen, 341 Dust Photographs and Breath Figures, W. B. Croft, 364 Duthie (Col.), Egg Collecting, 253 is Dwarfs, African ; two Akka Girls brought to Germany by Dr. Stuhlmann, 470 adi Dwarfs, Racial, in the Pyrenees, R. G. Haliburton, 294 ; Wm. McPherson, 294 sp iah Dybowski(M.), the Bonjos, a Cannibal African Tribe, 257 ; Use of Chloride of Potassium instead of Salt by Soudanese, 499 Dyer (W. T. Thiselton, F.R.S.), Botanical Nomenclature, 53 | Dyes, Notes on some Ancient, Edward Schunck, F.R.S., 22 Dynamics in Nubibus, ‘‘ Waterdale,” 601 Alfred Earth Oscillations, Observations of, P. Plantamour, 254 Earth’s Age, the, Bernard Hobson, 175, 226; Dr. Russel Wallace, 175, 226 ; Clarence King, 285 Eaith’s History, the, R. D. Roberts, 412 Earth-Currents, the Recording of, 586 Earthenware Manufacture in Egypt, W. de Morgan, 61 Earthquakes : Earthquake in Ponza, 86 ; Earthquake Sharks, E. J. Lowe, F.R.S., 247, 270; Earthquake in Zante, 323, 348, 394, 585, 620 ; Instruments for the Earthquake Labora- tory at the Chicago Exhibition, Prof. John Milne, F.R.S., F. Omori, 356 ; Earthquake in Samothrace and New ’ 372; Stromboli Earthquakes, A. Ricco and G. Mercalli, Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 453; Earthquake at Quetta, 470; Greater Frequency of Earthquakes in Cold Weather, 517 ; Earthquake at Catania, 543; in Servia, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Dominica, 562 boul Earthworms : Ona Supposed New Species of Earthworms and on the Nomenclature of Earthworms, Dr. C. Herbert Hurst, 31; British Earthwoims, William Blaxland Benham, 102 ; Frank J. Cole, 295; ‘‘ Hare-Lip” in Earthworms, Rev. Hilderic Friend, 316; Luminous Earthworms, Rev. Hilderic Friend, 462 Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera in the Collection of the. Oxford University Museum, Catalogue of, Col. C. Swinhoe, © 3 Ebest (H.), An Automatic Interruptor for Accumulators, 69 Echinoderms, British, Catalogue of the, in the British Museum, F, Jeffrey Bell, 508 Py Eclectus, the Cause of the Sexual Differences of Colour in, Prof. A. B. Meyer, 486 Pa IF Eclipse Photography, M. de la Baume Pluvinel, 326 — . Eclipse, Total Solar, of April 15-16 1893, 304, 376, 584, 611 ; M. de la Baume Pluvinel, 281, 304; A. Taylor, 317 Edinburgh Royal Society, 239, 287, 335, 431, 527 Education : Meeting of Association for Improvement of Geo- metrical Teaching, 277; Appointment of Committee on Organisation of Secondary Education, 277 ; the University of Chicago, 278; Richard Mulcaster, Foster Watson, 279; Changes recommended by Association of New England College Officers in Grammar School Curriculum, 279 ; Physi- cal Education, Frederick Treves, 292 ; Scientific Education, Lord Playfair, 301 ; Higher Education in the United States, Dr. Low, 325 ; Work among the North American Indians, 350; Science Teaching, F.. W. Sanderson, Prof. A. M, Worthington, L. Cumming, Dr, Stoney, W. B. Croft, Prof. Ayrton, E. J. Smith, Dr. Gladstone, 358; the Origin and Progress of the Educational Movement in Wales, O. M. Edwards, 421; the Proposed New Building for the Royal College of Science, Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, 448 ; Medical Educa- tion at Oxford, Lord Salisbury, 449; Formation of School ee ee Supplement to a June t, 1893 _ Gradation Committee, 613; Technical Education, Dr. W. Anderson, 155; Industrial School opened at Lucknow, 111; Technical Education Conference, 130; Technical Education in London, Report of the London County Council Committee, 300; Technical Education in Birmingham, Sir Henry Roscoe, 301 ; _ the Sl6jd Association of Great Britain, 324; the London County Council and Technical Education, 348 ; Report of the Scottish Technical Education Committee, 543; the Univer- sities and the County Councils, 586; the Cambridge Univer- sity Extension Movement, 586; Improvement in City Guilds and London Institute Technological Examinations, 612 Egg Collecting, Col. Duthie, 253 _ Eggs, Artificially Incubated, W. Whitman Bailey, 200 Eggs, Study of the Form of, Dr. Nicolsky, 253 _ Egypt: Appointment of W. Flinders Petrie to Chair of Egyptology, University College, London, 111 ; Prof. Flinders - Petrie’s First Lecture, 278; Egyptian Figs, Rev. George _ Henslow, 102, 152! the Causes of the Defertilisation of, x E. A. Floyer, 156; Ancient Egypt, Prof. Flinders Petrie, _ «301; Earthenware Manufacture in, W. de Morgan, 613; _ Egyptian Mumaoiies, Prof. Macalister on, 623 ‘Eichhulz (A.) on Urobilin, 360 __ Eigenmann (C. H.), The Fishes of Southern California, 61 _ Elasticity, a Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of, A. E. H. _ __ Love, Prof. A. G. Greenhill, F.R.S., 529 Electricity : Remarkable Case of Electricity in a Cat, 17; an Are. Light between Mercurial Electrodes in Vacuo, Dr. Arons, + ; Displacements of a Magnet on Mercury under Action of - lectric Current, I). Decharme, 48 ; Cost of Electric Supply, _ ‘Dr. John Hopkinson, F.R.S., 38; Power of Hydrogen- absorption of Various Metals, Herren Neumann and Streintz, 63; an Automatic Interruptor for Accumulators, H. Ebert, _ 69; Institution of Electrical Engineers Annual Dinner, 85 ; Demonstration by Means of Telephone of Existence of Inter- _ ference of Electric Waves in Closed Circuits, R. Colson, 96 ; _ New Mirror Electrometer for High Potentials, Dr. Heyd- _ weiler, 112; Electric Oscillations, Pierre Janet, 119; Electrical _ Standards, 128; Value of Electric Light for Lettuce and other ‘Winter Crops, Prof. L. H. Bailey, 130; Domestic Electric i‘ oie Treated from the Consumer’s Point of View, E. C. De Segundo, 172 ; Electric Lighting and Power Dis- _ tribution, W. Perren Maycock, 269 ; Gas Power for Electric Lighting, J. Emerson Dowson, 284; the Distribution of _ Power by Electricity from a Central Generating Station, A. _ Siemens, 378; Ionic Velocities, W. C. D. Whetham, 164; the Velocity of Crooke’s Cathode Stream, Lord Kelvin, _ F.R.S., 164; Experiments in Electric and Magnetic Fields, ant and Varying, Rimington and Wythe Smith, 165, a) bed _ Mr. Swinburne, 166; Prof. S. P. Thompson, 166; the Utilisation of Niagara Falls for Generating Electricity, 182 ; Improvement on the Herz Oscillator, MM. Sarasin and De la Rive, 184; a New Electric Furnace, H. Moissan, 192; Apparatus for Demonstrating D-fference of Potential at Poles of Galvanic Cell, Messrs. Elster and Geitel, 233 ; Con- struction of Copies of Permanent Standard Mercury Resist- ances, 233; the Temperature of the Electric Arc, J. Violle, 240 ; Electric Currents in Plants, Prof. Burdon Sanderson, 255; on Thermo-electric Phenomena between two Electrolytes, Henri Bagard, 263 ; on the Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Torpedo, Gymnotus, Mormyrus, and Malapterurus, _ Gustav Fritsch, 271; Pure Gases Incapable of Producing Electrification by Friction, Mr. Wesendorck, 280; on the _ Temperature Coefficient of the Electrical Resistance of Mer- _ eury and on the Mercury Resistances of the Imperial Insti- _ tution, Dr, Kreichgauer and W, Jaeger, 286 ; Electric Oscil- lations in Wires, Direct Measurement of the Moving Wave. Kr. Birkeland, 286; Magnetism and Electricity, R. W Stewart, 315; the Growth of Electrical Industry, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., 327; Sarasin and De la Rive’s Experi- ments in Measurement of Rate of Hertz Electric Waves, Prof. Raoul Pictet, 336; Rotation of Cylin- der Inductive Action, Signor Arno, 374; Observa- tions of Atmospheric Electricity in America, T. C. Mendenhall, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., 392; on the Electric ha, produced at the Surface of Crystallised Bodies, Paul Jannetaz, 408 ; on Electric Spark Photographs, or Photography of Flying Bullets, &c., by the Light of the Electric Spark, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 415, 440; Hysteresis and Dielectric Viscosity of Mica for Rapid Oscillations, M. ee [ndex XV P. Janet, 432; a Magnetic Screen, Frederick J. Smith, 439 ; the Effects of Mechanical Stress on the Electrical Resistance of Metals, James H. Gray and James R. Henderson, 478 ; the Use of the Electric Current in producing High Tempera- tures, MM. Moissan and Violle, MM. Lagrange and Hoho, 497; Electrical Actinometer used by Messrs. El-ter and Geitel in Measurement of Sun’s Ultra-violet Radiation, 422 ; Ready Preparation of Large Quantities of the more Refrac- tory Metals by means of the Electric Furnace, M. Moissan, 424; the Tereco and Electric Cables, Sir Henry Mance, 450; Intense and Rapid Heating Process by means of the Electric Current, MM. Lagrange and Hoho, 503; Photo- graphic Registration Apparatus, Dr. Raps, 503; Electro- magnetic Waves, 505; Electrical Papers, Oliver Heaviside, 505; Apparent Attraction of Closed Circuits by Alternating Magnetic Pole, Prof. Elihu ‘Thomson, 517 ; the Physiological Effects of Electric Currents of High Frequency, M. d’Arson- val, 517; Penetration of thin Metallic Plates hy Cathode Rays causing Phosphorescence, Herr Lenard, 518 ; a New Electri- cal Process permitting the Production uf Temperatures Su- perior to those Actually Realisable, Eug. Lagrange and P. Hoho, 525; Equipotential Lines due to Current Flowing through Conducting Sheet fixed Photographically, E. Lommel, 544; on Initial Capacities of Polarisation, M. E. Bouty, 552 ; Experiments on Phosphorescence-producing Kathode Kays of a Geissler Tube, Dr. P. Lenard, 564; Electrical Railways, Dr. Edward Hopkinson, 570; on the Differential Equation of Electric Flow, T. H. Blakesley, Prof. Perry, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. Sumpner, Mr. Swinburne, 574; a Method of obtaining Alternating Currents of Constant and easily-deter- mined Frequency, I. Pupin, 586 ; Experiments on Loss of Electrical Charge of Bodies in diffuse Light and in Darkness, Edouard Branly, 586; the Recordingof EKarth-currents, 586 ; Dynamo-electric Machinery with Compound Excitation, M. Paul Hoho, 599; Experiments on Electric Oscillations of Medium Frequency, M. Janet, 615; Researches into the Study of Hall’s Phenomenon, Prof. Kundt, 624 Elgar (Dr.), the Strength of Bulkheads, 520 Ellinger (Dr.), New Method of Preparing Glycol Aldehyde, 17 Elliott (W. R.), Earthquake in Dominica, 562 Ellis (W.), Map Showing Lines of Equal Magnetic Declination for Jan. 1, 1893, in England and Wales, 323; Relation be- tween the Duration of Sunshine, the Amount of Cloud, and the Height of the Barometer, 431 Elster and Geitel (Messrs.), Apparatus for Demonstrating Dif- ference of Potential at Poles of Galvanic Cell, 233 ; Electrical Actinometer used in Measurement of Sun’s Ultra-violet Radiation by, 422 5 Embryology ; on a Supposed Law of Metazoan Development, J. Beard, 79 Emmons (Hamilton) on the Petrography of the Island of Capraja, 334 Energy, the Identity of, Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 293 Energy and Vision, Prof. S. P. Langley, 252 Engineering : Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 19, 300, 353, 617 ; Mechanical Engineering, Report on the Value of the Steam Jacket, J. G. Mair-Burnley, Col. English, Mr. Day, Bryan Donkin, Prof. Unwin, Bryan Donkin, Jun., Mr. Morrison, and Mr. Schonheyder, 20; the Screw Propeller, Messrs. Walker, Kennedy, Barnaby, Dunell, and Shield, 21 ; - Junior Engineering Society, 38 ; Institution of Electrical En- gineers, Annual Dinner, 85; Modern Mechanism, 241; a Correction, 281; Mechanical Engineering, the Apparatus at the Haslar Experimental Works, R. E, Froude, 353; the © Southampton Water-softening Plant, William Matthews, 354 ; the Foundations of the Two River Piers of the Tower Bridge, E. E. W. Crettwell, 545 ; the Value of Annealing Steel, E. G. Carey, 397; Der Nord-Ostsee-Kanal, C. Beseke, 579; Steam Engine Trials, 594 ; the Alloys Research Committee, Second Report, Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 617; the Action of Bismuth on Copper, Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 618 England, American Opinion of Photography in, Xanthus Smith, 86 ; the Progress of Cremation in, 396 ; the English Flower Gardens, W. Robirson, 508 Engler’s (Dr, A.) ‘* Botanische Jahrbiicher fiir Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie,” 413 English (Col.) Experiments on the value of the Steam-Jacket, 20 Entomology ; Remarl.able Hornet’s Nest presented to Madras Museum by Lord Wenlock, 16 ; anew species of Belytidz from Xvi Index [Se to Nature, June 1, 1893 New Zealand, Rev. T. A. Marshall, 17; Entomological Society, 47, 191, 334, 383, 455, 501, 575,599; Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms, M. C. Cooke,99 ; Hints on Sugaring for Moths, W. Hoiland, 131 ; Beetles, Butterflies, and other Insects, A. W. Kapple and W, Egmont Kirby, 148; Death of H. T. Stainton, 155; the Bite of the Tarantula, C. W. Meaden, 184; Coleopterous Larve voided by a Child, J. E. Harting, 190; Remarkable Varieties of Telchinia Encedon, Lyczena adonis, Noctuaxanthographaand Acronycta rumicis 191 ; Remarkable Weapons of Defence, G. F. Hampson, E. Ernest Green, 199 ; the Death’s Head Moth and Bees, J. R. S. Clifford, 234 ; on the Anatomy of Pen/astomum teretiusculum, Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, 260; a Beetle tamed, 280; Description of New Species of Dipterous Insects of the Family Syrphide, in the Collection of the British Museum, with Notes on Species described by the late Francis Walker, E. E. Austen, 335 ; the Trap-door Spider, D. Cleveland, 375; The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, G. F. Hampson, 387 ; On Stridulating Ants, Dr. Sharp, 501; a New Species (and genus) of Acarus found in Cornwall, A. D. Michael, 502 ; on the Anatomy of the Zurypteride, Malcolm Laurie, 527, Phosphorescence in Centipedes, R. J. Pocock,545 ; Notes ona Spider, H. H. J. Bell,557; Vanessa Polychlorosin London, L. J. Tremayne, 563 ; the Use of Antsto Aphides and Coccidz, T. D. A. Cockerell, 608 Ephemeris for Bodies Moving in the Biela Orbit, Dr. Chandler, 186 Ephemeris of Comet Brooks (November 20, 1892), 257, 281 Epidemic Influenza, F. A. Dixey, 244 Epiglottis, Die, Carl Gegenbaur, 542 Equivalent of Heat, the Value of the Mechanical, E. H. Griffiths, 537 Eritrea, Agriculture in the Italian Red Sea Colony of, 19 Eschenhagen (Herr), Improvement in Registration of Needle’s Variations, 544 Esmoil (M.), the New Brooks’ Comet, 159 Espin (T. E.), the Wolsingham Observatory, 452 Etheridge (R.), Ethnological Observations in Australia, 594 Ethnography, Prehistoric, of Central and North-East Russia, J. Smirnov, 524 5 Ethnology : the Mixed Character of the Population of Morocco, A. Le Chatelier, 61; Atlas der Volkerkunde, Dr. Georg Gerland, Dr. Edward B. Tylor, F.R.S., 223: Ethnological Observations in Australia, R. Etheridge, 594 Etna, on the Age of the Most Ancient Eruptions of, M. Wallerant, 264 «* Eudiometer,” the Author ofthe Word, Prof. Herbert McLeod, F.R.S., 536 Europe, Appearance of the American Vine-disease, Black-rot, in, I Evans (A. J.), Prehistoric Interments of the Bahi Rossi Caves near Mentone, 239 Everett (Prof. J. D., F.R.S.), Helmholtz on Hering’s Theory of Colour, 365 ; a New and Handy Focometer, 500 Evolution, the Probable Physiognomy of the Cretaceous Plant Population, Conway McMillan, 587 Evolution of Decorative Art, the, Henry Balfour, 606 Evolution of Double Stars, the, T. J. J. See, Prof. G. Hs Darwin, F, R.S., 459 Evolution, Experimental, Henry de Varigny, 25 Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature, Henry Calderwo6éd, 385 Ewald (Prof. Richard), the Cross-Striping of Muscle, 92 Ewing (J. A., F.R.S.), Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, E. Wilson, 460 Examinations, Technological, 35 Exhibition, Chicago, Ceylon’s Contribution to, 156 Exner (Prof.) on the Innervation of the Cricothyroid Muscle in Rabbits and Dogs, 287 Explosion in Gases, the Rate of, Prof. Harold B. Dixon, 299 Extinct Monsters, Rev. H. N. Hutchinson, 250 Eye, the Alleged Sexual Difference in the, Herr Greef, 325 Eye, Seven Images of the Human, M. Tcherning, 354 Eye, Sensitiveness of the, to Lightand Colour, Capt. W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 538 Fabre (Charles), Traité Encyclopédique de Photographie, 6 Fabry (M,), the New Brooks’ Comet, 159 Falsan (Albert), Les Alpes Francaises, 76 Fasting Men, Experiments on the Nutrition of, D. J. Munk , | Force, the Laws of Molecular, Mr. Sutherland’s Paper on, Prof. | >. ‘ r Respiratory Interchange in the Fasting Body, Prof. Zuntz ; the Construction of Carbohydrates in the Fasting Body, Dr. _ Vogelius, 552 Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, G. F. Hampson, 387 Fauna, British Marine, Proposed Handbook to the, Prof, W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., 231, 293 ; Prof. D’Arcy, W. Thompson, 269 ; W. Garstang, 293 Fauna and Flora of Gloucestershire, Charles A. Witchell and W. Bishop Strugnell, 197 Fauna of Lakeland, a Vertebrate, Rev. A. Macpherson, 457 Favaro (Prof. Antonio), Galileo Galilei and the Approaching Celebration at Padua, 82, 180 Fawcett (W.), the Jamaica Botanical Department, 378 Faye (H.), Sunspots, 167 ; on the True Theory of Waterspouts and Tornadoes, with Special Reference to that of Lawrence Massachusetts, 503 Fayrer (Sir Joseph), Speech at Tercentenary of Galileo, 207 Ferns of South Africa, the, Thos. R. Sim, J. G. Baker, F.R.S., 291 Field Naturalists’ Club, Victoria, 62 Field (Eleanor), Note on the Interactions of Alkali-Metal Haloids and Lead Haloids, and of Alkali-Metal Haloids and Bismuth Haloids, 551 Field (Dr. Herbert H.), an International Zoological Record, 606 Fifth Satellite, Jupiter’s, E, Roger, 71; A. A. Common, 208 ; E. E. Barnard, 377 e Figs, Egyptian, Rev. George Henslow, 102, 152 Figures, Breath, W. B. Croft, 186 Figures, Breath, Dust Photographs and, W. B. Croft, 364 Finland, Opening of Wiborg-Imatra Railway, 160 Fischer (Prof. Theobald), the Geography and Social Conditions of the Iberian Peninsula, 547 Fish, the Destruction of Immature, Ernest W. L. Holt, 160 ; the Protection of Sea Fish, C. H. Cook, 396; Electric Fishes, — Gustav Fritsch, 271; Fishes and Oxygenation of Water, Duncan and Hoppe-Seyler, 280; Prof. Edward Prince appointed Commissioner for Canada Fisheries, 37 ; Fishery Board for Scotland, the, 85; Japan and the Korean Fishery, 2 Fisher (Prof. W. R.), American Forestry, C. S. Sergent, 275 Fisher (W. W.), Anhydrous Oxalic Acid, 238 , Fitzgerald (Prof.), Williams on the Relation of the Dimensions of Physical Quantities to Directions in Space, 69 ; Mr. Suther- land’s Paper on the Laws of Molecular Force, 117 ai Fitzgerald (Prof. George Francis), Universities and Research, 100 Flammarion (Camille), La Planéte Mars et ses Conditions d’Habitabilité, William J. S. Lockyer, 553 Fletcher (L., F.R.S), Baddeleyite, 70; the Occurrence of Native Zirconia (Baddeleyite), 283; Obituary Notice of Thomas Davies, 371 Flies and Disease Germs, 499 Flight of Birds, the, Herbert Withington, 414 Flora and Fauna of Gloucestershire, Charles A. Witchell and W. Bishop Strugnell, 197 ; Florida, Botanical Laboratory Established at Eustis, 278 Florida Phosphate Beds, the, T. N. Lupton, 325 Flower (Major L.), Water and Water Supply, 183 Flower Garden, the English, W. Robinson, 508 Floyer (E. A.), the Causes of the Defertilisation of Egypt, 156 Fluids, Elementary Mechanics of Solids and, A. L. Selby, 315 Flying Bullets, the Photography of, by the Light of the Electric Spark, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 415, 440 [ ; Folding, Experiments on, and on the Genesis of Mountain Ranges, Prof. E. Reyer, 81 Folie (F.), Remarkable Optical Phenomenon near Zermatt, 303 Folk-Lore: Australian Rain-Maker’s Leather Boots, 62; the Were-Wolf in Latin Literature, 423; Lizard Superstition of Shuswap (British Columbia) Indians, Dr. George Dawson, F.R.S., 184 Food of Plants, the, A. P. Laurie, 556 Food, the Principal Starches Used as, W. Griffiths, 76 Foraminifer or Sponge? R. Hanitsch, 365, 439; F. G. Pearcey, 390 : af Ferbes (Henry O.), British New Guinea, 345, 414 ; Observations on the Development of the Rostrum in the Cetacean Genus Mesoplodon, 455; the Chatham Islands and an Antarctic Con- tinent, 474 j . Supplement to Sel j June 1, 1893 Index Xvil Fitzgerald, Dr. Gladstone, S. H. Burbury, Prof. Ramsay, __ Macfarlane Gray, Prof. Herschel, 117 _ Ford (Charles), Severe Frost at Hongkong, 535 _ Ford (W. V.), Snow Rollers, 422 _ Forel (Prof. F. A.), Le Léman, Monographie Limnologique, __ Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 5 Force (M.), the Resistance of Ice, 564 orest Tithes and other Studies from Nature, 580 try, the Destruction of Trees in America, Dr. W. J. Beal, 563; Forestry in India, the Dehra Dun Forest School, r E. C. Buck, 613 ; Recent Researches on the Influence of » Dr, Schubert, 480 ‘ossil Botany, the Genus Sphenophyllum, Prof. Wm, Crawford Williamson, 11 ; on a New Fern fromthe Coal Measures, A. . Seward, 3 ossil Fauna of the Black Sea, T. J. van Beneden, 544 ossil Floras and Climate, Sir William Dawson, F.R.S., 556 ; J. Starkie Gardner, 582 _ Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate, A. C. Seward, 267 ; J. Star- __ kie Gardner, 267, 364; Chas. E. De Rance, 294, 342 F sil Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstone, Some New, E. T. 189 Flora der Héttinger Breccie, Die, R. von Wettstein, ls, A Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda, W. #H. Li one, ERS. and Edward Wilson, H. Woods, 363 rc Selloa, Flowering in Botanic Society’s Conservatory Fox (Howard), Notes on Some Coast Sections at the Lizard, 407; 0n a Radiolarian Chert from Mullion Island, 407 :work of Chemistry, the, W. M. Williams, 28 e; the New Triangulation of, L. Bassot, 71; Dirigible m in Construction at Chalais-Meudon, 112; French my; Science Prizes, 232; Statistics of Average Life in e, M. Turqun, 255 ; Some Lake Basins in, Prof. T. G. y, F.R.S., 341, 414; Société Astronomique de, 616 (Capt. von), Dromedaries in German S. W. Africa, 38 d (Prof. P. F., F.R.S.), Salts of Active and Inactive ic Acid : the Influence of Metals on the Specific Rota- er of Active Acids, 405 ; Van’t Hoff’s Stereochem- , 510; the Purification of Water by Bacteriological k! (Mrs. Percy), Bacilli in Butter, 283 del (C.), Di d in Meteoric Iron, 192; on the Meteoric on of the Caiion Diablo, 408 d (Rey. Hilderic), -‘‘ Hare-Lip” in Earthworms, 316; uminous Earthworms, 462 ch (Gustav), on the Origin of the Electric Nerves in the do, Gymnosus, Mormyrus, and Malapterurus, 271 st, Dew and, Hon. R. Russell, 210 st, severe, at Hongkong, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., ; Charles Ford, 535 ; W. Doberck, 536 Patterns, Arborescent, 213; Prof. RK. Meldola, F.R.S., 125; G. J. Symons, F.R.S.,162; Rev. T. G. Bonney,F.R.S., +162; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., 162 ; D. Wetterhan, - _ 162;J. T. Richards, 162; J. J. Armitage, 162 ” nae (R. E.), the Apparatus at the Haslar Experimental Sy a MOORS, 353.0; = t Export Trade, Cape Colony Government Encouragement » John Milne, F.R.S., 178 r(L. W.), Stromboli in 1891, 89 Gad (Prof.), the Respiratory Centre, 144 Gadolin (General A. W.), Death of, 232 Gain (E.), Influence of Moisture on Vegetation, 119 Galileo Galilei and the Approaching Celebration at Padua, . Prof, Antonio Favaro, 82, 180, 207 Galitzine (B.), Method for Determining Density by Saturated Vapours and Expansion of Liquids at Higher Temperatures, I Gallwey’s (Capt. H. L.), Travels in Benin Country, 134 Galton (Francis, F.R.S.), Measure of the Imagination, 319 ; Optical Continuity, 342 Galvanometer, A Modified Astatic, H. E. J. G. du Boisand H. Rubens, 455 _ Garden, the English Flower, W. Robinson, 508 - Gardner (Edmund G.), Queestio de Aqua et Terra, 295 Gardner (J. Starkie), Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate, being the Sedgwick Prize Essay for the year 1892, A. C. Seward, 26 Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate, 364 Garstang (John), the Light of Planets, 77 Garstang (W.), a Proposed Handbook of the British Marine Fauna, 293 Gas Power for Electric Lighting, J. Emerson Dowson, 284 Gases, the Densities of the Principal, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 567 Gases in Living Plants, J]. G. Arthur, 427 Gases, the Rate of Explosion in, Prof. Harold B. Dixon, 299 Gasteropoda, a Catalogue of British Jurassic, W. H Hudleston, F.R.S., and Edward Wilson H. Woods, 363 Gauss (Charles Frederick), Proposed Monument to, 106 Gaye (Selina), the Great World’s Farm, 198 Gegenbaur (Carl), Die Epiglottis, 542 Geikie (Sir Archibald, F.R.S.), Geological Map of Scotland, Prof. A. H. Green, F.R.S., 49; Prof. Wadsworth on the Geology of the Iron, Gold, and Copper Districts of Michigan, 117; Prof. A. de Lapparent, 217; Geology of the North- West Highlands, 292 Geitel and Elster (Messrs.), Apparatus for Demonstrating Difference of Potential at Poles of Galvanic Cells, 233; Electrical Actinometer used in Measurement of Sun’s Ultra- Violet Radiation by, 422 Geminids, December Meteors, W. F. Denning, 226 Geneva, the Lake of, Prof. F. A, Forel, Prof. T. G. Bonney, aS... 5 Genoa, Munificent Bequest by Admiral Marquis Ricci for Founding Scientific Institutions in, 613 Genus Sphenophyllum, the, Prof. Wm. Crawford Williamson, I I Geodesy: the New. Triangulation of France, L. Bassot, 71; French Measurement of Arc of Meridian, 115 ; on the Pro- gress of the Art of Surveying with the Aid of Photography in Europe and America, M. A. Lauseolat, 384; the Triangu- iation of N.W. South Australia, 519; Measurement of the Parallel of 47° 30’ in Russia, M. Venukoff, 576 Geography : Le Leman : Monographie Limnologique, Prof. F, A. Forel, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 5 ; Sven Hedin’s Ascent of Mount Demavend, 19; Agriculture in the Italian Red Sea Colony of Eritrea, 19; Mr. Conway’s Karakoram Range Ex- pedition, 19; His Crossing of the Hispar Pass, 327; Geographical Notes, 19, 64, $9, I15, 133, 159, 209, 235, 257, 282, 304, 327, 352s 377 399; 426, 452, 473, 498, 519, 547, 566, 590, 617 ; Uganda, Capt. F. D, Lugard, 45 ; the Uganda Com- mission, 210 ; the Voyage of Za Manche to Iceland, Jan Mayen and Spitzbergen in 1892, M. Bienaimé, 48; Discovery of Subterranean Town on the Amu-Daria, 64; the Proposed Transference of the Capital of Brazil, 64 ; Mr. D. J. Rankin’s Zambesi Journey, 1890-91, 64 ; Death of Theodore Child,65 ; Supposed Suicide of Lieut. Frederick Schwatka, 65 ; the Cause of Lieut, Schwatka’s Death, 89 ; Royal Geographical Society, 65, 115, 89, 209, 617; Experiments on Folding and on the Genesis of Mountain Ranges, Prof. E. Reyer, 81; Official Rule for Spelling of Place-names of German Protectorates, 89 ; Completion of Capt. Monteil’s Mission, 89 ; Mr. Joseph Thomson’s Journey to Lake Bangweolo, 115; French Measurement of Arc of Meridian, 115 ; Kettler’s Afrikanische Nachrichten, 115; Proposed Expedition of Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Bent to Abyssinia, 115 ; Arrival of Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Bent at Adowa, 519; Arrival of Mr. and Mrs. Theodore Bent at Aksum, 547; In Savage Isles and Settled Lands, B. F. S. Baden-Powell, 122; Dr. Karl Diener’s Himalaya Expedition, 133; Proposed Arctic Expedition of Lieut. Peary, 133, 452; Death of F. H. von Hellwald, 133; Capt. H. L. Gallwey’s Travels in Benin Country, 134; E. Wilkinson’s Journey in the Kalahari Desert, 134 ; Geographi- cal Society of California, 134 ; Progress of Congo Railway, Major Thys, 159; Manchester Geographical Society, 159 ; Liverpool Geographical Society, 159, 428; Scottish Geo- graphical Society, 159; Dr. J. Troll’s Journey through Central Asia, 160 ; Opening of Wiborg and Imatra Railway, Finland, 160; the Juba River, Commander F. G. Dundas, 186; M Alex. Delcommune’s Lomami Expedition, 209, 590; the Death of Cardinal Lavigerie, 210; Proposed Exploration of Africa by Telegraph, Cecil Rhodes, 210 ; the Characteristic Form of the Coast Line as affecting the Physical Conditions of the Waters of the English Channel, H. N. Dickson, 235 ; Geographical Names, Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen, F.R.S., Index Supplement to Nature. une 1, 1893 Geology : XViil 245 ; M. Obrutcheff’s Further Researches in Siberia, 255 ; the Bonjos, an African CannibalTribe, M. Dybowski, 257; the Boundaries of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, Dr. H Polakowsky, 257; the Stranding-of H.M.S. Howe, the Defective Chart used, 257; Physical Geography and Climate of New South Wales, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 258; African Nomenclature, 282; the Stanley Falls District of the Congo, M. Page, 282 ; the Antarctic Whaling Fleet, 282, 590; the Pinsk Marshes and Non-Russian Atla-es, M. Venukoff, 282; the Relation of Geography to History, H. Mackinder, 304; African Nomenclature, 3¢4 ; Stoppage of M. Mizon’s Adamawa Ex- pedition, 304; French Flag Hoisted on St. Paul and New Amsterdam Islands, 304 ; Geography, 327; Aston Chanler’s Expedition to Lake Rudolf, 327 ; the Soil of Sakalava Plain, Madagascar, Emile Gautier, 327; the Frontier Delimitation between British South Africa Con:pany’s Territory and Portuguese Possessions, Major Lever:on, 327; Yezo and the Ainu, Prof. J. Milne, F.R.S., 330; A. H,. ‘Savage Landor, 330; British New Guinea, P. Thompson, Henry O. Forbes, 345; the Steppe-belt traversing Asia from East to West, H. Mackinder, 353; Death of R. H. Nelson, 353; . Twenty Years in Zambesia, F. C. Sel- ous, 377; Dr. Baumann’s Journeys in the Nile-sources Region, 377; Proposed North Pole Expedition by way of Franz Josef Land, F. G. Jackson, 377; the Regulation of Swiss Torrents, M. de Salis, 377; the Chief Lines of Communication between Asia and Europe, H. J. Mac- kinder, 400; Captain Bower’s Journey in Tibet, 400 ; the Orthography of African Place-names, 400; Railways in China, 400 ; Prof. Penck’s Scheme for a Map of the World on Uni- form Scale, 426; Mongolia and Central Tibet, C. Woodville Rockhill, 426 ; New Harbour found in German South- West Africa, 452; Return of the Dundee Whaling Fleet, ‘473 ; The Ka‘anga Company’s Expeditions, 474; Prof. Mohn’on the Climate of Greenland, 474; the Chatham Islands and an Antarctic Continent, H. O: Forbes, 474; Political Divisions of the Earth, Dr. A. Oppel, 499; use of Chloride of Potas- sium instead of Salt by Sd Soudanese, M. Dybowski, 499 ; Distribution of Population of Schleswig-Holstein, Dr. A. Gloy, 499; French Fixplorations towards Lake Chad, 519; some Geographical Aspects of British History, 519 ; the Trian- gulation of North-west South Australia, 519; Death of John Bartholomew, 547 ; the Siberian Peninsula, Prof. Theobald Fisher, 547; the Object of Map-colouring, 566 ; the Form of the Geoid, M. Venukoff, 566; Map of Salinity of Surface Water of North Pacific, Prof. Kiimmel, 590; the Native Papuans, T. H. Hatton Richards, 590; the Hon. G. N. Curzon’s Journey in Indo-China, 617; Facts from the Bengal Census Significant of Progress, 617; a Curious Mountain Group in Podolia, 617 Geoid, The Form of the, M. Venukoff, 566 Der Peloponnes, Dr. Alfred Philippson, 6; the Geology of the Asiatic Loess, Thos. W. Kingsmill, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 30; Geology of Taylorville Region in Sierra Nevada, California, J. S. Diller, 39 ; Geological Map of Scotland, Sir Archibald Geikie, F. Bei, ErOh AG eA: Green, F.R. ee 49; an Ancient Giacial Epoch in Australia, Dr. Alfred R, ‘Wallace, 55; Death of James Kant, 60 ; Geo- logical Collection, presented by Mr. Evan Roberts to Univer- sity College of North Wales, 60; the Glacial Nightmare and Biotite and of Hornblende ‘in Crystalline - Schists from the B.nnenthal, Prof. T. G. B podous Dinosaurian Vertebra from the Wealden of Hastings, R. Lydekker, 286 ; on some Additional Remains of Cestra- ciont and other Fishes in the Green Gritty Marls immediately overylying the Red Marls of the Upper Keuper in Warwick- shire, Rev. P. B. Brodie, 286; Scandinavian Boulders at Cromer, Herr Victor Madsen, 287 ; Pitchstone and Andesite from Tertiary Dykes in Donegal, Prof. Solles, F.R.S., 287; on the Variolite and Associated Igneous Rocks of Round- wood, co. Wicklow, 287; the Geology of the: North-west Highlands, Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., 292; Variolite of the Lleyn and Associated Volcanic Rocks, Catherine A. Raisin, 334; on the Petrography of the Island of Caraja, Hamilton Emmons, 334; Some Lake Basins in France, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 341, 414 j rei of Lake Basins, the Duke of Argyll, F.RS. , 485; J. C. Hawkshaw, 558; the U.S. Survey and American Mining Industries, 350 > Glacier Action, the Duke of Argyll, 389; Notes on some Coast Sections at the Lizard, Howard Fox and J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., 4073; on a Radiolarian Chert from Mullion Island, Howaid Fox and J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S., 407; Note - on a Radiolarian Rock from Fanny Bay, Port Darwin, Aus- tralia, G. J. Hinde, 407; Notes on the Geology of the Dis- trict west of Caermarthen, T. Roberts, 407; Presidential Address at the Geological Society’s Anniversary Meeting, 407; the Earth’s History, R. D. Roberts, 412} Die’ Forsile Flora der Héttinger Breccie, R. Von Weitstein, 436; the Glacier Theory of Alpine Lakes, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, © 437 ; Death of Prof. K. A. Lossen, 421; Glacial Drift of the Irish Channel, Prof. Grenville, ‘A. 7 Cole, 464 ; the Landslip at Sandgate, Prof. J: F. Blake, 467; on the Occurrence of Boulders and Pebbles from the Glacial Drift in Gravels south of the Thames, Horace W. Monckton, 501 ; a Fossiliferous Pleistocene Deposit at Stone, on the Hampshire Coast, Clement Reid, 502; the Ordnance Survey and Geological Faults, James Durham, 510; Action of Glaciers on the Land, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 521; the Quaternary Deposits of Russia and their Relations to the Finds resulting from the Activity of Prehistoric Man, S. Nikitine, 523 ; Constitution of the Quaternary Deposits i in Russia and their Relations fo the Finds resulting from the Activity of Prehistoric Man iS. Nikitine, 523; Russian Steppes Past and Present, Pro ow, W. Dokoutchaiev, 523; on an Intrusion of Muscovite-biotite. gneiss in the South-Eastern Highlands, and its accompany- ing Thermo-Metamorphism, Geo. Barrow, 575; Text-Book of Comparative Geology, Dr. E. Kayser, 578 ; the Probable Physiognomy of the Cretaceous Plant Population, Conway McMillan, 587; Geological Society of Washington founded, 613; on the Dwindling and Disappearance of Limestones, . Frank Rutley, 623 Geometry: on the Need of a New Geometrical Térme2Con- jugate Angles, Prof. A. M. Worthington, 8; a Remarkable Case of Geometrical Isomerism, A. E. Tutton, 65; Meeting of Association for Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, 277; on the non-Euclidian Geometry, Dr. Emory Mc- Clintock, 286 ; Descriptive Ss Models for the Use of Students in Schools and Colleges, T. Jones, 413; Proposed Celebration of Centenary of Birth of Lobatcheffsky, 469 ; Introductory Modern Geometry of Point, Ray, and Circle, Bonney, F.R.S., 263; on a Sauro- a the Flood, Sir H. H. Howorth, 61; a Paleozoic Ice-Age, 532 W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., and Henry F, Blanford, F.R.S., | Geraniums, Red and White, a Graft-Hyl rid between, H. 1, 101; Geology of Scotland, Prof. Grenville, A. J. Cole, 101; | Jones, 563 Geological Society, 117, 166, 263, 286, 334, 407, 501, 575, 623; Medal Awards, 277; the Tron, Gold, and Copper Dis- tricts of Michigan, Prof. M. E. Wordsworth, Sir Archibald Geikie, Dr. Hicks, H. Bauerman, 117 ; Man and the Glacial Period, Dr. G. Frederick Wright, 148 ; Difficulties of Plio- cene Geology, Sir Henry H. Howarth, 150, 270; Geological Features of Arabia Petra and Palestine, Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S., 166: Flexible Sandstone, E. M. Hamilton, Mr. Hornby, Prof, Green, 167 ; Maccalloch’s Geological pa of Scotland, Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R. S.,173; Ancient Ice Ages, T Mellard Reade, 174; J. Lomas, 227 ; The Earth’s Age, Dr. Alfred Wallace, 175,226 ; Bernard Hobson, 175,226; Clarence King, 285 ; Death of I. D. Chersky, 232 ; Further Resea: “ches in Siberia, M. Obrutcheff, 255 ; on some Schistose Green- stones from the Pennine Alps, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 263; Note on the Nufenen-stock (Lepontine Alps), Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 263; on a Secondary Development of Gerland (Dr. George), Atlas der Volkerkunde, Dr. Rawpey B. Tylor, F.R.S., 223 German Science "Reader, A, Francis Jones, 125 : German South-west Africa : Official Rules for Spelling of Place- Names of German Protectorates, 89 German South-west Africa, New Harbour found in, 452 Germs, Flies, and Disease, 499 Giacosa (Prof. P.), Bibliographia Medica Italiana, 606 Gibbs (Dr. Morris), the Food of Humming-birds, 63 Gibbs (Prof. J. Willard), Quaternions and the Algebra. of . Vectors, 463 Gibson (J.), the Preparation of Glucina from Beryl, 405 Gilbert (William) of Colchester, Physician of London, on the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies, and on the great Magnet the Earth: a New Physiology, demonstrated with many Arguments and Experiments, 556 Gill (C. H.) Fungus internally Parasitic in Diatoms, 118 Supplement to Nati.re, une 1, 1893 = Wm (T. H.), the Use of Monochromatic Yellow Light in Photo- micrography, 47 _ Giorgis (G.), *Yoiumetric Method for determining amount of Chromium in Steel, 397 _ Glacial Driit of the Irish Channel, Prof. Grenville, A. J. Cole, 464 | Glacial Epoch in Australia, an Ancient, Alfred R. » 55 I Nightmare and the Flood, The, Sir A. H. Howarth, 61 Br Period, Man and the, Dr. G. Frederick Wright, 148 _ Glacier Action, the Duke of Argyll, F.R.S., 389 Mi tagetd of Alpine Lakes, The, De. : of Va va d’Lerens, William Sherwood, 174 , Action of, onthe Land, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Dr. Alfred Russel one (Dr. ), Mr. Sutherland’s Paper on the Laws of Mole- : Force, 117 (Dr. J. H., F.R.S.), Arborescent Frost Patterns, 162; " Seience aching, 359; on some recent determinations of M olecular Refraction and Dispersion, 429 1), the Fundamental Law of Complementary Colour, rc sok (R. T., F.R.S.), Laws and sek si of Matter, Pottery, W. P. Rex, 396 ire, Fauna and Flora of, Charles A. Witchell and y Strapnell, 197 A. A.), Distribution of Population of Schleswig- 499 en (Colonel H. H., F.R.S.), Geographical Names, Prof.) Bapecipents of, 312 : 4), The Visible Universe, A. Taylor, 193 d by Berlin Aquarium, Large Male, 86 n), Spectra of Planetary Nebule and Nova Reval Society of Sciences, 456 ; Prize Subject for r. c. pi.) Death of, 130 ve y of, Dr. Hermann Véchting, 128 ES) eath of, 14; Obituary Notice of, 36 s of Seer in Navigation, 547 Paci Slope, including Alaska and the adjacent eC Rhee 173 phy of, Engraved upon Metal, M. Izarn, 623 W. A. ), the Great Ice Age, 200 le 2 Vatlations in the Intensity of Terrestrial, escription of an Instrument to show the small the Intensity of, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 431 ), Aids to Experimental Science, 173 Dibromo-8-Lapachone, 405 ; H.), the Effects of Mechanical Stress on the Resistance of Metals, 478 omer ny Sutherland’s Paper on the Laws of : sage, The, N. N. ny K A. Gravelaar, 200 ts ou ansas, E. H. S. Bailey, 87 or. spare Wa , Selina Gaye, 198 fi of (Her rib lige Sexual Difference in the Eye, 325 n (Prof. A. R.S.), Geological Map of Scotland, Sir ; bal | Geikie, F.R.S., 49 ; Flexible Sandstone, 167 eee Remarkable Weapons of Defence, 199 f. F.R.S.), a Treatise on the Mathematical Or} of agatiolty’ A. E. H. Love, 529 id, the Climate of, Prof. Mohn, 474 Games R. )» a Large Meteorite from Western Aus- sy ror} (Richard A. ), a Description of the Laws and Wonders G. 3.) Bhysiological Study of Opium Smoke, 168 E. H.), Determination of Low Temperatures by m Thermometers, 95; the Value of the Mechanical ent ed Heat, 476, 537 .), Note on Secondary Tucker Circles, 71 ffi W.), the Principal Starches Used as Food, 76 TO . (George), Examination of Brain of, Prof. John Marshall, The Movements of, F. H. King, 206 XIX Grye (M. Bouquet de la), Description of an Instrument to show the small Variations in the Intensity of Gravitation, 431 Guillemin (Amédée), Autres Mondes, 485 Gum Arabic, Deterioration of, W. F. Howlett, 183 Gunther (Dr. Carl), Einiiihrung in das Studium der Bakteri- ologie, 446 Gymnotus, Mormyrus, and Malapterurus, on the Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Torpedo, Gustav Fritsch, 271 Habenicht (H.), Gulf Stream Icebergs and Climatic Variations, 206 Haddon (Prof. Alfred C.), British New Guinea, 414 Hematite as an Illustration of the Tendency of Inorganic Matter to Emulate Organic Forms, 374 Haentzsch (Dr.), on the Potential Equation, 480 Hail Storms, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 573 Hair, Mammalian, the Phylogenetic Position of, Herr Maurer, 87 Hale (Prof. G. E.), Ultra-Violet Spectrum in Solar Promin- ences, 186 ; Coincidence of Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena, 425 ; Prof. Hale’s Solar Photographs, 498 Haliburton (R. G.), Racial Dwarfs in the Pyrenees, 294 Hall (H. S.), Algebra for Beginners, 28 Hall (James P.), a Short Cycle in Weather, 499 Hamilton (E. M.), Flexible Sandstone, 167 Hampson (G. F.), Remarkable Weapons of Defence, 199; the Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma, 387 Hande (A.), Simple Instrument for Measuring Densities of Liquids, 471 Hanitsch (R.), Foraminifer or Sponge ? 365, 439 Hannay (J. B.), Formation of Lunar Volcanoes, 7 Hansemann (Dr.), Photography of Microscopic Objects which when placed ina Stereoscope Presented an Appearance of Solidity, 287 Hansen (Prof. Carl), Pinetum Danicum, 619 Harcourt (Sir William), the Decimal System, 323 Hare-lip in Earthworms, Rev. Hilderic Friend, 316 Harmer (S. F.), Lion-Tiger Hybrids, 413 Harmer (Sidney F.), on the Occurrence of Embryonic Fission in Cyclostomatous Polyzoa, 524 Harrington (Prof. M. W.), Exploration of the Free Air, 574 Harris (R. A.), onthe Use of Supplementary Curves in Isogonal Transformation, 380 Harrison (E. F.), on Isaconitine (Napelline), 430 Hart (W. E.), Parasitism of Volucel/a, 78 Harting (J. E.), Coleopterous Larve Voided by a Child, 190; the Field- Vole Plague in Thessaly, 545 Hartley (W. N.), the Origin of Colour and Fluorescence, 238 ; Methods of Observing and Separating Spectra of Easily Volatile Metals, 239 ; Manganese Borate, 239 Hartog (J.), Thionyl Bromide, 405 Harvard College Observatory, the, Prof. E. C. Pickering, ° itis Wee pailcntit Works, the Apparatus at the, R. E. Froude, 353 Hatching of a Peripatus Egg, the, Arthur Dendy, 508 Hatton-Kichards (T. H.), the Native Papuans, 590 Hawaiian Islands, a Botanist's Vacation in the, Prot... Ds H. Campbell, 236, 385. Hawkshaw (J. C.), Origin of Fave Basins, 558 Haycraft (Prof.), the Cross-Striping of Muscle, 92 Haycraft (John Berry), a New Hypothesis Concerning Vision, 8 ridewiea (R. Baldwin, F.R.S.), the Algebra of Co-planar Vectors and Trigonometry, 266 Health Officer’s Pocket-Book, the, Dr. E. F. Willoughby, 412 Health, Public, a Treatise on, Dr. Albert Palmberg, Dr. H. Brock, 507 Heat in August, 1892, Prof. W. J. van Bebber, 88 Heat, the Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of, E. H. Griffiths, 476, 537 Heat ; Comparison of Formulz for Total Radiation, W. de C. Stevens, 188 Heaviside ’(Oliver, F.R.S.), Electrical Papers, 505; Vectors versus Quaternions, 533 Hedin’s (Sven) Ascent of Mount Demavend, 19 Heen (P. de), on a State of Matter Characterised by the Mutual Independence of the Pressure and the Specific Volume, 309 Height and Spectrum of Auroras, the, T. W. Backhouse, 151 XX L[ndex Supplement to Nature, June 1, 1893 Hellward (Frederick Heller von), Death of, 133 Helmholtz Hering’s Theory of Colour, Pro!. J. D. Everett, HF:R.S., Helvellyn’ s ‘Shade, Beneath, Samuel Barber, 364 emiptera Heteroptera of the British Islands, the, Edward Saunders, 292 Hemsley (W. Botting, F.R.S.), Climbing Plants, Dr. H. Scherck, 514 Henderson (James B.), the Effects of Mechanical Stress on the Electrical Resistance of Metals, 478 Henrici (Prof.), Williams on the Relation of Dimensions of Pei sical Quantities to Directions in Space, 69 Henry (Charles), a Photoptometric Photometer, 24; on the Minimum Perceptible Amount of Light, 312 Henslow (Rev. Geo.), Egyptian Figs, 102, 152 Hepworth (Capt. M. W. C.), the Tracks of Ocean Wind Systems in Transit over Australasia, 286 Hepworth (T. C. ‘ Oxygen for Limelight, 176 Herbertson (A. J.), on the Hygrometry of the Atmosphere at Ben Nevis, 431 Herdman (Prot. W. A., F.R.S.), Proposed Handbook to the British Marine Fauna, 231, 293 Heredity, Prof. August Weismann, 265 Hering’s Theory of Colour, [Helmholtz on, Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S., 365 Hermite (Gustave), Explorations of Higher Atmospheres by Means of Free Balloons with Automatic Recorders, 119; Ex- ploration of the Higher Atmosphere, 600 Herschel (Prof.), Mr. Sutherland’s Paper on the Laws of Mole- cular Force, 117 Hertwig (Prof. Dr. Oscar), Die Zelle und Die Gewebe, Grund- ziige der Allgemeinen Anatomie und Physiologie, 314 Heurck (Dr. Henri van), the Microscope, its Construction 4nd Management, Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., 409 Heuster (Dr.), the Volatility of Manganese, 375 Heycock and Neville, Isolation of Gold and Cadmium Com- pound, 90 Heydweiler (Dr.), New Mirror Electrometer for High Poten- tials, 112 Hicks (Dr.), Prof. Wadsworth on the Geology of the Iron, Gold, and Copper Districts of Michigan, 117 Hickson (Dr.), Revision of Genera of Alcyonaria stolonifera, 215 Highlands, Geology of the North-west, Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S., 292 Highlands, Lunar Rainbow in the, 342 Hilgard (Prof.), on the Custom of Civilised Races of Antiquity to establish themselves in Dry Districts, 287 Hill (Prof. M. G. M.)- Cauchy’s Condensation Test for Con- vergency of Series, 214 Himalayas, Dr. Karl Diener’s Geological Expedition in, 133 Himmel und Erde, 88 Hinde (G. J.) Note ona Radiolarian Rock from Fanny Bay, Port Darwin, Australia, 407 Hinrichs (M. G.), on Stas’s Determination of the Atomic Weight of Lead, 456 Hirsch (Emil), on the Influence of Temperature upon Circular Ferro-Magnetic Polarisation, 525 Hispar Pass, Mr. Conway’s Crossing of the, 327 Histology: die Zelle und die Gewebe, Grundziige der Allge- meinen Anatomie und Physiologie, Prof. Dr. Oscar Hertwig, 314; Ueber das Verhalten des Pollens und die Befruchtungs- vorginge bei den Gymnospermen, Prof. Eduard Strasburger, 484 History, British, some Geographical Aspects of, H. J. Mac- kinder, 519 Hobson (Bernard), the Earth’s Age, 175, 226 Hodgkins Fund Prizes, the, Prof. S. P. Langley, 611 Hodgkinson (Alex. h Iridescent Colours, 92 Hodgkinson (W. R.), Methoxyamido-1 : 3-dimethylbenzene, 165; Note on the Action of Phenylhydrazine on Mono- and Di- -carboxylic Acids at Elevated Teperatures, 311 ; Sume Relations between Constitution and Physical Constants in the Case uf Benzenoid Amines, 479 Hoff (J. H. Van’t), Stéréochimie, 436 Hoff’s (Van’t); Stereochemistry, Prof. Percy F. Frankland, F.R.S., Prof. F.R. Japp, F.R.S., 510 Hoffert (Dr.), Diffusion of Light, 191 Hofmann (A. W. von), Memorial Celebration for, 14 Hoho(M.), the Use of the Electric Current in Producing High Temperatures, 497; Intense and Rapid Heating Process by Means of the Electric Current, 503; a New Electrical Pro- cess permitting the Production of Temperatures superior to those actually realisable, 525; Dynamo-electric he with Compound Excitation, 599 Holland (W.), Hints on Sugaring for Moths, 131 Holmes, Comet (November 6, 1892), 114, 132, 159, 186, 209, 235, 281, 303, 351, 376, 425, 473; Lewis Boss, Rev. BE. M. Searle, Mr. Robrits, 257; M. Sch otha, 257, 451, 498; Dr. F, Cohn, 326; Dr. R. Schorr, 326 ; Denning, 365 ; Prof. E. Barnard, 399 ; Prof. pee Prof. C. A. Young, 518; Spectrum of, 235 Holi (Ernest W. L.), the Destruction of Immature Fish, 160 Honduras Expedition, Prof. Putnam, 476 Hongkong, Severe Frost at, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F. R.S., Charles Forel, 535; WW. Doberck, 536 Hoogewerfl (M. S.), on some Isoimides of Camphorie Acid, 2 Hooker (Sir J. D., F.R.S.), Locusts at Great Elevations, 582 Hooker (S. C.), the Conversion of Para- into Ortheranemen® Derivatives, 405 ; Dibromo-B-lapachene, 405 Hopkins (B. J.), Astronomy for Every-day Readers, 389 Hopkinson (Dr. Edward), Electrical Railways, 570 Hee (Dr. John, F.R.S.), the Cost of Electric Supply, Hoppe- Seyler (Herr), Fishes and Water-Oxygenation, 280 Horizontal Pendulum, the, Dr. E. von Rebeur-Paschwitz, ! a Horn Measurements and Weights of the Great Game of World, being a Record for the Use of Sporteenae and Naturalists, Rowland Ward, 6 Hornby (Mr. }, Flexible Sandstone, 167 Hornell (James), a Strange Commensalism ; soniee and Afeie- lid, 78 Hornet’s Nest, Remarkable, presented to Madras Museum by Lord Wenlock, 16 Hornsey Local Board, Museum of Sanitary Appliances, 58 Horticulture: Value of Electric Light for Lettuce ani Chae Winter Crops, Prof. L. H. Bailey, 130; Ornithology in Re- lation to Agriculture and Horticulture, 533 ; Primer of Horti- culture, J. Wright, Walter Thorp, 533; Tasmania the Para- dise of Horticulturists, Sir Edward Braddon, at ; Conifers, 619 Hose (Charles), Travels in Borneo, 282 I1éttinger Breccie, die Fossile Flora der, R. es Wettstein, 436 Howard (Dr. James L.), Gemeinverstandliche Vortrige aus dem Gebeite der Physic, Prof. Dr. Leonhard Sohncke, 362 Howe, the Stranding of H.M.S., 257 Howes (Prof.), Some Abnormal Vertebree of certain Ranide, Rana catesbiana, R. esculenta, and R. macrodon, 502 Howlett (W. F.) the Deterioration of Gum Arabic, 183 Howorth (Sir H. H.), the Glacial Nightmare and the Flood, 61; Difficulties of Pliocene Geology, 150, 270 ‘ Hudleston (W. H., F.R.S.), A Catalogue of British Jurasi Gasteropoda, H. "Woods, 363 Hudson (W. H.) Idle Days in Patagonia, 483 Huggins (Mr.), Nova Aurigz, 425 Hull (Prof. Edw., F.R.S.), Geology of Arabia Peibies and Palestine, 166 Human Eye, Seven Images of the, M. Tcherning, 354 Human Physiology, Elements of, E. H. Starling, 146 Humming-birds, The Food of, Dr, Morris Gibbs, 63 Hungary, Earthquake i in, 562 Hunter (G. M.), the Origin of Caliche (Nitrate of Soda), ec, Hunter (John), (the Hunterian Lecture), Thomas Bryant, 372 Hurricane at Marseilles, Oct. 1, 1892, Severe, 61 Hurst (Dr. C. Herbert), On a Supposed New Species of Earth- worms and on the Nomenclature of Earthworms, 31 Hutchinson (Rev. H. W.), Extinct Monsters, 250 Huxley (Rt. Hon. T. H., F.R.S.), Two Statements, 316 Hybrids, Lion-Tiger, S. M. Harmer, 413 Hybrids, Lion- Tiger and Tiger-Lion, Dr. V. Ball, F.R.S., 390, 607 Hydrazine, Further Studies on, A. E. Tutton, 522 Hydrodynamics : Stability and Instability of Viscous Liquids, A B. Basset, F.R.S., 94; on a Hydrodynamical Proof of the Equations of Motion of ‘a Perforated Solid with Applications to the Motion of a Fine Frame-work in Circulating Liquids, G. H. Bryan, 500 Ilydrogen Line H B in the Spectrum of Nova Aurigee, Herr Victor Schumann, 425 t to Value, ay: telat ibamatal L[ndex XXi id faties : Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners, S. L. | Invisible, Astronomy of the, Dr. J. Scheiner, 88 Ireland, Arthur Young’s Tour in (1776-79), 341; Glacial Drift 437 | gai Elementary Text-Book of, H. Rowland Wake- 245 i smeters, Constructive Errors in some, W. W. Midgley, a Aas mie The Geography and Social Conditions of Prof. Theobald Fischer, 547 ed in Paris, the Question of the Purity of, 614 ace of, M. Forel, 564 eg zeozoic, Dr. W. ir. Blanford, F.R.S., 101, 152; nry a3 Blanford, F.R.S., 101 ge the Great, N. L. W.A. Gravelaar, 200 cient, T. Mellard Reade, 174 ; J. Lomas, 227 d Climatic Variations, Gulf Stream, H. Habenicht, e Steamers, 350 stals, C. M. rating 31; B. Woodd Smith, 79 Le 7 ng as + allites, Rev. Dr. A. Irving, 126 ation in Animal Body, Herr Kochs, 16 irs 4 y the Fishes of Southern California, C. H. Eigen- 61; Fishes and Water Oxygenation, Duncan and Seyl 280 ; Swimming Movements of the Ray-fish, coy ; the Brain in Mudfishes, Dr. Rudolf Burck- 3 Filtered Sewage Water Favourable to Fish Life, 350 Explorations in, D, T. Macdougal, 206 Re e, Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 293 a, W. H. Hudsun, Dr. Alf. Russel By x Methods of Examining Milk for Tubercle an University, Bequest of Mr. Lichtenthaler’s aa Collection to, 613 rt R. T. Lewis, 31; W. B. Croft, 78 raphy of an, by Reflection, Frederick J. Pot the, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 319 ; Prof. J. Mark Baldwin, 149 . Destruction of, Ernest W. L. Holt, 160 a of the, 363 Oo at Lucknow, 111 ; Mortality ts in, 157; Relics of Primitive Fashions in, 301; Government Meteorology in, 324; Quetta Railway Constructors, 325; the a, including Ceylon and Burma, G. F. estry in India, the Dehra Dun Forest Schoo , 6143; Indo-China, Hon. G. N. N orth vs A Dr, Ten Kate on the Type-Charac- of the, 374 . in the, Prof. A. Agassiz, 608 Sect Ic, in ao. and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, nducti ak Dedactien Edward T. Dixon, 10, 127; E. E. dustry, m, the Growth of Electrical, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., E i emic, F. A. Dixey, 244 in), Experiments with Engines of s.s. /veagh, 521 Or and iBemperature, Relationship between, Dr. Berson, r ion of ‘Mechanical Engineers, 19, 300, 353, 617 of Naval Architects, 519 ; Annual General Meeting, iments, Astronomical, Up to Date, Dr. L. Ambronn and ; a juli S er, 114 Instruments for the Earthquake Laboratory at the Chicago Ex- on, Prof. John Milne, F.R.S., F. Omori, 356 tatni 100 ommittee of Weights and Measures, 21 tess of Prehistoric Archeology and Anthro- ment: veogt 33 Sanitary Convention Signed, 585 nternational Zoological Congress at Moscow, 236 Coa ational Zoological Record, An, Dr. Herbert H. Field, ¢ ‘of the United Kingdom, the Colonies, and | of the Irish Channel, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 464 Iridescent. Colours: Alex. Hodgkinson, 92; Baron C. R. Osten Sacken, 102 Iron: on Iron Alloys, 58; Diamond in Meteoric Iron, C, Friedel, 192; on the American Iron Trade, and its Progress during Sixteen Years, Sir Lowthian Bell, F.R.S., John Parry, 195 ; on the Carburization of Iron, John Parry, 560; Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., E. Wilson, 460 Irrigation in New South Wales, Artesian Boring and, J. W. Boultbee, 183 Irvine (C. M.), Ice Crystals, 31 Irving (Rev. Dr. A.), Ice Crystallites, 126 Irving (Rev. Dr., F.R.S.), the Sandgate Landslip, 581 Isomerism, a Remarkable Case of Geometrical, A. E. Tutton, 5 Italiana, Bolletino della Societa Botanica, 23 Izarn (M.), Permanent Soap Bubbles formed with a Resinous Soap, 119; Photographic Reproduction of Gratings and Micrometers Engraved on Glass, 479; Photography of Certain Phenomena Furnished by Combinations of Gratings, 503; Photography of Gratings Engraved upon Metal, 623 Jackson (F. G.), Proposed Arctic Expedition by way of Franz Josef Land, 377 Jackson (Dr. M. J.), Printing Mathematics, 227 Jacoby (Prof. Harold), Rutherfurd Measures of Stars about B- Cygni, 77; Parallax of 8-Cygni, 399; Parallaxes of « and 6- Cassiopeize, 565 Jaeger (W.), on the Temperature Co-efficient of the Electrical Resistance of Mercury, and on the Mercury Resistances of the Imperial Institution, 286 Jaeger (Herr), Typhoid Fever attributed to Bathing in Polluted Water, 398 Jahrbuch der Astronomie und Geophysik, 566 Jamaica Botanical Department, the, W. Fawcett, 348 Jamieson (Prof.), Elementary Manual on Applied Mechanics, 147 Janet { Pierre), Electric Osciliations, 119 ; Hysteresis and Dielec- tric Viscosity of Mica for Rapid Oscillations, 432; Experi- _ ments on Electric Oscillations of Mediam Frequency, 615 Jannetaz (Paul) on the Electric Figures produced at the Surface of Crystallised Bodies, 408 ; a.New Sclerometer, 564 Japan: the Volcanoes of Japan, John Milne, F.R.S., 178; Japan and the Korean Fishery, 324; Japanese Camphor, oe ; Japanese Magic Mirrors, Prof. S. P.T ompson, F.R.S., joan (Prof. F. R., F.R.S ), Van’t Hoff’s Stereochemistry, 510 ; Synthesis of Oxazoles from Benzoin and Nitriles, 430 Johns Hopkins University Paleontological Collections, 471 Johnson (Amy), Sunshine, 9 Johnson (Prof. T.), a New frish Alga, 167 Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.), a New Seismograph, 257 ; Strom- boli, A. Ricco and G, Mercalli, 453 Joly (Dr. J., F.R.S.), on the Cause of the Bright Colours of Alpine F lowers, 431 Joly (M.), Ruthenium, 451; Metallic Osmium, 497 Jones (Chapman), Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Re- actions of certain Urganic Substances, E. A. Letts, 361 Jones (E. E. Constance), Induction and Deduction, 78 Jones (Rev. Edward), Relics foundin Yorkshire Caves, 112 Jones (Francis) a German Science Reader, 125 Jones (Prof. Geo. William), Logarithmic Tables, 508 Jones (H. L.), a Graft-Hybrid between Red and White Geraniums, 563 Jones (L. M.), the determination of the Thermal Expansion and Specific Volume of certain Paraffins and Paraffin Deri- vatives, 405 Jones (T.), Descriptive Geometry Models for the Use of Students in Schools and Colleges, 413 Joudin (P.), the Passage of a Wave through a Focus, 143: Re- lation between Velocity of Light and Size of Molecules of Refracting Liquids, 192; Measurement of Large Differences of Phase in White Light, 528 Joule’s (Dr.) Thermometers, Prof. Sydney Young, 317; Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 364 Journal of Botany, 23, 261, 596 XXll Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 285 Juba River, the, Commander F Dundas, 186 Judd (Prof. J. W., F.R.S.), Macculloch’s Geological Map of Scotland, 173 Junior Engineering Societe, 38 Jupiter, Occultation of Mars and, by the Moon, Prof. Barnard, 41; the Fifth Satellite of, E. Roger, 71; A. A. Common, 208 ; E. E. Barnard, 377; the Sizes of Jupiter’s Satellites, J. J. ee 403s Jupiter and his Satellites, Prof. Picker- ing, 51 Jurassic Gasteropoda, a Catalogue of British, W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., and Edward Wilson H. Woods, "363 Kapple (A. W.), Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, and other Insects, 148 Kapteyn (Prof. ), Stellar Magnitudes in Relation to the Milky Way, 64; Distribution of Stars in Space, 432 Kangaroo at Westminster Aquarium, the pegs III Kansas, the Great Spirit Spring Mound, E. H. S., Bailey, 87 Karakoram Range Expedition, Conway’ s, 19 Karop (E. C.), Messrs. Swift's Aluminium Microscope, 47 Kaufmann (M.) on the Pathogeny of Diabetes, 384; the Pan- creas and the Nervous Centres Controlling the Glycemic Function, 479; the Pancreas and the Nerve Centres Regu- lating the Glycemic Function ; Experimental Demonstrations Derived from a Comparison of the Effects of a Removal of the Pancreas with those of Bulbary Section, 528 Kayser (Dr. E.), Text-Book of Comparative Geology, 578 Kedarnath Basu, Relics of Primitive Fashions in India, 301 Keeler (Prof.), Comet aes (1892, 111), 518; Spectrum of B Lyrz, 616 Keltie 1. Scott), the Partition of Africa, 580 Kelvin (Lord, P.R.S.), Anniversary address to Royal Society, 106; Prof. Rudolf Virchow, 110; Dr. Nils C. Dunér, 110; Prof. Charles Pritchard, F.R. S., 110; John Newport Langley, F.R.S., 110; the Velocity of Crooke’s Cathode Stream, 164 ; Address at the Prescot Watch Factory, 279 Kempe (A. B., F.R.S.) on the Application of Clifford’s Graphs to Ordinary ‘Binary Quantities, 382 Keng (Lim Boon) on the Histology of the Blood of Rabbits which have been Rendered Immune to Anthrax, 502 Kennedy (Prof.), the Screw Propeller, 21 Kettler’s Afrikanische Nachrichten, 115 Kew Bulktin, 38 Kimmins (C. W.), the Chemistry of Life and Health, 198 King (Clarence), the Age of the Earth, 285 King (F. H.), the Movements of Ground- water, 206° Kingsmill (Thos. W.), the Geology of the Asiatic Loess, 30; the Channels of Mars, 133 Kipping (F. S.), the Reduction Products of Dimethyldiacetyl- pentane, 238 ; Products of Interaction of Zinc Chloride or Sulphuric Acid and Camphor, 239; a New Synthesis of Hydrindone, 311 ; Sulphonic Derivatives of Camphor, 405 ; the Action of Phosphoric Anhydride on Fatty Acids, 479 ; Regularities in the Melting Points of Certain Paraffinoid Compounds of Similar Constitution, 479; Formation of the Ketone 2: 6 dimethyl-1-ketohexaphane, 551 Kirby (W. Egmont), Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, Insects, 148 Kirman (Walter), Isolation of Fluorsulphonic Acid, 87 Kitasato, the Bacteriology of Tetanus, 158 . Kitchener (F. E.), Naked-Eye Botany, 198 Klein (Dr. E., F.R.S.), Aminol, a True Di sinfettant, 149, 246 Knight (S. R. ), Algebra for Beginners, 28 Knott (Prof. G.), on Recent Innovations in Vector Theory, 287, 590 Kochs (Herr), Ice Formation in Animal Body, 16 Koksharoff (Nikolai Ivanovitch), Death of, 278 Korean Fishery, Japan and the, 324 Kossel (Prof.), Further Researches on Nucleinie Acid, 72 Kosutany, Investigations on Wine-yeast, 208 Kowalevsky, the Mantle-cells of Ascidians, 62 Kreichgauer (D.) on the Temperature Coefficient of the Elec- trical Resistance of Mercury and on the Mercury Resistances of the Imperial Institution, 286 Kreutz (Prof.), Comet Books (November 20, 1892), 159 Krotov (P.) on Layers of Stone Implements in the District of Taransk, 524 Kriimmel (Prof. ), Map of Salinity of Surface Water of North Pacific, 590 and other L[ndex _Laws and Properties of Matter, Ri ‘Glazebrook, FR. Sif Supplement to Nature, ~ June 1, 1893 Kundt (Prof.), Experiments on the Influence of Temperate 2. tletire magnetic Rotation of Light in Iron, Cobalt Nickel, 503 ; Researches into the Study of Hels enon, 624 prong iat Marine, in the United States, Prof. L Pp. Can e Laboratories, the South Kensington, and Railway, 494 Lacaze-Duthiers (M. de), on the Attempt at Oyster Chita the Roscoff Laboratory, 456 Lagrange (M.), The use of the Electric Current in Producin High Temperatures, 497 ; Intense and Rapid Heating Pet cess by Means of the Electric Current, 503 ; a New ectri Process Permitting the Production of Temperate up to those Actually: Realisable, 525 ca ae Lake Bangweolo, Joseph Thomson’s Journey to, a 7 Lake of Geneva, Prof. F. A. Forel, Prof. Bonn j . G. Bonney. PRS ge: 34 414 Lake Basins, Origin of, the Duke of Argyll, ERS. 4855 J. C. Hawkshaw, 558 Lakeland, a Vertebrate Fauna of, Rey. A. oreo 457 Lamp, Safety, a New Portable Miner’s, Prof. rank Clowes : 6 59 Landslip at Sandgate, 449 ; Prof, J. F. Blake, Miaka. De Irving, F.R.S., 581 Landerer (J. J.), the Sizes of Jupiter’s Satellites, 473 enter Landor (A. H. Savage), Yezo and the Ainu, 330 _ Nida tpl Sac Ba Lake, Great Salt, Utah, Salinity of, 302 Lake Basins in France, some, Prof. ‘I Langley (John Newport, F.R.5.), Lord Kelvin, LO - ot ; Langley (Prof. S. P.), Energy and Vision, 252; the Hodgh Fund Prizes, 611 Langtoft, Thanderstorm, Cloudburst and, F lod at, July 1892, J. Lovel, 118 i Lankester (Prof. E. Ray, F.R.S.), Blind. Animals in Coven, 389, 486 Bite Soe (Prof. A. de), Sir Archibald Geikie, 217, Larmor (Dr. J., F.R.S.), the Dioptrics of Gratings, i Latin Literature, the Were- Wolf in, Kirby W. Smit , 423 Lauder (A.), a New base from Corydalis Cava, om, a Laurie (A. P.), the Food of Plants, 556 ce pa Laurie (Malcolm), on the Anatomy of the sone teric de, § "4 Lausedat (M. A.), on the Progress of the Art « mt with lava Lakes, Lunar Volcanoes and, S. E, Peal, 486 Devigerie (Cardinal), the Death of, aio. 7's Lawes (Sir John), Rothamsted Agricultural peme’ Pro- : posed Commemoration of the Jubilee of, ee5.5 » the Aid of Photography in Europe and Ameri 80 apt and Wonders of Nature, a Description of the, Richard | A. Gregory, 74 Le Chatelier (A.), the Mixed Character ‘of the Population of Morocco, 61 Lea (A. Sheridan, F.R.S.), the Chemical Basis. of the / Animal Body, 340 a Lea (MM. C.), Notes on Silver Chlorides, 189 Leaper (Clement J.), Outlines of Organic pean 124 Lebour (G. A.), Arborescent Frost Fattents ZES * Leeds Naturalist Club, £12 Lehmann (Heinrich), Magnetisation of a Radially, Slit fron} Ring,.52 bean ee Mongerame Limnologique, Prof. FA, Forel, | Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 5 - Lenard (Herr), Penetration of Thin Metallic Plates by. Cathode | Rays Causing Phosphorescence, 518 Lenard (Dr. P.), Experiments on Phosporesence Producing Kathode Rays of a Geissler Tube, 564 _ Lendenfeld (R. von), Australian Travels, 274 , Lens, the New Telephotographic, T. R. Dallmeyer, 161 Lepidoptera: Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Le ition’ Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum, Col. C, Swinhoe, 53; Dr. F. B. ‘White’s Collec- tion Presented to Museum of Perthshire Society of Natural — Science, 206 ; on the Mimetic Forms of Certain Butterflies — of the genus Hypolimnas, Col. C. Swinhoe, 429 3 Lépine (M. R.), on the Pepto-Saccharifiant Action of. the Blood and the Organs, 335 ~ ment to Ppa d : Sheen 1, 1893 Index XXIll oy (M 'C. J. A.), on Spherical Aberration of the Human »; Measurement of Senilism of the Crystalline, 528 M. H.), on the Purification of Arsenical Zinc, 288 Its Origin and Development, : u (Charles), Property : A.), Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Reactions of ic Substances, Chapman Jones, 361 ), the Frontier Delimitation between British ‘ica Company’s Territories and Portuguese Posses- ), Optical Illusions, 31 orn (Dr.), the Formation of Sweat, 600 ‘eran Suggestions for Memorial Presentations of (G. W.), Bequest of Natural History Collection s University by, 613 oo as W. Shinn, 209 ‘Stat of Average, M. Ne oes 255 h, the Chemistry of, C. W. Kimmins, 198 ets, ect 64; John Garstang, 77 n of, Dr. W. E. Sumpner, 190; A. P. Trotter, ce _ Hoffer, 191; Mr. Blakesley, 191; Mr. Adden- ; Dr. C. V. Burton, 191 | of id Intense Monochromatic, Dr. Du tion upon Certain Micro- “organisms of, Herr ments on the Action of, on Bacillus anthracis, Il Ward, F.R.S., 331, 597 ve heaial of the Eye to, Captain W. de ves at ae Berlin Imperial Physico- Technical he Siemens owes Foil Units as a Standard of a Source of, 615 ; W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on, Prof. Oliver er Two Photographs of, taken at Sydney Ob- PF, 5892, H, C. Russell, F.R.S., 623 ..€: ant eis 176 “ Bibos¥ : 3 dimethylbenzene, 165:: Some nstitution and Physical Cosstants 1 in the (mines, 479 a Motive Power, 438 lwig), Death and Obituary Notice of, 449 n the, M. H. Deslandres, 88 rhe: Winnebago County Meteorites and in Prof. H. A. Newton, 370 » 118, 190, 215, 334, 384, 430, 455, 527, Address of Congratulation to Rev. Leonard 'iger-Lion Hybrids, Dr. V. Ball, F.R.S., 390, Ty iad, L. F. Harmer, 413 Gs Coloured Photographs of the Spectrum, 23 hin Photographs, ‘Conditions of Production " Contivance for Determining Refractive Index of a, H. he Laws of Compressibility of, E. H. Amagat, 48 he Thermal Conductivities of, R. Wachsmuth, 350 ds, ae Instrument for Measuring. Densities of, R. ‘the Common Cause of Surface Tension and Eva- on of, G. Van der Mensbrugghe, 621 Derby ‘Museum, Death of Mr. of, 37 Geograp nical Society, 159, 426 ‘University College, Opening of New Victoria Build- ‘Gases in, J. G. Arthur, 427 tition of Shuswap Indians, British Columbia, Dr. Dawson, F.R.S., 184 , Proposed Celebration of Centenary of. Birth of, T. He Moore late _ a i i Ratan ee ae ee < ckye: on Noman F. ne yh the —— of the Year, 32, - 228; on the Photographic Spectra of some of the Brighter - Stars, 261; the Sacred Nile, 464 : Lockyer (W. J.), the New Star in the Constellation of Aurigs, 137 Lockyer (William J. S.), La Planeie Mars et ses Conditions d’ Habitabilité, Camille Flammarion, 553 Locusts at Great Elevations, Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., 581 Lodge (Prof. A.), Williams on the Dimensions of Phy. ical Quantities, 116 Lodge (Prof. Oliver, F.R.S.), Pioneers of Science, 268 ; the Identity of Energy, 293 ; Observations of Atmospheric Elec- tricity in America, 392 ; W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on Lightning Protection, 536; on the Differential Equation of Electric Flow, 574; Soot Figures on Ceilings, 608 Loess, the Geology of the Asiatic, Thos. W. Kingsmill, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 30 Loewy (Dr. Ad.), Influence on Respiration of Upper Tracts leading from Cerebrum to Respiratory Centre, 144 Loewy (M ), Photographic Chart of the Heavens, 589 Logarithmic Tables, Prof. Geo. William Jones, 508 Lomas (J.), Ancient Ice Ages, 227 Lommel (E.), a2 Simple Explanation of the Hall Effect, 254 ; Equipotential Lines due to Current flowing through Conduct- ing Sheet fixed photographically, 544 London, Stanford’s Map of County of, 40; Appointment of W. Flinders Petrie to Chair of Egyptology at University College, 111; the proposed University for London, 200; Technical Education in, Report of the London County Council Com- mittee, 300 ; London County Council and Technical Educa- tion, 348 ; City and Guilds of London Institute, improve- ments in Technological Examinations, 612 Loney (S. L.), Mechanics and Hydrostatics for Beginners, 437 Longevity of the Perigal Family, Dr. C. T. Williams, 585 Lor-ntz (M.), Influence of the Motion of the Earth on the Pro- pagation of Light in doubly refracting Media, 504 Lorenz (Prof.), the Volatility of Manganese, 375 Lossen (Prof. K. A.), Death of, 421 Loubat Prizes, the, Columbia College, New York, 496 Love (A. E. H.), on the Vibrations of an Elastic Circular Ring, 383; a Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Prof. -A. G. Greenhill, F.R.S., 529 Love (Mr.), on the Stability of athin Rod loaded vertically, 52 Lovel (J.), Thunderstorm, Cloudburst, and Flood at Langtoft, July 3, 1892, 118 Lovibond (J. W.),on the Measurement of Direct Light by Means of the Tintometer, 501 Low (Dr.), Higher Education in the United States, 325 Lowe (E. J., F.R.S.), Earthquake Shocks, 247, 270 J 6wenburg (Dr, ), Death of, 14 Lubbock (Hon. Sir John, E.R.S. ), the Beauties of Nature and the Wonders of the World we live in, 28; a Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings, Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S., 243 Lucas (A. H. S.), an Introduction to the Study of Botany, with a Special Chapter on some Australian Natural Orders, 125 Lucknow, Industrial School opened at, III Lugard (Capt. F. D.), Uganda, 4 ye Poincaré’s Théorie iacitastines dela, A. B. Basset, Lumiére (MM. Auguste and Loui,), Photographic Properties of Cerium Salts, 503 Luminous Earthworms, Rev. Hilderic Friend, 462 Lummer (Dr.), Use of Half-shade Polarimeters, 312 Lunar Craters, Mr. H. Maw, 31 - Lunar Enlargements, Weenek’s, 473 ‘Lunar Rainbow in the Highlands, 342 Lunar Surface, the, 352 Lunar Volcanoes, Formation of, T. B. Hannay, 7 Lunar ‘‘ Volcanoes” and Lava Lakes, S. E. Peal, 486 ery (Dr. Carlo del), a Highly Sensitive Mercury Barometer, 5 Lupton (Sydney), Dendritic Forms, 13 Lupton (T. N.), the Florida Phosphate Beds, 325 Lydekker (R.), on a Sauropodous ODinosaurian Vertebra from the Wealden of Hastings, 286 ; on the Presence of a Distinct Coracoidal Element in Adult Sloths, 431 Lynn (Mr.), Remarkable Comets, 376 Lyons (Capt. H. G.), the Stars and the Nile, 101 Lyre, Spectrum of 8, Prof. Keeler, 616 XXIV Index Supplement tc Nature, june 1, 1893 McAdie (A.), the Electrification of the Lower Air during Auroral Displays, 454 Macalister (Prof.), on Egyptian Mummies, 623 McAulay (Alex.), Quaternions, 151 MacBride (E. W.), on the Development of the Genital Organs, Ovoid Gland, Axial and Aboral Sinuses in Amphiura Sguamata, together with some Remarks on Ludwig’s Hemal System in this Ophiurid, 261 Macchiati (Signor), the Cultivation of Diatoms, 23 McClintock (Dr. Emory), on the Non-Euclidian Geometry, 286 Macculloch’s Geological Map of Scotland, Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R-S., ‘173 Macdonald (A. C.), the Dairy Industry in Cape Colony, 471 Macdougal (D. T.), Botanical Explorations in Idaho, 206 Macfarlane (A.), Principles of the Algebra of Vectors, 3 Macfarlane (Dr.), Dionza, 423 Mackenzie (D. F.), the Timber of Exotic Conifers, 619 Mackinder (H. J.), the Relation of Geography to History, 304; some Geographical Aspects of British History, 519; the Steppe Belt traversing Asia from East to West, 353: the Chief Lines of Communication between Asia and Europe, 400 McLeod (Prof. Herbert, F.R.S.), the Author of the word ** Eudiometer,’’ 536 MacMahon (Major P, A., F.R.S.), Memoir on the Theory of the Compositions of Numbers, 310; the Group of Thirty Cubes composed by six differently Coloured Squares, 406 McMillan (Conway), the Probable Physiognomy of the Creta- ceous Plant Population, 587 Macpherson (Kev. A.), a Vertebrate Fauna of Lakeland, in- cluding Cumberland: and Westmoreland, with Lancashire North of the Sands, 457 McPherson(Wm.), Racial Dwarfs in the Pyrenees, 294 Madder-staining of Dentine, on the, Dr. W. G. Aitchison Robertson, 287 Madras Meridian Circle Observations, 186 Madras Museum, remarkable Hornets’ Nest presented by Lord Wenlock to, 16 Madsen (Herr Victor), Scandinavian Boulders at Cromer, 287 Magic Mirrors, the late Prof. Tennant on, Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S., 79 Magnetism: Displacements of Magnet on Mercury under Action ~ of Electric Current, C. Decharme, 48 ; Dilatation of Iron on Magnetisation, M. Berget, 71 ; Magnetic Properties of Bodies at Different Temperatures, P. Curie, 96 ; Magnetic Observa- tions, Washington, 209; Absolute Value of the Magnetic Elements on January 1, 1893, 288; Magnetism and Elec- tricity, R. W. Stewart, 315; Magnetic Permeabilities of a Series of Diamagnetic Bodies, 336 ; Sun-Spots and Magnetic Perturbations in 1892, M. Ricco, 352; Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Government Obser- vatory, Bombay, 1890, with an Appendix, 379; a Magnetic Screen, Frederick J. Smith, 439 ; Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, 'F.R.S., E. Wilson, 460; Magnetic Observatory, Potsdam, Improvement in Registra- tions of Needle’s Variations, Herr Eschenhager, 544 ; Magnet- ische Beobachtungen auf der Nordsee angestellt in den Jahren 1884 bis 1886, 1890 und 1891, A. Schiick, 555; Wil- liam Gilbert of Colchester, Physician of London, on the Loadstone and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth. A New Physiology, demonstrated with many Arguments and Experiments, P. Fleury Mottelay, 556 Mair-Rumley (J. G.), Experiments on the Value of the Steam Jacket, 19 Majert (W.), Piperazine, 430 Malapterurus, on the Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Tor- pedo, Gymnotus, Mormyrus, and, Gustav Fritsch, 271 Mallet (Maurice), the Longest Balloon Ascent on Record, 182 Malta Pleistocene, Discovery of Ursus Arctos in, J. H. Cooke, 62 Malta, Depredations among the recently discovered Phoenician | Tombs at, 396 Maltézos (C.), Lenticular Liquid Microglobules and their Con- - ditions of Equilibrium, 71; Conditions of Equilibrium and Formation of Microglobules, 96 Mammalia, the Sense Organs of the Skin, Feathers, Hairs in, Herr Maurer, 87 Man (E. H.), on Nicobar Pottery, 455 Man andthe Glacial Period, Dr. G. Frederick Wright, 148 and Man’s Place in Nature, Evolution and, Henry Calde wood, 395 4 Manchester Geographical Society, 159 ‘= Manchester Municipal Technical School, Sir Henry E. Roscoe. F.R.S., 201 Manganese, the Volatility of, Prof. Lorenz and Dr. Hensler q 375 Mance (Sir Henry), the Teredo and Electric Cables, 450 Manners and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples, Marquis de : Nadaillac, 316 Manurial Trials, Report on, Dr. William Somerville, 556 Maoris, some Reminiscences of , Rev. W. Colenso, F.R.S., 41 * Map of County of London, Stanford’s, 40 Map of Scotland, Macculloch’s Geological, Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R-S., 173 Map of the World on a Uniform Scale, Prof. Penck’s Scheme | for a, 426 f rs: Map-colouring, the Objects of, 566 ; Saba a March (Dr. H. C.). Mythographic Origin of Polynesian Orna- ment, 239 ; es Marchal (Emile), on a Process of Sterilisation of Albumin Solu- tions at 100° C., 310 * Marckwald (Dr.), new Method of Preparing Glycol Aldehyde, 17 Marey (M.), Swimming Movements of the Ray-fish, 311 Marilaun (Anton Kerner Von), Pflanzenleben, 605 Marine Biology : the Destruction of Immature Fish, Ernest W. L. Holt, 160; Dredging Work at Plymouth, 375 ; the Rising and Sinking Process in the Radiolaria, Herr Verworn, 397; the Week’s Work of the Plymouth Station, 398, 424, 451,472, 497, 518, 546, 565, 589, 616 ; Port Erin (Isle of Man) Station, 15 Marine Fauna, Proposed Handbook to the British, Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S., 231, 293; Prof. D’Arcy W. Thompson, 269; W. Garstang, 293 f Marine Laboratories in the United States, Prof. J. P. Campbell, 66 Marine Shells of Sonth Africa, G. B. Sowerby, 27 Marine Zoological Station at Trieste, the, 450 ae Mars, the Planet, Camille Flammarion, William J. S. Lockyer, 553; the Canals of Mars, 64; the Channels of, T. W. Kingsmill, 133 ; the markings on, Mr. Schaeberle, 209 ; the Recent Opposition of, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 235 ; Occulta- tion of Mars and Jupiter by the Moon, Prof, Ba > 41 Marseilles, Oct. 1, 1892, Severe Hurricane at, 61 : Marsh (Prof. O. C.), Restoration of Anchisaurus colurus, 349 Marshall (Rev. T. A.), a New Species of Belytidz from New Zealand, 17 fe (jas Marshall (W.), the Resolution of Methoxysuccinic Acid into its Optically Active Components, 311 Martin (Ern.), Physiological Study of Opium Smoke, 168 Martin (Horace), Castorologia ; or, the History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver, 224 Marvin (Prof. C, F.), Sunshine Recorders, 261 Maryland from the Meteorological Point of View, the Surface Configuration of, Prof. W. B. Clark, 585 Mascart (M.) on the Diurnal Variations of Gravitation, 360 Mason (James), Field Experiments on the Fixation of Free Nitrogen, 285 Massee (George), British Fungus-Flora, 26 en Masters (Dr. Maxwell T., F.R.S.), a Contribution to our Knowledge of Seedlings, Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S,, 243; List of Conifers and Texads, 619 Mathematics: Principles of the Algebra of Vectors, A. Macfar- lane, 3; Vector Analysis, Prof. P. G, Tait, 225 ; the Algebra of Co-planar Vectors and Trigonometry, R. Baldwin Hay- ward, F.R.S., 266; Prof. C. G. Knott on Recent Innova- tions in Vector Theory, 287, 590; Quaternions and the © Algebra of Vectors, Prof. J. Willard Gibbs, 463; Vectors, versus Quaternions, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 533 ; Printing Mathematics, W. Cassie, 8; Dr. M. J. Jackson, 227 ; Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, 23, 428; Mathz- matical Society, 71, 214, 382, 406, 526; Certain General Limitations affecting Hyper-Magic Squares, S. Roberts, F.R.S., 713; Note on Secondary Tucker Circles, 71; Quaternions, Alex. McAulay, I51; Cauchy’s Condensa- ticn Test for Convergency of Series, Prof. M. if M. Hill, 214; on the Non-Euclidian Geometry, Dr, Emory McClintock, 286; Theory of Numbers, G. B. Mathews, 289 ; re Bo 2 ; Supplement to eens | 5 June x, 1893 Index XXV Memoir on the Theory of the Compositions of Numbers, Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S., 310; on the Use of Supple- ntary Curves in Isogonal Transformation, R. A. Harris, 3 on the Application of Clifford’s Graphs to Ordinary Quantics, A. B. Kempe, F.R.S., 382 ; on the Vibra- s of an Elastic Circular Ring, A. E. H. Love, 383; Poin- é’s Théorie Mathématique de la Lumiére, A. B. Basset, R.S., 386; the Group of Thirty Cubes composed by Six rently-coloured Squares, Major MacMahon, F.R.S., the Harmonics of a Ring, W. D. Niven, F.R.S., 406; Potential Equation, Dr. Haentzsch, 480 ; on the Ap- of Lagrange’s Equations of Motion to a General ted Solid in a Liquid, Dr. C. V. Burton, 500; on a ynamical Proof of the Equations of Motion of a per- olid with Applications to the Motion of a Fine k in Circulating Liquids, G. H. Bryan, 500; the ry of the: Potential, Ottavio Zanotti Bianco, Dr. E. J. F.R.S., 510; Motion of a Solid Body in a Viscous \. B. Bassett, F.R.S., 512; on the Stability of a od Loaded Vertically, Mr. Love, 526; on Complex ¢s formed with the Fifth Roots of Unity, Prof. Lloyd er, 526 ; a New Algebra, T. B. Sprague, 526 ; a Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, A. E. H. Love, f. A. G. Greenhill, F.R.S., 529 ; Graphical Solutions of Problems in Navigation, 547; American Journal of Mathe- Theory of Numbers, 289 d, F.S.A.), Further Researches in Connection tallurgy of Bismuth, 358 Jation Chem y, Temple Orme, 99 (William), the Southampton Water-sofiening Plant, ene the sense Organs of the Skin, Feathers, and n Mammalia, 87 H.), Lunar Crater, 31 =.), Report on the Phenological Observations for 1892, el F.), Remarkable Meteor in Texas, 279 sk Ww. erren), Electric Lighting and Power Distribu- 5 Al fre f Goldsborough), the Radiation and Absorption of I easure of the Imagination, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 319 — ment of Distances of Binary Stars, C. E. Stromeyer, easures of Stars about 8 Cygni, Rutherfurd, Prof. Harold _jacoby,77 $: Elementary Manual on Applied Mechanics, Prof. ieson, 147 ; Modern Mechanism, 241 ; a Correction, 281 ; m tse Mechanics of Solids and Fluids, A. L. Selby, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 19, 300, 353, 617 ; ics and Hydrostatics for Beginners, S. L. Loney, 1e Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, E. H. » 537 5 eli an Epitome of the Science, Geography, nd Plant Folk-Lore and Myth of the Middle Ages, 3° 4 a9 P53 ; ical. ucation at Oxford, Lord Salisbury, 449 cal Mi py, Frank J. Wethered, Dr. A. H, Tubby, —“ Medical Science, Bibliographia Medica Italiana, Prof. P. Gia- M ical Society, Oxford, Inaugural Address by Sir James Paget, oa Medical Student, Biology and the, H. J. Campbell, 530 icine, Experimental, 593 hur), Observational Astronomy, 437 a4 Melbourne Observatory, 49 BY feldol (Prof. R., F.R.S.), Arborescent Frost Patterns, 125 Mellish(H.), Rainfall of Nottinghamshire, 1861-90, 286 - Mem. Soc. li Spettroscopisti Ital., 429 ‘Mendenhall (T. C.): Uses of Planes and Knife Edges in Pen- _ dulums for Gravity Measurements, 380 ; Observations of At- ic Electricity in America, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, uF.R.S., 392 fensbrugghe (G. Van der), on the Common Cause of Surface _ Tension and Evaporation of Liquids, 428, 621 d Prehistoric Interments of the Bahi Rossi Caves near, Evans, 239 entone ALG. blems, with Special Reference to the Motion of a . Mercelli (G.), Stromboli, 453 Mercurial Air-Pumps, Automatic, Dr. August Raps, 369 Mercury, Berlin Method of Cleaning, 16 Meridian Circle Observations, Madras, 186 Meslin (G.), Conditions of Production of Lippmann’s Coloured Hota 157; on Semicircular Interference Fringes, 394 Mesnard (E.), Mode of Production of Perfume in Flowers, 120 ; Researches on the Localisation of the Fatty Oils in the Germination of Seeds, 312 Metallurgy : Note on the Colours of the Alkali Metals, G. S. Newth, 55; Wm. L. Dudley, 175; the Copper Resources of the United States, James Douglas, 132 ; the Use of Tungsten in Improving Hardness of Steel, 351; Further Researches in Connection with the Metallurgy of Bismuth, Edward Mathey, F.S.A., 358; on a New Soldering Process for Aluminium and various other Metals, M. J. Novel, 384; the Value of Annealing Steel, E. G. Carey, 397; Volumetric Method for Determining Amount of Chromium in Steel, G. Georges, 397; Ready Preparation of Large Quantities of the more Refractory Metals by Means of the Electric Furnace, M, Moissan, 424; Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., E. Wilson, 460; the Alloys Research Committee, Second Report, Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 617; the Action of Bismuth on Copper, Prof, W. C. Roberts-Austen, F.R.S., 618 Metazoan Development, on a Supposed Law of, J. Beard, 79 ; R. Assheton, 176 Meteorology: The Weather Week by Week, 15, 38, 60, 85, III, 130, 155, 183, 206, 233, 253, 278, 300, 323, 348, 373, 3951. 422, 449, 470, 496, 516, 543, 563, 585, 613 ; Meteor- ological Council, Summary of Rainfall and Mean Tempera- ture of British Islands for September Quarter 1866-92, 15 ; Berlin Meteorological Society, 24, 287, 336, 552; Relation- ship Between Insolation and Temperature, Dr. Berson, 24 ; a Remarkable Rainfall, Alfred O. Walker, 31; Indications of a Rainy Period in Southern Peru, A. E, Douglass, 38 ; American Meteorological Journal, 46, 261, 574; Meteoro- logical Balloon Ascent at Berlin, October 24, 1891, A. L. Rotch, 46; Severe Hurricane at Marseilles, October 1, 1892, 61; the Inspection of Canadian Meteorological Stations, Charles Carpmael, 61; Pilot Chart of North Atlantic for November, 86; Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic for February, 1893, 395; the Afterglow, Sereno E. Bishop, 102; Weather Forecasting for British Islands, Captain H. Toynbee, 111 ; Royal Meteorological Society, 118, 333, 439, 502; Thunderstorm, Cloudburst, and Flood at Langtoft, July 3, 1892, J. Lovel, 118; Measurement of Maximum Wind Pressure, W. H. Dines, 118; Curious Drift of a ‘¢ Current Bottle,” H. C. Russell, 131 ; Wind Measurement, H. W. Dines, 143; the Height and Spectrum of Auroras, T. W. Backhouse, 151 ; the Climate of the Canary Islands, 156; Cloud Observations at Blue Hill (Mass, ) Observatory, H. H. Clayton, 183; Brilliant Afterglow, December 15 and 17, 1892, 183; the Movements of Ground Water, F. H. King, 206; Gulf Stream Icebergs and Climatic Variations, H. Habenicht, 206; Proposed International Conference of Meteorologists, 233 ; Eiffel Tower Experiments on Decrease of Air-temperature with Elevation, Alfred Angot, 240; the Weather of Summer, 245, 270; Super-abundant Rain, Sir H. Collett, 247; Atmospheric Electricity, Earth Currents, and Terrestrial Magnetism, Prof. C. Abbe, 261 ; Notes on the Use of Automatic Rain Gauges, J. E. Codman, 261 ; Sunshine Recorders, Prof. C. F. Marvin, 261; Shower of Pond Mussels at Paderborn, 278 ; Experiments on the Use of Oil in Calming Waves, Rear Admiral Cavalier de Cuverville, 278 ; Moving Anti-Cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 286; the Tracks of Ocean Wind Systems in Transit over Australasia, Capt. M. W. C. Hepworth, 286; Rainfall of Nottinghamshire, 1861- go, H. Mellish, 286; Prof. Assmann’s Detailed Description of the Meteorographs set up in the ‘‘ Urania-pillars,” 287 ; Absolute Value of the Magnetic Elements on January I, 1893, 288; the Evaporation from a Snow Surface, P. A. Miiller, 301 ; Map showing Limes of Equal Magnetic Declination for January 1, 1893, in England and Wales, W. Ellis, 323; Government Meteorology in India, 323; Dr. C. T. Williams on the High Altitudes of Colorado and their Climates, 333 ; on the Diurnal Variations of Gravitation, M. Mascart, 360; Death and Obituary Notice of George Mathews Whipple, XXVi Si ndex [> upplement to Nature, June 1, 1893 372; D. A. van Bastelaer’s Observations cn Ozone, 373 ; Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Government Observatory, Bombay, 1890, with an Appendix, 379; Colonial Meteorology, C.' J. Symons, F.R.S., 390; Observations of Atmospheric Electricity in America, T. C. Mendenhall, Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., 392; Dew, Herr Wollny, 398; Report of the Meteorological Council for Year ending March 31, 1892, 422; Summary of Weekly Weather Report, 1892, 422; on the Particles in Fogs and Clouds, John Aitken, 431; onthe Hygrometry of the Atmos- phere at Ben Nevis, A. J. Heibertson, 431; Report on the Phenological Obseivations for 1892, E, Mawley, 430; Re- lation between the Duration of Sunshine, the Amount of |. Cloud, and the Height.of the Barometer, W. Ellis, 431 ; Winter Temperatures on Mountain Summits, W. Piffe Brown, 431 ; High Atmospheric Pressures. observed at I:kutsk from January 12 to 16, 1893, Alexis de Tillo, 432; Stonyhurst College Observatory, 450 ; Hot Winds in Texas, May 29 and 30, 1892, J. M. Cline, 454 ; the Electrification of the Lower Air during Auroral Displays, A. McAdie, 454; Scottish Meteorological Society, 469 ; the High Barometer Readings for January, 470; Observation made at Fotsdam Meteoro- logical Institute on the Recent Coldest Day in January, Prof. Sprung, 480; a Short Cycle in Weather, James P. Hall, 499 ; on some Meteorological Problems, Shelford Bidwell, F.R.S., 502; onthe True Theory of Waterspouts and Tornadoes, with special reference to that of Lawrence; Massachusetts, M. H. Faye, 503 ; Remarkable Cold Wave over China in January, 1893, S. B. J. Skertchly, 516 ; Severe Frost at Hongkong, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., 535; Charles Ford, 535 ; W. Doberck, 536; Practical Meteorology in Spain, 543; Synoptic Daily Weather Charts of North Atlantic Ocean, 543; the Thermal Exchanges of the Atmosphere, Prof. vcn Bezold, 552; Hail Storms, H. C. Russell, 573 ; Exploration of the Free Air, Prof. M. W. Harrirgtcn, 574; the General Winds of the Atlantic Ocean, Prot. W. M. Davis, 574°; Fossil Floras and Climate, Sir William Dawson, F.R.S., 556; J. Starkie Gardner, 582; the Afterglows and Bishop’s Ring, T. W. Backhouse, 582 ; Complimentary Dinner to Mr. Henry Perigal, 585 ; the Surface Configuration of Maryland, Prof. W. B. Clark, 585; a Highly Sensitive Mercury Barometer, Dr. Carlo del Lungo, 586; Exploration of the Higher Atmosphere, Gustave Hermite, 600; New Methods of Disseminating Weather Forecasts in New England, 613; Harmonic Analysis of Hourly Observations of Air Tempera- ture and Pressure at British Observatories, Lieut.-General R. Strachey, F.R.S., €21 ; the Direction of the Wind over the British Isles 1876-80, F.°C. Bayard, 623; Notes.on Two Photographs of Lightning taken at Sydney Observatory, December 7, 1892, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 623 ; Constructive Errors in some Hygrometers, W. W. Midgley, 623 - Meteors: Prof. C. A. Young, 150; Great Meteor in Alabama, 86 ; December Meteors (Geminids), W. F. Denning, 226 ; a Brilliant Meteor, W. Pollard, 247; Meteor Shower of November 23, 1892, 257; Remarkable Meteor in: Texas, C. F. Maxwell, 279; a Meteor, W. L. Distant, 316; a Brilliant Meteor, Dr. Jas. Rorie, 495 ; Meteor of March 18, 1893, G. P. Bailey, 516 ; Meteor Showers, 590 Michigan, Geology of the Iron, Gold, and Copper Dis Prof. M. E. Wadsworth, Sir Archibald Geikie, Dr. H. Bauerman, 117 bes Micro-organisms at Various Temperatures, Investigations Behaviour of, 234 Micro-organisms: and: their Investigation, Mrs. Perey F: land, 446. me Microbes, Researches on the Fixation of Atmospheric Nitro by M. Berthelot, 23 aa ni Microscopy: American Microscopical Society, Prizes offei for Encouragement of Research, 15; Messrs. Swift’s Alu-| minium Microscope, G. C. Karop, 47 ; Medical Microscopy, Frank J. Wethered, Dr. A. H. Tubby, 51; the Reflecte with the Projection Microscope, G. B. Buckton, F.R.S., 54 3. Fungus Internally Parasitic in Diatoms, C. H. Gill, Mr, | Bennett, 118 ; onthe Anatomy of Pentastomum teretiusculum, Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, 260; Quarterly Journal of Micro- | scopical Science, 260; on the Development of the Optic Nerve of Vertebrates and the Choroidal Fissure of Embryonic Life, Richard Assheton, 261 ; on the Development of the Genital Organs, Ovoid Gland, Axial and Aboral Sinuses in | Amphiura Squamata, together with some Remarks — Ludwig’s Hzemal System in this Ophiurid, E. W. MacBride, 261 ; on a New Species of Aquatic Oligocheta belonging to | the family Rhinodrilidz found in England by W. B. Benham, — 261 ; onthe Minute Structure of the Gills of Palaemonetes Vaiians, Edgar J. Allen, 261 ; Royal Microscopical Society, | 359; the Microscope: its Construction and Management, Dr. Henri Van Hewick, Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., 409° | seats (W. W.), Constructive Errors in some Hygrometers, | ’ Miers (H. A.), the Rare Silver Minerals Xanthoconite and Rittingerite, 70 YS E Migration of Birds, the, an Attempt to Reduce Avian Season- Flight to Law, Charles Dixon, 169 Bpuie sipe tees Military Telephones, 182 ‘ Milk, Methods of Examining, for Tubercle Bacillus, Ilkewitsch and Thorner, 254 : eh ; Milky Way, the, Dr. Otto Boeddicker, 337 5 Milky Way, Stellar Magnitudes in Relation to the, Prof. Kapteyn, 64 Te ae 4 Millar (J. H.), Formation and Nitration of Phenyldiazoimide, 311 ! Milne (Prof. John, F.R.S.), the Volcanoes of Japan, Part 1, Fujisan, 178 ; Yezo and the Ainu, 330; Instruments for the Earthquake Laboratory at the Chicago Exhibition, 356 : Milton (J. T.), Notes on Boiler-testing, 521 ines Mimicry, Aggressive, the Vo/ucelie as Examples of, Edward Ba Poulton, F.R.S., 28; W. Bateson, 77 =o Mineralogy : Establishment of the Tetrahedral inosine: ‘ of Binnite, Dr. Trechmann, 70; the Rare Silver Minerals — Xantheconite and Rittingerite, H. A. Miers and G. T. Prior, | 70; Baddeleyite, Fletcher, 70; Mineralogical Society, 70 ;— Artificial Production of Rutile, L. Michel, 168; Death of Nikolai Ivanovitch Kokshatoff, 278; a New Coaly Mineral, — 280; the Occurrence of Native Zirconia (Baddeleyite), L. Fletcher, F.R.S., 283; Heematite as an Illustration of the Tendency of Inorganic Matter to Simulate Inorganic Forms, — Meteoric Iron, Diamond in, C. Friedel, 192 Meteoric Iron of Cafion Diablo, on the, C. Friedel, 408 Meteoric Stone Found at Makariwa, near Invercargill, New Zealand, on a, G.F.H. Ulrich, 381 Meteorites : a Large Meteorite from Western Australia, James R. Gregory, 90; Lines of Structure in the Winnebago County Meteorites and in other Meteorites, Prof. H. A. Newton, 370 ; Study ofthe Cajion Diablo Meteorite, Henri Moissan, 408 ; Observation on the Conditions which appear to have obtained during the Formation of Meteorites, M. Daubrée, 432; Mineralogical and lithological Examination of the Meteorite of Kiowa county, Kansas, M. Stanislas Meunier, 456; Great Meteorite from Western Australia, 469; Fall of a Meteorite, 565 Meunier (M. Stanislas), Mineralogical and Lithological Ex- amination of the Meteorite of Kiowa county, Kansas, 456 Meyer (Prof. A. B.), the Cause of Sexual Differences of Colour in Eclectus, 486 Mice, Field, in Thessaly and Scotland, the Plague of, 396 Michael (A. D.), a New Species (and genus) of Acarzs found in Cornwall, 502 Michel (L ), Artificial Production of Rutile, 168 374; ona Metecric Stone found at Makariwa, near Inver- cargill, New Zealand, G. H. F. Ulrich, 381 ; Study of the Cafion Diablo Meteorite, Henri Moissan, 408; on the Meteoric Iron of Cafion Diablo, C. Friedel, 408; on the — Presence of Graphite Carbonado and Microscopic Diamonds in the Blue Earth of the Cape, Henri Moissan, 408 ; Mineralogical and Lithological Examination of the Meteorite of Kiowa county, Kansas, M. Stanislas Meunier, 456; Analysis of the Ashes of the Diamond, Henri Moissan, 479 3 Remarks on thé Native Iron of Ovifak and the Bitumen of the Crystallised Rocks of Sweden, M. Nordenskiéld, 552; Valuable Ruby discovered at Burma Mines, 586° Miner’s Safety-lamp, a New Portable, Prof. Frank Clowes, 596 Minervini (Signor), the Blood-vessels of the Skin in Different Parts, 254 Minor Planets, 352, 547 “ey Mirrors, Japanese, Magic, Prof. S. P. Thompson, F,R.S., 381 Mohn (Prof.), the Climate of Greenland, 474 AVERY #2): Moissan (Henii), Chemical Study of Opium Smoke, 168; a— New Electric Furnace, 192; Action of High Temperature on Metallic Oxides, 192; Study of the Cefion ‘Diablo — ment to Nature, pune T; 1893 ] Bee Diamonds in the Blue Earth of the Cape, 408 ; ng roan Large Quantities of the More Refractory of the Electric Furnace, 424 ; the Chemical rop cals by of the Diamond, 472; Analysis of the Ashes of Di mond. 479 ; the Use of the Electric Current in Pro- ing High Temperatures, 497; on the Preparation of a Swelling Graphite, 527 ce, Mr. Sutherland’s Paper on the Laws of, Prof. Dr. Gladstone, S. H. Barbury, Prof. Ramsay, ne Gray, Prof. Herschel, 117 1e Mantle-Cells of Ascidians, Kowalevsky, 62 ; duction of Orbitolites, H. B. Brady, 119 ; Cata- ; Zealand Mollusca, H. Suter, 397 $ foe Collectors of, William H. Dall, 140 e W.), on the Occurrence of Boulders and the Glacial Drift in Gravels south of the Thames, es, Amédée Guillemin, 485 age Tibet, C. Woodville Rockhill, 426 sek eee H. N. Hutchinson, 250 3 ory, 204 (S., M. P.), ae Decimal System, 323 ia y Mission, Completion of, 89 Year, a Simple Rule for finding the Day of the esponding to any given day of the, 509 of pereniaroric Peoples, Manners and, Marquis de de Studies on Isomeric Change, ii. and iii., oy tion of Mars and Jupiter by the, Prof. Barnard, A ” and Lava Lakes, S. E. Peal, 486 ), Death of, late Curator of Liverpool Derby > ote Alleged Increase of Nervous Diseases with ivilisation, Dr. Brinton, 280, 374 ; on the Patho- iabetes, MM. A. Chaveau and Kaufmann, 384 ; attributed to bathing in polluted water, Herr e Clasmatocytes, the Fixed Cellules of the and the Pus Globules, M. L. Ranvier, Olek contained in the Blood in cases of Ec- dette, 456; Experimental Medicine, 593; Q ‘iments ‘with Preventive Serum, 600 oe Mrs. Brightwen, 125 apterurus, on the Origin of the Electric edo, Gymnotus, Gustav Fritsch, 271 ri R. Lambert Playfair and Dr. Robert +: The am Organs of the Skin, Feathers, and in aay Herr Maurer, 87; Contribution a Ae phologie et du Développement des Bac- Billet, Dr. Rubert Boyce, 532 F. O.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 372 ig hea on the Value of the Steam: -jacket, etic Zoological Congress at, 236 Death’s Head, and Bees, J. R. S. Chfford, 234 e Line of Sight, M. H. Deslandres, 88 Nova Aurige, Prof. W. W. Campbell, 256 'B Persei, 115 i Solar System, Prof, J. G. Porter, 4% Solid Body in a Viscous Liquid, A. B. Basset, ; +512 Proper, M. Deslandres, 115 , Waves as a, H. Linden, 438 P. Fleury), Willfam Gilbert, of Colchester, Physician, don, on the Loadstone anl Magnetic Bodies, and on cat Magnet, the Earth, A New Physiology, Demon- d with Many Arguments and Experiments, 556 (M.), the Vineyards of Crp 517 d, Kansas, the Great Spirit Spring, E. H. S. Bailey, 87 ’ Excavations in the® Ohio Valley, the Recent, M. de Sev ag 16 "" rags es, Experiments on Folding and on the Genesis of, Prof. ee yer, er untain Grou in Podolia, a Curious, 617 oaehion the rain in, Dr. Rudolf Burckhardt, 339 ite, 408 ; ; on the Presence of Graphite Carbonada and L[ndex XXVii Muir (Prof. James), Manual of Dairy Work, 555 Mulcaster (Richard), Foster Watson, 279 Miiller (Dr. — Tabular History of Astronomy to the year 1500 A.D., Miiller (P. A. ) the Evaporation from a Snow Surface, 301 Mummies, Egyptian, Prof. Macalister, 623 rare (Mr. ), the Board of Trade and the Electrical Engineers, 5 Munk (Dr, J.), Experiments on the Nutrition of Fasting Men, 2 55 Munro (Dr.), Yew Poisoning, 285 Murphy (Joseph John), an Optical Phenomenon, 365 Murray (Helen J.), a Wild Rabbit Tamed, 86 Murray (T. S.), Synthesis of Oxazoles from "Benzoin and Nitriles, 43° Muscle, the Cross Striping of, Prof. Richard Ewald, and Prof. Haycraft, 92 Museum of Sanitary ape ier Hornsey Local Board, 587 Music, Sound and, Rev. J. A. Zahm, 222 Musical Instruments, Women ‘and, Henry Balfour, 55 Musk Ox, 559; Suggested introdaction into Scotland of the, Col. H.W. Fiel den, 349 Mycology, British Fungus-Flora, George Massee, 26; a new Luminous Fungus from Tahiti, 157 Myers (W. S.), Production of Orcinol, &c., from Dehydracetic acid, 237 Nadaillac (M. de), the Recent Mound-Excavations in the Ohio Valley, 16 Nadaillac (Marquis de), Manners and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples, 316 Nagel (Herr), Food-recognising Sense of Sea-Anemones, 185 Naked-Eye Botany, F. E. Kitchener, 198 Bence, Geographical, Colonel H. H. Godwin- Austen, F.R.S., 245 Nansen’s (Dr.), Arctic Expedition, 65 Napoleonic Wars, Statistics of Survivors of the, M. Turquan, 233 Natal Observatory, 498 Nathan on the Improvement of Cider by Wine- Yeast, 208 Native Birds of New Zealand, the Preservation of the, 394 Natural History: Edgar B. Waite appointed Assistant Curator in Australian Museum, Sydney, 111; American Society of Naturalists, 205; the Naturalist on the River Amazons, Henry Walter Bates, F.R.S., 269 ; Lion-Tiger and Tiger-Lion Hybrids, Dr. V. Ball, F.R.S., 390; Lion- Tiger Hybrids, S. F. Harmer, 413; Idle Days in Patagonia, W. Hz. “Hudson, Dr. Alf. Russel Wallace, 483; Applied Natural History, W. L. Calderwood, 492 5 the Musk-Ox, 559; Norfolk and Norwich N aturalists’ Society, Annual Address of, H. B. Woodward, 562 ; Wild Spain, Abel Chap- man and Walter J. Buck, 583; Natural History of Plants, Anton Kerner Von Marilaun, 605 ; Blind Animals in Caves, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 380, 486; J. T. Cunni ham, 439, 537; A. Anderson, 439; G. A. Boulenger, 608 ; Bequest to lilinois Wesleyan University of Mr. Lichten- thaler’s Collection, 613 Nature, the Beauties of, and the Wonders of the World we Live in, Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., 28 Nature, a Description of the Laws and Wonders of, Richard A. Gregory, 74 Nae. Evolution and Man’s Place in, Henry Calderwood, 385 Naue (J.), Discovery near Schaffhausen of Prehistoric Drawings on Limestone, 279 Nautical Almanac for 1896, the, 326 Naval Architecture: the Strength of Bulkheads, Dr. Elgar, 529; Experiments on the Transmission of Heat through Tube-plates, A. J. Durston, 521; Notes on Boiler-testirg, T. Milton, 521; an Apparatus for Measuring and Registering Vibrations of Steamers, E. Otto Schlick, 521 ; Experiments with Engines of ss. /veagh, John Inglis, 521 Naval Architects, Institution of, 519 ; Annual General Meeting, 494 Navigation ; the Measurement of Wake Currents, G. A. Cal- vert, 519 Navigation, Graphical Solutions of Problems in, 547 Nayudu (P. Lakshmi Narasu), Notes on Qualitative Chemical Analysis, 100 Neave (Newman), a Fork-tailed Petrel, 31 XXVIII L[ndex Supplement to Nature, — June 1, 1893 BS | soe near é Persei (N. G.C. 1499), the Large, Dr. Scheiner, 54 Neesen (Prof.),. Experiments on Photographic Recording of Oscillation of Projectiles, 216 : Nelson (R. H.), Death of, 353 Neolithic Village of the Roche-au-Diable, near Tesniéres, Canton of Lorez-le-Bocage (Seine-et-Marne), Armand Viré, 576 Netto (Eugen), the Theory of Substitutions and its Applications to Algebra, 338 Neumann (Herr), Power of Hydrogen-Absorption of Various Metals, 63 Neville and Heycock, Isolation of Gold and Cadmium Com- pounds, 40 New England, New Methods of disseminating Weather Fore- casts in, 613 New England Grammar Schools, Change recommended by Association of College Officers in Curriculum of, 279 New Guinea, British, J. P. Thomson, Henry O. Forbes, 345; 414; Prof. Alfred C. Haddon, 414 New Hebrides, on some Islands of the, Lieut. Boyle T. Somerville, 455 New South Wales: Artesian Boring and Irrigation in, J. W. Boultbee, 183 ; Physical Geography and Climate of, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 258; Plants most visited by Bees in, 614 New York Mathematical Society, Bulletin of, 23 New York State Pecuniary Contributions to Agriculture, the, 349 New York, Columbia College ; the Loubat Prizes, 496 New Zealand: Earthquake in, 372; the Preservation of the Native Birds of, 394; Catalogue of the New Zealand Mol- lusca, H. Suter, 397 Newall (H. F.), Nova Aurigee, 7 Newberry (John Strong), Obituary Notice of, 276 Newcastle College of Science, Laying Foundation Stone of, 129 Newcomb-Engelmann’s Populire Astronomie, 291 Newth (G. S.), Note on the Colours of the Alkali Metals, 55 ; Chemical Lecture Experiments, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, F.R.S., 97 Newton (Prof. Alfred, F.R.S.), Palaontological Discovery in Australia, 606 Newton (E. T.); some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sand- stone, 189 Newton (Prof. H. A.), Lines of Structure in the Winnebago County Meteorites and in other Meteorites, 370 Niagara Spray Clouds, the, Chas. A. Carus-Wilson, 414 Nicaragua, the Boundaries of Costa Rica and, Dr. H. Pola- kowsky, 257 Nicholls (H. A. Alford), a Text-book of Tropical Agricul- ture, 313 Nicobar Pottery, E. H. Man, 455 Nicolsky (Dr.), Study of the Form of Eggs, 253 Nikitine (S.), Constitution of the Quaternary Deposits in Russia and their Relations to the Finds resulting from the Activity of Prehistoric Man, 523 Nile, the Stars and the, Capt. H. G. Lyons, 101 Nile, the Sacred, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 464 Nitrate of Soda: the Origin of Caliche, G. M. Hunter, 254 Nitrogen, Atmospheric, Researches on the Fixation by Mi- crobes of, M. Berthelot, 23. Niven (W. D., F.R.S.), the Harmonics of a Ring, 406 Nomenclature, Biological ; the rule ‘‘ Once a Synonym, always a Synonym,” Elliott Coues, 39 Nomenclature, Botanical, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 53; Sereno Watson, 53 Nordenskidld (M.), Kemarks on the Native Iron of Ovifak and the Bitumen of the Crystallised Rocks of Sweden, 552 Noorden (Dr. von), Four Experiments on Nutrition, 504 Norfolk Coast, Sowerby’s Whale on the, T. Southwell, 349 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society ; Annual Address by H. B. Woodward, 562 North Sea, Destruction of Immature Fish in the, Ernest W. L. Holt, 160 North Sea, Magnetic Observations in the, A. Shiick, 555 North American Indians, Educational Work among the, 350 Notes from the Leyden Museum, 357 Nottingham Meeting of the British Association, the Coming, 612 Nova Aurige, 159, 399 ; H. F. Newall, 7 ; Prof. Barnard, 282 ; Mr. Huggins, 425; Mution of Nova Aurige, Prof. W. Campbell, 256; Hydrogen Line Hf in the Spectrum Herr Victor Schumann, 425; Spectra of Planetary Nel and Nova Aurige, M. Eugen Gothard, 352 ae Novel (M. J.), on a new Soldering Process for Aluminium and various other Metals, 384 pies: Nubibus, Dynamics in, ‘‘ Waterdale,” 601 Nuttall (Zelia), the Calendar System of the Ancient Aztecs, I 56 Obrutcheff (M.), Further Researches in Siberia, 255 et Observatories : a New Observatory at Abastouman, 133 ; Com-' panion to the Observatory for 1893, 159; Mont Blanc Ob-! servatory, 204 ; Lick Observatory, Miss Milicent W. Shinn, 209 ; the Harvard College Observatory, Prof. E. C. Pickering, 304, 403 ; Stonyhurst College Observatory, 450; United States Naval Observatory, 452; Yale Astronomical Observatory, 452; Bermerside Observatory, 473 ; the Melbourne Observa- tory, 498 ; Natal Observatory, 498 ; Wolsingham Observa-| tory, 518; Circular No. 35,590; T. E. Espin, 452; Paris Observatory in 1892, M. Tisserand, 546; Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made at the Government Ob- servatory, Bombay, 1890, 379 ; ‘‘ The Observatory,” 566 Observational Astronomy, Arthur Mee, 437 Occultation of Mars and Jupiter by the Moon, Prof. Barnard, 41 Odorographia : a Natural History of Raw Materials and Drugs used in the Perfume Industry, J. Ch. Sawer, 52 Odours, Analysis of Complex, Jacques Passy, ’ Oesten (Herr), Filtered Sewage Water Favourable to Fish Life, 350 ; Ohio Valley, the Recent Mound-Excavations in the, M. de Nadaillac, 16 f Oil in Calming Waves, Experiments on the use of, Rear- Admiral Cavelier de Cuverville, 279 ; Y Olphe-Galliard (Victor Aimé Leon), Death and Obituary Notice of, 395 i Olszewski (Herr), Use of Total Reflection to determine Light- | Refraction of Liquid Oxygen, 614 F Omori (F.), Instruments for the Earthquake Laboratory at the — Chicago Exhibition, 356 if Ophthalmology : the Association of Shipping Disasters with Defective Vision in Sailors, Dr. T. H. Bickerton, 16 Opium Smoke, Chemical Study of, Henri Moissan, 168 ; Phy=i- ological Study of, G. Gréhant and Em, Martin, 168 Opposition of Mars, the Recent, Prof. W. H. Pickering, 235 _ Optics: Optical Illusions, R. T. Lewis, 31 ; W. B. Croft, 78 ; Refraction and Dispersion of [light in Metal Prisms, D, Shea, 68 ; a New ‘‘ Shortened Telescope,” Dr. R. Steinheil, 113; the Passage of a Wave througha Focus, P. Joubin, 143 ; Existence of Distinct Nervous Centres for Perception of Fundamental Colours of Spectrum, A. Chauveau, 143; the New Telephotographic Lens, T. R. Dallmeyer, 161 ; Re- markable Optical Phenomenon near Zermatt, F. Folie, 303 ; on the Minimum Perceptible Amount of Light, M. Charles Henry, 312; the Polarising Action of the Moon on the Atmosphere, Clémence Royer, 325; the Alleged Sexual Difference in the Eye, Herr Greef, 325 ; Optical Continuity, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 342; an ign Phenomenon, Joseph John Murphy, 365; Helmholtz Physiological Optics, Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S., 365 ; Prelimina ote on the Colours of Cloudy Condensation, C. Barus, 380; the Percep- — tion of Colour, W. F. Stanley, 381; on Semicircular Inter- ference Fringes, M. G. Meslin, 384 ; Modern Optics and the Microscope, Dr. Henri van Heurck, Rev. Dr. Dallinger, F.R.S., 409; Electrical Actinometers used by Messrs. Elster and Geitel in Measurement of Sun’s Ultra-Violet Radiation, 422; Two Experimental Verifications Relative to Refraction in Crystals, J. Verschaffelt, 428 ; the Fundamental Law of Complementary Colours, Paui Glan, 455; a New Hypothesis Concerning Vision, John Berry Haycraft, 478; a New and Handy Focometer, Prof. J. D. Everett, F.R.S., 500; on the Measurement of Direct Light by Means of the Tintometer, J. W. Lovibond, 501 ; on the Chromatic Curyes of Microscope Objectives, Dr. W. H. Dallinger, 501; In- fluence of the Motion of the Earth on the Propagation of Light in Doubly Refiacting Media, Mr. Lorentz, 504 ; Pene- tration of Thin Metallic Plates by Cathode Rays causing Phosphorescence, 518; the Dioptrics of Gratings, Dr. a a Larmor, F.R.S., 526; on Spherical Aberration of the Human ‘Supplement to Nature. ] i Sunes, 2893 Lndex XxXix Measurement of Senilism of the Crystalline, M. C. J. 28 ; Measurement of Large Differences of Phase ight, M. P. Joubin, 528; Sensitiveness of the Eye ght and Colour, Capt. W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 538; ivance for Determining Refractive Index of Liquid, Experiments on Phosphorescence-Producing Kathode of a Geissler Tube, Dr. P: Lenard, 564; Use of Total ction to Determine Light-Refraction of Liquid Oxygen, Olszewski and Witkowski, 614; Researches at the Imperial Physico-Technical Institute on the Siemens | Foil Unit as a Standard for the Intensity of a Source 15 Remarkable Specimen of, 423 on the Reproduction of, H. B, Brady, 119 urvey, 447 & Survey and Geological Faults, the, James Durham, en lemistry, Outlines of, Clement J: Leaper, 124 bsta Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Re- f Certain, E, A. Letts, Chapman Jones, 361 Unusual, of Arteries in the Rabbit, Philip J. White, 365 of Colour, VII, VIII and IX, H. E. Armstrong, 551 Lake Basins, the Duke of Argyll, F.R.S., 485; J. C. the Vear, the, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 32, 228 emple), Matriculation Chemistry, 99 logy : a Furk-tailed Petrel, Newman Neave, 31; the , Jumming-birds, Dr. Morris Gibbs, 63 ; Assumption Male Plumage by a Pea-hen, G. N. Douglas, 71; > Caught in Wales, December 8, 1892, 157; the of Birds, an Attempt to Reduce Avian Season- Law, Charles Dixon, 169; Study of the Form of Nicolsky, 253 : Death and Obituary Notice of Rev. : oe? ; the Flight-Speed of Wild Ducks, H. L. .; the Preservation of the Native Birds of New Death and Obituary Notice of Victor Aimé -Galliard, 395; the Flight of Birds, Herbert ; Formation of a Cage-Bird Club, 495; | Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, John | e Protection of the Osprey in Scotland, 42 nry F.), Protocerus, the New Artiodactyle, ;, a Clawed Artiodactyle, 610 iy A. E. Beit 400 tallic, M. Joly and Véges, 497 Pressure, J. Ww Rods.r, 103; Prof. Spencer Picker- g, F.R.S., 17 ey ir ate | the Protection of the, 612 ald’s Klassiker der Exacten Wissenschaften, Nos. 31-37, cht t 245 Jr. A. C.),the Great Sea Serpent, 506 Richard), Obituary Notice of, 181 ; the Proposed to, 232, 252, 307 al Education at, Lord Salisbury, 449 Society, Inaugural Address by Sir James Parcs Junior Scientific Club, 95, 119, 167, 359, rsity Museum, Catalogue of Eastern and Australian ie ‘ra heterocera in the Collection of the, Col. C. winhoe, 53 ; (Rev. W. H.), Travelling of Roots, 414 gen for Limelight, T. C. Hepworth, 176 Liquid, Use of Total Reflection to Determine Light- tion of, Herren Olszewski and Witkowski, 614 ulture, onthe Attempt at, in the Roscoff Laboratory, Lacaze-Duthiers, 456 Observations on, Prof. R. C. Schiedt, 375 A. Van Bastelaer’s Observations on, 373 ‘ G. Black, 390 Slope, Grasses of the, including Alaska and the adjacent Tslands, Dr. Geo. Vasey, 173 iddington Railway, Clapham Junction and, 515 derborn, Shower of Pond Mussels at, 278 dua, Galileo Galilei and the Approaching Celebration at, Prof. Antonio Favaro, 82, 180 ge (M.), the Stanley Falls District of the Congo, 282 get (Sir George E., K.C.B., F.R.S.), Some Lectures by, 485 Paget (Sir James), Inaugural Address to Oxford Medical Society, Palzolithic or Unground Stage of the Implement-makers’ Art, On the Rude Stone Implements of the Tasmanians, show- ing them to belong to the, Dr. Tylor, 527 Palemonetes Varians, Anatomy of Larva of, E. J.Allen, 237 Palzontology, Discovery of Ureus Arctos in the Malta Pleis- tocene, J. H. Cooke, 62; Relics found in Yorkshire Caves, Rev. Edward Jones, 112; Walrus in the Thames Valley, W. J. L. Abbott, 132 ; Some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sand- stone, E. T, Newton, 189; Death of Dr. D. Stur, 206; Protocerus, the New Artiodactyle, Prof. Henry F. Osborne 321; Restoration of Anchisaurus Colurus, Prof. O. C. Marsh, 349 ; a Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda,. W. H. Hudlestone, F.R.S., and Edward Wilson H. Woods, 363 ; Johns Hopkins University Paleontological Collections, 471 ; Fossil Fauua of the Black Sea, T. J. van Beneden, 544 ; Artionyx—a Clawed Artiodactyle, Prof. Henry F. Osborn, 610; Palzontological Discovery in Australia, Prof, Alfred Newton, F.R.S., 606 Paleozoic Ice-Age, a, W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., tor, 152; Henry F. Blanford, F.R.S., 1o1 Palestine, Geology of, Prof. Edward Hall, F.R.S., 166 Palmberg (Dr. Albert), a Treatise on Public Health, Dr. H. Brock, 507 Palmer (Mr.), a Lilac Colour produced from Extract of Chest- nut, 132 : Papasogli, Colorimeter for Co nparing Intensity of Colour in Solution, 131 Papuans, the Native, T. H. Hatton-Richards, 590 Parallax of 8 Cygni, Harold Jacoby, 399 Parallaxes of u and @ Cassiopeiz, Harold Jacoby, 5 Parasitism of Volucella, W. E. Hart, 78 Parker (J.), Carnot’s Principle applied to Animal and Vege- table Life, 95 Parker (Prof. T. Jeffrey, F.R.S.), on the Cranial Osteology, Classification and Phylogeny of the Dinornithide,, 431 Parker (Prof. W. N.), on an Abnormality in the Veins of the Rabbit, 270 Paris Academy of Sciences, 23, 47, 71, 96, 119, 143, 167, 192, 215, 239, 263, 287, 311, 335, 360, 384, 408, 431, 456, 479, 503, 527, 551, 576, 599, 623; Prize List for 1892, 21 Paris Observatory in 1892, M. Tisserand, 546 Paris, the Question of the Purity of Ice Consumed in, 614 Parry (John), on the American Iron Trade and its Progress during sixteen years, Sir Lowthian Bell, F.R.S., 195 Pasquale (Dr. B.), the ‘‘ Mal Nero” Vine Disease, 130 Pasquale (Cav. G. A.), Death of, 421 Passy (Jacques), Analysis of Complex Odours, 48 Pasteur (M.), Proposed Testimonial to, 37 Pasteur’s (M.), Seventieth Birthday, 204 Patagonia, Idle Days in, W. H. Hudson, Dr. Alf. Russel Wallace, 483 Pathology : the Croonian Lecture, 487 ; on the Histology of the Blood of Rabbits which have been rendered Immune to Anthrax, Lim Boon Keng, 502 Peal (S. E.), Lunar ‘* Volcanoes” and Lava Lakes, 486 Pearcey (F. G.), Foraminifer or Sponge? 390 Peary (Lieut.), Proposed Arctic Expedition of, 133, 452 Pekelharing (Mr.), the Peptone of Kiihne, 624 Peloponnes Der, Versuch einer Landeskunde auf Geologischer Grundlage, Dr. Alfred Philippson, 6 Pencils, Slate, Aluminium, 131 _Penck’s (Prof.), Scheme for a Map of the World ona uniform scale, 426 Perfume Industry, Odorographia: a Natural History of Raw Materials and Drugs used in the, J. Ch. Sawer, 52 Peripatus Egg, the Hatching of a, Arthur Dendy, 508 Perkin (W. H., sen.), Magnetic Rotation of Sulphuric and Nitric Acids, 165 Perigal (Mr. Henry), Complimentary Dinner to, 585 Perigal Family, Longevity of the, Dr. C. T. Williams, 585 Perry (G. H.), Interaction of Iodine and Potassium Chlorate, 6 105 Perry (Prof. J., F.R.S.) on the differential equation of Electric Flow, 574; on the Viscosity of Liquids, 575 Persei, Motion of 8, 115 Persei, Relative Position of Stars in Cluster x, Sir Robert Ball and Arthur Rambaut, 376 XXX Persei, the large Nebula near ¢ (N.G.C. 1499), Dr. Scheiner, 6 Perseids, Observations of, 88 Perthshire Society of Natural Science, Dr. F. B. Waite’s Col- lection of Lepidoptera presented to, 206 Peru (Southern) Indications of a Rainy Period in, A. E. Douglass, 38 Petrel, a Fork-tailed, Newman Neave, 31 Petrie (Prof. W. Flinders), appointed to Chair of Egyptology at University College, London, 111; First Lecture on Egyptology, 278 ; Ancient Egypt, 301 Pflanzeneeben, Anton Kerner von Marilaun, 605 - Phenological Observations for 1892, Report onthe, E. Mawley, fe) Pheaidsn Tombs at Malta, Depredations among the recently- discovered, 396 Philippson (Dr. Alfred), Der Peloponnes ; Versuch einer Lan- deskunde auf Geologischer Grundlage, 6 Phosphate Beds, The Florida, T. N. Lupton, 325 Phosphorescence : a new Luminous Fungus from Tahiti, 157 Phosphorescence in Centipedes, R. I. Pocock, 545 Photography : Traité Encyclopédique de Photographie, Charles Fabre, 6; the Photography of an Image by Reflection, Frederick J. Smith, 10; Photographic Dry Plates, Arthur E. Brown, 11; Coloured Photographs of the Spectrum, G. Lippmann, 23; American Opinion of Photography in Eng- land, Xanthus Smith, 86; a Marual of Photography, A. Brothers, 98; Conditions of Production of Lippmann’s Coloured Photographs, G. Meslin, 157 ; the New Telephoto- graphic Lens, T. R. Dallmeyer, 161; on the Photographic Spectra of some of the Brighton Stars, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 261; Photographic Absorption of our Atmosphere, Prof. Schaeberle, 304; Eclipse Photography, M. De la ‘Baume Pluvinel, 326 ; 2 new Method of Photographing the Corona, M. H. Deslandres, 327; Photography first dis- covered by a Dr. Schultz in Halle, 336; Dust Photographs, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., F. J. Allen, 341; Dust Photographs and Breath Figures, W. B. Croft, 364; on the Progress of the Art of Surveying with the aid of Photography in Europe and America, M. A. Lausedat, 384; on Electric Spark Photographs, or Photography of Flying Bullets, &c., by the Light of the Electric Spark, C Boys, F.R.S., 415, 440; British Journal Photographic Almanac for 1893, 462; Photographic Reproduction of Gratings and Micro- meters engraved on glass, M. Izarn, 479; Photography of certain Phenomena furnished by Combinations of Gratings, M. Izarn, 503; Photography of Gratings engraved upon Metal, M. Izarn, 623; Prof. Hale’s Solar Photograph, 498 ; Photographic Properties of Cerium Salts, MM. Auguste and Louis Lumiére, 503; Equipotential Lines due to current flowing through Conducting Sheet fixed Photographically, E. Lommel, .544 ; Anthropological Uses of the Camera, 548 ; Photographic Chart of the Heavens, M. Loewy, 589 ; Notes on two Photographs of Lightning taken at Sydney Obser- vatory, December 7, 1892, H. C. Russel, F.R.S., 623 Photometer, a Photoptometric, Charles Henry, 24 Photometry : on Phosphorescent Sulphide of Zinc considere1 as a Photometric Standard, Charles Henry, 312 Photomicrography, the Use of Monochromatic Yellow Light in, T. H. Gill, 47 Physics: Berlin Physical Society, 24, 312; the Laws of Com- pressibility of Liquids, E. H. Amagat, 48 ; the Temperature of Maximum Density of Mixtures of Alcohol and Water, L. de Coppet, 48 ; Analysis of Complex Odours, Jacques Passy, 48 ; Physical Society, 69, 116, 165, 190, 358, 381, 429, 500, 574; Mr. Williams on the Relation of the Dimensions of Physical Quantities to Directions in Space, Prof. Fitzgerald, Mr. Madan, Prof. Riicker, Prof. Henrici, Dr. Sumpner, 69 ; Williams on the Dimensions of Physical Quantities, Dr. Burton, Prof. A. Lodge, Mr. Boys, W. Baily, Mr. Swinburne, Mr. Williams,116 ; the Determiration of the Critical Volume, Dr. Young, 70; Mr. Sutherland’s paper on the Laws of Molecular Force, Dr. Young, 70; Prof. Fitzgerald, Dr. Glad- stone, S H. Burbury, Prof. Ramsay, Macfarlane Gray, Prof. Herschel, 117; Lenticular Liquid Microglobules and their Conditions of Equilibrium, C. Maltézos, 71; Dilatation of Iron in a Magnetic Fluid, M. Berget, 71 ; Laws of Dilatation of Gases under Constant Pressure, E. H. Amagat, 96; Con- ditions of Equilibrium and Formation of Microglobules, C. Maltézos, 96 ; the Form of Isothermals of Liquids and Gases, Index June 1, 1893 fs upplement to Nature, q E. H. Amagat, 143; Interesting Results in Appli Cold, 184; Breath Figures, W. B. Croft, 187; Met determining Density of saturated Vapours and Ex Liquids at Higher Temperatures, B. Galitzine, 189 between Velocity of Light and Size of Molecules of R Liquids, P. Joubin, 192 ; Sound and Music, Rev. J. A. 222; Employment of Springs in Measurement of Explo Pressures, 236 ; the Temperature of the Electric Are, J. Vi 240; Magnetic Properties of Oxygen, P. Curie, High Temperatures and Carbon Vaporisation, M. Berthe 240; a Simple Explanation of the Hall Effect, E. | Lommel, 254; on Thermo-Electric Phenomena between two Electrolytes, Henri Bagard, 263; Pure Gases incapable o producing Electrification by Friction, Mr. Wesendonck, 280 ; on the Temperature Coefficient of the Electrical Resistance of Mercury and on the Mercury Resistance of the ae 7 Institution, D, Kreichgauer and W, Jaeger, 286; Diffusi of Light by Rough Surfaces, Christian Wiener, 286; on Solu ility-Curve for Systems oftwo Bodies, Bakhuis Roozeboom, 288 ; Physical Education, Frederick Treves, 292; the Rate of Explosion in Gases, Prof. Harold B. Dixon, 299 ;on a State of Matter characterised by the Mutual Independence of th Pressure and the Specific Volume, P. de Heen, 309; the Thermal Conductivities of Liquid:, R. Wachsmith, 350; o1 a Modification of the Transpiration Method suitable for th Investigation of very Viscous Liquids, C. Brodmann, 357 ; the Viscosity of Liquids, Prof. J. Perry, F.R.S., 575; Isothermals, Isopiestics, and Isometrics relative to Viscosity, C. Barus, 380; Gemeinvers'andliche Vortiige aus dem Gebeite der Physic, Prof. Dr. Leonhard Sohncke, Dr. James L. Howard,361 ; Uses of Planes and Knife Edges in Pendulums for Gravity Measurements, J. C. Mendenhall, 380; the Determination of the Thermal Expansion of Liquids, T. E. Thorpe, 405 ; the Determination of the Thermal Expansion and Specific Volume of certain Paraffins and Paraffin Deriva tives, T. E, Thorpe and L. M. Jones, 495 ;on Electric Spark Photographs or Photography of Flying Bullets, &c., bythe Ligh of the Electric Spark, C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 415, 440; on the Common Cause of Surface Tension and Evaporation of Liquids, G. Van der Mensbrugghe, 428, 621; Description of a Instrument to show the small Variations in the Intensity of Gravitation, M. Bouquet de la Grye, 431 ; Simple Instrument for measuring Densities of Liquids, A. Handl, 471 ; the Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, E. H. Griffiths, 476 5373 the Effects of Mechanical Stress on the Electrical Resist- ance of Metals, James H. Gray and James B. Henderson, 478 ; Photographic Reproduction of Gratingsand Micrometers en _.graved on Glass, M. Izarn, 479 ; Photography of certain Pheno- mena furnished by Combinations of Gratings, M. Izarn, 503 Photography of Gratings engraved upon Metal, M. Izarn, 623 ; the Specific Heat of Liquid Ammonia, C. Ludeking and J. E- Starr, 499 ; on the Influence of Time upon the Mode of Forma- tion of the Meniscus at the Temperature of Transformation, P. de Heen, 500 ; Experiments on the Influence of Temperature on Electromagnetic Rotation of Light in Iron, Cobalt, and Nickel, Prof. Kundt, 503; on the Influence of Temperature upon Circular Ferro-Magnetic Polarisation, Emil Hirsch, 525; Magnetisation of a radially slit Iron Ring, Heinrich Lehmann, 525; on the Stability of a Thin Rod loaded ver- tically, Mr. Love, 526; the Resistance of Ice, M. Force, 564; on the Differential Equation of Electric Flow, T. H. Blakesley, Prof. Perry, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. Sumpner, Mr. Swinburne, 574; on Action of Temperature upon the Rotatory Power of Liquids, M. A. Aignan, 576; Laws and Properties of Matter, R. T.. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 580; the Radiation and Absorption of Heat by Leaves, Alfred Golds- borough Mayer, 596; the Absolute Thermal Conductivities of Copper and Iron, R. Wallace Stewart, 599; Expansion Water at Constant Pressure and at Constant Volume, E. Amagat, 623 ; Physiography, Elementary, Richard A. Gregory, 74: | Physiology : Obstacles to Ice-Formation in Animal Body, Herr Kochs, 16; Introduction to Physiological Psychology, Dr. Theodor Zichen, 28 ; Influence of Bodily Exertion on Di. tive Process, Herr Rosenberg, 62; Further Researches on Nucleinic Acid, Prof. Kossel, 72; a Manual of Veterinary; Physiology, Veterinary-Captain F. Smith, 76; on the| Physiology of Grafting, Dr. Hermann Vochting, 128; the Respiratory Centre, Prof. Gad, 144; Influence on Respira-| tion of Upper Tracts leading fr m Cerebrum to Respiratory i 0 4 aH a «Supplement to peers) i June 1, 1893 Centre, Dr. Ad. Loewy, 144; Sensation of Warmth on immersing Hind in Carbon Dioxide, Dr. R. du Bois Rey- mond, 144 ; Elements of Human Physiology, E. H. Starling, ' 146; the Thyroid Gland (Experiments on Cats), Dr. J Lorrain Smith, 167; Human Physiology, the Blood- essels of the Skin in different Parts, Signor Miner- , 254; Animal Physiology, on the Anatomy of ntastomuin tereliusculum, Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, on the Minute Structure of the Gills of Pulemonetes s, Edgar J. Allen, 261; on the Development of the Nerve of Vertebrates and the Choroidal Fissure of ‘Life, Richard Assheton, 261 ; on the Develop- the Genitai Organs and Ovoid Gland, Axial and Sinuses in Amphiura sguamatz, together with some s on Ludwig’s Hemal System in this Ophiurid, “MacBride, 261; on a New Genus and Species of - Oligocheeta belonging to the Family Rhinodrilidz ns by W. B. Benham, 261; Prof. Exner on ration of the Crico-Thyroid Muscle in Rabbits and 287 ; ‘ve lg of Microscopic Objects which placed in a Stereoscope presented an Appearance of , Dr. Hausemann, 287; Custom of Civilised Races uity to establish Themselves in Dry Districts, Prof. 287; Berlin Physiological Society, 287, 552; idiatches on the Contractility of the Biood- {. L. Ranvier, 312; Vegetable Physiology, Re- 1 the Localisation of the Fatty Oils in the Germina- ds, M. Eugéne Mesnard, 312; on the Pepto- ction of the Blood and the Organs, M. R. the Pancreas and the Nervous Centres control- nic Function, Prof. Kaufmann, 479; the Pan- ie Nerve-Centres regulating the Glycemic yerimental Demonstrations derived from a on of the Effects of a Removal of the Pancreas with Bulbary Section, MM. A. Chaveau and M. Kauf- 28; Four Experiments on Nutrition, Dr. vou 3 on the Origin of the Mammalian Hair, M. ; on Numerical Variation in Digits in Illustration of “aa Bateson, 503; Experiments on of Fasting Men, Dr. J. Munk, Prof. Zuntz, 552; the Formation of Sweat, Dr. Lewy-Dorn, after the Successive Section of. both the Vagi, M. C. Vanlair, 621; on the Digestion ta, Marcelin Chapeaux, 621 : , Biological Relations between Plants and a rof. E. C.), the Harvard College Observatory, Jupiter and his Satellites, 518 ‘of. Spencer, F.R.S.), Osmotic Pressure, 175 _U.), Refractive Indices and Magnetic Rotations Acid Solutions, 165; Some Alkylamine Hy- 65; Isolation of two predicted Hydrates of Nitric ; the Hydrates of Hydrogen Chloride, 479 rof. W. H.), the Recent Opposition of Mars, 235 Raoul), Sarasin and de la Rive’s Experiments in nent of Rate of Herz Electric Waves, 336 of Science, Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 268 Coal Pits and, R. Nelson Boyd, 481 {. de), the Schiseophone, 23 — ames, African, the Orthography of, 400 Nan of German Protectorates, Official Rules for Em.), Preparation of Metallic Chromium by Electro- ‘tmospheres of, 18 3, the Light of, 64; John Garstang, 77 Nebulz, Spectra of, and Nova Aurige, M. Eugen 352 Linor, 352, 457 the, Camille Flammarion, William J. S. Lockyer, ia (james) Death of, 60 lantamour (P.), Odservations of Earth Oscillations, 254 ‘lants, Climbing, Dr, H. Schenck, W. Botting Hemsley, ie F.R.S., 514 | Plants, the Food of, A. P. Lauri, 556 ~ | Playfair (Lord), on Scientific Education, 301 layfair (Lieut.-Colonel Sir R. Lambert), Morocco, 298 ‘liocene Geology, Difficulties of, Sir Henry H. Howorth, 150, 270° ; Index XXXI Plon, Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu, Dr. Otto Zaccharias, 461 Pluvinel (M. de la Baume), Eclipse of April 16, 1893, 281, 304 ; Eclipse Photography, 326 Plymouth Marine Biological Station, the Week’s Work of the, 398, 424, 451, 472, 497, 518, 546, 565, 589, 616 Plymouth Marine Biological Association, Dredging Work, 375 Pocock (R. J.), Phosphorescence in Centipedes, 545 Podolia, a Curious Mountain G-oup in, 617 Poincaré (H.), Théorie Mathématique de la Lumiére, A. B. Basset, F.R.S., 386 Polakowsky (Dr. H.), the Boundaries of Costa Rica and Nicaragua, 257 Polarisation of Light: Use of Half-Shade Polarimeters, Dr. Lummer, 312; Prof. Goldstein’s Experiments, 312 Pole (Dr. W.), Colour Blindness, 335 Polecat not Extinct in Cardiganshire, J. W. Salter, 450 Pollard (W.), a Brilliant Meteor, 247 Polynesia; the Tokelaus, 423 Polynesian Ornament-Forms, Mythographie Origin of, Dr. H. C. March, 239 -Ponza, Earthquake in, 86 Pope (W. J.), Sulphonic Derivatives of Camphor, 405 Popular Lectures on Physical Subjects, Dr. James L. Howard, 261 Port Erin (Isle of Man) Marine Biological Station, 515 Porter (Prof. J. G.), Motion of the Solar System, 41 Potato Disease, Observations on the, Dr. J. Bohm, 254 Potato as a Diagnostic Agent in Bacteriology, Herr Krannhals, 545 Potential, Discovery of the, Ottavio Zanotti Bianco, Dr. E. J. Routh, F.R.S., 510 Potsdam Magnetic Observatory, Improvements in Registration of Needle’s Variations, Herr Eschenhagen, 544 Pottery Glazes, W. P. Rix, 396 Pottery, Nicobar, E. H. Man, 455 Poulton (Edward B., F.R.S.), the Volucelle as Examples of Aggressive Mimicry, 28 ; the Volucelle as alleged Examples of Variation ‘‘almost unique among Animals,” 126; Soot- Figures on Ceilings, 608 Pound, Imperial Standard, Decrease in Weight of, 86 Power Distribution, Electric Lighting and, W. Perren May- cock, 269 Praeger (R. L.), What is the True Shamrock ? 302 Prantl (Dr. Karl), Death and Obituary Notice of, 495 . Preece (W. H., F.R.S.), the Growth of Electrical Industry, 327 ; _ on Lightning Protection, Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 536 Prehistoric Anthropology ; the Quaternary Deposits in Russia and their Relations to the Finds resulting from the Activity of Prehistoric Man, S. Nikitine, 523 Prehistoric Archeology and Anthropology, the Congress of, 523 Prehistoric Drawings on Limestone, Discovery near Schaff- hausen of, J. Naue, 279 Prehistoric Ethnography of Central and North-East Russia, J. Smirnov, 524 International Prehistoric Peoples, Manners and Monuments of, Marquis de Nadaillac, 316 Prescot Watch Factory, the ; Address by Lord Kelvin, 279 Preservation of the Native Birds of New Zealand, 394 Pressure, Osmotic, J. W. Rodger, 103; Prof. Spencer Picker- ing, F.R.S., 175 Prince (Prof. Edward), appointed Commissioner of Fisheries for Canada, 37 Printing Mathematics, W. Cassie, 8; Dr. M. J. Jackson, 227 Prior (G. T.), the Rare Silver Minerals Xanthoconite and Rittingerite, 70 Pritchard (Prof. Chas., F.R.S.), Lord Kelvin, 110 Prizes, Astronomical Journal, 282 Problems in Navigation, Graphical Solutions of, 547 Projectiles, Oscillation of, Experiments on Photographic Re- cording of, Prof. Neesen, 216 Projection Microscope, the Reflector with the, G. B. Buckton, (R:S.} 5458 Prominences, Ultra-Violet Spectrum in, Prof. G. E. Hale, 186 Proper Motions, M. Deslandres, 115 Property: Its Origin and Development, Char‘es Letourneau, 123 Protection, Ligh'ning, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on, Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.K.S., 536 XXXII Lndex Supplement to Nature, June 1, 1893 Protocerus, the New Artiodactyle, Prof. Henry F. Osborn, 321 Protoplasms, Pref. Biitschli’s Experiments on the so-called Artificial, Dr, W. H. Dallinger, 526 Prussian Government, the Centigrade Thermometer adopted by the, 60 Psychology, Introduction to Physiological, Dr. Theodor Ziehen, 28 Psychological Association, American. 348 Psychological Laboratory at Yale College, Establishment of, 253 Public Health, a Treatise on, and its Applications in different Evropean Countries, Dr. Albert Palmberg, Dr. H. Brock, 507 Public Schools, Science in the, and the Scientific Branches of the Army, 513 Pupin (I.), a Method of obtaining Alternating Currents of Constant and Easily-Determined Frequency, 586 Purdie (T.), Optically Active Ethoxysuccinic Acid, 311; the Resolution of Methoxysuccinic Acid into its Optically Active Components, 311 Putnam (Prof.), Archzeological Work in America, 474 Pyrenees, Racial Dwarfs in the, R. G. Haliburton, 294; Wm. McPherson, 294 Pyrometry : Experiments to Determine Temperature of Flame of Water-gas, E. Blass, 113 Qualitative Chemical Analysis, Notes on, P. Lakshmi Narasu Nayudu, 100 Qualities, Physical, Williams on the Dimensions of, Dr. Burton, Prof. A. Lodge, Mr. Boys, W. Baily, Mr. Swinburne, Mr. Williams, 116 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 260, 524 Quaternions, Alex. McAulay, 151 Quaternions and the Algebra of Vectors, Prof. J. Willard Gibbs, 6 Quaternions, Vectors versus, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 533 Quetta Railway Constructors, Troubles of the, 325 Quetta, Earthquake at, 470 Rabbit, on an Abnormality in the Veins of the, Prof. W. N. Parker, 270 Rabbit Tamed, a Wild, Helen J. Murray, 86 Rabbit, Unusual Origin of Arteries in the, Philip J. White, 365 Race in Anthropology, M. Topinard on, 524 Racial Dwarfs in the Pyrenees, R. G. Haliburton, 294 ; Wm. McPherson, 294 Radiation (of Heat), Comparison of Formule for Total, W. de C. Stevens, 188 Radiolaria, the Rising and Sinking Process Verworn, 397 Railway Constructors, Troubles of the Quetta, 325 Railway, Paddington and Clapham Junction, 515 Railway, the South Kensington Laboratories and, 494 Railways: Mr. Robert Dundas on Improvements in Rolling Stock, 131 Railways in China, 400 Railways, Electrical, Dr. Edward Hopkinson, 570 Rain, Superabundant, Sir H. Collett, 247 Rainbow, Lunar, in the Highlands, 342 Rainfall, a Remarkable, Alfred O. Walker, 31 Raisin (Catharine A.), Variolite of the Lleyn and associated Volcanic Rocks, 334 Ramage (H.), Manganese Borate, 239 Rambaut (Prof. A.), Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars, 226; Relative Position in Cluster x Persei, 376 Ramsay (Prof.), Mr. Sutherland’s Paper on the Laws of Mole- cular Force, 117 Ramsay (W.), Atomic Weight of Boron, 165 Rance (Chas. E. De), Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate, 294, in the, Herr 342 Rankin’s (Mr. D, J.) Zambesi Journey, 64 Ranvier (M. L.), Microscopic Researches on the Contractility of the Blood- Vessels, 312 ; the Clasmatocytes, the Fixed Cellules of the Connective Tissue, and the Pus Globules, 408 Raps (Dr. August), Automatic Mercurial Air-Pumps, 369; Photographic Registration Apparatus, 503 Rayleigh (Lord, F.R.S.), the Densities of the Principal Gases, 567 Reade (T. Mellard), wastes Ice Ages, 174 Rebeur-Paschwitz (Dr. E. von), the Horizontal Pendulum, 51¢ Reduction of Tidal Observations, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F, gS 3% 402 done! Beside the Photography of an Image by, Frederick i mith, 10 a TRE. the, with the Projection Microscope, G. B. Buckton, F.R Registering Instruments or Indicators, General Conditions tobe fulfilled by, M. A. Blondel, 599 bei Reid (Clement), a Fossiliferous Pleistocene Deposit at Stone on | the Hampshire Coast, 502 & Reliquary, the Quarterly Archeological Journal and Review, ie Research, Berlin Academy Grants in Aid of, 58 Research, Universities and, Prof. George Francis Fitz- gerald, 100 : Rive (M. de la), Improvement on the Herz Oscillator, 184 ‘f Reveries of a Naturalist, W. H. Hudson, Dr. Alfred Russel | Wallace, 483 oon Se aN i REVIEWS AND OUR BOOKSHELF :— al i The Study of Animal Life, J. Arthur Thempadas aa Principles of the Algebra of Vectors, A. Macfarlane, 3 “& Le Léman. Monographie Limnologique, F. A. Forel, Prof. | T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 5 ¥ Horn Measurements and ‘Weights of the Great Game of the World, being a Record for the Use of Sportsmen and Naturalists, Rowland Ward, 6 i” Der Peloponnes. Versuch einer Landeskunde auf Geologischer Grundlage, Dr. Alfred Philippson, 6 Traité Encyclopédique de Photographie, Charles Fabre, 6 i The Reliquary: Quarterly Archzological Journal and Review, 7 Experimental Evolution, Henry de Varigny, 25 3 British Fungus i a Classified Text-book of Mycology: § George Massee, Marine Shells of tach Africa, G. B. Sowerby, 27 q The Framework of Chemistry, W. M. Williams, 28 a The Beauties of Natureand the Wonders of the World We | Live in, Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart, F.R.S., 28 | Algebra for Beginners, by H. S. Hall and §. R. Knight, 28 | Introduction to Physiological Psychology, Dr. Theodor * Ziehin, 28 a sg ty Map of Scotland, Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. A fica, i. ae 49 a Medical Microscopy, F. J. Wethered, Dr. A. H. Tubby, 5r Odorographia ; a Natural History of Raw Materials and Drugs | used in ihe Perfume Trade, J. C. Sawer, 52 y Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum, Col. C. Swinhoe, 53 5 Charles Darwin: His Life Told in an Autobiographical! Chapter and in a Selected Series of his Published Letters, 3 Strange Survivals: Some Chapters in the Bia of Man,4 S. Baring-Gould. 53 q Animals’ Rights, a. - Salt, 73 A Description of the Laws and Wonders of Nature, Richard A. Gregory, 74 A Handybook for Brewers, H. E. Wright, 75 A Manual for Veterinary Physiology, Vet. “Captain F. Smith, | 76 The Principal Starches Used as Food, Wm. Griffiths, 76 Les Alps Frangaises, Albert Falsan, 76 j Chemical Lecture Experiments, G. S. Newth, Sir H E. Roscoe, F.R.S., 97 A Manual of Phoicecibe, A. Brothers, 98 Matriculation Chemistry, Temple Orme, 99 _ Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms: a Popular History of Entomogenous Fungi, or Fungi Parasitic upon Insects, | M. C. Cooke, 99 Notes on Qualitative Chemical Analysis, by P. Lakshmi Narasu Nayudu, wee Science Instruments, I In Savage Isles and Settled Lands, B. F. S. Baden- Powell, IZ2 Property, its Origin and Development, Chas. Letourneau, 123. Outlines of Organic apy C. J. Leaper aa An Introduction to the Study of Botany, with a Spee i] : Supplement to Nature, June 1, 1893 Lndex XXXIll _ Chapter on Some Australian Natural Orders, Arthur Dendy - and A, H. S. Lucas, 125 _ A German Science Reader, Francis Jones, 125 More About Wild Nature, Mrs. Brightwen, 125 * “Element of Human Physiology, E. H. Starling, 146 pigs Manual on Applied Mechanics, Prof. Jamieson, Eitan i the Glacial Period, G. F. Wright, 148 _ Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, ‘and other Insects, A. W. Kapple and W. E, Kirby, 148 _ Osiwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, Nos. 31-37, és Te Miao of Birds: an Attempt to Reduce Avian _ _ Season-Flight to Law, Charles Dixon, 1 Electric Lighting treated from the Consumer's _ Point of View, E. C. De Segundo, 172 of the Pacific Slope, including Alaska and the Adja- cent Islands, Dr. George Vasey, 173 Lids to Experimental Science, Andrew Gray, 173 ence in Arcady, Grant Allen, 173 Visible Universe, J. Ellard Gore, A. Taylor, 193 n the American Iron Trade and its Progress during Sixteen Years, Sir Lowthian Bell, f.R.S., John Parry, 195 Fauna and Flora of Gloucestershire, Charles A. Witchell and W. Bishop Strugnell, 197 Chemistry of Life and Health, C. W. Kimmins, 198 ked-Eye Botany, with Illustrations and Floral Problems, How they are Grown, Selina Cas 198 4 gers peo mt Rey. J. A. Zahn, 22 _ Atlas der Volkerkunde, Dr. George Gortand: Dr. Edward B. Tyler, F.R.S., 223 rologia, or The History and Traditions of the Canadian ver, Horace Martin, 224 mn. Sir k. S. Ball, F.R.S., 225 tion to ae aesweleane of Seedlings, Rt. Hon. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S., Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, c 2 A Study in Comparative Statistics, Diney, 244 y Text-Book of Hygiene, H. Rowland Ona Klas der Exakten Wissenschaften, Nos. 38— Eine Theorie der Vererbung, August Dn, 265 The omer of Co-planar Vectors and Trigonometry, R. Hayward, F.R.S., 266. ossil Plants as Tests of Climate, being the Sedgwick Prize Essay is the Year 1892, A. C. Seward, J. Starkie } 7 s ioncers of Science, Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 268 i 2 Lighting and Power Distribution, W. Perren ie i. peck, 269 The- aturalist on the River Amazons, Henry Walter Bates, = st pe) Numbers, G. B. Mathews, 289 Darwin and after Darwin: an Examination of the Dar- winian Theory, and a Discussion of Post-Darwinian Questions, George John Romanes, F.R.S., 290 The Ferns of South Africa, containing Descriptions and i of the Ferns and Fern-allies of South Africa, Thomas R. Sim, J..G. Baker, F.R.S., 291 ‘N *s Populare Astronomie, Zweite ver- ee Auflage, Dr, H. C. Vogel, 291 go adigade Heteroptera of the British Islands, Edward Physical ion, Frederick Treves, 292 ext-book of Tropical Agriculture, H. A. Alford eesieariss abe pie Zelle und Die Gewebe, Grundziige der aligemeinen Ana- _ tomie und Physiologie, Prof, Dr. Oscar Hertwig, 314 _ Elementary Mechanics of Solids and Fluids, A. L. Selby, 315 Penn and Electricity, R. W. Stewart, 315 _ Manners and Morals of Prehistoric Peoples, Marquis de Nar- daillac, 316 _ The Milky Way from the North Pole to 10° of South De- . E. Kitchener, 1 The Great World's Fics: Some Account of Nature’s Crops |. clination, drawn at the Earl of Rosse’s Ob:ervatory at Birr Castle, Otto Boeddicker, 337 The Theory of Substitutions and its Applications to Algebra, Dr. Eugen Netto, 338 Das Centralnervensystem von Protopterus annectens ; cine vergleichend Anatomische Studie, Dr. Rudolf Burckhar 339 The Chemical Basis of the Animal Body, A. Sheridan Lee, F.R.S., 340 ‘ Chambers’s Encyclopzedia, vol. x., 340 Arthur Young’s Tour in Ireland, 1776-79, 341 Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Reactions of certain Or- ganic Substances, E. A. Letts ; Chapman Jones, 361 Gemeinverstiindliche Vortrage aus dem Gebeite der Physic, Prof. Dr. Leonhard Sohncke ; Dr. James L. Howard, 362 A Catalogue of British Gasteropoda, Wis Ha. Hudleston, F.R.S., and Edward Wilson, H. Woods, 363 The Year Book of the Imperial Institute of the United King- dom, the Colonies and India, 363 Beneath Helvellyn’s Shade, Samuel Barber, 364 Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature, Henry Calderwood, 385 Théorie ie arch de Ja Lumiére, H. Poincaré ; A. B. Basset, F.R.S., 386 The Fauna of British India peeing 5 dil and Burma, 387 The Year-book of Science (1892), 38 Treatise on Thermodynamics, Peter a eseic. 388 Medizval Lore: an Epitome of the Science, Geography, Animal and Plant Folklore and Myth of the Middle Ages, Robert Steele, 388 Astronomy for Every- day Readers, B. J. Hopkins, 389 The Microscope: its Construction and Management, Dr. Henri van Heurck, 409 The Earth’s History : an Introduction to Modern Geology, R. D. Roberts, 412 The Health Officer’s Pocket-book, E. F. Willoughby, 412 Engler’s Botanische Jabrbiicher fur Systematik, Pflanzen- geschichte und Pflanzengeographie, 413 Descriptive Geometry Models for the Use of Students in Schools and Colleges, I. Jones, 413 Théorie du Soleil, A. Brester, 433 A Course of Practical Elementary Biology, John Bidgood, 434 Stéréochimie, J. H. van’t Hoff, 436 Die Fossile Flora der Héttinger Breccie, R. Von Wettstein, 43 Observational Astronomy, Arthur Mee, 437 Mechanics and Hydrcstatics for Beginners, S. L. Loney, 437 A Vertebrate Fauna ot Lakeland, including Cumberland and Westmorland, with Lancashire North of the Sands, Rev. Hie-As Macpherson, 457 Die Entwickelung der Doppelstern-Systeme, T. J. J. See, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 459 Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., E. Wilson, 460 F orschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plén, Dr. Otto Zacharias, 461 The British et Photographic Almanac for 1893, J. Traill Taylor, 462 Studies in Corsica, John Warren Barry, 462 Coal Pits and Pitmen: a Short History of the Coal Trade and the Legislation affecting it, R. Nelson Boyd, 481 Idle Days in Patagonia, W. H. Hudson, Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace, 483 Ueber das Verhalten des Pollens und die Befruchtungsvor- gange bei den Gymnospermen, Eduard Strasburger, 484 Autres Mondes, Amédée Guillemin, 485 Some Lectures by the late Sir George E. Paget, K.C.B., F.R.S., 48 Electrical Papers, Oliver Heaviside, 505 The Great Sea-Serpent, A. C. Oudemans, 506 A Treatise on Public Health and its Applications in Different European Conntries, Albert Palmberg, M.D., Dr. H. Brock, 507 The English Flower Garden, W. Robinson, 5c8 Logarithmic Tables, Prof. George Willlam Jones, 508 Catalogue of the British Echinoderms in the British Museum, F. Jeffrey Bell, 508 Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, A. E. H. .Lowe, Prof, A. G. Greenhill; F.R.S., 529 SXNTV Text-book of Elemen‘ary Biology, H. J. Campbell, 530 Contribution aV’E: a de la Morphologie et du Développement des Bacteériacées, A. Billet, Dr. Rubert Boyce, 532 Introduc ory M dern G om-try of Puint, Ray, and Circle, W. B. Smith, 532 Primer of Horticulture, J. Wright, 533 Ornithology in Relation to A eset ate and Horticulture. John Watson, Walter Thorp, 533 La Planete Mats et ses Canines d' Habita vilité, Camille Flammarion, William J. S. Lockyer, 553 Magnetische Beohachtungen auf der Nordsee angestellt in den Jahren 1884 bis 1886, 1890, und 1891, A. Schiivk, 555 Manual of Dairy Work, James Muir, Walter Thorp, 555 William Gilbert, of Colchester, Physician of London, on the Loadstone and M, iguetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Eaith, P. Fleury Mottelay, 556 Report on Manuria! Trials, Dr. William Somerville, 556 The Food of Plants, A. P. Laurie, 556 Text-book of Com; :arative Geology, E. Kayser, 578 Der Nord-Ostsee Kanal, C. on 379 Laws and Properties of Matter, R 580 The Partition of Afica, J. Scott Keltie, 580 Forest Tithes and other Studies from Nature, by a Son of the Marshes, 580 Waterdale Researches : dale, 601 Textbook of Biology, H. G. Wells, 605 Pflanzenleben, Anton Kerner von Marilaun, 605 Bibliografica Medica Italiana, P. Giacosa, 606 The Evolution of Decorative Art, Henry Balfour, 606 Reyer (Prof. E.), Experiments on Folding and on the Genesis of Mountain Ranges, 81 Reymond (Dr. R. du Bois), ene of Warmth on. Immersing Hand in Carbon Dioxide, 1 Rhodes (Cecil), Proposed Exploration of Africa: by Telegraph, 210 Ricci (Admiral Marquis), Munificent Bequest for Founding Scientific Institution in Genoa by, 613 Ricco (M.), Sun-spots and Magnetic Perturbations in 1892, 352; Fumo di Vulcano Veduto dall’ Osservatorio di Palermo durante Veruzione del 1889, 428; La Grandissima Macchia Solare del Febbrajo 1892, 429 ; Stromboli, 453 Richards (J. T.), Arborescent Frost Patterns, 162 Richer (Paul), the Relation of Anatomy to Art, 470 Ridley (Sir M. W.), on Technica) Education, 130 Rifles, the Making of, John Rigby, 163 Rights, Animals’, H. S. Salt, 73 ; the Reviewer, 151 Rimington (J. W.), Experiments in Electric: and Magnetic Fields, Constant and Varying, 165 Rising and Setting of Stars, the, 519 Rix (W. P.), Pottery Glazes, 396 Roberts (J. W.). Comet Holimes, 256 Roberts (R. D.), the Earth’s History: Modern oy 412 Roberts (S., F.R Hyper-magic Squares, 71 Roberts (T.), Notes on the Geology of the District West of Caermarthen, 407 Robeit--Austen (Prof. W. C., F.R.S.), the Alloys Research Committee, Second Report, 617; the Action of Bismuth on Copper, 618 Robertson (Dr. W. G. Aitchison), on the Madder-staining of Dentine, 287 Robinson (W.), the English Flower Garden, 508 Roche’s Limit, 509 ; Prof. G. H. Darwin, E.R. Sv) 5S2 Rockhill (E. Woodville), Mongolia and Central Tibet, 426 Rodger (J. W.), Osmotic Pressure, 103 Roger (E.), the Fifth goo of Jupiter, 71 Romanes (Dr. Geo. J., F.R.S.), a Criticism on Darwin, 127; Darwin and after Baeeia. 290 Rome, Solar Observations at, Prof. Tacchini, 304, 399, 565 Roots, Travelling of, W.T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R:S., 414 Roozeboom (Bakhuis), on the Solubility Curve for Systems of Two Bodies, 288 ; Cryohydrates in Systems of Two Salts, 624 Rorie (Dr. James), a Brilliant Meteor, 495 Koscoe (Sir Henry E., F.R.S.), Chemical Lecture Experiment, 97; the Manchester Municipal Technical School, 201 ; Technical Ed:cation in B.rmingham, 301 T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., Fresh Light on Dynamics, Water- an Introduction to /nacr | Roscoff Laboratory, on the mts at Oyster Culture in r .S.), Certain General Limitations affecting | [Se to Nature a 4 June i, 1893 * M. de Lacaze Duthieis, 456 Rosenberg (Herr), Influence of Bodily Exertion on Dige Process, 62 Rothamsted Agricultural: Experiments, Proposed Commen tion of the Jubilee of Sir John Lawes, 448 é Rotch (A. L. i, Meteorological Balloon Ascent at Berlin, October 24, 1891, 4 ee sok (1or. i J., F.R.S.) Discovery of the Poten’ial, 510 R wland(Vrof. H. A. ), A New Table of Standard Wave-lengt Royal College of Sipice the Proposed New ees for the, F Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, 448 ‘" Royal Dublin society, 287, 431 4 Royal Geographical Society, 65, 89, 115, 209 ; Women not to | be admitted as Fellows, 617 ; Medal Awards, 617 at Royal Meteorological Society, 118, 286, 333, 430, 592, 623 Royal Microscopical Society, 47, 118, 359, 501, 526 an Royal Society, 37, 94, 164, 182, 189, 237, 261, 310, 331, 358, 381, 429, 476, 596, 621 ; Medal Awards, 60; Anniversary | of the, 106: Anniversary Dinner of the, 134 5 pen ieee of the, 145 te i Royal Society of New South Wales, 311, 335 © | ce Rubens (H.),-a Modified Astatic Galvanometer, 455 4% Ruby, Valuable, discovered at Burma Mines, 586 — a Riicker (Prol.), Williams on the Relation of the Dimensions of | Physical Quantities to Directions in Space, 69 y: Ruhemann (5.), the Formation of Benzyldihydroxypyridine from q Benzylglutaconic Acid, 311 { Rule for Finding the Day of the Week Corresponding to any) given Day of the Month and Year,.a Simple, 509 : Ruoss (H. is conver for Determining Refractive Index ° a Liguid, j Rosen (a ‘C., F.R.S.), Curious Drift ot a ‘Cumat Bottle, | Lis Physical Geography and Climate of New South Wales, | 258; Moving Anti-Cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere, | 286; Hail “Storms, 573; Notes of two Photographs o | Lightning taken at Sydney Observatory, December 7, 1892, | Russi sre L.) on the Bacterial Investigation ¢ cs the Sea and its, Floor, 285 ! Russell (Hon, R.), Dew and Frost, 210 Fs Russia: Attempted Silk Production in South Ruse; 184; the Pinsk Marshes and non-Russian Atlases, M. Venukoff, 282 ; Constitution of the Quaternary Deposits i in Russia and their Relations to the Finds Resulting from the ot of Pre- historic Man, S. Nikitine, 523; Russian S$ Past end Present, Prof. W. W. Dokoutchaiev, 5233 Which is the most Ancient Race in Russia? Prof. A. Hogtanov, 524; Pre-- historic Ethnography of Central and orth -east Russia, J. Smirnov, 524 3 Ruthenium, M. Joly, 451 Rutherfurd Measures of Stars about B- Cronk Prof, Harold acoby, 77 Raley (h (F nate on the Dwindling and Disappearance OF hike stones, 623 Sabatier (Paul) on Nitrogenised Copper, es ae Sacken (Baron C. R. Osten), Iridescent Colours, 102° Sacred Nile, the, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 464 Sailors, Defective Vision in, Association of Shipping Disasters with, Dr. T. H. Bickerton, 17 Saint Martin (M. L. de) on the Mode of Elimination of Carbonic Oxide, 384 Satamande: from North America, a New Blind Cave, Is. Stejneger, 62 Salinity of Great Salt Lake, Utah, 302 Salis (M. de), the Regulation of Swiss Torrents, 377 . Salisbury (1 ord), Medical Education at Ox‘ord, 449 Salt: (Hi. 5.), tibial Rights, 73, 127 Salter (J. W.), Polecat not Extinct in Cardiganshire, 450 Samothrace, Earthquake in, 372 > Sanderson (Prof. Burdon), Electric Currents in Plants, 255. Sanderson (F.. W.), Science Teaching, 35 Sandgate, Landslip a 449; Prof. J. F. Blake, 467 ; Rev. Dr : Irving, F.R.S., Sanitarian’s Travels, A Robert Boyle, 105 Sanitary Appliances, Hornsey Local Board Museum of, es! Sanitary Convention Signed, International, 585 Supp ee | ‘fl aS June 1, 1893 Index XXXV n: a Treatise on Public Health, Dr. Albert Palmberg, . Brock, 507 asin (M.), Improvement on the H:rz Oscillator, 184 tellite, Jupiter's Fifth, A. A. Common, 208; E. E. Barnard, rs, the Sizes of, J. J. Landerer, 473 el fer and his, Prof. Pickering, 518 under: jard), the Hemiptera Heteroptera of the British vage Isles, and Settled Lands in: Malaysia, Australasia, Polynesia, 1888-1891, B. F. S. Baden- Powell, 122 .), the Destruction of Ancient Monuments in rica, 302 _Odorographia: a Natural History of Raw Drugs used in the Perfume Industry, 52 Catal ue of Southern Star Magnitudes, 589 farkings on Mars, 209; Photographic our Atmosphere, 304 sen, Discovery of Prehistoric Drawings on Limestore le (Carl Wilhelm), Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., 152; osed Testimonial to, 37 : er (Dr. J.), Astronomy of the Invisible, 88 ; the Large ebula near ~ Persei (N. G. C., 1499), 546 Dr. H.), Climbing Plants, W. Botting Hemsley, "R. C.), Observations on Oysters, 375 in, Distribution of Population of, Dr. A. Gloy, in Apparatus for Measuring and Registering 21 | n Committee, Formation of, 613 Comet Barnard (October 12), 18; Comet he Beobachtungen auf der Nordsee ren 1884 bis 1886, 1890 und 1891, 555 -OMet Holmes, 256, 451, 498 hotography first Discovered by, 336 Victor), Hydrogen Line H8 in the Spectrum 42 _F.R.S.), Notes on some Ancient Dyes, 22 rthur, F.R.S.), Dr. Joule’s Thermometers, Frederick), Death of, 65 ; the Cause of Death tific Titles ; Abuse of Letters indicating Member- sieties, Prof. Tilden, 15 ; Science and Brewing, H. 753 Science Instiuments, 100 ; a German Science Francis Jones, 125; Laying Foundation Stone of castle College of Science, 129; Science in Arcaty, Allen, 173; Aids to Experimental Science, Andrew » 173; Scientific Worthies—Sir Archibald Geikie, Prof, e Lapparent, 217 ; Shaking the Foundations of Science, ; Pioneers of Science, Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S., 268; se Teaching, F. W. Sanderson, Prof. A. M. Worthing- Cumming, Dr. Stoney, W. B. Croft, Prof. Ayrton, ; , Dr. Gladstone, 358 ; the Year-Book of Science ), 388; the proposed New Buildings for the Royal of Science, Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, 448; Forthcoming Books, 453; Science in the Public Schools and in ‘Scientific Branches of the Army, 513; Durham College e, Appeal for Relief from Financial Difficulties, 58 clerometer, a New, Paul Jannetaz, 564. scotland : Geological Map of Scotland, Sir Archibald Geikie, _ F.R.S., Prof. A. H: Green, F.R.S., 49; the Fishery Board for, 85; Geology of, Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole, 101 ; the - Plague of Field Voles in, 155 ; Scottish Geographical Society, Sees Geological Map of Scotland, Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., 173; the Mice Pest in Scotland, 395 ; Scottish eteorological Society, 469; Report of the Scottish Tech- nical Education Commitiee, 543; the Colour- Variations of the Voles of Southern Scotland, Robert Service, 587; the _ Protection of the Osprey in Scotland, 612 ; colt (Dr. D. H.), Teaching of Botany, 228 ae Screen, a Magnetic, Frederick J. Smith, 439 Sea-Anemones, Food-recognising Sense of, Herr Nagel, 185 Sea Fish, the Protection of, C. H. Cook, 396 Sea-Serpent, the Great, Dr. A. C. Oudemans, 506 Sealing Industry, the, 350 Searle (Arthur), Observations of Zodiacal Light, 473 Searle (Rev. E. M.), Comet Holmes, 256 Sedgwick Prize Essay for the Year 1892, Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate, A. C. Seward, J. Starkie Gardner, 267 Sedlaczek (G.), Silk Culture in the Caucasus, 397 See (T. J. J.), Die Entwickelung der Dopplestern-Systeme, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 459 Seedlings, a Contribution of Our Knowlelge of, Sir John * Lubbock, F.R.S., Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S., 243 Seeds, Foods, Dangers of Adulteration with Corn-Cockle of, 105 Segundo (E. C. De), Domestic Electric Lighting, Treated from the Consumer’s Point of View, 172 Seismograph, a New, Dr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, 257 Sulby (A, L.), Elementary Mech nics of Solids and Fluids, 315 Selous (F. C.), Twenty Years in Zambesia, 377 Senderens (J. B.), on Nitrogenised Copper, 600 Sensitiveness of the Eye to Light and Colour, Capt. W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 538 Sergent (C. S.), The Silva of North America, Prof. W. R. Fisher, 275 Servia, Earthquake in, 562 Service (Robert), the Colour- Variations of the Voles of Southern Scotland, 587 Seven Images of the Human Eye, M. Tcherning, 354 Sewage Water, Filtered, Favourable to Fish Life, 350 Seward (A. C.), Fossil Plants as Test of Climate, being the Sedgwick Prize Essay for the Year 1892, J. Starkie Gardner, 267 ; on a New Fern from the Coal Measures, 360 Sexual Differences of Colour in Eclectus, the Cause of the, Prof. A. B. Meyer, 486 Shaking the Foundations of Science, 220 Shamrock ? What is the True, Nathaniel Colgan, R. L, Praeger, 302 Sharp (Dr.), on Stridulating Ants, 501 : ' Shaw-Lefevre (Mr. ), the proposed New Buildings for the Royal College of Science, 448 23 sp (D.}, Refraction and Dispersion of Light in Metal Prisms, Shells, Marine, of South Africa, G. B. Sowerby, 27 Shenstone (W, A.), the Preparation of Phosphoric Oxide Free from the Lower Oxide, 430; Note on the Preparation of Platinous Chloride and on the Interaction of Chlorine and Mercury, 479 Shepheard (W. F.), the Identity of Caffeine and Theine and the Interactions of Caffeine and Auric Chloride, 311 Sherwood (William), Glaciers of Val d’Herens, 174 Shuswap Indians (British Columbia), Lizard Superstition of, Dr. George Dawson, F.R.S., 184 Shuswaps of British Colimbia, Superstitions of the, Col. C. Bushe, 199 Shield (Mr.), the Screw Propeller, 21 Shinn (Miss Milicent W.), the Lick Observatory, 209 Shipping Disasters, Association with Defective Vision in Sailors of, Dr. T. H. Bickerton, 16 Siberia, Further Researches in, M. Obrutcheff, 255 Siemens Platinum Foil Unit as a Standard for the intensity of a Source of Light, Researches at the Berlin Imperial Physico- Technical Institute on the, 615 : Siemens (A.), the Distribution of Power by Electricity from a Central Generating Station, 378 Siemens (Dr. Werner), Death of, 129 ; Obituary Notice of, 153 Sight, Motion in the Line of, M. H. Deslandres, 88 Silk Production i1 South Russia, Attempted, 184 Silk Culture in the Caucasus, G. Sedlaczek, 397 Silva of North America, the, C. S. Sergent, Prof. W. R. Fisher, 275 Sim (Thos. R.), the Ferns of South Africa, J. G. Baker, F.R.S., 291 Sims (W. E.), Thionyl Bromide, 405 — Skertchly (S. B J.), Remarkab!e Cold Wave over China, 516 Slate Pencils, Aluminium, 131 Sldjd Association of Great Britain, 324 Sloths, on the Presence of a distinct Coracoidal Element in Adult, R. Lydekker, 431 Lndex Supplement to Nature, June 1, 1893 Smirnov (J.), Prehistoric Ethnography of Central east Russia, 524 Smith (B. Woodd), Ice Crystals, 79 Smith (E. J.), Science Teaching, 359 nares (Vety.- Capt. F.), A Manual of Veterinary Physiology, anl North- 7 Smith (Frederick J.), the Photography of an Image by Reflec- tion, 1c ; a Magnetic Screen, 439 Smith (Dr. J. Lorrain), the Thyroid Gland (Experiments oa Cats), 167 Smith (WW. B.), Introductory Modern Geometry of Point, Ray, and Circle, 532 Smith (Wythe), Experiments in Electric and Magnetic Fields, Constant and Varying, 165 Smith (Xanthus), American Opinion of Photography in Eng- land, 86 Snake Laboratory, the proposed Calcutta, 253 Snakes in India, Mortality from, 157 Snakes in Thatch (Burmah), 113 Snow-Rollers, W. S. Ford, 422 Snow (B. W.), Infra-red Spectrum of Alkali Metals, 39 Soap Bubbles, Permanent, formed with a Resinous Soap, M. Izarn, 119 Society of Arts, Opening Meeting of, 63 Sohncke (Prof. Dr. Leonhard), Gemeinverstindliche Vortrize aus dem Gebeite der Physic, Dr. James L. How rd, 361 Solid Body, Motion of a, in a Viscous Liquid, A. B. Basset, Baio. SES Solids and Fluids, Elementary Mechanics of, A. L. Selby, 315 Solar Corona, a New Method of Photographing the, M. H Deslandres, 327 Solar Eclipse of April, 15-16, 1893, 304, 376, 584, 611; M. ‘la Baume Pluvinel, 304 ; A. Taylor, 317 Solar Observations at Rume, Prof. Tazchini, 304, 399, 565 Solar Photographs, Prof, Hale’s, 498 Solar and Terrestrial Phenomena, Coincidence of, Prof. G. E. Hale, 425 Solar System, Motion of the, Prof. J. G. Porter, 41 Sollas (Prof., F.R.S.), Growth of Crystals, 213 ; on the V-rio- lite and associated Igneous Rocks of Roundwond, co. Wick- low, 287; Pitchstone and Andesite from Tertiary Dykes in Donegal, 287 Somerville (Lieut Boyle T.), on some Islands of the New He- brides, 455 Somerville (Dr. William), Report on Manurial Trials, 556 Soot-figures on Ceilings, E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., 60%; Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., 608 Soudan and Sahara Journey, Completion of Capt. Monteil’s, 89 Soudanese, Use of Chl. ride of Potassium instead of Salt by, M. Dybowski, 499 Sound and Music, Rev. J. A. Zahm, 222 South Kensington Laboratories and Railway, the, 494 Southwell (T.), Sowerby’s Whale on the Norfolk Coast, 349 Sowerby (G. B.), Marine Shells of South Africa, 27 Spain, Practical Meteorology in, 543 Spain, Wild, Abel Chapman and Walter J. Buck, 583 Spectrum Analysis: Coloured Photographs of the Spectrum, G. Lippmann, 23; Spectroscopy, Infra-Red Emission Spectrum of Alkali Metals, B. W. Snow, 39; Existence of Distinct Nervous Centres for Perception of Fundamental Colours of Spectrum, A. Chauveau, 143; the Height and Spectrum of Auroras, T. W. Backhouse, 151 ; Ultra-Violet Spectrum in Prominences, Prof, G. E. Hale, 186: Spectra of Various Orders of Colours in Newton’s Scale, W. B. Croft, 190; Method of Observing and Separating Spectra of easily Volatile Metals and their Salts, W. N. Hartley, 239 ; Method of Producing Intense Monochromatic Light, Dr. Dubois, 255; on the Photographic Spectra of some of the Brighter Stars, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 261: Hydrogen Line H B in the Spectrum of Nova Aurige, Herr Victor Schumann, 425; Spectra of Planetary Nebulz and Nova Aurige, M. Eugen Gothard, 352; Spectrum of 6 Lyrae, Prof. Keeler, 616 Spencer (Prof. W. Baldwin), on the Anatomy of Pestastomum teretiusculum 260 Spengler (Dr.), Reco 'd of Medical Experience at Davos Platz, I de Sphenophyllum, the Genus, Prof, William Crawford William- son, II Spider, Notes on a, H. H. J. Bell, 557 Spider, the Trap-door, D. Cleveland, 375 ei | Spirit Spring Mound, the Great, Kansas, E. H. S. Bailey, 87 _ Seay and Annelid, a Strange Commensalism, James Hornel _ ‘et Ta = Sponge? Foraminifer or, R. Hanitsch, 365, 439; F. G. Pearcey, 390 bastscoe .f Sportsmen and Naturalists, Horn Measurements and Weights « the Great Game of the World, being a Record for the use Rowland Ward, 6 h Sprague (T. B.), a New Algebra, 527 ia Spray Clouds, the Niagara, Charles A. Carus-Wilson, 414 i, Springer (Herr Julius), Astronomical Instruments up to Date, — 114 Sprung (Prof.), Observations made at Potsdam Meteorological Institute on the Recent Coldest Day in January, 480 : Squarey (E. P.), Yew Poisoning, 285 oa ae Stael (J. M.), Wood-ashes as a Medicine for Farm Animals, 397 Stainton (H. T.), Death of, 155 es Standard Pound, the Imperial, Decrease in Weight of, 86 Standard Barometry, Dr. Frank Waldo, 511 es Standards, Electrical, 128 4 Stanford’s Map of County of London, 40 5 Stanley (W. F.), the Perception of Colour, 381 = Starches used as Food, the Principal, W. Griffiths, 76 "| Starling (E. H.), Elements of Human Physiology, 146 f Stars: Rutherfurd Measures of Stars about 8 Cygni, Prof. Harold Jacoby, 77; the Stars and the Nile, Captain H. G. Lyons, 101; the New Star in the Constellation of Auriga, W. J. Lockyer, 137 ; the Star of Bethlehem, J. H. Stockwell, » 177; Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars, C. E. Stromeyer, 199; Prof. A. Rambaut, 226; on the Photo- graphic Spectra of some of the Brighter Stars, J. Norman Lo-kyer, F.R.S., 261 ; Burnham’s Double-Star Observations — 281; the Milky Way, Dr. Otto Boeddicker, 337; Relative | Position of Stars in Cluster x Persei, Sir Robert Ball and Arthur Rambaut, 376; the Star Catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft, 399; Distribution of Stars in- Space, Prof. J. C. Kapteyn, 432; Die Entwickelung der Doppelstern-Systeme, T. J. J. See, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.K.S., 459; the Rising and Setting of Stars, 519; Cata-— logue of Southern Star Magnitudes, Edwin Sawyer, 589; | Distance of the Stars by Doppler’s Principle, G. W. Colles, — jun., 596 so at Siar (Jean Servais), Proposed Memorial to, 182 / Statements, Two, Right Hon. T. H. Huxley, F.R.S., 316 Statistics of Average Life in France, M. Turqnan, 25 ‘a Statistics of Survivors of the Napoleonic Wars, M. Turquan, § 233 Steam Engine Trials, 594 oA Steam Jacket, Experiments on the value of the, J. G. Mair-— Rumley, 19; Col. English, Prof. Unwin, Bryan Donkin, Bryan Donkin, jun., and Messrs. Day, Morrison, and Schonheyder, 20 Steamers, Ice-breaking, 350 oe Steel, the Use of Tungsten in [mproving Hardness of, 351 Steel, the Value of Annealing, E. G. Carey, 397 Steel, Volumetric Method for Determining Amounts of Chro-— mium in, G. Giorgis, 397 ~ ae Steel (Thomas), Zoological Gardens in Great Britain and Australia, 496 ; Zoological Gardens in Europe and Australia, 8 Stojreger (L.), a New Blind Cave Salamander from North America, 62 Stellar Magnitudes in Relation to the Milky Way, Prof. Kapteyn, 64 Stereochemistry, J. H. Van’t Hoff, 436; Prof. Percy F. Frankland, F.R.S., Prof. F. R. Japp, F.R.S., 510 p Stevens (W. de C.), Comparis »n of Formulz for Total Radia- tion (of Heat), 188 eee: Stewart (R. W.), Magnetism and Electricity, 315; the Abso lute Thermal Conductivities of Copper and Iron, 599 Stockwell (J. H.), the Star of Bethlehem, 177. | ~h Stokes (H. N.), Isolation of Amidophosphoric Acid, 615, 616 — Stone Implements in the District of Iaransk, P. Krotov, on Layers of, 524 : Stoney (Dr.), Science Teaching, 359 Stonyhurst College Observatory, 450 5 Storms, Hail, H. C. Russell, F.R.S., 573 : Y | Stracey (Lieut.-General, F.R.S.), Harmonic Analysis of Hourly Strut ‘Supplement to Natu rT June 1, 1893 Observations of Air Temperature and Pressure at British Observatories, 621 Strange Survivals: Some Chapters in the History of Man, S. Baring-Gould, 53 Strasburger (Prof, Edward), Ueber das Verhalten des Pollens und die Befruchtungsvorginge bei den Gymnospermen, 484 Strenitz (Herr), Power of Hydrogen-absorption of various ; 63 Stromboli, L. W. Fulcher, 89; A. Ricco and G. Mercalli, Dr. ‘Hi. J. Johnston Lavis, 453 Stromeyer, (C. E.), Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars, 199 St ss (W. Bishop), the Fauna and Flora of Gloucester- 197 (Dr. John), the Rudimentary Hind-limb of Great Fin- “ty Humpback and Greenland Right-Whale com- " Strave (Wilhelmus), Centenary of Birth of, 585 Studies in Corsica, John Warren Barry, 462 Study of Animal Life, the, J. Arthur Thomson, 2 Sealitenainn (Dr.), Two Akka Girls brought to Germany by, 470 -Stur (Dr. D.), Death of, 206 Substitutions, the Theory of, and its Applications to Algebra, Dr. Eugen Netto, 338 Suchsland on the Micro-organisms of Tobacco Fermentation, 208 (J. J.), the Action of Nitrosyl Chloride and of Nitric xide on some Members of the Olefine Series, 430 fe. arp Acid, the Amide and Imide of, Dr. Traube, A. E. Summer, fag Weather of, 245, 2 ee eis (Dr. _ Williams on he “Relation of the Dimensions of 1 Quantities to Directions in Space, 69 ; Diffusion - of =the 190; on the Differential Equation of Electric » 574 Sis ee fd of the, Dr. A. Brester, 433 Sunshine, Amy Johnson, 9 _ Sunshine, op exh Bishop Reginald Courtenay, 150 _ Sunspots, aye, I “Sunspots and Magnetic Perturbations in 1892, M. Ricco, 352 : La oo. Macchia Solare del Febbrajo, 1892, “As Rico, 42 nt Rain, Sir H. Collett, 247 Scpembendant Pilate in, of the Shuswaps of British Columbia, Colonel C. Surface, Mi Tamas e352 Surgery, John Hunter (the Hunterian Lecture), Thomas Bryant, 372 — Survivals, car: some Chapters in the History of Man, S. o ‘ 53 Suter ( )s Catalogue of the New Zealand Mollusca, 397 Sutherlar *s Paper on the Laws of Molecular Force, Dr. Young, ; Prof. Fitzgerald, Dr. Gladstone, S. H. Burbury, Prof. y, Macfarlane Gray, Prof. Herschel, 117 iGeearts (Frédéric), on a New Fluorine- derivative of Carbon, 309 Swinburne (Mr.), Williams on the Dimensions of Physical Quantities, 116 ; on Messrs. Rimington and Smith’s Experi- ments in Electric and Magnetic Fields, Constant and Varying, 166 ; on the Differential Equation of Electric F low, 574 Swinhoe (Col. C.), Catalogue of Eastern and Australian. Lepi- -doptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum, 53; on the Mimetic Forms of Certain Butterflies of the genus Hypolimnas, 429 Swift’s Comet, Prof. Barnard, 186 Swift, Comet (A. 1892), A. E. Douglas, 546 Swift’s (Messrs.), Aluminium Microscope, G. C. Karop, 47 _ Swiss Torrents, the Regulation of, M. de Salis, 377 ‘Sydney, Australian Museum, Edgar B. Waite appointed As- sistant Curator in, 111 Sydney, Royal Society of New South Wales, 311, 335 Symbolism in Burmah, Developments in Buddhist Architecture and, Major Temple, 46 Symons (C. J., F.R.S.), Colonial Meteorology, 390 ; Arbores- cent Frost Patterns, 162 Synchronisation, Problem of Integral, M. A. Blondel, 599 Tabular History of Astronomy to the Year 1500 A,.D., Dr. Felix Miiller, 18 Tacchini (Prof.), Solar Observations at Rome, 304, 399, 565 f: bons x XXXVII Tahiti, a New Luminous Fungus, 157 Tait (Prof. P. G.), Vector Analysis, 225 Tanganyika (Lake), a New Medusa from, R. T. Giinther, 563 Tanner (Prof. Lloyd), on Complex Primes formed with the Fifth Roots of Unity, 526 Tarantula, the Bite of the, C. W. Meaden, 184 Tashkend, Tobacco Cultivation at, 86 Tasmania the Paradise of Horticulturists, Sir Edward Braddon, 597 Tasmanians, on the Rude Stone Implements of the, showing them to belong to the Palzolithic or Unground Stage of the Implement-makers’ Art, Dr. Tylor, 527 Taylor (A.), the Visible Universe, J.. Ellard Gore, 193; the Approaching Total Solar Eclipse, April 15-16, 1893, 317 Tcherning (M.), Seven Images of the Human Eye, 354 Tea Industry, the Development of the Ceylon, D. Trimen, 317 Teaching of ee 151; Dr. D. H. Scott, 228 Teall (J. J. H., F.R.S.), ‘Notes on some Coast-sections at the Lizard, 407 ; on a Radiolarian Chert from Mullion Island, 407 Technical Education, Dr. W. Anderson on, 155; Sir M. W. Ridley on, 130; Industrial School opened at Lucknow, tat: Report of the Scottish Technical Education Committee, 543 ; the Universities and the County Council, 586; the Cam- bridge University Extension Movement, 586 ; Improvements in City and Guild of London Institute Technological Exami- nations, 612 Technical School, the Manchester Municipal, Roscoe, F.R.S., 201 Technological Examinations, 35 Telephone, Demonstration of Existence of interference of Electric Waves in Closed Circuit by means of, R. Colson, Sir Henry E. 9 Telephones in Warfare, Use of, 182 Telephotographic Lens, the New, T. R. Dallmeyer, 161 Telescope, a Large, 18 Telescopes, Large, 616 Tell-el-Hesy Excavations, the, F. J. Bliss, 302 Temperature and Insolation, Relationship between, Dr. Berson, 24 Temple (Major), Developments in Buddhist Architecture and Symbolism in Burma, 46 Ten Kate (Dr.), on the Type-characteristics of the North American Indians, 374 Tennant (the late Prof.) on Magic Mirrors, Prof. Silvanus P. Thompson, F.R.S., 79 ! Teredo and Electric Cables, the, Sir Henry Mance, 450 Terra, Quzestio de Aqua et, Edmund G. Gardner, 295 Terrestrial Phenomena, Coincidence of Solar and, Prof. G. E. Hale, 425 Tests of Climate, Fossil Plants as, Charles E, De Rance, 294, 342; J. Starkie Gardner, 364 Tetanus, the Bacteriology of, Kitasato, 158 Texas, Remarkable Meteor in, C. F. Maxwell, 279 Texas, Hot Winds in, May 29 and 30, 1892, L Cline, 454 Thatch in Burmah, Snakes in, 113 Thaxter (R.) Proposed Establishment of New Order (Myxo- bacteriacez) of Schizomycetes, 373 Theory of Numbers, G. B. Mathews, 289 Therapeutics : a New Method of Treatment for Cholera, 83; Epidemic Influenza, F. A. Dixey, 244; the Blood-serum Therapeutists, Dr. Behring, 336 ; Record of Medical Expe- rience at Davos Platz, Dr. Spengler, 519 Thermal Conductivities of Copper and Iron, the Absolute, R. Wallace Stewart, 599 Thermal Conductivities of Liquids, the, R. Wachsmuth, 350 Thermodynamics: Determination of Low Temperatures ol Platinum Thermometer, Griffiths and Clerk, 95 ; Carnot’s Principle Applied to Animal and Vegetable Life, J. Parker, 95; Treatise on Thermodynamics, Peter Alexander, 388 Thermometer, the Centigrade, adopted by Prussian Govern: ment, 60 Thermometer, Mercury, an Improved, Prof. L. Weber, 497 Thermometer, Platinum, Determination of Low Temperature by, Griffiths and Clerk, 95 bares Depression of Zero in Boiled, L. C. Baudin, 143 Thermometers, Dr. Joule’s, Prof. Sydney Young, 316, 389 Thermometers Dr. Joule’s, Prof. Arthur Schuster, F.R.S., 364 XXXVIill Thessaly, the Plague of Field- Mice in, 396; J. E. Harting, 545 Thiselton-Dyer (W. T., F.R.S.), Dust Photographs, 341; Travelling of Roots, 414; Severe Frost at Hong Kong, 53 noche (Prof. D’Arcy W.), a Proposed Handbook of the British Marine Fauna, 269 Thompson (Prof. Silvanus P., F.R.S.), the late Prof. Tennant on Magic Mirrors, 79 ; Japanese Magic Mirrors, 381; on Messrs. Rimington and Smith’s Experiments in Electric ‘and Magnetic Fields, Constant and Varying, 166 Thomson (Prof. Elihu), Apparent Attraction of Closed Circuits by Alternating Magnetic Poles, 517 Thomson (Joseph), Journey to Lake Bangweolo, 115 Thomson (J. Arthur), the Study of Animal Life, 2 Thomson (J. P.), British New Guinea, 345 Thorner (M.), Methods of Examining Milk for Tubercle Bacil- lus, 254 Thorp (Walter), Primer of Horticulture, J. Wright, 533; Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, J. Watson, 533 ; Manual of Dairy Work, Prof. James Muir, 555 Thorpe (Prof. T. E., F.R.S.), Isolation of Fluorsulphonic Acid, 87; Carl Wilhelm Scheele, 152; Interaction of Iodine and Potassium Chlorate, 165; Experiment on Triethylamine Hydrate, 165 ; the Determination of the Thermal Expansion of Liquids, 405 ; the Determination of the Thermal Expan- sion and Specific Volume of Certain Paraffins and Paraffin Derivatives, 405 Thoulet (J.), on a Modification to be Applied to the Construc- tion of Bottles Designed to Collect Specimens of Deep Waters, 408 Thiimen (Dr. F. von), Death of, 130 Thunderstorms and Auroral Phenomena, J. Ewen Davidson, 582 Thurn (E. F. im), Anthropological Uses of the Camera, 548 Thys (Major), Progress of the Congo ge 159 Tibet, Captain Bower’s Journey in, 4 Tibet, Central, Mongolia and C. Woodville Rockhill, 426 Tidal ’ Observations, Reduction of, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 402 Tiger-Lion Hybrids, F.R.S., 390, 607 Tiger, Lion-, Hybrids, S. F. Harmer, 413 Tilden (Prof. ), Abuse of Scientific Titles (Letters Indicating Membership of Societies), 15 Tilden (W. A.), Formation and Nitration of Phenyldiazoimide, 311; the Hydrocarbons Derived from Dipentenedihydro- chloride, 405; the Action of Nitrosyl Chloride and of Nitric Peroxide on some Members of the Olefine Series, Lion-Tiger and, Dr. V. Ball, 430 Tillo (Alexis de), High Atmospheric Pressures observed at Irkutsk from January 12 to 16, 1893, 432 Time, Universal, 451 Tisserand (M.), Paris Observatory in 1892, 546 Titles, Scientific, Abuse of Letters indicating Membership of Societies, Prof. Tilden, 15 Tobacco Culture in Australia, 324 Tobacco Cultivation at Tashkend, 86 Tobacco and Vinous Fermentation, the Micro-organisms of, Suchsland, Nathan and Kosutany, 208 Tokelaus, the, 423 Topinard (M.), on Race in Anthropology, 524 Torpedo, onthe Origin of the Electric Nerves in the Gymnotus, Mormyrus and Malapterurus, Gustav Fritsch, 271 Torrents, Swiss, the Regulation of, M. de Salis, 377 Total Solar Eclipse, April 15-16, 1893, 304, 376; M. De la Baume Pluvinel, 304; A. Taylor, 317 Tourney (J. W.), Cliff and Cave-dwellings in Central Arizona, 112 Tower Bridge, Foundations of Two River Piers of, G. E. W. Cruttwell, 545 Tracery Imitation, Prof. J. Mark Baldwin, 149 Traube (Dr.), the Amide and Imide of Sulphuric Acid, A. E. Tutton, 566 Travelling of Roots, W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S., 414 Travels, Australian, R. von Lendenfeld, 274 Travels in Borneo, Charles Hose, 282 Travels, a Sanitarian’s, Robert Boyle, 105 hese Supplement to Nature, a8 1, 1893 — (M. W.), a Method for the Preparation of Acetylene ai (Dr.), Establishment of the Heniyaaa of Binnite, 70 Tremayne (L. J.), Vanessa Polychloros in London, 563 Treves (Frederick), Physical Education, 292 Trieste, the Marine Zoological Station at, 450 Trigonometry, the Algebra of Co- -planar Vectors and, R. Baldwin Hayward, F.R.S., 266 ae (Dr.), the Development of the Ceylon Tea Industry, 13 Trinidad Field Naturalist’s Club, 131 Troll’s (Dr. J.), Journey through Central Asia, 160 Tropical Agriculture, a Text-book of, H. A. Alford Nicholls, 313 Trotter (A. P.), Diffusion of Light, 191 True (F. W.), Dr. W. L. Abbott’s Collection of African Mammals, 39 Tubby (Dr. A. HH. ), Medical Microscopy, Frank J. Wethered, 51 Tubercle Bacillus, Methods of Examining Milk for, Ukewitsch and Thorner, 254 Turin Royal Acalemy of Sciences, the Bressa Prize, 2333 the Ninth Bressa Prize, 543 Turquan (M.), Stati-tics of Survivors of the Napoleonic Wer, 233; Statistics of Average Life in France, 255 Tutton (A. E.), a Remarkable Case of Geometrical Téometiéea, 65; Chemistry of Osmium, 400 ; the Connection between the Atomic Weight of the Contained Metals and the Magnitude of the Angles of Crystals of Isomorphous Series, 430 ; Further Studies on Hydrazine, 522; the Amide and Imide of Sul- phuric Acid, Dr. Traube, 566 Tylor (Dr.), on the Rude Stone Implements of the Tas- manians, showing them to belong to the Palzolithic or Un- ground Stage of the Implement-Maker’s Art, 527 Tylor (Dr. Edward B., F.R.S.), Atlas der Voikerkunde, Dr. Georg Gerland, 223 Typhoid Fever attributed to Bathing in Polluted Water, Herr Jaeger, 398 Typhoid and Coli Communis Bacilli, Dunbar on the Questions of the Separate Identification of the, 472 Uganda, Captain F. D. Lugard, 45 Uganda Se Ri the, 210 Ulrich (G. H. F.), on a Meteoric Stone found at Makariwa, near Invercargill, New Zealand, 381 Ultra-Violet Spectrum in Prominences, Prof. G, E. Hale, 186 — United States: Marine Laboratories in the, Prof. J. P. Camp- bell, 66 ; the Copper Resources of the, James Douglas, 132 ; Agriculture in the United States, Experiment Stations, R. Warrington, F.R.S., 157; Investigations on Soils, 157; Higher Education in the United States, Dr. Low, 325; Government Botanical Stations in the United States, 450; United States Naval Observatory, 452 Universal Time, 451 Universe, the Visible, J. Ellard Gore, A. Taylor, 193 Universities: University Commission, 1 ; University Intelli- gence, 68, 94, 116, 143, 163, 285, 331, 357, 380 404, 428, 454, 476; Universities and Research, Prof. George Francis Fitzgerald, F.R.S., 100 ; Appointment of W. Flinders Petrie to Chair of Egyptology at University College, London, 111 ; Prof. Flinders Petrie’s First Lecture on Egyptology, 278; the New University Question, 121 ; Opening of New Victoria Buildings, University College, Liverpool, 155 ; University Extension, the Cambridge Summer Meeting Programme, 183; University Extension Movement, the, Summer Meeting Programme, 586; the Proposed University for London, 200, 577; the University of Chicago, 278; a University Exten- sion "Manual, R. D. Roberts, 412 Unwin (Prof.), Experiments on the Value of the eteenewen 20 Urobilin, on, A. Eichholz, 360 Utah, Salinity of Great Salt Lake, 302 Val d’Herens, Glaciers of, William Sherwood, 174 Value of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat, Griffiths, 537 Vanessa Polychloros in London, L. G. Tremayne, 563 the, E. Hy, __ Parallel of 47° 30’ in Russia, Verschaffe Mott ma eB esa j Supplement to | June t, 1893 Vanlair (M. C.), Survival after the Successive Section of both the Branches of the Vagi, 621 Variation, the Volucellz as Alleged Examples of, Almost Unique Among Animals, Edward B. Poulton, F.R.S., 126 Varigny (Henry de), Experimental Evolution, 25 _ Variolite of the Lleyn and Associated Volcanic Rocks, Catherine A. Raisin, a34 Vasey (Dr. Geo.), Grasses of the Pacific Slope, including Alaska and the Adjacent Islands, 173 Vasey (Dr. G.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 495 _ Vector Analysis, Prof. P. G. Tait, 225 Vector Theory, on Recent Innovations in, Prof. C. G. Knott, 287, : 590 Vectors, Principles of the Algebra of, A. Macfarlane, 3 Vectors, Co-planar, the Algebra of, and Trigonometry, R. Baldwin Hayward, F.R.S., 266 Vectors, Quaternions and the Algebra of, Prof. J. Willard Gibbs, 463 Vectors versus Quaternions, Oliver Heaviside, F.R.S., 533 _ Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms, M. C. Cooke, 99 Vegetation, Influence of Moisture on, E. Gain, 119 Veins of the Rabbit, on an Abnormality in the, Prof. W. M. Parker, 270 _ Veitch (H. G.), Coniferze of Japan, 619 _ Veley (V. H.), Necessity of Water in Chemical Reactions, 167 _ Venukoff (M.), the Pinsk Marshes and non-Russian Atlases, 282 ; the Form of the Geoid, 566; Measurement of the 576 | It (J.), Two Experimental Verifications Relative to Refraction in Crystals, 428 Vertebrate Biology, H. G. Wells, 605 ___ Vertebrate Fauna of Lakeland, a, Rev. A. Macpherson, 457 _ Verworn (Herr), the Rising and Sinking Process in the Radi- olaria, 397 Veterinary Physiology, a Manual of, Vety. Capt. F. Smith, 76 | Vieses(M.), Metallic ___ Victoria Field Naturalists’ Club, 62 reas etallic Osmium, 497 , American, 16 ; ase, the Mal Nero, Dr. B. Pasquale, 130 of Cyprus, the, M. Mouillefort, 517 Appearance of the Black-rot in 0 (J), the Temperature of the Electric Arc, 240; the use of the Electric Current in Producing High Temperatures, ae _ Virchow (Prof.), on the Immediate Task for Anthropologists, Lord Kelvin, 110; the Croonian Lecture, 487 By vite (A mand), Neolithic Village of the Roche-au-Diable, near , canton of Lorez-le-Bocage (Seine-et-Marne), 576 Viscous Liquid, Motion of a Solid Body in a, A. B. Basset, Visible Universe, the, J. Ellard Gore, A. Taylor, 193 m, Defective, in Sailors, Association of Shipping Disasters ___with, Dr. T. H. Bickerton, 16 Vision, and, Prof. S. P. Langley, 252 _ Vision, a New epics concerning, John Berry Haycraft, 478 Viticulture ; the Mal Nero Vine Disease, Dr. B. Pasquale, 130 ladimiroff (M.), Rule for Estimating Quality of Vulcanised _ Caoutchouc, 563 Véchting ee Hermann), Ueber Transplantation am Pflanzen- ae Vv (Dr.), the Construction of Carbohydrates in the Fasting _ _ Body, 552 Volcanoes : Formation of Lunar, J. B. Hannay, 7; Stromboli _ in 1891, L. W. Fulcher, 89; A. Ricco and G. Mercalli, Dr. HL. J. Johnstone Lavis, 453 ; Volcanoes of Japan, John Milne, F.R.S., 178; on the Age of the most Ancient Eruptions of Etna, M. Wallerant, 264 ; Fumo di Vulcano Veduto dall’Os- _servatorio di Palmero durante |’éruzione del 1889, A. Ricco, page Kilauea in August 1892, Frank S. Dodge, 499 Vole Plague in Thessaly, the Field, J. E. Harting, 545 Voles in Scotland, the Plague of Field, 155 Voles in Southern Scotland, the Colour Variations of the, Robert Service, 587 Volucella, Parasitism of, W. E. Hart, 78 Volucellz as Examples of Aggressive Mimicry, Edward B. Poulton, F.R.S., 28 Volucellee, the alleged Aggressive Mimicry of, William Bate- son, 77 Volucellze as Alleged Examples of Variation, almost Unique among Animals, Edward B. Poulton, F,R.S,, 126 Index XXXIX Wachsmuth (R.), the Thermal Conductivities of Liquids, 350 Wadsworth (Prof. M. E.), Geology of the Iron, Gold, and Copper Districts of Michigan, Sir Archibald Geikie, Dr. Hicks, H. Bauerman, 117 Waite (Edgar B.), appointed Assistant Curator in Australian Museum, Sydney, 111 Wakefield (H. Rowland), an Elementary Text-book of Hygiene, 245 Waldo (Dr. Frank), Standard Barometry, 511 Wales, December 8, 1892, Corncrake caught in, 157 Wales, the Origin and Progress of the Educational Movement in, O. M. Edwards, 421 Walker (Mr.), the Screw Propeller, 21 Walker (Alfred O.), a Remarkable Rainfall, 31 Walker (Sir Andrew Barclay), Death of, 421 Walker (J.), Electrolysis of Sodic Ethylic Camphorate, 479 Walker (J. W.), Optically Active Ethoxysuccinic Acid, 311 Walking of Arthropoda, on the, Henry H. Dixon, 56 Wallace (Dr. Alfred R): an Ancient Glacial Epoch in Australia, 55; the Earth’s Age, 175, 226; the Glacier Theory of Alpine Lakes, 437; Idle Days in Patagonia, W. Hl. Hudson, 483 Wallerant (M.), on the Age of the most Ancient Eruptions of Etna, 264 Ward (Prof. Marshall): Experiments on the Action of Light on Bacillus anthracis, 331; Further Experiments on the action of Light on Baczllus anthracis, 597 Ward (Rowland), Horn Measurements and Weights of the Great Game of the World, being a Record for the use of Sportsmen and Naturalists, 6 Ward (R. de C.), the First Aérial Voyage across English Channel, 143 Warrington (R., F.R.S.), Experiment Stations in United States, 157 Washington, Geological Society of, Founded, 613 Washington Magnetic Observation, 209 - Wasps, Vegetable, and Plant Worms, M. C. Cooke, 99 Watch Factory, the Prescot, Address by Lord Kelvin, 279 Water and Water Supply, Major L. Flower, 183 Water, Dilatation and Compressibility of, E. H. Amagat, 288 Water, Expansion of, at Constant Pressure and at Constant Volume, E. H. Amagat, 623 Water-boring in Cape Colony, 349 Water-Gas, Experiments to determine Temperatures of Flame of, E. Blass, 113 Water-Pollution, Improved Ball Hydrant for Preventing, J. R. Wigham, 167 Water-Purification by Bacteriological Methods, Messrs, V. and A. Babes and Percy Frankland, 588 Waterdale Researches : Fresh Light on Dynamics, 601 Watson (John), Ornithology in Relation to Agriculture and Horticulture, 533 Watson (Sereno), Botanical Nomenclature, 53 Wave-Lengths, a New Table of Standard, Prof. H. A. Row- land, 590 Waves as a Motive Power, H. Linden, 438 Waves, Electromagnetic, Oliver Heaviside, 505 Weapons of Defence, Remarkable, G. F. Hampson, E. Ernest Green, 199 Weather of Summer, the, 245, 270 Weber (Mr.) on the Origin of the Mammalian Hair, 504 Weber (Prof. L.), an Improved Mercury Thermometer, 497 Weber (William), Proposed Monument to, 106 Webster (A. D.), Conifers for Economic Planting, 619 Weights and Measures, Changes in the Imperial Standard, 86 Weights and Measures, International Committee of, 21 Weinek’s Lunar Enlargements, 473 Weismann (Prof. August), Das Keimplasma, 265 Wells and Wheeler, Isolation of Penta- Iodide and -Bromide of Cesium, 113 ; Preparation of Chloraurates and Bromaurates of Cesium and Rubidium, 158 Wells (H. G.), Text-book of Biology, 605 Wenlock (Lord), Remarkable Hornet’s Nest presented to Madras Museum by, 16 Were-Wolf in Latin Literature, the, Kirby W. Smith, 423 Wesendonck (Mr.), Pure Gases incapable of producing Elect ri- fication by Friction, 280 West Indies, Observations in the, Prof. A. Agassiz, 608 Westwood (Prof.), Death of, 232 Wethered (Frank J.), Medical Microscopy, Dr. A. H. Tubby, 51 xl 7 Index [ Supplement to Nature, { June 1, 1893 Wetterhan (Dr.), Arborescent Frost Patterns, 162 Wettstein (R. von), Die Fossile Flora der Héttinger Breccie, 43 Whale, Sowerby’s, on the Norfolk Coast, T. Southwell, 349 Whale, Comparison of Rudimentary Hind-limb of Great Fin- whale Hump-back, and Greenland Right-, Dr. John{Struthers, 88 Whaling Fleet, Return of the Dundee, 473 Wheat Conference, the South Australian Rust in, 86 Wheeler and Wells, Isolation of Penta- Iodide and -Bromide of Cesium, 113; Preparation of Chloraurates and Bromaurates of Cesium and Rubidium, 158 Whetham (W. C. D.), Ionic Velocities, 164 Whipple (George Mathews), Death and Obituary Notice of, 372 White (Dr. F. B.), Collection of Lepidoptera presented to Museum of Perthshire Society of Natural Science, 206 White (Philip J.), Unusual Origin of Arteries in the Rabbit, 365 Whitehead (Charles), Yew Poisoning, 285 Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 68, 189, 286, 357, 455» 525 my : Wiener (Christian), Diffusion of Light by Rough Surfaces, 286 Wigham (J. R.), Improved Ball Hydrant for Preventing Water-Pollution, 167 Wild Nature, More about, Mrs. Brightwen, 125 Wilkinson’s (E.) Journey in the Kalabari Desert, 134 Williams on the Relation of the Dimensions of Physical Quantities to Directions in Space, Prof. Fitzgerald, Prof. Reicker, Prof. Henrici, and Dr. Sumpner, 69 Williams on the Dimensions of Physical Quantities, Dr. Burton, Prof. A. Lodge, Mr. Boys, W. Baily, Mr. Swinburne, Mr. Williams, 116 Williams (Dr. C. T.), on the High ‘Altitudes of Colorado and their Climates, 333 ; Longevity of the Perigal Family, 585 Williams (W. M.), the Framework of Chemistry, 28 Williams (W. Matthieu), Death of, 130 Williamson (S.), the Hydrocarbons derived from Dipentene Dihydrochloride, 405 Williamson (Prof. Wm. Crawford), the Genus Sphenophyl- lum, II Willis (J. C.), Gynodicecism in the Labiatz, II., Observations on Origanum (continued), 119 Willoughby (Dr. E. F.), the Health Officer’s Pocket-book, 412 Wilson (Edward), a Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda, H.. Woods, 363 Wilson (E.), Magnetic Induction in Iron and other Metals, J. A. Ewing, F.R.S., 460 Wine-growing in Alsace-Lorraine, Statistics of, 614 Wine-Yeast, the Improvement of Cider by, Nathan ; Investi- gations on, Kosutany, 208 Winnebago County Meteorites, Lines of Structure in the, and in other Meteorites, Prof. H. A. Newton, 370 Wislicenus (Dr. Wilhelm), New. Mode of Preparing Hyponi- trous Acid, 588 Witchell (Charles A.), the Fauna and Flora of Gloucester- shire, 197 Withington (Herbert), the Flight of Birds, 414 Witkowski (Herr), Use of Total Reflection to determine Light- Refraction of Liquid Oxygen, 614 Wolle (Rev. T.), Death of, 561 Wollheim (Hugo), Aminol, 246 Wollny (Herr), Dew, 398 Wolsingham Observatory, 518; J. E. Espin, 452 ; Circular No. 35, 590 ; No. 34, 616 Women and Musical Instruments, Henry Balfour, 55 Wood Ashes as a Medicine for Farm Animals, J. M. Stahl, 397 Woods (H.), a Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda, W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., and Edward Wilson, 363 Woodward (H. B.), Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, Annual Address by, 562 Woolls (Rev. W.), Death and Obituary Notice of, 495 Worthington (Prof. A. M.). on the Need ofa New Geometrical Term—‘‘ Conjugate Angles,” 8 ; Science Teaching, 359 Wright (Dr. G. Frederick), Man and the Glacial Period, 148 Wright (Herbert Edwards), a Handy Book for Brewers, 75 Wright (J.), Primer of Horticulture, Walter Thorp, 533 Wurtz (Dr. R.), Technique Bactériologique, 446 oi Wynne (W. P.), Griess, Sandmeyer Interactions-and Gatter- mann’s Modification thereof, 239 Yale Astronomical Observatory, 452 Aa Yale College, Establishment of Psychological Laboratory at, 253 Year, the Origin of the, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 32, 228 Year-Book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, - the Colonies, and India, the, 363 ’ Year-Book of Science (for 1892), the, 388 by Yew Poisoning, E. P. Squarey, Charles Whitehead, W. Car- ruthers, F.R.S., and Dr. Munro, 285 Ts Yezo and the Ainu, Prof. J. Milne, F.R.S., 330; A. H. Savage Landor, 330 ; a Yorkshire Caves, Relics found in, Rev. Edward Jones, 112 Young’s (Arthur) Tour in Ireland, 341 pre (Prof, C. A.), Meteors, 150 ; Comet Holmes (1892, III.) I Young (Mr.), the Determination of the Critical Volume, 70; ° on Sutherland’s On the Laws of Molecular Force, 70 Young (Prof. Sydney), Dr. Joule’s Thermometers, 389; the Zero Point of Dr. Joule’s Thermometer, 316 Yoxall (J. H.), the Decimal System, 323 Zacharias (Dr. Otto), Forschungsberichte aus der Biologischen Station zu Plon, 461 ‘ Zahm (Rev. J. A.), Sound and Music, 222 Zambesia Journey, Mr. D. G. Rankin’s, 64 Zambesia, Twenty Years in, F. C. Selons, 377 Zante, Earthquake at, 378, 394, 585, 620 Zermatt, Remarkable Optical Phenomenon near, F. Folie, 303 Zero Point of Dr. Joule’s Thermometer, the, Prof. Sydney Young, 316 — (Dr. Theodor), Introduction to Physiological Psychology, 2 Zirconia, Native, the Occurrence of (Baddeleyite), L. Fletcher, 282 Zodiacal Light, Observations of the, Arthur Searle and Prof. Bailey, 473 Zoology: Zoological Gardens, Additions to, 17, 40, 63, $7, 113, 133, 158, 186, 208, 235, 256, 281, 303, 325, 351, 375, 399, 425, 451, 472, 497, 518, 546, 565, 589, 616; Zoological Gardens in Great Britain and Australia, Thomas Steele, 496 ; Zoological Gardens in Europe and Australia, Thomas Steele, — 587; Zoological Society, 70, 118, 215, 335, 431, 455, 502, 575; Dr. W. L. Abbott’s Collection of African Mammals, — F. W. True, 39; the Mantle-Cells of Ascidians, Kowaleosky, 62; a New Genusand Species of Blind Cave Salamander from North America, L. Stejneger, 62; Large Male Gorilla Acquired by Berlin Aquarium, 86; International Zoological Congress at Moscow, 236; the Proposed Snake Laboratory at Calcutta, 253 ;a Proposed Handbook of the British Marine Fauna, Prof. d’Arcy W. Thompson, 269 ; Prof. W. A. Herd-. - man, F.R.S., 293 ; W. Garstang, 293; the Brain in Mud- fishes, Dr. Rudolf Burckhardt, 339; Suggested Introduction of the Musk-ox into Scotland, Col. H. W. Fielden, ee : Lion-Tiger and Tiger-Lion Hybrids, Dr. V. Ball, F.R.S., 390, 607 ; Lion-Tiger Hybrids, S. F. Harmer, 413 ; Remark- able Specimen of Orang-utan, 423 ; on the Cranial Osteology, Classification, and Phylogeny of the Dinornithidz, Prof. . T. Jeffrey Parker, F.R.S., 431; onthe Presence ofa Distinct Coracoidal Element in Adult. Sloths, R. Lydekker, 431 ; Observations on the Development of the Rostrum in the Cetacean Genus Mesoplodon, Henry O. Forbes, 455; the Marine Zoological Station at Trieste, 450; Polecat not Extinct in Cardiganshire, J. W. Salter, 450; a Vertebrate Fauna of Lakeland, Rev. A. Macpherson, 457 ; Blind Animals in Caves, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 486; J. T. Cunningham, 537; G. A. Boulenger, 608 ; Some Abnormal Vertebrze of Certain Ranidx (Xana Catesbiana, KR. esculenta and 2. macrodon), Prof. Howes, 502; the Musk-ox, 559; a New Medusa from Lake Tanganyika, R. T. Giinther, 563; the Colour Variations of the Voles of Southern Scotland, Robert Service, 587 ;the Alligator’s Nest, S. Devenish, 587; . an International Zoological Record, Dr. Herbert H. Field, 0 Zuntz (Prof.), Respiratory Interchange in the Fasting Body, 552 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE. ** To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 1892, THE UNIVERSITY COMMISSION. 8 Fel tay University Commission is sitting frequently and has heard witnesses representing nearly every ‘interest and every shade of opinion which have a right to be represented before it. We have no knowledge of the effect which the evidence laid before them has pro- duced upon the minds of the Commissioners ; but we are sure that it must largely depend on the view which they have adopted as to the nature of their duties. They may regard themselves as entrusted with the task of finding the terms on which a heterogeneous crowd of colleges and mechanics’ institutes may be huddled to- _ gether, called a university, and allowed to confer degrees on such conditions as the rivalries of competing institu- tions may permit when tempered by the moderating influence of Crown nominees, county councillors, repre- sentatives of the School Board and of the learned socie- ties, and any other assessors whom fancy may suggest, Such a solution might no doubt secure peace in the - sense that, wearied out by long debate and hopeless of a _ satisfactory'solution, those who are most nearly inter- ested in the question might at last be compelled to make the best of a bad job. This, however, must be urged against it: That almost every teacher of eminence in London, together with a large number of those best qualified to represent the _ educational views of the provinces, have declared a prior? that it would be unsatisfactory. The other view which the Commissioners may take is that they are charged with the responsible task of de- fining the ideal system which would best provide for the supply of the higher education in London. That having defined this ideal they are then to proceed to show by what means the closest approximation to it which pre- sent circumstances will allow can be made, and so to _ fashion the constitution of the University as to ensure in the future a closer approximation still. That this is the wider and more statesmanlike view is beyond question, and we sincerely hope that the Commission will adopt it. NO. 1201, VOL. 47 | We may further hope that they will remember that although the new University should be able and willing to undertake all the multifarious duties which modern Universities have accepted as their own, the provision of ° the highest education and the doing all that in it lies for the advancement of learning must after all be the first and the highest duty of a University worthy of the name. As to the means which would best realize these ideals there cannot be a doubt. The present educational chaos must be reduced to order, the unwholesome rivalry between the London Colleges must be checked. On this point Prof. Ricker, in an address recently delivered at the Yorkshire College in Leeds, made some remarks which we cannot do better than quote in full :— “The great provincial colleges are grouping them- selves into greater Universities. In the north Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds have concluded a formal alliance, Negotiations are already in progress for the establish- ment of a similar confederation in Wales. The Midlands will no doubt follow suit. But if these afford, if in particular the north of England affords in the Victoria University, one of the happiest illustrations of the advan- tage of allowing free play to the tendencies which make for union no less than to those which encourage separa- tion, we have, unfortunately, in London a striking instance of the harm which follows if the action of either the one or other is artificially restrained. “ The northern colleges were indeed happy in that the tendency to union was called into play while they were still in a sufficiently early and plastic stage of their his- tory to yield easily to its influence. In London difficul- ties, which seemed far more serious half a century ago than they do to most of us now, have unfortunately retarded all centralizing action, till the sentiment and traditions which accumulate round institutions that have long moved independently, have enormously increased the inertia which tends to keep them in their separate paths. “This is the more unfortunate, as if a new University of London is to be a really great teaching university, the relations between the London colleges must ultimately be closer than those which obtain between Manchester, Liverpool, and Leeds. The principle of recognizing as col- leges of the University institutions for the teaching and management of which the University is not responsible, has worked and is working admirably in the north of England, It does not follow that it would succeed in London. There B 2 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 3, 1892 is indeed a fundamental difference between the two cases. The colleges of the Victoria University are widely separated, and appeal to the strong local feeling of powerful and independent districts. A generous rivalry may therefore exist between them without ill result. Each should be left, as they have been left, to work out their own success with as little external interference as possible. “Tt is sometimes argued that because the population of London largely exceeds that even of such districts as Lancashire or the West Riding, there ought to be room within it for the separate and independent institutions in which teaching of the highest type could be provided. This view ignores the importance of geographical separation, and unduly exalts that of the numerical ‘magnitude of the population whose wants are to be met. If Manchester and Leeds were on opposite sides of the Irwell or the Aire, if they were connected by an elaborate system of over- ground and underground railways, then it would be more economical to concentrate, in one or the other, the higher teaching which must now perforce be given in both. The loss of time to the students in reaching the scene of their daily labours would be but imperceptibly increased, while the prestige of the colleges, great as it already is, their claims on the State, strong as they already are, would be enhanced ina proportion greater than that calculated by merely adding their separate reputations and resources. In a city of the size of London it is desirable to multiply institutions in which preparatory work of all sorts is un- dertaken, but I think it may be assumed as almost axio- matic that it is impossible, at present at all events, to create in one town more than one institution in which la- boratories and lecture rooms and the other machinery of scientific instruction shall be provided on the large scale which the elaboration of the highest modern scientific teaching demands. In London, then, the teachers in almost all existing institutions feel the necessity for a combination of forces. They have expressed them- selves as willing to be formed into battalions and regiments rather than to be left to carry on their work as isolated companies. I will not dwell on the fact that _this desire could only be declared by men who were will- ing to risk their personal position for the public good, but I want you to observe how in this case alsothe work of decentralization, which began with the foundation of Uni- versity College, London, has been followed and would have been far more effective had it been accompanied by a corresponding manifestation of centralizing force.” With these views we heartily agree. If ever we are to have in London laboratories such as those which areto be found in Germany, it can only be if the higher teaching in each subject is concentrated in somejone great central institution, and if rival colleges are allowed to combine their forces for the public good, instead of being compelled as at present to fritter them in sui- cidal competition. Taking it for granted that all will admit that such an ideal would be the best if it could be realized, we believe that the possibility of its realization is chiefly doubted on two grounds, to neither of which any real importance is to be attached. It has been supposed, in the first place, that those who advocate a policy ‘of union among the London colleges think that this. union must-be carried out in all particulars immediately ; and secondly that in order to secure this end it must be carried out by compulsion, even if the practical confiscation of the property of the existing colleges were necessary. NO. 1201, VOL. 47 | It need hardly be said that such a statement is a parody of the views of men who have had at least as much experience as their critics {of the tone of mind of the governing bodies of great educational institutions, and who therefore would be the first to anticipate the. difficulties which such demands would ineyitably cause, No responsible body has, as far as we are aware, advocated more than the establishment of a University on a basis which would permit the union of the various colleges, in whose buildings the University teaching might at first be carried on, if the colleges were themselves willing that such a union should be effected. The advocates of union have all along been striving, not to attain an immediate and complete realization of their ideal University of London, but to prevent the Charter being drawn so as to make that realization impossible. It cannot be beyond the limits of human skill to frame a scheme which shall offer every inducement to the London colleges to effect an immediate fusion, and shall further provide that any approximation which may at first take place shall easily become closer in | the future. The Victoria University does not consist of competing colleges. A federal University of London would consist of colleges which from their mere local proximity would, whether they willed it or no, be necessarily antagonistic. Unless the Commissioners fairly grasp this fact and realize that they have it in their power to lay down the lines on which a great institution shall be founded in | close connection with the State, which shall concentrate under one central directing power all the educational efforts which are at present partly wasted through wa~-t of joint action, they will have failed to make the most of a great opportunity, and will have frittered the forces which, if allowed free play, are competent to do for the higher education of London all that the best friends of London can desire. THE STUDY OF ANIMAL LIFE. The Study of Animal Life. By J. Arthu: M.A., F.RS.E. “University Extension (London : Murray, 1892.) HE chief aim of an “Extension Manual” as of “Extension lectures” is to stimulate interest and to spread information. In natural science, at any rate, it is impracticable through the medium of either Extension lectures or Extension manuals, to give that training which the student, be he specialist or generalist, can obtain only by practical work, aided by practical instruction. But there are a great number of people, some already busily engaged, others on the threshold of their life’s work, who possess some interest in, and some information about, those matters, with the study of which scientific men are occupied. For them Extension lectures and manuals are a great boon; and to them ‘Mr. Thomson’s work on “The Study of Animal Life” may be cordially recom- mended. We'trust it will stimulate them, as he would desire, to become themselves observers. Thomson, Manuals.” and are derived from the most trustworthy sources. NoveMBER 3, 1892| NATURE : ___ The work is divided into four parts, of which the ' first, entitled “ The Everyday Life of Animals,” deals with _ the wealth of life, the web of life, the struggle of life, the shifts for a living, the social life of animals, the _ domestic life of animals, and the industries of animals. _ The second part, on “ The Powers of Life,” contributed by Mr. Norman Wyld, treats of vitality, the divided labours of the body, and instinct. The third par describes “The Forms of Animal Life” and includes chapters on the life-history of animals, and their past history asread in the geological record. The fourth __and last part treats of “ The Evolution of Animal Life” and, besides a discussion of the influence of habits and surroundings, and of heredity, gives a sketch of the evolution of evolution theories. Appendices on the relation of animal life to human life, and on some of the best books on animal life bring the work to a conclusion. _ Thegeneral arrangement of the subject-matter is, as will _ be seen by the above summary, well and carefully thought out, and the facts given in elucidation of the varied ten- dencies of organic development are skilfully marshalled j The _ information given is therefore accurate and up to date. ‘The only suggestion we have to offer in this connection is that a little more selective elimination might have been exercised. Some facts are given in so terse and con- _ densed a form that no one but a zoologist could appre- ciate their value. Ifa considerable number of these had _ been struck out and the space thus gained had been utilized in expanding those that remained, the Extensionee _ would have been the gainer. “ The Zoological Summary _ of the Animal Kingdom” (pp. 210-272) might by some such process have been replaced by a sketch with more life and go in it. As it stands it will, by many readers, be gracefully skipped. In such a work style is an important element. Here Mr. Thomson is often exceedingly happy. He has ima- gination and a feeling for the poetic aspect of nature. But his imagination and poetry need at times just a little chastening. When he tells us that in birds “the breath- ing powers are perfected and economized by a set of dal- loons around the lungs,’ and that their brains “ are not wrinkled with thought like that of mammals”; when he speaks of the sponge as ‘‘a Venice-like city of cells” ; when he describes the ciliated cells of the windpipe as “ /ashed cells,” or the embryonic membranes as “dzrth- _ robes,” and when he says that in ponds subject to drought the organism often “ sweats off a protective sheath which zs not a shroud, and waits until the rain refreshes the pools”; in these and sundry other cases of which these are samples, one may question whether the expressions which we have underlined are justified either by special elegancy or by real helpfulness to a beginner. And this we say in no spirit of hypercriticism, but as desirous of aiding the author in what is by no means an easy task. Somewhat deeper would be our criticism of sundry ex- pressions which are of essentially human implication and which in our opinion should not lightly be applied to animal activities. Muchis said of the “love” of animals for their mates when some such phrase as “sexual appetence” would be more appropriate. For example, concerning ants we read :—‘ After this midsummer day’s NO. 1201, VOL. 47] delight of love death awaits many, and sometimes most.” And in theanalysis of the forms of struggle for existence, we have the “struggle between rivals in love.” Again, of the cuckoo it is said that, ‘“‘in spite of the poets, the note of this ‘ blessed bird’ must be regarded as sugges- tive of sin”! And again, “ It is not quite correct to say that the cuckoo-mother is immoral because’ she shirks the duties of maternity ; it is rather that she puts her young out to nurse because she is immoral.” It is true that Mr. Thomson adds this footnote :—‘ The student will notice that I have occasionally used words which are not strictly accurate. I may therefore say definitely that I do not believe that we are warranted in crediting animals with moral, esthetic, or, indeed, any concep- tions.” We are glad to be thus assured. But why im- plant notions in the text which have to be eradicated in a footnote? Does not Mr. Thomson know how easy it is to sow tares and how difficult to root them out? Mr. Norman Wyld’s chapter on “Instinct” is short, but quite to the point. We hope that he may further observe and experiment in the field of comparative psychology, for he is fully alive to the peculiar difficulties of the subject, and there is a wide field before him in which the sciertific workers are none too many. In criticizing Mr. Lloyd Morgan’s definition of instincts as “‘oft-recurring or essential to the continuance of the species,” Mr. Wyld says:—‘‘ This is not quite satis- factory, for many actions that are instinctive are not oft- recurring, and many are not necessary to the preserva- tion of the species.’? He does not show that there are any such actions which are neitber the one nor the other. We have reason for supposing that he understood Mr. Lloyd Morgan to say that instinctive actions were “ oft-recurring avd essential to the continuance of the species.” But this he did not say. In conclusion we may repeat that “ The Study. of Ani- mal Life,” though by no means faultless, may be recommen- ded to Extension students and the general reader as, in the main, accurate, readable, and suggestive. C. LL. M. VECTOR ALGEBRA. Principles of the Algebra of Vectors. By A. Macfar- lane, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.Edin,, Professor of Physics in the University of Texas. Reprint from the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Vol. XL., 1891, pp. si II7. (Salem Press, Salem, Mass., 1891). by ct is a very suggestive contribution to the founda- tions of the Algebra of Vectors as recently so strongly advocated in America by Prof. Willard Gibbs, and in this country by Mr. Oliver Heaviside. The extensive use of quaternions among physicists has been prevented by the fact that the meaning of a product of vectors has been made to depend on the use of a vector as a quadrantal versor, and by the fact that this method leads to the square of a vector being negative. The advocates of the new algebra define a product of vectors independently and in such way that the square of a vector is positive. Rotations are ex- pressed by means of dyadics, or ratios between vectors 4 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 3, 1892 and the quaternion notion of a vector being also a quad- rantal versor is not entertained at all. The author of this pamphlet devotes a portion of it to the consideration of quaternions, which he _ holds should form a distinct algebra by themselves, and he suggests a special notation for them. He restricts a quaternion proper to a pure number (a stretching factor) combined with a certain amount of turning. A vector, on the contrary, may be a quantity of any dimensions, possessing direction, with no suggestion of turning attached to it. He clearly shows that the objectionable mznus which occurs in scalar products in quaternions arises from the attempt to use the same symbol both for a quadrantal versor and for a vector, so that the laws established for dealing with one set of quantities may hold also for the other set, or for a combination of the two. It may be worth while to notice that this minus sign of the quaternionists would disappear as an explicit symbol if they considered the second vector as being drawn from the end of the first, as AB, BC, and then took the angle ABC as being the angle between the vectors—that is to say, if, in a polygon of vectors, they were to define the angles between the successive vectors _ to be the zuzternal angles of the polygon. Indeed, by many the internal angles of a polygon (or triangle) are considered as being ¢he angles between the sides, though there is loss of real naturalness and of symmetry caused by so considering them: for instance, the connection between A, B, C and a, 4, ¢c in a spherical triangle would be greatly simplified if A, B, C were to denote the external angles. However, if we consider these internal angles to be the angles considered by the quaternionists, the reason for the square of a vector being negative appears at once ; for if a be the quantitative part (freed from the notion of direction) of a vector A, we have A A = a? cos 180°, A and A being consecutive sides of the polygon which have straightened out till the internal angle between them is 180°. It may therefore be contended that the quaternionists’ minus is not quite irrational in vector algebra (though it cannot be said not to be inconvenient there), and that the advantage of being able to treat a vector as a quad- rantal versor without having to establish a new set of formule far more than compensates for the loss of sym- metry. On the other hand, the advocates of vector algebra without the #zzus would probably reply that they have to deal with vectors which are not in any sense the same as quadrantal or any other kind of versors, and that the imaginary completeness gained does not in any degree whatever compensate for the loss of naturalness and loss of symmetry involved in the mznus. The author differs from Prof. Gibbs and Mr. Heaviside in the mode in which he defines the product of two vectors, as he considers the complete product formed on the understanding that the multiplication shall obey the distributive law. He then finds that this complete pro- duct consists of a non-directed part, and of a directed or vector part, the former consisting of the product of the two quantities into the cosine of the angle between them, and the latter of the product of the two quantities into the sine of the same angle, having as axis the normal to NO. 1201, VOL. 47] the plane containing the two vectors. The angle is the angle through which the first vector (occurring on the left-hand side of the product) would have to turn to make its direction coincide with that of the second. Prof. Gibbs and Mr. Heaviside, on the contrary, define the scalar product and the vector product as if they were entirely distinct and independent quantities. Finally the same result is attained, but Prof. Macfarlane’s mode of introducing these partial products as arising naturally from applying the distributive law of multiplication would seem to have an advantage from the point of view of a student. Prof. Macfarlane dwells emphatically on the importance of considering dimensions of vectors, as well as their direction, and to emphasize this he separates his vector, not into zemsor and unit-vector, but into guantity and direction. Thus in the equation X ='2, x is the quan- tity, and z denotes the axis, Hence the equation 72 =z is not a violation of dimensions, but is merely a conven- tion as to the interpretation of a composite direction, a convention, moreover, which could only be adopted in space of three dimensions, and is the statement that the plane in which 7 and £ lie has its orientation sufficiently indicated by the normal direction z, with the further ~ convention that the angle from / to # shall be considered positive. The author’s notation is novel, and forms a very im- portant feature in his treatment of the subject, The scalar product of AB, which is ad cos (aé),he calls cos (AB) and the vector product he calls Sz AB, its magnitude, irrespective of direction, being denoted by séz AB.. Possibly an improvement in this latter would be to denote it by siz aé, and then the capital letter in the complete: vector would become unnecessary. The particular symbol used to denote a scalar or a vector product is a matter of secondary importance, but is amatter which must sooner or later be settled if vector- algebra is to come into general use. Lord Kelvin is of opinion that a function-symbol should be written with not less than three letters, and Prof, Macfarlane’s notation obeys that law, and is moreover easy to work with, but is incomplete, being applicable to products of two. vectors only. Mr. Heaviside uses no prefix at all to a scalar product, but considers that AB means the scalar product. He uses the quaternionic expression V AB for the vector product. Prof. Gibbs uses no prefix for either, but denotes the scalar product by A. B, and the vector product by AXB. The three-lettered prefix seems the clearest in both cases to denote the special product intended, and the symbols cos .and sé# are more or less. suggestive. In forming a product of three vectors, Prof. Macfarlane makes the convention that ABC shall mean (AB)C, the: combination commencing on the left. In his notation this product expands into (cos AB + Sin AB)C =cos (cos AB. C+Sin AB. C)+Sin (cos AB. C+Sin AB..C) =cos (Sin AB. C)+Sin (cos AB. C)+ Sin (Sin AB. C) =vol ABC+C.cos AB+Sin(Sin AB. C) which finally becomes =vol ABC +C cos AB+ B cos AC- Acos BC; NOvVEMBEK 3, 1892| NATURE 5 sre vol (ABC) denotes the volume of the parallelopiped of which ABC are three adjacent edges. The only ob- fion to this name lies in its suggesting that A, B, C we Jinear vectors. = p Here appears the defect in the author’s cos and sin tation, in that it cannot be applied to the products of = vectors, or at least that the special reason for its Pals dhiaripeared, and the author does not suggest plying it. _ But there is a certain perspicuity attained by this very limitation of the cos and szx notation to the products of two vectors, inasmuch as there can be no ambiguity n the meaning of an expression in which they occur, even brackets are omitted or placed differently. Indeed, nstead of cos (Sin AB.C) the author writes cos (Sin AB)C, ch seems a curious use of the bracket. But ‘Sin AB.C, or preferably cos € Sin AB, is just as icit, and even cos Sin ABC, though wrong to write as Deing puzzling, can only have the same meaning. Th author concludes with short sections on dyads and matrices, on scalar- and vector-differentiation, including r ntiation of a quaternion. On the last page a series of propositions relating to the addition of ‘and vector quantities situate at, or passing through, ed points. pamphlet is confined solely to statements of ples and the section devoted to dyads and matrices sry condensed, so that it is not in any sense a text- ‘for students. It is rather a synopsis of the subject, the introduction of a special notation which the 4 ‘has found useful. A text-book of vector algebra, é with examples showing its application to problems in _ geometry, mechanics, and general physics, and contrast- __ ing the method with the Cartesian method of treating the same problems, is much needed, as many physicists are ote interested in the new algebra, owing in great measure to Mr. O. Heaviside’s able exposition of its Pp rin oe and applications in the E/ectrician and else- 5 . Le difte: THE LAKE OF GENEVA. Léman: Monographie Limnologique. F. A. Forel. Tome Premier, (Lausanne: F. Rouge, 189-.) ROF. FOREL has been for some years occupied in _ studying the Lake of Geneva, and has now published first instalment of the fruits of his labours. The work, hen finished, is intended to bea complete monograph of history of a single lake, and will be a most important tribution toaninteresting branch of physical geography. the present volume the geography, the hydrography, - geology, the climatology, and the hydrology of Lake an are discussed, after some introductory matter lating to the instruments employed in sounding with other preliminaries. But, though only a single volume, _ the work embraces so many questions that we must, for want of space, confine our notice mainly to one, which, _ Of late years, has attracted the most attention, at any rate in this country, viz. What has been the origin of the Piake’ basin? Was it formed by the old Rhone glacier or _ in some other way? The especial value of Prof. Forel’s j "memoir is the number of new facts which it brings to _ bear on the problem thus propounded. NO. 1201, VOL. 47] The Lake of Geneva, however it may have been caused, is more modern than the middle of the Miocene period : “ Le lac n’existait pas encore, la vallée du Léman n’était pas méme indiquée quand la mer helvétienne déposait les mollasses d’Epalinges et du Mont.” Its slopes, and almost certainly its bed, are covered with glacial deposits, of later date than the formation of its basin. Terraces around its shore indicate that its waters once reached a higher level, the greatest elevation which can be identified with certainty, being about 30m. above the present surface. The next pause was at Iom.; after that the lake sank (the fall always being rapid) to its present level. Traces of still higher terraces are to be found on the north shore, but as these neither can be identified on the opposite side, nor correspond with any natural bar- rier in the course of the Rhone below the lake. Prof. Forel doubts whether they indicate old levels of its waters. Lake Léman consists of two basins. The first and larger extends from the embouchure of the Rhone to the narrow of Promenthoux. At the east end the slope of the cone of alluvium deposited by the Rhone in no part ex- ceeds 25°. First comes a zone of very shallow water off the actual shore line ; to this succeeds a more rapid slope, which gradually eases off as it descends. The current of the Rhone has made and maintains a well- marked channel in this mass of detritus, and the contour lines are affected down to250m. At the embouchure of the Dranse, on the south shore, another alluvial cone has been deposited. This, however, is rather steeper, but it is much smaller, and does not perceptibly affect the course of the subaqueous contour lines below about 230m. On the north side of the basin the slope varies. Under the walls of Chillon the descent is rapid, amounting to 137 in 100; it isnearly the same near St. Gingolph on the opposite shore, doubtless indicating submerged crags ; but it is generally more moderate. West of Vevay it is about one in four, whence it changes gradually to one in ten opposite to Ouchy. West of this port the descent is still more gentle, and so it continues round the western end of the basin, the lip of the latter being 75m. below the surface. The con- tours of the south side correspond generally with those of the north, and the form of the basin is evidently related to the geology of the district, being narrower and steeper among the harder rocks at the easternend. The deepest part is a large rudely triangular area, the apex pointing towards the west, and the base lying roughly north and south, extending from almost opposite to the embouchure of the Dranse to near Lutry. All this area is an almost level plain, for it is wholly below the 300m. contour line, but the greatest depth obtained was only 309'7m. The Petit Lac may be described as a comparatively narrow and shallow trough, rising very slowly from a depth of about 70 to 50 metres, and then gradually mounting to the embouchure of the Rhone, its bed being slightly interrupted by five small shallow basins, which roughly speaking, have a linear arrangement, but their floors only sink four or six yards at most below the general level. The lake to some extent is still held up by the huge mass of gravel brought down by the Arve, through which the two rivers have now cut their channels on either side of the plateau of La Batie below Geneva. But it is 6 NATURE. [ NOVEMBER 3, 1892 in the main a true rock basin, though its bed no doubt is concealed beneath glacial deposits and the finer mud brought down by rivers. This alluvium has been studied by Prof. Forel, but into the matter we are unable to enter. Both the origin of lake basins in general and of that of Léman in particular are carefully discussed by Prof. Forel. He examines, only to reject as attended by insuperable difficulties, the hypothesis that it was excavated by the old glacier of the Rhone. He shows that the subaqueous portion corresponds in its general features with a river valley, and is only a prolongation of that of the Rhone. This valley was first defined at a very early period in the uprising of the Alps ; its excavation progressed with their growth ; it was practically completed at a time when they were higher, perhaps by some 1000 m., than at present. Then the iake was formed by a general subsidence of the mountain region, the lowland remaining compara- tively unaffected. The movements of the parts depressed may have been to some extent differential ; but this, in Prof. Forel’s opinion, is not a necessary assumption. To us, however, it appears that it would be very difficult to explain the rock barrier at St. Maurice between the upper and lower plains without some amount of differential movement. Prof. Forel’s view, of course, is not novel ; for it has been long maintained in England as a general explanation of the greater Alpine lakes by a few geolo- gists, who never bowed the knee to the glacial Baal With their writings, however, Prof. Forel does not appear to be acquainted, though they appeared in publications generally accessible. . The remainder of the present volume is occupied by a discussion of the temperature, rainfall, and general hydro- logy of the Lake Léman region. It is full of interesting facts and discussions, which we would gladly notice did space permit. The book is well printed, and contains many illustrations, together with a large map of the lake on which the subaqueous contours are depicted. If the book were less diffuse its scientific value would have been greater, but Prof. Forel pleads in excuse that he aimed at writing a volume which would be also acceptable to the general public, or in other words, would combine meat for men with milk for babes. As a comprehensive history of a lake is a great desideratum, it would be un- gracious to find fault with Prof. Forel’s very natural desire to secure a large number of readers and of purchasers. T. G. BONNEY. OUR BOOK SHELF. Horn Measurements and Weights of the Great Game of the World, being a Record for the use of Sportsmen and Naturalists. By Rowland Ward, F.Z.S. (London: Published by the Author, 1892.) IN these days, when every one is striving to “ beat the record,” it is only right that sportsmen should have clearly put before them the results already arrived at as regards the size of the trophies and the weight of game-animals already obtained by their brother Nimrods. No one is in so good a position to do this as Mr. Rowland Ward, to whose well-known “jungle” in Piccadilly all the leading shooters of the present day send their “heads ” to be mounted and their “skins” to be stuffed. It is, however, much to be regretted that Mr. Ward did not take into his councils some brother “ F.Z.S.” more NO. 1201, VOL. 47] versed in scientific knowledge than himself when he pre- pared this volume, or at any rate did not have the proof- sheets revised by some zoologist witha good knowledge of the Mammalia. The consequence of this want of fore- sight is that the nomenclature and localities upon which the importance of the records entirely depends are in a very confused state, and in many cases quite erroneous. Take the Deer (Cervidz), for instance. Of this family a very correct and accessible list, drawn up by the late Sir Victor Brooke, has been published in the “ Proceed- ings ” of the Zoological Society for 1878, which Mr. Ward would have done well to follow. But we find under the Sambur (Cervus aristotelis) a head from ‘‘ Java,” where this species certainly does not occur, recorded in the list. Next to this (p. 10) comes the “ Central and South Indian Sambur, Rusa hippelaphus” (whatever this may be), but three out of the four specimens assigned to it are from Nepal! On the other hand, several heads from Java are attributed (p. 22) to Cervus rusa, which is merely a synonym of Cervus. hippelaphus. The heads of the large Deer of the Caueasus obtained by Mr. St. George Littiedale are assigned (p. 28) to the Ked Deer (Cervus elaphus). But we have good reason to know that they really belong to the Persian Deer (C. maral), quite a different species. Looking over the list of Antelopes, we find similar errors prevalent, though perhaps not quite to so great an. extent. The specimens of the Chiru (Panthalops. hodgsont) are assigned to “ India,” whereas this Antelope is only met with in the snow-fields of Ladakh and Tibet. Nor can the “Takin” (Budorcas taxicolor) be properly stated to be from “India.” It occurs only in the Mishmi Hills on the frontiers of Assam. N These and many like mistakes are the more serious as Mr. Ward’s volume is well got up, nicely illustrated, and likely to be frequently used by the sporting naturalist. | But the statements contained in it cannot be relied upon for scientific accuracy. Der Peloponnes. Versuch einer Landeskunde auf geologischer Grundlage. Von Dr. Alfred Philippson. (Berlin : R. Friedlander and Son, 1891-1892.) GREECE has hitherto been interesting mainly to scholars, archeologists, and lovers of art ; and no doubt it is from their various points of view that the country will always be most eagerly studied. The subject, however, has also elements of attraction for students of natural science, and it is to these elements, so far as the Peloponnese is concerned, that Dr. Philippson has sought to do justice in the present work. His results have been . obtained by direct personal observation, and are set forth with admirable clearness. The book is divided into two parts, the first of which is called “special,” the second “oeneral.” In the “special ” part the author deals with particular regions of the Peloponnese ; in the “ general” part he presents an account of the peninsula as a whole. Dr. Philippson is a careful and accomplished geologist, and has been remarkably successful not only in throwing fresh light on the geological phenomena of the country, but in showing their relation to the various orders of facts which come more especially within the province of the geographer. He has also excellent chapters on the forms and phenomena of the surface, on climate, on vege- tation, on the animal world, and on the population. In — dealing with the last of these subjects he has much that is valuable to say about productive industry, means of communication, density of population, and towns, villages, and other settlements. The interest of the work is greatly increased by maps and profile-sketches, Traité Encyclopédigue de Photographie. By Charles Fabre. (Paris: Gautier-Villars'and Sons, 1892.) IN a previous number of NATURE (vol. xlvi. p. 464) we nOticed the first part of the supplement which M. Fabre ‘NOVEMBER 3, 1592] NATURE 7 | ei to bring out triennially. The present two volumes rm a continuation, and extend as far as § 5 of the second chapterin the second book. The author proceeds on the same lines as formerly, and places before the reader a concise way all the new methods of development, of constitution which characterize developers down to the latest form of kodak or tie camera. Not only is each subject treated with the greatest care, but illustrations are numerously. distributed. That which will add great value to the work as a whole is the inser- on of references, for what, after all, is more annoying than having to wade through a great quantity of literature _ when the presence of one or two words would have eliminated alltrouble? =~ W. é Keliguary: Quarterly Archeological Journal and Review. Vol, Vi. (New Series). (London: Bemrose and Sons, 1892.) : ‘Tuts volume consists of the four numbers of Zhe Redz- guary which have appeared during the present year. re es their work in a thoroughly scientific spirit. Mr. J. Lewis André contributes an interesting and well- ustrated paper on leather in the useful and ornamental -of an early dial, bearing runes, which he was lucky enough to find some months ago in the churchyard of Skelton, land. An illustration gives a good impression of eneral character of the stone, the runes on which, Ete ’ A he a 7 . om _ manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. mot seen ; the three green lines were very distinct. . On October 14 the red line was much fainter, but there was obvious bright line in the yellow, which may be the line which Dr. Copeland estimated as 580°1 on Angust 28 (NATURE, ber 15), Or may be that which has been measured several times at the Lick Observatory (Astrophysics, October, p. 717), and appears to havea wave length of about 575. It had escaped my notice before, but I was induced to look most. carefully in _ the yellow by considerations arising out of an attempt to recon- _ cile Mr. Barnard’s observations of apparent nebulosity surround- ing the Nova, as seen in the 36-inch refractor at Mount _ Hamilton, with-my owa observations of September 14. Mr. _ Barnard’s ‘‘stellar wacleus” was the difficulty. ‘there appears _ to be no doubt that the Nova is emitting a spectrum similar to that of a planetary nebula, but it seems to me necessary to have nebulous extension can be seen; if it is to be seen with a simple eyepiece, it must be looked for in a reflecting telescope, as the following considerations will show. Prof. Keeler’s study of the chromatic correction of the Lick NO. 1201, VOL. 47] _ measuring lenses, apparatus, &c., from the particulars tents include many things which do not quite me within the scope of NATURE ; but it is satisfactory ‘to be able to note that the writers, speaking generally, , and a clear account is given by the editor of a part. further spectroscopic evidence before it is established that Refractor shows (‘* Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific,” Vol. II. p. 164) that the circle of aberration of F light on the focal plane for the D line has a diameter which is in terms of the focal length *C000349. We may take this diameter as very nearly that of the circle of aberration of D light on the focal plane for the F line. Thus if a star emits only D and F light, and the F light is focussed, then the D light will fill a circle nearly 7” in diameter, and the star will look like a planetary nebula with a stellar nucleus. If the star «mits light of wave lengths 500 and 575, then interpolation based on Keeler’s measurements shows that round a stellar nucleus in the focus for wave length 500 there must be a circle of aberration of nearly 4’ diameter. Mr. Campbell found lines of wave lengths 500 and 575 in the spectrum of Nova Aurigze with respective intensities 10 and 1. Mr. Barnard describes the appearance of nebulosity as ‘‘ pretty bright and dense,” and as measuring 3” diameter. My own inability to see either the circle of aberration for the yellow line when the green was focussed, or the alleged nebulosity, may be explained in several ways (¢.g. smaller aperture of object glass, climatic conditions, &c.). ‘The spectroscope could probably decide the questicn at Mount Hamilton by showing whether the minimum length of any of the lines is that corresponding with 3” diameter on the slit. I have not been able to do more than observe that the yellow line is not visible when the 500 line is focussed on the slit of a spectroscope having an effective dispersion of two 60° prisms. H. F. NEWALL. Observatory, Cambridge, October 24. Formation of Lunar Volcanoes. WHILE we have, on the lunar surface, a series of markings so evidently volcanic that no one thinks of applying any other term to them, we have on the other hand no explanation of their mode of formation which will stand examination. The explanation given by Messrs. Nasmyth and Carpenter in their splendid work on the moon, founded upon explosive expulsion of lava, fails to satisfy the mind when applied to wide craters with a low wall such as Shickard or Grimaldi, of which there are so many on the moon, and which look more like some dis- turbance in a semi-liquid surface than an accumulation of volcanic débris. The umbrella-like eruption figured in Messrs. Nasmyth and Carpenter’s book does not represent any phenomenon within our experience, as the erupted material (unless light enough to be driven by wind) invariably falls back int o the neighbourhood of the vent, and we could not conceive of its being shot neatly out twenty-five miles on every side to form the familiar ring. An explanation of the mode of formation founded upon lunar tidal motion occurred to me about seventeen years ago, from observations on acooling slag; but until the recent publication of Mr. Darwin’s work on the history of the tides I was.doubtful if that force were sufficient to account for observed results. I had noticed that the rise and fall of a fused slag through holes in its solidifying crust, formed craters exactly like those in the moon; and I enclose a photograph of a piece of that slag in which is reproduced all the salient features of the lunar surface, ; The mode of formation was as follows :— The fused liquid (which:was potash ‘‘ black ash” containing a mixture of substances of very varied melting point) was still giving off some gas, whichvescaped as at a in Fig. 1, building up a ¢ § NATURE [ NovEMBER 3, 1892 a miniature crater as at 4, c, d. But the crater vent becoming intermittently choked, the accumulation of gas beneath the crust caused the liquid ‘‘ lava” to rise through any neighbouring holes as at ¢, f, giving rise toa ring crater. The pressure of the ac- cumulated gas now drove out the obstruction in a, when the liquid lava receded ine as at g. This intermittent action went on till the crater z was built up —entirely by ‘‘ rise and fall” (as of a tide), no gas escaping at this hole. In the case of the moon the rise and fall would be caused by the tidal motion of the still liquid interior. The solid crust would resist the periodic rise of the liquid interior, and the liquid would well through the crust and recede again as the wave passed. When the crust was thin, and the lava very liquid, the large ring structures would be formed, as the lava would flow far ; but Fic, 2. as the crust got thicker and the lava more viscid, the more striking craters like Copernicus would be built up. When the vent was very small, or the lava very viscid, the exuded lava would build up mountain ranges, or peaks like Pico, as it could not flow far, and would be cooled too much to allow of its flow- ing back with the ebb tide. The existence of the cause proposed by Messrs. Nasmyth and Carpenter, viz., expansion on solidification, is very doubtful. The proof they adduced was that a piece of solid slag would float on liquid slag. But when slag solidifies it becomes filled with small cracks, which doubtless ccntain air, and so aid in the flotation. When I was working at this subject I had some slag poured into an iron mould kept cool by immersion in water. When the slag had cooled a distinct depression was seen on the upper free surface, showing that the slag had contracted during solidification. No doubt its contraction or expansion will de- pend upon its composition, and we do not know the composition of the moon’s surface, but we need not depend upon a doubtful property for an explanation when a set of conditions have existed which must have yielded an ample force for the pro- duction of the observed results. In the photograph marked Fig. 2, at a can be seen a crater NO. 1201, VOL. 47] with a raised floor and a central cone, at J a crater filled to the lip like ‘‘ Wargentin,” while on the plain near 4, and round the open crater ¢, will be seen numerous minute craters, as on the moon’s surface in the neighbourhood of ‘‘ Aristotle” or ** Copernicus,” while in other photographs are seen walled plains like the ‘‘Mare Crisium,” so that all the important features of lunar topography are reproduced in this slag, and there are many minor points of agreement which cannot be gone into in the limits of a letter, Although I have always considered the tides the cause of the wonderful lunar configuration, I was not satisfied that that cause alone was of sufficient magnitude, till the work of Mr. Darwin placed the matter in sucha clear light that I now venture to submit the idea to your readers as a feasible explanation of the familiar lunar features. J. B. HANNAY., On the Need of a New Geometrical Term—‘‘ Conjugate i Angles.” F IN geometrical discussions, such as arise out of a great variety of physical problems, it is frequently necessary to refer to an acute or obtuse angle A as being equal to another acute or obtuse angle B, because contained by two straight lines which are respectively perpendicular to those containing the angle B. Such a statement of the reason of the equality is, however, cumbrous. Sometimes, indeed, such angles when acute might be described as equal because they are the comple- ments of equal (because vertically opposite) angles; but it will often happen that the figure does not show the vertically oppo- site angles that would be referred to. I should be glad to know whether there is any term express- ing the relation in question in use among either English or foreign writers, and, in default of such, would suggest that such angles be called conjugate, or if greater precision is required, rectangularly conjugate, the general term conjugate to be used when we wish to refer to an angle A as equal to an angle B because contained by sides whose directions are the directions of the sides of B, after each has experienced an equal and similar rotation in the plane of the diagram, whether the rotation is through a right angle or not. The shorter inclusive term conjugate could always be used for the less general but longer term rectangularly conjugate, when brevity was aimed at. A. M. WORTHINGTON, R.N.E. College, Devonport, October 30. Printing Mathematics. THE main features of mathematical work that give trouble in printing are three: the expressing of (1) fractions, (2) powers, (3) roots. (1) To simplify the expression of fractions we have the solidus suggested by Sir G. Stokes. But the solidus has been hitherto much less used than it might be, on account of the uncertainty as to how far its influence reaches in any expression more com- plicated than the simplest fractions. This uncertainty can easily be removed, and the usefulness of the solidus greatly extended by defining more definitely its exact meaning. This is done in the simple conventions proposed below. (2) To express the process of involution, the sign \\, suggested by Mr. C. T. Mitchell in the E/ectrician, is more concise and clearer than that mentioned by Prof. S. P. Thompson in NATURE. And Mr. Mitchell’s sign, if defined by conventions similar to those applied below to the solidus, is capable of a like extensive application. (3) To express roots we have the sign ,/. But, when accom- panied by a horizontal line above to show the extent of its influence, this sign also requires special spacing. But it can be brought into line with the rest by the use of the same conven- tions. Taking then for a, the sign of division ... ae si 4 B. ,. 5, involution ses aa e ye yt gy SEVORIEION 3; BA tie n/ we may use each of these signs in either of two ways :— I. Simply as asign of operation, in which case it can influence only the quantities immediately adjacent to it. II. In a double capacity— (1) As a sign of operation. Novemper 3, 1892] NATURE 9 q (2) As one end of a bracket, of which the other end is |. _ This bracketing influence may be directed either forwards or _ backwards, or both ways at once. S Examples. a. Division. at+é +d= |a+ dfe+d, =at/e+d|, = lat+de+al, pes ebifed, «., = ca (7 +e) = a/(d + c\(d + e), é os abled |, a b+¢ Geode ~WtOe+ OI, sin © = sin jr, 280.0 = - | sin 6/2. __ Continued fractions also can readily be brought into one line _ by this notation— j a ee ae DO eae hth + e+ a+ sel, _ B. Involution. ay’ ; a =a\i,a”° =a\-, (a+ bs +d=)at+br\¢+4, a +O a+ bre+d], (a +? = lat+bctel, eta a (a + dev = lat |eo+adfetf|. . a 4 aN fe and @/d\¢ are ambiguous, but | a\ o/c = <, be- cause | being unnecessary for \ in this case, can apply only (a + ay HEP ; , tof. ~—qG_ is || a + 3\.¢/4d, two vertical lines being required. Bo.) a\e a b Similarly | a/b .¢ = (5): a/b ¢| =F arbfc| = a? a a c — aR Ad= - - % Evolution— Natb+c=|nJat+b+e|, Wes d=|a4 bverdl, he + a= |a@ + bafe + d, @t+b.Ne¢d=atblc+al, a+ Metd=artloJcer+d. _ In some cases lines of differing thickness might be advisable ; for instance— bi gape WN/21 Feld tS 1. There are many other ways in which this notation might be used ; but the above will suffice to illustrate the advantages of it. Andthese advantages are substantial. It enables the work to be printed in the same space as ordinary letterpress, and thus avoids the special spacing, from which nine-tenths of the troubles in mathematical printing arise. It requires no new types, except, perhaps, \, and each of the signs used is suggestive of the original mode of writing for which it is a substitute. It can be used without confusion in conjunction with all ordinary brackets. How far this notation would suit very complicated expressions, is a point that would have to be determined by experience ; but for printing mathematics of ordinary complexity it would be useful in economizing space and diminishing the risk of printers’ errors without any sacrifice of clearness. Cambridge, October 27. W. Cassi£, NO. 1201, VOL. 47] ** Sunshine,” In acknowledging the courteous criticism and the kind re- marks which *‘C, V. B.” has been pleased to make about my little book, may I be permitted to comment on one or two points, which I think he has imperfectly understood from the text. We all know that when ‘‘C. V. B.” undertakes to review a book, he does his work in a thorough and searching manner, and from his critique it is evident that ‘‘ Sunshine” has been well read. Notwithstanding this, in one or two of the instances selected for criticism the meaning, at once simple and obvious to a little child, who neither knows nor suspects any other, seems to have missed him, presumably because he knows all the bearings of the subject. Thus it is sometimes a disadvantage to be learned. Of this I propose presently to give an instance in the order which it occurs, After poking fun at me, because, the ‘‘ Sunshine ” course being ended, Tommy meets King Sol face to face and ‘‘has it out with him,” my critic proceeds to discuss the limits within which the imagination may be appealed to as a factor in scientific education, and while I agree with him in the main, I am tempted in passing to remind him of what Tyndall terms ‘‘ the scientific use of the imagination,” to which the clearness and (to me) the charm of his own lectures is largely due. Be that as it may, in one of ‘* Nature’s Story Books” I feel fully justified in employ- ing, within the limits of scientific accuracy, any or all of the powers of the mind, which shall help children and others to realize: the relation they bear to their surroundings, assured that in a course based upon some hundreds of experiments synthetically worked out and deductions made—a course whose main object is to lead children to go direct to Nature, via experiment, for their knowledge, there is little danger that the imagination be cultivated at the expense of the reasoning faculties. -The ex- perience of the writer is that the children attending the lectures became extremely critical—a state of mind which, although of inestimable value in acquiring knowledge, is not one of the happiest in other respects. Therefore it was thought desirable to provide them with some necessary ballast, and this is my defence of the hypnotic visit to the moon, and the other two chapters to which the critic alludes. Natural science apart, it seems to me that the tendency of the school-teaching of to-day is calculated rather to make children hard and matter of fact. For this reason I have endeavoured’ in these Sunshine Stories to interest children in the poetry of their common lives, myself playing somewhat the ré/e of ar optical instrument, presenting images sometimes real, some- times virtual of those physical beauties which touch*them at every point. The fact that ‘*C. V. B.” recognizes in ‘* Sun- shine” the realism which the “picturesque language” was in- tended to convey,’ disposes of the case of my Cape Town reviewer, who mildly insinuates that I have been guilty of some fraud upon little children in calling ‘‘ Sunshine” a story-book. Therefore I am the more glad that ‘‘C. V. B.” agrees with me that the mathematical side of these questions should not be obtruded. There are so many excellent text-books which supply that information for older pupils. I need not say that I shall be most happy to add the exception in the case of the rainbow. I thank him also for pointing out @ passage in the notes where an additional clause is necessary, owing to the transposition of a paragraph. But I take excep- tion to the statement about the top, for it is evident that the experiment is not made under the same conditions as that which **C, V. B.” has in mind, because my boys get green and he gets (he says) white, or nearly white. The home experiment reads: ‘‘1 am giving each of you squares of coloured paper to take home . . . then you may have the papers to put on your tops—e.g., cover half blue and half yellow, spin the top and you will see green.” A note on page 341 refers to the kind of paper. Now it seems to me from the expression ‘‘ painted disc,” which ‘*C, V. B.” has made use of, that possibly he may have had Clerk Maxwell’s top in mind when he wrote. When I say toa boy, ‘‘Here are two squares of paper, one blue and one yellow ; when you’ve done so and so, you can have the aper to keep—cover your top, half yellow, half blue, &c.,” the ad understands me, and when I am not there he takes out his halfpenny whip-top, tears a piece of the blue paper, and rendering it slightly adhesive hammers it down on the top with his right fist; he tears a similar piece and treats it in the same way, and so on until he has covered half. Then he takes the yellow paper and covers the other half with irregular patches of yellow. He spins the top and sees green. IO NATURE [ NovEMBER 3, 1862. How different is this from Clerk Maxwell’s top. Clerk Max- well selected for his top the purest of paper and pigments. He endeavoured to match the spectral colours (considerably diluted). -He selected a scarlet red with a tinge of orange like orange-red vermilion, lying in the spectrum one-third the way towards D, between the lines C and D. His green was one-fourth the dis- tance from E, between E and F, and resembled emerald green. He also selected a blue violet’ midway between F and G, which was imitated by that purest of colours—ultramarine. Now let us try the given experiment under the favourable conditions guaranteed by Maxwell’s discs, viz., the purest. of colours painted on Whatman’s paper. Taking up a disc of ultramarine and another of pale (not orange) chrome yellow, and conceal- ing half of one disc behind the other, on rotating:the compound) disc so that the eye shall receive simultaneously blue and yellow light, the result is not white or even! practically white, but. a grey, tinged with yellow. . By a careful adjustment, hiding more of the yellow and exposing more of the blue (thereby altering the ‘proportions of the text), it is possible to get rid of this yellowness and to obtain an absolutely neutral grey which it might be possible: to persuade some grown-up people repre-’ sented white, but: which on analysis yields.714 per cent. black to 284 per cent. white. This may’ be proved by revolving a - disc of black and white sectors in the above «proportions, the results'in each case being identical..But even this. result; un- satisfactory as it is, does not’ apply to the passage quoted in the text, in which no special conditions are observed. I main- tain what is easily proved by experiment in less time than it: takes, to. write it, that when ordinary colours, ¢.g., gamboge and Prussian blue, are used, thé residual: light is green. + lee «I fear that already this letter is too long, and since I do not wish to monopolize the space: kindly placed at the dis- posal of your correspondents, I must defer the consideration of the annotations on soap films.. The other points are dealt with in the preface. AMY JOHNSON. 52 Lower Sloane Street, S:W., October 12 I Do not think that the observations on my review of ‘‘Sun- shine” require more than a very short answer. I considered that the authoress had not by any means cleared the. .confusion which usually exists as to the meaning of the expression ‘‘mixing of colours.” It is applied both to the case where two or more colours are seen superposed, ¢.g. by spin- ning coloured paper where the resultant tint is due to the sum of the separate colours in the constituents, and,to the case of mixed pigments where the-resultant tint is that which is. com- mon to the constituents, Nowas the common. ‘‘ paint box” rule says that blue and yellow make green, that is that blue and yellow pigments mixed produce a green pigment, it seems to'me very misleading to»say ‘‘ Cover half (of your top) blue and half yellow:and you will see green.’’ Of course it may happen that the slight departure:from white which will be ob- served may bein. agreenish direction, but it may. also be inclined towards pink, or, for anything I know, towards any. other colour. The one thing it will not.do, however, is to make a green such as.is obtained by mixing the pigments, and such as I fancy-from the context any one would expect..C, V. B. The Photography of an Image by Reflection. THE great utility of spark photography for obtaining time records of quickly-moving objects: must be apparent to all who know the experiments of Mr. C. Bell, Prof. Boys, and Lord Rayleigh. By means of spark:photography.the shadow of any object such as a jet of water, a flying bullet, or a broken soap film can be’ produced with perfect definition, The shadow of the moving object illuminated by an electric spark is thrown on toa sensitive plate ina dark room, and the plate is developed in the usual manner. The process of spark shadow photography will be found, I believe, of great service in physiological research. With a view to try this I attached a long sensitive plate: to the traversing carriage of a chronograph ; the moving carriage closed — and opened the primary circuit of an induction coil at- pre- t The purport of the experiment will be best understood if I state that it rollows a series of chapters on colour, viz. : the rainbow, the spectrum, its ecom position by refraction and by reflection ; while the last chapter dis- cusses and explains, with experiments, the question of spectral lights versus pigments.. The common surface papers, which the children are daily in the habit of using, are then analysed by the prism, and found to be anything but monochromatic. : NO. 120T, VOL. 47] | ably a steel surface would be best. ' were placed in a_long ‘equal sides.” arranged equal intervals of time. In front of the moving plate a frog’s heart was placed ina slit on a screen; at each break a shadow of the heart was thrown on to the plate by means of the induced spark. By this means thirty. positions of the heart were registered ; the pictures weré all sharp and clear. I have also used the same method for photographing the movements of in- sects. Since these experiments, which I showed during the University Extension Meeting in Oxford this year, I have made several attempts to get spark photographs of the front view of objects (not their shadows). In my first experiments the objects were illuminated by an electric spark, the image being received on a plate in an ordinary camera. I found that so much useful light was shut off by the lenses that only.a dim picture could be .produced. A quartz lens was next tried and the results were _rather better. I then determined to use no lens, but in its place ‘a silvered mirror. A concave reflector made’by silvering a con- _ cave lens ofabout 10 c.m. diameter was so placed that it reflected the image of a white paper star 7 c.m. diameter, revolving about _ 60 times in a second, on to an ordinary photographic plate, the ‘ total length traversed by the light being 80 c.m. ‘The star was illuminated with ‘a spark-exactly similar to that used in the previous experiment ; on development a good picture of the star came out. -The reflector was neither well:made nor well silvered. The idea was suggested by observing some spark photogt hs I. obtained of waves on the surface of mercury reflecting light. When a steady .light is used. a photograph of any object is readily obtained by reflection from a suitable mirror. Prob- The mirror and plate box: provided with a hole at one end through which: the light reflected from the object passed. A few experiments made on living objects to test the time of exposure in Reflection Photography showed that in order to avoid over-exposure, a very rapid shutter must be used. el ah kas | FREDERICK J. SMITH. Trinity College, Oxford, October 25. — Induction and Deduction. . AS your correspondent invites discussion on thissubject I hope, | you will allow me to repeat in anew form the views I expressed upon it in your columns some months ago. I quite agree with’ Mr. Russel in .maintaining that ‘‘ true induction is utterly un- able to yield us any conclusion that is more than probable’and approximate,” understanding by induction inference from one or more Spécial cases: to a more general rule. But on the other hand it appears to me that Miss Jones’s criticism is quite de- structive of Mr. Russel’s interpretation of geometrical reasoning. The point which both have missed I believe to be this, that proposition stated in given words, such as the enunciation o Euclid’s gous asinorum does not always and to‘every one con- vey the same information.; and if it is meant in one sense its degree of réliability, and the method by which it must be proved, will be quite different from what they would be if it were meant in another. There are at least three different kinds of interpretation which may thus be put upon the proposition. It may mean (1) the triangle used to illustrate this proposition has equal sides ; therefore it has equal angles ; or (2) I have con- ceived a triangle which has’equal sides, therefore I have con- ceived one which has equal angles; or (3) the connotation ascribed by the adjective “‘isosceles.” implies, the ‘connotation “having It is not necessary for me here to dwell upon the distinction between the first two, interpretations ; but the difference be- tween either of them and the third is that this latter-gives us no information about any real thing or concept, but only about what is implied by using certain terms. And this latter kind of information clearly does not require to be based upon any real knowledge of things, but may be based solely on definitions of words. Arguments with propositions interpreted only in this sense are what I call symbolic arguments ; and symbolic ‘conclusions therefore’give no real information unless they can be interpreted by the aid of real assertions, such as ‘*I can conceive,” or ‘*Theré actually exist, things possessing the ‘connotations ascribed to these terms by their definitions.” If this distinction has not before been recognized, it is because in most logical discussions we can in this way give a real mean- ing to our arguments. In elementary geometry, for example, we can—with more or less effort—conceive things, or even actually draw -them,' which answer to our definitions with sufficient aecuracy. And, indeed, the ‘reason why ‘‘ Euclid ”’ ‘ \ NOVEMBER 3, 1892] NATURE i] and ‘*‘ Newton” are generally considered to yield a more valuable mental training than such subjects as analytical geometry is that the older authors, perhaps because they were a bit afraid of __ purely symbolic argument, tried constantly to keep real pictures ___ and ideas before the minds of their readers. But even so our con- __viction of the truth of any but the simplest theorems of geometry depends chiefly on the symbolic argument, not on the realization a in succession of the actuality of the relations and operations _ discussed in the course of the proof. This is perhaps sufficiently obvious in the higher branches of even Euclidian geometry, but ___ it becomes absolutely indisputable when we reach such theorems as ** Any two conics in one plane intersect in four points.” Not only may some of these points be at an infinite distance, but some, or all, may be what is called, on the /ucus a non lucendo principle, ‘‘ imaginary ” ; that is, they may be such that they cannot be imagined by anybody, much less actually drawn. _ Accordingly I cannot admit that the theorems of geometry are established by induction at all. If they are interpreted in either of the first two ways I have described, they are only particular propositions, and the inference from them toa general vt age would no more yield a ‘‘ mathematical certainty ” in this case than in any other. And though the third way of looking at the proposition may be paraphrased into a form which appears general (¢.¢., anything which may fairly be called “an isosceles triangle” may also be said “to have two equal angles’’), it is really only a particular proposition about the words ‘isosceles triangle,” and so on. Its wide applicability and usefulness depends on the fact that we can, and do, often find things which can fairly be called isosceles triangles ; but it must be admitted that the assertion that, on any given occasion, we have found such a thing,—is not a mathematical certainty. If the triangle in question is an objective one, we can only say that _ it is probably, or approximately, isosceles ; and though perhaps we may subjectively conceive }.erfectly isosceles triangles, and SO ard the fous asinorum as a subjective necessary truth, it taust be doubtful whether we could do so in the case of a more complex proposition such as Pascal’s Theorem, and it is quite certain that we could not do so in the case of such theorems as ___ that about the intersections of two conics. __. It is to be hoped, therefore, that logicians will come to "Trin . Coll., Cambs., October 22. -s ___Bell’s Idea of a new Anatomy of the Brain. _ ~ In Nature of October 27 the writer of the review of Mr. _ _ _Horsley’s **Structure and Functions of the Brain,” speaking of the rarity of the above book, states that he only knows of one copy in London, viz., that in the British Museum. It may be useful _ to some of your readers to know that there is a very interesting copy in the library of the Royal College of Surgeons. It is the ae peas copy to Dr. Roget ‘‘ from Mr. C. Bell, 34, Soho Square”: by Dr. Roget it was given to Lady Bell, who pre- sented it to the Royal College of Surgeons through Mr. Alex- ae nder Shaw. _-~+Mr. Shaw has added in MS. a copy of the letter received from the ional fixing the original date of publication, and also the list of persons to whom presentation copies were sent. The letter and the list are both published in Mr. Shaw’s reprint of the Tract in the Journal of Anatomy, \ol. iii., 1869. ; Jas. B. BAILEY, _ October 27. Librarian Roy. Coll. Surgeons. 4 _. Photographic Dry Plates. _In reference to ‘‘ Prevention’s’’ note on Photographic Dry Plates, one cannot but agree with him that packets should be dated when issued from the factory. - I would venture, however, to suggest that good makers’ plates do not deteriorate within a reasonable length of time. As an illustration of my experience I may mention that in i April this year I opened a box of plates (4 plate Extra Rapid) a whieh. I bought in July 1886. : NO. 1201, VOL. 47 | Ihad carried them on a three months’ tour in the Mediter- ranean in 1888 and had taken no special care of them since. They proved in every way as good as new, both in sensitive- ness, and perfection and evenness of film. ARTHUR E. Brown. THE GENUS SPHENOPHYLLUM. N OTWITHSTAN DING the small size and compara- tive scarcity of the plants belonging to this Palzeo- zoic genus, they have long attracted a rather unusual amount of attention. This has been partly due to their peculiar external forms, which suggested even to the earliest observers the idea of resemblances to the Marsi- lize ; but ‘the interest they have excited has been further increased of late years by discoveries respecting the peculiar organizations of their stems. In 1822 Adolph Brongniart assigned to them the name of “ Spenophyl- lites,” and in 1823 Sternberg figured some of them under the generic title of “ Rotularia.”1 Sternberg’s figures appeared in his “ Versuch einer Geognostisch- Botanischen Darstellung der Flora der Vorwelt,” which work is now best known through the French translation of it by Comte de Bray. To the first of his specimens figured (/uc. cit., tab. xxvi., figs. 4a and 3), Sternberg gave the name of Roftularia pusilla, and the example so designated is very characteristic of the simpler type of the group, in which we have a somewhat branched stem, with verticils of wedge-shaped leaves at each node. A second form was figured on a later plate of the same work. It is interesting to note that Stern- berg associated with these figures the observation, ‘“‘ Plantz organisatione foliorum Marsileis, forma caulis Hippuri Maritime.” The generic name thus given by this author represents the rotate arrangements of the leaves in each verticil, as the wedge-shaped contour of each separate leaf is further indicated by Brongniart’s generic term, “ Sphenophyllites.” In 1820 Von Schlot- heim had also included similar examples in his too com- prehensive genus, ‘“ Palmacites.? ” In 1828 Brongniart published his classic “ Prodrome d’une Histoire des Végétaux Fossiles,” in which work we find the generic name of these plants changed to Sphenophyllum, which name they have retained to the present time. In this work Brongniart examines in some detail the probable affinities of these plants, which even in 1822 he inclined to regard as having some affinities with the Marsilee. He defines them as having six, eight, ten, or twelve leaves in each nodal verticil, each leaf being wedge-shaped ; sometimes entire, truncated at its apex, which is denticulate. In some others these leaves are bilobed, and in other species they are not only profoundly bifid, but each of these lobes is either divided into two, or their ends are laciniated. Lastly, in some cases the lobes become narrow and linear. Brongniart here compares these leaves with those of Ceratophyllum and Marsilea, concluding with the statement, “ We cannot for the moment decide between these two rela- tionships.” At this date the fructification was wholly unknown. In his introduction tothe “‘ Natural System of Botany, p. 37, Brongniart again reverts to the idea that Sphe- nophyllum had Marsileaceous affinities. In 1831 the authors of the “ Fossil Flora of Great Britain” commenced their publication of that work, and in one of its early numbers they figured and described under the name of Spenophylium crosum what appears to be identical with the first figure published by Sternberg. When discussing the relationships of this plant, Lindley and Hutton > 1 These figures were preceded in 1709 by a still earlier one by Scheuchzer in his ‘* Herbar.um Diluvianum.” (Coemans and Kickz, ‘‘ Monographie des Sphenophyllum d’Europe”’ ). = ” 2** Die Petrefactenkunde auf ihrem jetzigen Standpuncte, i? NATURE [NoveMBErR 3, 1892 reject Brongniart’s idea of its possible affinity to the Marsilez, inclining to the belief that it approached nearer to the Coniferze, and especially to Salisburia. This impression they retained when, at a later date, they described a second species of the same genus. In his “ Tableau des Genres de Végétaux Fossiles,” published in 1849, Brongniart returns to the subject. He here calls attention to the readiness with which Spheno- phyllum may be confounded with the genus Astero- phyllites, which some forms of the former genus closely resemble ; but he again repeats that the two can be dis- tinguished by the fact that in the former genus the leaves never exceed ten in number, whilst their form is triangular with a truncated summit. He again dwells upon the fact that in some Sphenophylla the leaves become so deeply lobed, narrow, and linear, as to be easily mis- taken for those of Asterophyllites. He now affirms that the fructification is closely related to that of Astero- phyllites. As to the affinities of Sphenophyllum, Brongniart now asks, “ Does the plant combine the leaves of a Marsilea with the verticillate of an Equisetum, or is it a Gymno- spermous Phanerogam, the leaves of which approach those of the Gingko?” He does not answer the question, but concludes that this cannot be done until the fructification of the plant is better understood. In 1864 a monograph on the species of the genus was published by M. Eugene Coemans and M. J. Kickz; but the authors make no serious effort to solve the vexed question of the affinities of the genus. We now enter upon a new stage in the history of the genus. In 1870, M. Renault presented an important memoir to the French Academy of Science, which, for the first time, threw light upon the internal organization, especially of the stems, of Sphenophyllum, He described two examples, one from Autun and the other from St. Etienne, both of which exhibited a structure wholly diflerent from that of any plant previously known, recent or fossil. In the centre of each stem was a primary vascular bundle, the transverse section of which was a triangle with three concave sides and three prolonged, narrow, intermediate arms. This axial organ underwent no subsequent growth after its first formation. But it was invested by a secondary zone, which was deposited upon the primary triangle layer after layer like a secondary xylem, producing a circular axis, which en- larged as the plant advanced in age. But this secondary growth did not consist of layers of vessels, but of vertical columns of thick-walled cubical cells. The cortex also exhibited specially distinctive features. These discoveries made it clear that Sphenophyllum constituted, not only a very distinct genus, but a type of plant far removed from everything previously described. It fell to my lot to make the next advances in our knowledge of this genus. In 1871 I described in the memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester a new fructification, to which further refer- ence will be made later on. In 1872 I obtained from the Oldham deposits some new stems which obviously be- longed to the same type as those discovered by M. Renault, but from which they differed in important points of detail. These were described in my Memoir, Part V., published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1874. Transverse sections of these closely resembled in their dominant features M. Renault’s corresponding ones, but with two differences. When my plants attained to a certain stage of their exogenous growth, a well-defined circular boundary marked a temporary arrest of that growth, but which started afresh from a zone of much smaller vessels (oc. cit. Pl. Il., Figs. 11 and 12), that increased in size as the diameter of the axis in- creased, as they had previously done in the more internal series. Still greater and more important differ- ences presented themselves in the longitudinal sections. NO. 1201, VOL. 47] The zones of secondary or exogenously developed xylem, which in M. Renault’s examples consisted solely of verti- columns of thick-walled, cubical cells, were composed, in mine, of true tracheidal vessels with reticulated (not with bordered pits) walls ; presumably a higher stage of development. Another new and more advanced feature than characterise Renault’s cells, seen best in tangential sections of this zone (oc. cét. Fig. 13), was the existence, between contiguous tracheids, of vertical, but interrupted, series of small cells, which I can only regard as rudimentary medullary rays. In the same memoir (loc. cit. Pl. 1V.) a still more distinct form from the Burntisland deposits in Fifeshire was figured and described. M. Renault and Count Solms Laubach refuse to recognize a Sphenophyllum in this type, but they have not yet convinced me that I am in error on the point. The fact is that, though widely aberrant from the form described above, it scarcely differs more from that form than the latter does from M. Renault’s examples. But my Oldham specimens raised another debated question. When the Memoir V. was published, all authorities agreed that the maximum number of true leaves in each verticil was ten or twelve ; that, however deeply subdivided, their outline was a sphenoid one, and not linear, and that they were multinerved. But I am still convinced that in my specimens there were more than twenty such leaves; that they were linear in outline, and had a single median nerve. It followed that, continuing to accept the existing definitions of the genus Sphenophyllum, my plant was Asterophylloid rather than Sphenophylloid. I am now prepared to admit that it is a Sphenophyllum; but only on the con- dition that we alter our definitions of the latter genus, and admit the possibility that some of the forms may possess twenty or more undivided and linear leaves. The accumulating evidence that the foliage of at least some of the Sphenophylla was dimorphic makes the acceptance of my proposition a matter of necessity. Yet more recent researches have revealed new and important facts connected with the history of these plants, I have already alluded to the new fructification which I described in 1871, and to which I gave the name of Volkmannia Dawsont. M. Renault’s memoir already noticed was laid before the French Academy in May 1870, and noticed in the Comptes Rendus of that date ; but owing to accidents growing out of the Siege of Paris, it was not published until three years later. Mean- while my memoir on Volkmannia Dawsoni was published, and a copy of it forwarded to M, Brongniart. After giving details of the structure of the strobilus I arrived at the conclusion that “it is the fruit either of Asterophyllites or of Sphenophyllum.” Two years later M. Renault’s memoir of 1870 was combined witha second one on the same subject, and pub- lished. It contained a note by M. Brongniart, referring to my memoir of 1871, in which note he says, “This work agrees in many important points with the results obtained a year previously by M. Renault, though Mr. Williamson was unacquainted with the article in the Comptes Rendus of May 30, 1870. The fossil plant studied by Mr. William- son, and named by him Volkmannia Dawsont, doubtless differs, at least specifically, from that described by M. Renault, by the form of the central vascular bundle, and by the absence of the zones of quadrangular cells which | surround it in the French specimens; cells which in consequence of the thickness of their walls would not be readily destroyed.”* « M. Brongniart has here failed to comprehend an important point. The cells, the absence of which he notices, really belonged to the secondary | xylem of the older stem, which did not become developed in the youngest twigs. But it was only upon these twigs that the fructifications were formed, and of which they were but extensions. Hence their absence was merely a consequence of difference of age, and not a feature of specific . value. f Novemser 3, 1892] NATURE 13 In 1890 I figured in my Memoir XVIII. (Phil. Trans. 1890) a transverse section of what was obviously a stem 0 wmanites Dawsont, in which the primary triangular axis of the strobilus was invested by a thick zone of the secondary xylem. So far as the arrangement of its tissues is concerned this stem is constructed on éxactly the same plan as appears in M. Renault’s and my wn Sphenophylla. In describing it I further said, ‘‘ We hust unite Bohescphyllum with some forms of Astero- hyllites in the same genus. It is equally clear that owmanites, though its peculiar fructification demon- that it constitutes a perfectly distinct genus, has mgly marked features of affinity in the structure of its stem to the Sphenophylloid type.” _ The above reference to differences between the fructifi- cation of Bowmanites and of Sphenophyllum were based upon the minute description of the fruits of the latter plant, published by M. Renault (“Etudes sur le Terrain touiller de Commentry,” pp. 481-2). Those descriptions fer widely from what exists in my Bowmanites, but M. uit distinctly identifies them with the fructification 9f Sphenophyllum. I obtained additional and impor- fant specimens of Bowmanites in 1890, which threw much new light upon its organization, and which were orded in my Memoir XVIII. (Phil. Trans. 1891). July last an important communication was laid efore the Academy of Sciences by my friend M. Zeiller, ve distinguished director of the Superior National chool of Mines at Paris. In it he records his identi- on of a fructification of a Sphenophyllum of the of S. pusillum of Sternberg and S. erosum of Lindley Hutton, with my Bowmanites Dawsoni. If this mination is correct, and I seeno reason for doubting that it is so, we now have some more definite facts than 4 ¢ . hitherto possessed, guiding us alike in identifying the true fructification of Sphenophyllum and in deter- i eas position in the vegetable kingdom. __ Before explaining M. Zeiller’s observations more in detail, a few words explanatory of the structure of _Bowmanites will make M. Zeiller’s views more intelligible to the reader. _ The accompanying diagram represents two nodes and * one internode from a vertical section of this fruit, with the sporangia and three sporangiophores 7 situ. _ So far as external contours are concerned, it is undis- ‘tinguishable from many of the true Calamarian forms of fructification. It is only when cut into sections that its characteristics can be discovered. Its central axis (a) as nodes (4) at short and regular intervals, and at each nm is a verticil of from 16 to 20 sporophylles or fertile bracts (c). At their basal portions these bracts are coalesced into a lenticular disk (d), from the margin of which the thinner and narrowing bracts extend upwards, NO. 1201, VOL. 47] overlapping from two to three internodes. From the upper surface of the disk numerous slender sporangio- phores (e) spring, each one proceeding upwards and outwards, to become attached to the upper or distal extremity of a large oval sporangium (/). Each of these sporangiophores has running through it a small bundle of barred tracheids, which terminate at the point of attachment to the sporangium. Each _ tracheal bundle is a prolongation of one ofa circle of similar ones that ascend from the central axis into the disks. These fructifications, besides being manifestly eusporangiate, are extremely characteristic of the plant, nothing iden- tical with them having been observed by any of the authors who have investigated the Carboniferous strobili. After these illustrations I will allow M. Zeiller to explain his views in his own words. After referring to the details given in my Memoir XVIII., M. Zeiller says :— “L’aspect de ces sporanges, ainsi attachés au bout de ces pédicelles recourbés, est exactement, & part les dimensions moindres, celuide sporocarpes de Marsélea. L’analogie parait du reste n’étre pas purement superficielle; M. Williamson a reconnu en effet, dans le pédicelle de chaque sporange, un cordon vasculaire bien caractérisé, qui prouve qu’on n’a pas affaire 14 4 une simple formation épidermique, comme pour les sporanges de Fougéres ou de Lycopodinées. I] faut, 4 ce qu'il semble, regarder ces pédicelles comme représentant des lobes ventraux des bractées, analogues au lobe fertile des frondes d’Ophio- glossées, ou & ceux des Marsiliacées ; seulement ils portent a leur extrémité non pas une série de sporanges comme chez les premiéres, ou plusieurs sores comme chez ces derniéres, mais un sporange unique 4 paroi formée d’une seule assise de cellules.” “ De cette constitution des épis du Sphen. cunetfolium' il report que, si les Sphenophyllum rappellent les Lycopodinées par la structure de leur axe, ils s’en éloi- gnent notablement par la disposition toute spéciale de leur appareil fructificateur, qui tend a les rapprocher plutét des Rhizocarpées, et qu’ils doivent donc bien décidément étre considéré comme formant une classe distincte parmi les Cryptogames vasculaires.’* Agree- ing thoroughly with these conclusions further comments are needless. WM. CRAWFORD WILLIAMSON. DENDRITIC FORMS. i Woes curious appearances presented by certain native specimens of silica have been observed for so long, that it is somewhat surprising that so little is known about their real constitution and mode of formation. Rock-crystal is frequently found to contain bubbles of liquid, usually either water, carbon dioxide, or petroleum, or crystals, such as scales of mica, forming aventurine, and fibres, such as asbestos, forming cat’s-eye. More rarely, however, forms of apparently vegetable origin are seen ; one of the most remarkable specimens is a prolate spheroid, about five inches long and four inches across, cut from a clear colourless rock-crystal, in which are embedded numerous fragments about the size of a large pea, presenting the exact appearance of club-moss. Agate is frequently found with distinct coloured layers, either flat or distorted, and usually milk-white, red, brown, or black. It is then known as onyx. More rarely, agates are found with markings like moss or foliage distributed through them ; they are then known as moss-agates, or Mocha stones. In 1814, Dr. J. MacCulloch described some cryptogamic forms in the agates of Dunglas (Geological Trans., ii., tThe species of Sphenophyllum to which M. Zeiller’s strobili were attached. 2 Comptes Rendus des Séances de Académie des Sciences, Paris, | July x1, 1892. NATURE [ NoveMBER 3, 1892 iv., 398). It is stated that the Earl of Powys possesses an onyx containing the chrysalis of a moth. It seems to be generally assumed, without any strong evidence, that rock-crystal and agate have been formed from solution in water, possibly superheated, and that in such cases as those mentioned above, various crystal- line or fibrous minerals and low forms of plant life have been inclosed during the process of solidification. Though this explanation is very possibly true in many cases, it does not account for all the appearances seen in moss-agates; and another possible mode of formation iuay be suggested by a brief account of some experiments made more than twenty years ago. Ordinary crystals of ferrous sulphate dissolve readily in cold water ; but if they are placed in a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, an entirely new series of phenomena are produced, which were first described by J. D. Heaton, M.D., in a paper “ On certain Simulations of Vegetable Growths by Mineral Substances” (Brit. Assoc. Report, 1867, p. 83). On immersing crystals of ferrous sulphate in a solution of sodium silicate of the density 1°065, very beautiful arborizations will soon begin to shoot perpen- dicularly upwards, attaining the height of three or four inches in a few hours. In a weaker solution roots can be caused to shoot downwards from a suspended crystal, The fibres contain silica and iron (less the weaker the solution) ; they are brittle, and more dense than the liquid in which they are formed. Examined by the microscope, the ultimate ramifications are cylindrical, tapering tubes, the walls of which are granular, showing no sign of crys- tallization. ‘The roots are more abrupt and occasionally club-shaped in their terminations. The growth is inter- stitial like that of organized living tissue. “ Supposing such purely mineral substances.to have been formed in by-gone geological eras, and to have been accidentally fossilized in some primary or other ancient rock, they would very probably, when discovered by recent investi- gation, be pronounced to be an evidence of organized beings having existed contemporaneously with the forma- tion of such rock.” In the following year a similar observation was made by Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen (J. C. S., 1868, xxi., 274). A solution containing 49 per cent. of silica, when allowed to gelatinize, and dried for two days over sul- phuric acid, left a solid residue similar to opal from Zimapan, but containing 21°4 per cent. of water. All the specimens of jelly dried in. air contained dendritic forms, varying in size from o°2 to o'5 mm. When magnified go times they appeared as radiating fibres; when the power was increased to 700 times linear, each fibre re- solved itself into a series of elongated beaded cells with clusters of circular cells at intervals. Mr. Slack indicated: their remarkable analogy to common blue mould or mildew. The cells appeared to be hollow, and did not blacken with sulphuric acid. A few years later I repeated Dr. Heaton’s experiments, and made some additional ones, a brief account of which may induce some one with better means at his disposal to investigate an interesting and somewhat neglected subject. 5 _ Ifa crystal of copper sulphate be suspended in a solu- tion of potassium silicate, which has. been carefully neutralized and has a density of 1'065, in the course of a few minutes a hollow green column will be seen to run down from the crystal to the bottom of the beaker. Sodium silicate may be used instead of potassium sili- cate, but the appearance and rapidity of the growth is somewhat changed. The solution may be neutralized with hydrogen sulphate, chloride, or acetate, but hydrogen fluoride appears to prevent all growth. If the solution has a density less than 1°06, no growth occurs, and the crystals generally dissolve ; the weaker the solution down to this limit the more rapid the growth. If the solution be stronger, the time required for the growth to com- NO, 1201, VOL. 47] mence may be lengthened from minutes to many days. If the density be above 1'25, no growth takes place. __ Copper sulphate gives the best results, but it may be replaced by ferrous, manganous, or nickel sulphate; with changes in the shape, and of course in the colour, of the growths. The growths take place most readily from a clean sharp crystal, and always from an angle or an edge obtained by cleavage requires more time. | salts besides the sulphates may be used, but do not act so rapidly, probably owing to less perfect crystallization of the specimens used. In a neutral or very feebly alkaline solution the growths are comparatively rapid, and consist of long, branching, tapering fibres, not unlike the roots of a tree. They grow rather more rapidly downwards than upwards. If ron es the solutions be decidedly alkaline, the growths are much slower, and consist of fine stalks with comparatively large lumps at the extremities. ; The tubes seem to be composed of silica with a small proportion of the metal used ; they differ much in colour, are more dense than the liquid in which they grow, an are insoluble in water or dilute acids. When magnified 100 times, the substance of the tube shows no appearance of crystalline form, but seems to consist of concretions of ovoid granules. In this particular it differs from the substance of lead or silver trees, and from the curious fibres of potassium, iodide, and chloride described by Mr. Warington (J. C. S., v., 136, vili., 31). It is generally assumed that the formation of onyx is due to the successive deposition of layers of silica coloured by different substances, but the following ex- periment suggests another possible method of formation, especially when the extreme permeability of gelatinous silica by liquids is remembered. So readily are even the hardest agates permeated by hot aqueous solutions of salts, that “staining” is a common commercial process. A little too much sulphuric acid was accidentally added to a moderately strong solution of potassium silicate in which some crystals of copper sulphate were lying. The copper sulphate dissolved, and the solution set to a uniform blue jelly. After standing for about a week, the blue colour at the top of the jelly had separated into a series of thin parallel coloured plates, leaving the jelly between them colourless. This curious separation of the colouring-matter gradually proceeded downwards, and reached the bottom of the precipitating glass in about a month. The jelly gradually shrank, dried, and hardened, forming fragments consisting of blue bands in a white mass. SYDNEY LUPTON. NOTES. THERE will be a memorial celebration for A. W. von Hof- mann on November 12, arranged by the Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft, at Berlin on the 25th anniversary of its foundation. The Empress Frederick and many German and foreign cele- brities have been invited to be present. The proceedings, which will take place at the Berlin Town Hall, will include speeches on the history of the’Society and on Hofmann, a review of pro- gress in chemical science by Hr. Wislicenus, and choral music, performed by the members of the cathedral choir. : WE regret to have to record the death of Mr. Robert Grant, F.R.S., Professor of Practical Astronomy at the University of Glasgow. He died at Grantown-on-Spey, his native place, at the age of seventy-eight. THE death of Dr. Lowenherz, director of the Imperial Physical Institute, Berlin, has been announced. He died at Berlin on Sunday last. Pror. VrrcHow has been appointed an honorary member of the Imperial Russian Natural Philosophy Society. - Li NovemBER 3, 1892] NATURE 15. “AN international ethnographical exhibition is to be held next year in St. Petersburg. It will be organized by the Russian G 206 aphical Society. _THe American Microscopical Society offers prizes for the en- ouragement of microscopical research, two of the value of 50 ars each, and two of the value of 25 dollars each, for the best s which shall give the results of an original investigation with the microscope, and relating to animal and plant life y; also two of the value of 30 and 15 dollars respec- r the ‘best six photomicrographs in some subject of or vegetable histology ; ; and two of the same value for Ina letter to the Zimes on scientific titles and their abuse _ Prof. Tilden has opened a subject of considerable interest to De of a society are sometimes used by persons who 0 can to use them, and Prof. Tilden notes that an effort made to deal with this evil by getting a Bill before “for the purpose of securing to the respective copyright of these letters.” This, however, is a tively unimportant aspect of the question. The real y is that membership of scientific societies is frequently nted in courts of law or by candidates for public snts as evidence of professional trustworthiness,” or accurate knowledge of the subjects in which societies are especially interested. a “ant indicated by the letters F.R.S.,” ‘says Prof. lic to understand regarding such alliterations as -C.S., F.E.S., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.S., F.Z.S., and Se Ma PICA, F:R.M.S., F.RGS., F.R.S.E., th the exception of one or two of the societies -repre- e, admission is to be gained by almost any one who is testy his. fitness for admission, which scneraliy means re- spectability and a profession of interest in the subject, the cul- “tation. of which is the object of the society.” He adds that if the public knew all about the societies no harm would arise ; ‘judges and barristers, and county councillors and town lors cannot be expected to have this knowledge.” Prof. 2n thinks that ‘‘ the only chance for a better state of things = opsione member of these societies who respects himself to _ abandon the use of these unmeaning letters altogether” ; but he fears that there is very little prospect of such a general nitoron _ while ‘‘an Institute having for its president no less'a person _ than the Heir Apparent to the, throne. condescends to bait its ~ advertisements for subscribers with the offer of more letters, The ; Times, discussing the subject in a leading article, expresses the q opinion that in the main ‘‘ we must trust, imperfect though the ‘is, to the ability of grown-up men and women to pro- tect themselves against a form of deception which has most hold over those who themselves covet the meaningless letters to ie aad blindly pin their faith.” | THE weather during the past week has been chaeactudued by q a marked increase of temperature and excessive rainfall, accom: _ panied by strong southerly winds and gales. Between Wednes- _ day the 26th and Friday the 28th October, the temperature in _ parts of England increased upwards of 30°, while the air became very humid and unpleasant. The continuance of comparatively _ high temperature, during which the thermometer reached 60° in _ the central and southern parts of the kingdom, was due to the _ track of the depressions, causing a continual indraught of warm air from off the Atlantic. On Thursday the 27th ult., about 13 NO. 1201, VOL. 47] best collections of six mounted slides illustrating some one men of science. It is well known that the letters indicating sin very many cases it does not at all necessarily imply ** Fellowship of the ‘is a real distinction which is justly bictied: But what. inch of. rain was measured in the West of Ireland, and heavy falls occurred on the following days in the Midland counties. A further downpour, amounting to 14 inch in the Channel Islands, and to 1°3 inch in London, occurred on Sunday night, and the amount which has fallen on the east coast of Norfolk during the month of October is about equal to three times the average. During the first part of the present week, the dis- turbance which caused the heavy rainfall passed away, anda small area of high pressure temporarily advanced over the United Kingdom from the Atlantic, while the temperature fell several degrees, with mist or fog in places ; but conditions were very unsettled, and a change of wind to the south-eastward in , Ireland gave indications of probable further . disturbances, . During the week ended the 29th -ultimo; the amount. of Deiat, sunshine exceeded the mean in nearly all districts, ; . THE Meteorological Council have recéntly issued a summary of the Weekly Weather Reportfor the quarter ending September 1892. which shows the rainfall and mean temperature in each district for each similar quarter for the twenty-seven years 1866-92, grouped | in five yearly averages, and'also the means for individual years" from 1881, The average rainfall of the quarter for the. whole” of the British Islands was 10'2 inches, or only 0°7 inch in excess of the mean for the whole period. This result is almost entirely - due to an excess in the grazing or western districts, amounting to 1°5 inch, while in the wheat- producing or eastern districts” ‘the fall for the quarter is slightly below he mean. The tempera- ture for the quarter has been below the mean generally; for the whole of the country the deficiency amounted to 1°°8, and was 1°°7 in the grazing districts and 1°’9 in the wheat-producing districts, Similar returns show that the excess of rainfall amounted to 1°5 inch in the same quarter of 1891, prior to which there had been a series of seven dry quarters, while the temperature has been uniformly below the mean for six corre- sponding quarters, , The coldest quarter was in 1888, when the , deficiency amounted to 2°'5, this being, in fact, the coldest cor- responding quarter during the last twenty-seven years, Tue late Mr, George Grote, the historian of Greece, ex- pressed in writing, eight years before his death, a desire that after his decease his cranium should be opened and his brain weighed and examined. The task.was undertaken by the late Prof. John Marshall, and the results of his observations are set © forth in a fuli report printed in the current number of the Yournal of A natomy and Physiology. The entire encephalon was some- what above the average in size, if compared with the adult male brain at all ages. If allowance be made for the effects of senile wasting, it must be regarded as a rather large brain, but not as an actually or especially large one. There can be no doubt,’ however, that it was, at death, further diminished in size and weight through the effects of disease, as shown by its marked deviation from the ordinary ratio as compared with the body- weight. As‘ tested by the standard of macrocephaly adopted by Welcker, its utmost allowable weight was below that standard ; and as contrasted with the encephala of certain other eminent men, it would find its place about one-third up from the lower end of the list.. The general form of the cranium was rather or nearly brachycephalic, but it was decidedly higher than usual. The cerebrum itself was, in accordance with the shape of the cranium, short, broad, and deep. The cerebral convolutions were very massive, being not only broad and deep, but well folded, and marked with secondary sulci. This con- dition was observable all over the cerebrum, but chiefly re- markable in the frontal and parietal regions... Studied in refer- ence to Dr. Ferrier’s researches into the localization of function in the brain, the relative size of certain convolutions or groups of convolutions suggested some reflections as to individual peculiarities, but these reflections did not seem to Prof. Marshall 16 NATURE { NovVEMBER 3, 1892 to be quite trustworthy. From the size and richness of the convolutions, the sufficiency of the grey matter both on the surface and in the interior of the hemispheres, and from the remarkable number of the white fibres, especially of the trans- verse commissural ones, the brain of Mr. Grote is pronounced to have been of very perfect and high organization. THE method of cleaning mercury adopted at the Physikalisch- technische Reichsanstalt at Berlin is described in the Zeitschrift fiir Instrumentenkunde. The raw materia] is brought in iron bottles from Idria. It is filtered’and dried, and twice distilled ina vacuum to get rid of the heavy metals. Great care is taken to eliminate fatty vapours derived from greased valves and cocks, which is accomplished by means of a mercury pump working without a stopcock. Finally, the electro-positive metals, such as zinc and the alkalies, are separated by electrolysis. The mercury is precipitated from a solution of mercurous nitrate ob- tained by the action of nitric acid on excess of mercury. The solution, together with the impure mercury acting as an anode, is contained in an outside glass vessel, into which a current from a Giilcher thermopile is conducted by an insulated platinum rod. The cathode rod dips into an interior shallow glass vessel, in which the pure mercury is collected. On careful analysis it was found that no perceptible non-volatile residue was left by 200 grammes of the purified metal. Thus the mercury is well fit for use in standard barometers and resistances. WITH regard to the revival of animals after exposure to great cold, Herr Kochs (in the Biologisches Centralblatt) points out two things which retard formation of ice in the animal body. First, the body does not contain pure water, but salt and albumen solutions, which only freeze under zeroC. Thencapillarity and adhesion hinder freezing. Herr Kochs states that water in a glass tube of 0°3 to 0'4 mm. diameter may be cooled to — 7° and even —10°C, without freezing. With a diameter of only o'r to o*2 mm. the water is not frozen, even though the end of the tube be put in freezing liquid. Thin liquid sheets between two glass plates behave in the same way. Ifa salt solution freezes, the salts are excluded ; and pure water, in freezing, gets rid of its absorbed gas. Fresh blood, according to the author’s ex- periments, freezes only after being strongly cooled to —15°C., and after complete elimination of gases and salts. The blood corpuscles are dissolved and the blood loses colour. The same elimination doubtless occurs in freezing of protoplasm. Ex- periments cited to show the possibility of ‘‘anabiosis” may probably be explained by the decomposition process not having gone so far as to bring life completely to a standstill. Similar results were obtained in experiments on drying of seeds and various animals. It was shown with what tenacity many animals, under most unfavourable circumstances, retain the moisture necessary to life. THE very destructive American disease of the vine known as the ‘‘ Black-rot”’ has, for some years past, made its appearance in Europe, and its life-history has now been thoroughly investi- gated by Viala, Rathay, and others. The ravages of the disease have been traced to a parasitic fungus, Lestadia Bidwelliz, the mycele of which develops in the interior of the organ attacked, chiefly the young branches and berries, and produces sper- mogones and pycnids in the course of the summer. It is especially by the pycnospores that the fungus is disseminated. Towards the end of the period of vegetation sclerotes are formed, usually within the pycnids, and the conidiophores spring from these. Peritheces are also formed in.May and June on the fallen and infected berries of the previous year. Until recently the ravages of this pest in Europe were confined to the French vineyards, but it has recently been‘detected in Austria and in Italy. Themost effectual remedy for it is salts of copper. NO. 1201, VOL. 47 | THE results obtained from the botanical work done at the various experiment stations in the United States will in future be published in the form of an ‘‘ Experiment Station Record,” issued by the Department of Agriculture, under the editorship of Mr. Walter H. Evans. ANGLO-INDIAN papers record the presentation of an interest- ing ‘‘ piece of architecture” to the Madras Central Museum by Lord Wenlock. It is a hornets’ nest, belonging probably to the species Vesfa cincta. It is conical in shape, and is constructed of a material resembling rough paper or cardboard composed of woody portions of plants gummed up by the insects, and brought into the condition of paste by means of a viscid salivary secretion. The combs are placed in tiers and attached to each other by small columns of the same paper-like material of which the nest is composed. It is two feet in height, and about the same in circumference at the base. It was obtained in the course of one of His Excellency’s tours. M. DE NADAILLAC, in the current number of Za Wature, discusses the significance of some of the facts which have been brought to light by the recent excavations of mounds in the Ohio Valley. The mound builders knew how to construct earth fortifications, which were of considerable extent and always remarkably adapted to the sites chosen. They buried their dead under tumuli of astonishing dimensions. Copper was the only metal they could work, and they undertook long journeys — in search of it. Their weapons and implements were of stone. They made vases of pottery, and were able to produce repre- sentations of the human figure and of animals, both by sculp- turing them in stone and by modelling them in clay. At least in some districts they were sedentary, and, like all sedentary populations, they had to obtain the means of subsistence in part by cultivation of the soil. They were often engaged in fighting, _ and numerous burials in which the bodies are crowded together — bear witness to the fury of their struggles. Whence did they come and whoare their descendants? M. de Nadaillac thinks that these questions can never be definitely answered unless investigators discover some traces of the language of the mound- builders. AN interesting and valuable paper on the association of shipping disasters with colour-blind and defective far-sighted sailors, read by Dr. T. H. Bickerton before the section of Ophthalmology at the last annual meeting of the British Medical Association, has been reprinted for the author from the British Medical Fournal, Dr. Bickerton takes anything but a hopeful view of the prospects of legislation on this important question. He greatly fears that ‘‘many a shipping disaster will occur before the Royal Society’s suggestions become part of the law of the land.” Accordingly he urges all who interest themselves in the subject to abate not a tittle of their endeavours. ‘* There are none,” he says, ‘‘so difficult to convince as those who will not believe, and the men who have had the framing of the rules- of the road at sea are the very men who hitherto have turned from all suggestions on the eyesight question with contempt. True it is that their language, judged from examples to be found in the Nautical Magazine, is becoming moderate, and even polite, but they lack knowledge of this subject, and they will still require our best attention.” Meanwhile, Dr. Bickerton presses on the attention of the public the following facts :—that 4 percent. of the whole male population are colour blind ; that about 8 per cent. more have marked impairment of sight from refractive errors ; that there is no official test whatever as to a sailor’s eyesight; that a man may be the subject of any oftheforms . of eye disease, may have any degree of blindness, or may be so short-sighted as to be unable to see distinctly more than a few inches in front of his nose, and yet be at perfect liberty to be a sailor and to become an officer ; and that, although there is a NovEMBER 3, 1892] NATURE 17 compulsory colour examination (in many cases a most inefficient one) to be passed before a sailor can become an officer, there is _ no check to a colour-blind man being a sailor, or to his remain- _ ing one to his life’s end. Tue Rev. T. A. Marshall describes in the November number _ of the Zntomologist’s Monthly Magazine a new genus and _ species of Belytidze from New Zealand. The paper is accom- _ panied by representations of two insects in fine condition. Mr. _ Marshall abstains from giving tedious details, as the figures will, he believes, convey a better idea of these creatures than _ many words, and he thinks they will now be unmistakable, atleast until other species of the same genus shall be discovered. _ He has not taken any characters from the under-side, the specimens being carded ; hence the oral organs could not be _ described, but they may be pretty safely assumed to resemble ; those of Belyta, Anectata, &c., and their details would have been of little value. ___ A CORRESPONDENT of the New York journal Electricity, 4 writiog from Paris, describes some electrical peculiarities which _ hehasseeninacat. This cat, called Michon, is a half wild _ animal, and dislikes handling. It belongs to the household of q ‘Dame Gais, whose residence on the Carnier Mount, near _ Monte Carlo, looks directly down on the noted gambling casino _ and its botanical reservation. On some of the cold and very dry nights common to Monte Carlo in the winter, Michon, while in the dark, is quite a spectacle. Every movement of its __ body sends off hundreds of minute bluish sparks, something like _ those thrown off by ill-adjusted brushes, though not so pro- _ nounced in colour. They make a noise on a small scale, like _ the crackling of burning furze. Stroking the cat increases the _ sparking, and ruffling its fur the reverse way produces a minia- _ ture pyrotechnic display quite remarkable. The cat itself does _ not seem to mind the sparking, but, like all cats, dislikes to have its fur rubbed in a wrong direction. The writer has never seen the electric element so abundant in a cat, and many who have seen the coruscations that have given notoriety to _ Michon, confirm him in the opinion that the cat is an electrical curiosity. ae USEFUL account of ‘‘ Biological Teaching in the Colleges _ of the United States,” by Prof. John A. Campbell, of the ; University of Georgia, has been issued by the United States _ Bureau of Education. The writer’s object is to present the actual extent and scope of the biological courses offered by the colleges _ of the United States, together with the methods of teaching _ employed. He also aims at presenting as fully as possible an _ account of the equipment and facilities for teaching which the various colleges possess. The statements he makes are there- _ fore based largely upon the printed accounts found in the college _ catalogues, supplemented in many cases by letters containing _ additional information. These have usually been re-written, but where they are in suitable form they are quoted directly. Prof. Campbell notes that many of the colleges announce more _ in their catalogues than they can possibly do thoroughly with the _ teaching force employed. This is often perfectly apparent, but _ in more than one letter received the statement has been made that certain courses have no existence save on paper. Prof. Campbell, however, thinks that it is worth while to record the _ views of the professors in charge in regard to the nature and _ aims of such work, and the ideals towards which they are _ striving. Tue ‘ Treatise on Hygiene and Public Health,” edited by Dr. T. Stevenson and Mr. Shirley Murphy, and reviewed in NATURE last week, is published by Messrs. J. and A. Churchill. NO. 1201, VOL. 47] MEssrs. J. AND A. CHURCHILL are publishing a second edition, revised and enlarged, of ‘‘Commercial Organic Analysis,” by Alfred H. Allen. The second part of the third volume has justappeared. The third part of the same volume will be issued as soon as possible, and will complete the work. In the second part he has sought to describe fully and accurately such of the organic bases as have any practical interest, and to give trustworthy information as to their sources. THE new number of Matural Science includes articles on the evolution of consciousness, by C. Lloyd Morgan; primeval man: a paleolithic floor near Dunstable, by W. G. Smith ; the evolution of sharks’ teeth, by A. S. Woodward ; the walk of arthropods, by G. H. Carpenter ; the falling of leaves, by A. B. Rendle ;and Norwich Castle as a museum, by H. Wood- ward, A REVISED edition of ‘‘ London Birds and London Insects,” by Mr. T. Digby Pigott, has been issued by Mr. H. Porter. Along with the essays on these subjects have been printed several other bright and attractive sketches. AN elaborate index to the genera and species described in the ‘* Paleeontologia Indica,” up to the year 1891, by W. Theobald, has just been issued. It is included among the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Mr. Theobald has also pre- pared ‘‘ Contents and Index of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 1859 to 1883.” A SECOND edition of Dr, F. H. Hatch’s ‘‘ Text-book of Petrology” has been issued by Messrs. ‘Swan Sonnenschein and Co. The author explains that he has taken advantage of this opportunity to revise the book thoroughly, while largely increasing its scope. THE Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge has pub- lished a second edition of Klein’s ‘‘ Star Atlas.” Mr, E, McClure, the translator of Dr. Klein’s explanatory text, has sought to bring up to date the German writer’s descriptions of the more interesting fixed stars, star clusters, and nebule. Messrs. ROBERT GRANT AND SON, Edinburgh, and Messrs. Williams and Norgate, London, have issued Parts II. and III. of Vol. XXXVI. of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. The following are the subjects of some of the papers :—the foundations of the kinetic theory of gases (IV.), by Prof. Tait ; the solid and liquid particles in clouds, by J. Aitken ; the development of the carapace of the chelonia, by J. B. Haycraft ; the composition of oceanic and littoral manganese nodules, by J. Y. Buchanan; the winds of Ben Nevis, by R. T. Omond and A. Rankin; and the Clyde sea area, by H. R. Mill. THE University College of Wales, Aberystwith, has issued its calendar for its twenty-first session, 1892-3. THE City and Guilds of London Institute has issued its pro- gramme of technological examinations for the session 1892-93. Messrs. GEORGE PHILIP AND SON announce that a work on ‘* British New Guinea,” by Mr. J. P. Thomson, Hon. Sec. to the Brisbane Branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Aus- tralasia, isalmost ready for publication. An appendix will con- tain contributions to the geology, fauna, flora, &c., by Sir William Macgregor, K.C.M.G., Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, Professor Liversidge, F.R.S., and others. The prodf-sheets have been revised by Dr. H. Robert Mill and Dr. Bowdler Sharpe. ANOTHER and apparently much more convenient mode of preparing glycol aldehyde, CH,OH.CHO, the first member of the series of aldehyde-alcohols, is described in the current number of the Berichte, by Drs. Marckwald and Ellinger, of 18 NATURE { NovEMBER 3, 1892 ago (vol. 46, p. 596), it was announced that Prof. Emil Fischer and Dr. Landsteiner had succeeded for the first time in pre- paring this interesting substance in a state of tolerable purity by a reaction analogous ‘to that of barium hydrate upon acrolein dibromide, the reaction which yielded the first synthetical glu- | cose. They first prepared the mono-bromine, derivative of common aldehyde, CEI,Br.C HO, and subsequently reacted upon this new | substance, a Jiquid. possessing an intolerably sharp odour, with baryta water. After removal of the baryta by sulphuric acid, and the hydrobromic and sulphuric acids by means of carbonate of lead, a liquid was obtained which possessed the properties of a dilute solution of glycol aldehyde. Some time ago Pinner obtained a derivative of this aldehyde which bore the same rela- tion to glycol aldehyde, that the compound known as acetal, Jess re : ene See bears to common aldehyde. This substance, ‘epi acd PORMEW | os , Pinner attempted to de- OC, 5 compose, by the action of mineral:acids, into ethyl alcohol- and glycol aldehyde. The attempt, however, did not succeed, inasmuch as the decomposition went further, any glycol alde- hyde that may have been formed during the first stage of the reaction being subsequently broken up. Drs. Marckwald and Ellinger now find that the reaction succeeds admirably, pro- vided the acid employed is extremely dilute, and as glycol acetal is a substance very easily prepared, they show that the reaction affords a very convenient and advantageous method of preparing large quantities of glycol aldehyde. The glycol acetal is added ‘to an equal volume of water acidified with only a few drops of sulphuric acid. The liquid is then heated to boiling. After a short time the two liquids mix, and the reaction is completed when upon the addition of water to a few drops ‘of: it-no separation of oil occurs. Upon distilling the liquid product, alcohol first passes over, then there distils a mixture of water and glycol aldehyde until decomposition of thé residue commences. Glycol aldehyde, as: thus obtained in a tolerably concentrated form, appears to be much more volatile in steam than was observed by Prof. Fischer and Dr.. Landsteiner, in case of their more dilute solutions. From a few cubic centi- metres of the distillate Drs. Marckwald and Ellinger obtained a very considerable quantity of Prof. Fischer's phenylhydrazine compound, and confirm in every detail the other properties of glycol aldehyde described in our previous note above referred to: The chemistry of this first member of the series which in- cludes the sugars is: now, therefore, fairly complete, and the difficulties in the way of its preparation surmounted. . * THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Rhesus Monkey (AZacacus rhesus 6) from India, presented by Mr. Pascoe Grenfell, F.Z.S.;. a Philantomba Antelope (Cephalophus maxwell’) from West Africa ; three Gambian Pouched Rats (Cricetomys gambianus) from West Africa; a Ground Rat (Aulacodus swindernianus) from West Africa ; and aWhite-faced Tree Duck (Dendrocyguna viduata) from West Africa, presented by Mr. C. B. Mitford ; a Martial Hawk-Eagle (Spzzaetus bellicosus) from South Africa, presented by Mr. T. White ; two Weaver Birds (Zyphantornis sp. inc.) from South Africa, presented by Mr. A. W. Arrow- smith ; two Silver Pheasants (Euplocamus nycthemerus & 6) from China, presented by Mr.. E. Mitchener; a Common Chameleon (Chameleon vulgaris) from North Africa, presented by Miss Kate Higgins; a Thick-tailed Opossum (Didelphys crassicaudata) from South America; a Garden’s Night-Heron (Mycticorax gardeni); and two Saracura Rails (Aramides saracura) from South America, purchased; and a Squirrel ‘Monkey (Chrysothrix sciurea) from Guiana, deposited. NO. 1201, VOL. 47] CHy.CH glycol acetal, CH,OH.CH ; Berlin. It may be remembered that in our note of a fortnight : which we take from Astronomische Nachrichten, i, | gives the apparent Right Ascensions and Declinations of var | Brooks, which is brightening very rapidly :— ce | Lying in the extreme northern corner of the Novy. 3 OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. CoMET Brooks (AuGust 28).—The following 12h, Berlin M.T. ga. ts app. Decl. app: Log. ~ Log. A. Br, Nov. 3 ... 9 23 51... +9. 55'8 4 3.5 27° §0' 2.25 7G * 9°S")..°O'9265 OC Ogee Bitte Brot i. oe way dtl oa 235 5S we 1H 3G : ADs FE sisi Duns A a ae 8.6 44.10:.... § 55'2.... Q°112§ . @°OORsneeEa OT be tet AO Oise fee ae : TO Se ga 4 118 Sextans, and nearly midway between p Leonis and ¢ Hydre, it will not be an easy object for observation owing to its very late rising. ~'Comet BARNARD (OcTOBER 12).—Prof.’ R. Schorr, of Hamburg, communicates to Astronomische. Nachrichten, No. 3125, the elements and ephemeris of Comet Barnard, deduced from observations made on October 16, 18, and 20, at Vienna, Hamburg, and Pulkowa respectively. As this ephemeris differs rather considerably from the one we gave last week, the follow- ing places may prove of service to observers :— 12h. Berlin M.T.. Decl. RA. Lae Ae hie, bigest Bats , 20! 2488 5 nee a 27.20 ix sonata, 32 48 ... 35 34 + BO au" st wei AE Ou. ma 43 58 ... i. a This comet will still be found to form approximately an equilateral triangle with a Aquilz and 8,Delphinion November5. — TABULAR HIsToRY OF ASTRONOMY TO THE YEAR 1500 A.D.—Dr. Felix Miiller, of Berlin, has just. completed a small volume entitled ‘‘ Zeittafeln zur Geschichte der Mathe- mathik, Phisik und Astronomie bis zum Jahre 1500,” which will be welcomed by all interested in the very early history of the exact sciences. The book is arranged chronologically and gives a short account of the chief workers in these branches of science up to the year 1500. At the end of each reference a list of the literature likely to be needed is added. The work is published by Messrs. B. G. Teubner, Leipzig. —= © ° A Larce TreLescope.—The-Americans seem to have made up their minds to be the possessors of the largest or in existence, for in spite of their owning the great Lick Refractor (36-inch) we hear now that the University of Chicago are about to have ‘‘ the largest and most powerful telescope in the world.” This instrument will be the gift of Mr. Charles Jerkes, and will cost half a million dollars. The object-glass will havea diameter of 45 inches and will be made by Messtss Alvan Clark, of Cambridge, Mass. . 5 nae Seen J THE ATMOSPHERES OF PLANETS.—Of all the planets, that revolve round our sun, Jupiter affords the most suitable of them for the study of atmospheric circulation. That his circulation 1892. Log, t45) 4: wes wm & o> NH ORR ACY | 0°2298 .., 0°1§39 ... 1°00 i+ Wwwt PWM Noms me)) 4 5 De cis 8 | PRES SR 9 . . 0'2278 ... O'1§90 ... 0°99 | Io ibn et N wn i will not be exactly like ours will be at once evident, for not only | does the sun pour his rays on his vast surface, but he possesses himself heat, as is suggested by the rapid changes’ which these cloud masses undergo. A recent hypothesis, explaining the — various movements in this planet’s atmosphere, has been put forward by Mr. Marsden Manson, in the fifth number (vol. ix.) of the “ Transactions of the Technical Society of the Pacific Coast,” San Francisco. The chief element which produces these mcvements is the action of the sun, anditison this reason- ing that he attempts to'unravel the laws underlying the circu- lation in Jupiter’s atmosphere. : In this pamphlet he first. brings together some of the facts relating to our own wind system, which are generally conceded, together with the important results that were gathered from the path taken by the Krakatoa ephemeris a bling constellation of - ovens 3, 1892] _ dust-cloud. The spots observed on Jupiter’s surface are next _ dealt with, a table of their rotation periods and latitudes ” being included, From the latter he deduces that the mean periods of gi a of matter in the akan: latitudes are :— 12° a from 17 N. idly spots ; 55, 36°49 4 =, SN. Equat. ,, 9 59 40°06 4 wo 9, ais, Equat. ,, 9 50 22% a 30°S. ,, 3 spots 9 55 171 Int of the spots themselves, he suggests that those which - are of a white appearance are gyrating uprushes of warm air - from the lower regions, while the dark ones are simply descend- ing columns of cool air, “ the two forming parts of the system of _ vertical circulation.” The red spot, he suggests, is caused by a local of internal heat, the repellent force it appears to __ possess being due to the ‘‘ spreading of the heated currents as they _ rise.” He explains the retardation and accelerati n of its period _ of revolution by the increasing force of the west winds, brought _ about by the exposure of the southern hemisphere during Jupiter’s . half-year (5°93 of our years) ; in this way the spot is sometimes = over and sometimes to one side of the source of heat _ underneath, The author also deals with other spots in a similar | manner, GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. : a Sven HEpD1n’s account of his ascent of Mount Demavend - in the last number of the Verhandlungen of the ‘Sein Geographical Society. Demavend is a voleanic peak scl ted from the s:dimentary rocks of the parallel Elburz chains. Starting from the village of Ranah on the south- stern slope with two guides on July to, 1890, Hedin reached the summit on the afternoon of the next day. On the summit a crater was found ; the edges of which were strewn Sosa. of porphyritic lava and sulphur. After discussing _ the aneroid and boiling point observations, Mr. Hedin arrived pA (17,930 feet) as the height of the summit. This is lower any of twelve earlier estimates which are cited, the highest of them being 6559 metres. cso possession of Eritrea on the coast of the Red Sea — promise of becoming useful agriculturally. Several wouion Weeee tae of Italians on the plateau have succeeded in Soa ofie crops of wheat and barley, and only the unsettled oo eee natives threatens the prosperity of the The districts of Oculé-Cusai and Guro are already H13 pity calibvstat, and Saraé, as yet almost unoccupied, has fertile ind and plenty of room for colonists. The Italians are able to rk in climatic conditions which would rapidly exhaust the yes of Europe. THE 5 goeral summary of Mr. Conway’s expedition in the range telegraphed from India (p. 525) has now been ed by a full narrative, written to the secretaries of PRoyal Geographical Society from a camp on the Baltoro on August 29, with a postscript added at Skardo, on the a: Leh, on September 12. The difficulties of the pre- pevor’ were very great, not the least being the fording ay swollen glacier streams by a party numbering four BS ‘our sepoys, seventy coolies, an indefinite number of lowers, and flocks of goats and sheep. The moraines on the Baltoro glacier were of almost incredible extent ; for two-thirds of Byers entire length the ice is entirely concealed by stones, except where crevasses or lakes occur, and the irregularity of the surface made re extremely slow. Mr. Conway limits the name in-Austen to the highest peak of ‘K?,” giving + ee whole mountain the somewhat cumbrous® title Watch Tower of India. One branch of the : ci Glacier results from the union of seven glaciers from this mass; the larger branch descends from the snow-s throne-shaped mountain, hitherto unmapped, for which the auriferous quartz found in its rocks suggested the name of The Golden Throne. This was fixed upon as the goal to be attained. The first attempt landed the Europeans and Ghoorkas, who made excellent climbers, on Crystal. Peak, 000 feet in elevation, a peak as hard to climb as the Matter. norn, and isolated from the surroundin: ng higher summits. No __ inconvenience was felt from the rarity of the air, and the party _ remained on the summit for an hour and a quarter. In the NO. 1201, VOL. 47] NA TURE 19 grand attempt on the Golden Throne serious difficulty was en- countered from the terrible extremes of heat and cold. The last few thousand feet proved very exhausting; one of the Ghoorkas had to be left behind, suffering from mountain-sick- ness. Everystep hadto be cut in hard ice. Finally the summit was reached at an elevation of 23,000 feet ; but the Golden Throne stood revealed much higher, and separated by a deep depression. From the summit of Pioneer Peak, probably the highest yet reached by man, a series of photographic views was obtained and prismatic compass bearings taken to the surround- ing features. As long as the party were at rest they felt no discomfort, but the sphygmograph showed that the heart’s action was very laboured. A stay of an hour and a quarter was made on the summit, the view from which baffled descrip- tion. The descent was safely made, but fatigue and bad weather stopped further exploration. THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. ON the evenings of Wednesday and Thursday of last week, the 26th and 27th ult., an ordinary general meeting of the Insti- tution of Mechanical Engineers was held in the theatre of the In- stitution of Civil Engineers, by permission of the council of the latter Society. The President, Dr. William Anderson, occu- pied the chair during the proceedings. There were two papers on the agenda. The first was the report of the Institution’s committee appointed to enquire into the value of thesteam jacket. Mr. Henry Davey is the chair- man of this committee, and he had prepared the report ; which is a bare record of facts without comment, and in this respect is, we think, defective. | Numberless experiments have been made in time past as to the value of the steam jacket, and those now added by the labours of the committee do not largely differ from many that have gone before. We take it that the ' general opinion of competent engineers is that an advantage in efficiency is to be obtained by jacketing engine cylinders in an efficient manner, and cases in which the jacket has not been proved efficient are those in which it has not been properly ap- plied. What was wanted, therefore, was guidance as to the proper method of application, and it is significant that the most help in this direction came, during the discussion, from those who were not members of the committee. Timidity in ex- pressing opinion will be excusably construed as indicating some- thing of incompetence, and if the members are not capable of expressing opinion they are not suitable persons to form a research committee of an important institution. We frame our remarks hypothetically, because, with such names as Unwin, Bryan Don- kin, and Mair-Rumley on the title-page, there can be no doubt that the power to afford guidance was present, and for this reason the decision to give only bare fact is the more to be re- gretted, The general conclusion to be drawn from the experiments, as quoted, is that ‘‘ the expenditure of a quantity of steam in an efficient jacket produces a saving of a greater quantity in the cylinder.” It does not follow from this that the jacket is always desirable, as the saving may be so small as not to justify the additional complication and increased outlay at first cost. That, however, is a matter upon which steam users must themselves decide upon a com- mercial basis; and is, of course, outside the province of the committee, but what "would have been valued would have been some critical remarks giving guidance as to what goes to con- stitute the ‘‘ efficient jacket,” what fresh engineering practice is opened up by the use of the efficient-jacket, and under what con- ditions it may be most effectually applied. The first series of experiments quoted were carried out by Mr. J. G. Mair-Rumley, of the firm of James Simpson and Co., of Pimlico, upon a compound jet-condensing beam pumping- engine. The diameters of the cylinders are 29 inches and 47'5 inches, with strokes of 65°1 and 96 inches respectively. Only the body of each cylinder is jacketed, the steam being supplied direct from the boiler at a pressure of 4glbs. per square inch above atmosphere. Experiments were made both with and without steam in the jackets. The total feed water per indicated horse power per hour when the jackets were not in use was 18'20]lbs., with the jackets in use the corresponding figures were 16°64 Ibs., thus showing a percentage of less steam used due to the jackets of 86. ‘lhe quantity of jacket water condensed was 1°20 lbs. per I1.H.P. perhour. The boiler pressure, here was not high, 49°7 lbs. without and 49 lbs. with jackets.; 20 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 3, 1892 The number of revolutions were also low, 14°8 without jackets and 15°78 with jackets. This was evidently an engine which should pay for jacketing. We next come to an experiment of a different nature, carried out by Mr. Davey and Mr. W. B. Bryan. The engine is triple expansion surface-condensing engine of the inverted direct-acting marine type, and is placed in the Waltham Abbey pumping station of the East London Water Works. The cylinders were 18”, 30°5”, and 51” in diameter, by 36 inches stroke. There is a Meyer expansion valve to the high pressure cylinder, by means of which the speed of the engine was regulated during the experiment. The bodies and both ends of all three cylinders are steam-jacketed. The jacket steam of the high pressure cylinder is at full boiler pressure, but the other two cylinders have the pressure reduced to a little above that ‘of their steam-chests by means of reducing valves. Each cylinder is therefore jacketed with steam a little above its own initial pressure. Without the jackets in use the amount of feed water per I.H.P. per hour was 17°22 lbs, and with the jackets in use 15°45 lbs, showing a percentage of less steam used owing to the jacket of 10°3. The total jacket water was 1°72 lbs. per I.H.P. perhour. The coal consumption is given in these experiments, being 209 Ibs. per I.H.P. per hour without the jackets, and 1°79 lbs. with. The amount of coal burnt is not, of course, necessarily a measure of economy of the engine, but possibly the steam-generating plant —which included an economizer—was practically constant in its duty during both trials, and if so the commercial gain by the use of the jacket is quite an appreciable quantity. The boiler pressure here was 130 Ibs. above atmosphere, the number of expansions without the jacket 22, and with the jacket 30. The revolutions were 23 per minute, so that the jacket had again a favourable chance. The next series of experiments were carried out by Colonel English, Mr. Davey, and Mr. Bryan Donkin, and in these we reach a much higher piston speed, so that the results standona somewhat different footing in this respect to those before quoted. We have no positive knowledge of this engine beyond that given in the report, but it would be desirable to know something more of its working before accepting the very high percentage of gain in steam used—19‘0 per cent.—as that due to a steam jacket used on a good engine. The feed used per I.H.P. per hour was 24°68 lbs. without the jacket, and with the jacket in use the quantity was 20 lbs. The following are the particulars of this trial :—Horizontal surface condensing compound engine, with intermediate receiver cylinders, 18 and 32 ins. by 48 ins. stroke. The ends of the cylinders are not jacketed, and the receiver jacket was not in use during the experiment. The boiler pressure was 50 Ibs., the revolutions 57°06 without jackets, and 63°62 with, the feed water supply as stated, and the jacket water condensed per I.H.P. per hour 1°13 lbs. The coal used without jackets was 3°26 lbs. per I.H.P. per hour, and with jackets 2°66 lbs. The last set of experiments we shall quote were made by Prof. Unwin, upon the experimental engine! at the City and Guilds of London Central Institution, South Kensington. It is a two- cylinder horizontal-surface condensing engine, and can be worked either simple or compound. The cylinders are 8°73 inch and 15-76 in diameter, by 22” stroke. The high pressure cylinder is fitted with Hartnell expansion gear, and the low pressure with Meyer expansion gear. Only the bodies and the back ends of the cylinders are covered. We will first give results of trials working the engine with the low pressure cylinder only. The pressure was 60 lbs. above atmosphere, the jacket pressure being taken direct from the boiler. The revolutions without the jacket were 112°40, and with the jacket 101°73. The feed water per I.H.P. per hour without the jacket was 32°14 Ibs., and with the jacket 26°69 lbs. This gives a saving of 17 percent. working simple. It will be seen presently that when the engine was working compound, the saving was 7°3 per cent. The jacket-water per I.H.P. per hour was 1°88 Ibs. We will now take the records of the compound trial. The boiler pressure was 66°73 Ibs. without the cylinders, and 67°80 lbs. with the jackets. The revolutions were 93°66 without the jacket, and 9611 with. The feed water used per I.H.P. per hour was 21°06 lbs. without the jackets in use, and 19°52 lbs, with, The saving, as stated, made by the use of the jacket 1 This engine is stated in the report to have been fully illustrated and described in Eugineering of November 16, 1888. e triple expansion engine at Waltham Abbey is also said to have been illustrated and described in the issue of August 8, t892, of the same publication. NO, 1201, VOL. 47] was therefore 7°3 per cent. The jacket water used per . — I.H.P. per hour was 2°40 lbs. We regret we are not ableto . give all the interesting details which Prof. Unwin includes in his instructive report, but for these we must refer our readers to the original paper. Probably Prof. Unwin’s 7°3 per cent. saving in steam used is a far better measure of the value of the jacket than the inflated promise of 19 per cent. in Major English’s trial. It should be remembered that the jacket is more effective in small than in large engines, the area of cylinder will be in a higher ratio to the contained steam in the former than in the latter case. The number of expansions in the South Kensington engine working without jackets was 7°23, and with jackets 9‘29. The corresponding figures in the case of the Woolwich engine were 9*4 and 12°6. The boiler pressure with the Woolwich engine was, however, 16 to 17 lbs. higher than in the other case. The revolutions were 57°06 and 63°62 respectively in the two trials at Woolwich, whilst at South Kensington they were 9366 and 9611. It would have been instructive if the committee had had the courage to attempt some balance of these figures, and then have endeavoured to account for the large difference which we believe would have remained still to be accounted for. 4 The next experiments quoted comprise a series made by Mr. Bryan Donkin, junr., at the works of his firm at Bermondsey. Mr. Donkin’s labours in this field are well known, and engin- eering science is largely indebted to him for the contributions he has made to its lore. One most valuable feature in connection with these investigations is the means he has used to ascertain the temperature of the walls of the cylinder at various distances from the surface. In this lies the essence of the problem. If the Jackets Committee would give us minute and trustworthy information on this point we could evolve the rest from existing data. If we do not quote Donkin’s figures in full it is partly because his experiments are not yet complete and partly because they have been dealt with more fully in ‘‘ another place,” namely, the Proceedings of a Society other than tha with which we are now dealing.' We may state, however, that in one case when the steam in the jacket space was 298° Fahr. the cylinder walls averaged 290° Fahr., whilst at 0°06 in. from the piston the temperature of the cylinder wall was 284° Fahr. These temperatures were ascertained by thermometers placed in holes drilled in the cylinder. Other instances are given, but the matter is far too interesting to deal with ina cursory manner, such asa report of this nature alone warrants. The difficulty that suggests itself is the fact that a thermometer itself has a very appreciable thickness, and the record will be but a mean of the temperature due to that thickness. It is pos- sible that Mr. Donkin gets over this difficulty in some way. Perhaps the thermo-couple as used by Le Chatelier might afford a solution, although this fapparatus is not so useful for recording small differences at low temperatures, being rather adapted for such work as: hot blast stoves and other metallurgical purposes. Mr. Bryan Donkin’s experiments are the most suggestive in the report, as might be anticipated. Trials were made with steam at various rates of expansion to determine the effects of the steam-jacket on the speed of engine and temperature of the cylinder walls, and on superheating. The engine used was a small one (6” x 8”), but it was specially constructed and arranged for the work. We again repeat Mr. Donkin’s investigations are well worthy of the study of all interested in these matters. The report concludes with a valuable appendix in the shape of suggestions for the use of those desirous of experimenting in this field. : The discussion on this paper was of a protracted nature, but was not of a kind altogether worthy of the leading mechanical institution of the country. Mr. Morrison, of Hartlepool, made the most weighty contribution amongst the speakers. He pointed out the difficulty of maintaining a good circulation of steam in the jacket—one of the most important points to which the designer of jacketed engines should turn his attention—and illustrated a simple method by which he had secured this end. His arrangement consisted of a series of diaphragms, by means of which the steam was made to take a devious course through the jacket. Mr. Schonheyder pointed out a mistake the com- | mittee had made in placing an air-cock on the top of the jacket, when it was required to draw off air from thesteam. Of course, this is one of those little slips which the wisest are apt to make, for it would be absurd to suppose such authorities as those en- 1 See Proceedings Inst. Civil Engineers. _ Novemser 3, 1892] NATURE 21 _ gaged did not know that air is heavier thansteam. One might ___as well say one’s grocer did not know sand from sugar. * The Jackets Committee has not yet concluded its labours, and another report will be forthcoming indue course. Mr. Aspinall offered a locomotive for trial, and we heard that Mr. Yarrow ¥ prove the advantages of long narrow blades, but he did not ger to have converted the high authorities present, including . Froude, Mr. Thorneycroft, and Mr. Barnaby—the three best-known names in connection with the subject—to his views. _ It is difficult to see wherein the value of the paper exists. Prof. Kennedy in the discussion stated that the generally received opinion as to the increase of the friction of the load was erroneous, and that the power absorbed in this way does not _ increase in the manner stated, a fact which he illustrated by meansofa diagram. Mr. Thorneycroft pointed out that ‘life was not long enough ” for the larger trials proposed by the author, mut that he might decide one point if he would confine himself » models, ke Barnaby stated that a broad-bladed propeller should not bea uniform pitch. Mr. Froude’s speech was a lucid criticism of the author’s paper, the speaker pointing out in a indly but convincing manner that the conclusions arrived at y the author might be subject to revision. Mr. Dunell, vhose previous experiments the author had quoted, added to the information given by putting forward some other experiments he had made upon screw propellers fitted to a torpedo boat, in this case the results being opposed to those claimed by the author, inasmuch as the shorter and broader blade had proved the more advantageous, Mr. Shield, of Liverpool, described a form of Lhe Se which has been in use on the Mersey, and _ appears to offer some advantages. The blades are attached to boss in two parts, and are joined in a loop at the top. According to Mr. Shield’s statement, the arrangement gives ining. "The in towing, and also increased steadiness in ni The latter we can accept as a fact, but the great mcrease in towing capacity seems almost too good to be accepted literally. Twenty-five per cent. additional efficiency a very large gain without further expenditure than an exchange of screws ; but this is what the propeller in question is said to realize. _ The meeting concluded with the usual votes of thanks, hlia x INTERNATIONAL COMMITTEE OF WEIGHTS , AND MEASURES. . “ HE InternationalCommittee of Weights and Measures, which uh was established in consequence of the Metric Convention of 1873, has recently issued its fifteenth annual report to the Governments represented at that Convention.!_ The committee _ have also lately published the minutes of their proceedings _ (Procés-Verbaux des Séances. Paris, 1892. 1 vol. 8vo) at _ the annual meeting held at Parisin September, 1891. It appears to be hardly possible that the proceedings of the committee at their meeting which was held last month may be issued before next year, but from the above publications, as well as from a _ recent volume of their ‘‘ Travaux et Mémoires,” we gather that yy ae continue to carry on their investigations with all despatch. y n their last report the committee deplore the death of their _ colleague, Jean-Servais Stas, whose analyses of the platinum _ alloys have, together with those of St. Claire Deville and George q 1 Rapport du Comité International. Gauthier-Villars. Paris. x Vol. 50 PP., 1892, NO. 1201, VOL. 47] Matthey, so largely helped forward the principal work of the committee ; the metallurgical studies of Stas are indeed recog- nized as veritable models of classical research in this particular field, The new instruments added to the Bureau at Sévres during the last year include a normal barometer (le Barométre Fuess ) and manometer, originally verified for reference as an inter- national standard in accordance with the decisions of the Meteorological Conferences, particularly that at Munich last year, The committee have also obtained a new apparatus for determining the normal thermometric ‘‘ boiling point,” or the temperature of 100° Centigrade, as it has been found that the form of apparatus used by Regnault was unreliable for this pur- pose, In the reading of the standard manometer it would ap- pear that higher accuracy has been obtained by raising the surface of the mercury up to a fixed point, the image of the point in the mercury being observed at the same time by means of a microscope. The Wild-Pernet barometer has been re- mounted, and the Bureau are now prepared to undertake the verification of any standard barometer, The readings of all mercurial thermometers are given at the Bureau in terms of the hydrogen thermometer; and a 30- litre holder for methyl chloride, or liquid carbonic acid, has been made by Brigonnet and Navile. The low temperature experi- ments have been continued by M. Chappuis down to —75° Cent. ; and toluol and alcohol thermometers have been compared with the hydrogenthermometer. It has been found that “ toluol ” is more sensitive and reliable for low temperatures than alcohol. We note that the meteorological work of the committee has largely developed itself; and that, as in geodetic research, the Bureau at Sevres is now recognized as a central and inter- national station of reference. Standard thermometers have been verified, for instance during 1892, for the Governments of Russia, France, and Roumania ; for the Universities of Rome, St. Petersburg, and Odessa ; for Owens College, Manchester ; and for several recognized meteorological observatories. Great Britain has also been supplied by the committee with standard thermometers similar to those supplied to other contracting States. Besides the standard metre and kilogramme already delivered to this country, the Bureau is undertaking the construction of a further standard metre for the Board of Trade, at a cost of 12,588 francs. The new standard appears to have been nearly two years in construction, but its verification is now promised this year. There are twenty-one different governments who have joined the Convention and who contribute annually towards the expenses of the Bureau (the annual budget of which is 75,000 francs), sums varying from 134 francs (Denmark) to 9482 francs (Germany) the annual contribution of Great Britain and Ireland for 1892 being stated at 4699 francs, or nearly £188 ; and that of the United States at 8471 francs. At the instance of Dr. B, A, Gould the committee are now also undertaking an inquiry affecting measurement by light waves. By the use of the ‘‘ Refractometer” Dr, Michelson found (Philosophical Magazine, April, 1891, and September, 1892) that accuracy of measurement by light-waves may be increased toa high degree of accuracy. By the best spectroscopic instru- ments now in use it has been stated to be difficult to “ resolve” lines as close together as the components of the yellow sodium lines, but that if the width of the lines themselves be less than their distances apart, then there is no limit to their accuracy of measurement by the ‘‘ Refractometer.” We shall look forward with interest to the publication of Dr, Michelson’s further results, in the next volume of the ‘‘ Travaux et Mémoires” of this committee. The new instrument designed by M. Gustave Tresca, of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers at Paris, for the adjustment and polishing of the terminal surfaces of end-measures of length appears also to be better than anything yet adopted in England. The committee not only undertakes the verification of stan- dards and instruments for the High Contracting Governments (who have the right to demand such verifications), but they also verify for any scientific authorities or persons. To those of our readers, therefore, who may desire to have standards or instru- ments verified by the committee, the following information may be useful :— Applications for the verification of instruments should first be made to M. le Directeur du Bureau International (Dr. René- Benoit), au Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres, prés de Paris, ° 22 Standards may be sent to Sevres by post or railway (at the cost and risk of the owner) ; or still better, they may be delivered and removed from the Bureau by the owner or his agent. A certificate of verification will be given when the standards are ready for removal. Inany application to the director the de- nomination of the standard, or the description of the instrument, ‘should be stated, and the nature and extent of the verification demanded. ‘The committee will verify metric standards of length of one, two, three, and four metres, or subdivisions of the standard metre, if made in metal or some durable stone. -Line-measures should have their graduations so fine as to be well observed with a microscopic power of sixty diameters ; and end-measures should have their terminal surfaces sufficiently adjusted and polished so as accurately to define the length of the bar. Measures of mass may be made also of metal or some durable stone, but each must be in one piece without handles, grooves, or adjusting holes. For thermometers and barometers special regulations are issued, which may be obtained at a small charge from MM. Gauthier-Villars, 55, Quai des Grand Augustins, Paris. The fees on verification of measures of Jength vary from 60 to 400 francs, according, of course, to the extent of the verifica- tion demanded ; for metric weights from 20 to 120 francs; and for thermometers and barometers from 10 to 80 francs. What should be the true equivalent Jength of the yard measure in terms of the metre, may appear to some to be almost a trifling matter—because the measurement in dispute, or probable error of the equivalent at present adopted in this ‘country, amounts only to o’0008 inch. It is, however, a fact that so small a difference as 00008 in this equivalent would not only be felt in scientific researches but also in practical work. Messrs. Comstock and Tittman, of the United Coast Survey, as well as Dr. Peters, of Germany, and the Director of the Inter- national Committee, have found that the equivalent length of the metre (39°37¢8 inches) as ascertained by Kater and Arago, in 1818, is inaccurate, to the extent of 0°0008 inch, and that ‘the true equivalent ought to be nearly 39°3700 inches. This latter value will, we have no doubt, be ultimately recognized in scientific work. In the field of electrical measurements, we find that Dr. ‘Guillaume is continuing his investigations as to the measure- ment of temperature by electrical methods; and as to the variations of mercurial standards of resistance, a work origi- nally begun at the Bureau, by Dr. Benoit, in connection with the standard ohm. It would not appear that mercurial ther- mometers can be superseded for ordinary measurements of “temperature, but that measurement by resistances may afford useful results in determining the temperature of a given mass or space, as the whole length of a column of mercury. Dr. Guillaume gives an account of his work on mercurial standards in the Proces-Verbaux recently issued (page 183). ' During the past year Commandant Defforges, of the Geo- graphical service of the French army, has been undertaking at the Bureau an inquiry into the effect of the force of gravity at the latitude of Breteuil, by means of a seconds pendulum and apparatus constructed by Brunner. M. Defforges found that at “Kreteuil (longitude east of Paris 0°°131, latitude north 54°260, and altitude 70°4 metres) G = 980991 m. We cannot conclude this glance at the recent work of the International Committee without expressing an opinion that the scientific success of their work and the accuracy of its re- cord, owe much to the energy and watchful care of the new presitent, Dr. Foerster, and the secretary of the committee, Dr. A. Hirsch. NOTES ON SOME ANCIENT DYES. THE fragments of ancient dyed fabrics which I have examined I owe to the kindness of Mr. k. D. Darbishire. They are specimens from a lot found by Mr. Flinders Petrie in a tomb at Garob, Lower Egypt, supposed to date from 400-500 A.D, They were used apparently for filling the mummy cases where required, not strictly speaking as grave clothes. My object in examining them was to ascertain, if possible, what were the materials employed in producing the various colours seen on t Reprinted from ‘‘ Memoirs and Proceedings of the Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society,’’ 1891-92 (Fourth Series, vol. 5, No. 2). NO. 1201, VOL. 47] NATURE [ NovEMBER 3, 1892 them. The fabrics examined consisted almost entirely of wool. Here and there inthe warp of some of the specimens were threads, conspicuous for difference in colour, consisting of linen. The following colours could be distinguished :—blue, yellow, green, red, maroon, purple or claret, black. I will take them in the order named. ie. Blue.—The colour of the fabric was a dull medium blue. On treatment with hot caustic lye a great part of the wool dissolved. The residue, which was dark blue, having been filtered off, washed and dried, was treated with boiling aniline, to which it communicated a bright blue colour. The blue solution having been filtered boiling, deposited on cooling a quantity _of blue crystalline scales, which, after being filtered off, washed with alcohol and dried, were found to consist of indigo blue. On being treated ina tube they gave a sublimate of regular crystals, blue by transmitted, copper-coloured by reflected, light ; they dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving a blue solution, and the solution in aniline showed the absorption spectrum of indigo blue. It is evident, therefore, that indigo in some form or other was the material used in dyeing this colour. Yellow.—The colour of the patches dyed yellow wa’‘so evi- dently faded, and showed so little intensity, as to make it very uncertain whether analysis would lead to any precise result ; the examination was therefore omitted. Green.—Of the material dyed this colour, I had but a small quantity, but it was sufficient to allow of some conclusion regard- ing the means whereby the colour was produced. On being treated for some days with dilute hydrochloric acid it imparted to the latter a deep yellow colour. The portion left by the acid, after being washed and dried, yielded indigo blue on treatment . with boiling aniline. It is probable, therefore, that the colour was produced by first dyeing the fabric with indigo, then treat- ing with some mordant, such as alum, and, lastly, dyeing with some yellow colouring matter, most likely of vegetable origin. With the small quantity of material at my disposal, I found it impossible to ascertain the nature of the yellow colouring matter employed. Red.—This was the most pronounced, and at the same time the most interesting, of the colours examined, The colour of the fabric was a full deep red. It might be called a Turkey | red; the dye, in fact, proved on examination to be a kind of Turkey red as having the characteristic properties of that dye. On being burnt, the fabric left a considerable quantity of ash, — consisting of calcium sulphate, alumina, aluminium phosphate, ferric oxide, and silica. A large portion of this ash no doubt represents the mordant employed in producing the colour. On treatment with hot dilute hydrochloric acid, the fabric lost its red colour and became yellow. After removal of the acid by wash- ing with water, and pressing between blotting paper, treatment with boiling alcohol deprived the wool of the greater part of the yellow colour, a faint tinge only being left. The deep yellow alcoholic liquid obtained left on evaporation a reddish-brown amorphous residue. This, on being treated with a boiling solu- tion of alum, dissolved in part, yielding a pink fluorescent liquid, which had exactly the same colour, and showed precisely the same absorption bands asa solution of purpurin from madder in alum liquor. On adding hydrochloric acid to the pink solu- tion and heating, the colouring matter was precipitated in orange-coloured flocks, the liquid becoming almost colourless. The flocks after being filtered off and washed with water dis- solved easily in boiling alcohol, yielding a yellow solution, which, on spontaneous evaporation, left a quantity of dark yellow needles arranged in rosettes. These needles dissolved in caustic alkali, giving a cherry-red solution, which showed the absorption bands of purpurin. The solution, on exposure to air and light, became colourless. Some of the precipitated colouring matter, on being employed — in the usual way for dyeing a bit of calico to which various mordants had been applied, yielded colours exactly like those . obtained with purpurin from madder, z.e., the alumina mordant gave a bright red, the iron mordant dull purple to black tints. The matter left undissolved, after repeated treatment with boiling alum liquor, was still highly coloured. It dissolved easily in alcohol, the solution leaving on evaporation a brown amorphous residue, which remained soft even after long stand- - ing. This residue consisted for the most part of fatty matter, but it also contained some colouring matter insoluble in alum liquor. That this colouring matter was alizarin seemed A cies bable, since the colour which the mixture imparted to alka- NoOveEMBER 3, 1892 7° ay 3 “dine lye resembled that of an alkaline solution of impure -alizarin. ____ These experiments lead to the conclusion that the red colour _ of the fabric was produced by dyeing with some kind of madder, _ either wild or cultivated, the fabric having been previously treated with a mixed aluminous and ferric mordant, and then ype oiled—that it was, in fact really a kind of Turkey _ Maroon.—The dull chestnut colour of this fabric presented a _ striking contrast to the bright red of the preceding. Its consti- tution was, however, similar. Having treated it in the same _ way as the other, I found that the colouring matter must have _ been derived from madder ; fatty matter was also present, but _ the mordant contained a larger proportion of ferric oxide, a _ fact which sufficiently explains the brown tint of the dyed _ #urple,—The fabric in which this colour was seen was made _ up of a pale yellow warp, and a weft of a dull purple or claret org of red and blue, for the threads, on examination —e. A oo a , were seen to consist partly of red, partly o _ blue fibres, the former Siiciitdating.” The two ate Of fibres _had, of course, been mixed before spinning. The blue fibres were certainly dyed with indigo, the red probably with madder. Biack.—The colour of the black fabric, like that of the green, Was a compound of two colours, one overlying the other. _ Under the microscope the individual threads appeared grey. ‘On treatment with a mixture of alcohol and hydrochloric acid Sy colour, a yellow liquid being obtained, while the fabric itself now appeared blue, and after washing and drying fielded indigo by appropriate treatment. The yellow alcoholic li was found to contain purpurin. The colour may be sup- _ posed to have been produced in the following manner :—The _ woollen fabric having first been dyed blue was mordanted, to _ use a modern phrase, and then dyed with madder, the two _ colours together producing the effect of black. eae rae ae EDWARD SCHUNCK. | SCrENTIFIC SERIALS. In the Botanical Gazette for July, August, and September, _ there are several papers of general interest. Mr. G. A. Rex _ presents a further contribution to our knowledge of the Myxo- 3 festa in an account of the genus Zind/adia.—Mr. D. T. _ McDougal gives a detailed account of the morphology and _ anatomy of the tendrils of Passiflora cerulea.—Mr. M. B. Thomas describes and figures an apparatus for determining the _ periodicity of root-pressure in plants. —Mr. C. L. Holtzman has a short pet on the Apical growth of the stem and the develop- _ ment of the sporange in Botrychium virginianum, his obser- _ vations favouring the view that the Ophioglossacez are a more _ primitive form than the typical Filices.—Mr. A. F. Foerste con- _ untes his observations on the Relation of autumn to spring- _ blossoming plants.—Mr. Charles Robertson gives a further _ instalment of his series of papers on Flowers and insects. —A __ brief report is given of the botanical papers read at the recent _ meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of In the Fournal of Botany for September and October, no less _ than four new species are added to the British flora and to _ science—Hieracium hibernicum, H. duriceps, and A. Bread- _ albanense, by Mr. F. J. Hanbury; and Ranunculus B oc wand (sect. Flammula) by Rev. E. S. Marshall.—Rev. W. Moyle oo his Essay at akey to British Rubi; Mr. E.G. his hi a of genera and species of Malvee ; and Mr. _ W. A. Clarke his First Records of British Flowering Plants. | _ Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society. Vol. ii. _ No. 1, October, 1892. (New York.)—Prof. Cajori opens this _ number with an interesting note on the evolution of criteria of convergence (pp. I-10), in which he discusses some special and _ general criteria furnished in the writings of Gauss, Cauchy, _ Abel, DeMorgan, Bertrand, Kummer, and others, and notices _ specially the remarkable advance made by Pringsheim (AZath, Ann, vol. xxxv.).—Dr. A. Martin calls attention (pp. 10-1) to __ probable origin of which is accounted for by-Mr. Ball.—There NO. 120!, VOL. 47] NATURE The latter colour was found to be due to an intimate | a slip in Bali’s ‘* Short History of Mathematics” (p. 102), the | a ae ~ et en a is a slight review of Chapman’s ‘‘ Elementary Course in the Theory of Equations ” (pp. 11-12), and the rest of the issue is taken up with the usual list of new publications and notes. In these last Dr. Martin points out a curious error in the Royal Society ‘‘ Catalogue of Scientific Papers,” vol. ix. (:874-1883), where, of the papers accredited, on p. 790, to Ezekiel Brown Elliott, Nos, 5-11, 14-17 should be assigned to Mr. Edwin Bailey Elliott, of Oxford, and not to the late Mr. Ezekiel Brown Elliott, of America, to whom Nos. 4, 12, 13 are rightly attributed. In the Aullettino of the Botanical Society of Italy, we find in addition to papers of more local interest, a further com- munication from Sig. Macchiati on the Cultivation of diatoms, in which he states that the presence of infusoria and of diatoms in the water is mutually beneficial to one another, while the most destructive enemies of the latter are bacteria.—A paper by Sig. Piccioli on the Biological relations between plants and snails, is chiefly devoted to the protective contrivances found in the former against the attacks of the latter, the most important of which are of a chemical nature—tannin, latex, oleiferous glands, and poisonous salts such as calcium oxalate : mechanical means of protection, such as hairs and a comparatively thick cuticle, play a subordinate part.—In a further communication by Prof. Arcangeli on the Cultivation of Cynomorium coccineum, he states that he does not find such an intimate parasitism with its host as is the case with the Rafflesiaceze and the Balano- phoracee. i SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. PARIS, Academy of Sciences, October 24.—M. de Lacaze- Duthiers in the chair.—Researches on the fixation of atmo- spheric nitrogen by microbes, by M. Berthelot. The investiga- tion was made in order to elucidate the mechanism of the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. It appears that the presence of green vegetable material is not essential to the process. The colourless bacteria are able to absorb nitrogen when supplied with humic.acid only as nutriment. The assimilation takes place more readily with natural than with artificial humic acid, probably because the former contains more nitrogen- In experiments with hermetically sealed cultivations it was found that the gain of nitrogen by the organic material under cultiva- -tion was 6 or 9 per cent. in excess of that supplied by the humic acid, the difference being derived from the enclosed air. With. an occasional stream of dust-laden air this was brought up to 30 per cent.—Coloured photographs of the spectrum on albumen and bichromated gelatine, by M. G. Lippmann. Albumenized and gelatinized plates soaked in bichromate of pot- ash may be employed for photographing in colours. They are used like silver-salt plates, being placed so that the mercury is in contact with the film. The colours will appear immediately after immersion in water, which develops and also fixes the image. It disappears on drying, but reappears as soon as the plate is soaked. The colours are very brilliant, and visible at all angles. Those of gelatine plates are brought out by simple breathing. The theory is analogous to that of silver plates, the maxima and minima of interference producing hygroscopic and non-hygroscopic layers with varying refractive indices.—The irrigation canals of the Rhone, by M. Chambrelent.—A new apparatus, the schiseophone, serving the purpose of exploring the internal structure of metallic masses by means of an electro- mechanical process, by M. de Place. The apparatus consists of a microphone and an induction sonometer. To the micro- phone is attached a rod of hard steel, kept oscillating once or twice per second, and striking each time against the casting or other mass of metal under investigation. The sonometer, con- sisting of two coils movable towards or away from each other along a divided scale, with a telephone connected with one of the coils, is placed in another room, and joined by wires to the microphone. The coils being so adjusted that the tapping is scarcely perceptible at the sonometer, the casting is moved so as to expose various portions to the impacts. If the thickness be uniform, any flaw or fissure will be at once indicated by a change in the sound.—Observations of the comet Barnard (D 1892), made at the Paris Observatory, by M. G. Bigourdan, 24 NATURE [ NovEMBER 3, 1892 —Elements of the comet Barnard, of October 12, 1892, by M. L. Schulhof.—On the algebraic integrals of the differential equation of the first order, by M. L. Autonne.—On centres of geodesic. curvature, by M. Th. Caronnet.—On Pfaffs problem, by M. A, J. Stodolkievitz.—Sunspots and magnetic disturbances in 1892, by M. Ricco.—On considerations of homogeneity in physics; reply to M. Clavenad, by M. Vaschy.—Verification of parallelism of optic axes in uniaxial crystalline plates, by M. Bernard Brunhes.—On a photoptometric photometer, for the measurement of feeble illuminations, by M. Charles Henry. ‘This is based upon the constancy of the phosphorescent sulphide of zinc. Its law of loss of brilliance being determined, it may be used for measuring very feeble illuminations, such as distant artificial light or the general luminosity of the sky due to the stars. The decrease of light after the first 900 seconds being given by z > (¢ — 18°5) = const., it is easy to calculate the luminosity at any instant. In the instrument in question there are two screens Of ground glass, one of which is illuminated by the phosphorescent sulphide, brought to its maximum glow at a certain time by burning magnesium ribbon, the other exposed to the source of light. It is then only necessary to wait till both the screens are equally illuminated, and to note the time.—On the dissociation of chrome alum, by MM. H. Baubdigny and E. Pechard.—On the tempera- tures of maximum density of aqueous solutions, by M. L. de Coppet.—On some double salts of quinine, by M. E. Grimaux.—On the thermal value of the three functions of orthophosphoric acid, and on its constitution, by M. de Forcrand. —Preparation and properties of fibroine, by M. Leo Vignon.— Regeneration of the so-called sporangial form in the diatoms, by M. P. Miquel.—On the hematozoaria of cold-blooded vertebrates, by M. Alphonse Labbé.—Influence of coloured light on the development of animals, by M. E, Yung.—On the mode of fixation of the hexapod parasitic larvz of the acarians, by M. S. Jourdain.—The cavern of Brassempouy, by M. Edouard Piette.—Discovery of a skeleton of Zlephas meridionalis in the basaltic ashes of the volcano of Senéze, by M. Marcellin Boule. —Vegetable prints of the Dover boring, by M. R. Zeiller. BERLIN. Meteorological Society, October 11.—Prof. von Bezold, president, in the chair.—Dr. Berson reported on an interesting relationship which he had discovered between insolation and temperature. Since it has not yet been possible to determine accurately the absorption due to the atmosphere, the speaker had calculated the insolation at the external limit of the atmo- sphere, which admits of rigid mathematical treatment, both for the whole year and for the months of January and July. The mean of insolation for the whole year was found to lie at the thirtieth degrees of northerly and southerly latitude, so that the zone between these parallels, or about 60 per cent, of the whole external surface, receives more insolation than the mean, whereas the two polar caps, or the remaining 40 per cent., receive less, A similar calculation of the annual temperature gave the mean as at latitude 38° N. and 35° S., giving as before 60 per cent. of the surface with the temperature above the mean, and 40 per cent. below. In January 61°35 per cent. of the surface experienced an insolation above the mean and 60 per cent. a temperature above the mean, while in July the percentages were respectively 61°37 and 61°33.—Dr. Zenker gave a short account of a research on the relationship between temperature and insolation on the earth’s surface. He had accurately calculated the relationship both for regions comprising land only and water only, and arrived at some interesting conclusions as to the theoretical temperatures at various latitudes of continents and oceans. Physical Society, October 21,—Prof. Kundt, president, in the chair.—Dr. Jager gave an account of the measurements he had made, in conjunction with Dr. Kreischgauer, of the tem- perature-coefficient of electric conductivity of mercury. Dr. Arons demonstrated an arc-light between mercurial electrodes in vacuo. It yielded a dazzling white light, which was steady at the anode but flickered and jumped at the cathode: its intensity approximated to that of an ordinary carbon arc- light. The heat given off by it was but slight so that the tube could be held in the hand ; the temperature was highest at the cathode. Attempts were made to determine the resistance of the arc, but without result. It was found by the use of a tele- phone that the current is discontinuous. A spectroscopic investigation of the light revealed a lime-spectrum showing very NO, 1201, VOL. 47]| brilliantly a yellow, a green, and a blue line, In addition to the ordinary lines due to mercury some twenty new lines were observed. No satisfactory results were obtained by amalgams instead of mercury, with the one exception sodium-amalgam. It is proposed to make further experiments with fluid amalgams of sodium and potassium. BOOKS and SERIALS RECEIVED. Booxs.—The Great World’s Farm: S. Gaye (Seeley).—The Zoological Record, 189t (Gurney and Jackson).—Castorologia, or the History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver: H. T. Martin (Stanford).—Transac- tions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. xxxvi. Parts 2 and 3 (Edin- burgh).—Les Alpes Frangaises: A. Falsan (Paris, Baillitre) —Calendar of the University College of Wales, Aberystwith, 1892-93 (Manchester, Cornish).—London Birds and other Sketches, revised edition: T. D. Pigott (Porter).—Contents and Index of the First Twenty Volumes of the Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 1859-83: W. Theobald (Caleutta).— . Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India; Index to the Genera and Species described in the Palzontologia Indica, up to the Year 1891: W. Theobald (Calcutta).—Star Atlas: Dr. H. J. Klein, translated, &c., by E. McClure, new edition (S.P.C.K.).—City and Guilds of London Institute Programme of Technological Examinations, 1892-93 (London).—Appareils d’ Essai 2 froid et & chaud des Moteurs & Vapeur: M. Dudebour (Paris, Gauthier-Villars).—Canon Torpilles et Cuirasse: A. Croneau (Paris, Gauthier-Villars).—Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften, Nos. 31-37 (Leipzig, Engelmann).—Gesammelte Abhandlungen iiber Pflanzen- Physiologie, Erster Band: Sachs (Leipzig, Engelmann).—On the American [ron Trade and its Progress during Sixteen Years: Sir L. Bell (Ballantyne).—Universal Atlas, Part 20 (Cassell). SERtALS.—The Physical Society of London, Proceedings, vol. xi. Part 4 (Taylor and Francis).—Botanical Gazette, October (Bloomington, Indiana —Traité Encyclopédique de Photographie, Premier Supplément A. quat.~ fasc. : C. Fabre (Paris, Gauthier-Villars).—Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, liv. Band, 4 Heft (Williams and Norgate).—Morphologisches Jahrbuch, xix. Band, 1 Heft (Williams and Norgate). CONTENTS. PAGE The University Commission .;...°... 0... sss & The Study of Animal Life. ByC. L1.M. .... 2 Vector Algebra... .-....°. ee ear) Se The Lake of Geneva. By Prof, T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. 5 Our Book Shelf :— : Ward: ‘‘ Horn Measurements and Weights of the Great Game of the World, being a Record for the Use of Sportsmen and Naturalists” ....... 6 Philippson: ‘‘ Der Peloponnes. Versuch einer Landes- kunde auf geologischer Grundlage” ....... 6 _ Fabre; ‘‘ Traité Encyclopédique de Photographie.” — : ‘‘The Reliquary” : Quarterly Archzological Journal and Review <<... e je.:0.e5 8 We) eal, ieeeeneemrettigc > 7 Letters to the Editor :— Nova Aurige.—H. F. Newall. ......-+.. 7 Formation of Lunar Volcanoes. (J///ustrated.)—J. B. Hannay ©. 0. oe je eis Se) aces ol del a ae eee eg, On the Need of a New Geometrical Term—‘‘ Conju- gate Angles.”—Prof. A. M. Worthington . . 8 Printing Mathematics.—W. Cassie .......- 8 ‘‘Sunshine”’—Amy Johnson; C.V.B...... 9 The Photography of an Image by Reflection.—Frede- tick J. Smith | .......;. + > sixmnct aes. 20 Induction and Deduction.—Edward T. Dixon... 10 Bell’s Idea of a New Anatomy of the Brain.—Jas. B. Bailey a ee ree EN Photographic Dry Plates. —ArthurE. Brown .. . II The Genus Sphenophyllum. (With Diagram.) By Prof, Wm. Crawford Williamson, F.R.S. .... II By Sydney Lupton. ...... 13 . . . . . . . . . 14 Dendritic Forms. INOS: Fiore e fe get tae hee Our Astronomical Column:— Comet Brooks (August 28) ....++ +’ seu 18 Comet Barnard (October 12) « . s+ + + + we es Tabular History of Astronomy to the Year 1500 A.D . 18 A Large Telescope Pep lprons 2 «eh eaaes | ee The Atmospheres of Planets .....+...++- 38 Geographical Notes .....- ++ +++ «6 ++ es FQ The Institution of Mechanical Engineers 5 Bop aD International Committee of Weights and Measures 21 Notes on some Ancient Dyes. By Edward Schunck, © F.R,S.; . . . . . . . e . . . . . . * . . . 22 Scientific Seriale...°.......0-. « #2"): | see ee Societies and Academies ......+.-+++-+ + 23 Books and Serials Received . .......4.28 +s 24 ' | NATURE 25 A i THURSDAY, NOVEMBER Io, 1892. EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY. _ Experimental Evolution. By Henry de Varigny, D.Sc. (London : Macmillan, 1892.) R. HENRY DE VARIGNY has enriched the literature of biology by publishing in the ‘‘ Nature ) Series ” the lectures on “ Experimental Evolution” de- livered by. him in 1891 to the Summer School of Art and _ Science in. Edinburgh. This school, as is well known, has been going good work on. atomaiien lines in Edin- - burgh, and Prof. Geddes is to be congratulated on having _ secured the co-operation of so able a biologist and so lucid an exponent of the special aspects of biology with which he has identified himself as M. de Varigny. The _ lectures are well worthy of publication, for they contain a rich, well-ordered, and, for the most part, well-sifted _ body of facts collected from many sources, and especially from the publications of French naturalists. But the author is more than a collector of facts recorded by other _workers ; he is himself a worker in this special field of biological science. And some of the most valuable of _ the observations contained in the work are the result of _his own careful and exact investigations. __ Experimental biology is still in its infancy. It is true _ that our domesticated animals and plants are the result of _ much experimental work in the past ; but the experiments _ were not planned with the object of explaining organic _ nature, and were therefore not biological in their aim. There is pressing need at the present time for experi- ments with such definite scientific aim ; for experiments, _ that is to say, carried out with the express object of _ testing the truth of biological principles. And that this _ work be well done there is pressing need for organization. We have only to look at the results which have been reached by well-planned and well-directed marine stations in extending our biological knowledge, faunal, morphological, and embryological, to see what may be _ done by organization of research. What Dr. de Varigny _ eloquently pleads for, and what our own countryman, Dr. Romanes, is also pleading for, is an experimental institute, well planned and adequately supported, the _ purpose of which shall be to carry out extensive experi- ments for testing evolution hypotheses in all their _ bearings. “It appears to me,” says Dr. de Varigny, “that this institution should comprise the following essential ele- ments :—Rather extensive grounds, a farm with men experienced in breeding, agriculture, and horticulture ; some greenhouses, and a laboratory with the common _ appliances of chemistry, physiology, and histology. Of course this must be located in the country. It is very _ important to have experienced farm hands, and a good chemist and histologist are necessary in the staff of the institution. As to the general management, it seems _ advisable to have a director with a board of competent men, whose functions would be to decide, after careful investigation and exchange of views, what are the funda- mental experiments to be performed. These experi- ments, when once decided upon, should be pursued NO. 1202, VOL. 47] during a’ long period of years, and nothing should be altered in their execution unless considered advisable by the board, or unless the experiment should be found use- less, or devoid of chance of success. The main thing should be to provide for the duration of the experiment, whether the originators were living or dead, and to follow it out for a long time. Time is an indispensable element in such investigations, and experiments of this sort will surely exceed the normal duration of human lifetime.” A special branch of the work of such an institute should be experimental investigations in comparative psychology. Of this there is nowadays some'need. Speaking of the transmission of acquired characters, Dr. de Varigny says, “ Psychology affords similar instances. A kitten which has never seen a dog is afraid from the first moment it perceives one ; young birds of many species instinctively fear the hawk and other birds of prey, while remaining unaffected by the presence of other birds. Are not these psychological ‘attitudes’ due to environment (acting on the mens of ancestors) which have been transmitted by inheritance; are these not acquired characters?” From observations of my own I am prepared to say that it is by no means universally true that a kitten which has never seen a dog is afraid from the first moment it perceives one. Mr. Spalding does indeed describe how the smell of his hand with which he had been fondling a dog set four blind kittens puffing and spitting in a most comical fashion. But a careful observer, Mr. Mann Jones, writes to me that a young kitten with which he experimented “took eight days to connect the smell or odour of his hand with the thing—dog.” And my own obser- vations are confirmatory of those of Mr. Mann Jones. Mr. Hudson, ina very interesting chapter of the “ Natural- ist in La Plata,” gives observations which tend to show that young birds afford little evidence of instinctive fear of particular enemies; and my own experi- ments with young chicks lead me to believe that they have no instinctive knowledge of the things of this world. Any unusual and sharp sound (e.¢., a chord on the violin), any large approaching object (e.g., a ball rolled towards them), causes alarm. There is no evidence of instinctive particularization of alarming ob- jects. Such observations lead me to look with suspicion on any arguments for the transmission of acquired characters based on supposed instinctive knowledge of things. And they show the need of further research in comparative psychology such as could be carried out at the Institute of Experimental Biology. It may be said that the central hypothesis of modern evolution, that of natural selection, stands in no need of experimental verification. But it will presumably be ad- mitted, even by those who are firm in their belief, among whom I count myself, that further experimental support will be of the utmost value. There are many who assume a sceptical attitude, and who say—We grant the in- exorable logic of your conclusions if your premisses be established. More individuals are born than can or do survive ; the devil devours the hindmost ; and a beneficent selection rewards the survivors with the privilege of pro- creation: hence, progress towards increased adaptation. A very pretty piece of logic. But now, they say, show us the devil at work. We pretend to no particular knowledge Cc 26 NATURE [ NovEMBER 10, 1892 of these matters, but we are quite ready to be convinced by proven facts. Prove to us this devil’s work, and we acquiesce in your conclusion. But do not put us off with a logical ‘‘ must be,” the recognized symbol of an assump- tion. Do not tell us that since a hundred were born and only two survive, the ninety-eight must be in some way and for some reason unfit. This is just the very fact of which we require definite and indubitable evidence. Now what solid and umimpeachable body of evidence have we wherewith to conclusively refute this scepticism? If animals or plants removed to a new environment assume a new habit, in how many cases is it clearly proved that this is due to the elimination of all those who failed to vary in the direction of this habit? It behoves us to be careful that the very strength of the natural selection hypothesis be not a source of weakness, by leading us to neglect the duty of experimental verification. That there should be a central institute or institutes for the purpose of such experimental verification, is what Dr. de Varigny and Dr. Romanes are pleading for. It would produce a salutary organization of research; for the institute would have carefully selected correspondents in all parts of the world who would carry out their ex- periments in concert. It would bring scattered energies to a focus. It would by its journal show individual workers where research is specially needed. It is bound to come sooner or later. We hope to see it an established fact before the close of the present century. C. Lu. M. “BRITISH FUNGUS FLORA, British Fungus-Flora, a Classified Text-Bookof Mycology . By George Massee, In 3 vols. Vol. I. (London and New York ; George Bell and Sons, 1892.) ie was in 1836 that Berkeley published his “ British Fungi” asa part of Hooker’s “ British Flora,” and for about a\quarter of a century this was the standard work. In 1860 appeared Berkeley’s “ Outlines of British Fun- gology,” which from the first was disappointing, inasmuch as it was only a barren catalogue for all except the large and conspicucus species; and even the latter were so compressed in description, by the exigencies of confining the book within narrow and definite limits, that it did not wholly supersede the use of the old “ British Fungi.” In 1871 an effort was made to repair the error by the publication of Cooke’s, ‘ Handbook of British Fungi,” which brought the whole subject up to date, and gave a new impetus to British mycology. On account of the considerable acquisition of species, new to the British flora, it was deemed fitting in 1871 to produce a new work which should include these additions, and then Stevenson’s “ British Fungi” appeared. This new work only included the “ Hymenomycetes,” or, in effect, part of the first volume of Cooke’s “ Handbook,” leaving all the rest untouched. In order to remedy this deficiency in part, Cooke’s “ Myxomycetes ” was issued in 1877, and Phillips’ “ Manual. of British Discomycetes” in 1887. Meanwhile a second edition of a portion of Cooke’s “ Handbook” was being issued as a supplement to ‘“‘ Grevillea,’ but confined exclusively to the Agaricinz. With the exception of Plowright’s “ British Uredinezx ” published in 1889, all the rest of the orders contained in NO. 1202, VOL. 47] the “ Handbook” remained as they were in 1871. The unrevised portions included the Pyrenomycetes, or Spheriaceous fungi; the Sfheropsidee, or imperfect Pyrenomycetes; and the Ayfhomycetes, or moulds. Hence the announcement of a complete work which should include a// the British fungi, of whatever denomination, brought up to date, did not come as a surprise. The volume before us consists of 430 pages, and pro- fesses to be the first of three volumes, which are to con- tain the whole “ British Fungus Flora” in full, and upon the same plan as this first volume. We have heard of wonderful feats of ‘‘strong men,” but these will be nothing in comparison to the feat which is ostensibly promised on the title-page, whem it is accomplished. In our simplicity we should have calculated sza volumes as nearer the minimum. Ifthe result proves to be /zss, we shall be content to bear the odium of a false prophet. We may premise that the author who has undertaken the present work is eminently fitted to carry it out success- fully, inasmuch as he is a practical field naturalist, with independent views, and by no means afraid of hard work. To return to the volume in question, we must recognize clearness of typography, anddistinctness in the isolation of species, which will facilitate reference and increase its practical utility. The illustrations are rather rough out- lines, but quite sufficient for practical purposes, and will exhibit the distinctions between the several genera as far as illustrations can doit. Of the systematic arrangement we are not prepared to speak so highly, but perhaps some may consider this a matter of detail. The contents may be summarized thus, in the order of their appearance. | The Gastromycetes, or puff-ball fungi, commencing with the subterranean species, followed by the Sclerodermee and the Vidulariea, then the Lycoperdee, concluding with the Phalloidee. These are succeeded by the Alymeno- mycetes, in like manner inverted, commencing with the Tremellinee, and backwards through the other families to the Agaricinz, which are commenced in the last 120 pages, but not half completed. We imagine that half another volume will be required to complete the Baszdio- mycetes. Under ordinary circumstances, when we take up a flora, we are accustomed to meet with the adoption of either one of two methods. The one consists of a regular sequence, from what the author regards as the highest developments in his congeries to the lowest ; the other an equally regular sequence from the lowest to the highest. This is conventional, but the present book is not conven- tional. In one sense there undoubtedly is a regular sequence from the lowest forms to the highest in the Basidiomycetes, which this volume contains ; but we must not infer that Mr. Massee regards the Basidiomycetes as the lowest order of Fungi, or that he commences with the simplest organisms, proceeding upwards by regular gradations to the most complex, when he starts with the Gastromycetes. Undoubtedly our author has not made a special study of the puff balls in order to: degrade them tothe lowest rank. Hence we can only arrive at one conclusion, and that is, that such portions of the work . have now been printed as were ready for the press, and no conclusions are to be drawn from the sequence adopted as a convenience, as if it were adopted by pre- meditation. ” “text-book of British mycology.” NovVEMBER 10, 1892] NATURE 27 Continental mycologists have now for some time accepted the genera of the Agaricini as defined by Fries, with the exception of the large genus Agaricus, which Fries himself subdivided into numerous smaller groups as subgenera; but they have elevated all these smaller groups to the rank of genera, and placed them upon an equality with the other veritable genera of Agaricini. Against this metamorphosis we feel bound to contend, on the ground that the distinctions, although sufficient for the subdivision of a genus, are not of generic _ value, and that the genera so constituted are unneces- sary, and of unequal value, with the old genera beside which they are placed. For instance, Amanztopsis differs only from Amanite in the absence of a ring; and Annellaria differs only from Pan@olus in the presence of aring. Let any one of practice and experience com- pare these pseudo-genera with Cofrinus, Cantharellus, or Schizophyllum, and judge of what we say. For the first time these pseudo-genera now find a place in a British flora, and, although not of overwhelming import- ance, we cannot permit them to pass without protest. _ Spore measurements are a recent addition to the diagnoses of Hymenomycetes, and, although we contend that they should be employed with caution and dis- crimination, it is very satisfactory that so much attention _ should have been given to them in this work. Not only does the spore vary in size in a given species in different seasons, but at different periods i in the same year. This _ is certainly true in some species which have been tested, and should lead us to accept spore measurements as approximate rather than absolute. In conclusion, we are bound to remark that this is a student’s book, written with a full appreciation of the wants of a student, and giving all the information which ‘a student. might require. In all cases, whether under families, genera, or species, will be found just the details _ which the novice will be most anxious to obtain, and, although the study of these interesting but rather difficult plants has been of late somewhat upon the decline, we doubt not that it will revive and prosper by the aid of the new “ British Fungus Flora,” which will become the Mw€.5C. o | ' SOUTH AFRICAN SHELLS. Marine Shells of South Africa: A Catalogue of all the _ Known Species, with References to Figures in Various Works, Descriptions of New Species, and Figures of _ such as are new, little known, or hitherto unfigured. ' By G. B. Sowerby, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Pp. 89, § pls. is a by the author]. FL apdon, 1892.) ~ INCE 1848, when Krauss published his well-known ' work, entitled “‘ Die Siidafrikanischen Mollusken,” ‘no such list as the one before us dealing with the Molluscan Fauna of this interesting and important marine province has appeared. Krauss, who included the non-marine forms of the ‘South African region in his work, recorded 403 marine ‘species, of which 213 were considered to be peculiar to the province. Many other species have been subse- quently cited or described as coming from that quarter, notably by E. von Martens and by our present author. Conchologists undoubtedly owe much to Mr. Sowerby NO. 1202, VOL. 47] the voyage of the Challenger. _end of the preface. for thus bringing together within the small compass of this single volume, the scope and aim of which are suffi- ciently indicated in its title, the scattered records of the various species as known to him; but they will equally regret that the author did not include the whole molluscan fauna instead of confining himself to the testaceous forms, and thereby raise the work from the level of a mere shell- collector’s catalogue to the rank of a work of reference of real scientific value. Mr. Sowerby enumerates 740 species, and estimates that 323 of these are confined to South Africa, whilst 67 also occur in European seas, and 340 have been found on other coasts. Unfortunately, it is our disagreeable duty to point out that this record does not include “all the known species,” and hence is not what the author fully intended it to be, viz., “as complete as possible.” An important paper by Von Martens! appears to have been over- looked, for there are about thirty species named in it, in- cluding some which were then new, not mentioned by ‘Mr. Sowerby. Still more remarkable is the omission of the new forms described by Mr. Watson in his report upon the Scaphopoda and Gastropoda, obtained during Davidson’s “ Monograph of recent Brachiopoda,” had it been more closely scanned, would have yielded not only two species reputed to have come from the Cape, but also Terebratulina Davidsoni, King, the type specimens of which, dredged on the Agulhas Bank, were passed on to their describer by Mr. G. B. Sowerby (the elder, we presume) in 1871. A number of species have been recorded by Mr. E. A. Smith in an appendix to a “ Report on the Marine Mol- luscan Fauna of the Island of St. Helena,”* as found there on what is locally known as “Sea-horn.” This sub- stance appears to consist of portions of a large species of Tangle, probably Echlonia buccinalis, which<.occurs at the Cape, whence it drifts to St. Helena. Some allusion should have been made to these forms. Hints might also have been gleaned from the same report, which deserves to be more widely known than seemingly it is, of un- doubted South African species whose names do not appear in Mr. Sowerby’s catalogue. The presence of a good index, while it obviates the necessity, does not abolish the desirability of a good clas- sification, and, in the present state of our knowledge in matters conchological, that of Woodward’s Manual is ‘hardly up to date ; it is somewhat late in the day to find Dentailium still in its old place in the Gastropoda. Some few changes in nomenclature are made in defe- rence to the law of priority, and these are set forth at the Amongst them is Ovuz/a, Bruguiére, 1789 =Ovulum, Sowerby, &c., though, according to some, Ova is itself a synonym for Amphip~eras, Grono- vius, 1781; Cadliostoma is erroneously attributed to -Bruguiére instead of Swainson, There are also some oversights in the text, as, for in- stance, “ Columbella cerealis, Menke (Buccinum), Krauss ..=C. Kraussiz, Sowerby,” where, since Menke’s name was given merely in MS., Sowerby’s name stands, having four years’ priority over Krauss’s ; 7ri/oris is treated as though of the masculine gender ; whilst the references to “figures in various works ” require careful checking. t ‘Ueber einige siidafrikanische Mollusken nach der Sammlung von Dr. G. Fritsch.” Jahrb. Deutsch. Malak. Gesell. 1874, pp. 119-146. 2 Proc. Zool. Soc. 1890, pp. 247-317. 28 NATURE [NovEMBER 10, 1892 As regards the figures that accompany the work itself, it isa matter for regret that they cannot be commended. Few objects are more difficult to draw or require more skill in their delineation than do the shells of mollusca, and the amateur is rarely able to do them justice. The want of finish in the present instance is all the more noticeable from the contrast they afford to the rest of the “set up” of the work, which is admirable. These shortcomings are not thus dwelt on in any cap- tious spirit, but are pointed out in the friendly hope that a future edition of the work may shortly be forthcoming, in which the defects of the present one, compiled under great difficulties and at much disadvantage, may be made good and a really complete catalogue result. (BV)? OUR BOOK SHELF. The Framework of Chemistry. Part I. By W. M. Williams, M.A. (London: George Bell and Sons, 1892.) THIS is the first part of a book which has been specially written as a supplement to the oral lessons and experi- mental demonstrations given by a teacher. It is intended to contain nothing but what is absolutely neces- sary to give definite and precise impressions regarding the salient points of the lessons, all details relating to laboratory manipulation being omitted. The more im- portant introductory facts, divested of theoretical con- siderations, are first discussed, then come ‘‘atoms and molecules,” treated in an elementary fashion and leading the way to the explanation of the use of symbols and formule. How the system adopted by the author will work out can only be ascertained when the other parts are to hand. So far as the information in the present volume goes, it is to a great extent useful and clearly stated. Objection may be taken to the classification of solutions as mechanical and chemical, for, were it for no other reason, it is still a disputed point whether any solution may be considered a mixture. The concise style of the book lends itself to incomplete statements. For instance, to say that one of the oxides of carbon “ contains exactly twice as much oxygen as the other,” is hardly accurate ; a constant quantity of carbon is essential to the accurate conception of the facts. The most serious blunder made by the author lies in the confusion of force and energy. This is manifest in state- ments involving the conversion of “chemical force” into an “ equivalent amount of heat” or of “electrical force,” and culminates in the assertion that ‘ Force, like matter, cannot be destroyed.” The Beauties of Nature, and the Wonders of the World we Liveln. By the Right Hon. Sir John Lubbock, Bart. M.P., F.R.S. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1892.) So many writers of the present day adopt a pessimistic tone that a pleasant impression is always produced by Sir John Lubbock’s genial and imperturbable optimism. In the present volume he undertakes to show how many sources of interest men might find in the world around them, if they would only take the trouble to train them- selves to appreciate the scientific significance of ordinary facts.» }He begins with a study of animal life, and has much that is fresh and suggestive to say about various. Then there are chapters on plant’ aspects of the subject. life;; woods and fields, mountains, water, rivers and lakes, the sea, and the starry heavens. The volume is written in the clear, frank style with which all readers of Sir John Lubbock’s books are familiar, and it ought NO. 1202, VOL. 47] to do much to foster among the class to which he appeals habits of careful and exact observation. His readers have the satisfaction of knowing that of the many things they may learn from him none will afterwards have to be unlearned. Algebra for Beginners. By H. S. Hall and S, R. Knight. (London: Macmillan & Co. 1892.) ; THIS work is intended as an “‘ easy introduction ” to the author’s “ Elementary Algebra for Schools,” and, besides being treated on lines similar to those of the last-mentioned book, is published ina cheaper form. The idea throughout seems to have been to present the beginner with the practical side of the subject, and with this intention the examples are made as interesting as such examples can be. The usual sequence has not here been strictly adhered to ; but a beginner will find that he will still be able to reach the “as far as quadratic equations” limit. It is needless to say that the explanations are stated in clear and simple language, while the examples are all new. That this book will be widely used is undoubted, for it will form an excellent forerunner to the more ad- vanced one referred to above. Introduction to Physiological Psychology. By Dr. Theodor Ziehen. Translated by C. C. van Liew and Dr. Otto Beyer. (London: Swan Sonnenschein and Co. 1892.) : IN reviewing the book of which this is a translation (NATURE, vol. xliv. p. 145), we pointed out that such a book was badly wanted in English. We are glad, there- fore, to welcome a translation of Dr. Ziehen’s work, which will serve well as an introduction to the new science of physiological psychology. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | } The Volucelle as Examples of Aggressive Mimicry. AN interesting point in the Vo/uce//e as examples of aggressive mimicry is the fact that they were first used to support the teleological theories of an earlier day, and were subsequently claimed by natural selection. Thus Messrs. Kirby and Spence speak of them (Second Edition, 1817, vol. ii., p. 223) as affording ‘‘a beautiful instance of the wisdom of Providence in adapting means to their end ;” and after describing the resem- blance of the flies to the bees, they continue, ‘‘ Thus has the Author of nature provided that they may enter these nests and deposit their eggs undiscovered. Did these intruders venture themselves amongst the humble-bees in a less kindred form, their lives would probably pay the forfeit of their presumption.” In this theory of Providence it is hard to see where the bees come in. In 1867, A. R. Wallace published an article on ‘* Mimicry and other Protective Resemblances among Animals,” which was in 1875 republished in his ‘‘Essays on Natural Selection.” In this essay (p. 75 of the volume) he spoke of this interpretation as the only case in which an example of mimicry had been ‘‘ thought to be useful, and to have been de- signed as a means to a definite and intelligible purpose.” He accepts it as a product of natural selection, and since that time it has been constantly used as a well-known example of this principle, so well known, indeed, that the history of it became unnecessary in any publication where space was an object. I neither originated the principle of aggressive mimicry nor the Volucelle as examples of it, although I accepted, and still accept, both. Under these circumstances I must, in justice to Kirby and Spence and A. R. Wallace, repudiate the discovery of a significance I should have been proud to have made, but » which was made, as a matter of fact, about half a century before I was born. It is only fair to these writers to say this, for Mr. Bateson, although mentioning Kirby and Spence, seems NOVEMBER 10, 1892] throughout to give me the sole, or, at any rate, the chief, re- sponsibility for both hypothesis and examples. ‘In writing my book I made great use of a very interesting series of specimens in the Museum of the Royal College of Sur- geons, lately brought together by Prof. Stewart. The aggressive _ mimicry of the Volucel/e was illustrated in one of these cases, _ and I briefly described the contents of the case in the passage _ Mr. Bateson quotes. I was glad to give a few more .details than those supplied by Mr. Wallace, and at the same time to _ mention examples which could be actually seen by readers ; _ forl referred to the collection more than once, I was, however, anxious to obtain confirmation from one who had studied the _ Hymenoptera and their parasites much more minutely than I had, so I referred the proofs to Mr. R. C. L. Perkins, a most ob- _ servant naturalist, specially interested in these insects. He made some valuable suggestions, but did not modify the account of _ the case in the Royal College of Surgeons. I think I may claim, therefore, that I took all reasonable precautions to avoid _ error in a part ofthe subject which had not then come under my _ own personal observation. Prof. Lloyd Morgan, in his interest- ing “ Animal Life and Intelligence,” has also mentioned this example, and figures the Volucellaand Bombus muscorum. He _ tells me that his figures were copied from a case in the Natural _ History Museum, so that my selection appears to be supported _ by the two great biological museums of London. __ Within a few weeks of the appearance of my book, I had _ found out the omission of the other banded humble-bees also mimicked by the mystacea variety of Volucella bombylans, and _ I showed one of these (I think 2. hortorum) at a lecture given _ to the British Association at Leeds in 1890. I had intended, and intend, to repair the omission in any reprint that may be __ ‘There is, however, nothing inaccurate in the statement that _ B&B. muscorum is mimicked. We require something more than 5 as assertions and question-begging metaphor of tabby-cat fox to establish this as an error of the two museums and the _two volumes which have followed them in this respect. Mr. Bateson appears to have been studying the literature of Volu- _ celle rather carefully: if he now extends his investigations to the perfect insects themselves, and compares the individuals in a series of moderate length, he will find that the mystacea variety differs much in the demarcation of its rings or zones, and also that the a ce of each individual varies with the direction from which it is observed. The less sharply-marked appear- _ ances resemble 2B. muscorum, the likeness being increased by __ a slight indication of zoning to be seen in the latter. : _ On July 7 of the present year I captured, in a wood near Newbury, a pair of the variety mystacea in copula. The _ male, the larger insect, was unusually indistinctly zoned. I have submitted the specimens to Mr. Verrall, who kindly tells me that the large male is certainly the variety mystacea, _ and hé evidently thinks there is nothing remarkable about it. _ On the other hand, the female, which was unusually small, is _ more interesting, being somewhat an intermediate variety. As, _ Mr. Verrall informs me, Rondani has made about a score of _ intermediate species, this little capture of mine may turn out to _ be of interest, and it is comforting in a controversy of this kind _ to be able to add one fresh observation which may be of some use, if only in the way of confirmation. _ Now as to the statement, in which no ambiguity was intended, _ that the two varieties lay in the nests of the bees they respec- _ tively mimic, This was, as Mr. Bateson says, a very gencral i ion, the impression of naturalists who knew these insects far better than I did, an impression which had already been ssed in the case at the College of Surgeons. IfI was mis- t ‘in adopting it, was it not well that I made the mistake, _ if by its means the general impression should be corrected, having in my book assumed a tangible shape? What man who _ cares for the advance of science more than for his own advance- _ ment would regret to have made a mistake under such circum- stances ? __ But Ll am not yet satisfied that the impression is not substan- _ tially correct. Ido not regard the dimorphism of V. dombylans _ as the unique phenomenon it appears to be in the opinion of _ Mr. Bateson. I fail to see any essential biological difference _ between it and the dimorphism of many Lepidopterous larvee—a dimorphism which extends into the pupal stage of most species of the genus Zphyra—or between it and the distinct types into whith certain butterflies of the genus Xa//ima can be divided NO. 1202, VOL. 47] NATURE 29 according to the colouring of the under sides of the wings, or certain moths of the genus 77iphena according to that of the upper sides of the upper wings. But we know that in those cases which have been tested, while the majority of the offspring re- semble the variety to which the parents belonged, a certain pro- portion follow the other variety, and when the parents belong to different varieties the offspring are more equally divided. It is therefore only to be expected, so far as our present knowledge goes, that both varieties should emerge from the same nest. The important thing to be ascertained, from the point of view of the » theory of aggressive mimicry, is not the colour of the off- spring which emerge, although this is of high interest on other accounts, but the colnur of the parents which enter. It might be supposed that Mr. Bateson would have understood this, but it is perhaps too much to expect from a critic who is so aggress- ” ively uninterested. It would be interesting to know the grounds upon which Mr. Bateson considers the dimorphism of V. domdylans to be almost unique. At present he contents himself with assertions. If we were ever to return to the régime of authority and dogmatism in place of reason and experiment, Mr. Bateson’s scientific position would be indeed assured. Years ago I was satisfied that the evidence for the statement in my book was insufficient, and this, too, I had intended to modify when the opportunity occurred. In lecturing I have often alluded to the investigation as an interesting one, and only a fortnight ago suggested it to the members of the Natural His- tory Society at Marlborough College. Two years ago I en- deavoured to breed Volucel/le in the manner described by Mr. Bateson, I am sorry to say without success. I may therefore claim that the statement quoted by Mr. Bateson had produced no paralysis of effort on my part either as regards my own work or that which I have been able to suggest to others. I may add that the upshot of this inquiry—even if it lead to the conclusion that both varieties lay indiscriminately in the nests of all the species they resemble—would not, in my opinion, remove the Volucel/e from their place as examples of aggressive mimicry, but the working of the principle would be more complex, I do not, however, propose to render myself liable . to further sneers about ‘‘ingenuity” by discussing it on the - present occasion. Mr. Bateson’s letter appropriately ends by putting into my mouth a defence I should never have advanced—a defence which was obviously inserted in order to impute discredit and then proceeding to the easy task of de- molishing it. Let me therefore say that a mistake is to me a mistake, whether in a volume intended for the public ora paper presented to a scientific society. Indeed, I regret the former more than the latter. Unfortunately, too, mistakes are more liable to occur in the volume, because the ground is wider, and passes in some directions into less familiar regions. But I can honestly say that I have always done my best to avoid mistakes, and that I correct them as the opportunity — arises, in fresh papers or in reprints of volumes, And I derive much comfort from Mr. Phelps’ dictum, which I am sure appeals to every one who works, that ‘‘ people who never make mistakes never make anything.” EDWARD B. POULTON. Oxford, October 24. P.S.—I wish to take this opportunity of correcting certain mistakes in my book (‘‘ Colours of Animals,” Internat. Sci. Ser.), as it may be some time before the book can be reprinted, owing to the number of copies struck off. Pages 49, 50.—Dr. Hurst informs me that my abstract of Weismann’s work on seasonal dimorphism is wrong. This will be carefully reconsidered in any reprint. Page 73.—I wish to withdraw the account of Phrynocephalus. Although the structures alluded to are probably alluring, there is not sufficient evidence as to the manner in which they are used. Page 85.—Professor Howes calls my attention to the descrip- tion of the nerve-terminations in pigment-cells. Page 94, e¢ seg.—Sir J. Ross should be Captain James Ross. Page 105.—I ought to have added that Mr. Sharpe’s conclu- sions are not accepted by Professor Newton. > Pages 142-146.—Mr. Bateson has shown that the white cocoons of Saturnia and ZHriogaster are not due to the white backgrounds employed, but to disturbance of the larva. It is still probable that the principle holds in Halias prasinana.'; 30 s NATURE [ NovEMBER Io, 1892 Page 156.—For the above reason I withdraw the argument about the cocoons of Ruma, although I believe that it still holds if 2. prasinana be substituted. Chapters x., xi. should be read in connection with the experiments on Warning Colours since made by Mr, Beddard and published in his volume, ‘‘ Animal Coloration.” Page 161.—The cockroach is not a good example. As Prof. Weldon pointed out to me, there is no evidence that its un- pleasant smell renders it unfit for food. The hive-bee would be a better instance. Page 193, line 7 from bottom.—/%érous should be /fz/vous, Page 203, line 6 from bottom.—For szzted for read bearing. Page 208, line 13 from top.—Dz¢vert should be direct, Page 224.—I have since heard from Mr. Skertchly that he did not intend the argument which I quote at the bottom of the page to be taken seriously. Page 236.—Diadema bolina should be D. misippus, and it and the Danas it mimics occur in ¢hree varieties, not in two. I owe this to Col. Swinhoe ; the error was copied from Trimen. EK.) BP The Geology of the Asiatic Loess.. IN the spring and early summer of this year I had the oppor- tunity, in company with Mr. S. B. J. Skertchly, of examining closely the loess deposits of Shantung, stretching from Chefoo to Tsinan, the provincial capital. ‘The investigation convinced us both that the original loess of China must be regarded as a marine deposit. Subsequent to the time of Mr, Skertchly’s leaving the province, on June 17, I was able to supplement these conclusions by the discovery of a band of limestone rocks bored by pholades and crustaceans up to a height of about 1100 feet, above which line no indications of late marine action were visible. The rocks in the locality near Tsinan-fu are carboniferous limestones interbedded with dioritic porphyries, and are still horizontal and unbroken for some thousands of square miles, having received their present contour in pre-loess ages. The dip for hundreds of square miles in this locality seldom exceeds from 2° to 8°. These facts we hope to make the subject of a joint memoir. The loess of China has, however, been traced almost con- tinuously beyond the limits of the eighteen provinces to the foot of the Pamirs. West of the Pamirs loess occurs in the valley of the upper Oxus, probably in the Kizil Kum, and up to the Caspian, and its marine origin requires us to believe in the sub- mergence within late geologic time of the greater part of Central Asia. Most geologists recoil at such a suggestion, and I am in a small minority in accepting the view that the present distribu- tion of ocean and continent is of very recent date. I may, how- ever, in condonation of heterodox views, refer to the position of the argument with regard to the alleged shifting of the terres- trial axis of rotation, which has within the last few years entered on a new phase. When some years ago I presented these views to the Council of the Geological Society of London they were scouted as utterly untenable. Since that time, while English astronomers have held the view that practically the axis of rota- tion has undergone, within the limits of observation, no change, American astronomers have come to the conclusion that a secu- lar movement is actually in progress. My own geological obser- vations in Europe, North America, and Asia have led me to infer that the North Pole has within recent geological time shifted, and that a shift is in all probability in progress at the present time along a line following approximately the direction of the 7oth meridian of west longitude. This shift is not to be taken to involve a change in the direction in celestial space, but is rather a rolling of the earth over its axis, the latter remaining practically stationary. Dynamical causes sufficient to account for the change of position of the terrestrial poles, and in consequence of the parallels oflatitude, seem to me to be at work. Prof. G. Dar- win has calculated the probable change in the position of the pole due to an elevation of the bed of the Pacific Ocean, but no one has touched the converse effect of the change of the pole on the relative levels of the oceans and continents. In addition to the cause suggested in the possible elevation of large tracts of continental land, there are other influences at work tending in the same direction. The different distribution of the large masses of ice around the poles, which probably varies within some- what large limits, and the slow disturbance of equilibrium re- NO. 1202, VOL. 47] sulting from the growth of deltas and deep sea deposits, have frequently been adduced. More important still is perhaps the differential influence of tidal friction in retarding the rotation, the effect of which must be sensibly unequal in the two hemi- spheres north and south of the equator ; another cause may be looked for in the action of aerial currents, the effect of which in the northern hemisphere as containing greater masses of eleva’ land must be greater. ip Ean» Another potential cause of shifting has never, that I am aware of, been formulated. Although at present of comparatively small influence, it must at various geological periods have been of great importance. It leads on to dynamic considerations of tidal energy beyond the compass of a letter to explain. The relative part played by the sun and moon, as deduced from gravitational formulz, does not quite agree with the observed phenomena of our daily tides. It is believed by many that the ordinary lunar tide, affecting mainly the oceanic envelope, is complicated by the presence of a terrene tide largely influenced by the sun, and that the earth does to an appreciable extent yield twice in the twenty-four hours to the deforming force of | solar gravitation. So long as this oscillation takes place at regularly recurrent intervals no energy is wasted. Should, how- ever, a sudden snap occur, breaking the rhythm of the oscillation, . some energy is evidently spent, and this can only be made up from the vs viva of rotation. Such snaps do occur occasionally ; the regular oscillation is momentarily suspended, and the waters of the ocean rush in to restore the equilibrium. This is the well-— known “‘ tidal” wave that so frequently occurs in connection . with earthquakes. . Such a snap on the equatorial line would simply retard the rotational period generally. North or south of this line, as the moments of rotation would be instantly unequal, the sphere would roll over its axis of rotation, and a shift in the position of the poles occur. The earth is not a perfectly rigid mass. Were it as rigid as steel, the interior within a depth of 200 miles would yet, under the pressure of gravitation, behave as a liquid ; a shift in the pole would then be met either by a corre- sponding shift in the equatorial protuberance, or a change in the ocean level ; or, more probably, by a compound action of | both. In the latter case, to fulfil the conditions of equilibrium, the ocean surface in the neighbourhood of the new equator would rise, and if the shift were sufficiently great, would over- flow the lowlands, If the equator, in the longitude of Central Asia, had at any former time passed north of its present posi- tion, and the rock masses of the Continent had not been elevated, a mid-Asian sea must have resulted. The undisturbed posi- tion of the carboniferous rocks, and the plain evidence that the surface sculpturing of the rocks was of pre-loess age, show that the process was unaccompanied by violent movements. © The theory of the shift of the earth over its momentary axis ° accounts better than any other for the geological condition of polar lands, and I venture to state it again in brief, as on this occasion the initiative has come from the astronomers, not the geologists. THos, W, KINGSMILL. Shanghai, China, August 20. Note on Mr. Kingsmill's paper. I think it will be difficult for Mr. Kingsmill to adduce evidence of geological changes large enough to produce any considerable shifting of the position of the principal axes of the earth, and accordingly I should feel sceptical as to a theory which postulates that such change has been sufficient to explain considerable changes of climate. With respect to a later part of the paper, I am entirely at variance with his views. As far as I know ‘‘the relative part played by the sun and moon” in producing oceanic tides is in exact accordance with gravitational formule. The existence of a terrene tide is a matter of speculation, but, as the earth cannot be perfectly rigid, it must exist to some extent. The amplitude of the lunar terrene tide must certainly bear to that of the solar the same ratio that holds in the case of oceanic tides, and there is no reason, that I know of, for attri- buting a greater efficiency to solar action in the case of the deformation of the solid portion of the earth. i I am quite unable to follow the argument by which the | so-called ‘‘tidal” wave produced by earthquake shock is supposed to produce a retardation of the earth’s rotation. October 21. G. H. DARWIN, _ Novemser 10, 1892] NATURE 31 Optical Illusions, __ REFERRING to the article in NATURE for October 20, may I _ mention a rather common optical illusion which I do not re- member to have yet seen in print. If a gothic arch is unequally _ divided by a between two vertical parallel lines, these lines will not only seem to diverge slightly where they intersect _ the lines of the arch, but the arch itself is caused to appear as if _ one half had slipped bodily down from the other to an extent a to its own thickness. In the figure given above it is * ible to em —— for pughony of the meee! interlinear space two halves would be seen to meet perfectly _ with the apex at A. This illusion is worth the notice of architects who desire to avoid the disquieting effect upon the eyes of _ observant persons which is produced by the intersection of the _ chancel arch of a church by an intervening pillar. _ 28 Mount Park Crescent, Ealing, W. R, T, Lewis, A Remarkable Rainfall. _ THE rainfall here of October has been so remarkable that it _ seems worth while to place it on record in yourcolumns, Rain E ve on twenty-five days during the month, making a total fall of _ 10°32 inches. As the annual rainfall on an average of eleven is 31°10 inches, it will be seen that very nearly one-third of amount fellin one month. This is by far the highest amount ve recorded since I began to make records in January, 1878, the next highest month being August, 1879. On that occasion ‘five inches fell in thirty hours on the 17th and 18th, and many bridges were carried away in Flintshire and Denbighshire, but total fall for the month was only 7°89 inches. Dr. Nicol, of indudno (six miles from here), who has registered the rainfall e, and including 1861, informs me that it amounted last month 8°56 inches there, this also being the highest month he has In September rain fell on twenty-three days, and though the ( all was only 3°77 inches, yet the constant rain, combined with an unusually low temperature (the mean maximum being _ only 56°°6, and the highest shade temperature 67°:4, against ¢°°6 and 81°2 respectively in 1891), made it almost impossible in the harvest. ALFRED O. WALKER. -y-Glyn, Colwyn Bay, November 5. a Supposed New Species of Earthworm and on the 5" Nomenclature of Earthworms. In yesterday's NATURE I find that the Rev. Hilderic Friend has again given the name Z. rudescens (Friend) toa supposed ‘new species of earthworm. This worm appears to me to be ‘identical with Zxterion festivum (Savigny), described. under the name Lumébricus festivus by Rosa. Though comparatively Tare, it is by no means new, nor even new to Britain, though I _know of no published record of its occurrence here. I met with eo or three specimens among the worms supplied to me when i was Hurst,” and identified them subsequently by the help of Rosa’s table. At the time I took them for mere varieties, and put them NO. 1202, VOL. 47] working at the chapter on Lumbricus in ‘‘ Marshall and ” into a bottle for future study. I believe the specimens are now in the possession of Dr. Benham, who has entirely overlooked the species in his ‘‘ Attempt to Classify Earthworms ” (Quart. Fourn, Micr, Set. xxxi.), eu} The specific name ¢errestris must also, it appears to me, be dropped. Linnzeus did not define a species under that name, but applied it to what are now universally regarded as several distinct species. The species so called by Mr. Friend was, I believe, first defined by Savigny under the name Exterion herculeum. The diagnostic characters of the species are given by Rosa im his useful table of the species (“1 Lumbricidi dei Piemonte,” p. 25), and he calls it Lumbricus herculeus, to which name the usual rules of nomenclature bind us. I would therefore suggest the following’ alterations in Mr. Friend’s ‘‘ Chart of the Genus Lumbricus” :— | I. For ‘* Terrestris (Linn.)” read ‘* herculeus (Sav.)” 2. For ‘‘ Rubescens (Friend)” read ‘‘ festivus (Sav. )” Owens College, October 28. C. HERBERT Hurst. Ice Crystals, DURING the cutting of the formation for a railway I observed on Tuesday morning, the 18th inst., a peculiar series of ice crystals. The ground is composed of arenaceous clay largely mixed with sand and small gravel, and is of a very open nature, the surface being covered with moorland grass, rushes, and coarse ferns. These crystals were only found in a length of about nine feet, the ground on both sides of the patch being hard frozen. These crystals were acicular, and sprang from a base of very porous opaque ice, but every needle was entirely free and dis: tinct throughout its height, and at first sight appeared to be bound together with two bands, one at one-third and the other at two-thirds of the height, A closer examination proved that the band appearance was due to a slight enlargement of the crystals at these points, the ice being opaque, whilst the needles were perfectly translucent. ' The average height of these crystals was about one inch, the needles having a diameter of about ;{th part of an inch, and were grouped together in clusters of forty or fifty, forming an irregular square of about 4-inch on the side. Some of these crystals were growing vertically from the ground, others springing out hori- zontally from the side of the cutting, and were either straight, curved, or bent round formiig a half circle. This morning the same form of crystals existed, but were much larger, being fully two inches long. On both occasions the air was calm and clear, the min, ther. reading 30° on the 18th, and 24° to-day. Lesmahagow, October 25. C, M. IRVINE. ’ Lunar Craters. THE letter and illustration offering a suggestion as to the formation of lunar craters remind me of an experiment I once saw during a chemical lecture, bringing out the same point very clearly. A shallow dish containing a layer of damp sand, 4’, was flooded with 1-inch coating of Paris plaister, of the consistence of cream, and the dish set to dry over a Bunsen flame. As the plaister set, the surface was pitted with crater-like holes, formed by the escape of steam from the sand at the bottom of the dish, giving a perfect representation of a lunar surface. As some of your readers .might care to try this experiment, I take the liberty of sending you this ‘‘ recollection.” ; M. H. Maw. Walk House, Barrow-on-Humber, Hull, Nov. 7. A Fork-tailed Petrel. THE occurrence of a Fork-tailed Petrel as far inland as Macclesfield may perhaps interest some of the readers of NATURE. It was picked up by a man on the 11th ult., two days after the stranding of the Szvexe in a gale at Blackpool, and being unacquainted with the species he sent it to me as a curiosity. I identified it as a Fork-tailed Petrel, and Mr. J: H. Salter, of Aberystwyth College, has kindly confirmed this decision. Some of the feathers on the forehead are tipped with white. Does this indicate a young bird, as I can find no mention of it in any of the plumage descriptions that I have seen? NEWMAN NEAVE, Rainow, near Macclesfield, November 5. 32 THE ORIGIN OF THE YEAR? III. [*® the previous articles I have endeavoured to show that the Egyptians had the Sirius year and the vague year so related to each other that the successive coin- cidences of the 1st Thoth in both years took place after intervals of 1460 Sirian years. With a real year, the length of which would be brought home to them by the regular recurrence of the solstices and Nile flood (to say nothing of the equinoxes) and the year of 360 days which they would soon find to be quite artificial and unreal; they would be much more likely to refer the dates in the artificial year to the real one, than to take the opposite course, and,as I have shown, the artificial dates would sweep backwards through the realones. Such a method of reckon- ing, however, would be useless for calendar purposes, as they not only wanted to define the days of the year but the years themselves, and I pointed out that something more was necessary, and that an easy way of defining years would be to conceive a great year, or annus magnus, ‘consisting of 1460 years, each “day” of which would re- present four years in actual time ; and further to consider every event, the year of which had to be chronicled in relation to others to take place on the day of the heliacal rising of Sirius or the nearly coincident Nile flood, which, p SSnEEEEE EERE t {+ + fara + t £ eH Pieaae lu 7OAO Eee NATURE [NOVEMBER 10, 1892 se employed to mark the first year of each series of our, Now asa matter of fact it is known (I have the high authority of Dr. Krall for the statement) that each king was supposed to begin his reign on the 1st Thoth (or Ist Pachons) of the particular year in which that event took place, and the fact that this was so sup- ports the suggestion we are considering. During the reign its length and the smaller events might be recorded in vague years and days so long as the date of its commencement had been referred to a cycle. We have next to consider more especially the vague year. One argument which has been used to show that a vague year was not in use during the time of the Ramessids has been derived from some inscriptions at Silsilis which refer to the dates on which sacred offerings were presented there to the Nile-god. As the dates 15th of Thoth and 15th of Epiphi are the same in all three inscriptions, although they cover the period from Ramses II. to Ramses III.—120 years—it has been argued by Brugsch that a fixed year is in question. Brugsch points out that the two dates are separated by 65 days; that this is the exact interval between the Coptic festivals of the commencement of the flow and the marriage of the Nile—the time of highest water ; and OTH100:4200 1 pees See eeeeeeeees rrp ry 1800190017 } eat | ote i Fic. 5.—The distribution of the rst of Thoth (representing the rising of Sirius) among the Egyptian months in the 1460 year Sothic cycle. as we shall see, occurred, at different periods of Egyptian | history, on the Ist Thoth and 1st Pachons. A diagram, which may here be repeated, was given to show how such a system would work. From any co- incidence of 1st Thoth (or Ist Pachons) in both the Sirian and the vague year, since the vague year is the shorter, the 1st Thoth (to deal only with Thoth) of the vague year would recede ; so that in such a cycle it would fall first among the Epacts, then in Mesori, and so on through the months, till the next coincidence was reached. The diagram will show how readily the cycle year can be determined for any vague year. If for instance the Ist Thoth in the vague year falls on 1 Tybi of the cycle, we see that 980 years must have elapsed since the be- ginning of the cycle, and so on. Here, then, we have a true calendar system; if the Egyptians had not this, what had they ? | Such a calendar system as this it will be seen, however, | is good only for groups of four years. Thus during the first four years of a cycle the 1st Thoth vague would happen on Ist Thoth of the cycle, during the next four | years on the 5th Epact, and so on. | Now a system which went no further than this would | be a very coarse one. We find, however, that special | precautions were taken to define which year of the four | was in question. Brugsch? shows that a special sign | * Continued from vol. xlvi. p. 107. | 2 2 “ Matériaux pour servir & la reconstruction du calendrier,’’ p. 29. | NO. 1202, VOL. 47 | | the House of Life’ were like. that, therefore, in all probability these are the two natural phenomena to commemorate which the offerings on the dates in question were made. But Brugsch does not give the whole of the inscription. A part of it, translated by De Rougé,’ runs thus :— “ keep it lest it should warp and so become crooked. It took e time—about two years—to finish a spear, The operation was that of scraping with a broken shell or frag- t of obsidian, and rubbing smooth with pumice-stone. quite finished and ready for use a suitable tall and straight found in, or on the edge of, the forest ; its trunk was med of branchlets, &c. ; the long spear was loosely fixed cally to it, so as to run easily through small round loops girt to the tree, and placed at some distance from other ; the tip of the spear concealed, yet protruding near topmost branches of the tree ; and, as the pigeon is a very sty bird (especially, I should think, after feeding on the large of the Zawa and of the miro—Podocarpus ferruginea— which are hot and piquant), the Maoris made small corru- vessels of the green bark of the ‘ofara tree that would water, and fix above after drinking (for it is a very quiet bird, sitting : ae eaten the bird so captured. dishes, with water in them, fixed high up on the big branches of trees in the woods in the Urewera country, having flax nooses set over the water as to catch and hold fast the pigeon in its a ake. I have seen pigeons so caught, the Maoris climbing le trees naked with the agility of monkeys to secure their From the large amount of labour and the time consumed in e- making of a long spear, and its great beneficial use when ‘made, arose a good proverb among them relative to industry in tillage, &c., and to being prepared—‘‘ Kahore he tarainga tahere te ara” =You cannot hew a bird-spear by the way. Meaning: ‘Without timely preparation you may die from want of food, Wine the pigeons are plentiful in the forests near you. __ Of the Fine Smelling-sense and Taste of the Ancient Maoris _ for Perfumes.—I have already more than once, and in former _ papers read here before the Institute, touched on the superior __ powers of sight of the ancient Maoris ; ! and it has often occurred _ to my mind that they also possessed a very keenly developed _ sense of smell, which was largely and quickly shown whenever _ anything sweetly odoriferous, however fine and subtle, had been _ used—as eau de Cologne, essence of lavender, &c. Indeed, this _ sense was the more clearly exhibited in the use of their own __ hative perfumes, all highly odorous and collected with labour. _ Yet this sensitive organization always appeared to be the more strange when the horribly stinking smells of two of their common articles of food—often, in the olden times, in daily use—are con- sidered: rotten corn (maize, dry and hard, in the cob) long : steeped in water to soften it; and dried shark. The former, t Trans. N. Z. Inst. vol. xiv. p. 67, &c. NO. 1202, VOL. 47] however, has long been abandoned ; yet at one period every village at the North had its steeping-pit. Ina paper I read here at our June meeting I mentioned some of the very small Hepaticee (Lophocolea and Chiloscyphus species) as being used for perfume by the Maoris, who called them fivzpir?, Their scent was pleasant, powerful, and lasting. Hooker, in describing those plants, has mentioned it from dried and old specimens. Of one species, Lophocolea pallida, he says, ‘odour sweet;”’ of another, ZL. movezealandia, ‘‘ often fragrant ;” of another, Z. a//odonta, ‘‘ odour strong, aromatic ;” of another, Chzloscyphus fissistipus, ‘‘ a handsome strongly- scented species:” and he has further preserved it to one of them in its specific name, C. pipere/ws, ‘‘ odour of black pepper.” There were also two. or three ferns—viz., Hymenophyllum sanguinolentum, a very strong-smelling species, hence too its specific name ; dried specimens not only retain their powerful odour, but impart it to the drying papers: Folypodium pustu- Jatum, having an agreeable delicate scent : and Doodia fragrans,. a neat little species ; this last was so far esteemed as sometimes to give name to the locality where it grew, as Puke mokimohi,} the little isolated hill which once stood where the Recreation- ground now is in Napier ; that hill having been levelled to fill in the deep middle swamp in Monroe Street. One of the Pittosporum trees, tawhiri (P. tenuifolium), also yielded a fragrant gum ; but the choicest and the rarest was obtained from the peculiar plant saramea (Aciphylla colensot), which inhabits the alpine zone, and which I have only met with near the summits of the Ruahine Mountain-range, where it is very common and very troublesome to the trayeller that way. The gum of this plant was only collected, through much labour, toil, and difficulty, accompanied, too, with certain cere- monial (¢ado0) observances. An old ¢ohunga (skilled man, and priest) once informed me that the ¢avamea gum could only be got by very young women—virgins ; and by them only after certain prayers, charms, &c., duly said by the zohumga. _ There is a sweet little nursery song of endearment, expressive of much love, containing the names of all four of their perfumes, which I have not unfrequently heard affectionately and sooth- ingly sung by a Maori mother to her child while nursing and fondling it :— - : Taku hei piripiri, _ Taku hei mokimoki, Taku hei tawhiri, Taku kati-taramea. My little neck-satchel of sweet-scented moss, My little neck-satchel of fragrant fern, My little neck-satchel of odoriferous gum, My sweet-smelling neck-locket of sharp-pointed taramtea.® Here I may observe that to the last one of the four the word kati is prefixed : this word—meaning, to sting, to bite, to punc- ture, to wound sharply and painfully—is added to indicate the excessive sharpness of the numerous leaves and leaflets of the tarameaplant (hence judiciously generically named by its early dis- coverer, Forster, Actphyl/a=needle-pointed leaf), and the con- sequent pains, with loss of blood, attending the collecting of its prized gum, thus enhancing its value. ; This natural and agreeable little stanza, one of the olden time, has proved so generally taking to the Maori people that it has passed into a proverbial saying, and is often used, hummed, to ex- press delight and satisfaction— pleasurable feelings. "And some- times, when it has been so quietly and privately sung ina low voice, I have known a whole company of grey-headed Maoris, men and women, to join in the singing : to me, such was always indicative of an affectionate and simple heart. How true it is, ** One touch of nature makes the whole world kin” ! 3 In the summer season the sleeping-houses of their chiefs were often strewed with the large sweet-scented flowering grass haretu (Hierochloe redolens). Its odour when fresh, confined in a small house, was always to me too powerful.* ¥ Mokimoki Hill, from sokimoki, the name of that fern. 2See Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xii., p. 148. ¢ 3 It is pleasing to notice that the observant artist Parkinson (who was with Sir Joseph Banks as his botanical draughtsman, and Cook on his rst voy- age to New Zealand) makes special mention of those little satchels in his Journal, saying of Maoris who came off tothesship in their canoes, “‘ The principals among them had their hair tied up on the crown of their heads with some feathers, and a little bundle of perfume hung about their necks” (Journal, p. 93). Captain Cook, also, has similar remarks respecting the young women. ‘ A Ce 4 Sir J. D. Hooker thus writes of this fine, sweet-smelling grass in his “Flora Nove Zelandiz ”: ‘‘ A large and handsome grass, conspicuous for its delicious odour, like that of the common vernal grass (Anthoxanthum) of England, that gives the sweet scent to new-made hay ”\(¢.c., vol. ii., p. 300). A Closely-allied northern species(H. dorea/is), which was also supposed to 44 NATURE [ NoVEMBER 10, 1892 Here, in conclusion, I may briefly mention an instance of their correct discrimination on the contrary side, clearly showing how well and closely the ancient New-Zealander agreed in his opinion ofa plant with the highly civilized scientific visitor al- ready named above, the botanist Forster. Forster named the Coprosma genus from the fetid odour of the first species he dis- covered in the South Island, which signification he also con- tinued inits specific name, C. fetzdissima ; this shrub also bears a similar Maori name, /zfzro, highly expressive of its very dis- agreeable smell. Of their Textile Manufactures.—These were formerly pro- minent among the great industrial achievements of the Maoris, and always elicited the admiration of their wondering visitors. I divide them into two great classes—(1) of garments, which were woven ; and (2) of threads, cords, lines, and ropes, which were spun. Nature had given to the Maoris one of her choicest gifts in the well-known flax plant (Phormium), of which there are two ascertained and valid species (P. tenax and P. colensoi), and several varieties, These plants are pretty general throughout New Zealand, and are well known to the Maoris by the com- mon names of harakeke, wharanui, wharariki, and tihore— excluding those of the many varieties as known to them.? So that what they may have lost on the one hand through not having the valuable wild edible fruits of other South Sea islands (as the cocoanut, bread-fruit, plantain, &c.) they more than merely gained in their flax plant, which is also common, and almost endemic, being only found outside New Zealand in Norfolk Island. And here I may briefly mention an anecdote of the flax plant. On my arrival.in this country the Maoris (who knew nothing, or very little, of any other land) would olten inquire after the vegetable productions of England; and nothing astonished them more than to be told there was no harakehe growing there. On more than one occasion I have heard chiefs say, ‘‘ How is it possible to live there without it?” also, ‘‘I would not dwell in such a land as that.” This serves to show how highly they valued it. Moreover, at first and for many years the principal export from New Zealand prepared by the Maoris was the fibre of this plant—all, too, scraped with a broken shell, leaf by leaf. 1. Of their Woven Articles (or Garments).—I do not intend to say much of them in this paper. Many of them are well known, and still to be found in use among the Maoris, but their manufacture has for many years sadly deteriorated : indeed, I have not seen a newly-made first-quality clothing-mat for the last twenty to thirty years, and 1 very much doubt if such can now be madeatall. Not that the art of weaving them has been entirely lost, but the requisite taste, skill, and patience in seek- ing and carefully preparing and using the several parts (including their dyes) are no longer to be found among the Maoris. I sometimes indulge in a contemplating reminiscence—an idea—a pleasing reverie of the long past—of great gatherings of Maoris, tribes and chiefs ; and at such times the figures of some head men I have known, clothed in their handsome, clean, and lustrous dress-mats (fattaka and aronuz), would stand forth in pleasing high relief. The close and regular weaving of such flax dresses, having their silky threads carefully selected as to fineness and uniformity of colour, and their smooth, almost satiny appearance, as if ironed or calendered when worn new, was to me a matter of great satisfaction—a thing to be remem- bered—‘‘a joy for ever.” Those best dress-mats were always highly prized, both by Maoris and Europeans, and brought a high price. I well recollect a young lady, daughter of very respectable early English settlers in the Bay of Islands, who, when she came across the inner harbour in a boat with her parents to attend the English Church service on Sunday mornings in the Mission chapel at Paihia, often wore one of them folded as a shawl, and to me it seemed a neat and graceful article of dress. _ Three things more in connection with these fine mats I will ust relate: one, the cross-threads in weaving were always of a be found here in New Zealand, is al‘o used on the Continent of Europe for similar purposes. In some parts of Germany it is dedicated to the Virgin Mary (hence, too, its generic name of Hievochloe = sacred grass), and is strewed before the doors of the churches on festival days.as the sweet sedge ({Acorus calamus) is strewed on the fluor of the cathedral at Norwich for thé. same purpose at such seasons. 1 Sir James Hector, in his book on the Phorimium plants, enumerates fifty-five named varieties ; but it is doub.ful whether more than half of that number are permanent ones. NO. 1202, VOL. 47] different sort of flax—the weft andthe woof of these mats were not both taken from the same kind of flax ; the second, that extremely soft lustrous appearance was given to the flax-fibres by repeated tawing done at different times—it was a prett sight to see the various skeins of flax-fibres in their ina stages of preparation neatly hung upin the weaving-shed ; the third, that in the weaving of one of these garments, if a thread showed itself of a different shade of colour, that part of the garment was carefully unravelled to take it out, and to sub- stitute another better suited in its stead. It was also from this superior knowledge and close attention to their work that the principal chiefs frequently took women who were clever at making those things to be their wives, in order to secure to themselves their valued manufactures. They also wove very good and useful floor and bed-mats of unscraped flax-leaves, split into narrow lengths and carefully bleached in the sun—these were very strong and lasting ; also baskets and kits of all sizes. Some of them were woven in regular patterns with black (dyed) and uncoloured flax ; others were skilfully and pleasingly semi-damasked (if I may so term it) by changing sides to the flax-leaves used to form the pattern, the upper side of the leaf being smooth and shining, the under side not shining and of a glaucous colour. The little kit, or basket, for a first-born child was often a little gem of weaving art, and made by the mother. “ Besides the flax plant they had other fibrous plants who leaves and fibres were also used in making articles of dress: (1) the tod ( Cordyline indivisa), of which they made black everlasting wraps or cloaks. The making of these was confined to the natives of the mountainous interior, where alone those plants grow. (2) The long orange-coloured leaves of the pimgao (Desmo- schenus spiralis),a prostrate spreading sea-side plant, also afforded them good materials for weaving useful folded belts, which were strong and looked and wore well,and were highly valued. (3) The climbing 4iekie (Freycinetia banksiz) was also used ; likewise the long, slender, and soft leaves of the Aahakaha (Astelia banksii), but not frequently. (4) Of the leaves of the common swamp plant zaufo=bulrush (7ypha angustifolia), they formed large sails for their canoes. These leaves the Maoris curiously laced together. (5) I should not omit to mention their flying kites (pakaukau and manuaute), formerly in great esteem among them, and made of the manufactured bark of the au¢e shrub = paper mul- berry (Broussonetia papyrifera), which was formerly cultivated by the ancient Maoris for its bark. Inferior ones, however, were made of the prepared leaves of some of the larger sedges. They were prettily made, requiring both time and skill in their construction, and much more resembled a bird flying than our English ones. They always served to remind me of those of the Chinese, as we see them in their own drawings and on their chinaware, The old chiefs would sometimes quietly spend hours amusing themselves in flying them and singing (sotZo voce) the kite’s song, using a very long string. Kites being flown at any village or fort was a sure sign of peace. These, too, gave rise to proverbs, some being quaint and highly expressive. A pleasing one I give as a sample: ‘‘ He manuaute é¢ taea te whakahoro’’ =A flying kite made of paper-mulberry bark can be made to fly fast (away, by lengthening the cord). Used bya lover, expressive of impatience at not being able to get away to see the beloved one. 2. Of their Spun Fibrous Articles.—These were very nume- rous in kind, size, and quality, according to the particular use for which they were required ; and, while the larger number of. them werecomposed of scraped and prepared flax-fibres there were also other fibrous-leaved plants used by the Maoris, particularly the leaves of the erect cabbage-tree=/22 (Cordyline australts) and of the £zekie, already mentioned. Here, too, in this depart- ment, the different kinds of varieties of the flax would be used for making the different sorts of threads, cords, and ropes, some of the varieties of flax enduring much greater strain when scraped and spun into lines than others; and of such their deep-sea fishing-lines were made. It was ever to me an interesting sight to see an old chief diligently spinning such lines and cords— always done by hand, and on his bare thigh. The dexterity and rapidity with which he produced his long hanks and coils of twine and cord, keeping them regular, too, as to thickness, was _ truly wonderful. Some of their smallest twisted cords or threads were very fine. Such were used for binding on the barbs to their fishing-hooks, and for binding the long queues of ™ See an interesting historical tradition respecting such (Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. xiii., p. 48). ‘NovEMBER 10, 1892] NATURE 45 _ dog’s hair to their chiefs’ staffs. One of those peculiar cords ‘was a very remarkable one ; it was a small cord, bound closely ' round throughout its whole length with a much smaller one _ (something like the silver or fourth string of a violin). I never _ saw this kind but once, and that was at the East Cape, in 1838. _ A specimen of it I shall now exhibit. This cord was used for _ asingle and particular purpose, attached to the small under- _ aprons of girls—chiefs’ daughters. _ Their larger cords and ropes were composed of several _ strands, well twisted and put together. Besides their round _ ropes so made, they had also flat ones of various widths, which _ were plaited or woven, resembling our webs and bands, and much used as shoulder-straps in carrying back-loads; also _ double-twisted ropes, and three-strand ones ; likewise a remark- _ ably strong one that was four-sided. This was made of the un- ‘ ae leaves of the cabbage-tree, that had been gathered, and _ carefully wilted in the shade, and then soaked in water to make them pliant. It was used for their anchors, and other heavy _ canoe and house requirements. ‘The leaves of the flax would _ not be suitable for this purpose. I have had all those different _ kinds of cords and ropes made for me in former years, but I much fear the art of making them is lost. __. There were also their nets for catching fish and for other pur . with their meshes of various dimensions, Their 4 Boner vues (hand-nets) were made of all manner of shapes and sizes, Some of them were dexterously stretched over circular _ skeleton framework, And their large seine-nets, used for catch- ing mackerel and other summer fish that swam in shoals, were very and very strong, made of the leaves of flax, split and _ prepared, but not scraped, and completely fitted up with floats, _and sinkers, and ropes, and other needful appurtenances. Cook, _who.was astonished at their length, has written much in praise _ofthem. I make one strikinz quotation: ‘‘ When we showed _the natives our seine, which is such as the King’s ships are _ generally furnished with, they laughed at it, and in triumph x ced their own, which was indeed of an enormous size, and _ made of a kind of grass [Phormium] which is very strong. It _ was five fathoms deep, and by the room it took up could not be _ less than three or four hundred fathoms long.”* (Voyages, vol. it, first voyage, PP. 369, 370.) ~ or In residing at Dannevirke, in the Forty-mile Bush district, rins orca api I have often noticed the Maoris ae neighbor villages coming to the stores there to purchase _ tether and other ropes and “ih (large and small) for their use _ with their horses, ploughs, carts, pigs, &c., while on their own _ lands and close to them the flax plants grew in abundance. _ These Maoris had very little to occupy their time, and could _ easily have made common lines and ropes for their own use if _ they knew how to spin them as their fathers did, and also _ possessed their forefathers’ love of work. : UGANDA. Re At a special meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on zg the evening of November 3, Captain F. D. Lugard gave an account of the geographical aspects of his work in Uganda. _ The hall of the University of London was crowded, and although _ the issue of extra tickets was suspended, a large number of _ Fellows and their friends failed to get admittance. An excellent hand-map, by Mr. Ravenstein, enabled the audience to follow _ Captain Lugard’s route. The first part of the paper was con- __ cerned with the journey from Mombasa along the Sabakhi river, _ an unnavigable stream, to Machako, the furthest station of the _ IB. E. A. Company at that time, the district passed through being almost uninhabited, and supplies difficult to procure. _ countries surrounding ‘he Victoria Nyanza, where Captain _ Lugard was in command for two years. On the Kavirondo _ plateau, east of the lake, there is a promising field for European _ colonization. The plateau is crossed by the Equator, but at ele- _ vations of from 7000 to 8000 feet the climate is cool and _ exhilarating. It is possible, judging from experience in other fan interesting historical tragic story of the cleverly-planned taking and death of a large number of Maoris in one of these seine-nets, together with the fish (illustrating what Cook has written of their immense siz2), ani of the deadly warfare that followed, is given in the T'ransactions N.Z. Insti- tute vol. xiii., p. 43. ; NO. 1202, VOL. 47] F ‘The greater part of the paper related to Uganda and the other, places, that highlands. close to the Equator are healthier for Europeans than those of similar mean climate lying nearer the tropics. Kavirondo is admirably adapted for grazing, and ranches similar to those of the west of America might be tried. From the pasture lands of this plateau the transition to the rich plantations of bananas and casava of Usoga and Uganda is very marked, and the unclothed natives of Kavirondo give place to the comfortably-dressed Waganda, a warlike people, but skilful in all the arts of peace. : Uganda is a land of low hills and valleys. The hills are of red marl, or marl-gravel, and shale, generally covered with pasture grass of a kind apparently peculiar to these countries, The valleys are generally of rich black soil, and most frequently the lowest part of the dip is a river swamp, The swamp varies from a few score of yards toa mile or more in breadth, usually being from half to three-quarters of a mile. There is a slight trickling current—but very slight ; the river is choked with dense papyrus, with an undergrowth of marsh ferns, grass, reeds, &c. The water is usually the colour of coffee, and red with iron rust, Most of these swamps are of treacherous quageene without bottom ; and unless the roots of the papyrus orm a sufficient foothold it is necessary tocut down reeds and boughs of trees to effect a crossing. It is a singular characteristic of these countries that, spite of their altitude and hilly character, rushing water is rarely, almost never, to be seen, Thus Uganda has a mean elevation of some 4200 feet, and borders the trough of the Victoria Nyanza at 3700 feet only, and is a country full of hills and valleys, Kitagwenda, at about the same altitude, borders the Albert Edward Lake at 3300 feet. Unyoro, with more lofty hills and peaks of granite, with an altitude gradually increasing in the south, as you near the Albert Lake, to some 5300 feet, similarly borders the trough of the Albert, which has an elevation of only 2000 feet. Yet nowhere are these river swamps more frequent than here in South Unyoro at the highest altitudes. The origin of the water to supply the enormous Lake Victoria is an_inter- esting problem, Throughout the British sphere, on the north and west of the lake, there is no single river, except the Nzoia, which is worthy of the name flowing into the Victoria. The Katonga—marked on the maps as a big river— is merely a broad papyrus swamp, It is by no means so im- portant a drainage as the Marengo; and all the endless river- swamps (including the Marengo) send their sluggish streams northwards to the Kafur and the Somerset Nile. The super- ficial area of the Victoria being 27,000 square miles, crossed by the Equator, and at an altitude of about 3800 feet, an enormous amount of evaporation must occur, and yet spite of this evaporation, there issues from its north-western corner the magnificent Somerset Nile, a deep, broad, silent river. The close of the year 1891 and the early part of 1892 were exceptional in the matter of rainfall, Usually in this part of Africa the lesser rains begin early in October and cease in the middle of December. From that time the heat and drought increase, and the grass dries up and is burnt, till in the beginning of March the greater rains set in, and a tropical downpour con- tinues with few breaks till the end of May, Last October and November the lesser rains were unusually heavy, and continued with little intermission till the time of the regular rains in March, There was a little check, and then the rain continued up to the middle of June and later. The result was, that the Lake Vic- toria was some six feet perhaps above its ordinary level, and may probably rise still higher. Unusual floods occurred in the Nile in Egypt during September, this not being the time at which the _usual high Nile due to the Atbara floods occurs. Uganda is divided into ten provinces, and the ten chiefs who rule these districts entirely drop their personal names, and are called by the traditional title attached to those provinces. Of these the four largest and most important have separate titles. Thus, the chief of Chagwe is the Sekibobo; of Singo, the Mukwenda; of Buddu, the Pokino; and of Bulamwezi, the Kangao. ‘The remaining six are called by the title of their province, viz. Kitunzi, Katambala, Kasuju, Mugema, Kago, and Kaima, Superior in rank to these ten governors of provinces are the Katikiro (the vizier and chief magistrate of Uganda), and the Kimbugwe. ‘These two hold innumerable estates, scattered throughout the country. In June, 1891, Captain Lugard left Uganda with the object of coming in touch with the Soudanese refugees from the Equa- torial Province, who had assembled at Kavalli’s, on the south- 46 NATURE [| NoveEMBER 10, 1892 west shore of the Albert Lake. Marching from near Masaka, the capital of Buddu, he traversed Northern Ankole, a district hitherto unvisited by any European, though Mr. Stanley, in 1876, had travelled parallel to it within the boundaries of Uganda, and reaching the borders of Kitagwenda, proceeded south-west to the narrow channel or river which connects the upper lake of Rusango with the main waters of the Albert Edward.Lake. Crossing this narrow channel (at most 500 yards wide) the force camped in the hostile country of the Wasura, a tribe subject to Kabarega of Unyoro, and identified with the Wanyora. Here they crossed Mr. Stanley’s route at the Salt Lake ; but since his book nor maps had not then reached Central Africa the journey was in the nature of entirely new ex- ploration, though’ of course the discovery of the Albert Edward Lake and of Ruwenzori had been anticipated. The natives, too, ‘being hostile, no.one was met with who had seen Mr. Stanley, or could give information of his route, or tell of his exploits. ‘On the route to the Albert Lake many deep and almost symmetrically circular depressions like the crater of a volcano, or a dried-up pond, were passed, A few of these, as shown on the map, were tiny lakes no bigger than a mill-pond, but appa- rently of great depth, with clear blue water, and all the charac- teristics of a lake.. The alligator and great fish eagle haunted their waters. Others, again, were dry, the bottoms being per- haps 100 feet or more below the level of the surrounding ‘country, which is about 4200 feet above the sea. : The Lake Albert Edward consists of two portions, the Mwutan.-zigé (Barrier to Locusts), or the Great Lake and the Rusango on the north-east. This latter is in reality a separate ‘lake, connected with Mwutan-zigé by a river. Its general direction is north-west and south-east. There is no swamp around it except at the north-west end, where dense jungle and impenetrable marsh afford a home for great ‘herds of ele- phant. It is ‘at this point that the rivers Wami and Mpanga, Into which the countless streams from Ruwenzori flow, bring their waters to the lake. The gorge through which the latter flows is ‘picturesque in the extreme, especially in the rains. The great body of water confined between its rocky walls boils and eddies over the sunken rocks below. . The gorge is some 700 feet deep, and is full of tropical forest. The orchids, ferns, and mosses which are found in such a natural forcing-house, where the damp vapours hang, are éxtremely ‘luxuriant. Lg at es Captain Lugard followed the eastern base of the Ruwenzori Mountain, crossing the endless streams which descend from its perpetual snows, and bear their clear, sparkling, icy-cold water to the Wami and Mpanga, and so to the Albert Edward. The drainage of the eastern Ruwenzori is not towards the Albert and so to the Nile, but to the southern lake, from which the only overflow is the Semliki, a river which at its exit probably con- veys a lesser volume of water from the Lake than is contributed to it by the Mpanga alone. The ground rises gradually from the level of the Albert Edward 3300 feet to some 5300 feet at _Kiaya. Here the route descends into the head of a narrow valley, while the plateau trends away to the right, and forms the uplands of Unyoro, its bold outline appearing from the Semliki Valley and the Albert Lake like a lofty range of hills. The ‘valley of Kiaya is extremely fertile, intersected with streams, _and studded with banana groves and cultivated land. Between the edge of the plateau on the east and the base of Ruwenzori there ‘is a deep trough, or gorge, the hills rising steep as it were from their own foundations without connection with the plateau, which reaches to their very feet. Leaving Kiaya, they passed through a wild country of quartz and scrub jungle, cut at right- angles by gigantic ravines of rich soil, in which are villages, forest, and cultivation. This led to the edge of a lower plateau, overlooking the Semliki valley. Simultaneously the massive “peaks of Ruwenzori sloped down to lesser hills, and mingled - with the plain, and a new range of mountains, increasing in height from south to north, appeared opposite. Mountains they appear, but, like those left behind, they are really the ‘escarpment of the plateaus on which ‘the sources of the Ituri, and the other great affluents of the Congo, take their rise ; _which, for convenience, may be called the Kavalli plateau. From Kavalli’s Captain Lugard escorted 8000 Soudanese troops, who had by their vacillation retarded the departure of Stanley with Emin for the coast. Some of these he settled in forts to protect Uganda from Kabrega’s raiders, while others were sent back to Egypt by Mombasa. ~ 78S, ae, NO. 1202, VOL. 47 | .large glazed bricks or tiles from Pegu. fashion. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Meteorological Fournal, ' October.—A meteoro- logical balloon ‘ascent at Berlin by A. L.,Rotch. The ascent was made on the morning of October 24, 1891, and at the same time a captive balloon was sent up to 600 metres. The weather was hazy up to about 1000 feet, but above that the sky was nearly clear. The mean decrease of temperature between the ground andthe captive ballooh was 0°6 C. per 100 metres, In the stratum of air between the captive and free balloon (700 to 1000 metres) the decrease was much slower during the morn- ing, there being at first an increase, the temperature at 693 metres was 10° C,, and at 858 metres 10°°4. In the afternoon the rate of decrease in the upper stratum became nearly the same as that which prevailed in the lower stratum d the © morning.—Improvement of weather forecasts, by Prof. H. A. Hazen. The author recommends the study of moisture con- ditions at various heights in the atmosphere, and considers that the greatest hope of improvement is in the observation of atmo spheric electricity, —The storms of India, by S. M. Ballou. Thé storms are divided into three ‘classes: (1) the cyclones that occur at the changes of the monsoons ; (2) the storms of the summer rains ; (3) the winter rains of the northern provinces ; he discusses the causes of their formation, and gives a brief '‘de- scription of each of these classes.—The ether and its relation to the aurora, by E, A. Beals. The author gives a brief summary of some of the facts respecting our knowledge of auroras, in view of their probable maximum during the coming year in connection with their correlation with frequency of sunspots,— There are also short articles on warm and cold seasons, by H. Gawthrop ; facts about rain-making, by G. E. Curtis; and convectional whirls, by Prof. H. A. Hazen. > cal SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. v's ‘Anthropological Institute, Octo‘er 18.—A special meet- ing .was held, ‘the. president, F.R.S., in the chair, to receive a communication from Major R. C. Temple, I.S.C., on -‘‘ Developments in Buddhist Archi- tecture and Symbolism as illustrated by the Author’s Recent Exploration of Caves in Burma.” Major Temple commen- ced ‘by saying that the object:of the paper was chiefly to draw attention to the extraordinarily rich and for the present practically untouched field for the ethnographist and antiquary existing in Burma, He exhibited some photographs of life-size figures in wood, carved by a well-known artist of Maulmain, of the ‘ four sights” shown to Buddha as Prince Siddhartha on his first visits to the outer world, viz.; the old man, the sick man, the dead man; and the priest; and also some admirable gilt wooden representations from Rangoon of Buddha in his standing and recumbent postures, with his begging bowl, and seated as King Jambupati, surrounded by priests and other worshippers. He next showed a remarkable set of gilt wooden images from the platform of the great Shwedagon pagoda at Rangoon, of zats, belus, hanuman myauks, and other spirits believed in by the Burmese, seated on the steps of a lofty tagon-dain, or post, on the top of which is always perched the figure of the hentha (hansu), or sacred goose, which apparently protects pagodas in some way. From these he passed on to four representations of These curious, and (so far as English museums are concerned) probably unique an- tiquities may be presumed to be at least 400 years old, and formed at one time the ornamentation of the three procession paths round a now completely ruined pagoda. They represent the march, battle, and flight of some foreign army, represented ‘in true Indian fashion with elephant, monkey, and other animal faces... Some ofthe figures are clad in Siamese and Cambodian The glazing is remarkably good, and Indian influence is clear in their construction, They may probably represent a scene from the Ramayana, which in a mutilated form’ is well known to Burmese mythology. These were followed by a huge figure of Buddha from Pegu, in his recumbent attitude, which may be referred to King Dhammacheti, who flourished in the fifteenth century. This image is 181 feet long and 46 feet high at the shoulder. It is built of brick, and is well proportioned throughout. Its history is lost, and so was the image itself until 1881. Pegu was utterly destroyed about 1760 by the Burmese, » Edward. B.- Tylor, D.C.L., | . under microscopes. Novemsex 10, 1892] NATURE 47 and the interest in its holy places lost for more than a generation. This image became jungle-grown ani hidden from view, and was accidentally discovered by a -railway contractor searching for ballast for the line in the neighbourhood. General and detailed views of the Kawgun Cave were shown, exhibiting the wonderful extent of its decoration by a vast number of terra-cotta tablets and images in wood, marble, alabaster, and other materials, and the extraordinary variety and multitude of the objects connected with Buddhistic worship, both ancient and modern, to be found in it. The Kawgun Cave is the richest _of those visited by Major Temple, but he explained that he had examined about half a dozen others in the district, and had'since gathered positive information from local native sources of the existence of about forty altogether. Many of these are hardly inferior to Kawgun in richness of Buddhistic remains, and several are said to contain in addition ancient MSS., which must now be ofinestimable value. A few such MSS. have actually been found. It will thus be seen how great and valuable is the field, and how well worth systematic study by competent students. Royal Microscopical Society, October 19.—Mr. G. C. Karop, Vice-president, in the chair.—The chairman exhibited and described Messrs. Swift’s aluminium microscope, which he slieved to be the first microscope made of that metal. The chief point in the instrument was its extreme lightness, the whole when complete, and including the condenser and eyepiece, weigh- ing only 2lb. 1o}oz. as against the weight 7lb. 130z. of a pre- cisely similar stand made in the usual way of brass. It was perhaps not entirely correct to say that every portion was of aluminium, because there were certain mechanical difficulties met with which prevented some portions from being made of that etal ; for instance, he believed it was almost impossible to cut a fine screw upon it without the thread ‘‘ stripping,” and it was also found extremely difficult to solder, so that the necessary y screws in the instrument were made of brass, the Campbell fine adjustment of steel ; the rack and pinion coarse adjustment was also not made of aluminiam, and the nose-piece was of German silver.—Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell read a letter received from Mr. H. G. A. Wright, of Sydney, stating that a scale of Podura in his possession was deeply notched, and that an exclamation mark had become detached and projected from the edge. Mr. Wright also sent photomicrographs to sunport his statement. The chairman said he could not be sure, from the cursory ex- amination he had been able to make, that the exclamation mark referred to was to be Seen.—Dr. C. E. Beevor read a paper on methods of staining medullated nerve-fibres, illustrating the sub- ject by photomicrographs, and by a number of. preparations icros¢ The chairman said they were very much indebted to Dr. Beevor for his interesting paper. It was a good thing to be able to differentiate nerve fibres in the ways de- scribed, but it was a pity that they could not also so differentiate them as to show from which part of the nervous system’ they came. If this could be done he need hardly say it would be of -value.—Prof. Bell read a paper by Dr. H. G. Piffard on euse of monochromatic yellow light in photomicrography. . T. Charters White said that he had himself tried a similar process with monochromatic light obtained by using screens and solutions, but the chief difference he found was that it very much n the time necessary for exposure. Mr. T. Haughton Gill said that he had used the copper light filter for the same urpose, and had found that by its aid any good ordinary lens would give as good results as were otherwise obtained by using an expensive apochromatic, because it filtered off all the rays except those which were visually strong. He had not found, in the course of his work, that the use of this light prolonged the re, that was to say, that with a magnifying power of 300 and an exposure of ten minutes, he could get a good strong printing image with the isochromatic plates.—Mr. G. Massee’s paper on Heterosporium asperatum, a parasitic fungus, was, in the absence of the author, taken as read. ' Entomological Society, November 2, Frederick DuCane- Godman, F.R.S., - president, -in the chair.—Mr. S. Stevens exhibited, for Mr. J. Harrison, a beautiful series of Arctia lubricipeda vax. radiata, which had been bred by Mr. Harrison this year.—Mr. G. T. Bethune-Baker exhibited specimens of Polyommatus dispar var. rutilus, taken in England by his father - about sixty years-ago. He stated that it was generally believed that this form of the species was confined to the Continent, but his specimens proved that it formerly occurred in England.— Mr. C. G. Barrett exhibited dark varieties of Acronycta leporina, NO. 1202, VOL. 47 | bred by Mr. J. Collins: also a white variety of Zriphena pronuba, taken at Swansea.—Mr. M. Tacoby exhibited a specimen of Sagra femorata, from India, with differently sculptured elytra, one being rough and the other smooth.—Mr. J. A. Clark exhibited a long series of remarkable varieties of Liparis monacha, bred from two specimens taken at Scar- borough. Several of the specimens were as light in colour as the typical form of the species; others were quite black ; and others intermediate between these two extremes.—The Rev. Seymour St. John exhibited a monstrosity of Adraxas grossulariata, and a’ specimen of Zeniocampa stadilis, with a distinct light band bordering the hind margin of the upper wings.—Mr. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., exhibited two series of imagos of Gnophos obscurata, which had been subjected to dark and light surroundings respectively. The results were seen to be completely negative, the two series being equally light.— Mr. F. Merrifield showed a number of pupe of Pieris nafpi. About eight of them, which had attached themselves to the leaves of the cabbage plant on which they were fed, were of a uniform bright green colour, with light yellowish edgings ; of the others, those which had attached themselves to the black net covering the pot, or the brownish twigs which supported it, were dark coloured, with dark spots and lines. Mr. R. Adkin exhibited three bred female specimens of Vanessa c-album, two of which belonged to the first brood, and the third to the second brood. One of the specimens of the first brood was remarkable in having the under side of a very dark colour, identical with typical specimens of the second brood. He thought the peculiarity of colouring had been caused by a retarded emergence, due to low temperature and absence of sunshine.—Mr. F: W. Frohawk exhibited varieties of Satyrus hyperanthus, bred from ova laid by a female taken in the New Forest in July last.— Mr. F. D. Godman, F.R.S., exhibited a specimen of Amphonyx medon, Cr., received from Jalapa, Mexico, having a pouch-like excrescence at the apex of its body.—Mr. C. J. Gahan com- municated a paper entitled ‘* Additions to the Longicornia of Mexico and Central America, with notes on some previously recorded species.” ——-Mr. W. L. Distant communicated a paper entitled ‘*‘ Contributions to a knowledge of the Homopterous family Fulgoride.”—Mr. Oswald Latter read a paper (which was illustrated by the Society’s new oxy-hydrogen lantern) entitled ‘‘ The Secretion of Potassium-hydroxide by Dicranura vinula, and the emergence of the imago from the cocoon.” The author stated that the imago produced, probably from the mouth, a sclution of caustic potash for the purpose of softening the cocoon. The solution was obtained for analysis by causing the moths to perforate artificial cocoons made of filter-paper. Prof. Meldola, F.R.S., said that the larva of D. vinuda secretes © formic acid, and Mr. Latter had now shown that’ the imago secretes potassium-hydroxide, a strong alkali. He stated that _ the fact that any animal secreted a strong caustic alkali was a new one. Mr. Merrifield, Mr. Hanbury, Mr. Gahan, Mr. Poulton, and Prof. Meldola continued the discussion.—Mr. H. J. Elwes and Mr. J. Edwards read a paper (also illustrated by the oxy-hydrogen lantern) entitled ‘‘A revision of the genus Ypthima, principally founded on the form of the genitalia in the | male sex.” Mr. Mclachlan, F.R.S., said he attached great importance to the genitalia as structural characters in deter- mining species, and he believed that he could name almost any species of European Trichoptera simply from an examination of the detached abdomens of the males. Mr. O. Salvin, F.R.S., said he had examined the genitalia of a large number of Hesperide, with the view of considering their value in dis- tinguishing species. Mr. Bethune-Bakér, Colonel Swinhoe, Mr. Lewis, Dr. Sharp, F.R.S., Mr. Hampson, and Mr. Champion continued the discussion.—Mr. S. H. Scudder com- municated a paper entitled ‘* New light-on the formation of the abdominal pouch in Parnassius.” Mr. Elwes said he had based his classification’ of the species of this genus largely on the structure of this abdominal pouch in the female. Mr. Jenner- Weir remarked that a similar abdominal pouch was to be found in the genus Acrea, and Mr. Hampson referred to a male and female of Parnassius in Mr. Leech’s collection, in which the pouch had come away from the female and was adhering to the male organs, PARIS. Academy of Sciences, October 31.—On the geometry of position, by M. H. Poincaré.—Observations on M. Berthelot’s ommunication regarding the fixation of nitrogen, by M. Th. 48 Schloesing. Reply, by M. Berthelot.—On the laws of com- pressibility of liquids,-by M. E. H. Amagat. Deformations of the piezometers were investigated and allowed for in these experiments, and the pressures carried as far as 3000 atmo- spheres, The liquids operated upon were ether, alcohol, carbon bisulphide, acetone, the ethyl halides, and chloride of phos- phorus. In every case the coefficient of compressibility was found to decrease regularly as the pressure increased.. At 3000 atmospheres that of water was reduced by nearly one-half its ordinary value, that of ether by two-thirds. This diminution again is greater the higher the temperature. The ratio of the difference of the coefficient to the corresponding difference of Au temperature, —~, increases rapidly with the temperature, and decreases rapidly as the pressure increases, The value of - ma also diminishes rapidly as the pressure increases ; but whilst for alcohol it grows decidedly with the temperature, for ether it seems sensibly independent of it. It is probable that the ratio passes through a maximum at a certain tempe- rature.—Observation of the comet Barnard (October 12), made at the Algiers observatory with the eguatorial coudé, by M. F. Sy.—Elliptic elements of the comet Barnard, by M. Schulhof. Discussing the probabilities of the new comet being identical with, or a part of, the comet Wolf, which was subjected to considerable perturbations by Jupiter in 1875.—On the equa- tions of dynamics, by M. R. Liouville.—On the solution of the ballistic problem, by M. E. Vallier.—Displacements of a magnet on mercury under the action of an electric current, by M.C. Decharme. If a light magnetic needle be floated on a bath of perfectly pure mercury, and conductors carrying a current be dipped into the mercury at different places, the needle will, before assuming the position of equilibrium accord* ing to Ampére’s law, go through a series of excursions, rendered necessary by the difficulty of its motion, perpendicular to its length. Ifthe current crosses the mercury in a direction per- pendicular to the length of the needle for instance, with the negative pole of the current on the left of the south-seeking pole, the needle will move away parallel to itself, will turn round, and return to take up the normal position.—On the temperature of maximum density of mixtures of alcohol and water, by M. L. de Coppet. The lowering of the freezing- point in solutions of alcohol is sensibly proportional to the quantity of alcohol, in confirmation of Blagden’s law. But the lowering of the temperature of maximum density is not pro- portional to the percentage of alcohol. For weak. solutions there is no lowering, but rather an elevation of the temperature of the maximum.—On the dissociation of barium dioxide, by M. H. Le Chatelier.—On a limited reaction, by M. Albert Colson.—On the fixation of free nitrogen by plants, by MM. Th. Schloesing, jun., and Em. Laurent.—Purification of drain waters by ferric sulphate, by MM. A. and P. Buisine.—Ex- periments on bread and biscuit, by M. Balland.—Ptomaines extracted from urines in erysipelas and puerperal fever, by M. A. B. Griffiths,—Hermerythrine, a respiratory pigment con- tained in the blood of certain worms, by M. A.-B. Griffiths. — Morphology of the skeleton of the star fish, by M. Edm. Perrier, —The secreting apparatus of the Cofaifera, by M. Léon Guig- nard.—New observations on sexuality and parasitic castration, by M. Ant. Magnin.—A possible cause of the doubling of the canals of Mars ; experimental imitation of the phenomenon, by M. Stanislas Meunier.—Devonian and permio-carboniferous of the Aspe valley, by M. J. Seunes.—A short account of the voyage of the Za Manche to Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitz- bergen during the summer of 1892, by M. Bienaimé. The maps of Jan Mayen were found to be very accurate, those of Spitzbergen much less so. The barometric changes in Iceland, Jan Mayen, and the Faroes agreed strikingly with those of Great Britain and Scandinavia, while those of Spitzbergen were of a particular order. Pendulum observations gave =9°82345 for Jan Mayen, and 9°82866 for Spitzbergen.—Eruption of Etna of 1892, by M. A. Ricco.—The analysis of complex odours, by M. Jacques Passy. Proceeding from very small doses, say of amyl alcohol, two different perfumes will be perceived to increase and then diminish in succession, finally giving way to an odour which soon becomes disagreeable as it increases in strength. The transition from perfume to unpleasant odour is very general in volatile substances.—Immunity against cholera conferred by milk, by M. N. Ketscher.—A new apparatus for hypodermic injections, by M. G. Bay. NO, 1202, VOL. 47| NATURE [ NOVEMBER 10, 1892 BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. Booxs.—A Text-book of Magnetism and Electricity: R. W. Stewart (Clive).—Public Health Problems: J. F. J. Sykes (Scott).—An Elementary Manual on Applied Mechanics: Prof, A. Jamieson (Griffin).—Mind in Matter, 3rd edition: Rey. J. Tait (Griffin).—Arthur Young’s Tour in Ire- land, 2 vols. : edited by A: W. Hutton (Bell).— Text-book of Elementary Biology: Dr. H. J. Campbell (Sonnenschein).—The Volcanoes of Japan, Part 1, Fujisan: J. Milne and W. K. Burton (Low).—Strange Survivals ; S. Baring-Gould (Methuen),—Finger Prints: F. Galton (Macmillan),— Modern Mechanism: edited by P. Benjamin (Macmillan).—Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum; Part 1, Sphinges and Bombyces: Col. C. Swinhoe (Oxford, Clarendon Press).—An Introduction to the Study of Botany: A. Dendy and A. H. S. Lucas (Melville).—Hydrostatics and ble. mentary Hydrokinetics : Prof. G. M. Minchin (()xford, Clarendon Press).— New Vegetarian Dishes: Mrs. Bowdich (Bell),—British New Guinea: J. P. Thomson (Phitip).—Autres Mondes: A Guillemin (Paris, Carré).— Stéréochimie : J. H. Van’t-Hoff (Paris, Carré).—Théorie Mathématique de la Lumiére, II.: H. Poincaré (Paris, Carré).—Traité de Mécanique: V. Jamet (Paris, Carré) —In Savage Isles and Settled Lands: F. S. Baden- Powell (Bentley).—Stanford’s Contoured Map of the County of London (Stanford).—Naked-Eye Botany: F,. E. Kitchener (Percival). —Geometrical Drawing: A. J. Pressland (Percival).—Practical Physics, Part x, Physical Processes and Measurements; the Properties of Matter: Prof. Barrett and W. Brown (Percival).—Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, and other Insects: A. W. Kappel and W. E. Kirby (Cassell).—The Principal Starches used as Food: W. Griffiths (Cirencester, Baily).—Charles Darwis F. Darwio (Murray).—University College, Nottingham, Calendar, 1892-93 (Notting- ham, Sands)—Proceedings a d Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 1891 (Montreal, Dawson). PAMPHLETS.—Report on the Operations of the Department of Land Records and Agriculture, Madras Presidency, 1890-91 (Madras).—Entwurf einer Neuen Integralrechnung: Dr. J. Bergbohm (Leipzig, Teubner).— Leaves from the Book of Nature: L. Piers (Ridgway).—Fossil Mammals of the Wahsatch and Wind River Beds, Collection of 1891: H. F. Osborn and - L. Wortman.—Present Problems in Evolution and Heredity: H. F. Osborn.—Revision of the Species of Coryphodon: C. Earle. SERIALS.— Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, No - mans).—Festschrift zur Feier des 150 Jaehrigen Bestehens der Natu tech enden Gesellschaft in Danzig am 2 Jan.’ 1893 (Danzig).—Schriften der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Danzig, Neue Folge, Achten Bandes, Erstes Heft (Danzig).—Notes from the Leyden Museum, vol. xv. No. r (Leyden, Brill).—Journal of the Chemical Society, November (Gurney and Jackson).—Mitteilungen des Vereins fiir Erdkunde zu Halle a/s 1892 (Halle a/s).— Medical Magazine, November (Southwood), CONTENTS. By’ CU Maa By M. ClO, Cy ea ee By (BV?) > te Experimental Biology. British Fungus Flora. South African Shells, Our Book Shelf :— Williams: ‘‘ The Framework of Chemistry” .... 28 Lubbock : ‘‘ The Beauties of Nature, and the Wonders of the World We Live in”. °. (og (oe Hall and Knight : ‘‘ Algebra for Beginners” ... . 28 Ziehen : ‘‘ Introduction to Physiological Psychology” 28 Letters to the Editor :— The Volucelle as Examples of Aggressive Mimicry.— Edward B. Poulton, F/R.S.°. 7. 0 ae The Geology of the Asiatic Loess. —Thos, W. Kings- mill; Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S. 30 Optical Illusions. (With Diagram.)—R. T. Lewis. 31 A Remarkable Rainfall.—Alfred O, Walker. . . . 31 On a ‘‘ Supposed New Species of Earthworm and on the Nomenclature of Earthworms.”—Dr, C. Herbert Burst 2; ae ere ety a ee a Ice Crystals.—C. M. Irvine ... Pate tees St Lunar Craters. —M) He Maw... see se ee aE A Fork-tailed Petrel—_Newman Neave . nee ing Sik, Ti | The Origin of the Year. III. (Zéustrated.) By J. Norman’ Gockyer, F. RIS). eae e eee i ae Technological Examinations sim ete. «sche ae os Robert’ Grant.’ By Ri'Go i ss rams owe ee INOLOS 6S ies ee cee ei SAM a OE) MR oy Our Astronomical Column :— A Bright Comet) o.oo C ese gee > et ee Comet Barnard (October 12). .. .-3+ 0. + s6) tee eo Comet Brooks (August. 28)... ....) sede 0° + (0) le0 seen eB Occultation of Mars and Jupiter by the Moon . . .. 4I Motion of the Solar System . Te he Some Reminiscences of the Maoris. By Rev. W. Colensajatt, RisSs oo ie hs 6) deste 0h ee + Re Uganda cia acs) eperet fs cs 6) Sa 3 hee Scientific Serials). nc) 4. ese ye ce wr = ee Societies and Academies aor « le 6 yer dee teen Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received. ..... 48 NATURE 49 _ THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 17, 1892. THE GEOLOGY OF SCOTLAND. Geological Map of Scotland. By Sir Archibald Geikie, _D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., Director-General of the Geolo- - gical Survey of Great Britain and Ireland. With de- scriptive text. (Edinburgh: J. Bartholomew and Co., _ 1802.) ~HERE have been many attempts to frame a popular definition of man. To call him a ‘‘story-loving animal” would not be the worst of them. It may indeed turn out, when we understand monkey-talk a little better than now (and the hope that we may is, we are assured, not unreasonable), then it may be that this will prove to be not an exclusive definition. But this by the way ; the description will hold for the present. Hence the delight with which we listen to all that the various branches of history, the history of the growth of knowledge included, have to tell us. It isthe stories which first attract us, and they retain their charm long after we have learned that the study of history has other ends to fulfil besides the satisfaction of that craving for story-hearing which lies deep in our being, and the gratification of a natural curiosity to learn about things which we have not seen. But the conviction that history should be to us something more than a string of ancedotes soon forces itself upon us. In tracing the growth of any branch of knowledge, in noting the steps by which, one by one,.each advance has been made good, our interest lies first of all in the ac- quaintance, almost of a personal character we may say, _which we make with the pioneers of a movement of which we see not perhaps the full development but the ripening fruit. We watch with absorbed attention their approach to the unexplored land ; we follow them along the tracks by which they first traversed it ; we stand by while they note and record all that is novel and characteristic in its features ; we mark the birth and growth of the con- ceptions which their exploring work gives rise to; we live over again their fascinating life of discovery and deduc- tion. But beside and beyond all this, their story, like the stories of all history, carries with it a lesson ; and _ their caution or rashness, as the case may be, in general- izing and drawing conclusions, serves as example or warn- ing to us. We look up to candour and a readiness to court criticism and give up explanations which are shown _ to be untenable ; anything like partizanship and a weakly parental predilection for the children of one’s own brain we look down upon with sorrowing pity. The history of the steps by which a knowledge of the geology of a country has been arrived at is written in the successive versions of its geological maps. The appear- ance of a map which embodies the results of the latest researches into the geology of Scotland tempts us to look back upon the carlier efforts to unravel the complications of its geological structure. And this all the more because we are dealing with a country in which Geology, as we know it, may be said to have come to the birth; and because it is to Scotchmen that we owe the first showing forth of these principles, whether of observation, deduc- tion, or inductive confirmation, which have been the guide NO. 1203, VOL. 47] of geologists ever since. To Hutton, the precursor of Lyell, to Hall, the scientific ancestor of Daubrée, and to the line of illustrious followers who have carried on with such brilliant success the work which they started. Among the earliest attempts to deal with the geolo- gical mapping of Scotland are the maps of Macculloch’s “Western Islands,” which bear the date of 1819. It is hard for us to realize how much of Scotland was at that time without adequate topographical delineation. Our present Ordnance Maps are far from being a credit to the Depart- ment which issues them, and the language which attends an attempt to use them on the mountainous moorlands, though not a whit stronger than is justifiable under the circumstances, had better be left to melt into thin air around the spots where it was uttered. But our geological life is one of luxury compared with Macculloch’s, whose atlas is one string of apologies for the inadequate maps on which he had to record his observations. The map of the Isle of Man “is obviously very inaccurate, but there was only a choice between it and two others equally un- worthy of confidence.” The map of Staffa “ was drawn under every unfavourable circumstance, and cannot fail to be inaccurate, having been merely paced with the assistance of a pocket compass in a severe gale of wind and rain.” Macculloch seems to have projected, but never com- pleted, a geological map of the whole of Scotland. The materials collected by him were however utilized by the Highland Society in the construction of a general map in 1832. Passing by the maps of Boué, and a sketch of Murchison’s and Sedgwick’s, laid before the Geological Society in 1828, we come to the publication of Nicol’s ** Guide to the Geology of Scotland” in 1844. In a country where the rocks are so largely unfossil- iferous, it is natural, even necessary, that the earliest geological maps should be more of a lithological than a stratigraphical character, and this is the case with the maps so far noticed. In the map which accompanies Nicol’s guide, and which he says is based on Maccul- loch’s, some of the main varieties of the crystalline schists are distinguished, but the order in which they occur is not indicated. One colour comprises all the red sandstones, the Torridon, the Old Red, and even the red rocks of Dumfriesshire ; under the head of “ Porphyry and Trap” are lumped together all the volcanic rocks, including those of the western islands and of the central valley ; only two of the groups which we now call forma- tions are separated, the “ Carboniferous” and the “ Lias and Oolite.’ But the great leading features in the phy- sical geography of Scotland are sharply marked out, the three regions into which it naturally falls are lucidly delineated, and the work is crowded with local details that betoken acquaintance with the work of others and patient investigation of his own. At the meeting of the British Ass’ iation at Glasgow in 1855 Murchison gave an account >f the result of the joint work of Nicol and himself i the north western Highlands. The existence of three. great sub-divisions had been clearly established ; what we now know as the Hebridean or Lewisian Gneiss at the base, the Torridon sandstone resting unconformably on it ; while above that, and separated from it by another unconformity, came the D 50 NATURE [ NovEMBER 17, 1892 limestones and quartzites of Durness and Loch Erriboll, in which Peach had recently discovered fossils. The last group appeared to be conformably overlaid by a great mass of crystalline schists, waich came to be known afterwards as the ‘‘ Upper or Eastern Gneiss.” Though the fossil evidence was then incomplete, Mur- chison saw nothing in it to forbid the belief thit the Durness beds were of Lower Silurian age, and his conjec- ture was confirmed by the discovery of better specimens. This conclusion was announced in a paper read before the Geological Society in 1858, in which it was also stated that the author looked upon the Upper Gneiss as meta- morphosed Silurian. In the meantime Nicol had read a paper before the Geological Society (1856), in which he describes the joint explorations of himself and Murchison, and some subsequent work of his own. He recognizes the same main sub-divisions as Murchison, but still leans to the old notion that the Torridon sandstone belongs to the Old Red ; this involves the assigning a later date to the Durness Beds, and these he thinks may be Carboniferous. But he is content to hold this merely as a provisional hypothesis till further fossil evidence is forthcoming. With respect to the Upper Gneiss he is very cautious, suggesting that it may be a newer metamorphic group, or may be merely a portion of the lower, that is Hebridean, gneiss forced up by some great convulsion. This latter solution was evidently present very vividly to his mind,’ for it is repeated, as a possible explanation, no less than three times. Here a very important difference of opinion between Murchison and Nicol makes its appearance. It was probably about this time, but the map bears no date, that Nicol issued a new geolozical map of Scot- land. In this all gneiss is denoted by one colour; but the explanation states that the author does not consider all the Scotch gneiss to be of the same age ; that the tract of this rock, with associated quartzite and limestone, stretching from Aberdeenshire through Perthshire to the Breadalbane Highlands of Argyllshire, may be a newer formation ; while he is disposed to look upon the great mass of gneiss, extending from the north coast of Suther - land southwards through Ross-shire and Inverness-shire, rather as belonging to an older period. The Torridon sandstone is distinguished by a separate colour, though the author is still inclined to class it with the Old Red. Nicol expounded his views to the British Association at Aberdeen in 1859, and again in a paper read before the Geological Society in 1860. He adduces many rea- sons for doubting the existence of an “ upward conform- able succession” from the Durness Beds to the Upper Gneiss, and explains the sections on the supposition that this rock is the Hebridean Gneiss brought up by faults. Though the expressions, “forced up by convulsion ” and “pushed up over,” which he uses in his paper of 1856, seem to show that the notion of what we call “ Thrust Planes” was present to his mind, the sections of this paper hardly bear out that inference. He neatly twits Murchison with failing to see that the principles which he had applied with such success to an explanation of the structure of the Alps were equally applicable to the North-west Highlands. In 1861 Murchison stoutly main- tained his view regarding the Upper Gneiss ; with an ad- NO. 1203, VOL. 47 | vocate’s skill he hits Nicol hard on his weak point, justly urging “that local interferences of eruptive rock nowise set aside broad data.” Inthe same year was issued the “First Sketch of a new geological map of Scotland by Sir. R. I. Murchison and A. (now Sir A.) Geikie,” in which Murchison’s views vere adopted. Here then was a promise of a fair stand-up fight be- tween two champions, each well able to hold his own. But the promise was not fulfilled. The combat would have been far from equal. On the one side there were the pull which wealth and social position bring with them ; the advantage which accrues from living in Lon- don and having thus the ear of a great centre of scientific life ; and that pushing ambition, that eagerness to secure precedence in discovery, which so often go along with an active and energetic disposition. On the other side there were comparative social insignificance ; residence in a hyperborean region far more difficult of access than now ; a happy indifference to fame based on a confidence that the settlement might be safely left to time, and that the world would go on pretty much as heretofore, whichever of the two turned out to be nearer the truth: more than all a reluctance to embitter the closing years of life with anything that looked like an altercation with an old and esteemed friend and fellow-worker. So, because it takes two to make a quarrel, the fight never came off. Natur- ally, under these circumstances, (and can we blame it?) the world took the man who vigorously pushed his views, at his word ; he had plenty to say in their favour and said it well; no one gainsaid him; his contention was ac- cepted. There will be those who, without presuming to blame, do not covet success on such terms ; and whose sympathies go out towards the peace-loving old man who was content to bide his time and possess his soul in silence. And so the “‘ Upper Gneiss” and “the upward con- formable succession” held their own ; and in the geologi- cal map of Scotland, issued in 1876 by the present Director-General of the Geological Survey, the crystal- line schists of the Central Highlands are designated ‘* Metamorphosed Lower Silurian.” It would be tedious to enumerate all the points in which this map is an improve- ment on the “ First Sketch” of 1861, but the student will find it an instructive exercise to compare the two maps, and ascertain by reference to memoirs on special dis- tricts how each correction and addition was arrived at. The Highland problem remained in abeyance for nigh a quarter of a century, though during that interval the minds of many geologists were constantly recurring to it and evidence was being accumulated to help towards its solution. But it came to the front again, and like a giant refreshed with sleep, when Prof. Lapworth in his “ Secret of the Highlands” (1883), and other workers in the same ground, began to throw doubt on the explanation which had so long held the field. When the Geological Survey were able to take up the question and work out the ground with precision and detail that no observer could attain to single handed, the anticipations of their im- mediate predecessors were substantially confirmed, and of the earlier observers it came out that Nicol was nearer the truth than his illustrious antagonist. It calls for no small exercise of judgment, in an en- deavour to depict the geology of so complex a district on -Novemser 17, 1892] NATURE 51 a map of small scale, to decide what details must be re- tained because they are essential to a grasp of its broad general structure, and what may be safely eliminated without impairing the comprehensive view. In the map now before us this end has been compassed with consummate skill. It bristles with detail, but there is no- where crowding ; the colours are well contrasted, and so transparent that they do not hide the topography, which is full and clearly printed. The richness in detail of the strip of country between Cape Wrath and Loch Torridon marks one scene of the recent work of the Geological Survey. Then follows a broad band of “gneissose and schistose rocks not yet differentiated.” A portion of this ground is occupied by the crushed and mangled-out complex of the “ Moine schists,” but a large part is yet imperfectly explored. To the south-east of the Great Glen we enter again on ground which has been largely worked out by the Geological Survey. We have here a group of various sedimentary deposits in a more or less altered condition, containing sheets of basic igneous rocks. The geological age of this ‘series is not known, and they are provisionally classed as Dalradian. The presentation of the results of the work of the Geo- logical Survey in the north-west and central Highlands are the two most conspicuous novelties in the map; but during its use other corrections and additions, too small to catch the eye on a general view, become noticeable. In the explanatory notes we have a concise summary of the geology of Scotland, and feel that our thanks are due to the author for having put so much into so small a space without in any way sacrificing descriptive clearness. When the time comes for a new version of the map, may the same hand be with us to draw it up. A. H. GREEN. MEDICAL MICROSCOPY. Medical Microscopy. A Guide to the Use of the Micro- scope in Medical Practice. By Frank J. Wethered. M.D(Lond.), &c. With Illustrations. Pp. 412. (London : H. K. Lewis, 1892.) HIS volume, one of Lewis’s practical series, bears an ambitious title, and must necessarily traverse a wide and intricate field of medical work. Its appearance is justified by the distinct need existing at the present time for a manual dealing with the various microscopical methods so essential to diagnostic accuracy and rational * treatment. The subject-matter is arranged in twenty-four chapters ; and as an indication of the scope of the book, we instance some of the headings. The earlier ones treat of the microscope and its accessories, the methods of hardening, decalcifying, embedding, section cutting, staining, and injection of tissues. Then follow others on the examina- tion of tissues, urinary deposits, blood, expectoration, and the detection of micro-organisms, and cutaneous parasites; while the latter chapters deal with the ex- amination of food, water, and with bacteriological methods. In fact, the book is almost an epitome of the course pursued by a student earnestly working with the microscope from the commencement to the end of his NO. 1203, VOL. 47] curriculum. The tendency has been, by the specialized character of the primary examinations in late years, to sever in some degree the knowledge obtained in the earlier part of a student’s career from the practical application of the same at the bedside. So much is this the case, that it has been deemed advisable in some quarters to introduce new courses of lectures, their aim being to indicate with precision to students those facts in anatomy and physiology which have a distinct clinical value. One of the chief merits of Dr. Wethered’s book is that he has therein demonstrated the important re- lationship between histology and morbid anatomy, and has shown that any attempt at acquiring a knowledge of the latter is dependent upon a practical and searching training in the former. Moreover, the book is worthy of more detailed criti cism, Necessarily in a first edition there are some points omitted. In speaking of the microscope the author offers a cursory remark on the fine adjustment ; no mention is made of the best pattern, and there are many of an inferior and useless description foisted on students ; nor are there any directions for the precise use of this por- tion of the microscope. In the chapter on “ Hardening and Decalcifying Tissues,” on p. 35, are found some well- meant platitudes on the necessity of immediately label- ling specimens ; but at the same time the use of lactic acid as a decalcifying agent is omitted. We have suc- ceeded in completely softening small pieces of bone in 4-7 days, and teeth may be cut with the freezing microtome in from two to three weeks. With certain statements of the author we venture to disagree. In speaking of the celloidin method he advises that the specimen be placed in equal parts of ether and alcohol previously to being placed in celloidin. A mixture of four parts of ether and one part of absolute alcohol ensures more rapid and complete penetration of the embedding material. Also in using paraffin for this purpose we have found by extensive practice that sec- tions containing a large amount of fibrous tissue are useless after being in the paraffin bath for three to five hours, even at a temperature of 48° C.; twenty to thirty minutes is ample, provided that the material is properly dehydrated. The chapter on staining is succinct and comprehensive, and we note the usual and indeed only rational classification of stains, as nuclear, general, and selective. Hzmatoxylin still holds the first place, and Delafield’s, or as it is miscalled, Grenacher’s, is undoubt- edly the best formula. It is here stated that if the sections be overstained, and washing in acid-alcohol be necessary, the colour is not permanent. Our experience is that if after the acid they be washed thoroughly well with “tap water,” a very clear nuclear stain results which remains unchanged for years. Gram’s method of staining for micro-organisms, with Weigert’s modification, is clearly detailed. But here we fail to observe any mention of the brilliant results obtained by the Ehrlich-Biondi method. The employment of rubin for actinomycosis may with confidence be recommended,and the same remark applies to the use of saffranin in bringing out-clearly the nuclear figures in karyokinesis. The chapter on mounting is somewhat tedious and the use of origanum oil in clear- ing celloidin-specimens is not advocated, although it has found general acceptance in Continental laboratories. 52 NATURE Weigert’s method of preparing and staining nerve-tissue is given, but with one important detail left out, viz., that on removing the specimen from Miiller’s fluid or chromic acid solution it should have a brown,and not a green colour. The preparation of individual tissues and organs is well dealt with in chapter xii., but in the succeeding one on the examination of tumours there are such evident signs of hasty composition as to render it of small in- trinsic value. On the other hand, the important subjects of urinary and excrementitious matters receive ample treatment ; and we have a clear résumé up to this date of all that is taught on these subjects. As an example we note with pleasure the account of Dr. Delepine’s work on “sable intestinal.” The bacillus of Asiatic cholera and the methods of its detection are described on p. 228 ; and the diagnostic points between it and that of cholera nostras are found on the next page. A large amount of space is necessarily devoted to the examina- tion of sputa. Dr. Wethered’s experience at the City of London Hospital for Diseases of the Chest enables him to speak with the voice of authority on the signification of the presence or absence of the tubercle bacillus. Physiologists will find their side of the question well con- sidered in the observations on blood ; on Dr. A. Garrod’s authority we are told that the blood of the Londoner has not yet been found to contain its true proportion of hzemo- globin. Eosinophile cells are not omitted ; but for more detailed information on this point we commend to the notice of pathologists the article by Dr. A. Kanthack in the British Medical Journal of June, 1892. Medical microscopy as a subject is exceedingly elastic, and we believe Dr. Wethered has stretched it to its widest limits when he finds space for describing the examina- tion of various kinds of cereals, also of water. Even _ the homely tea-leaf has not escaped his notice. A few instances of clerical errors are to be found, thus Hart- nach for Hartnack, on p. 122, Richert for Reichert. At the term ‘‘ collodionization ” we venture to express our distaste. A growing practice exists of introducing un- gainly expressions of doubtful expediency into scientific works. We have read this book with considerable attention, and are convinced that it has a most distinct vazson d’étre, and justifies on the whole, by the merit of its execution, the ambition of its title. It treats of the matter in hand with much ability, and in a manner that evidences con- siderable experience on the part of the author as a pathologist, physician, and teacher. A. H. TUBBY. ODOROGRAPHIA. Odorographia; a Natural History of Raw Materials and Drugs used in the Perfume Industry. By J. Ch. Sawer, F.L.S. (London: Gurney and Jackson, 1892.) Dace SIDERING the importance of the subject of perfumes both from a scientific and a commercial point of view, it is somewhat surprising that a really good and authoritative book dealing on the matters encom- passed by ‘‘ Odorographia” has not before been at- tempted. The delay in the, appearance o such a work NO. 1203, VOL. 47 | [ NovEMBER 17, 1892 is probably due to the fact that but few persons possess the requisite knowledge to treat the subject in a thoroughly satisfactory manner in all its bearings, such as the origin and production of the numerous products, whether animal or vegetable, and the chemical aspect of every substance and its commercial value, which are points that could scarcely be expected to be mastered by one mind. In the ‘‘ Pharmacographia” of Fliickiger and Hanbury, two master minds onthe subject of drugs were brought into co-operation, with the result that a most satisfactory and standard work on medicinal plants was produced. That this book was in the mind of the author when he com- piled his ‘‘ Odorographia,” and selected its title, is quite apparent, and we are bound to say that on the whole he has done his work remarkably well, though we wish that he had adhered more strictly to the lines of his pattern. Mr. Sawer, however, at the very commence- ment of his preface, is so modest as to say that “an endeavour has here been made to collect together into one manual the information which has hitherto been only obtainable by reference to an immense number of works and journals, English and foreign, in many cases in- accessible to readers interested in the subject,” and that he is thoroughly well acquainted with all that has been written is apparent not only from a glance through the pages, where numerous references occur, but also from the “ List of Principal Works referred to.” Besides this the author has, as he tells us, obtained information first hand from some of the largest perfume-plant growers and manufacturers of Grasse, Nice, and localities in the Straits Settlements and West Indies. The difficulties attending the compilation of a work of this nature have, no doubt, been very great, because scraps of information are so widely dispersed, and even when found often - times very confusing. The botany alone of the subject must have occupied a considerable amount of time in looking up, the plants yielding perfumes being natives” of various parts of the globe, and consequently described in the several floras appertaining to those special coun - tries, besides which the chemical and commercial aspects occupy a large portion of the book. Though we are grateful to Mr. Sawer for giving us a book that was really wanted, we regret, as we said before, that he has not followed more closely the plan of the “Pharmacographia” and arranged his matter under dis- tinct heads, such as History, Botany, Cultivation, Chemistry, Commerce, &c. Practically he has done so to a certain extent, but the paragraphs are not sufficiently distinguished to enable one to turn at once to that upon | which information may be specially sought. The arrangement of chapters, in which the most important and marked odours, such as those of musk, rose, violet, the citrine odours, &c., are brought together, is good, but the principal plants in each of these groups might have. been treated as we have described, the least im- portant ones being given as they are at the end of the chapters. Returning to the botany of the book, we cannot but think that the author might well have spared much space by the omission of numerous varietal names and synonyms, many of which are scarcely ever heard of now, and which often only tend to confusion. Under Violet, for instance (p. 104), half a page is given to a list NoveMBER 17, 1892] NATURE 53 of the names of nine varieties of the Sweet Violet (Viola odorata). Again, at p. 309, Vétiver, or Cus Cus, is rightly described as the root of Azdropogon muricatus, after which follow the names of five synonyms. In reference to this Mr. Sawer says, referring to the “ Asiatic Researches,” that “there is a verse in the Sanskrit language composed of nine words, arranged in two lines, purporting to be the nine names under which the plant was known ; doubtless they were poetical names, as they are not found in the extensive list of local names recently enumerated by Watt.” This would show that Dr. Watt, who in his “Dictionary of the Economic Products of India” does not err on the score of brevity in the adoption of synonyms, considered that there was a line to be drawn somewhere. We may perhaps also be allowed to draw attention to a paragraph on page 19, where the musk tree of Jamaica and the muskwood of Australia have got confused. The paragraph in question runs thus: “ The Lurybia argophylla or Guarea Swartzet, the silver-leaved musk tree of Jamaica, New South Wales, and Tasmania, is a meliaceous tree, attaining a height of twenty-five feet.” Eurybia, or more properly Olearta argophylia is the muskwood of New South Wales and Tasmania, and belongs to the natural order Composite, while Guarea Swartziz is a meliaceous tree of Jamaica, where it is known as musk tree. Another muskwood, not ‘mentioned by Mr. Sawer, is that of Moschoxylum .Swartzii, a highly fragrant resinous tree, closely allied ‘to Guarea, and a native also of Jamaica and Trinidad. We refer to these matters in no captious spirit, but simply with the hope that Mr. Sawer may see his way to over- haul and modify this part of his useful book in a future edition, so asto make it even more useful and trust- worthy. We are glad to note that he “is still engaged upon studies in this department, and hopes to publish another volume in due course.” OUR BOOK SHELF. Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum. By-Colonel C. Swinhoe. Part I. Sphinges and Bombyces. (Clarendon Press, 1892.) THIS volume is the first part of a Catalogue of the moths from the Oriental and Australian regions in the collection of the late Mr. W. W. Saunders, which was acquired by the Oxford Museum some fifteen years ago, and consists chiefly of specimens collected by Wallace -during his famous voyage to the Malay Archipelago, and described by the late Francis Walker in his British “Museim Catalogue. Since Walker’s arrangement of the collection it has remained untouched and mostly neglected by lepidopterists, so that a rearrangement and comparison of the types had become highly necessary, which useful work has been undertaken and very ably carried out by Colonel Swinhoe. All the types have been brought to the British Museum, their synonomy carefully worked out and the species placed in their proper families -and genera, many of them being fizured in the eight -coloured plates, and it is to be hoped the other parts will ‘soon follow, and also that a list of the types which should be in the Museum and are missing will be added. There is one statement in the preface which requires correction ; ‘the only types of Walker’s species described in his Cata- logue which are in the Oxford’ Museum are those which NO. 1203, VOL. 47 | make it interesting to others. are expressly stated to be in “ Coll. Saunders,” all the others are in the British Museum, including those for which a locality is given before the list of British Museum specimens. Charles Darwin; His Life Told in an Autobiographical Chapter and in a Selected Series of his published Letters. Edited by his son, Francis Darwin. (London : John Murray, 1892.) PROF. DARWIN describes this volume as practically an abbreviation of the well-known “ Life and Letters.” The task of compression has been accomplished admirably, and there can be little doubt that the work will be cordially appreciated by a large number of readers. Of course it has been necessary to omit many details which are of interest to men of science ; but evervthing is included which is really essential to a proper comprehension of Darwin's fine personal character, and a sufficiently full and clear idea is given even of his scientific labours. No one will read this fascinating book without feeling anew how much reason England has to rank. Darwin among the greatest and noblest of her sons. The volume is enriched with a reproduction of an exquisite photograph of Darwin by the late Mrs. Cameron. Strange Survivals : Some Chapters in the History of Man. By S. Baring-Gould. (london: Methuen and Co., 1892.) EVERY one who has given any attention to anthropology is aware that many remarkable customs and beliefs, which are still to be found among the uneducated classes even in highly civilized communities, are relics of ancient superstitions. In the present volume Mr. Baring-Gould examines various groups of these curious survivals, and traces them back to their origin in the ideas of past ages. He knows his subject well, and, being interested in it himself, is able to present it in'a way which is likely to The value of the text is considerably increased by some well-selected illustra- tions. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | Botanical Nomenclature. In NATURE for October 6 (p. 549) there is a note ‘‘on the progress of the negotiations concerning the nomenclature of genera, started by a committee of botanists at Berlin to supple- ment the decisions of the International Botanical Congress held at Paris in 1867.” It is stated that ‘‘ the botanical authorities of the British Museum favour the suggestions ; those at Kew are against them.” Now this requires a little correction. It may be remarked to begin with that many botanists are exercised at the present time not merely about the nomenclature of genera, but also about that of species. Kew has, however, never given its adhesion to the attempts that have been made to bring about an international agreement on these matters, It has always felt that so many considerations must determine the course taken by the systemarist in any particular case, that there is no advantage, -but positive inconvenience, in being subjected to a hard and fast rule. It is therefore with no-disrespect to, or want of sympathy with, the able school of Berlin botanists, who have recently for- mulated some new proposals with regard to n menclature, that Kew has officially refrained from expressing any opinion upon those proposals. It has neither expressed approval nor dis- approval. In America Harvard has long occupied the leading place in the botanical world, and the principles adopted there have been substantially in accord with those adopted at:Kew. I Iitherto, 54 NATURE [ NovEMBER 17, 1892 therefore, the leading. English-speaking botanists who have occupied themselves with systematic botany have been in substantial agreement that the adoption of a strict law of priority in nomenclature must give way to considerations of convenience. Well known and accepted names are not therefore to be lightly changed as the result of mere bibliographical research. As to specific names the often merely mechanical process of de- scribing a new species is held to be of little value compared with the more difficult task of assigning to the plant described its true affinities and correct systematic position. The principle which guides Kew practice in this matter is laid down by Sir Joseph Hooker in the preface to ‘* The Flora of British India” (p. vii). He remarks :— ‘‘The number of species described by authors who cannot determine their affinities increases annually, and I regard the naturalist who puts a described plant into its proper position in regard to its allies as rendering a greater service to science than its describer when he either puts it into a wrong place or throws it into any of those chaotic heaps miscalled genera with which systematic works still abound.” The following paper on the subject deserves the wider circu- lation which its reprint in NATURE would give it. It repre- sents the Harvard tradition and practice, and is the last scien- tific utterance of Dr. Sereno Watson, who so soon followed to the grave his illustrious predecessor, Asa Gray. Kew, November 14. W. T. THISELTON DYER. On NOMENCLATURE,! [It was the request of the late Dr. Sereno Watson that the following com - munication, dictated by him in his last illness, should appear at an early date inthe Botanical Gazette.—Eps.] For some time I have had a desire to give expression to my views upon botanical nomenclature. Under the circum- stances, I must speak briefly and somewhat dogmatically. In my opinion botany is the science of plants and not the science of names. Nomenclature is only one of those tools which is necessary to botany, and this being the case, points of nomen- clature should be subordinated to science. A principle of botanical convenience has been established by those who prefer one name to another on account of ex- pediency or convenience. This principle should have a great deal of influence. It has been so recognized by the greatest botanists, and from their authority receives great weight. I pre- fer the word expediency as a better term than convenience to designate the principle, that the demands of science over-ride any merely technical claims of priority, &c. Priority of specific names appears to be based entirely upon one section of the code of 1867. That simply says that when a species is transferred from one genus to another, the specific name is maintained. This principle is usually under- stood and applied in the way that the oldest specific name has a right in all cases to be retained. It cannot fairly be so interpreted and applied, since it governs only to the extent that this should be the law, but it is not to be made an ev post facto law. Thus when a transfer has been made, that ends the matter so far as the choice of a specific name is con- cerned, and no one is authorized to take up a different name. This practice of retaining the oldest name under the genus, no matter what older specific names there may be, was adopted hy Dr. Gray in his later years and by the Kew bot- anists, for the reason that once established and pretty generally recognized, it would avoid the great mass of synonymy, which is being heaped like an incubus upon the science. I must express surprise that Dr. Britton had not considered it his duty to publish the last written words of Dr. Gray which were addressed to him upon this subject and which expressed his positive opinions upon this point. There is nothing whatever of an ethical character inherent in a name through any priority of publication or position which should render it morally obligatory upon any one to accept one name rather than another; otherwise it would be applicable or true as well in the case of ordinal names, mor- phological names, teratological, and every other form of name, to which now no one feels himself bound to apply the law of priority. The application of this law as at present practised by many botanists, which would make it the one great law of botanical nomenclature, before which every other t From Botanical Gasette, vol. xvii. NO. I 293, VOL. 47 | must yield regardless even of common sense, is a mere form of fetichism exemplified in science. Many instances of the application of this law are not science but are rather supersti- tion. SERENO WATSON, February 22, 1892. The Reflector with the Projection Microscope. THE lantern is now used for so many purposes—scientific, photographic, and recreative—that any improvement in its construction will be acceptable. When we look into this instrument whilst at work we must be disappointed at the large quantity of light lost by reflection and by dispersion—light which ought to go to the illumination of the screen. In the ordinary form of the lantern three lenses of dense glass are employed as condensers. Each of these six surfaces reflects and scatters the light, and the glass itself is absorbent of its rays. The dioptric construction of the projection lantern has been well worked out by Messrs. Wright, Newton, Salomons, and others, but the catoptric principle, which would eliminate almost entirely these disadvantages, has been scarcely at all studied. Although my experiments have been made solely with the limelight in various forms, the following remarks may equally apply to light given by the electric arc :— If a reflector be used instead of the ordinary condensers it is obvious that the position of the lime cylinder must be reversed. This will present no difficulty, for the tube holding the jet can be bent into a helical form. The dark image of the lime- cylinder also will have no more practical disadvantage than is experienced by a like image formed by the small plane specu- lum of the Newtonian telescope. As to the mirror itself, although a parabolic form is the most correct, a spherical surface will be sufficient for mere illumin- ating purposes, and thus expense may be spared in the grind- ing of the more difficult curve. A speculum of from 5 to 7 inches diameter, having a radial curvation of from 24 to 3 inches, will grasp a large quantity of light, much more than that ob- tainable from the 5-inch condenser usually employed. Silver deposited by one of the various reducing processes on the surface of a clear glass lens will have many advantages over a metal mirror. The front surface will give perhaps the finest definition, but by silvering the back part of a spherical glass film, or that of a ground lens, the brilliant surface will remain untarnished for an indefinite time, and the whitish bloom formed by slow volatilization of the incandescent lime is easily removed, This silver film adheres with remarkable tenacity, and it will bear a great deal of heat without blistering or becoming detached. I have had considerable success in constructing such mirrors from the large ornamental glass spheres blown in Germany, and silvered within by Liebig’s process, viz. with milk sugar and ammonio nitrate of silver. A glass sphere of 10 or II inches in diameter may be easily cut into eight or nine mirrors by a red-hot iron, and this without disturbing the silvering, which will require only gentle friction with a pad of cotton impreg- nated with a trifle of rouge to brighten it. Thus, at the cost of a few shillings, eight or more mirrors can be made, and also provision be made against possible accidents of cracking by heat. The light-radiant is so placed that the secondary focus is inter- cepted by a plano-concave lens of dense glass, as has been hap- pily proposed by Mr. L. Wright. The convergent rays from the speculum are thus made into a parallel beam, which must be de- prived of its heat by an alum-trough, for the light and heat at the substage condenser is very great. Convergence, I find, is usefully promoted by a plano-convex lens of about eight inches focus, placed two or three inches before the above-noted plano-concave lens. In all other respects the arrangements are like those of the usual modern projection microscope. I have pretty constantly used the ether-oxygen saturator, and I consider it to be perfectly safe, if ordinary precautions be taken. The oxygen, compressed in cylinders, is much recom- mended, as there can be no mixture of vapour, except at the right place. The U-shaped horizontal saturator, plugged with flannel, must be well charged with ether, or with the best gaso- lene, and care should be taken, before beginning or ending an exhibition, to shut off the oxygen tap before closing the ether NOVEMBER 17, 1892 | NATURE 55 tap. This will prevent the harmless ‘‘ snap” from the mixture in the small chamber at the joining of the gas tubes. Ifa disc ‘more than eight feet be required for the microscope, it will be well to use hydrogen gas instead of ether, since the calibre of the jet cannot in the ether light very well exceed +1; of an inch. As an extra security, I pack the mixing chamber with asbestos- ‘fibre, moistened with glycerine ; but, as before urged, the oxy- _gen must leave the saturator, saturated. To insure the coincidence of the foci of the reflector with the optical axis of the microscope, it will be well to place three ad- _Justing screws in a triangle behind the mirror, and this last may ve both a small vertical and horizontal movement. I claim for this catoptric arrangement a larger grasp of light than can be got from ordinary lenses, and this may be effected also at a small outlay. For the amateur constructor the plan will afford many advantages. G. B. Bucxkron. Note on the Colours of the Alkali Metals. WHEN these metals are heated in a vacuous tube in sucha Way as to cause an extremely thin sublimate of the metal to condense upon the glass, the film so obtained will be found to : a beautiful and strongly-marked colour. That this colour is not in any way due to the combination of the metal with any lingering minute traces of oxygen, is evident from the fact that vacuous tubes which have contained the clean and bright metal and in which the metal has been frequently melted -and rolled about, and even vapourized in places, and in which, therefore, it is impossible to conceive of any oxygen remaining, will continue to show the phenomenon whenever a portion of the contained metal is heated. The experiment may readily be made by introducing a freshly-cut fragment of the metal into a glass tube sealed at one end and drawn down to a narrow and _ thickened constriction near the middle. The tube is then drawn _ out at the open end and connected to a Sprengel pump. As ‘soon as a good vacuum is obtained the tube is warmed through- -out its entire length, the pump being still in operation, and the metal heated sufficiently high to cause it to melt and run out of the crust of oxide. When the exhaustion is again as complete as possible the tube is sealed off. The metal is once more melted, the whole tube being at the same time gently heated, -and the molten mass allowed to filter through the constriction into the other portion of the tube. The vacuous condition of the tube allows of the metal freely running through an extremely fine aperture, and in this way it becomes perfectly separated from all dross.. The tube is then sealed off at the constriction. On gently heating a minute fragment of the bright metal so obtained, & means of a small pointed gas flame, the coloured film of sublimed metal will at once be seen. Viewed by transmitted light, the colour of the film of sodium thus obtained is greenish- blue, inclining to green. Potassium gives a sublimate which is of a magnificent rich purple colour, while rubidium, on the other hand, forms a film which is a pure indigo blue. In the cases of sodium and potassium, the colour of the metallic sublimates is different from the colour of the vapour as seen when the metals are boiled in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Potassium, it will be remembered, yields under these circumstances a vapour ; é an emerald-green colour, while that of sodium, which appears colourless when seen in small layers, shows a violet or purple colour when viewed through a sufficient thickness. en the liquid alloy of sodium and potassium is treated in the same way, the sublimate obtained is found to be greenish in _ colour nearest to the source of heat, quickly shading off to blue and purple as it is more remote from that point, indicating ap- parently that the two metals sublime separately. As a means of observing these colour phenomena, this alloy is more advantageously employed than the solid metals them- selves, for, by rolling the liquid about, the sublimate may be Pi away and the experiment repeated indefinitely in the same _ As to whether the colours of these sublimed films are properties intrinsic to the particular metals, or are merely a function of the physical condition of the substances, it is perhaps rash to dogmatize. A number of other elements have been treated ina similar manner, but without similar results; thus lithium, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, tellurium, and selenium, when heated in vacuous tubes are readily sublimed, but in no case does the film; appear coloured. On the other hand, however, it is well known that some of the very malleable metals when beaten out into thin films are capable of transmitting light varying in colour from g:een to violet. G. %. NEWTH. NO. 1203, VOL. 47 | Women and Musical Instruments. IN answer to Prof. O. T. Mason’s letter which appeared in a recent number of NATURE (vol. xlvi. p. 561), I may draw atten- tion to the following facts which bear upon a part of the subject which he broaches, namely, the part played by savage women in the use of musical instruments. In the South Pacific the ‘‘ nose- flute” is very generally, though by no means exclusively, played upon by women. In the account of the voyage of Capts. Cook and King there is in one of the plates a figure of a woman of the Tonga Islands seated under a hut playing upon a ‘‘ nose- flute.” A similar figure of a woman playing upon a “‘ nose-flute ” may be seen in plate 28 of Labilladiére’s ‘‘ Voyage de la Perouse,” in the representation of a Tongan double-canoe. Melville (‘‘ Four Months’ Residence in the Marquisas Islands,” p. 251) mentions playing upon the ‘‘ nose-flute” as being ‘‘a favourite recreation with the females.” In Wilkes’ ‘‘U. S. Exploring Expedition,” iii. p. 190, there is a description of this instrument as used in the Fiji Islands, and it is stated that ‘‘no other instrument but the flute [‘nose-flute’] is played by the women as an accompaniment to the voice.” Turning now to another genus of primitive instruments, viz., the ‘‘ musical bow,” we find a peculiar local form, the ‘* Pangolo,” occurring at Blanche: Bay, New Britain. There are specimens of this at Berlin and Vienna. This instrument is stated by Dr. O. Finsch (Ann. des K. K. Naturhist. Hofmuseums, suppl. vol. iii. pt. 1, p. 111) to be only played upon by women of Blanche Bay. Guppy too (‘* Solomon Islands,” p. 142), says that the women of Treasury Island produce a soft kind of music by playing, somewhat after the fashion of a jew’s-harp, on a lightly-made fine-stringed bow about 15 inches long. It cannot, I believe, be said that any of these instruments have been invented by women, and it is undoubted that women in savagery but seldom figure as performers upen musical instruments. It would certainly be interesting to collect all the instances recorded. I hope that the above few notes regard- ing instruments in the South Pacific may be of use to Prof. Mason, and I can only regret that lack of the necessary time prevents my going further into the matter. University Museum, Oxford, HENRY BALFOUR. November 7. AN ANCIENT GLACIAL EPOCH IN AUSTRALIA. #35 VERY interesting “special report” has just been issued by the Department of Mines of Victoria, giving an account of the remarkable evidences of glacia- tion observed at a locality about twenty miles south- east of Sandhurst, and about the same distance north of the great Dividing Range.' The report is illustrated by a ‘map and sections on a large scale, and by eight excel- lent photographic prints, showing the character of the deposit on the surface and in railway cuttings, the striated bed rock, and the striated and grooved blocks and boulders, so that full materials are given for the con- clusion that we have here an undoubted glacial deposit. A brief summary of this report will therefore be interesting to all students of the phenomena and problems of terres- trial glaciation. The district now specially described is about fifteen miles in one direction by five in another, and over this area of about thirty-six square miles the conglomerate is continuous, overlying the Silurian rocks of the district. It has generally a rounded or undulating surface, but shows cliffs about 100 feet high in some of the gullies, and its maximum thickness is estimated at 300 or 400 feet, while its highest point is about 700 feet above sea-level. As well seen in the cliffs and several railway cuttings, the conglomerate consists of a matrix of sand and clayey matter containing huge boulders, great angular and sub- angular masses of rock, pebbles, and rock-fragments of endless variety of size, form, and material. Many of these masses are planed, scored, striated, or polished. * “Notes on the Glacial Conglomerate, Wild Duck Creek.” By E. J. Dunn, F.G.S. (R. S. Brain, Government Printer, Melbourne, 1892.) 56 NATURE [| NOVEMBER 17, 1892 Planing is very common, and is either flat or with a hollow or a convex surface. Some of the intensely hard hornfels blocks have been ground on one or more sides, several planes being sometimes ground on the same stone, while some very hard rocks are deeply grooved. In other cases the striations and scratches are so fine as only to be seen with alens; while one surface block of very hard material has been ground down and polished, so that it glitters in the sun. In fact, every form of surface-grinding produced by recent glaciation appears to be here present. The surface of the ground is everywhere strewn with pebbles and boulders, the result of the washing away of the finer materials of the conglomerate; but, besides these, there is a tract of about two and a half miles by one mile near the centre of the conglomerate-area, on the north side of Mount Ida Creek, which is rather thickly strewn with large blocks, termed by the writer “ erratics,” though they can hardly be erratics in the sense of having been deposited on the present surface by ice. There are forty-five of these blocks, which are either of granite, sandstone, or quartz, and vary in size from 6 feet by 4 feet, to 20 by 12 feet. One of the finest, termed “ The Stranger,” of coarse-grained granite, is 16} feet by ‘104 feet, and 5 feet thick, the estimated weight being 30 tons. It is planed and scored in a remarkable manner, as are most of the other blocks. It is curious that beyond this limited area only three or four large blocks are found on the surface, while no pebbles or boulders derived from the conglomerate are found more than a hundred yards beyon: the present limits of that formation. A striking feature of the conglomerate is the great variety of rocks present in it, seeming as if “‘the débris of a continent” had been here gathered together. There are an almost infinite variety of granites, syenites, gneisses, schists, quartzites, sandstones (hard and‘ soft, coarse and fine), slates, shales, conglomerates, amyg- daloids, porphyries, vein-quartz, red, yellow, and grey jaspers, and many others. Some of these can be identified with existing rocks, but others are not known in Victoria. In some cases there is what appears to be river shingle, in others the delicate scratches preserved even on soft shale show that'the material.haS not been exposed to any denuding action. There are also sandstone beds of considerable extent and thickness intercalated with the conglomerate, indicating that there were alternating periods of river or current action while the conglomerate was being formed. The whole of the phenomena here briefly sketched point unmistakably to glacial action ; in fact, there seems to be hardly any part of Wales or Scotland where | such action is more clearly indicated. There are, it is true, no moraines, because the period when the con- glomerate was laid down is too remote, both newer and older pliocene rocks overlying it in some places. In- deed, from fossils found in shales overlying what appears to be a similar conglomerate at Bacchus Marsh, south of the Dividing Range, the writer of the report is inclined to consider the whole formation to be of Paleozoic age. In one part of the area the bed rock is exposed, and this is covered with abundant striations crossing the stratifi- cation lines, indicating either powerful glacier or iceberg action. A list of localities where similar conglomeratés have been found is given, showing that they occur to the north- ward for about 250 miles along the foot of the hills bordering the Murray valley, disappearing under the Tertiary deposits of the lowlands; they have also been met with forming the floor of the auriferous deposits in mines at Creswick and Carisbrook, on the northern slopes of the Dividing Range ; and also, as already stated, at Bacchus Marsh, and a few other localities on the south side of the range. We are not told, however, whether similar indications of glacial action occur in these localities. If these deposits are really all glacial and NO. 1203, VOL, 47] | not quite, simultaneously. contemporaneous, they indicate an extent of glaciated country that would imply either a very lofty mountain range or the occurrence of a real glacial epoch in the southern hemisphere. The direct evidence of the superposition of Tertiary rocks of Pliocene age shows that the glacial conglomerate itself is of great antiquity, but no special attention ap- pears to have been given to the question of the age of the so-called “erratics.” The fact that they are found in so limited an area seems to show that they are not derived from the conglomerate itself by the process of sub-aerial denudation, and the same thing is indicated by the apparent fact that they all rest upon the present land surface. The photographs seem to indicate this, and nothing is said about their relations to the subjacent conglomerate, or whether any considerable proportion of them still form part of it, merely protruding above the surface, as would certainly be the case if they owe their present position tothe mere washing away of the finer parts of the deposit. But, if so, why should they be called “erratics,” as distinguished from the blocks and boulders which are still embedded in the formation? If, on the other hand, they are supposed to be true erratics—that is, to have been deposited on the present land-surface by ice agency—they must clearly be much less ancient than the conglomerate itself, or they would hardly retain such fresh-looking striations, grooving, and polishing as some of them exhibit. It is to be hoped that these most in- teresting deposits will be the subject of very careful study by Australian geologists, since they seem calculated to throw much light on the geological history of the old Australian continent. ALFRED R. WALLACE. ON THE WALKING OF ARTHROPODA. is a letter to' NATURE, published January 8, 1891, I described the manner of walking of several insects. Recently I have been able to examine a greater number of Hexapoda, together with several Arachnida and Centi- pedes, and a few Crustacea. The results of most of these observations were communicated to the Royal, Dublin Society a few weeks ago. _. ; I stated in my former letter that most usually the insects examined moved three legs, e.g. the Ist and 3rd on one side, and the 2nd on the other, almost; but In some insects it is the most anterior leg of this tripod which is raised first ; in others it is the most posterior. An example of the first case is the cockroach, and of the second the blow-fly. But again exceptions appear to occur in each case. This almost simultaneous raising of the “diagonals” is shown by observations, photographic and otherwise, to be the rule in all the adult Hexapoda which I have examined, except the Thysanura. Of this last group I. have observed Zomocerus longicornus, and find that, while it often moves by the simultaneous use of the diagonals, it also often raises its opposite legs simul- taneously in pairs, especially when the animal is walking on a_ smooth surface, and using the sucker which is placed on the anterior part of the abdomen. - This use of the opposite legs in pairs was also found very frequently, as well as the diagonal walk, in the larva of one of the Coleoptera, and is always to be observed in caterpillars. Thus it is interesting to find that in one species at least of the Thysanura, which are regarded as having preserved many of the characteristics of primitive insects. the adult walks in the same manner as the larvee of other insects. It is to be observed that those insects which have long antennz move them, and apparently the maxillary palps, in accordance with the diagonal rule ; for when the front leg of one side is moved the antenna of that side is twitched. . - times NOVEMBER 17, 1892 | NATURE 37 A midge and some arachnids very frequently use the front Pe of walking legs as antenne. The midge which I observed probably belonged to the Cheironomide ; it often, when at rest, stood on the two posterior pairs of legs with the anterior pair aloft in the air ; when walking it moved them much as a beetle moves its antenne, _ gently tapping the ground in front of it with them, their _ motions being always subject to the diagonal rule; in _ flight the midges often hold the anterior pair of legs _ Straight out in front, while the last pair are held out in a _ similar manner behind, and probably have the effect of balancing the insect. The spiders photographed (Zegenaria Derhamii and Tarantula pulverulenta) also exhibited the diagonal _ motion and sometimes the use of the anterior pair of _ legs as antenne. When, in order to photograph them, these animals were put on a piece of paper floating ina _ shallow dish of water, so as to confine them without cast- _ inga shadow on the space in which they walked, they ener Sulygtogpa f to stand on the three posterior pairs of legs at the Be of the paper, while they moved their _ anterior pair of legs through the air, or touched the water ; jour withthem. Several spiders—for instance, 7heridion _ Stsyphum—have the anterior pair of legs longer than the _ others, and very frequently seem to use them as tactile epee teztion in this direction is carried very edipalpi, in which group the anterior pair of are very long, thin, and flagelliform. ____ The wave of motion in one set of diagonals (¢.e. the 1st _ and 3rd of one side, and the 2nd and 4th of the other) in the Tarantula sometimes travelled from before back- wards and sometimes in the opposite direction ; while in _ Tegenaria it passed on the whole forwards, but some- _ times commenced by the raising of one of the middle q sg ae the raising of the two extreme legs of a set. ae en confined on the floating island of paper, the _ Tarantula sometimes, after a good deal of hesitation, _ took to the water. When on the surface of the water, its legs, and sometimes the under surface of its abdomen, € conical capillary depressions in the surface, so that the wateracted as a diffusing lens to the sunlight, and _ a dark circular shadow surrounded with a bright line E Y abepes on the bottom of the dish corresponding to the depression at the tip of each leg. This suggested a method of determining the weight supported by each _ leg, for the diameter of the depressions, and conse- _ quently that of the shadows, bears some ratio to the _ weight on the point which causes the depressions. By _ fixing the leg of a spider on the end of a straw, hung _ delicately as a balance-beam, and by measuring the _ diameters of the shadows caused by the depressions in _ the surface of the water formed by this leg for various _ positions of a rider on the straw, I find that these _ diameters are approximately proportional to the weight _ on the point causing the depressions. Thus, by dividing the total weight of the spider proportionally to the _ diameters of the shadows, we get approximately the weight on each leg. ig. I is from a photograph of the Tarantula standing a e Fic. 1. _ 0n water ; above the spider in the picture is its shadow _ on the bottom of the vessel, and at the ends of the three posterior pairs of legs in the shadow appear circular shadows corresponding to the depressions made by the legs ; and there is also a shadow thrown by the depres- _ sion caused by the abdomen. The weight of this spider _ was 30 mgrs. Thus we find that approximately the NO. 1203, VOL. 47] legs made from profile photographs. weights on the legs are the following :—On the right side, 2nd supports 1°875 mgrs.; 3rd, 7°125 mgrs. ; 4th, 3°375. On the left side, 2nd, 4 875 mgrs. ; 3rd, 5°250 ; 4th, 3000 ; and the abdomen supports 4°500 mgrs. When walking, the Tarantula usually supported all its weight on a tripod formed by the 2nd and 4th legs on one side, together with the 3rd leg on the other side. The weights on the tips of the legs when one photograph was taken were found to be :—On the 2nd right leg, 9°50 mgrs. ; on the 4th right, 10°25 ; and on the 3rd left, 10°25. Profile photographs also seem to show that the Ist pair of legs are not generally used to support much weight. Fig. 2 is a diagram of the positions of the 1st pair of legs Kiteeor flies ert NTO, Fic. 2. drawn from a number of profile photographs of Tegenaria. The first position, a, is that of the leg which has been thrown forward, and is just about to come to the ground ; d@ shows the position of the 1st leg when the body has come forward, owing probably to the traction of this leg as well as to, the pushing of some of the other legs, and so the leg is bent; 4 and ¢ are intermediate positions. The next a Tae Fic. 3. figure is a somewhat similar diagram of the 4th pair of At a@ the leg has just been moved forward, and is on the ground, and is in a good position both for bearing the weight of the body and shoving it forward. At e it is stretched to its full length, and so is not of any use in driving the spider for- wards, while, owing to its almost horizontal position, it is almost useless in supporting the weight of the body. Accordingly the spider has commenced to raise the extremity of the leg prior to lifting the leg completely off the ground. : Last autumn I had the opportunity of observing two scorpions which Mr. R. J. Moss brought from North Africa and exhibited at the Royal Dublin Society. These also appear to proceed according to the diagonal rule ; but I do not know what is the order of succession in one set of diagonals, as I have not yet photographed any of these animals. 4 The hermit crab uses three pairs of legs in walking— the chelze, and two pairs of thoracic walking legs ; these it uses according to the diagonal rule, whether it walks sideways or forwards. Sometimes it simply shoves the chelz along the ground without lifting them, while it moves the two pairs of legs in a diagonal manner. One of the Asellidae I found often used the opposite legs in pairs simultaneously when walking. : : The centipede does not either raise its opposite legs in pairs together, nor does it move its legs according to the diagonal rule. Ina number of photographs taken with an exposure of about the th of a second the legs appear to move in threes diagonally, for instance, the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, and the 9th, roth, and 11th on one side move simul- taneously with the 6th, 7th, and 8th of the other side, while on the first side mentioned the 6th, 7th, and 8th, with the 12th, 13th, and 14th are on the ground, and on the other side the 3rd, 4th, and 5th, and gth, roth, and 11th are also on the ground. At either end of the body this order is usually more or less disturbed ; thus on the right side the 14th’ leg might be on the ground, while on the left the 13th, 14th, and 15th would be also in contact with the ground ; but 58 NATURE [ NOVEMBER 17, 1892 in none of the photographs was the symmetrical diagonal movement of the successive threes disturbed between the 2nd and 12th pairs of legs inclusive. This apparently simultaneous motion of three adjoining legs may probably be explained by supposing a series of waves, whose crests traverse three legs in the ‘Ath of a second, tobe passing along the body, since the different photographs show different legs moving in threes ; thus in one photograph the 6th, 7th, and 8th on the left sideare seen to be moving forward, while in another the 5th, 6th, and 7th, are moving. Since reading the paper at the Royal Dublin Society, Mr. G. H. Carpenter brought to my notice two papers by M. Jean Demoor, “ Recherches sur la Marche des Insectes et des Arachnides” (Archives de Biologie, 1890) and “ Recherches sur la Marche des Crustacés ” (Archives de Zoologie Expérimentale et Générale, 1891). Demoor points out the simultaneous use of the tripod in the insects which he examined, but as he did not use photography he does not seem to have observed the minute want of synchronism of the legs ofa tripod. Figs. 4 and 5 illustrate this.’ These are two photographs taken of the same specimen of B/aps mucronata. Fig.4 is from a photo- graph taken with a long exposure, and shows the Ist and 3rd of the left side, and the 2nd of the right moving at the same time, just as it appears to the eye. Fig. 5 is from Fic. 5. a photograph taken with less than half the exposure of 4, and shows that while the 1st leg on the right side is raised off the ground, the 3rd on the same side and the 2nd on the left have not yet been raised. That they have not been raised and are now come to rest is shown by their backward position with regard to the body and other legs. These two photographs also show that the antenna is often twitched almost simultaneously with the motion of the 1st leg of its side. M. Demoor also ob- served a scorpion (Buthus australis), but its method of progression does not seem to have agreed with that of. the scorpions (Buthus europeus) which I observed. He has not, so far as I know, recorded any observations on spiders. HENRY H. DIXON. Trinity College, Dublin, June. ON IRON ALLOYS. qn merely mechanical expert in the working of metals would naturally consider it probable that a given metal when fused with another would communicate its physical properties, roughly, in proportion to the quantity added. A soft, tough metal added to iron would, from his point of view, render the latter softer; a brittle or hard metal would have the contrary effect, and so on throughout the whole series of metallic alloys. t Figs. 4 and 5 show the legs, which are raised from the ground, quite sharp. In the negative they are more or less blurred owing to their motion during the exposure. NO. 1203, VOL. 47] Actual experiment would soon, however, show the fallacy of this, and that in the majority of cases no reli- ance could be placed on this assumption solely based on the physical properties of the elements severally con- sidered. A further study of the laws which govern chemical combination would quickly show that alloys formed by fusion were not merely intermixtures, but that something else took place, bodies being often produced, or rather formed, differing considerably from the metals severally used. It would therefore be fair to assume that the metals entered into combination with each other, and yet it would be found that the problem even at this stage was not completely solved. Further inquiry and experiment would indicate that it was not always possible to prove that chemical combina- tions ‘were in all instances” formed by fusion alone. Instead of this something closely akin to only an inter- mixture of the metals occurred ; second, one of the metals had apparently dissolved in the other; third, it was diffi- cult to differentiate betwixt intermixture and solution. Here we are on all fours with modern ideas which seem to have met with general acceptance, although it is not denied that elements or metals are capable of chemically combining with each other. We are not, however, quite prepared to draw a hard and fast line betwixt chemical combination of the metals with each other, solutions, and intermixtures of metals. Oneappears to merge into the other, and no good reason “ so far as is known” can be given why solution, as ordinarily understood, or as defined by Van ’t Hoff and others, may not be as applicable to fused metals as to the solution of certain salts in water. Water at 60° is nothing more nor less than fused ice ; fused iron, therefore, may obey the same laws, and, “like water,” may be capable of dissolving certain substances, | and rejecting others, temperature constituting the sole difference—or plainly, solid ice is fusible at 60°, iron at about 2500°. ; Now what happens in the case of water? Certain bodies are soluble in it, others not ; on lowering the temperature, these bodies are to a certain extent rejected, and nearly, but not quite, pure ice is formed ; and so far as we know this equally applies to fused iron. As an instance, on cooling, the carbon is rejected, and appears in the graphitic! form, merely diffused throughout the solid cold metal. It is impossible here to treat this matter in detail ; but enough, we think, has been said to indicate that the analogy is fairly complete throughout. But there is another matter—apart from the solution of foreign bodies in fused ice or iron—which requires to be discussed. Ice dissolves in warm water, and so does cold iron or steel in superheated fused iron ; the hot fluid metal from the Bessemer converter fuses or dissolves large lumps of solid steel placed in it as easily as ice is thawed in warm water. Temperature here, in both in- stances, determines the quantity which can be added ; the higher the heat, the greater the quantity which can thus be dissolved or fused, ere the bath becomes thick, pasty, and incapable of being poured out into another vessel. In so-called solutions the same rule appears to hold good ; but, as all chemists know, there are many excep- tions ; in some cases heat is evolved, in others absorbed ; and some bodies are more soluble in the cold fluid solvent. It is, however, believed that no instance can be quoted of a body being more soluble in iron at a low degree of heat than ata high one. Confining ourselves to hot fluid iron or steel, it apparently readily dissolves cold metal. Similarly, other bodies, such as copper, &c., are dissolved in the same way when added to it. The cold metal is fused by absorption of the enormous * The relations existing betwixt carbon and iron are peculiar, and require to be separately discussed. NoveEMBER 17, 1892 | NATURE 59 extra heat of the bath, but this may not be strictly true, for something like solution may also take place. In melting iron in the reverberatory furnace it often happens, when the heat is insufficient, that the iron sets in a pasty semi-fluid mass on the bottom of the furnace ; the operator then adds some molten iron, and the whole soon becomes fluid. This process is closely akin to solution. It cannot be explained as simple fusion of iron in iron; the molten iron, in fact, seems to exert a solvent action on the pasty _metal, and heat alone plays only a secondary part. This may seem absurd to those not practically engaged in the manufacture of iron, but the fact remains as the result of the experience of iron-workers. It follows that other metals can be similarly taken up, ‘and the theory of certain iron alloys simplified. There are certain metals intimately related to iron on the pe- ‘tiodical scale of the elements, also by atomic volume and ‘atomic weight, and their combination with iron may be achieved by fusion, and possibly something like solution as well, as described, resulting in the production of a similar homogeneous product, which compound metal | cannot well be termed either a solidified solution of one metal into another, a chemical combination, or inter- mixture of metals. The physical properties of this alloy, of course, are different from those of iron. This seems an extreme view to take, but it may be mentioned that the absolutely pure elements prepared by special experts are known in some instances to differ somewhat from those accepted as such in an ordinary laboratory. It has been ___also noted that the so-called impurity extracted does not __ differ very greatly from the pure product, and yet is not at toe the same—(quoting from memory, “ this applies especially to alumina,” why not iron ?) As the result of an extensive experience in the che- _ mical examination of crude iron, steel, and thé purest. wrought iron, one finds that some metals cling persist- ently to iron—-manganese is always present, nearly all _ contain copper, nickel also may often be detected if sought for, chromium is not so rare a constituent as might be ; —all, however, in minute quantities in the case of wrought iron or Bessemer decarbonized metal. It is curious that these particular metals should cling to iron, but the previous exposition of their relation to _ iron possibly affords a clue accounting for their persistent ce. Again, one gathers from a study of Crookes’s theory of _ the genesis of the elements, together with his spectroscopic researches on the composition of the rare earths, yttria, &c., that one so-called element apparently merges. into another by almost insensible gradations ; it is probable that iron is one of these. Probably it is, for recently it has been all but demonstrated by Prof. Roberts-Austen and others that iron is a compound body, but the rela- tions betwixt these bodies are so close that they have not been isolated, and both are still termed iron. We have evidence of the possibility of one element merging into another and that iron is not an element, and any one who has studied the periodic law cannot fail to see at least the probability that minute variations in the composition of the elementary bodies may occur, which, however, cannot well be differentiated by our present comparatively coarse analytical methods. Modern _methods, however, have been sufficiently accurate to enable us to show that certain relations can be traced throughout the whole series of the elements, and it is in this way that the periodic law has been formulated ; and fairly trustworthy atomic weights have been obtained. Admitting the possibility of minute variations in the composition of elementary bodies, or more correctly that, as urged by Crookes, an element may have more than one atomic weight—the atomic weight accepted being the mean of these: with the periodic law for our guidance, and also attaching due weight to the relations existing NO. 1203, VOL. 47] betwixt the weights and volume of the atoms, it would seem that the theory advanced of the homogeneous forma- tion of bodies by fusion is in accord with the periodic law, &c., governing the genesis of the elements. This is equivalent to saying that a fourth state of com- bination may be imagined, which is— (1) Neither solution of one metal in another. it Chemical combination of bodies. 3) Intermixture of bodies. Hadfield’s alloys of iron and manganese may be mem- bers of this class. The first series of these alloys are hard, but when the manganese exceeds 7 per cent. the metal softens; and alloys containing about 12 to 15 per cent. of Mn are strong, tough, cannot be annealed, and cannot be termed either iron or steel. The same to a certain extent, it is believed, applies to the nickel alloys of iron. There are other properties, which show that the FeMn alloys are unique. The alloys of chromium and iron recently made by Mr. Hadfield appear to be of the same class, as also those of nickel and copper with iron. More plainly, the homogeneous compound bodies previously commented upon may be practically termed elementary bodies similar to the quasi-elements of the rare earths studied by Prof. Crookes. These being, however, within the domain of practical chemistry, it is easy to demonstrate their compound nature, not for- getting “that, as previously noted,” it is not easy to entirely eliminate these bodies allied to iron. We may even go further and assume that the fourth state indicates a species of combination even more inti- mate than the chemical combination of the chemists. In fact, reactions “occur quite unlike chemical com- bination in which atoms only combine with atoms, or bodies are built up atomically.” The fourth state may go beyond this ; at present this is pure assumption; yet an eminent man of science has suggested that even the atoms may be smashed, and this is equivalent to saying that under certain conditions the atom may be non- existent ; or in an alloy of, say, iron and nickel or iron and manganese, the separate atoms of iron and mangan- ese do not exist; or in an alloy of iron and Mn or nickel, the severally separate atoms of Fe and Mn, &c., may have no tangible existence apart from each other, as in the case of true chemical combination. Further, this seems more probable if we remember that chemical com- binations are, according to modern views, nothing more nor less than structural formations governed by physical laws which regulate their molecular arrangement and the relative positions of the atoms to each other, just asin any structural work built by the hand of man, certain laws or rules must be adhered to. In Nature’s laboratory something beyond this may be going on— something, indeed, altogether outside our limited know- ledge and experience. Iron is only one member of a very complicated group, which are closely in accord both as regards their atomic volumes and weights and position on the periodic scale of the elements ; and, if we are to accept the work of Prof. Crookes, the well-known investigations of Prof. Roberts- Austen, Osmond, and some data derived from the spectroscopic work of Lockyer, one may be really justified in assuming that quasi-elements may be formed by fusion in the workshop—z.e., elements which can afterwards be dissociated by ordinary chemical processes. The accepted elements, it is true, have not been so dissociated; but it is clear something has been done to indicate the compound nature of at least some of these. : The theory of the possible existence of iron as a quasi element when fused with other elements of like nature clashes with the generally ‘received ideas of chemical NATURE | NovEMBER 17, 1892 combinations or solution ; because undoubtedly these are | formed. Granting that chemical combinations likewise take place, does it not seem probable that when these latter are present they may be strictly termed impurities? If so, iron alloys may be divided into two classes—(1) those in the homogeneous or fourth state, “the true — alloys,” (2) those in which chemical combinations or solution only takes place; and this latter class may be termed impure metal, in contradistinction to the first or quasi elementary body. In conclusion it is urged that many of our most emi- nent metallurgists and men of science have “ by very different modes of investigation” come to the conclusion that iron itself is a compound very complex body. © It is true that we have only indirect proof of this, but it only remains to find methods of isolating these bodies from each other. NOTES. THE medals of the Royal Society are this year awarded as follows :—The Copley Medal to Prof. Rudolph Virchow, For. Mem.R.S., for his investigations in Pathology, Pathological Anatomy, and Prehistoric Archzology ; the Rumford Medal to Mr. Nils C. Dunér, for his Spectroscopic Researches on Stars ; a Royal Medal to Mr. John Newport Langley, F.R.S., for his work on Secreting Glands, and on the Nervous System ; a Royal Medal to Prof. Charles Pritchard, F.R.S., for his work on Photometry and Stellar Parallax; the Davy Medal to Prof. Francois Marie Raoult, for his researches on the Freezing Points of Solutions, and on the Vapour Pressures of Solutions ; the Darwin Medal to Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, F.R.S., on account of his important contributions to the progress of Syste- matic Botany, as evidenced by the ‘‘Genera Plantarum” and the ‘‘ Flora Indica,” but more especially on account of his intimate association with Mr. Darwin in the studies preliminary to the ‘‘Origin of Species.” The award of the Royal Medals has been graciously approved by the Queen. - THE American Ornithologists’ Union has been holding its tenth congress at Washington. The meetings began on Tuesday, and were held in the U.S. National Museum. - JaMEs Piant, F.G.S., of Leicester, who has just died in his seventy-fifth year, was well known as a local geologist in the midland counties, and as a member for some years of the Committee of the British Association on Erratic Blocks. Such blocks are numerous in Leicestershire, those on the southern side of the county being chiefly derived from the Charnwood range, and Mr. Plant was diligent in searching out and record- ing the more important of them. Several large boulders striated and partially polished stand in the grounds of the Leice-ter Museum, rescued by him from various railway cuttings. In 1868 he collected a very fine series of massive specimens representing all the hard rock formations of his native county, for exhibition at the meeting of the Royal Agri- cultu al Society. These were afterwards built up into a great cone about 8 feet in diameter and 15 feet high in the museum grounds, and when the enlargement of the building necessitated its removal they were formed into a diagrammatic geological section on another site. Having to be again removed two years ago some of them were used to form a rough geological model of Charnwood Forest in the Abbey Park. In his latter years Mr. Plant acted as consulting geologist in several important borings for water and coal. The curious concentric rings on the face of a rock in Charnwood Forest interested him greatly, and with much trouble and labour he succeeded in obtaining plaster casts of them. He was active also in procuring photo- graphs of many of the most remarkable geological features of the district. NO. 1203, VOL. 47] Dr. R. v. WETTSTEIN, of Vienna, editor of the Oesterreich- ische Botanische Zeitschrift, has been appointed ordinary Pro- fessor of Botany at the University of Prague. THE Prussian Government has decided to introduce the use of the Centigrade thermometer instead of that by Reaumur, which is still in use in some parts, and no further Reaumur thermometers are to be supplied to any public officials. The Centigrade thermo- meter has long been in use in Germany for scientific purposes, — A VALUABLE collection of fossils, minerals, and shells, com- prising several thousand specimens, and particularly rich in specimens from the carboniferous formation, has just been pre- sented to the University College of North Wales by Mr. Evan Roberts, of Manchester. It is hoped that this gift will become the nucleus of an important geological collection suited to the educational requirements ofa University College, and that similar gifts will from time to time be made to the College by those interested in the progress of geological study. THE Oxford Medical Society held its first meeting on Satur- day last, at the University Museum. Sir Henry Aclend presided. The inaugural address was delivered by Sir James Paget. He said they all knew that the practice and science of medicine, or, as it was sometimes called, the science and art of medicine, were by some regarded as things quite distinct, wide apart, and in study almost incompatible. A few there were who had the capacity of pursuing both. The great mass of those engaged in the. pursuit of medicine were either practitioners or men devoting themselves to science. Each method of work was essential to the practice of the other. It might be asked how could practitioners work as men of science even where they had the time for it? He believed that would come about by the in- crease in the teaching of science in all medical schools and Universities.. He pointed out the work which might be under- taken by the society, and spoke at length on various subjects which might be studied with advantage. Prof. Burdon-Sander- son said the society had been established for the furtherance and promotion of science, and they wished to make an advance, so to speak, towards the University. There» was a yearning in the minds of the medical profession in Oxford to unite itself more closely than it had hitherto with the scientific studies of the University which depended immediately on medicine. THE weather has continwed very~ unsettled” during the past week, the most notable features being the prevalence of fog and abnormally high temperature. During the latter part of last week fog extended over nearly the whole of England, as well as a large part of the Continent. In London and the suburbs in- tense darkness occurred on several days, interspersed with very short intervals of sunshine, but in the north-western parts of the kingdom the weather was generally fair. These conditions were due tothe distribution of pressure, which was cyclonic over the western portion of these islands, but anti-cyclonic over western Europe. Temperature was uniformly high for the season, the daily maxima ranging from about 50° to 60°, and reached 62° in several places in the southern counties on Monday. This maximum is the highest that has been recorded in the neigh- bourhood of London during the last ten years. Inthe early part of the present week a deep depression passed to the westward of lreland from the Atlantic, causing southerly gales in the north and west, with rain in all parts of the country, the amount measured at Valencia Observatory. on Monday exceeding an inch. On Tuesday afternoon a fresh depression reached our south-west coasts from the south-eastwards, while a trough of low pressure lay over the Bay of Biscay and France, causing further heavyrains and local fogs. For the week ending the 12th instant the reports show that bright sunshine was, as might have been expected, very de- ficient generally, especially over northern and eastern England, where the percentage of possible duration was only 9; the lowest NOVEMBER 17, 1892 | _ ‘amount was at Stonyhurst, where it was only 2 per cent. The _ south-west of England enjoyed the brightest weather, as there __ thesunshine amounted to 33 per cent. of the possible amount. _ THEcurrent number of the Axnalen der Hydrographie contains _ a short note of a hurricane at Marseilles on October 1, which is q ‘said to have been more severe than any experienced during the - last thirty years. From 8 a.m. until 1 p.m. the wind, rain, hail and lightning were incessant, all the lower parts of the town _ being under water, while several houses and bridges in the _ neighbourhood were destroyed. The weather charts for the day __ show that the storm was caused by a small whirl which occurred _ on the south-eastern side of a large depression, whose centre lay in the south of Scotland. While the centre of the depression _ scarcely altered its position, the whirl increased in extent, but _ diminished in intensity, and on October 3 it had crossed Northern Italy and lay over Hungary. Mr. CHARLES CARPMAEL, director of the meteorological _ service of the Dominion of Canada, urges in his latest report the need for more thorough inspection of the various stations under his control. He points out that the stations in Great Britain and Ireland, connected with the Meteorological Office, _ Léndon, are constantly inspected, and that in every country _ where meteorology is worked out.on a large scale inspection is _ admitted as the only system, whereby trustworthy and satisfactory _ results can be obtained. He recommends therefore that a _ sufficient appropriation should be placed at his disposal to enable _ him to have the meteorological stations in the Dominion € inspected and the observers thereof thoroughly instructed in the Ee duties required of them. If this is not done the data furnished ‘to the Central Office cannot, he says, be accurate. _ Two numbers have now been issued of the new series of the - cryptogamic journal, Grevz//ea, under the editorship of © ‘Mr. G. Massee. It is conducted very much on the old lines, and contains many articles of interest to cryptogamists. It is .strange that one peculiarity of the journal should still be retained which detracts very much from its usefulness as a work of re- ference, the absence of any table of contents or index to each Sten number. THE Cambridge University Press has issued the Sedgwick 4 prize essay for 1886, by the late. Thomas Roberts, on the Juras- ‘sic rocks of the neighbourhood of Cambridge. The essay has ‘been edited by Mr. Henry Woods, Scholar of St. John’s College, and Lecturer on Palzeontology in the Woodwardian Museum. Inan interesting preface, Prof. T. McKenny Hughes explains ‘the nature of the problem which the author endeavoured to solve, expresses his belief that the work is indispensable for the student of Cambridge geology, and most valuable for all special- ‘ists in the Jurassic rocks. Sir Henry H. Howorru has completed and will shortly publish a considerable work on which he has been !ong engaged entitled, ‘‘ The Glacial Nightmare and the Flood.” It begins with an account of the various theories which have been forth- coming to explain the drift phenomena, in which the very large literature on the subject has been for the first time condensed and tabulated. It then proceeds to criticize the extreme glacial views which have recently prevailed among geologists, and to call in question the theory of uniformity as developed by the _ followers of Lyell and Ramsay, and especially to attack the notion that ice is capable of distributing materials over hundreds of miles of level country, and of producing many of the effects attributed to it by the glacial school of geologists. The author argues that the evidence points to the former existence of much Jarger glaciers than exist now, but not to an ice period when the temperate regions were covered with ice. On the contrary, these great glaciers existed side by side of fertile plains. Lastly he NO. 1203, VOL. 47] NATURE 61 argues that the phenomena of the drift can only \ve explained by reverting in a large measure to the diluvial theories 2f Sedg- wick and Murchison, Von Buch and others, and that the purely geological evidence is completely at one with that collected in the author’s previous work on ‘* The Mammoth and the Flood,” and establishes that a great diluvial catastrophe forms in the temperate zones the dividing line between the mammoth age and our own. THE Libraries Committee of the Glasgow Town m entitled a proof of the exactness of Cayley’s ged of seminvariants bd a given type. The earlier part the present paper supplies omissions in the preceding one and in Tt eaiader o* theorem on which Mr. Elliott’s argument was based is transformed, and the result examined for _ its own sake without reference to the particular application. — certain general limitations affecting hyper-magic squares, by 5. Roberts, F.R.S. The paper does not aim at making any ition to the known ways of constructing magic squares. ber-magic squares, as the writer regards them, include those led by M. E. Lucas ‘“‘carrées diaboliques,” and also treated by Mr. A. H. Frost under the designation of ‘‘ Nasik squares.” The special form is of ancient origin. The second method given by Moschopulus (thirteenth century) is a general one for forming such squares and they have been discussed by various A let “a cf | modern authors. The writer's object is to show some limita- | tions to which they are subject when the elements are positive | or negative integers. Incidentally it appears that hyper-magic Squares of oddly even orders cannot be formed of series of con- secutive natural numbers. There is some reason for believing that much ingenuity has been fruitlessly employed in trying te wares. We may here mention that a very inter- form such ting historical essay on the subject of magic squares has been published by Dr. Siegemund Giinther, in his work entitled | ‘‘Vermischte Untersuchungen sur Geschichte der Mathematischen | Wissenschaften” (Leipsic 1876). The subject has also been | brought into connection with the ‘‘ Geometry of Tissues,” by M. } Lucas and others (see the ‘ Principii Fundamentali della Geo- ‘metria dei Tessuti,” par Edoardo Lucas, Torino, 1880).—Note on the equation y* = x («*~1) by Prof. W. Burnside. —Note on NO. 1203, VOL. 47 | secondary Tucker circles by Mr. J. Griffiths. The idea of this note sprang from the fact that if G,g, are two inverse points with respect to the circumcircle (ABC) whose centre is O ze. such that OG x Og = R®, then the pedal triangles DEF, def of G,g, with regard to ABC are similar. Taking G to be one of the Brocard points, then (DEF) is a Tucker circle and (def) a secondary circle.—On a group of triangles inscribed in a given triangle ABC whose sides are parallel to connectors of any point P with A,B,C, by Mr. Tucker. If DEF, D’E’F’, area pair of such triangles they are readily seen to be in perspective. Their properties are considered with reference to the principal points and lines of the modern geometry of the triangle.—A note on triangular numbers by Mr. R. W. D. Christie. Paris. Academy of Sciences, November 7.—M. de Lacaze- Duthiers in the chair.—Letter addressed to the President by the committee formed to celebrate the seventieth birthday of M. Pasteur. —Influence of the distribution of manures in the soil upon their utilization, by M. H. Schloesing.—Note on the reply of M. Berthelot to my note of October 24, by M. Th. Schloesing,— Comparison of the magnetic observations of General Pevzoff in Central Asia with the data of the English magnetic charts, by M. Alexis de Tillo. General Michael Pevzoff, in his last ex- ploring tour in Eastern Turkestan, made some careful determi- nations of magnetic declinations and inclinations. If these are compared with those published by M. Creack in the report of the Challenger expedition, it appears that in declination an average correction of + 1°'7 has to be applied to the latter, while the inclinations are practically identical.—On the new triangulation of France, by M. L. Bassot. This work was commenced in 1870. It comprised the establishment of a continuous chain between the Spanish frontier and Dunkerque, supporting the net on three base lines, and attaching it as far as possible to each of the parallel chains of the old triangulation. Also a new determination of the co-ordinates of the Panthéon, the fundamental point of the triangulation, the measurements of base-lines in terms of the international metrical standard, and the calculation of the new arc of meridian. It was found that, starting from the Paris base-line, the network was verified at Perpignan, at a distance of 6°, to within 1 in 250,000. Where the French system meets the English, Belgian, and Italian systems, the correspondence is found practically perfect, but on the Spanish frontier there exists a difference of 1 in 65,000 at present unexplained. The arc between Dunkerque and Carcassonne, ag now calculated, exceeds that of Delambre by 44°7m., or I in 20,000,—Essay on a general method of chemical synthesis, by M. Raoul Pictet.—On the fifth satel- lite of Jupiter, by M. E. Roger. From the empirical formula for the distances of Jupiter’s satellites log hyp a = 8 - ” — 0'03 cos @™ + ¢ the probable distances of any satellites yet undiscovered can be calculated. It appears that there may be one at distance 1°97, two others at 1°61 and 1°27, or a single one at 1°425, and others beyond the outermost satellite. The distances of those already known are 2°50, 6°05, 9°62, 15°35, and 27°00.—On the trans- formations of dynamical equations, by M. Paul Painlevé.— Lenticular liquid microglobules and their conditions of equili- brium, by M. C. Maltézos. The smallest drops of a liquid jet falling upon another liquid often assume a lenticular shape, one surface of which is more curved thanthe other. These are called microglobules, Their diameters were measured, and their volumes and masses calculated. The production of micro- globules in all the liquids in Quincke’s table was experimented upon.—Effects of weight on fluids at the critical point, by M. Gouy.—Dilatation of iron in a magnetic field, by M. Berget. An elegant experiment to exhibit the lengthening of an iron bar on magnetization, on the principle of Newton’s rings. The bar in question, provided with a cap of black glass, presses against the flat side of a plano-convex lens screwed to the same stand. The bar is surrounded by a coil, which can be excited by a battery of accumulators. Magnetization is at once indicated by the expansion of the rings. On the dissipation of the electric energy of the Hertz resonator, by M. V. Bjerknes (see Wiede- mann’s Annalen, No. 9).—On the equality of potential at the contact of two electrolytic deposits of the same metal, by M. G. Gouré de Villemontée.—On the rotating power of the diamine salts, by M. Albert Colson.—Volumetric determination of the alkaloids, by M. E. Léger.—On the fixation of free nitrogen by , ar NATURE [ NovEMBER 17, 1892 plants, by MM. Th. Schloesing, jun., and Em. Laurent.— Observations on the preceding note, by M. Duclaux.—Observa- tions on the preceding communications, by M. Berthelot.—On +y-achroglobine, a new respiratory globuline, by M. B. Griffiths.—On the axinite of the Pyrenees, its forms and its con- ditions of occurrence, by M. A. Lacroix.—On the subterranean river of the Tindoul de la Vayssi¢re and the springs of Salles- la-Source (Aveyron), by MM. E, A. Martel and G. Gaupillat.— ‘On the comparative anatomy of the stomach in Ruminants, by M. J. A. Cordier.—Remarks on some means of defence in the eolidians, by M. E, Hecht.—On the evolution of the brachial apparatus of some brachiopods, by MM. P. Fischer and D. P. ‘Ehlert.—On the mechanism of solution of starch in plants, by M. A. Prunet.—On the diuretic and ureopoietic action of the alkaloids of cod-liver oil on man, by M. J. Bouillot.—Results -obtained at the crystal works of Baccarat by the introduction of ‘metastannic acid into putty powder, by M. L. Guéroult. BERLIN, ‘Physiological Society, October 14.—Prof. Munk, presi- dent, in the chair.—Prof. Kossel gave an account of further researches on nucleinic acid, a compound which, in union with -albumin, composes the proteids of the cell-substance. In earlier researches he had studied the acid as derived from yeast-cells and salmon-milt, and found that while the substances obtained ‘from these two sources differed in many respects, they resembled -each other in that the ratio of phosphorus to nitrogen was in both as I to 3,andthat they both yielded nuclein-bases during their -decomposition. More recent researches on the nuclein derived from the leucocytes of the thymus gland have shown that the ‘nucleinic acid it yields is nore like that from milt, and resembles ‘the product obtained from yeast'even less than does the product from milt. The relationships of nucleinic acid to the chromatin bodies of the histologists were minutely. considered. —Prof. Gad brought forward a theory of the excitatory process in muscles, ‘based upon the theory of Fick, but further developed and sup- ported by experiments on tetanized muscles, DIARY OF SOCIETIES. LONDON. THURSDAY, NoveEMBER 17. ‘RovaL Society, at 4.c0o.—Onthe Characters and Behaviour o! the Wan- dering (Migrating) Cells of the Frog, especially in Relation to Micro- organisms: Dr. Kanthack and W. B. Hardy.—On the Colour of the Leaves of Plants and their Autumnal Changes: Dr. Hassall.—Stability and Instability of Viscous Liquids: A. B. Basset, S.—Observations on the Earthquake Shocks which occurred in the British Isles and France during the Month of August, 1892: Prof. Hull, F.R.S. “LINNEAN SociEry, at 8.—A Theoretical Origin of Endogens through an Aquatic Habit: Rev. Prof. Henslow.—On the Buprestide of Japan and their Coloration: G. Lewis. -CHEMICAl Socirty, at 8 —Fluo-sulphonic Acid: T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., and William Kirman.—The Interaction of Iodine and Potassium Chlorate: T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S., and George H. Perry.—The Magnetic Rotation of Sulphuric and Nitric ‘Acids and fate Solutions: also of Solu- tions of Sodium Sulphate and Lithium Nitrate : erkin, F.R.S.— Note on the Refractive Indices and Magnetic Rotation of Sulphuric Acid Solutions: S. U. Pickering, F.R.S.—Hydrates of Alkylamines: S. U. Pickering, F.R.S.—On the Atomic Weight of Boron: W. Ramsay, F.R.S., and Miss Emily Aston.—And other papers. “ongntelae OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8. ae Problems of Com- mercial Electrolysis: James Swinburne (Discussion.) ‘Lonpon InstiTuTIoN, at 6.—Lincoln Cathedral (Illustrated): Rev. Canon Edmund Venables. SUNDAY, NoveMBER 20. “Sunnay LECTURE SOCIETY, at 4 tal Bet Weather Forecasts are arrived at, and how we should use them (with Oxy-hydrogen Lantern Itlustrations) ; Arthur W. Clayden. MONDAY, NovemssR 2t. Society oF ArTs, at 8.—The Generation of Light from Coal Gas: Vivian B. Lewes. ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY, at 8.—The Nature of Physical Force and Matter : Prof. ‘Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 5.—Respiration in Man and Animals (Illustrated): Hy. Power. TUESDAY, NovemMBER 22. INSTITUTION OF cree ENGINEERS, at 8.- Halifax Graving-Dock, Nova Scotia: Hon. C. Parsons.—Cockatoo Island Graving- -Dock, New S uth Wales: i W. Young.—The Alexandra Graving-Dock, Belfast : ‘W. Redfern Kelly.—Construction of a Concrete Graving-Dock at Newport, Monmouthshire: Robert Pickwell. (Discussion.) WEDNESDAY, NoveMBER 23. “GEOLOGICAL SociETY, at 8.—Outline of the Geological Features of Arabia Petra and Palestine: Prof. Edward Hull, S.—The Marls and Clays of the Maltese Islands: J. H. Cooke.—The Base of the Keuper Formation in Devon: Rey. A. Irving. “Societv or Arts, at 8.—Cremation as an Incentive 'to Crime: F. [Sey- mour Haden. NO. 1203, VOL. 47] THURSDAY, NovEMBER 24 INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS, at 2.30.—Students’ Visits to the Gan Light and Coke Company’s Chief Office, Horseferry Road, Westminster. Lonpon LNstitruTion, at 6.—The Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (Illus- trated): J. Theodore Bent. FRIDAY, NoveMBER 25. Puysicat Society, at 5. Experiments i in Electric and Magnetic Fields, Constant and Varying: E. C. Rimington and E. Wythe Smith. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. Booxs.—The Value of ‘Hypnotism in Chronic Alcoholism: Dr. C. L. Tuckey (Churchill).—Guide to the Science of Photo Micrography, 2nd edition: E. C. Bousfield (Churchill).—Das Centralnervensystem von Protopterus Annectens: Dr. R. Burckhart (Berlin, Friedlander).—Aids to Experimental Science: A. Gray (Auckland, Upton).—The Outlines of Organic Chemistry: C. J. py (lliffe).—Théorie Mathématique de la Lumiére: H. Poincaré (Paris, G. Carré), —A Sequel to the First Six Books of the Elements of Euclid, 6th edition : Dr. J. Casey, edited A. E. Dowling Senaane. —The Jurassic Rocks of the Neighbourhood of Cam- bridge: T. Roberts (C. J. Clay).—Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate: A. C. gre (C. ik js Clay).—The Collected Papers of Sir Wm wman, Bart., R.S.: vol. 1, Researches in Physiological Anatomy, edited by se ad Major edit Faded Sanderson ; vol. 2, Surgical and phihalacaa P by J. W. Hulke (Harrison) —The Fayfim and Lake Meeris: Brown (Stanford ).—Text-book of - Embryology of Man Mel r. O. Hertwig, translated by Dr. E. L. Mark (Sennenschein). PamPHLETs.—A Sanitary Crusade. through the East and Australia (Glas- gow, Boyle).— Geologische und Geographische Experimente ; ii. Heft, Vul- kanische und Massen-Eruptionen: E. Reyer (Leipzig, Engelmann). ~The Gods of Greece, and other Translations: Dr. J. F. Whitty (Grocock).— First Series of Field-path Rambles round Bromley, c.: W. Miles (Taylor).—Un Avance 4 la Antropologia de Espafia: L. de Hoyos Sainz an Tromometriche : P. T. Bertelli (Torino, Giuseppe SERIALS.—Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, vol. xiv. ; Report of the Conifer Conference (London).—Himmel und Erde, November (Berlin, Paetel).—Bulletin fe la Société Impériale des Naturalistes de Moscou, 1892, No. 2 (Moscou).—Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, November (Churchill). —The Kansas University Quarterly, October (Lawrence, Kansas). Saab CONTENTS. PAGE The Geology of Scotland. veg Prof. A. ‘H. Green, F, . ets 49 Medical Microscopy. By Dr. re H. ‘Tubby facets SE Odorographia _. sjsu Oh cio ke eee Pee eae tS Our Book Shelf :— Swinhoe: ‘Catalogue of Eastern and Australian Lepidoptera Heterocera in the Collection of the Oxford University Museum” . 53 Darwin: ‘‘Charles Darwin: His Life Told in an Autobiographical Chapter and in a Selected Series of his Published Letters” 53 Baring-Gould : eames Survivals : “Some Chapters in the Historyof Man”. .... AEG 53 ' Letters to the Editor :— Botanical Nomenclature. —W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S.; Sereno Watson. . 53 The Reflector with the Projection Microscope.—G. B. Buckton, F.R.S. 54 Note on the Colours of the Alkali Metals.—G. S. Newth. . - 55- Women and Musical Instruments. —Henry Balfour 55 An Ancient Glacial Epoch in Australia. By Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace. ia ies eee aan, a SS On the Walking of Artoropoda, By Henry H. Dixon ae 9g Sas ange eee We tS On Iron Alloys _.. . oa Sate eee ee 58 Notes . spy ey me, ae 60 Our Astronomical Column :— The New Comet. . . eres ar ere en ore Comet Brooks (August 28) °c SUNG ete ko, ok Sie ae The Light of Planets. Se 04 Stellar Magnitudes in Relation to the 1¢ Milky Way wie. OA The Canals of Mars... . oes vee 64 GeographicalNotes ... «ele Oa 64 Dr. Nansen’s Arctic Expedition Set aan OF A Remarkable Case of Geometrical Isomerism. By A, E. Tutton Se OS Marine Laboratories in the United States. By Prof. J. P. Campbell a bran) OS University and Educational Intelligence . ot pee: OF Scientific Serials .. ves is 456 Societies and Academies’ ta 4) 4. Diary of Societies . ‘ 72. Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received . 72 de Aranzadi (Madrid).—Appunti_ in Compartir delle Osservazioni Se 2, Scans Animals Rights. By H. S. Salt. ce NATURE: 73 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 24, 1892. ANIMALS’ RIGHTS. (London: Bell, 1892.) ‘HIS little volume is divided into three main parts, the principle upon which the rights of animals are er founded, the various ways in which they have been infringed, and the reforms necessary to secure their full ‘recognition. Notwithstanding, however, the logical form in which the subject is thus set forth, the book is abso- lutely useless both from the ethical and the practical points of view. In the first place the author nowhere _ attempts to define the relative value of the lower animals as compared with the human race, and although he cer- a allows that they possess less “ distinctive individu- y,” he condemns the use of the terms by which they % are eedsdocaty designated (such as dumb beast, live stock, or even animal), on account of the imputation of in- feriority which is involved in them. _ He seems to be totally unaware that not only is the natural affection of animals far less enduring, and their intellect immeasurably weaker, but that of morality, ze. the doing of right for right’s sake alone, unswayed by _ personal feeling or the influence of others, they have absolutely no conception whatever. _ Ignoring, however, these fundamental distinctions from which the subjection of animals inevitably follows, Mr.. Salt at once proceeds to enunciate his theory of their _ This whole question, however, is thrown into absolute chaos by the fact that, for subsequent dealing with the practical aspects of his subject, the author has equipped himself with not merely one but two definitions of animals’ rights, differing from each other so widely that while the one involves the unconditional prohibition to kill, eat, or use any harmless animal, the other would admit of all these things being done for good cause shown. Thus on page 9 we find that they have the right to live their own lives with a due measure of that restricted freedom of which Herbert Spencer’ speaks, z.e. the freedom to do that which they will, provided they infringe not the equal liberty of any other. Except, therefore, in the case of the beasts of prey, who no doubt would “will” to eat man if a convenient opportunity offered, the liberty to sacrifice the lives of animals for human food or indeed to employ them in any way is cut off without reserve. Turn, however, to page 28 and we find that this freedom of animals is no longer restricted merely by the equal freedom of others, but is also “subject to the limitations imposed by the permanent needs and interests of the whole community.” A life of dleness and a death from disease or old age and star- vation are no longer secured to them, and the whole principle of the subordination of the interests of the lower race to those of the higher is conceded. From the confusion of mind thus exhibited suggestions of practical value can scarcely be expected, nor indeed do we find them in the succeeding parts of the work. Thus we are told that “the contention that man is not morally justified in imposing any sort of subjection on NO. 1204, VOL. 47] the lower animals” is one which the author “ desires to keep clear of,’ and pronounces to be “ an abstract ques- tion beyond the scope of the present enquiry,” yet, as he also states “that no human being is justified in considering any animal as a meaningless automaton to be worked, tortured, or eaten for the mere object of satisfying the wants or whims of mankind,” we would submit that he has not kept clear of the matter at all, as we cannot call to mind any forms of subjection which are not included in these three. In his discussion of the treatment of domestic animals we would only draw attention to that passage wherein the degrading practice of pampering lap-dogs is rebuked as unworthy of their moral dignity! In the succeeding chapters the employment of animals in personal decora- tion, sport, and scientific experiment is dilated upon and condemned, and it then only remains to consider the question of the reforms which ought to be instituted, The first remedy proposed is that of education. We are all to be taught to be humane, but seeing that this has been, for countless generations, carried into effect by almost every mother with almost every child, the sugges- tion can hardly be accounted novel nor need any great changes in the present condition of affairs be expected fromit. Further, there must bea crusade preached against the disregard of the kinship of animals to ourselves, and the laugh must be turned from the so-called sentiment- alists (ze. those agreeing with the author’s views) against certain flesh eaters, sportsmen, and scientific experimentalists whom he seems to have in his mind’s eye, and who, seeing that he represents them as advancing absolutely foolish reasons for practices which they could easily defend on common-sense grounds, are very properly described by him as “cranks.” The second reform is to be found in legislation, and it might naturally be supposed that this should first be applied in that case which Mr. Salt considers to be pro- ductive of the greatest bulk of suffering, namely in that of flesh eating. But this is not so; he has already said that it is no part of his present purpose to advocate vegetarianism, and he discreetly leaves it to look after itself. Then after suggesting that the worrying of tame animals might be classed as baiting, and that im- provements (though what and how he does not say) might be made in the transport of animals, and by substituting public for private slaughter-houses, he demands that the full fury of the law should be turned on to scientific experiment, which must be totally abolished. The demand thus made he bases on two grounds :— (1) That nothing is necessary which is abhorrent to the general conscience of humanity, and (2) That it involves hideous injustice to innocent animals, quoting with approval Miss Cobbe’s, in this case, specious axiom, that the minimum ofall possible rights is to be spared the worst of all possible wrongs. How far either of these arguments is applicable here we propose to briefly touch upon. In the first place no proof whatever exists that scien- tific experiment zs abhorrent to the general conscience, seeing that England is the only country where it is even under legislative supervision, that there, after the most careful deliberation, it is freely allowed on good cause shown, and that the whole body of those qualified to E 74 NATURE [ NovEMBER 24, 1892 judge strongly advocate it. Supported, therefore, as we have shown it to be, by the legal and moral sanction of the civilized and scientific world, it follows that the ‘“‘ general conscience ” of which Mr. Salt speaks must find its local habitation in the minds of a class of persons about as enlightened as those who fomented the riots against the study of anatomy, a noisy and violent agita- tion, which has died the natural death of ignorant prejudice. For the refutation of the second proposition, viz. that of the cruel wrong done to an innocent animal by sacri- ficing it for the good of others, we must refer Mr. Salt to his own principle of animals’ rights, in which the freedom conceded to them to live their own lives is very properly made “ subject to the limitations imposed by the perma- nent needs and interests of the community,” and we fail tosee how the logical application of an acknowledged right can be supposed to involve the infliction of a “ cruel wrong.” The contention of the scientific experimentalist is exactly that which is here conceded by Mr. Salt, viz. that the interests of individuals of the lower race must morally be treated as subordinate to those of the higher, and that while men are bound to benevolently regard all harmless animals, and never to inflict pain upon them wantonly, they not only may but ought to do so when the suffering thus caused is but one-tenth in intensity and one-millionth in quantity of that which it is designed to avert from both mankind and the lower animals. The whole matter is in truth a rule of three sum, and unless the anti-vivisectionist can successfully demonstrate that the scientific statement of accounts is false, his outcry is but the confession of the immoral fact that, rather than inflict an infinitely less amount of physical suffering upon some individuals of a lower race, he wilfully prefers to perpetuate a far greater amount of both physical and psychical agony among the whole community of animals and men. When such an avowal of callousness can be seriously advanced in the name of humanity we are tempted to believe that chaos is come again. We should not omit to mention that Mr. Salt appears to be an ardent republican, and that he looks for the advent of his animal millenniun upon the establishment of an “enlightened sense of equality,’ but whether of men with animals, of both with insects, or all three with bacteria, he does not say, nor are we concerned to enquire. ELEMENTARY PHYSIOGRAPHY. A Description of the Laws and Wonders of Nature. By Richard A. Gregory, F.R.A.S. (London: Jos. Hughes and Co.) OTWITHSTANDING the numerous text-books that have been issued from time to time on this subject, it seems to Mr. Gregory that there is still room for another, for whose appearance, however, he apologizes and offers an explanation. A work on physiography is not, as some people, who ought to know better, seem to think, limited to the study of physical geography. At least thatis not the view, the author emphatically asserts, of Profs. Judd and Lockyer, NO. 1204, VOL. 47] whose opinion in this matter is final for the students interested. Neither is it a work on astronomy, nor chemistry, nor geology, nor any specialized science, whose aim and scope are recognized and defined, though doubt- less it is allied to all. As soon as an author treats of any of these subjects in detail, he is travelling beyond the record. To this fact Mr. Gregory is fully alive. His object, if we have understood him correctly, consists rather in showing that some knowledge of all branches of physical science is necessary for the pursuit of one, and this kind of general knowledge he considers comprised under the generic term, physiography. It is the kind of information which every so-called educated person ought to possess, and without which he is not educated. It may not seem a very ambitious task to write a book to meet the requirements of a syllabus, and our author thinks it necessary to defend himself against the charge of producing acram book, addressed to the few ambitious of possessing a South Kensington certificate. But the task need not be the less useful or the less necessary on that account. Indeed, there is one circumstance con- nected with the appearance of this book which is very satisfactory, and should be a subject for congratulation. The author asserts that the book is rendered essential from the fact that the examiners have found it necessary or desirable to raise their standard for examination. This means that the Department has proved, that the general character of the education given to those classes from which the candidates for examination are drawn has so improved that a greater amount of information can be demanded than was formerly the case. ! i But independently of the fact that the author addresses himself principally to those preparing for the ordeal of examination, he has produced a very readable book, a little too much like an encyclopzedia perhaps for ordinary tastes, but replete with a vast deal of information, by no means ill-arranged and generally expressed with exact- ness; but the effort to impart and to treat lightly and discursively of many branches of information is apt to give to the book a disconnected and incoherent aspect, and this is the principal defect that can be urged against the work. As soon as a subject is introduced it is neces- sary to drop it, because to pursue it in detail would be to enter into the domain of some science whose limits are fixed, and to which further discussion properly belongs— for instance, we have a chapter on water (its composition and different states), which it might seem very desirable to pursue at greater length ; but as soon as the student gets interested, without a word of warning the subject is dropped, and he finds himself introduced to the method of measuring angular space and time. This naturally leads on to some preliminary account of astronomy and astronomical methods, ending with the measurement of the day and year, and then, on turning the page, the reader is not allowed to continue the subject, but is invited to consider the composition and characteristics of common rocks. This incoherency is perhaps insepar- able from the subject; but we think the author might have developed his introductory chapter at greater length and put his scheme and sequence of thought more fully before his reader, so as to prepare him for these sudden deviations from continuity. -NoveMser 24, 1892] NATURE 75 It is instructive to notice that as educational treatises are improved in character and prepared by those quali- _ fied for the task, the reverent superstition which has for ages surrounded certain errors and fallacies, that have done duty for scientific reasoning, is being remorse- Baty swept away. The so-called proof of the sphericity _ of the earth, based upon the fact that ships have sailed - round it, is not quoted now, even by incompetent teachers, with the same satisfactory conviction that was formerly accorded to it. Mr. Gregory gives a diagram which ought to convince the most antiquated schoolmistress, such myths die hard. Similarly with our friend “the burning mountain,” which has frequently been re- g as an adequate definition of a volcano—that too is meeting with its deserts ; but this will take a still longer time to kill, let Prof. Judd and others insist as they will. ane instances will occur to every one who has com- Ee the carefully compiled text-books of to-day with _ those that were popular only a few years back, and no fact marks more emphatically the improvement, or the necessity for improvement, in educational treatises. _ Definitions, to be accurate and adequate, will always be a source of trouble to the writers of elementary books, aed the author of the present work has no doubt been Joke to combine the necessary accuracy and sim- icity. We cannot think that he has always been ppy, but where so much is admirable it would be un- grateful to dwell upon small blemishes, and can only be or removal in a future edition. The definition of meridian as given on page 105 and again at page 151 is susceptible of improvement, and it is certainly incorrect to describe a sidereal day as the interval of time that elapses between two successive transits of the same star. Such little slips must be due to the hurry of production, as that on page 382, where we are told to determine the position of the north point __ by observing the “shadow of the sun.” We should have _ thought the shadow of the object would have been more _ convenient. And again, on page 407, what is meant by Sie sun’s “regular diameter”? But such little slips as b Bee do not materially detract from the merit of the _ book, which we heartily commend to the thoughtful study es for whom it has been written. _ SCIENCE AND BREWING. eo Handy Book for Brewers. By Herbert Edwards iy Wright, M A. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, _ 1892.) f ‘ip author claims that the principal aim of this book “ is to give the conclusions of modern research in so e far as they bear upon the practice of brewing. We a P sthcied a different opinion on first opening the volume, _ for facing the title-page there stands conspicuously a trade advertisement of a firm manufacturing a patented article used by brewers, stating that this article is “referred to in the work,” and “ for further particulars see advertisement at end of book.” To any one at all familiar with the way in which quasi-scientific articles are so frequently to be met with in the literature of brewing written for the purpose of advertizing their author or some other thing, it would be only natural to conclude NO. 1204, VOL. 47] permitted with the view of securing their improvement that the advertisement quoted was the real clue to the origin of this volume, and wonder at the unusual clumsi- ness with which it was made so evident. However, we afterwards meet with the following statement in the author’s preface: “ Having found after the sheets had been finally passed to the printer, that the publishers considered it would be a useful feature in the book to insert a few advertisements of matters interesting to brewers, he wishes it to be clearly understood that he has no personal interest in the matter.” A little prejudice perhaps remained in our mind even after reading this disclaimer, but in justice to the author we may say at once that a perusal of the book has removed it. We sympathize with him in having a publisher whose disinterested over-zeal for the convenience of his readers has given his book such an unpleasant first impression. From a scientific point of view, in one respect the practice of brewing compares with the practice of medicine, in that the complexity of vital processes has to be encountered in both, and through our present im- perfect state of knowledge of these questions, the practice of both is based very largely on empiricism. Fortunately for the brewer, the life functions with which he has to deal so largely belong to the more simple forms of life, and the vast strides which have been made the last few years in our knowledge of the microphytes, and the physiological processes of the higher plants, have probably placed him much nearer to a sound scientific basis on which to rest his practice, than is the physician who has to deal with the vital functions of the most highly developed organism. But even yet empiricism rules many details of the brewer’s practice, although re- search is gradually throwing true light upon them ; there- fore any writer who, in the present state of things, attempts to bring scientific knowledge and the practice of brewing together, has a very hard task before him in order to clearly make his readers understand the relative position in which the two stand at present. Mr. Wright has with much diligence gathered together the results of a large amount of research work bearing upon the dif- ferent stages of the brewing process, but we do not think that he has been always happy in selecting only the most trustworthy of these, neither are we pleased with the way in which he sets them before his readers to ex- plain, or at any rate throw light upon, the different stages of the manufacturing process. It is a very difficult task, as we have just intimated, and we believe that the author, who is evidently a scientific man as well as a practical brewer, could have improved upon these parts of his work ; at any rate we are quite sure that with due con- sideration he could easily have improved upon the general arrangement of his subjects, which is badly con- sidered, and must be very confusing to a student not well acquainted with his subject. We also regret that space is wasted in devoting a chapter to an attempt to teach the science of chemistry to the reader. Some such mistaken attempt is frequently made in technical works treated scientifically, but a greater waste of paper can hardly be imagined, For instance, in the present case we have a chapter starting with a description of the elements and the atomic theory, which positively, in less than thirty-five pages, professes to lead the reader up to the consideration of the con- 76 stitution of the carbo-hydrates and the amido-compounds. What can be the use of this sort of writing, however well done? No student not already well grounded in science generally can hope to get any real advantage from those parts of this book that are devoted to the scientific con- sideration of the details of the brewing process, and we wish the author had boldly recognized this very evident fact. Apart, in a manner, from the more scientific portions of his book, the author gives us his views on the em- pirical questions of brewing, and also on the arrangement of a brewery and its plant, with the authority of much experience. Here is common ground on which all in- terested in brewing meet, and we recommend the author’s conclusions as worth their attention. At the end of the volume we find a novel feature in a synoptic table of the malting and brewing processes, giving side by side the time, working memoranda, physical changes, and chemi- cal changes of each process, an epitome which is likely to be useful to many readers. A good index also adds value to the book. Although we do not think that the author in writing this book has been very successful in meeting the requirements of young students of brewing, yet there is a large amount of information contained in the 516 pages | of the volume which will repay a careful perusal by those more advanced in the study of the scientific aspect and practice of brewing. OUR BOOK SHELF. A Manual of Veterinary Physiology. By Vety.-Captain F. Smith, M.R.C.V.S. (London: Bailli¢re, Tindall, and Cox, 1892.) THE publication of this work ought to delight the heart physiological knowledge he has been compelled to rely upon works which deal exclusively with the human sub- ject. However excellent such works may be and well adapted to the requirements of the human physiologist, they must necessarily contain much which is only of secondary importance to the veterinary student, and ab- solutely nothing concerning many questions which to him are of vital interest. For example, how needful to him is a thorough knowledge of the physiology of the horse’s foot—the seat, as he is afterwards to learn, of manifold diseases. Yet clearly the consideration of this subject is outside the range of human physiology. Similarly the composition, digestibility, and feeding properties of the foods supplied tothe various domestic animals are to him matters of paramount importance. Yet here again he finds himself left in the lurch by the standard works on human physiology. Such considerations amply indicate the necessity for a work of the kind now before us, and cause us to wonder that the veterinary profession should have had to wait so long for its publication. Though several first-rate treatises on veterinary physiology exist in French and German literature, Captain Smith’s is the first at- tempt, we believe, to deal with the subject in its entirety in this country. We can heartily congratulate the author on the manner in which he has performed his task. He writes in a con- cise but precise style. Bearing in mind how many sub- jects the student is supposed to take up and master in a comparatively short time, the author has omitted, and we think wisely so, the details of physiological experi- mental methods and descriptions of elaborate mechanical appliances employed in the laboratory. The value or usefulness of the horse depends so largely NO. 1204, VOL. 47 NATURE of the veterinary student, for hitherto in his pursuit of | ©®t varieties. [ NovEMBER 24, 1892 upon its powers of speed or draught that a knowledge of _ its locomotory apparatus is obviously imperative to the veterinarians. During recent years much light has been thrown upon the subject of animal locomotion by the elaborately devised experiments of Stillman and Muy- bridge, carried out,as is well known, by means of instan- taneous photography. Captain Smith furnishes a capital résumé of the conclusions derived from these experiments and a number of plain, simple diagrams aid the reader considerably in comprehending the subject. The physiology of the horse’s foot is dealt with ina somewhat short chapter. The author adheres to the theory of the expansion of the foot at its posterior part when the weight of the body is imposed thereon. It isa subject which has often been hotly debated, and its discussion will probably be again reopened in the co- lumns of the veterinary periodicals. The chapter con- cludes with some half-dozen rules on physiological shoeing, a copy of which might well be suspended and acted upon inevery place where the shoeing of the horse is carried on. The book is well printed, neatly bound, and published at a very reasonable price (1os. 62). Horse-owners as well as veterinarians will find its perusal attended with profit as well as interest. W.. Fohie The Principal Starches used as Food. By W. Griffiths. (Cirencester : Baily and Son, 1892.) THIS little book of 62 pages will be found useful by analysts and others who are interested in the examination of foods. The author has collected together short descriptions dealing with the origin and microscopical characters of the different starches met with in com- merce—the arrowroots, tapioca, sago, the starches of our common cereals, and of millet, maize, rice, the bean, the pea, the lentil, the potato, and so forth. These are classified according to the natural orders of the plants from which they are derived, and the descriptions are accompanied by remarkably good photo-micrographs, which indicate at a glance the peculiarities of the differ- The mode of classification serves to bring out the resemblances which often exist in starches obtained from plants of the same natural order. Since the microscope alone can be employed in attempting to trace the origin of a starch, and bearing in mind the extent to which it is now used as an adulterant, this handy little book will no doubt supply a want. Three clerical errors were noted. On p. 47 “ feint” should be “faint,” and “not” is evidently omitted in line three from the bottom. On p. 48 “ character” should be “ characters.” Les Alpes Francaises. Scientifique Contemporaine. (Paris: et Fils, 1893.) WE cannot call this a successful book. A mixture of condensed statistical information and of popular descrip- tive writing is not much better than a stirabout of Liebig’s extract and of trifle-whip. Fixity of purpose on the author’s part is also wanting. Doubtless the French Alps cannot be separated from the rest of the chain, but for a book of only 286 pages all told, this contains too much about the Central, Pennine, and Eastern Alps. The geological part is sketchy, and not always very ac- curate. The author repeats the old mistake about the “variolite of the Durance forming a fringe to the eupho- lide,” though the question was settled by the elaborate paper of Messrs. Cole and Gregory, published in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for 1890. The illustrations are numerous; few, however, of them are good, and several very bad. There is no index. The work, in short, is a piece of book-making, charac- teristically French in style, and is not a valuable addition to the library either of the mountain-climber or of the man of science, Par Albert Falsan (Bibliothéque J. B. Bailliére NOVEMBER 24, 1392] NATURE 77 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. {The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected _ +=manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.] The New Comet. _ THE comet discovered by Mr. Holmes on November 6 was observed here on November 9 at 5h. 50m., and found to consist of a very bright circular nebu osity with central condensation. The diameter of the comet was 5’ 41”. ‘was re-observed on November 16 at toh. 45m., andits physical sarance seemed to have undergone a complete transformation. eter had increased to 10’ 33”, and the cometary material ome much fainter and more irregular. The nucleus was 1¢ form of a bright streak, and this was enveloped in a la faint coma. A small star was seen just N. of the W. extremity of the nucleus, and the latter seemed composed of knots of nebulosity. Se Tae Ss Nov. 16, roh. 45m. On November 19, 14h. 15m., the comet was seen again. Its il aspect was much fainter, and it exhibited a further in- crease in dimensions. I carefully determined its diameter as fH ’, but the outlying portions were very tenuous and in- _ From Berberich’s elements given in Edinburgh circular No. pears that the comet is moving rapidly away from the i; great increase in its apparent diameter is therefore ta little remarkable. On November 9 the comet was about millions of miles distant from the earth, and its real diameter nust have been 333,000 miles. On the 16th this had increased to 6 po miles. By the 19th the comet’s distance had become 17 millions of miles, and its real diameter 925,000. In ten days, herefore, the cometary material expanded nearly threefold. _ Bristol, November 20. W. F. DENNING. The Light of Planets, _ FEW facts relative to this subject may be interesting. At ymouth on August 12, about 9 o'clock, favoured with a beauti- ally clear horizon, the brilliancy of Mars was so great that it east a distinctly black shadow on a piece of white paper from an ordinary walking stick held at a distance of 44 inches; the out- ae of the hand, under the same conditions, was also easily per- ceptible. A faint, yet decided, darkening of the white cliffs of shore was caused by a person standing upright—the slope -about 45°. The point of observation was at the extreme arth-west of the Sound, and the splendour of the planet’s light reflected from three or four miles of water is perhaps unrivalled. The light of Jupiter has often enabled me, when using the _ telescope at a southern window, to make drawings and such _ references to books, &c., as were found necessary, without any - other illumination, JoHN GARSTANG. _ Springwell House, Blackburn, November 21. Rutherfurd Measures of Stars about 8 Cygni. __ IN order to prevent any possible misapprehension in connection with your notice (NATURE, vol. xlvi. p. 619) of Mr. Rutherfurd’s _ measures of the stars surrounding 8 Cygni, may I call attention to the following ?—The two stars of Argelander, 27.3435 and _ 28.334 , concerning which a doubt is expressed in my paper, NO. 1204, VOL. 47] ‘are certainly lacking on the Rutherfurd plates. If they were present they would be very near the edges of the plates, and it is for this reason that I doubted whether we should expect to find them at all. Thestar numbered 28 in the Rutherfurd list, which appeared only as a sort of elongation of No. 27 on a plate taken at this Observatory, April 19, 1892, is one of the com- ponents of 2539, as was pointed out by Mr. Burnham in the Astronomical Fournal, No. 268, and by myself in the same journal, No. 266. HAROLD JACOBY. Columbia College Observatory, New York, November 11. The Alleged ‘‘Aggressive Mimicry” of Volucelle. Mr. Poutton’s letter calls for few words in reply. I invited Mr. Poulton to produce observations in support of his state- ment that the two varieties of Volucella bombylans lay in the nests of the bees which they respectively resemble. To this invitation Mr. Poulton has not responded. He tells us that his account represented ‘‘a very general impression”; that the same impression has been set forth in a showcase at the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons; that even if he were mis- taken it was well, if through his mistake the truth shall the more abound, It is thus admitted that in making that statement Mr. Poulton relied not on original authorities, but on the general impressions of others. That these impressions are in any sense correct there is as yet no evidence to show. Compared with this, Mr. Poulton’s error as to Bombus muscorum is of course comparatively trifling and it would be useless to pursue the matter, were it not for discoveries made in the process of unravelling it. I pointed out that V. doméylans is common in nests of ZB. muscorum, a bee which it does not resemble. Mr. Poulton in reply maintains the opinion that V. dombylans var. mystacea does resemble B. muscorum. In defence of this statement he refers to (1) the showcase at the Royal College of Surgeons, where the resemblance is set forth ; (2) a recent book, ‘*‘ Animal Intelligence,” by Mr. Lloyd Morgan, where the resemblance is again asserted and illustrated by figures of insects in the similar showcase at the Natural History Museum. In following up these clues I came to unexpected results. (1) There is at the College of Surgeons a showcase, as stated, illustrating the likeness of Voluce//e to humble-bees. The label states that ‘‘the resemblance enables them [the flies] to escape detection.” Two bees are exhibited bearing a good like- ness to the var. mystacea, and, as Mr. Poulton says, they are labelled ‘* B. muscorum.” The one, however, is a worker of B. sylvarum L., and the other is probably a male of the same species. Neither can be mistaken for 2. muscorum, which they do not resemble. (2) At the Natural History Museum bees of several species are shown beside the Volucel/e, with a similar statement that the resemblance enables the flies ‘‘to enter the nest of the bee without molestation.” Not one of these bees is B. muscorum, nor are any of them said to belong to this species, for no names are given. Nevertheless, on turning to Mr. Lloyd Morgan’s book, which I had not before seen, I find the statement (p. 90) that V. bombylans ‘closely resembles” B. muscorum, the passage continuing in the words of the Natural History Museum label. Figures are added showing the two forms of V. doméylans and two very different bees, doth marked ‘‘B. muscorum.” Now the figures are from Photographs of certain specimens in the showcase, and on reference to the specimens in question, it appears that one of them is a yellow-banded humble-bee (per- haps B. hortorum), while the other is one of the red-tailed humble-bees! These two are put out to match V. domébylans and the var. mystacea respectively, and of course have no like- ness either to each other, or to B. muscorum, though both are referred to this species by Mr. Lloyd Morgan. Mr. Poulton’s choice of B. muscorum as a form resembled by the var.,mystacea probably therefore arose from the wrong naming at the Royal College of Surgeons. How Mr. Lloyd Morgan came to call the two different bees by the name B. mus- corum, which belongs to neither, I cannot tell. Perlfaps this is in part anecho of Mr. Poulton’s previous mistake. : Any one by reference to a collection of bees may easily satisfy himself that the common and ordinary 2B. muscorum, with its bright brown thorax, does not resemble V. bombylans, though this fly is common in its nests, just as V. fe//ucens lives in wasps’ nests, though it does not resemble a wasp. | In the absence of direct evidence in its favour, and inasmuch 78 NATURE [ NovEMBER 24, 1892 as it is inconsistent with many ascertained facts which were specified in my first letter, the hypothesis of ‘‘ Aggressive Mimicry ” should surely be withdrawn. No speculation is needed to enhance the exceptionally inter- esting facts of the Variation and the resemblances of the Volu- celle, If a number of people will set to work on this problem in the way suggested, there is, I think, a fair chance of consider- able results. It was in the hope that such effort may be made that I drew attention to the matter, and I am really sorry that Mr. Poulton should be hurt thereby. Nevertheless, I cannot but regard his account of the matter as an example of the way in which statements pass on from one writer to another, but prove on inquiry ‘to be baseless. WILLIAM BATESON. St. John’s College, Cambridge, November 14. Parasitism of Volucella. Mr. BATEsON’s interesting discussion of the relations between Volucella and the species of Bombus (NATURE, vol. xlvi. p. 585) suggests the following observations:—The nest of 2. muscorum is made without much effort at concealment on the surface of the ground. If accidentally disturbed the inmates set up a peevish buzzing, which, no doubt, answers the purpose of warning off ordinary intruders. Vet 2B. muscorum is of a patient and gentle disposition, and will put up with a good deal of maltreatment before using its sting. Its sting, moreover, is less venomous than that of either of our other common humble bees. It apparently trusts to the reputation of its genus for protection from annoyance. Such a creature would seem marked out by Nature as the very host to be imposed on by a parasite like Vo/ucel/la, which, on the other hand, may need all its cunning to come round an irascible being like 2. Japi- darius, or even like B. hortorum. And, in fact, as Mr. Bateson points out, we find it multiplying abundantly at the expense of the first named bee, and less frequent in the nests of the other two. Notwithstanding this, 2. muscorum appears to be certainly no less successful than either of the others in the struggle for existence. W. E. Hart. Falmore, Carrowmena, co. Donegal. Optical Illusions. THE illusion of the Gothic arch in NATURE (vol. xlvii, p. 31) is too good to have a rival, but simple Norman arches occasionally practise a deception of some subtlety. In certain cases they seem to be of the Moorish horse-shoe form ; this happens when the semicircle does not spring at once from the capitals of the Norman columns, but has a short intervening vertical space of masonry. Architects are familiar with the effect, and call these arches stilted ; they say the stilts are commonly vertical, although Norman walls have no doubt sometimes fallen away from the upright course. I suppose the eye is quick enough to perceive that there is more than a semicircle, while the mind is gullible enough to infer that the curvature is continued. In Winchester Cathedral there are some good illustrations of this appearance. Winchester College, November 12. W. B. Crort. A Strange Commensalism—Sponge and Annelid. A cuRIOUS case of what I believe to be definite commen- salism between members of these two classes came under my notice the other day when collecting, and, asit is, so far as I now, a new instance in this interesting inter-relationship between animals, I venture to record it. Several large patches of crusting orange-red sponge attracted my attention because of the peculiarly emphatic markings of what appeared to be the oscula._ They were suspiciously unlike anything spongiform, so I secured some good pieces of the sponge for further investigation. Sections proved them to belong to the Microciona plumosa of Bowerbank, but the supposed oscula— which to the naked eye appeared as innumerable tiny black specks, each surrounded bya grey ring—proved to be, when the mass was teased out in water, in reality the ends of tubes inhabited by an eyeless Leucodore (L. caca, CErsted). Fully forty could frequently be counted in a square inch. The conclusion I come to after examination ofa large number of specimens is that actual benefit is mutually given and received by each of the two messmates ; the sponge gaining considerable support and extra consistency from the numerous comparatively wiry upright tubes. There is also the question whether the excreta of the worms is of any food value to the sponge. On the part ofthe worm, there is little doubt that it finds a valuable NO. 1204, VOL. 47 | protector inthe sponge which by the way is characterized by an intensely rank smell of garlic(warning odour?). I haveseen no signs of this sponge being preyed upon by any animal, so we may conclude its protective devices of spicules, odour or taste are fairly successful. A worm whose tube is sunk completely in its substance will naturally be very safely housed, and besides, the friendly water-currents set in motion by the sponge cilia will bring much food matter to its very mouth. Bowerbank in his description (‘‘ Br. Spongiadze,” vol. ii. p- 134) writes of a specimen as ‘‘ permeated by some small tubular zoophyte which it has coated with its own tissues, and from these adopted columns defensive spicula are projected ”— evidently the same as I describe above, though he makes the mistake of considering the tubes as those of zoophytes instead | of those of annelids. From this quotation, however, it is evident that the habit is widely spread, and not merely local. Here at extreme low-water the sponge grows exceedingly abundant, and the commensal worm seems always present. JAMES HORNELL. Jersey Biological Laboratory, November 10. Induction and Deduction. Mr. DIXon says that there are ‘‘ at least three different kinds of interpretation which may be put upon the proposition, [An isosceles triangle has equal angles at the base]. It may mean (1) the triangle used to illustrate this proposition has equal sides, therefore it has equal angles ; or (2) [have conceived a triangle which has equal sides, therefore I have conceived one which has equal angles ; or (3) the connotation ascribed by the adjective isosceles implies the connotation ‘ having equalsides ’ [? angles].” He goes on to observe that the difference between either (1) or (2), and (3) is ‘‘ that this latter gives us no information about any real thing or concept, but only about what is implied b using certain terms,” that is, about the connotations of ‘‘ isosceles” and ‘‘having equal angles” (‘‘ equal sides ” is of course a slip). But if connotation refers neither to the attributes of ‘‘ real things” nor to ‘‘concepts” (which I suppose means ideas or notions) what can it be that we ‘‘imply” by using the terms zsosceles, &c.? If we do not mean things, nor attributes. of things, nor ideas, do we mean anything which can convey or contain information ? In Mr. Dixon’s view the terms do convey information, but information which ‘‘ clearly does not require to be based upon any real knowledge of things, but may be based solely on definitions of words.” But must not definitions of words be based, in the last resort, upon knowledge either of things or of concepts—definitions of current words in some current sense, or even of strange words in strange senses—as e.g. if I say Abra- cadabra means ixtra-mixtra, and Triangle means abracadabra, and all abracadabras are four-sided, and so on? With such propositions I may certainly frame syllogisms and arrive at ‘*symbolical” conclusions, though I cannot see that I shall be doing anything to convey information or to advance thought. And when Mr. Dixon says that the proposition ‘‘an isosceles triangle has two equal sides” has ‘‘ wide applicability and use- fulness” because we ‘‘often find things which can fairly be called isosceles triangles,” it seems clear that he himself cannot have taken the proposition at starting in a sense purely ‘* symbolic” (in his meaning of that word). If he did, it would be little less than miraculous that an entirely arbitrary definition should happen so to fit actual experience, especially when we consider that other equally symbolical mathematical propositions have an equal applicability. t I think it is probably true that we often do not depend, for our assent to complicated reasonings, on anything like full ‘* realization in succession of the actuality of the relations and operations discussed ” ; but I cannot admit that such reasonings do not refer to objects of experience or of thought. Unless the terms did refer to something other than themselves, we could never assert S zs P, or x =y. I unfortunately know nothing either of Pascal’s theorem or of the intersections of two conics; but I think that in the case of the individual isosceles triangle, my intuition that the equality of angles at the base is inseparably connected with equality of sides, gives me ample ground for believing it to be ‘‘ mathema- tically certain”? that every isosceles triangle has equal angles at the base ; it is self-evident that the one characteristic cannot exist without the other. That the isosceles triangle in question, if put under a microscope or tested by some micrometer, might turn out to be not ‘‘ really” isosceles, seems to be a perfectly s NoveMBER 24, 1892] _ irrelevant consideration ; and I have never been able to under- stand the stress laid upon it by acute thinkers. It is because the triangle is as far as J can perceive isosceles, that I intuit it _ to be as far as J can perceive equal-angled. “It has, I believe, been already explicitly recognized by cer- _ tain logicians that a ‘‘symbolically” proved conclusion need mot give any actual information about ‘‘ real things.” Indeed _ some go further ; but I do not know that any have gone so far _ as to say that it would not give any information about ideas— alth perhaps this may be the logical conclusion. _ Cambridge, November Io. E. E. CONSTANCE JONES. Be occas, Ice Crystals. __ Your correspondent, C. M. Irvine (vol. xlvii. p. 31) will find letters on this subject in Nature, vol. xxxi. pp. 5, 81, 193, 64, 480, and in vol. xxxiii. pp. 461, 486. Prof. (?) McGee’s letter at p. 480, of vol. xxxi., gives a list of _ A) will neutralize the effect of surface tension and viscosity, and the motion will be unstable. The well-known calming effect of ‘‘ pouring oil on troubled waters” has passed into a proverb. The mathematical investi- gation of this phenomenon is as follows :—The oil spreads over the water so as to form a very thin film ; we may therefore sup- pose that the thickness / of the oil is so small compared with the wave-length hat powers of / higher than the first may be neglected. Also, since the viscosity of olive oil in C.G.S. units is about! 3°25, whilst that of water is about 0'014, the former may be treated asa highly viscous liquid, and the latter as a frictionless one, The result is as follows :— Let p,, p be the densities of the water and oil, T, the surface tension between oil and water, T the surface tension between oil and air, mw the viscosity of the oil, and e** the time factor, then, toa first approximation, is p1 — p) + Tyme} (gp — Tm?) 4uige, — (1 —"T)m*} For olive oil, T, = 20°56, T = 36’9, so that T>T,; and I find that the motion will be stable unless the wave-length of the disturbance lies between about 9/11 and 6/5 of a centimetre. This result satisfactorily explains the effect of oil in calming stormy water. k= - OXFORD. University Junior Scientific Club, October 26.—Mr. E. L. Collis, in the absence of Mr. Bourne, gave an exhibit of Codium tomentosum.—Mtr. F. C. Britten gave an exhibit of the nest of a trapdoor spider.—Mr, Hill read an interesting paper on the determination of sex, which was followed by a long dis- cussion. —Mr, Fisher exhibited some specimens of crystallized anhydrous oxalic acid, and described their methods of prepara- tion. CAMBRIDGE, Philosophical Society, October 31.—Prof. G. H. Darwin, President, in the chair.—The following officers were elected for the ensuing session:—President: Prof. Hughes. Vice- Presidents: Dr. Cayley, Prof. G. H. Darwin, Dr. Hill. Treasurer: Mr. R. T. Glazebrook. Secretaries: Dr. Hobson, Mr. J. Larmor, Mr. Bateson. New Members of Council : Prof. Thomson, Mr. F. Darwin, Dr. Shore, Mr. Ruhemann.— The retiring President addressed the Society.—The following communications were made :—Note on the determination of low temperatures by platinum-thermometers, by Mr. E. H. Griffiths and Mr. G. M. Clark. The authors, following up the suggestion of Profs. Dewar and Fleming, that the resistance of certain pure metals vanishes at absolute zero, have assumed the possibility of extrapolating the platinum thermometer formule, and have thus found the temperature at which R=o. From the previously-published constants of seven different thermo- meters—including Callendar’s original wire—the mean value deduced by them is —273°°86, which is in remarkable agree- ment with Joule and Thomson’s thermodynamical value —273°'7. They further suggest that the simple method of determining the resistance in ice and steam and assuming =o when ¢= - 273°'7 is sufficient to graduate a thermometer con- structed of fairly pure wire, as they show that the errors so introduced will only amount to a fraction of a degree over the range — 273° to + 150°.—Carnot’s principle applied to animal and vegetable life, by Mr. J. Parker. The author discusses the question whether the conditions of the growth of plants are limited by the law of entropy. The assumption is made that Carnot’s | rinciple takes account only of the exchange of heat, and the temperature of the material system at which the exchange takes places; that the differential effect of solar radiation of different kinds consists in variation of the activity but not of the mechanical type of the growth. The increase of available energy due to the building up of inorganic materials into a plant can then only be explained, in conformity with the second law of thermodynamics, by the aid of differences of temperature during growth: the author gives calculations to prove that the difference between day and night is amply sufficient for this purpose.—Note on the geometrical interpre tation of the quaternion analysis, by Mr. J. Brill. « Osborne Reynolds, PAi/. Trans. 18£6, p. 17- 96 NATURE [ NoVEMBER 24, 1892 ———. ParRIs. Academy of Sciences, November 14.—M. d’Abbadie ‘in the chair.—Heat of combustion of camphor, by M. Berthelot. —Remarks on a note by M. A. Colson on the rotating power of the diamine salts, by M. C. Friedel.—Researches on the ‘chemical constitution of the peptones, by M. P. Schiitzenberger. ’ —Influence of the distribution of manures in the soil upon their ‘utilization, by M. H. Schleesing.—On the laws of dilatation of gases under constant pressure, by M. E. H. Amagat. Tables are given of coefficients of expansion of carbon dioxide under pressures ranging from 50 to 4000 atm., and temperatures up to 258°; and for oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and air, under pressures up to 3000 atm. For CO, the coefficient has a ‘maximum at a certain pressure for each range of temperature. ‘This maximum corresponds to a higher pressure as the tempera- ture rises. For the other gases the coefficient decreases regularly as the pressure increases. As regards temperature, the coefh- ‘cient of expansion of CO, for each pressure reaches a maximum at a certain temperature and then decreases. Thisitemperature is the higher, the greater the pressure. The more permanent gases behave as if they had already passed their maximum.— Study of the pathogenic power of fermented beet-root pulp, by M. Arloing.—Observations of the new comet Holmes (/ 1892), made at the Paris Observatory (west equatorial), by M. G. Bigourdan (see Astronomical Column).—Transformation of the great telescope of the Paris Observatory for the study of radial velocities of the stars, by M. H. Deslandres (see Astronomical Column).—Summary of solar observations made at the Royal Observatory of the Roman College during the ‘third quarter of 1892, by M. P. Tacchini.—On the inversion of Abelian integrals, by M. E. Goursat.—On the summation of a -certain class of series, by M. d’Ocagne.— On the equations of dynamics, by M. R. Liouville.—Experimental researches on ‘the deformations of metallic bridges, by M. Rabut.—Conditions of equilibrium and of formation of liquid microglobules, by M. ‘C. Maltézos. The following experimental results were arrived at: When a liquid spreads over the free surface of a denser liquid, microglobules are produced on inverting the position of “the two liquids. If a. liquid rests in drops on the surface of a ‘denser liquid, then in the inverse position the denser will spread over the less dense liquid.—Demonstration of the existence of ‘interference of electric waves in a closed circuit, by means of the telephone, by M. R. Colson. A Rhumkorff coil was kept ‘vibrating at 130 per second by a thermopile.. To one of its ‘terminals was attached a copper wire ending in a hook, to which a linen thread soaked in calcium chloride was attached by one end, the other hanging free. One of the terminals of a ‘telephone was placed in contact with the thread, the other ‘terminal being isolated. Under these conditions, the sound in the telephone was completely extinguished at a certain distance ‘from the copper. When both the ends of the thread (which ‘was 3 m. long) were connected up by fine copper wires, two points of extinction were reached, one from each end. On -shortening the thread these points ‘approached each other and formed a zone of extinction between them. This zone of ex- tinction spread over the entire copper wires as the thread was shortened to zero. The neutral zone is due to interference of two waves of the same period and of equal potential meeting “in opposite directions. —On the co-existence of dielectric power and electrolytic conductivity, by M. E. Cohn.—QObservations on the preceding communication, by M. Bouty.—Magnetic properties of bodies at different temperatures, by M. P. Curie. These were measured by bringing samples of the bodies between the ends of two electromagnets inclined to one another, and ‘measuring the forces experienced by means of a torsion balance. The bodies were heated in a porcelain crucible, the heat being supplied by platinum wires carrying a current, and measured by a Chatelier thermocouple.—On the propagation of vibrations ‘through absorptive isotropic media, by M. Marcel Brillouin.— On a new relation between variations of luminous intensity and the numerical order of the sensations, determined by means of a luminous paint, by M. Charles Henry.—Essay of a general ‘method of chemical synthesis: experiments, by M. Raoul Pictet.—On the fusion of carbonate of lime, by M. H. Le -Chatelier.—On the molecular weights of sodammonium and potassammonium, by M. A. Joannis.—On some crystallized sodium titanates, by M. H. Cormimbceuf.—On a propylamido- phenol derived from camphor, by M. P. Cazeneuve.—On the -colouring matter of the pollen, by MM. G. Bertrand and G. NO. 1204, VOL. 47 | Poirault.—On the manufacture of melanite garnet and sphene, by M. L. Michel.—On the rotating power of solutions, by M. Wytoubol = —Researches on the mode of elimination of carbonic oxide, by M. L. de Saint-Martin.—Vital fermentations and chemical fermentations, MM. Maurice Arthus and Adolphe Huber.—Remarks on the preceding communication, by M. A. Gautier.—Influence of the transfusion of blood from dogs vac- cinated against tuberculosis upon tuberculous infection, by MM, J. Héricourt and Ch. Richet.—On a new species of chromo- genic bacteria, the Spzri//um luteum, by M. Henri Jumelle.— On two parasitic myzostomes of the Antedon phalangium (Miiller), by M. Henri Prouho, BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. Booxs.—Manners and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples: Marquis de Nardaillac, translated by N. Bell (Putnam).—An Elementary Text-book of Hygiene : . Wakefield (Blackie).—More about Wild Nature: Mrs. Brightwen (Unwin).—The Pharmacy and Poison Laws of the United Kingdom (office of the te and Druggist).—Lessons in nanan ary Algebra, rst series: L. J. e (Bell).—The eee Universe: J. Gore (Lock wood).—Man and Fae lacial Bees, G. F. Wright CK. Paul).—Sinai from the Fourth Egyptian ee y to ie Present ay: late H. S. Palmer, new ha eit . Paes Sayce (S.P.C.K.).—Time and Tide, 2nd edition : Sir R ).—Les Races et les Langues: Prof. A. Lefévre (Paris, rita; ~ Contain to our Knowledge of Seedlings, 2 vols. : Sir John Lubbock (K. Paul).—Australasian Newspaper Directory, 3rd edition, 1892 (Gordon and Gotch).—Sultan to Sultan : M. French-Sheldon (Saxon). PAMPHLETS.—Recherches d’Optique Physiologique et Physique, Part 2: Gr Rome (Bruxelles, Monnom).—Fauna Americana: D. T. de Aranzadi adrid). SERIAL.—L’ Anthropologie, tome iii, No. 4 (Paris, Masson. CONTENTS. PAGE Animals Rights .00 0.0) «3s +« pbe se 73 Elementary Physiography . any ee ‘ 74 Science and Brewing .. oo panes ; 75 Our Book Shelf :— Smith: ‘* A Manual of Veterinary Physiology. . . . 76 | Griffiths: ‘* The Principal Starches used as Food”. 76 Falsan: ‘‘ Les Alpes Francaises” ..<, . auueaeeneee UP Letters to the Editor :— The New Comet. (///ustrated.)—W.¥F. Denning . 77 The Light of Planets.—John Garstang . . 77 Rutherfurd Measures of Stars about ¥ Cygni. —Prof. Harold Jacoby ; The Alleged “* Aggressive Mimicry” of Volucelle.— William Bateson . ee eee eT Parasitism of Volucella, _wW. E. Hart) 227 digs. 78 Optical Illusions.—W. B. Croft . 78 A Strange ae ‘and Annelid.— James Hornell . 78 Induction and Deduction.—E. E. Constance Jones 78 Ice Crystals. —B. Woodd Smith . The Late Prof. Tennant on Magic Mirrors. —Prof. Silvanus ‘P, Thompson, F.R.S) 7.3... 79 On a Supposed Law of Metazoan Development. a Beard , Experiments “on Folding ~ and on the Genesis of Mountain Ranges. (///ustrated.) By Prof. E. Reyer 81 Galileo Galilci and the Approaching Celebration at Padua. By Prof. Antonio Favaro ..... 2... 82 A New Method of Treatment for Cholera. . . . . . 83 Notes. . Rn Eg: ke ere 85 Our Astronomical Column :— The New Comet. ..... 2 en ete ni eae 88 Motion in the Line of Sight. .... . ace tee 88 ‘* Himmel und'Erde”’ for November. ....... 88 Observations of Perseids 2.3.0.5". ee 88 Geographical Notes . . 2 eae sO Stromboli in 1891. By L. w. Fulcher . . A Large Meteorite from Western Australia, (Zllus- trated.) By James R: Grégory (oo ae se OO The Cross-Striping of Muscle. .. - eco ge Iridescent Colours. By Alex. Hodgkinson. ee vert! a. 2 University and Educational pests aig Bonen eae - 94 Scientific Serials .. Sig ot 8 . 94 Societies and Academies | a EY ielig Mie See Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received . fi otek fk hia 96 NATURE 97 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1, 1892. CHEMICAL LECTURE EXPERIMENTS. Chemical Lecture Experiments. By G. S. Newth, _ (Longmans, 1892.) bd N revient toujours,” &c. and the very description of a good lecture experiment to one who had for thirty years always enjoyed performing an old one, and was overjoyed in bringing out a new one, is some. thing akin to that of the old war-horse when he scents the battle from afar. And both Mr. Newth’s experiments and his descriptions are good ; so I think that not only the novices of the profession but the old hands will read this book—the first with profit with a view to what they will do, and the second with pleasure in recollecting what they have done. I was dining some years ago with the great Dumas (I don’t mean either of the novel- ists), and after dinner we sat together on the sofa smoking our cigars, when he said to me, “I have been in many positions—professor, minister of state, and in- vestigator—and I have seen the world from many points of view. If I had to live my life again I would not leave my laboratory. The greatest pleasure in my life has been original work ; the second greatest that of teaching a class who appreciated what I was telling them.” We all know that Dumas was a master in the art of experi- ‘mental teaching, and those who have practised this art, even at a great distance from the master, will agree with him that the pleasure of giving a well-illustrated experi- mental lecture on chemistry is not a small one, and even that a man may go on for thirty years and yet not be altogether tired of the job. The reason for this is not far to seek. Our science in its daily progress constantly opens up new paths which yield matter suitable for lecture experiment, and this gives a zest to the discourse unattainable by the teachers of most other subjects. Mr. Newth has collected an»ample store, and he has described them clearly. For the collection he has had favourable opportunity; to begin with he was a distinguished student at Owens, and there he may have picked up a few wrinkles ; then he has for many years been Lecture Demonstrator to Frank- land and Thorpe, and from them the wrinkles he has _ picked up have certainly been many. But although doubtless some are of his own finding out, I think it _ would have been well if he had added after the descrip- tion of each experiment the name of the authority with _ whom it originated. Thus some have been described by the chemists I have named, others owe their existence to Hofmann, Bunsen, and others. These additions are not only due to the authors, but would add to the interest of the book. Mr. Newth should see to this in the next edition. The old booksellers tell us that Faraday’s “Manipulations” is a work which no lecturer should be without, and as everything which that prince of experimenters wrote or did is worthy of attention, they speak truly, and yet no modern chemists can be bound by Faraday’s experience of sixty years ago. Things are not as they were ; and the methods of work and the illustrations of chemical phenomena which he details belong to a bygone age. And so Mr. Newth NO. 1205, VOL. 47 | comes forward to give the lecturer of to-day a helping hand. The first thing that strikes one on looking through his pages, is how simple are the experiments—so far as illustrating the chemistry of the non-metals goes, and he goes no further—needed to illustrate a course of lectures. We do not require the expensive and delicate instru- ments of the physicist. With glass and india-rubber, as Liebig said, we chemists perform all our mysteries. Only in a few cases, as, for instance, when we want to hand round wine-glasses filled with liquefied oxygen or air, or when we desire to show our students free fluorine and such like things, does the apparatus become expensive or the experiments troublesome. All the ordinary and many of the extraordinary experiments detailed in the book may be carried out with little cost and without great trouble ; indeed most of them may be made by the veriest tyro provided he stick to the letter of the de- scription and does not attempt to vary the proceedings, as one I knew did, who thought that as sulphuric acid is a more powerful desiccating agent than lime, he would dry his ammonia by the former substance instead of by the latter material. No account of any experiment, the author tells us, has been introduced upon the authority solely of any verbal or printed description, but every experiment has been the subject of his personal investi- gation and the illustrations are taken from his original drawings, so that we may be sure that every experiment will “go” if properly managed and fairly dealt with. Many of the experiments are, of course, old stagers, but none the less useful, whilst others are new to me and probably to most people. To mention many either old or new this is not the place, but one of them, which has struck me as interesting is an easy method of showing the freezing of water by its own evaporation first with a common air-pump, and second with no air-pump at all. I always used a Carre’s machine, by which a quart of water could be frozen, but Mr. Newth gives an excellent description of how a beautiful icicle twenty to thirty centimetres long can be obtained both with and without an air-pump. The secret of howto dothis can best be learnt by reading pages 57 to 59 of the book. “How to float soap bubbles upon carbon dioxide” has often proved a difficult question to answer experi- mentally, because if you managed, after a score of trials, to free your bubble from the pipe on which you blew it, the bubble usually bursts the moment it touches your heavy gas. Mr. Newth lets us into thesecret. You must remove every trace of hydrochloric acid,which is carried over with the gas, by washing, the presence of this acid being fatal to the life of a soap bubble. Under chlorine (p. 88) a description is given of the mode of sealing up bulbs filled with chlorine and hydrogen. This was first done in the early sixties by my old helper and friend Mr. Joseph Heywood, of Owens, to whom both students and lecturers owe many an _ ingeni- ous and striking experimental illustration. As Mr. Newth remarks, there are many obvious reasons why the old plan of filling a soda-water bottle with a mixture of equa] volumes of the gases and then throwing it out of the lec- ture-room window into the street, if the sun happened to shine, is “ unsuitable for a lecture experiment,” and Hey- wood’s bulbs answer the purpose better in all respects. The author does not tell us—as he ought to have done— F 98 NATURE | DECEMBER 1, 1892 that Victor Meyer now seals up bulbs of oxygen and hydro- gen (electrolytic gas) in a similar way, and that these, like their confréres of Cl and H, can be kept not only in the dark for any time, but, unlike these, also in the light with- out undergoing any change. «The fact that many gases when perfectly dry do not combine is illustrated by the case of chlorine and metals—brass and sodium, pp. 84 and 85—as well as of carbon monoxide and oxygen, for these gases will not explode if dry, p. 189. A more striking way of illustrating this latter case than that with the eudiometer is not mentioned. I will add it. Dry a current of carbonic oxide over glass balls moistened with strong sulphuric acid ; light the stream of gas issuing from a horizontal tube; then plunge over the blue flame a cylinder full of air which has been previously dried by shaking it up witha little strong sulphuric acid. The flame instantly goes out. Another case of the kind ob- served by Arnold lends itself to a lecture experiment. He found that powdered iron will not burn in pure dry oxy- gen, and in order to be able to estimate hydrogen in iron it was found necessary to insert a small tube containing a drop of water, through which the oxygen passed before coming into contact with the iron, this tube being of course weighed both before and after the experiment. This may well be included in the next edition, which I hope will soon be called for. Another capital experiment to show that iron can be carbonized by contact with a diamond was recently described to me by Mr. Gilbert Fowler, of Owens. A loop of pure thin iron wire is placed ina vertical glass tube surrounded by an atmosphere 0 of hydrogen. Below the loop is a splinter diamond (or some diamond dust) placed on the top of:a glass rod working through the lower end of the tube. After heat- ing the wire by a current to the highest possible tempe- rature without fusion, bring the diamond carefully into contact with the heated iron. The metal at once fuses. But of good experiments “there is no end” (Mr. Newth describes 620 for the non-metals alone) whilst of a review of a book in NATURE there must be a speedy end, and I willend by advising all those who like to see and to show good experiments to get Mr. Newth’s book. H. E. ROSCOE. A MANUAL OF PHOTOGRAPHY. A Manual of Photography. By A. Brothers, F.R.A.S. (London : Charles Griffin and Co., 1892.) R. BROTHERS has in this well-illustrated book brought together a great amount of information relative to the history, processes, apparatus, materials, &c., which will be welcomed by all who are interested, even if only in a general way, in the fascinating art of photography. The work covers about 360 pages, is divided into five parts and is accompanied by a full index. In the short historical sketch which is introduced as the opening chapter, the author by means of quotations and otherwise gain much information which is not readily accessible, and many facts that are not inserted in our treatises, and which consequently are not generally known. At the present day, when so many possess a NO. 1205, VOL. 47] camera of some sort or other, it is very curious to carry ourselves back to the time of Daguerre and to picture. to ourselves the idea which he put forward when he wrote in his pamphlet, “Those persons are deceived * who suppose that during a journey they may. avail themselves of brief intervals while the carriage slowly mounts a hill to take views of a country.” Whether this. is or is not the case now we will not stop to discuss, but we may mention that many other very interesting ex- tracts are made from the same source. ' The next three chapters deal with the chevaiedte optics, and light as applied to photography. In these there seems to be nothing that calls for special attention, unless it be to state that the author has written them in a charming manner, as for instance the short sum- mary under the heading “Magnesium Light,” which one reads with quite renewed interest. ) Coming now to Part II., Processes, we find the most important section of the whole book. As Mr. Brothers rightly observes, the old processes pre- vious to the introduction of the gelatine bromide methods have been put completely in the shade, not because they have been surpassed by better and more trustworthy ones, but simply because they require a little more care in manipulation and consequently the consumption of more time. In order to remedy this to some extent he has given great prominence to them, de- devoting nearly 140 pages to them, including working details of the more important later processes. For the sake of facility of reference they are arranged in alphabetical order, and in many cases they are ac- companied by illustrations which show the actual results that can be obtained by the uses of the methods under consideration. To cite them in anything like detail would carry us too far away, but we may men- tion one or two briefly. The (wet) collodion process is of course here fully described : the author lays special stress on the advantage of this process, for there is no doubt that where dry plates are now used far better results could be obtained by employing this old wet process. The photo-mechanical process, collotype, receives also a rather lengthy description, but its utility and the excellence of the results obtained necessarily give it some prominence. A specimen illustration of the last mentioned is inserted, as well as one of a recent application of this method for printing in colour, Printing on wood, photo-lithography, platinotype, &c., together with photogravine Woodbury type and a host of others, are all described, some briefly, others of greater importance somewhat more in full. Parts III. and IV. deal with the apparatus and materials used in the production of a finished picture. In the former the author describes the particular characteristics of many of the various kinds of cameras and accessories, while in the latter are explained the chief uses and actions of the chemicals employed. Part V., the last, contains short notices of the applica- tions to which photography has given rise. Astro- nomical Photography is referred to at some length, and we may mention that we have an _ excellent reproduction of one of Mr. Rutherfurd’s beautiful lunar photographs taken at first quarter. The practical DECEMBER 1, 1892] NATURE 99 hints in the concluding chapter should be found very serviceable. Mr. Brothers has produced a very serviceable and use- ful addition to our photographic literature ; as a hand- book for students it perhaps is somewhat too bulky, but nevertheless it will be very much used by them, Every photographer who wishes to know something about the art with which he is working, and who does not wish to limit himself to the mere cut-and-dried manipulations, should at any rate make himself acquainted with the volume. W. Jk. MATRICULATION CHEMISTRY. Matriculation Chemistry. By Temple Orme. (London: Lawrence and Bullen, 1892.) De Raddy is still another elementary manual dealing with the non-metals and their compounds. According to the author it can be studied most advantageously if the rudiments of chemistry have first been acquired, The book is built on pretty much the same plan as many already in existence ; here and there, however, the read- ing is enlivened by ideas which, if not altogether com- mendable, have some pretensions to novelty. _ The author is evidently of opinion that much of the or- dinary chemical knowledge can be presented in ‘other ways. Mass and weight first receive attention. In this book there are no atomic weights ; atomic masses reign supreme. In using a balance we are told that we do not find weights, but “only masses.” Indeed to bring this idea home the following curious question is set :— When you ‘weigh’ a thing in an ordinary balance, do you find its weight ?” After a passing allusion to ‘constitutional formule, in which they are likened ‘to pyrotechnic frames, the next important alteration with which the author concerns himself refers to the nomenclature of oxides. Such a name as sulphur dioxide or carbon dioxite is discarded, for it is “founded upon a formula which is liable at any time to be altered so as to suit our knowledge of atoms and molecules.” Anhydride is described as, “ etymologi- cally at least, a still more atrocious term”; hence we find that throughout the book SO,, CO,, &c., are spoken of as acids. P,O, is said to be a tribasic acid, No, a mono- basic acid. CS, is called sulphocarbonic acid, P,S; thio- _ phosphoric acid, N,O hyponitrous acid, and so forth, in spite of the fact that such compounds as that formed from “hydric oxide and phosphoric acid (szc) are often called acids by modern chemists.” The definition of a salt is thus summarily disposed of :—* You are often asked what a salt is; the only possible answer is that it is a compound.” Such methods of tampering with terms which have a generally-accepted meaning should, it seems to us, meet with no encouragement. They can only end in muddling the reader who wishes to pursue his subject by the aid of any of our standard works. But matter which is liable to do more immediate harm is frequently to be noted. For instance, it is stated that there is no such thing as the Law of Multiple proportions—it is only a corollary of NO. 1205, VOL. 47] the atomic theory. If, according to its usual interpreta- tion, a law is a generalized statement of fact, it is rather hard to see how its existence is affected by its relations to any theory. To most chemists the brilliant work of Moissan has sufficed to settle the question of the isolation of fluorine ; the author is, however, still sceptical on this point. P,O, is given as the formula of phosphorous acid (sic) ; recent research has shown P,O, to be correct. The valency of potassium is said to have been fixed by a “minute study of its gaseous compounds,” water is stated to be elastic with regard to shafe, and from Avrogadro’s hypothesis molecules of different gases are stated to be equal in size. Even when the author is apparently trying to be pre- cise he is apt to mislead. The following definition is an example :—“ A chloride means a compound of chlorine with some other substance which, though it is not itself metallic in its general characteristics, possesses that im- portant property of a metal, the capability of uniting energetically with chlorine.” Is it to be understood from all this that a chlorine compound which is not produced by energetic union—say an endothermic compound like C,Cl,—is not a chloride ? These extracts may serve to show that the book re- quires to be carefully overhauled before it can be placed with confidence in the hands of a beginner. OUR BOOK SHELF. Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms ; a Popular History of Entomogenous Fungi, or Fungi parasitic upon Insects. By M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., A.L.S. [364 pp. 4 pl. and figs. intext ] (London: S.P.C.K., 1892.) IT is somewhat surprising that a book on a subject of such importance alike to the entomologist and fungolo- gist has not been forthcoming long ago. It is true that a Memoir on the subjeci was undertaken thirty-five years ago by Mr. G. R. Gray, but, being privately printed, was limited in circulation. To this work Dr. Cooke admits his indebtedness for a large amount of information bearing on the entomological aspect of the subject, and it is to be regretted that he was not aware of the existence of a much extended manuscript revision of the same work, at present in the Botanical Department, Natural History Museum. Dr. Cooke’s book is professedly a popular work on the subject, and consequently does not deal with the economic side, relating to such matters as the “ muscardine” or silkworm disease, further than to indicate the nature and affinities of the fungus causing the disease. The fungi parasitic upon insects are arranged under four primary groups: the Cordyceps group, the Ladoul- beniacee ; the Entomophthore, and lastly a heterogen- eous collection of moulds, which, with few exceptions, are not truly parasitic and destructive. The structure and general characteristics of these groups, with glimpses of their life-history, are dealt with in an introductory chapter Entomologists, whose main interest will be to ascertain the name of any fungus parasitic on an insect, will find this a comparatively easy matter, as the general arrangement is an entomological one, commencing with the Hymenoptera ; and under each is given an account of all the fungi that are known to be parasitic upon species included in the order. Numerous woodcuts in the text and four plates assist very materially in the determinati n of species. From the mycological standpoint the arrange- ment indicated above is purely artificial, and introduced 100 NATURE | DECEMBER i, 1892 for a purpose; while for the benefit of those who desire | to know more of the inter-relationship of the fungi enu- merated, a classified list is given of all the species, | arranged under their respective families, including the distribution and name of the host. For the general reader, who is not specially interested in either insects or fungi, there is a considerable amount of interesting information bearing on such subjects as vegetable caterpillars, vegetable wasps, foul-brood of bees, &c., and the interest is not lessened by following the transition from the romantic and highly imaginative accounts given by early travellers of these productions, to the statements in accordance with modern knowledge. There is a slip on p. 35 ; Cordyceps Sheeringiz should be C. Sherringit. The indices are very complete and the figures, excepting one on p. Io, good. Notes on Qualitative -Chemical Analysis. By P. Lakshmi Narasu Nayudu, B.A. (Madras: K. Murugesa Chetty, 1892.) IT is interesting to meet with books such as this, which serve to indicate how the study of chemistry is pro- gressing in the colonies and dependencies of the empire. The author sets out with the endeavour to keep the vationale of the various processes of qualitative analysis well to the front, as in this way he considers the value of the study as a means of scientific training can alone be brought out. Group-reagents and the reasons for their use are first discussed asa preliminary to a somewhat ex- haustive study of the reactions of the different basic and acid radicles. At the end of each group tables are given showing at a glance the behaviour of the radicles towards the various reagents. It is somewhat astonishing that after such a minute study of the reactions of all the more common radicles, the author should give no schemes for the separation of the constituents of the different group-precipitates. In spite of the fact that under each radicle he givesas many, if not more, reactions than are given in the larger works on qualitative analysis, he contents himself with merely going through the examination of a simple salt. The expenditure of but little space would remedy this omission, which limits the sphere of usefulness of the book. It is to be noted also that film-tests find no place in the system adopted. It may be said that the author adheres well to his pur- pose of showing why any particular operation is performed. The book contains a large amount of useful information. Occasionally, however, the mode in which it is stated is peculiar. ‘‘In the cold” is an expression commonly used in speaking of a reaction. The use of “inthe heat,” a term often employed by the author, is, on the other hand, uncommon. To speak, too, of “ neutral solutions of zinc salts containing strong acids” is confusing. In some cases, as when using bodies like potassium metanti- moniate or sodium hydrogen tartrate, it would be advis- able to give the name as well as the formula: it isn’t every student who is acquainted with such substances. It is erroneous to say that fluorine does not combine with carbon even at a high temperature. According to Moissan, all the allotropes of carbon, except the diamond, unite with fluorine, indeed some of the forms are, in the cold, spontaneously inflammable in the gas. The following typographical errors are omitted in the list of errata. On p. 47 “ meterially” should be “ mate- rially,” “ gSo,,” &c. should be “ MgSo,,” &c. on p. 58, and * Ba,P,O” is given for “ Ba,P,0,” on p. 69. Science Instruments. Catalogue of Scientific Appa- ratus and Reagents manufactured and sold by Brady and Martin. (Newcastle-on-Tyne, 1892.) AT the present time, when almost all branches of experi- mental science are growing so rapidly, and new and improved pieces of apparatus are continually coming NO. 1205, VOL. 47 | into existence, it is satisfactory to find that instrument makers are trying to keep pace with the times, and to afford purchasers the means of ascertaining with the minimum trouble what apparatus can be obtained to serve a par- ticular end. This catalogue is an instance that such is the case. It is a well-bound book, profusely and re illustrated. The different kinds of apparatus, useful bo for teaching and for technical purposes, are well classified. To prevent mistakes in ordering, each piece of apparatus is separately numbered, and where a new form is figured a few lines are added explanatory of the principle involved. The instruments quoted belong to various branches o experimental science—chemistry, bacteriology, physics, mechanics, and meteorology. A selection of instru- ments made by the Cambride company, and miscel- laneous apparatus, diagrams, chemical reagents, &c., are also included. == The sections on bacteriology and gas analysis ar especially full, and indicate the interest at present taken in these departments. A table of contents and an index are supplied. On p. 145 “Irish” is misprinted for “ Iris” ; and what is termed an ‘‘optical bank,” on p. 164, is usually called an * optical bench,” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | Universities and Research, AT the discussion in Edinburgh on the proposed National Laboratory, Lord Kelvin and Sir Geo. Stokes took marked > exception to my contention that the primary business of Uni- versities was research, contending that it was teaching. In a sense their contention is true, but not in contradistinction to my contention. The distinction would hardly be worth fighting over were it not that they took up the further ground that only those researches should be engaged in in Universities which were | likely to interest the students. Of course the leaders of science can if they choose sell the great birthright of Universities for a mess of fees, but I hope they will not be permitted to do so without protest. What view the democracy take of Universities is of the very last importance with our democratic institutions, and I trust all those who have the welfare of the nation at heart will protest against the Universities being turned into coach-houses. In this connection it is most important to bear in mind the distinction between the functions of Universities and those ofschools and colleges. The function of these latter is primarily to teach those who resort to them. The function of the University is primarily to teach mankind. In former days, when the means for distributing information were very imperfect, students used to flock from all sides to learn directly from a great mind. Nowadays the great mind distributes his teaching broad- cast. In old days the only way to learn what was being done to advance knowledge was to go to the place where knowledge was being advanced. Nowadays we read the Transactions of our learned societies at home. But at all times the greatest men have always held that their primary duty was the discovery of new knowledge, the creation of new ideas for all mankind, and not the instruction of the few who found it convenient to reside in their immediate neighbour- hood. Not that I desire to minimize the immense importance of personal influence, it is overwhelming ; but it is a question quite beside the one at issue, which is whether the advance of knowledge by research and the teaching of the whole nation by the discoveries made is not rather the primary object of Univer- sities than the instruction of the few students who gather in their halls: that is the real question at issue between Lord Kelvin, Sir Geo. Stokes, and myself. Arethe Universities to devote the energies of the most advanced intellects of the age to the instruction of the whole nation, or to the instruction of the few _DeEcEMBER 1, 1892] NATURE LOL whose parents can afford them an, in some places fancy, educa- on that can in the nature of things be only attainable by the se In View of the discussion upon the proposed Teaching Uni- versity for London it is to be hoped that these things will not be overlooked amid the local questions and rival institutions. It is to be hoped on the one hand that those who will have the privilege of learning in the greatest city in the world will not be deprived of the personal influence of its greatest men by ega these to some haven of laboratories where no bracing breath of students shall interfere with the inmates. On the other hand it is to be hoped thet London will so far honour itself as not to be content until it sees its University a centre of thought and investigation from which shall radiate new ideas and discoveries to enlighten and benefit the whole nation. Before I close there is a matter of great importance to which I fear sufficient importance is not attached by those who are directing this matter and that is the great sctions there are to mixing up Universities and Colleges with examining boards. We here in Trinity College,| Dublin, suffer ery much from the fact that a considerable number {of our students never reside here, but only come jover for periodical examinations. We only suffer in one way, while if London ___-adopted this abominable arrangement it would suffer in two ways. We suffer because our degree is much less valued than it would be if all our students were compelled to reside. All our students have not that education got by friction with their fellows and by contact with trained intellects which no exami- nation can test, and which is such a valuable training, and in pe a par our degrees are the less valuable. London would in this way, and it is a very serious way too. In addition to this London would suffer from the inordinate importance that would be attached to extern examiners if the University ex- amined London and extern students. So far we have escaped this danger, but it is inevitable in London because the extern element there would be large, influential and organized, while with us it is of little strength. The result would be to perpetuate and ___ gntensify that horrible teaching for examinations which is so _ mecessa an evil in the case of the majority of students, but _ from which the leaders of thought should be exempt. It matters not that the syllabus nor even that the very questions are ap- proved by the professor, if the examination is conducted to any serious extent by an independent mind. ‘he student will seek a coach, who will probably teach him very well indeed, but whose whole view of learning will be of the passing-an-ex- amination type, and who will infect his pupil with this miserable disease. Gradually the professor himself will be involved in the vortex, and the whole University will gradually look upon eo ape! of examinations as the end of life for students, and this is the acme of coaching and the bathos of education. ale Gro. FRAS. FITZGERALD. be "Trinity College, Dublin, November 25. { The Stars and the Nile. Be _ AFTER reading Mr. J. Norman Lockyer’s papers on the -_-gonnection of the orientation of Egyptian temples with the _heliacal rising of certain stars, I was interested to find that a eustom still exists in the neighbourhood of the Second Cataract having a strong resemblance to the old Egyptian custom. The Nuba people of this part foretell the first rise of the Nile by the heliacal rising of the Pleiades, or as they call it, , «Turdya.” For Sirius they have no special name, calling it merely ‘“‘the driver” or ‘‘follower” of the three stars It must be remembered that the first sign of the rise at Wady Halfa occurs at the beginning of June, reaching Assouan about a week later, but for some days the increase is very slow, and scarcely perceptible except in the readings of the Nile gauges. : These Nuba people still preserve in their language many ancient Egyptian words, and possibly we may have here a trace of the old custom, the Pleiades being taken instead of Sirius on account of the earlier date of the rise in the district of the Second Cataract than in Egypt itself. : ‘ H. G. Lyons, Capt. R.E. Cairo, November 14. NO. 1205, VOL. 47 | A Paleozoic Ice-Age. THE account by Dr. Wallace in NATURE (p. 55) of glacial deposits recently discovered in Australia is a most important and welcome addition to our knowledge. But to us the surprising circumstance is that Dr. Wallace appears quite unaware of the fact that this is only an addition to a great series of discoveries, by no means confined to Australia, affording evidence of a Pal- eeozoic ice-age. That the deposits near Sandhurst are Palaeozoic may, in the absence of any indication to the contrary, be as- sumed, since they are clearly similar in position and character to the well-known boulder beds of Bacchus Marsh, and these have been correlated with the strata containing ice-borne frag- ments, amongst the marine beds west of Sydney and also at Wollongong to the southward, and in Queensland to the north- ward, All these beds have been shown to be upper carbonifer- ous. A good account of the facts known up to 1886 may be found in Mr. R. D. Oldham’s paper on the Indian and Aus- tralian coal-bearing beds (Rec. Geo. Surv. Ind. xix. p. 39). It is scarcely necessary to refer to the fact that extensive Paleozoic glacial deposits, of the same age as those of Australia, have been found in several parts of India, some as far within the tropic as lat. 18° N., others in the Salt Range of the Pun- jab, that the famous Dwyka conglomerates of South Africa are similar and in all probability contemporaneous, and that boulder beds of very possibly the same geological date have been ob- served in Brazil. We should not have mentioned these but for the fact that the idea of a Paleozoic ice-age is apparently novel to Dr. Wallace. We do not think, however, that the reason why so well-informed a naturalist is unacquainted with geological data long known to many is any mystery. It has become an accepted article of faith amongst most European geologists (there are, of course, exceptions) that no ice-age occurred before the last glacial epoch, just as it is part of the geological creed that the carboniferous flora was of world-wide extension, and as it has become the prevailing belief that the deep oceans have been the same since the consolidation of the earth’s crust. Now the discoverers of glacial evidence in the carboniferous beds of India and Australia also assert that the carboniferous flora of those countries differed in ¢ofo from that of Europe and re- sembled the jurassic flora of European regions, and some of them add that the great southern flora of South Africa, India, and Australia must have inhabited a vast continent, part of the area of which is now beneath the depths of the Indian Ocean. Partly from Indian and Australian geologists being re- garded as heretics geologically, partly from other causes, the evidence of ice-action in India and Australia has been generally ignored. No better proof could be afforded of the fact that European geologists in general have omitted to notice the series of discoveries in the southern hemisphere and in India than the publication of Dr. Wallace’s paper. The glacial evidence as it now stands is extremely interesting and perhaps transcends in importance that of the Pleistocene glacial epoch. For as the effects’ of the carboniferous ice-age were felt within the present tropics, either the earth’s axis of rotation must have shifted considerably, or else the refrigera- tion of the surface must have been due to a cause distinct from that supplied by the late Mr. Croll’s theory, even when supplemented by Sir R. Ball’s amendment. Our own interest in the whole subject is chiefly due to the circumstance that we happened in 1856 to be the first who met with the ancient boulder-bed in India, and suggested that it might be explained by the action of ice. The discoveries in Australia and South Africa were of course quite independent of those in India, but were, we believe, slightly later in date. November 20. W. T. BLANFORD. Henry F. BLANFORD. Geology of Scotland. May I supplement Prof. Green’s history of geological map- ping in Scotland (NaTuRE, vol. xlvii. p. 49) by pointing out that Mr. Cruchley published, on March 23, 1840, “* A Geologi- cal Map of Scotland by Dr. MacCulloch, F.R.S., &c., published by order of the Lords of the Treasury by S. Arrowsmith, Hydro- grapher to the King.” This fine map is on the scale of four miles to an inch. From the omission of ‘‘the late” before MacCulloch’s name, it seems possible that the plates were In course of engraving before his death in 1835. GRENVILLE A. J. COLE. Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin. IO2 NATURE [ DEcEMBER 1, 1892 British Earthworms. I ENTIRELY concur with Dr. Hurst’s view that the supposed new -pecies, described by the Kev. Hilderic Friend as Z. ru- bescens is in reality Savigny’s Z. festivus. I may add a further reason for discarding the term Z. ¢éerrestris, Lin., and substituting . L. herculeus, Sav., for our common large worm. Savigny himself used ‘‘ Enterion terrestre” to indicate a worm differing consid- erably from Z. terrestris, Lin., inthe position and extent of the clitellum ; moreover it belongs to the genus 4//olobophora and not to Lumbricus at all. With regard to the second ‘‘new” species, A. cambrica, recently described by Mr, Friend, I believe that it is merely a variety of A. chlorotica, Sav. According to the description it appears to differ from the latter species in three points :—(1) colour; (2) extent of clitellum ; (3) number of spermathecze. (1) Now, amongst my collection of British worms I find one, of which a water-colour sketch taken from the living specimen closely resembles Mr. Friend’s description of the colour of A. cambrica. My notes as to size, habits, &c., agree with his description. I have carefully re-examined my specimen, and find that it agrees perfectly with A. chlorotica ; or, in other words, I find that 4. chlorotica may vary—as Hoffmeister knew that it did vary—so much as to resemble 4. mucosa, and I may suggest that it is a mimetic resemblance. (2) Further, with regard to the clitellum of 4. chlorotica ; in the table given by the Rev. Hilderic Friend, it is stated to cover somites 29-36. As a matter of fact the next somite, 37, is nearly always included. This brings 4. cambrica, Friend, into harmony with 4. chlorotica, Sav. (3) Thus the only differential character left is the number of spermathece ; and I cannot agree to the validity of a new species on this single character ; several specimens should be examined to settle the point, as variation in this feature is known to occur, I take a certain amount of credit to myself for the useful faunistic studies on the earthworms of Great Britain, now being pursued bythe Rev. Hilderic Friend, for, if I mistake not, I put him in the way of recognizing their specific characters, when, some years ago, I named for him, with remarks thereon, sundry consignments of some scores of worms which he sent to me for that ,urpose. WM. BLAXLAND BENHAM. The Dept. of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford, November 21. Egyptian Figs. THE accompanying sketch represents an instrument used in Egypt for removing the ‘‘ eye” or top of the sycomore fig. It is a piece of hoop iron, blunt on one edge and tolerably sharp on the other, and fixed into the end of a stick. The fruit of Ficus sycomorus, or ‘‘ Egyptian fig,” seems to be invariably infested with the insect Sycophaga crassipes, Westw. ; which I am informed by Rev. T. F. Marshall, who has kindly given me the name, is the same insect supposed to effect caprification in Malta, judging from specimens which I sent him. This fig never produces ripe seed in Egypt, though it has been introduced from the earl est times. Not only are the ancient coffins made of the wood, but it was adopted as the sacred ‘‘ Tree of Life. It probably came from Yemen, where Dr. Schweinfurth saw many seedling trees growing spontaneously. The tree bears three crops per annum, in May, June, and August—Septem- ber. Boys cut off the top of the figs of the first two crops only. Dr. E. Sickenberger, one of the professors in the School of Medicine, Cairo, informs me that the figs have no pleasant flavour until the operation has been performed :—‘‘ They then become very sweet, but remain smaller than when not cut open. The object is zo let the insects escape. Those that are left become watery and tasteless, and are full of samoos or syco- phaga.” In his first description Dr. Sickenberger described the instrument as ‘‘a kind of thimble made of iron plate NO. 1205, VOL. 47] ending in a spatula like a finger-nail. It is fixed on the thumb ofthe right hand, The operation is only made on fruits which shall. be picked up the following day. The day after the operation the fig is quite ripe. The male flowers in those figs are all abort: and the females have never perfect seeds, The figs of the third generation are larger, of an agreeable taste, and sweet-scented >, but they are not operated upon, only because in August and September, though the trees are much fuller of fruit than in May and June, the people have so much to do at that time. They are seldom sold, and only eaten by the owners of the trees, or else they are abandoned to the field-mice, birds, and dogs, which latter are very fondofthem. These zz/g fruits are full of sycophaga.”’ It will be seen that the instrument he has sent me is of a different shape to the one he describes ; and the chief interest. lies in the fact that Pliny also describes the process as closely corresponding with this modern method. He even uses a similar term ‘‘ nail” (8vuxas): mémrew od Sivatat by wh emimviaOh GAN Zxovres bvuxXas oLdnpods emixviCovorw: & 8’ dy émnvoOH, TeTApTaa. memtetat (Vat. Hist. xiii. 14). Further, the Prophet Amos describes himself as 4d/as stgmim ; and the authors of the LXX, writing in Alexandria, appear to have understood the e ion. and translated these words by xvi(wy oveduiva. This is the same verb as that which Pliny uses ; so that it would seem to be pretty certain that Amos performed identically the same operation on the figs as is still done in Egypt at this day. It will be noticed that the idea was to ripen the figs. It does not really do this, because there are no seeds; but it does make the fig sweeter. It also liberates the insects, and without doing this. the figs would be uneatable. Jerome is the only author, as far as I know, who alludes to “ grubs” being inside the fig. GEORGE HENSLOW. Iridescent Colours. THE article ‘‘Iridescent Colours” on p. 92 puts me im mind of a notice which I published thirty years ago, while I lived in the United States. It was entitled ‘‘ Harmonies of Form and Colour” (Stettiner Entom. Zeitung, 1862, pp. 412-414), and a portion of it refers to the subject of the above-mentioned article in NATURE, and may be of interest to its readers :— ‘* A fundamental observation, which proves the influence of the intensity of light upon colour, may be made on some insects of metallic coloration, inhabiting a large area from north to south. About six years ago, while in Southern Russia, I took a walk during sunset, and was struck by the brilliancy of some metallic red Chrysomele, abundant in that locality. I found that it was the common C. fastuosa, which I did not recognize at once, because in the environs of St. Petersburg, where I lived at that time, it occurs in its metallic-green variety, with an iridescent blue stripe on each of the elytra. Still farther north it assumes a more violet metallic colour. The same is the case with Chrysomela cerealis and C. graminis. The first of these species is represented in St. Petersburgh in the blue variety (C. ornata, Ahrens), while the typical variety, occurring farther south, has purplish-red metallic stripes, It is evident therefore that the metallic colouring of these wide-spread species is gradually intensified from north to south, in the order of the colours of the spectrum. We may imagine the area which these beetles occupy, like an immense rainbow, reflected from their backs, violet in the north, red in the south; the violet perhaps connected in some way with the magnetic pheno- mena prevailing in the polar regions. The longicorn beetle (Callidium violaceum) undergoes the same variation: violet in the north, blue in central Europe.” C. R. OSTEN SACKEN, Heidelberg, Germany, November 27. The Afterglow. THERE has been for three weeks past a very remarkable re- newal of the afterglow. There is a quite deep secondary red glow after the stars are fully out. I should say that no such afterglow has been seen since 1886, or three years after the Krakatdo eruption. There is also a great extension of the white hazy atmospheric corona around the sun, véry marked also. around the moon. I am unable, however, to make out any of the pink colour on the outer edge of the haze, which was so char- DECEMBER I, 1892] NATURE 103 acteristic of ‘‘ Bishop’s Ring,” and distinguishable at Honolulu for two years. Apparently there has recently been a great re- inforcement added to the material in the.upper atmosphere, which produces the afterglows. Is this owing to the August eruption in Alaska, which is said to have distributed ashes at a distance of 250 miles ? _ Prof. C. f. Lyons, in charge of tidal observations in Honolulu, rts the period of highest mean tide to have extended itself this year into November, or fourteen months later than the last similar period. The mean sea level is now over ten inches higher than it was last April. It is also somewhat higher than has been shown by any previous tide registers in Honolulu. Mr. Lyons regards this as of special importance, taken in connection with the oscillation of the earth’s axis, now established by the com- bined observations at Berlin and Honolulu. - Honolulu, November 8. SERENO E, BisHop. stag OSMOTIC PRESSURE. OF the various properties which have found a common % explanation in the new theory of solutions, there are none perhaps to which more interest attaches than to Osmotic pressure ; and although, on account of the experi- mental difficulties, the observations as yet accumulated on this subject are but scanty, they have so largely con- tributed to the novel ideas involved in the new theory, that they merit special attention. _ Simce accounts of osmotic pressure are finding their way into few English text-books, it may be worth while glancing at the main features which have led up to the present state of the question. It has long been known that if an aqueous solution — ' Say, of sugar—be separated from pure water by a piece of animal membrane, that movements of the water and of the sugar take place through the membrane. [If the solution be contained in an open vessel, the base of which is composed of membrane, on partially immersing the vessel in water it is easy to see that more water enters the vessel than solution leaves it. The level of liquid within rises above that without the vessel, different pres- sures being thus set up on opposite sides of the mem- brane. . _ To this process wherein currents pass through a mem- branous septum, the terms ‘“ osmosis,” ‘‘ osmose,” and “ diosmose” have been applied. The last of these is per- haps to be preferred, as it serves to indicate that two currents are involved in the phenomena. Investigations carried out as indicated above were concerned with the ‘measurement of what was termed the “ endosmotic equivalent.” That is the ratio of the amount of water passing zo the solution to the amount of dissolved sub- stance passing in the opposite direction. Consistent -measurements of this quantity could not be obtained, lowever, for it was found that the nature of the mem- brane exercised a marked influence upon its magnitude. The kind of membrane employed, or, with the same membrane, its thickness or freshness, or even the direc- tion in which water passed through it, was of importance. Thus in illustration of the last point, water passes more readily outwards through eel’s-skin, more readily inwards through frog’s-skin. To obtain quantitative relations in this field it thus became essential to eliminate the influence of the mem- brane, and more recently this end seems to have been attained by the use of membranes artificially prepared. These artificial membranes differ from those of animal origin in the remarkable particular that although they allow water to pass through, they present a barrier to the passage of certain dissolved substances. On this account they have been termed semi-permeable mem- branes, and by their use measurements of osmotic pressure have been made possible. To carry out such measurements the first point to be solved was to obtain a membrane of sufficient strength. NO. 1205, VOL. 47 | The substance which has been found to be most satis- factory as a membrane-former is copper ferrocyanide. When aqueous solutions of potassium ferrocyanide and copper sulphate are carefully brought into contact a pellicle of copper ferrocyanide is formed where the two solutions meet. In this condition the pellicle is much too fragile to sustain even slight differences of pressure ; but by the following simple device, employed first of all by W. Pfeffer, satisfactory results have been obtained. If a cell similar to the ordinary porous pot of a voltaic battery be lowered into a solution of copper sulphate while at the same time a solution of potassium ferrocya- nide be poured into its interior, the two solutions meet somewhere within the walls of the cell and deposit a film of copper ferrocyanide. Little diaphragms of membrane are thus produced stretching across the pores of the cell-wall, which furnishes the necessary support, and by taking suitable precautions a membrane may thus be obtained capable of withstanding a pressure of several atmospheres. The behaviour of a solution when separated from pure solvent by such a semi-permeable membrane differs markedly from what takes place when an animal mem- brane is employed. In the-latter case, at the outset water adds itself to the solution; the level of liquid and the pressure on the solution-side of the membrane thus rise until a maximum pressure-head is attained, which, roughly speaking, is greater the stronger the solution used. Seeing, however, that dissolved substance is con- tinually escaping from the solution through the mem- brane, as soon as the maximum is reached the pressure- head begins to fall until eventually it vanishes, the levels of liquid on either side of the membrane being the same. If, on the other hand, a semi-permeable membrane be employed, as before, a maximum pressure is attained ; but since dissolved substance cannot leave the solution, this maximum pressure as well as the concentration of the solution remain constant. When this constant state of things is established the excess of pressure on the solution-side of the membrane over that on the solvent-side, whatever it may mean, is termed the “osmotic pressure” of the solution. It is therefore customary to reserve the term osmose to pheno- mena relating to semi-permeable membranes ; diosmose being used in cases where, as with animal membranes, dissolved substance as well as solvent can traverse the membrane. It is obvious that when the pressure is established as indicated above, the original concentration of the solution has been altered by the entrance of sol- vent, and the observed osmotic pressure refers of course to the solution having the final concentration. If, how- ever, we imagine the vessel containing the solution to be closed at the top, a quantity of air being imprisoned over the solution, pressure may be set up by compressing this air, only a small quantity of solvent being allowed to enter. If, further, the air enclosure be tapped by a ma- nometer, measurements of the pressure may be taken, and by making the air enclosure and the volume of the manometer small enough the quantity of solvent enter- ing while pressure is being established may be neg- lected, the original concentration of the solution remaining practically unaltered. This is the principle of the method employed in measuring osmotic pressure in absolute units. The question now arises, “ Are these measurements really independent of the nature of the membrane? Has the difficulty which beset the older experiments been overcome?” To this question an immediate answer is for thcoming, for, as pointed out by Prof. Ostwald, it follows from theoretical considerations that if the mem- brane employed is really semi-permeable, the observed osmotic pressure of a given solution must be the same, no matter of what material the membrane is com- 104 NATURE | DECEMBER I, 1892 posed. For suppose we have a quantity of solution enclosed in a tube, one end of the tube being closed by a membrane A, the other by a membrane B, and suppose it possible that a pressure P can be developed on the membrane A when it separates the solution from pure water, which is higher than the pressure Z similarly de- veloped when B separates the solution from pure water. On immersing the tube in water, the latter will begin to pass through both membranes into the solution. When the pressure 7 is attained passage through B will stop, but that through A will continue; but as soon as the pressure on the solution rises above J, water will be forced out through B. The pressure P will thus never be attained, water will continuously enter through A, and pass out at B. We will thus havea machine capable of doing an infinite amount of work, which is impossible. Similar reasoning shows that / cannot be greater than P ; it follows therefore that the pressure developed on each membrane is the same, that the osmotic pressure must be independent of the nature of a truly semi-permeable membrane. Actual observations are on record in which the osmotic pressure did appear to vary with the membrane employed. A sugar solution, for example, exhibited a much lower osmotic pressure with a membrane of Prussian blue or calcium phosphate than with copper ferrocyanide, From the preceding argument it is concluded, however, that these membranes giving the lower values were not quite firm or not quite impermeable to the dissolved substance ; the highest value is thus taken as the measure of the osmotic pressure which is nearest the truth. On glancing at the results which have been obtained, the first point which strikes one is the extraordinary magni- tude of the pressures thus set up. In the case of a I per cent. aqueous solution of nitre the pressure attains the value ot 24 atmospheres. This value increases with the strength of the solution till at 3°3 per cent. it is no less than 6 atmospheres, this pressure being the highest which any membrane yet prepared has been able to withstand. With substances like sugar, other things being the same, the pressure is not so great, but in all cases, in order to keep it within workable limits, the solutions employed have to be dilute. Striking as the results are themselves, their explanation is not less remarkable. The original measurements of osmotic pressure were made with the purpose of eluci- dating the movement of liquids in plant cells, and naturally the substances examined were such as occur in the vegetable organism—aqueous solutions of sugar, gum, dextrin, and the nitrate, sulphate, and tartrate of potassium. For some years after these observations were made, they lay comparatively unnoticed, until Prof. van’t Hoff, of Amsterdam, turned them to a use undreamt of by their discoverer. From a study of the properties of dilute solutions van’t Hoff came to the conclusion that the osmotic pressure was due to the bombardment of the molecules of the dissolved substance on the semi-perme- able membrane. For when the osmotic pressure is established and equilibrium exists between solvent and solution, in the same time, equal amounts of solvent, must pass in either direction through the membrane and the impacts of the solvent molecules on the mem- brane will then be equal and opposed on either side, and therefore negligible. On this reasoning the pressure recorded on the manometer is taken to be that exerted by the substance in solution. On examining the magnitude of the pressure thus at- tributed to the dissolved substance, in the case of a solu- tion of sugar van’t Hoff next showed that it bore the closest resemblance to the pressure of a gas. Indeed, if we calculate the pressure of a gas which at the same temperature contains as many molecules per unit volume as there are molecules of sugar per unit volume of solu- tion, then the pressure of the gas and the osmotic pres- NO. 1205,$VOL. 47 | sure are the same. Moreover, on thermodynamical grounds it was established that on the above hypothesis as to the nature of osmotic pressure its magnitude should be quantitatively connected with measurements of other physical properties of solutions, more especially those on the lowering of the vapour-pressure, and of the freezin point of a solvent produced by the presence of dissolve material. In this way a mass of evidence was collected, a general survey of which led to the foundation of the new theory of solutions. On this theory the dissolved substance, if the solution be dilute, is supposed to behave as if it were gaseous, the pressure it exerts—the osmotic pressure—being equal to the pressure which it would exert if it were gasified, and occupying, at the same tempera- ture, a volume equal to the volume of the solution. Unfortunately measurements of osmotic pressure have only been made on few substances, and only for solutions. in water, but on turning to all-the available observations: to see how they support this novel conclusion, the most superficial examination serves to show that an agreement — does not exist. Unless in the case of sugar, for no sub- stance of known formula which has yet been investigated does the osmotic pressure agree with the corresponding gaseous pressure. These substances consist of salt solu- tions, and they invariably give higher osmotic pressures. than theory demands. Similar disturbing influences. have been observed when other physical properties of these solutions were measured, and to account for the facts an additional hypothesis has been put forward by Dr. Svante Arrhenius. Salt solutions are electrolytes, they conduct the electric current, and undergo simultaneous chemical decomposi- tion into their constituent ions. Experiment shows that such electrolytic solutions give high osmotic pressures, more particles appear to bombard the semi-permeable membrane than if the dissolved substance behaved as a gas. The new hypothesis states that this is really the case, the additional number of particles being produced from the breaking up of the dissolved substance. It states that in a solution which can be electrolyzed a por- tion at least of the dissolved substance exists already decomposed or dissociated into its ions, and that although these ions cannot be separated by diffusion they are so — far independent that each can exercise an effect on the semi-permeable membrane. The extent of this electrolytic dissociation is sup- posed to vary with the chemical nature of the dissolved substance, and to increase with the dilution. In ver dilute sclutions it may be complete, the whole of the dis- solved substance being supposed to exist in the state of ions. The second hypothesis gives, therefore, some expla- nation why the osmotic pressure of a salt solution is greater than that of a non-electrolytic solution of sugar ; it further fixes the limits between which the osmotic pres- sure ought to vary in the case of an electrolyte, for the lower limit should be that of undissociated gas, the higher should be that of completely dissociated gas, each original molecule having decomposed into as many sub- molecules as there are ions in each molecule of salt. So far as these limiting conditions go, the facts sup port the hypothesis. In all cases the observed osmotic pressure is either equal to one or other of the limits, or lies between them. A closer scrutiny leads, nevertheless, to apparent discrepancy. It is evident that a measure of the amount of dissociation can be obtained from osmotic pressure observations. For if we divide the observed osmotic pressure by the corresponding pressure of un- dissociated gas we have obviously, if the pre hypotheses are valid, the ratio of the actual number o bombarding molecules to the theoretical number had no dissociation occurred. The ratio of these two numbers is denoted by the letter “7,” a factor first used by van’t Hoff. Now, on the new theory, the value of “7” can be DECEMBER I, 1892] NATURE 105 obtained by measurements of other properties of salt solutions, the electric conductivity, the depression of the freezing point, &c., and the theory is compared with | age by seeing if the values of “2,” as determined, say, rom freezing-point observations, agree with those de- duced from the osmotic pressure. The comparison shows that in some cases, some half-a-dozen in all, the two sets of values correspond ; in others, and in by far the majority, no such correspondences exist. In these latter instances it is argued, and with a certain amount of experimental evidence, that the salts were not without action on the membrane employed, and that, therefore, diosmose really took place, the membrane was not truly semi- rmeable. In this way the discordant observations ve been put out of court. It is thus apparent that the leading hypotheses of the new theory do not receive confirmation of the weightiest kind from observations on osmotic pressure. Indeed, were they supported by such measurements alone, they | would hardly be entertained. Their mainstay, however, ies in the mass of experimental work on many other properties— evidence which it is much easier to obtain than the difficult measurements on osmotic pressure— which has been correlated and explained by their use. been put forward in favour of the gaseous analogy. Several physicists, starting from entirely different points of view, have arrived at the result that in a dilute solu- tion the dissolved substance should obey laws similar to those which hold for gases. At present the attitude of the prominent upholders of the new theory is one of indif- ference as to the exact mechanism of osmotic pressure. The numerical agreement between the measurements on solutions and those on gases is regarded as ample justi- fication for considering dissolved substances to be ina pseudo- gaseous condition. Whatever the ultimate explanation of the facts may be, there can be no doubt that the existing speculations on the nature of osmotic pressure and allied phenomena have infused new life into the study of solutions. Indeed, as instigators to fresh inquiry these hypotheses must take rank as the most fruitful of recent times, J. W. RODGER. A SANITARIAN’S TRAVELS. R. ROBERT BOYLE has travelled round the world no fewer than four times for the purpose of study- ing sanitary science and preparing the way for the intro- GREAT RECUMBENT FIGURE OF BUDDHA, It is only fair to add that both hypotheses, from physi- - cal as well as chemical standpoints, have met with a measure of adverse criticism. The vé/e played by the membrane has also been questioned. It has been sug- gested that it is not really semi-permeable, allowing sol- vent only to pass, but just as a porous plug behaves towards a mixture of gases, it allows molecules with dif- ferent momenta to traverse it at different rates. Or, again, its action has been likened to that of a palla- dium film towards hydrogen, compounds being formed with the membrane substance on one side, these becom- ing diffused and dissociated on the other. If either of these views be corréct the pressures exerted by dissolved substances have probably never been measured. On the other hand, important theoretical support has NO. £205, VOL. 47 | BURMAH. PEGU, duction of the ventilating and sanitary appliances he has invented. An interesting account of his fourth journey is given in a little book entitled “A Sanitary Crusade through the East and Australasia,” consisting of a series of papers reprinted from the Building News. In the course of this “ crusade” Mr. Boyle visited Burmah, the Malay native states, Sumatra, Siam, Borneo, Java, Aus- tralia, New Zealand, Samoa, the Sandwich Islands, and America. Of all the facts noted by him as a sanitarian the most remarkable are those relating to leprosy, a dis- ease which he believes to be spreading to an alarming extent all over the world. He was particularly struck by the gigantic proportions the evil has assumed in Burmah. The steps of the great Shwedagon pagoda at Rangoon, the Mecca of the Indo-Chinese Buddhists, he found to be 106 NATURE [ DECEMBER I, 1892 “closely lined from top to bottom with lepers, suffering from that loathsome disease in its worst forms and most _advanced stages.” A number of the victims examined by Mr. Boyle “presented a most sickening and awful spectacle.” Yet no provision worthy of the name appears to be made for the maintenance or treatment of these poor lepers, who are thus compelled to resort to begging to keep themselves in existence. At Mandalay Mr. Boyle -came in contact with horrors of a similar nature. During times of high festival the entrances of the great Arakan pagoda in that city are crowded by hundreds of lepers, so that the visitor has to pick his way carefully among them. In the Sandwich Islands also Mr. Boyle was strongly impressed by the terrible effects of the curse of leprosy, which, he says, has nearly decimated the native population. He has a curious theory to the effect that the propaga- tion of leprosy has been to a large extent connected with cannibalism, the disease ‘ being spread wholesale through the eating of infected bodies.” He has frequently seen in New Caledonia and the South Sea Islands human bodies “hanging up in the natives’ huts, intended for future repasts, though then in an advanced stage of de- composition and exhaling a sickening odour.” The little book is by no means occupied only with these terrible subjects. Reference is made to many inter- -esting things which came under Mr. Boyle’s observation in the course of his journey. We may especially note the impression produced upon him by Buddhist temples and various classes of objects associated with Buddhism in Burmah. Pagan, an ancient capital of Burmah, situ- -ated on the Irrawaddy between Mandalay and Rangoon, -contains an enormous number of Buddhist temples of various sizes and styles of architecture, and the city, as seen from the river, is described by Mr. Boyle as “ one -of the grandest and most impressive sights he has ever -seen.” Lower down the Irrawaddy below Prome there is a cliff about two miles long and 300 feet high, on the face of which are carved innumerable figures of Buddha ranged in tiers from the bottom to the top. He thinks that some of these figures cannot be less than twenty feet high. Manyof them are richly gilded, and the whole ‘forms “a very brilliant and curious sight.” We reproduce -an illustration showing the great recumbent figure of Buddha, in the province of Pegu, of which Mr. Boyle re- ports that “it is said to measure about 270 feet in length by 70 feet at the shoulder.” Ina paper read lately before the Anthropological Institute (see NATURE, November Io, p. 46) Major R. C. Temple gives the length as 181 feet and the height at the shoulder as 46 feet. This remarkable monument is built of brick, and Major Temple speaks of it as “ well proportioned throughout.” It is supposed to have been produced in the fifteenth century. It was hidden from view by jungle until 1881, when it was accidentally discovered by a railway contractor. GAUSS AND WEBER. 1% bringing before our readers the contents of a circular we have received with respect to the erection of a monument, in Gottingen, to the two world-renowned scientific workers and friends, Charles Frederick Gauss and William Weber, we do so, knowing that every scien- tific man, whether he be astronomer, mathematician, or physicist, will be only too glad to have a chance of paying some tribute, however slight, to their memory. Only about a year has gone by since the younger of the two, William Weber, passed away, having brought glory ‘to the University of Gottingen, which was radiated throughout the whole scientific world. The work which both have done in the service of science cannot be said ito be the property of their followers alone, but is a NO. 1205, VOL. 47 | precious heirloom of mankind, which has proved, and wlll continue to prove in the future, valuable in many ways in the service of technics, in methods of communi- cation, and in civilization generally. Gauss, who is almost unequalled among the scholars of the century, has not only left imposing landmarks of his great mind in all domains of pure mathematics, but he has also by his work furthered all departments of its appli- cations in astronomy and physics, while his investigations have become standard for the theoretical as well as for the observational side. What Gauss did for magnetism, Weber, whom Gauss had chosen for his fellow-worker, attracted by his useful work on acoustics, did for the strength of galvanic currents, for their impelling electromotive forces, and for their resistances. Further, in teaching how to measure these quantities in absolute units, he has furnished extremely important methods for their investigation. In this way not only has the science itself been furthered, but a firm basis for the development of electro-technics has been formed, the soundness of whichis proved by its general adoption and which has contributed greatly to the tremendous advance witnessed during the last ten years. The pamphlet then goes on to say: “It is not the purpose of these lines to enlarge on the eminent works which we owe to the co-operation of these great investigators; we can only call to mind the fertile researches on the laws of the earth’s magnetism, from which as it were a new branch of physics has developed; further, the attempts to encompass the phenomena of electrostatics, electro- dynamics, and induction by one single law, attempts which, however a future generation may judge of them, will mark an important epoch in scientific develop- ment ; and further, we may recall the most popular result of their co-operation, viz. the erection of the first telegraph practically adopted for communication at a distance.” Since the year 1877 the birthplace of Gauss has possessed a memorial of him, but Géttingen, the place where he and Weber worked, and where the former died, and which consequently became celebrated, possesses no such memorial. That this should be remedied is the object of this circular, and one has only to glance down the list of names attached to it—about 275 altogether— to see that it includes most of the learned men in Ger- many, and those of many distinguished foreigners. Among these we are glad to see the name of Lord Kelvin, President of the Royal Society. : The acting committee is composed of Prof. Klein, E. v. Meier (Curator of the University), F. Merkel (Pro- rector of the University), G. Merkel (Over-burgomaster), Profs. E. Riecke, E. Schering, W. Schur, W. Voigt, H. Weber, and S. Benfey (banker), and it is to the last mentioned that subscriptions should be addressed (S. Benfey, Bankgeschaft, Gottingen). The list will remain open until April 1, 1893. THE ANNIVERSARY OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. Veer oy being St. Andrew’s Day the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society was held in their apartments at Burlington House. The auditors of the Treasurer's accounts having read their report, and the Secretary having read the list of Fellows elected and deceased since the last anniversary, the President (Lord Kelvin) proceeded to deliver the anniversary address. The medals were then presented as follows :—The Copley Medal to Prof. Rudolf Virchow, For.Mem.R.S. (received by the Foreign Secretary), for his investigations in Pathology, Pathological Anatomy, and Prehis- DEcEMBER I, 1892 | NATURE 107 toric Archeology ; the Rumford Medal to Mr. Nils C. Dunér (received by the Swedish Minister), for his Spectroscopic Researches on Stars ; a Royal Medal to Mr. J. N. Langley, F.R.S., for his work on Secreting Glands, and on the Nervous System ; a Royal Medal to the Reverend Prof. Pritchard, F.R.S., for his work on Photometry and Stellar Parallax; the Davy Medal to Prof. Francois Marie Raoult, of Grenoble, for his researches on the Freezing Points of Solutions, and on the Vapour Pressures of Solutions ; and the Darwin Medal to Sir J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., on account of his important contributions to the progress of Systematic Betany, as evidenced by the “Genera Plantarum” and the ‘‘ Flora Indica,” but more especially on account of his intimate association with Mr. Darwin in the studies pre- liminary to the “ Origin of Species.” _ The Society next proceeded to elect the Officers and Council for the ensuing year. The following is a list of those elected :—President : The Lord Kelvin. Treasurer : Sir John Evans. Secretaries: Prof. Michael Foster, The Lord Rayleigh. Foreign Secretary: Sir Archibald Geikie. Other Members of the Council: Capt. William de Wiveleslie Abney, Sir Benjamin Baker, Prof. Isaac Bayley Balfour, William Thomas Blanford, Prof. George Carey Foster, Richard Tetley Glazebrook, Frederick Ducane Godman, John Hopkinson, Prof. Joseph Norman Lockyer, Prof. John Gray McKendrick, William Davidson Niven, William Henry Perkin, Rev. Prof. B. Price, The Marquis of Salisbury, Adam Sedgwick, Prof. William Augustus Tilden. In the evening the Fellows and their friends dined together at the Whitehall Rooms, Hétel Métropole. The following is the address delivered at the anniver- sary meeting by Lord Kelvin :— Since our last Anniversary Meeting, the Royal Society has lost 27 Fellows on the Home list, and 5 Foreign Members, a sadly great number. Pedro ae II. (d’Alcantara), Emperor of Brazil, December 5, 1891. ; Ramsay, Sir Andrew Crombie, December 9, 1891, aged 77. - Stas, Jean Servais, December 13, 1891, aged 78. Bennett, Sir James Risdon, December 14, 1891, aged 82. - Devonshire, William Cavendish, 7th Duke of, December 21, ‘1891, aged 83. Russell, William Henry Leighton, December 28, 1891, aged 68. Kronecker, Leopold, December 29, 1891. Wood, John, December 29, 1891, aged 66. Airy, Sir George Biddell, January 2, 1892, aged go, Henry, William Charles, January 7, 1892, aged 88. gp oo aes, Jean Louis Armand de, January 12, nnn fee, I. _ Adams, Toba Couch, January 21, 1892, aged 72. - Paget, Sir George Edward, January 29, 1892, aged 83. Caird, Right Hon. Sir James, February 9, 1892, aged 76. - Dittmar, William, February 9, 1892, aged 59. Grant el ), James Augustus, February 11, 1892, aged 05. - Hunt, Thomas Sterry, February 12, 1892, aged 66. Bates, Henry Walter, February 16, 1892, aged 67. Hirst, Thomas Archer, February 16, 1892, aged 61. Kopp, Hermann Franz Moritz, February 20, 1892, aged 75. Gregory, Right Hon. Sir William Henry, March 6, 1892, -- aged 75. Knowles, Sir Francis Charles, March 19, 1892, aged go. Bowman, Sir William, Bart., March 29, 1892, aged 76. Hofmann, August Wilhelm von, May 5, 1892, aged 74. Thomson, James, May 8, 1892, aged 7 pot haape William Wilsher, aged 64. Aitken, Sir William, June 25, 1892, aged 67. Schorlemmer, Carl, June 27, 1892, aged 58. NO, 1295, VOL. 47] '} Lord, May 9, 1892, Clark, Frederick Le Gros, July 19, 1892, aged 82. Sherbrooke, Robert Lowe, Viscount, July 27, 1892, aged 81. Sutherland, George Granville William Sutherland-Levesom Gower, Duke of, September 22, 1892, aged 64. Tennyson, Alfred, Lord (Poet Laureate), October 6, 1892, aged 83. Calver (Captain), Edward Killick, October 28, 1892. Biographical notices will appear in the Proceedings. During the past year, in the mathematical and physical section of the ‘* Philosophical Transactions,” eighteen papers have been published, and in the biological section, eleven ; the two sections together containing a total of 1235 pages of letterpress and 50. plates. Of the ‘‘ Proceedings,” fourteen numbers have been issued, containing 1223 pages and 20 plates. This unusually- large bulk is partly accounted for by the publication in the ‘*Proceedings”’ of certain extra matters which the Council deemed likely to interest the Fellows. One part (No. 307), which forms an appendix to volume 1,, contains results of the Revision of the Statutes, to which I alluded in my Anniversary Address last year. It consists of a summary of the second and’ third chapters, and a copy of the Statutes as now revised, followed by an interesting note on the history of the Statutes, . which has been drawn up by our senior secretary, Prof. Michael Foster. In addition to these matters, the same number contains. a complete list of the portraits and busts at present in the apart- ments of the Society, compiled by order of the Library Com- mittee, a work, which was much needed, as no such list had been made since Weld’s Catalogue, printed thirty-two years ago. The new ‘‘ list” is not a descriptive catalogue, but the names of the painters and donors, and the dates of the gifts, so far as a thorough and somewhat laborious examination of the Council minutes and Journal books has revealed them, are furnished. The list of portraits is followed by a full descriptive catalogue of the medals at present in the possession of the Society, which has . been carefully made by our clerk, Mr. James, under the super- vision of the treasurer. Another extra number of the ‘‘ Proceedings” (No, 310) is devoted to a First Report of the Water Research Committee on. the Present State of our Knowledge concerning the Bacteriology of Water, by Profs. Percy Frankland and Marshall Ward. It contains 96 pages, full of most valuable information regarding the vitality of micro-organisms in drinking water, to which in a. large measure the spread of Asiatic cholera, typhoid fever, and other zymotic diseases is now known to be due. In my Presidential Address of last year, I referred to this Water Committee as having been appointed by the Royal Society, in alliance with the London County Council ; and this first instalment of its work seems amply to justify its originators in their expectations of results, most valuable for the public: health, from the investigation which has been commenced. A third extra number (No. 311) contains the report of the Committee on Colour Vision. This Committee, from the time of its appointment in March, 1890, held over thirty meetings, in course of which it examined more than 500 persons as to their colour vision, and tried various methods and many kinds of apparatus for colour testing. The report of the results of the- whole inquiry contains a large mass of most interesting matter, and the Committee’s work ends in a set of practical recommen- dations, from which we may hope that much benefit will come, in the prevention of inconvenience and disaster liable to be pro- duced by mistake of colour signals, both at sea and on railways. Mr. Ellis’s communication (Roy. Soc. Proc., November, 1892, vol. lii., p. 191) to the Royal Society of last May, and Prof. Grylls Adams’ communication (Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiii. 1891-92, p. 131) of June, 1891, both on the subject of simultaneous magnetic disturbances found by observations at magnetic observatories in different parts of the world; the award of a Royal medal two years ago to Hertz, for his splendid. experimental work on electro-magnetic waves and vibrations ; and Prof. Schuster’s communication (Phil. Trans. vol. clxxx., 1889, p. 467) to the Royal Society, of June, 1889, om the ‘* Diurnal Variations of Terrestrial Magnetism,” justify me in saying a few words on the present occasion regarding terres- trial magnetic storms, and the hypothesis that they are due to- magnetic waves emanating from the sun. Guided by Maxwell’s ‘* electro-magnetic theory of light,” and: the undulatory theory of propagation of magnetic force which it includes, we might hope to perfectly overcome a fifty years’ out-- 108 NATURE | DECEMBER 1, 1892 standing difficulty in the way of believing the sun to be the direct cause of magnetic storms in the earth, though hitherto every effort in this direction has been disappointing. This diffi- culty is clearly stated by Prof. W: Gs Adams, in the following sentences, which I quote from his Réport to the British Asso- ciation of 1881 (p. 469) ‘On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth Currents” :—‘* Thus we see that the magnetic changes which take place at various points of the earth’s surface at the same instant are so large as to be quite comparable with the earth’s total magnetic force ; and in order that any cause may be a true and sufficient one, it must be capable of producing these changes rapidly.” : pai ea : The primary difficulty, in fact, is to imagine the sun a vari- able magnet or electro-magnet, powerful enough to produce at the earth’s distance changes of magnetic force amounting, in extreme cases, to as much as 1/20 or 1/30, and frequently, in ordinary magnetic storms, to as much as 1/400 of the undis- turbed terrestrial magnetic force. The earth’s distance from the sun is 228 times the sun’s radius, and the cube of this number is about 12,000,000. Hence, if the sun were, as Gilbert found the earth to be, a globular magnet, and if it were of the same average intensity of magnetization as the earth, we see, according to the known law of magnetic force at a distance, that the magnetic force due to the sun at the earth’s distance from it, in any direction, would be only a twelve-millionth of the actual force of terrestrial mag- netization at any point of the earth’s surface in a corresponding position relatively to the magnetic axis. Hence the sun must be a magnet! of not much short of £2,000 times the average intensity of the terrestrial magnet (a not absolutely inconceiv- able supposition, as we shall presently see) to produce, by direct action simply as a magnet, any disturbance of terrestrial magnetic force sensible to the instruments of our magnetic observatories. Considering probabilities and possibilities as to the history of the earth from its beginning to the present time, I find it un- imaginable but that terrestrial magnetism is due to the great- ness and the rotation of the earth. If it is true that terrestrial magnetism is a necessary consequence of the magnitude and the rotation of the earth, other bodies comparable in these qualities with the earth, and comparable also with the earth in respect to material and temperature, such as Venusand Mars, must be magnets comparable in strength with the terrestrial magnet, and they must have poles similar to the earth’s north and south poles on the north and south sides of their equators, because their directions of rotation, as seen from the north side of the ecliptic, are the same as that of the earth. It seems probable, also, that the sun, because of its great mass and its rotation in the same direction as the earth’s rotation, is a magnet with polarities on the north and south sides of its equator, similar to the terrestrial northern and southern magnetic polarities. As the sun’s equatorial surface-velocity is nearly four and a half times the earth’s, it seems probable that the average solar magnetic moment exceeds the terrestrial considerably more than according to the proportion of bulk. Absolutely ignorant as we are regarding the effect of cold solid rotating bodies such as the earth, or Mars, or Venus, or of hot fluid rotating bodies such as the sun, in straining the circumambient ether, we cannot say that the sun might not be 1000, or 10,000, or 100,000 times as intense a magnet as the earth. It is, there- fore, a perfectly proper object for investigation to find whether there is, or is not, any disturbance of terrestrial magnetism, ‘such as might be produced by a constant magnet in the sun’s place with its magnetic axis coincident with the sun’s axis of rotation. Neglecting for the present the seven degrees of obliquity of the sun’s equator, and supposing the axis to be exactly perpendicular to the ecliptic, we have an exceedingly simple case of magnetic action to be considered : a magnetic force perpendicular to the ecliptic at every part of theearth’s orbit and varying inversely as the cube of the earth’s dis- tance from the sun. The components of this force parallel and perpendicular to the earth’s axis are, respectively, 0°92 and -0°4 of the whole ; of which the former could only be perceived in virtue of the varying distance of the earth from the sun +. t The moon’s apparent diameter being always nearly the same as the sun’s, the statements of the last four sentences are applicable to the moon as well as to the sun, and ure important in connection with speculation as to the cause of the lunar disturbance of terrestrial magnetism, discovered nearly fifty years ago by Kreil and Sabine. NO. 1205, VOL. 47] in the course of a year; while the latter would give rise to a daily variation, the same as would be observed if the red ends of terrestrial magnetic needles were attracted to- wards an ideal star of declination o° and right ascension 270°. Hence, to discover the disturbances of terrestrial magnetism, if any there are, which are due to direct action of the sun as a magnet, the photographic curves of three magnetic elements given by each observatory should be analysed for the simple harmonic constituent of annual period and the simple harmonic constituent of period equal to the sidereal day. We thus have two very simple problems, each of which may be treated with great ease separately by a much simplified application of the principles on which Schuster has treated his much more complex subject, according to Gauss’ theory as to the external or internal origin of the disturbance, and Prof. Horace Lamb’s investigation of electric currents in- duced in the interior of a globe by a varying external The sidereal diurnal constituent which forms the subject of the second of these simplified problems is smaller, but not much smaller, than the solar diurnal term which, with the solar semi- diurnal, the solar ter-diurnal, the solar quarter-diurnal con- stituents form the subjects of Schuster’s paper. The conclusion at which he has arrived, that the source of the disturbance is external, is surely an ample reward for the great labour he has bestowed on the investigation hitherto; and I h he may be induced to undertake the comparatively sli extension of his work which will be required for the separate treatment of the two problems of the sidereal diurnal and the solar annual constituents, and to answer for each the question :—Is the source external or internal ? But even though external be the answer found in each case, we must not from this alone assume that the cause is direct ~ action of the sun as a magnet. The largeness of the solar semi- diurnal, ter-diurnal, and quarter-diurnal constituents found by the harmonic analysis, none of which could be explained by the direct action of the sun as a magnet, demonstrate relatively large action of some other external influence, possibly the electric currents in our atmosphere, which Schuster suggested as a pro- bable cause. The cause, whatever it may be, for the semi- diurnal and higher constituents would also probably have a variation in the solar diurnal period on account of the difference of temperature of night and day, and a sidereal and annual. period on account of the difference of temperature between winter and summer. 7 Even if, what does not seem very probable, we are to be led by the analysis to believe that magnetic force of the sun is directly perceptible here on the earth, we are quite certain that this steady force is vastly less in amount than the abruptly vary- ing force which, from the time of my ancestor in the Presidential Chair, Sir Edward Sabine’s discovery, forty years ago, of an apparent connection between sunspots and terrestrial magnetic storms, we have been almost compelled to attribute to disturbing action of some kind at the sun’s surface, As one of the first evidences of this belief, I may quote the following remarkable sentences from Lord Armstrong’s rage ie ae Address to the British Association at Newcastle, in 1863 :— ‘*The sympathy also which appears to exist between forces operating in the sun and magnetic forces belonging to the earth merits a continuance of that close attention which it has already received from the British Association, and of labours such as General Sabine has, with so much ability and effect, devoted to the elucidation of the subject. I may here notice that most re- markable phenomenon which was seen by independent observers at two different places, on September 1, 1859. A sudden out- burst of light, far exceeding the brightness of the sun’s surface, was seen to take place, and sweep like a drifting cloud over a portion of the solar face. This was attended with magnetic disturbances of unusual intensity,and with exhibitions of aurora of extraordinary brilliancy. The identical instant at which the effusion of light was observed was recorded by an abrupt and strongly-marked deflection in the self-registering instruments at Kew. The phenomenon as seen was probably only part of what actually took place, for the magnetic storm in the midst of which it occurred commenced before, and continued after the event, If conjecture be allowable in such a case, we may suppose that this remarkable event had some connection with the means by * Communication to the Royal Society, March 18, 1852 (Phil. Trans:, vol. clxii. p. 143). ; , DECEMBER 1, 1892] NATURE 199 __ which the sun’s heat is rénovated. It is a reasonable supposition _ that the sun was at that time in the act of receiving a more than __ usual accession of new energy ; and the theory which assigns the _ maintenance of its power to cosmical matter, plunging into it _ with that prodigious velocity which gravitation would impress ; wk as it approached to actual contact with the solar orb, _ would afford an explanation of this sudden exhibition of intensi- _ fied light, in harmony with the knowledge we have now attained, that arrested motion is represented by equivalent heat.” * ____ It has certainly been a very tempting hypothesis, that quanti- _ ties of meteoric matter suddenly falling into the sun is the cause, __ orone of the causes, of those disturbances to which magnetic _ storms on the earth are due. We may, indeed, knowing that _ meteorites do fall into the earth, assume without doubt that _ much more of them fall, in the same time, into the sun. Astro- _ momical reasons, however, led me long ago to conclude that their quantity annually, or per century, or per thousand years, _ is much too small to supply the energy given out by the sun in _ ‘heat and light radiated through space, and led me to adopt un- _ onthe shrinking mass is the true source of the sun’s heat, as _ given out at present, and has been so for several hundred thou- _ sand years, or several million years. It is just possible, how- _ ever, that the outburst of brightness described by Lord ¥ ae sa may have been due to an extraordinarily great and __ sudden falling in of meteoric matter, whether direct from extra- a” | Spano space, or from orbital circulationround the sun. But ’ Gt seems to me much more probable that it was due toa refreshed brightness produced over a larger area of the surface than usual by brilliantly incandescent fluid rushing up from below, to take _ the place of matter falling down from the surface, in consequence of being cooled in the regular régime of solar radiation. It seems, indeed, very improbable that meteors fall in at any time to the sun in sufficient quantity to produce dynamical distur- ‘bances at his surface at all comparable with the gigantic storms actually produced by hot fluid rushing up from below, and spread- ing out over the sun’s surface. _ But now let us consider for a moment the work which must be done at the sun to produce a terrestrial magnetic storm. Take, Trans.. p. 139 and Pl. 9). We find at eleven places, St. Peter: s, Stonyhurst, Wilhelmshaven, Utrecht, Kew, Vienna, Lisbon, San Fernando, Colaba, Batavia, and Melbourne, the izontal force increased largely from 2 to 2.10 p.m., and fell at all the places from 2.10 to 3 p.m., with some rough ups and downs in the interval. The storm lasted altogether from about noon to8p.m. At St. Petersburg, Stonyhurst, and Wilhelms- haven, the horizontal force was above par by 000075, 0°00088, and o’o00090 (C.G.S. in each case) at 2,10 p.m. ; and below iy por 070007, 0°00066, 0°00075 at 3 o’clock. The mean value ____ for all the eleven places was nearly 0’0005 above par at 2h. Iom., __ and 00005 below par at 3h. The photographic curves show care of somewhat similar amounts following one another very irregularly, but with perfectly simultaneous correspondence at the eleven different stations, through the whole eight hours of _ the storm. To produce such changes as these by any _ possible dynamical action within the sun, or in his atmo- the agent must have worked at something like 160 million million million million horse-power} (12x 10 ergs per sec.), which is about 364 times the total horse-power (3°3 x 10%8 _ ergs persec.)ofthesolar radiation. Thus, in this eight hours of a _ mot very severe magnetic storm, as much work must have been done by the sun in sending magnetic waves out in all directions space as he actually does in four months of his regular heat and light. This result, it seems to me, is absolutely con- clusive against the supposition that terrestrial magnetic storms are due to magnetic action of the sun; or to any kind of dyna- mical action taking place within the sun, or in connection with hurricanes in his atmosphere, or anywhere near the sun outside. It seems as if we’ may also be forced to conclude that the supposed connection between magnetic storms and sun-spots is unreal, and that the seeming agreement between the periods has been a mere. coincidence. We are certainly far from having any reasonable explanation of any of the magnetic phenomena of the earth; whether the fact that the earth is a magnet; that its magnetism changes vastly, as it does from century to century ; that it hassomewhat eegular and periodic annual, solar diurnal, lunar diurnal, and t x horse power = 7°46 X 109 ergs per second. NO. 1205, VOL. 47] Adams gives particulars in his paper of June, 1891 (Phil. _ qualifiedly Helmholtz’s theory, that work done by gravitation | _ for example, the ‘wagnetic storm of June 25, 1885, of which — sidereal diurnal variations ; and (as marvellous as the secular variation) that it is subject to magnetic storms. The more mar- vellous, and, for the present inexplicable, all these subjects are, the more exciting becomes the pursuit of investigations which must, sooner or later, reward those who persevere in the work, We have at present two good and sure connections between magnetic storms and other phenomena : the aurora above, and the earth currents below, are certainly in full working sympathy with magneticstorms. In this respect the latter part of Mr. Ellis’s paper is of special interest, and it is to be hoped that the Greenwich observations of earth currents will be brought thoroughly into relation with the theory of Schuster and Lamb, extended, as indeed Professor Schuster promised to extend it, to include not merely the periodic diurnal variations, but the irregular sudden changes of magnetic force taking place within any short time of a magnetic storm. In my Presidential address of last year I referred to the action of the International Geodetic Union, on the motion of Prof. Foerster, of Berlin, to send an astronomical expedition to Honolulu for the purpose of making a twelve months’ series of observations on latitude, corresponding to twelve months’ simultaneous observations to be made in European observatories ; and I was enabled, through the kindness of Prof. Foerster, to announce as a preliminary result, derived from the first three months of the observations, that the latitude had increased during that time by 4sec. at Berlin, and had decreased at Honolulu by almost exactly the same amount. The proposed year’s observations, begun in Honolulu on June 1, 1891, were completed by Dr. Marcuse, and an elaborate reduction of them by the permanent Committee of the International Geodetic Union was published a month ago at Berlin. The results are in splendid agreement with those of the European observatories : Berlin, Prag, and Strasbourg. ‘They prove beyond all question that between May 1891 and June 1892 the latitude of each of the three European observatories was a maximum, and of Honolulu a minimum, in the beginning of October, 1891: that the latitude of the European observatories was a minimum, and of Honolulu a maximum, near the beginning of May, 1892: and that the variations during the year followed somewhat approxi- mately, simple harmonic law as if for a period of 385 days, with range of about } sec. above and below the mean latitude in each case. This is just what would result from motion of the north and south polar ends of the earth’s instantaneous axis of rotation, in circles on the earth’s surface of 7°5 metres radius, at the rate of once round in 385 days. Sometime previously it had been found by Mr. S. C. Chandler that the irregular variations of latitude which had been discovered in different observatories during the last fifteen years seemed to follow a period of about 427 days, instead of the 306 days given by Peters’ and Maxwell’s dynamical theory, on the supposition ofthe earth being wholly a rigid body. And now, the German observations, although not giving so long a period as Chandler’s, quite confirm the result that, whatever approximation to follow- ing a period there is, in the variations of latitude, it is a period largely exceeding the old estimate of 306 days. Newcomb, in a letter which I received from him last Decem- ber, gave, what seems to me to be, undoubtedly, the true ex- planation of this apparent discrepance from dynamical theory, attributing it to elastic yielding of the earth as a whole. He added a suggestion, specially interesting to myself, that investiga- tion of periodic variations of latitude may prove to be the best means of determining approximately the rigidity of the earth. As itis, we have now, for the first time, what seems to be a quite decisive demonstration of elastic yielding in the earth as a whole, under the influence of a deforming force, whether of centrifugal force round a varying axis, as in the present case, or of tide-generating influences of the sun and moon, with reference to which I first raised the question of elastic yielding of the earth’s material many years ago. The present year’s great advance in geological dynamics forms the subject of a contribution by Newcomb to the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society of last March. In a later paper, published in the Astronomische Nachrichten, he examines records of many observatories, both of. Europe and America, from 1865 to the present time, and finds decisive evidence that from 1865 to 1890 the variations of latitude were much less than they have been during the past year, and seeming to show that an augmentation took place, somewhat suddenly, about the year 1890. When we consider how much water falls on Europe and Asia Lio NALUKE [ DECEMBER 1, 1892 during a month or two of rainy season, and how many weeks or months must pass before it gets to the sea, and where it has been in the interval, and what has become of the air from which it fell, we need not wonder that the distance of the earth’s axis of equilibrium of centrifugal force from the instantaneous axis of rotation should often vary! by five or ten metres in the course of a few weeks or months. We can scarcely expect, indeed, that the variation found by the International Geodetic Union during the year beginning June, 1891, should recur periodically for even as much as one or two or three times of the seeming period of 385 days. One of the most important scientific events of the past year has been Barnard’s discovery, on September 9, of a new satel- lite to Jupiter. On account of the extreme faintness of the object, it has not been observed anywhere except at the Lick Observatory in California. There, at an elevation of 4500 ft., with an atmosphere of great purity, and with a superb refractor of 36” aperature, they have advantages not obtainable else- where. The new satellite is about 112,000 miles distant from Jupiter, and its periodic time is about Irth. 50m. Mr. Barnard concludes a short statement of his discovery with the following sentences :—‘‘ It will thus be seen that this new satel- lite makes two revolutions in one day, and that its periodic time about the planet is less than two hours longer than the axial rotation of Jupiter. Excepting the inner satellite of Mars, it is the most rapidly revolving satellite known. When suffi- cient observations have been obtained, it will afford a new and independent determination of the mass of Jupiter. Of course, from what I have said in reference to the difficulty of seeing the new satellite, it will be apparent that the most powerful tele- scopes of the world only will show it” (dated Mount Hamilton, -September 21, 1892). Sir Robert Ball, in calling my attention to it, remarks that ‘*it is by far the most striking addition to the solar system since the discovery of the satellites to Mars in 1877.” To all of us it is most interesting that during this year, when we are all sympathizing with the University of Padua in its celebra'ion of the third centenary of its acquisition of Galileo as a professor, we have first gained the knowledge of a fifth satellite in addition to the four discovered by Galileo. Rudolph Virchow (CopLEY MEDAL), Professor Virchow’s eminent services to science are known throughout the world, and they are far too varied and numerous for enumeration. He survives Schwann, Henle, and the other pioneers in several branches of natural history who came from the school of Johannes Miiller, and at the present time occupies a position of influence and honour equal to that of his great contemporaries Helmholtz, Ludwig, and Du Bois-Reymond. His contributions to the study of morbid anatomy have thrown light upon the diseases of every part of the body,” but the broad and philosophical view he has taken of the processes of patho- logy has done more than his most brilliant observations to make the science of disease. In histology he has the chief merit of the classification into epithelial organs, connective tissues, and the higher and more specialized muscle and nerve. He also demonstrated the pre- sence of neuroglia in the brain and spinal cord, and discovered crystalline heematoidine, and the true structure of the umbilical cord. In pathology, strictly so called, his two great achievements— the detection of the cellular activity which lies at the bottom of all morbid as well as normal physiological processes, and the classification of the important group of new growths on a natural histological basis—have each of them not only made an epoch in medicine, but have been the occasion of fresh exten- sion of science by other labourers. In ethnological and archeological science Professor Virchow has made observations which only the greatness of his other work has thrown into the shade; and, so far from confining himself to technical labours, he has been known since he migrated to Wiirzburg and returned to Berlin as a_public- spirited, far-seeing, and enlightened politician.* t See Brit. Assoc. Reports, 1876, Address to Section A, pp. 10-11. * Among these may be mentioned his discovery of | ia, of lard degeneration, and glioma ; his reconstruction of the kind of tumour known as sarcoma, and his establishment of the important group of granulomata. 3 Ash ort pamphlet, ‘* Ueber die Nationelle Bedeutung der Naturwissen- sehaften,’’ may be mentioned as characteristic of the patriotism, the fairness and the broad judgment ofthe author. NO. 1205, VOL. 47] Universally honoured and pe:suuaily esteemed by most of the: leading pathologists in this country, as well as on the Centinent and in America, who had the good fortune to be his pupils, Prof. Virchow is a worthy successor of the many illustrious men of science to whom the Copley medal has been awariled. Nils C. Dunér, Director of the Observatory of Lund (RUM FORD: MEDAL). Dr. Dunér has been continuously at work, since 1871, at astronomical observations (see ‘‘ k.S. Catalogue”). He began to turn his attention to spectroscopic subjects in: 1878, and commenced the publication of his systematic work on. Stellar Spectra in 1882. In 1884 he broughr to a conclusion his wonderful observations. of stars of Vogel’s III Class. His memoir contains a detailed study of the spectra of nearly 400 stars, all which are the: most difficult objects to observe. This volume is one of the foundations on which any future work in this direction must be based. In 1891 he published another series of researches on the rota-. tion of the sun, comparing true solar with telluric lines for regions up to 75° of solar latitude. The result showed a dimi- nution of angular velocity with increasing latitude, thus spectro~ scopically confirming Carrington’s results. Professor Charles Pritchard, D.D., F.R.S., Director of the Oxford University Observatory {ROYAL MEDAL), Professor Pritchard began his publications on astronomical subjects in 1852. His first paper and several others which have foilowed, have dwelt with the construction of object glasses and’ telescope adjustments. = He was president of the Royal Astronomical Society in the: years 1867 and 1868. . He was appointed first Director of the newly-founded obser- vatory at Oxford in 1874. It is now the most active University observatory in the kingdom, as many as fifteen students- receiving instruction in observatory work at times. The ser- vices he has rendered to astronomy in devising, and keeping at. a high standard, the work of the observatory in many directions,. including its use as a school, are very noteworthy. © Immediately on the establishment of the observatory he saw the beneficial effects of photographic investigation, and first applied the method, with the old wet-plate photography, to the: problem of the physical libration of the moon. He saw that this problem was encumbered in heliometric work by the fact that a set of the observations must take a considerable time, and therefore they were made on a constantly changing disc,. necessitating great labour in reduction. By the observations: being made in two or three seconds, the picture of the moon did: not alter in the time. The result was to show important’ variations from Bouvard’s work, which variations in their important particulars were confirmed by Dr. Hartwig. Next (1885) the relative motions of the Pleiades were taken up with a view of tracing gravitational effects in the various. members of the group. This question is not ripe for solving, but it induced heliometer observers.to take up the question, and important progress is now being made. ‘ The photometric work detailed in the ‘* Uranometria Nova. Oxoniensis,” also published in 1885, consisted in measuring the light received from all stars visible to the naked eye, to 10° south- declination, by means of a wedge photometer devised by Prof. Pritchard—a form of photometer now in the hands of many astronomers. In the course of this work Prof. Pritchard, at his- own expense, took an assistant to Egypt to determine the effects of atmospheric absorption in a more constant climate than that of Oxford. This photometric work has been recognized by the- award of the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. Having fully determined the capacity of photography for accurate measurement, Prof. Pritchard next applied it to parallax: determinations of stars of the second magnitude. Some thirty stars altogether have been investigatea, and this work has just been published. Thirty is a greater number than any other — astronomer has attempted. Prof. Pritchard is now working on the International Chart of” the Heavens, and taking part in researches to ensure an accurate: photometric scale. John Newport Langley, F.R.S. (ROYAL MEDAL), Some of the most important of Mr. Langley’s researches have- — been upon the Physiology and Histology of Secreting Glands.. { _ DECEMBER 1, 1892] NATURE ALE __ Extending the observations of Kiihne and Lea on the pancreas, _ Mr. Langley showed in an elaborate series of researches, ex- _ tending over the salivary and most of the important secreting _ glands of the body, that the formation, as a morphological _ element within the secreting cell, at the expense of its pro- _ toplasm, of the material to be used in the secretion is a general a ion of secreting cells. The dependence of this function _ upon the activity of nerves, and upon other forms of excitation, _ Such as the action of drugs, has been greatly elucidated in _ ‘the course of these researches. Concurrently with the morpho- _ dogical changes within the cells, the chemical changes which _ occur within the secretion as the result of nerve activity or in- activity have been investigated, and many important facts _ brought to light regarding the nature of the action or modifi- _ ations of the action which may be brought to bear upon the pais 4 cell through the nervous system. These researches __ are published partly in the Philosophical Transactions, and ee core Aa long series of articles in the Journal of Physiology, as have extended over several years. It is not too much to ee ‘say that these researches of Mr. Langley upon secreting glands __ Give him a claim to occupy the highest rank as a physiological _- Mvestigator. ‘The other most important researches which Mr. Langley has ut ed have been—(1.) Upon the central nervous system, ing especially an investigation into the anatomical changes which result from central lesions ; (2.) Upon the sympathetic ner- vous system, and particularly a number of researches, based ba physiological methods, into its peripheral distribution to voluntary muscle and glands. Mr. Langley’s eminence in those branches of physiology to which he has mainly devoted his _ attention is universally admitted, and has been publicly recog- nized by his having been requested more than once by inter- national assemblies of physiologists to investigate and report on _ difficult cases submitted to them (vide ‘‘ Transactions of the International Medical Congress,” 1881, and ‘‘ Proceedings of he Physiologica! Congress at Basel,” 1890). _ Prof. Francois Marie Raoult, of Grenoble (DAVY MEDAL). _ For his researches on the freezing-points of solutions and on the vapour pressures of solutions. _ Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, F.R.S. (DARWIN MEDAL). _ Although the regulations relating to the award of this medal direct that it is to be treated rather as a means of encouraging asec naturalists to fresh exertion than as a reward for the life- ong | irs of the veteran, there would seem to be a special appropriateness in awarding it to one who was intimately _ associated with Mr. Darwin in the preparation of the ‘*Origin of Species.” That no one was more closely __ associated than Sir J. D. Hooker with Mr. Darwin in the _ work is abundantly proved by the following passage in the _ introduction to the ‘‘ Origin of Species” :—‘‘ I cannot, however, ‘let this opportunity pass without expressing my deep obliga- _ ttions to Dr. Hooker, who, for the last fifteen years (1844-59), ___ has aided me in every possible way by his large stores of know- __ ledge and his excellent judgment.” ete NOTES. oy Mr. W. FLINDERs PETRIE has been appointed to the chair of Egyptology, founded at University College, London, under ay the will of the late Miss Amelia B. Edwards, He hopes to _ ‘begin his new duties soon after Christmas, and to undertake the _ following work :—(1) Lectures on current discoveries, on history, and on the systematic study of Egyptian antiquities ; (2) lessons on the language and philology of Egypt ; (3) attendance in the library on fixed days for the assistance and direction of students working there ; (4) practical training on excavations in Egypt. Tue American Philosophical Society, as we have already stated, proposes to celebrate next year the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of its foundation. It has now been arranged that reunions will be held at the Hall of the Society in Phila- delphia from May 22 to 26, 1893, ‘‘at which papers may be offered by title by such delegates as may honour the Society with their presence.” THE foundation stone of the new buildings of the Durham College of Science, Newcastle, will be laid by Lord Durham on Monday, December 5. NO. 1205, VOL. 47] Mr. EpGAR R. WAITE, curator to the Leeds Philosophical Society, has received from the Government of New South Wales the appointment of assistant curator in the Australian Museum at Sydney, where he will have special charge of the reptile and fish sections. The Yorkshire Post says that at Leeds Mr. Waite has in many ways actively identified himself with local scientific research and studies, having for some years been, in conjunction with Mr. Denison Roebuck, responsible for the secretarial work —an honorary position—of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, and also editor of the WVaturalist. On November 1 an industrial school which seems likely to be of good service was opened at Lucknow by Sir Auckland Colvin. It is intended to provide a suitable education for children of the artizan class—an education which comprises instruction in reading and writing, arithmetic, elementary mechanics, physics, and drawing, the whole being in subordina- tion to manual training in the workshop, under skilled instruc- tors. Manual training will for the present be confined to carpentry, but ultimately training in iron and other metal work will be added to the curriculum. Drawing will be taught to every pupil from the outset. VARIOUS members of the department of biology in connection with Columbia College, New York, are now delivering lectures which are addressed especially to persons who desire to keep abreast of the later advances in biology without entering any of the technical courses. The subjects of the lectures are the his- tory of the theory of evolution ; the cellular basis of heredity and ‘development ; the origin and evolution of fishes ; and Amphi- oxus and other ancestors of the vertebrates. THE so-called ‘‘ Boxing Kangaroo” now being exhibited at ‘| the Westminster Aquarium is a fine male of Macropus giginteus There is, no doubt, a certain amount of humbug in attributing ‘* boxing ” qualities to this animal, but it is very interesting to find that a member of the low Mammalian order, ‘‘A/arsupialia,” can be so well trained and instructed. THE weather during the past week has remained very dull in all parts of the country, with occasional fog in London and other places, while some heavy rain has fallen in the north and west. The anticyclone which for some time past had been situated over the eastern portion of the United Kingdom gradually dispersed, and the distribution of pressure became favourable to the passage of cyclonic disturbances across the country. Towards the close of the period an area of very high pressure formed to the south- ward of our islands, the barometer reading 30°5 ins. and upwards, while to the north of Scotland it was more than an inch lower. Under these conditions strong westerly winds became general, and gales were experienced on our exposed coasts. Temperature was at first mild and very uniform over the whole country, there being generally little difference between the day and night readings, while the air was very damp. On Tuesday, however, the thermometer fell several degrees, with some snow and hail in Scotland and Ireland. The Weekly Weather Report shows that for the period ending November 26 rainfall was deficient in all parts of the country except the south of Ireland, where more than twice the average amount fell. Bright sunshine was considerably below the mean in all districts, except in the north of Scotland, where there was 22 per cent. of the possible amount, while the Channel Islands had 16 per cent. It ranged from 3 per cent. in the south-west of England (where the amount quoted for the previous week should have been 20) and midland counties, to 1 in the east of England and less than o°5 in the north-east of England. ON the 18th ult. Captain H. Toynbee, late Marine Superin- tendent of the Meteorological Office, delivered a lecture before the Shipmasters’ Society on ‘‘ Weather Forecasting for the British Islands.” The chief object of the lecture was to explain 1 ip) _— NATURE [DECEMBER 1, 1892 how a careful observer in the British Islands may form a good judgment of the coming weather. The lecturer showed, with the aid of diagrams, the tracks followed by storm centres, with reference to the conditions of areas of low and high pressure. The reason why storms usually proceed in a north-easterly direc- tion across or skirting these islands was explained as owing to the high barometer generally to be found in the Atlantic in the vicinity of the Azores, while in the neighbourhood of Iceland there is a region where the barometer is generally lower than in the space surrounding it. The storms generally advance So as to leave the low pressure on their left, and the high pressure on their right—moving round the south and east sides of the prevailing low pressure. Considerable stress was laid upon the importance of observing the cirrus clouds, the different motions of which, in conjunction with the indications of the barometer, are useful guides both as to the approach of a storm and the track along which the centre is moving, Several illustrations of these facts were given by the lecturer, who also gave many valuable hints as to what may be learnt from the published daily weather charts. THE Leeds Naturalists’ Club seems to be in no hurry about the publication of its Transactions, those for the year 1890 having only just been issued. The volume, however, has been prepared with great care, and shows that much good work is being done by the Club. Among the contents is a most interesting abstract of alecture by the Rev. Edward Jones on relics found in York- shire caves. Reference was made to the cave at Kirkdale, near York, and the Victoria Cave of Settle, both of which have been well worked and have given valuable results ; but attention was directed mainly to the cave found at Elbolton or Thorp, which is situated ten miles north of Skipton and two miles from Grass- ington. Through the energy of the president and members of the Skipton Natural History Society, this cave, which has been handed over to them, has been worked with great .earnestness, and many bones have been turned up. Human remains, repre” senting some thirteen bodies, have been found in an excellent State of preservation. These human beings must have been buried there, as they were all found in a sitting position, with the knees brought under the chin. The cave, however, was not used only as a burial-place, for the remains of charcoal fires, burnt bones, and pieces of pottery have been found. At the time when the lecture was delivered, the excavations had not revealed anything older than the Neolithic period. Among the finds are several specimens of bones of bears, red deer, foxes, dogs, badgers, grizzle and brown bears, &c. Some time after the delivery of the lecture the members of the Club made an ex- cursion to this interesting cave, which was explored for a distance of a hundred feet, and to a vertical depth of thirty feet. The visitors saw many stalactites and stalagmites in course of ferma- tion, and the osseous remains of animals, including some now extinct. Mr. Jones pointed out the former location of several human skeletons. Mr. J, W. Tourney contributes to Scéence (November 11) an excellent paper on cliff and cave dwellings in Central “Arizona. He refers especially to dwellings in cliffs rising a hundred feet or more above Beaver Creek, which flows into the Verde river. In the perpendicular walls of one of these cliffs is a well-preserved ruin known as Montezuma’s castle. It is midway between the rim of the cliff and the bed of the stream, and is neither house nor cave, but a combination of the two. Not accessible from the summit of the cliff, it can only be reached from below, and even here not without the use of a ladder, which, if short, the climber must pull up from one ledge to another in making the ascent. The entire front is of artifi- cial walls built of large, flat pieces of limestone, with openings here and there for doors and windows. The rooms are small, only about five feet to the ceiling. Generally a small opening NO. 1205. VOL. 47] two or three feet in diameter connects one room with another, and a small orifice in the ceiling gives access to the room above. The openings in the ceilings are never directly under one an- other, so that any one who might stumble could only fall the height of one story, The floors are mostly of flat stones sup- ported on timber cut from the surrounding mountains, Many of the timbers are still sound. The rooms all show consider- able skill in their construction. Those in the rear are dark, dungeon-like caves hollowed from the solid rock, and are now the abode of thousands of bats, which fly about in great num- bers when disturbed by visitors. A few miles above Monte- zuma’s castle, on the opposite bank of the creek, a conspicuous cone-like mountain rises a few hundred feet above the surround- ing country. The summit is a narrow rim enclosing a crater some three hundred feet in diameter and with nearly perpen- dicular walls. Standing on the rim one can look down a hundred feet upon the dark-blue water of a small lake in the bosom of the mountain. The lake, a hundred yards in diameter: and of unknown depth, is known as Montezuma’s well. In the steep sides of the crater are a number of caves, which at one time were the abode of man. A few are natural, but the greater number are the result of human effort. The rim is crowned with the fallen walls of an ancient ruin more than a hundred feet long. Far down the mountain-side, below the level of the water in the crater, the outlet of the well flows from between an opening in the rocks. This stream is large and constant, and at present is used to irrigate a ranch in the valley - below. Ages ago the builders of caves and castles utilized this same stream to irrigate portions of the neighbouring rich valley. THE fourth volume of ‘‘Reports from the Laboratory of the Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh,” edited by J. B. Tuke and D. Noel Paton, has just been published. The work completed in the Laboratory during the past year was so large that an account of the whole of it could not be included in the present volume. A LARGE dirigible balloon is being constructed (Za Nature informs us) at the military balloon works at Chalais-Meudon, under the direction of Commandant Renard. It will be similar in form to the La France of 1884-5, but longer ; measuring about 230 feet in length and 43 feet initsgreatestdiameter. By a hew arrangement of motor it is expected to be able to make headway against air-currents not exceeding 40 feet per second (or 28 miles an hour). The motor is not fully described, but it will act either with gasoline or the gas of the balloon, giving an effective force of 45 horse-power on the shaft. The total weight of machinery, with supply of gasoline, &c., will be about 30 kilogrammes (or 66 lbs.):per horse power. Previously it has not been possible to make petroleum motors with a less weight than 150 to 200 kilogrammes per horse-power. The screw will be in front, and a large rudder behind ; the former will make about 200 turns per minute. The first experiments with this. balloon are to be made in the early spring. Dr. HEYDWEILER, of Wiirzburg, has constructed a new mirror electrometer for high potentials (Zedéschr. ftir Instr.)« It is a kind of torsion-balance with bifilar suspension, the charged bodies being a sphere and a ring. The attraction: between the two, when at different potentials, is zero when the sphere is at the centre of the ring, and also when it is infinitely removed. Hence at some intermediate distance it is a maxi- mum. In the instrument as constructed there are two spheres of 2cm. diameter attached to the ends of a conducting bar bent in the form of an S. The combination is suspended in a horis » zontal piane by two brass wires o'r mm. thick attached to the middle of the bar. Two brass rings 10 cm. across are fixedin a vertical position such that the spheres can be made to coincid DECEMBER I, 1892] NATURE 113 with their centres. In the zero position the spheres are at a dis- _ tance of 3'Icm., this being a little less than the distance of " maximum attraction. The deflections are indicated by those of _ a mirror carried by a thin glass rod attached to the curved arm ' below, and the motion is damped by a vane immersed in some _ vegetable oil. The tangents of the angle of deflection are pro- portional to the differences of potential to within 0° per cent., between the scale readings 0°05 and 0'4. The instrument is é dest adapted to potentials ranging from 6000 to 60,000 volts, but _ with potentials above 35,000 it is best to immerse it entirely in ‘ oi, a AN account ofa series of experiments to determine the tem- : "perature of the flame of water-gas is given by Mr. E. Blass, of Essen, in Stahl und Eisen. The instruments employed were 4 _ Wyborgh’s air pyrometer, Chatelier’s electric pyrometer, Hart- _ mann and Braun’s telephonic pyrometer, and others by Siemens, Seeger, and Ducretel. It was found that Chatelier’s formula for the variation of the specific heat of water vapour and other gases at high temperatures was practically reliable. The tem- _ ‘peratures of combustion were taken for various proportions of _ air and gas, beginning with a large excess of the latter. With 018 cubic metres of air to one of gas, the temperature was _ 425° C. Calculated according to the old formula this would _ have been’ 521. Allowing for variation of specific heat, the q value becomes 409. For 0°714 of air, the tempera- ture was 1170, for 4°18 it was 1218, for 9°79 it was 655, and for the: proportion of air just sufficient for combustion the flame pereroure was ‘T169°. _ A NEw “shortened telescope,” constructed by Dr. R. Stein- _ heil, is described in the Zeitschr. fiir Instr. for November. The s iple resembles that adopted by Dallmeyer and Dr. A. Stein- -heil in their telephotographic objectives. A negative system is - introduced between the object-glass and the eye-piece, thus in _ creasing its equivalent focal length. If a be the focal length of _ the objective by itself, 7 its distance from the negative lens, and the magnification m times that produced without the negative _ lens, the total length of the tube is given by /=7+m (a -r). _ Ima telescope actually constructed on this system, the object- glass had a focal length of 16°2 cm. Its distance from the nearest surface of the negative lens was 12 cm., the equivalent focal length 60°8 cm., and the total length 27°8cm. Hence the ‘magnification was 3° 75 times that obtained by using the objec- ‘tive alone. In this case, then, a magnification of 22 diameters was obtained with an effective aperture of 4cm., a total length of 27°8cm., and a one-inch eye-piece. If the same magnification and illumination had to be obtained by a long-focus objective, 3 the length would have to be 6.'8cm. Thus the length is reduced i _ by more than one-half without the usual disadvantages of short Mieacopes and eye-pieces of high power. Bey _AccorDING to a writer in the Pioncer Mail of Allahabad, _ the thatch on Burmese houses gives a tempting shelter to snakes, _ especially during the rains, and many of the occupants of the houses would be surprised if they knew the number of snakes _ that share the shelter of their roof on a rainy night. One night _ an officer was wakened up by a noise in his room; and by the ; - light of a lighted wick, floating in a tumbler of oil, he made out _ that two combatants were disputing the possession of the small epee in the centre of the bedroom. The belligerents turned _ out to be a snake and a rat, that somehow had jostled against “each other in the tiny tenement. AIVALUABLE report on the geology of north-eastern Alabama and adjacent portions o Georgia and Tennessee, by C. Wil- _ Tard Hayes, has been published as a Bulletin of the U.S. _ Geological Survey. Mr. Hayes explains that in writing the NO. 1205. VOL. 47] report he has tried to keep it as free as possible from technical terms, and, without sacrificing scientific accuracy, to present the facts in such a way as to make them intelligible to the largest possible number of readers in the region under con- sideration. Many details which would be of interest to the geologist have been purposely omitted, and only those which were considered essential are given. It is expected that the atlas sheets covering this region will shortly be published by the U.S. Geological Survey, and supply the details to those specially interested which are omitted from the report. A SECOND edition of Prof. Oliver J. Lodge’s ‘‘ Modern Views of Electricity” has been published by Messrs. Macmillan and Co, A new chapter on recent progress has been added. A VOLUME on ‘The Pharmacy and Poison Laws of the United Kingdom ” has been issued from the office of 7he Chemist and Druggist. It contains also a brief account of the pharmacy laws in force in Australasia, Canada, and Cape Colony. Mr. CHARLES E. MUNROE, Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A., has completed the manuscript of the second part of his index to the literature of explosives. The first part wasissued in 1886. The second will be issued in pamphlet form if an adequate number of subscriptions is obtained. MESSRS. FRIEDLANDER AND SON, Berlin, send us the latest of their lists of the books which they offer for sale. It is a list of works relating to ornithology. PENTA-IODIDE and penta-bromide of cesium, together with several other penta-halogen compounds of the metals of the alkalies containing mixed halogens, have been isolated by Messrs. Wells and Wheeler, and are described by them in the current number of the Zeitschrift fiir Anorganische Chemie.Czsium penta- iodide, CsI, is obtained in an impure form when the crystals of the tri-iodide of cesium, CsI3, previously obtained by Prof. Wells and described in our note of February last, vol. xlv. p. 325, is treated with hot water, or when solid iodine is treated with a hot solution of cesium iodide. Either of these processes produce it in the form of a black liquid, which solidifies in the neighbourhood of 73°. The tri-iodide of cesium, moreover, which is only sparingly soluble in alcohol, is found to be much more readily soluble when a quantity of iodine, corresponding to two atoms for each molecule of the tri-iodide, is added. Upon cooling, crystals of the penta-iodide of cesium are deposited. Remarkably well-formed crystals are obtained upon evaporation of a more dilute solution over oil of vitriol. The crystals are black and the faces extremely brilliant ; they sometimes attain a diameter of a centimetre. They belong to the triclinic sys- tem according to Prof. Penfield, by whom they have been measured. They are at once distinguished from crystals of iodine by their form and brittleness. They melt at about 73°. When exposed to the air they lose iodine about as rapidly as crystals of free iodine. These crystals are anhydrous, and yield analytical numbers agreeing with the formula CsI;. The penta- bromide of cesium may be similarly obtained by agitating a concentrated solution of caesium bromide with a large excess of bromine. When such a mixture is allowed to stand at a low temperature the excess of bromine slowly evaporates and the penta-bromide separates in the form ofa dark red solid substance. Cesium penta-bromide CsBr;, is a very unstable substance, losing bromine rapidly at the ordinary temperature. Anothe interesting compound is cesium tetrachloriodide, CsClI, which was obtained by dissolving forty grams of czesium chloride in mixture of six hundred cubic centimetres of water and two hun. dred cubic centimetres of concentrated hydrochloric acid, adding 114 NATURE [ DECEMBER I, 1892 thirty grams of iodine, and then saturating the liquid with chlorine gas. The temperature was raised slightly during the operation, and upon subsequent cooling the compound CsCl,I was deposited in the form of pale orange-coloured prismatic crystals belonging to the monoclinic system. The compound is only slightly soluble in water, but, with a little loss due to decompo- sition, may be recrystallized from that liquid. It is, however, quite stable in the air, and only decomposes upon heating, thereby producing the tri-halogen compound, CsCl,I, fusing at 238°, the melting-point of this latter compound. A similar com- pound, containing rubidium instead of cesium, RbCI,I, may be obtained in like manner in large orange-coloured tabular crystals, likewise belonging to the monoclinic system, but of different habitus to the crystals of the caesium compound. An analogous compound containing potassium, KCl,I, was prepared so long ago as the year 1839, by Filhol. Messrs. Wells and Wheeler finally describe sodium and lithium salts of this description, both of which, however, contain water of crystallization. They are represented by the formule NaClyI.2H,O and LiCl,1.4H,0. Both crystallize well, the former in rhombic prisms ; the latter, however, is so extremely deliquescent that measurements of the crystals have not been obtained. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two Common Marmosets (Hafale jacchus) from South-east Brazil, presented by Mrs. Comolli; an Otter (Lutra vulgaris) British, presented by Mr. Frederick Collier ; a Black-backed Jackal (Cands mesomelas, jv.) from South Africa, presented by Miss Thornton; a Common Jackal (Canzs aureus,?) from Fao, Persian Gulf, presented by Mr. W. D. Cumming, C.M.Z.S. ; two Short-headed Phalangers (Belideus breviceps, 6 2) from Australia, presented by Capt. S. M. Orr; a —— Lemur (Lemur ) from Madagascar; six Crab-eating Opossums ( Didelphys caucrivorus), four Y pecha Rails (Avamides vpecha) from South America, a Green-cheeked Amazon (Chrysotis viridigenalis) from Columbia, a Yellow-cheeked Amazon (Chrysotis autumnailis) from Honduras, purchased ; a Nilotic Monitor (Varanus niloticus) from Africa, received in exchange ; two Shaw’s Gerbilles (Gerdil/us shawi) born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. CoMET HOLMES (NOVEMBER 6, 1892).—The elements and ephemeris of this comet have been the subject of much c -mputa- tion during the present month. The first result obtained gave a place resembling in many particulars that of the long-sought- for Biela comet ; but owing to an error in one of the observa- tions, the corrected elements stated otherwise. The current number of Astronomische Nachrichten (No. 3129) gives four different systems of elements which have as yet been deduced, and it is quite worth while to produce them here, showing also the difference between the observed and reduced places for each in particular : Elements, Berlin M.T. 1892. 1892. 1892. 1892. T = Feb. 28'362 Mar. 19630 May 6’301 June 6°841 ° ‘ °o ‘ ° ra °o 4 @ = 340 25°82 339 11°87 334 4690 328 19'09 & = 329 21°r5 = 3332: «7°30-«S 339 37°87 346 23'0r z= 24 55°15 24 5491 24 55°33 . 25 6°06 log g = 027766 o°26144 0°20868 O'14910 Mean place ) dA... -r1'o -o'8r -0'47 +0'20 (O-R) Jag... +0°86 +0°84 +0'58 +o 41 The latest information about the elements is that which has originate’ from Prof. Kreutz, who has found el/iptic elements for the comet ; he also says that the elements indicate that per- turbations have taken place on account of the comet’s proximity to the planet Jupiter. The elements are reduced from the three NO. 1205, VOL. 47] places observed on November 9, 13, and 17, and are as follows :— Epoch 1892 Novy. 17°5 M.T. Berlin. M = 2218 37:1. » = 13 37 49°0 i= 330,38 > 377} teop we tis 20 54) S:3 Pim) 24 39 307 M@ = 500° °407 log wu = 0°567123 U = 7°09 years. Further observations of this comet are reported (Compiles. rendus, No, 21). At Algiers, MM. Trépied, Rambaud, and Sy found its position on November 15, at 8h. 53m. 41s., Algiers mean time, to be: App. R.A. oh. 43m. 22°28s. App. Decl. + 37° 43’ 3'°9. The corresponding values found at Lyon by M. G. Le Cadet at 8h. 47m. 33s., Paris mean time, were: App. R.A. oh. 43m. 22°72s. App. Decl. + 37° 43’ 59. The comet presented a bright nebulosity in the form of an elliptic segment with its axis directed in the position angle 150°, its length and breadth both being 10’. The northern edge appeared rounded and well defined. At the focus of the ellipse a con- densation could be distinguished, about 20” broad, with a prolongation inclined to the axis of the ellipse. An attempt at calculating the elements of the orbit has been made by M. Schulhof. The slow motion of the comet renders this task very difficult. Among the various systems of elements tentatively fixed there is only one which fairly agrees with all observations. In this the excentricity is as small as 0°355386, so that it will probably be possible to follow the comet throughout its orbit with the most powerful instruments. The other elements thus determined are : r=0°0' 39""1, 2 = 328° 32’ 40"°7, = 20° 26’ 468, and log ¢ = 0°360966. At Bordeaux, M. F. Courty succeeded in photographing the brighter portions of the comet on November 13, with one hour’s exposure. Another photograph, taken by MM. Paul and Prosper Henry at Paris, was presented to the Academy by M. Tisserand. It was obtained on November 14, with the chart photographic equatorial: The exposure lasted two hours. It is a very fine photograph, showing a well-defined and nearly circularcontour. The nucleus is bright, excentric and lengthened out. Several stars can be seen through it. There is no tail except the lengthening of the nucleus, which does not extend beyond the limits of the nebulosity. tee A BricHT CoMET.—A telegram from Kiel states that Mr. W. R. Brooks has discovered a bright comet. As determined at Cambridge, U.S., its place was, on November 21, at 16h. 44°6m. Cambridge M.T. R.A. 12h. 59m. 15°6s. Decl. +13° 50’ 27”'0 Daily motion +1m. 32s., and +25’ respectively. Another telegram, also from Kiel, gives the position, as obtained at Vienna on November 24, at 15h. 49°7m. (Vienna M,.2.), as ; R.A. 13h. 3m. 6°4s. Decl: +15° 0’ 36”. ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS UP TO DATE.—We have received a circular signed by Dr. L. Ambronn, of the Gottingen Observatory, and Herr Julius Springer, publisher in Berlin, setting forth the contents of a work which they propose to publish with regard to the general principles, constructions, and methods of using astronomical instruments in general. Such a book, of course, to be of the greatest value to science, must be completely done, but any one who is acquainted with the compiler and publisher mentioned above will be sure that each will do his share thoroughly and honestly. In constructing such a compendium of instruments as this is proposed to be, we might say it would be impossible for one man to do it alone, for the present state of the fecntechnik has reached such a high pitch and the branches of astronomy are so numerous, that such an undertaking would simply be out of question. The object of this circular, besides stating the lines on which the work will be written, is to request the co-operation of all observa- tories. Astronomical science, especially the theoretical side, owes much, as we all know, to German workers, so that we can rely on a good response being given to this request. What is _ Decemser 1, 1892] NATURE 115 age only of typical instruments but of the important parts of , should be sent. Technical drawings also are requested, _ if obtainable, and these very probably could be obtained from the makers of the instruments in question. Of course it is not required that each observatory should send say a description, &c., _ of the transit instrument there in use, but it is hoped that any instrument of peculiar construction or special merit should be referred to. It is needless to add that all drawings, &c., if re- quested, will be returned with as little delay as possible, and the undersigners of the circular thank in advance all those who _ respond towards the completion of this undertaking. The address _ to which the drawings, &c., may be sent is as follows :—Dr. L. Ambronn, Gottingen, Kgl. Sternwarte. _ MorIOn oF 8 PEersE!.—Astronomical Journal, No. 277, con- tains a short note calling the attention of transit observers to ie importance of observation of this variable, to confirm the tregularity in its proper motion. At the present time Algol and his neighbouring stars are conveniently situated, and it is a | that the following list of stars will be added to working _ lists generally where their observation is not inconsistent with other work, ‘The places are for the year 1875 :— Pete 1. R.A. Decl. i, mM... |S. i i vy Andromede men NO. Te 4l 43°7 B Trianguli ... - ine ieee sa" Sar @ Persei ae ile. Bea Re Cy 48 41°9 41 Arietis om 42. 38 26 44°6 7 Persei est 45 53. 0°9 @ Persei ce 67. 10 38 21°3 B Persei et ek ae: 40 28°3 a Persei - 3 15 2% 49 24°9 3 Persei ha ae 47 2371 v Persei Poe 30° 42 42 10°9 9 Tauri Siok ae aa 23 43°0 ¢ Persei Tm ae 37 31 30°6 i. @ Peteei 8, ao a8 39 38°8 €Persei_—... aos 5O St. 35 25°8 __ Proper Morions.—M. Deslandres, in Comptes rendus of Nov- _ ember 14, communicates the recent work he has been carrying out with regard to the pic determinations of proper motions, The first es contains a description of the apparatus employed, _ showing he has completely altered one instrument specially for this work. During the ten months ofthe year he has obtained bap nw of stars susceptible of furnishing radial velocity. The following are among some of the important methods of _ procedure :—(1) The luminous ‘‘ faisceaux ” of the star and of the source of light have the same aperture, and are thus as identical as possibile, a condition necessary to the absolute measure of _ displacements. (2) The displacements of spectra is measured not only with the Hy line of hydrogen, but with all the hydrogen, calcium, and iron lines. (3) The large surface of the mirror _ renders the possibility of measuring the velocities of 250 stars. _ Some of the results already obtained show that the work, when _ finished, will be of a very reliable and accurate kind. For _ instance, the velocity of Venus has been obtained instrumentally __as 15 kilometers, while that calculated amounted to 13°55 k.m. _ The velocity of a Auriga on February 5, employing 30 lines of _ comparison, came out as 43°5 k.m., and the velocities of the — com ts of 8 Auriga, a spectroscopic double, were obtained on the same day as — 845 k.m. and + 97k.m. Boge GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. THE measurement of an arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and the Spanish frontier, which has recently been completed _ with the highest precision by the French Government, _ shows that the measurement by Delambre and Méchain in _ determining the length ofthe metre was 146°6 feet, or gphyoth _ tooshort. The new measurement accords very closely indeed _ with the value as deduced from Clarke’s ellipsoid. A NEW weekly paper devoted to African geography, under the title of Kettler’s Afrikanische Nachrichten, was ‘started at Weimar in July last, with the object of collecting and _ publishing the most recent information on all matters con nected with Africa and the Africans. An ingenious feature is that of giving a sketch map of parts of Africa, with a small section of a map of some well-known part of Germany on the NO. 1205, VOL, 47] ae - asked is that descriptions, together with drawings or photo- same scale below it, for the purpose of ready comparison of dis- tances. Mr. AND Mrs. THEODORE BENT have arranged to spend the winter in Abyssinia studying the ancient monuments of Axum. They will leave this country about the middle of December. We understand that Mr, Bent would welcome a scientific man who might wish to work at any of the natural conditions of eastern Abyssinia, and take advantage of the arrangements which have been made for the safety and comfort of the party. It would, of course, be necessary for such a companion to pay his own expenses and provide his own outfit. A SPECIAL general meeting of the Royal Geographical Society was held on Monday afternoon to consider some alterations in the rules, recently decided on by the Council. It was agreed to raise the entrance fee to the Society from £3 to £5, and to augment the life-composition accordingly, relief being, how- ever, granted by a diminution of the commutation fee to mem- bers of long standing. Other changes were made to bring the laws into harmony with the present practice of the Society in several minor matters. The mceting also passed a resolution associating itself with the act of the Council in no longer withholdiug the Fellowship of the Society from women. MR. JOSEPH THOMSON’S JOURNEY TO LAKE BANGWEOLO. R. JOSEPH THOMSON read a paper on his expedition to Lake Bangweolo in 1890-91 to the Royal Geographical meeting on Monday night. Ihe paper was not only of a thoroughly scientific character, but also a model of literary grace, Mr. Thomson having the trained eye which enables him to detect and throw into prominence the really important features, The expedition went up the Zambesi by way of the Kwakwa creek, encountering considerable hostiliiy and ob- struction from the Portuguese authorities on the way. Mr. Thomson speaks warmly of the great work done by the Scottish missionaries in the Blantyre and Nyassa districts. Under the kind but firm control of the missionaries the warlike Angoni tribes came in thousands to cultivate the fields, which formerly they visited only tor plunder, and for the first time in all his African travels Mr. Thomson found a spot where the advent of the white man was an unmitigated blessing to the natives. Barometric observations made while waiting for ;»orters on the western coast of Lake Nyassa made the elevation of the lake 1430 feet, a somewhat lower result than was formerly arrived at. On August 23, 1890, the expedition, comprising Mr. Grant, Mr. Charles Wilson, and 153 porters, started from Kotakota and struck westward through unmapped country, a rough and sparsely wooded plateau with little running water. The route lay along a strip of debateable ground, inhabited by an excitable, warlike tribe, and raided equally by Mwasi’s people from the north and Mpeseni’s from the south, Great tact was required to avoid bloodshed, but the expedition passed safely. Then crossing the fine fertile plain of the Loangwa river, they passed over and climbed the steep Muchinga moun- tains to the high plateau beyond. So far the rocks had been metamorphic, with intruded masses of granite, overlaid in the valley by sandstones, shales, and marls. At one place great fossil-tree trunks were found. The Loangwa-Kaltue plateau was magnificent country, glorivus with the tints of early spring on the stunted trees which formed a scraggy forest over most of the surface. But no sign could be seen of the Lokinga mountains, nor was any word heard from the natives of that range so conspicuous on the maps; but on the water- shed of the plateau, 5000 feet above the sea, rose the Vimbe hills in a series of isolated domes, perhaps rising 1000 feet higher. A new lake, thirty square miles in area, was found in a dip of the plateau, and named after the M:irs. Then troubles began. Small-pox broke out amongst the porters, and when Chitambo’s was reached no trace could be found of the lake, on the margin of which it was supposed to stand. While the white members of the expedition were attending to their sick followers some of the healthy Swahilis marched to Old Chitambo’s (which is not in Ilala but Kalinde), now deserted, and twenty miles distant from the present village, finding the tree under which the heart of. Livingstone was buried still standing, and the inscription on it legible. In the dry season the Chambeze does not enter Lake Bangweolo at all, but flows direct across the marsh to the Luapula, but in the wet season 116 NATURE | DECEMBER I, 1892 the whole of the great marsh to the south is flooded up to Chitambo. The level at that time was made out to be 3750 feet, about 250 feet lower than Livingstone’s estimate. Aftera rest for recovering health the expedition followed the Luapula eastward through fertile country, and leaving it where the curve from the north occurs, struck across for the Kafue, but small-pox reappeared, the land was ravaged by half-caste Portuguese slave-raiders, Mr. Thomson himself fell ill, and the course had to be changed to the south with the hope of turning west again. But matters got worse instead of better, and after touching the borders of Manica, a return had to be made to Lake Nyassa, along the southern margin of the plateau, through deep valleys, and climbing the steep slopes of the Muchinga Mountains, here separated by the great parallel valley of the Lukosashe from the plateau. All the way the land was seen to be of immense possibilities for cultivation, but neglected, and inhabited by a wretched people governed by Mpeseni, himself the vilest of them al). Kotakota on the: Jake was reached again on January 4th, 1891, after a total journey of 1200 miles, which resulted in many important rectifications of position and much infor- mation as to the future possibilities of the plateaux. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE.—Dr. Hobson, late deputy Lowndean Professor, has been elected a representative of the Mathematical Board on the General Board of Studies. Plans for a handsome building to serve as the Sedgwick Memorial Museum of Geology have been submitted to the Senate, the estimated cost being £26,000. Four members of the Syndicate appointed to prepare the plans dissent from the report of the majority, chiefly on the ground that the internal arrangements are unsatisfactory, and that the cost, initial and annual, of the proposed building will be excessive. The diver- gent views held on the subject will be discussed by the Senate on Saturday, December 3. The Senate have agreed to confer on Sir R. S. Ball, the new Lowndean Professor, the complete degree of M.A., honoris causa. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Physical Society, November 11.—Mr. Walter Baily, M.A., Vice-President, in the chair.—The discussion on Mr. Williams’s paper, the dimensions of physical quantities, was resumed by Dr. Burton. Heremarked that the idea that so-called ‘‘ specific quantities,” such as specific gravity, are pure numbers was an erroneous one, and liable to lead to difficulties. The specific gravity of a substance was of the nature of density, and was only a simple number on the convention that the density of water was taken as unity. If dimensions be given to specific quantities their interpretation would, he thought, be easy when the rational dimensional formule were found. -Referring to Prof. Fitzgerald’s comments, he said, although the contention that all energy is ultimately kinetic could not be gainsaid, the distinction commonly drawn between kinetic and potential energy involved nothing contrary to this view, and was useful and convenient in many cases. As to the dimensions of u and& he was inclined to favour Mr. Williams’s views, for several con- siderations suggest that the two capacities of the medium are essentially different. Arguments to show that « was probably absolutely constant in the ether, whilst & might be variable, were brought forward. Ofthe two systems of dimensions for m and & suggested by Mr. Williams, that which made wa density seemed preferable.—Prof. A. Lodge said he was greatly interested in propagating the idea that physical quantities are concrete, and therefore welcomed Mr. Williams’s paper. He thought it desirable to keep some names for abstract numbers, and ‘‘specific gravity” should be one. If another name involving dimensions was required ‘‘ specific weight,” or ‘weight per unit volume,” might be used. Speaking of the dimensions of the various terms of an equation he did not think it was usually recognized that in ordinary algebra or Cartesian geometry the principle of directed terms was rigidly ad- hered to, for if directed at all every term of such an equation was directed along the same line. In this respect ordinary algebra was more rigid than vector algebra. Even if circular NO. 1205, VOL. 47] functions were involved, as in polar co-ordinates, they had the — effect of making the directions of the terms the same. Other — instances of problems bringing out the same fact were men- — tioned. Mr. Boysthought Mr. Madden had been arguing in a circle when he spoke of the astronomical unit of mass, and deduced the dimensions of mass as L'/T? from the equati MLT~?= M?/L?, for it was quite impossible that this equation could be true unless y, the gravitation constant, was intro- duced on the right-hand side. Mr. Williams’s method — f was quite the reverse, for he maintained that unlessfand p f | ; q were introduced in the dimensions of electric and magnetic — quantities, their dimensional formule could not indicate the true — nature of those quantities, and hence were open to objection. Mr. W. Baily, whilst agreeing with Mr. Williams on most essen- tial points, thought the total omission of L from dimensional formule made the expressions more complicated and less sym- metrical. For example, such expressions as XY/Z, X® and XYZ, which respectively represent undirected length, area, and volume, might with advantage be written L, L?, and L* respec- — tively. The restriction of the dimensions of « and & to those which give interpretable dimensional formulz for electrical and magnetic quantities seemed scarcely justified. Both the systems proposed could not be right, and he thought it would be more in accordance with our present want of knowledge, if a quantit U of unknown dimensions were introduced such that » or = U?. density and £7! or w= U®. rigidity. This would keep in view the fact that the absolute dimensions of quantities involving U were unknown. A list of the dimensions of the various quantities based on this arrangement was given. Mr. Swinburne, referring to the conventional nature of many units, said great differences exist between the ideas held by different persons about such units. Starting with the convention that unlike quantities could be multiplied together, he might have six ampéres flow- ing in an electric circuit under a pressure of ten volts, and he might say he had sixty volt-ampeéres. ‘The term ‘‘ volt-ampére ” could be regarded as indicating that the sixty was the numerical result of multiplying a number of volts by a number of ampéres, or on the other hand it might be understood as a new unit, a watt, compounded of-a volt and an ampére. Before Prof. Riicker’s paper on suppressed dimensions was published, an electrician might have suggested measuring the length of a bench by sending an alternating current through it and deter- mining its self-induction, which he regarded as a length. Prof, Riicker, however, would say that this could not give the right result, for ~ must be taken into account. He was inclined to think that dimensions were liable to mislead. Referring to scientific writers as authorities, he said Maxwell had been careless in some cases, for he had sometimes given dimensional formulze as zero, which really ought to have been L® M° T°, or unity. In French text-books the errors had been corrected. Mr. Williams, in reply to Mr. Madden’s remarks about self- | induction being a length, pointed out that the subject might be looked at in two different ways, depending on whether one thinks of the stazdard of self-induction as the practical standard of measurement, or the wt of self-induction as a physical quantity. In the former case the standard was a length, but in the latter the «zt was a quantity of the same sfecies as self-induc- tion, the nature of which was as yet unknown. If its dyna- mical nature was known, then the absolute dimensions of all other magnetic and electric quantities would also be determined. j ’ In answer to Prof. Fitzgerald’s remarks he said it was hardly . likely that he should be unacquainted with the common view that kinetic and potential energies were ultimately quantities of the same kind, for it was a view with which he was quite familiar. The fact that they have the same dimensions was sufficient to show their identity, and the idea that all energy is ultimately kinetic was fundamental to his paper. This, how- ever, did not imply that electrification and magnetization are. of necessity the same, and the suggestion that they may be the © same was only one of several ‘‘ probable suggestions,” all of which were entitled to consideration. His chief reason for regarding Prof. Fitzgerald’s suggestion as probably incorrect was that it led to a system of dimensional formule incapable of rational mechanical interpretation, and containing fractional powers of the fundamental units. Prof. Fitzgerald’s system would make resistance an abstract number, and wand & directed quantities, whereas the former was a concrete quantity and the two latter must be scalar in isotropic media. If he (Mr. Williams) had erred in treating electrification and magnetiza- tion as different phenomena he could only plead that he had i DECEMBER I, 1892 | NATURE 117 _ Dr. Lodge, and Mr. O. Heaviside in the matter.—The discus- _ sion on Mr, Sutherland's paper, on the laws of molecular force, _ was reopened by Prof. Perry reading a communication from _ the President, Prof. Fitzgerald. He objected to discontinuous _ theories, especially when Clausius had given a continuous _ formulz much more accurate over a very long range than Mr. ‘Sutherland’s discontinuous ones. The introduction of Brownian _ motions without carefully estimating the rates required and ' energy represented, and without giving any dynamical explana- _ tion of their existence, was not satisfactory. It would, he said, _ be most interesting if Mr. Sutherland would calculate the law of variation of temperature with height of a column of convec- tionless: under conduction alone (for Maxwell thought the inverse fifth power law of molecular attraction was the only one gave uniformity of temperature under these conditions), and if nec make tests with solid bars. Referring to the _ statement that molecular attraction at one cm. was comparable _ with gravitation at the same distance, he thought Mr. Boys would question this, and he suggested an experimentum crucis _ of the inverse fourth power law. Both the inverse fourth and _ inverse fifth power laws, assumed symmetry which did not exist. _ He also took exception to other parts of the paper. Dr. Glad- _ stone, referring to the relative dynic and refraction equivalents - givenin Table XX VIII. of the paper, said he thought it interesting _ to make a similar comparison between dynic and dispersion and magnetic rotation equivalents. The result as exhibited in a _ complete table showed a certain proportionality between the _ four columns but the differences were beyond the limits of _ experimental error. Mr. Sutherland, however, sometimes _ reckoned the dynic equivalent of hydrogen as 0°215, and at _ other times looked upon it as negligible. The analogies be- (5 arte optical equivalents did not depend on the propor- tionality of the numbers so much as upon the fact that the refraction, dispersion, and magnetic rotation equivalents of a mpound was the sum of the corresponding equivalents of its _ constituent atoms, modified to some extent by the way in which _they were combined. Whilst a somewhat similar relation held true for the dynic equivalents, the effect of ‘‘ double-linking”’ of carbon atoms, so evident in the optical properties, was — scarcely pi ible. The result of calculating the constants _ from M/ instead of from M2 was next discussed, the effect of _ which was to sc upset the proportionality before noticeable. _ Mr. S. H. Burbury said that on referring to the author's _ original paper, on which the present one was based, he found _ that a uniform distribution of molecules was assumed. On this _ supposition the demonstrations given were quite. correct, and the ial was a’ maximum. If, however, the molecules in motion the average potential must be less than the n and the deductions in the present paper being based assumptions were liable to error. Prof. Ramsay that many statements in the paper, on the subject of ints, were very doubtful. Separate equations for the a snt states of matter were not satisfactory, neither was the _ artificial division of substance into five classes, The predicted ocenpenede the critical points due to capillarity, had not been found to exist. Speaking of the virial equation, he said that _ hitherto R had been taken as constant. Considerations he had _ recently made led him to believe that R was not constant. The _ whole question should be reconsidered regarding R as a variable. _ Mr. Macfarlane Gray said he had been working at subjects _ similar to those dealt with in Mr. Sutherland’s paper, but from an opposite point of view, no attraction being supposed to _ exist between molecules. In the theoretical treatment of steam found that no arbitrary constants were required, for all could _ be determined thermo-dynamically. The calculated results were in perfect accord with M. Cailletet’s exhaustive experi- _ ments except at very high pressures, and even here, the theo- Sem volume was the mean between those obtained experi- ¥ tally by Cailletet and Battelli respectively. Prof. Herschel _ pointed out that Villarceau had discussed the equation of the BA where the chemical and mechanical energies were not supposed to balance each other. Mr. Sutherland’s paper all _ turns on the existence of such a balance, and he (Prof. Herschel) could not understand why this balancing was necessary. The _ discussion was then closed, and the meeting adjourned. s _ Geological Society, November 9.—W. H. Hudleston, _ F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communications _ were read :—A sketch of the geology of the iron, gold, and _ copper districts of Michigan, by Prof. M. E. Wadsworth. NO. 1205, VOL. 47] done nothing more than follow such authorities as Lord Kelvin, After an enumeration of the divisions of the azoic and palzeozoic systems of the upper and lower peninsulas of Michigan, the author describes the mechanically and chemically formed azoic rocks, and those produced by igneous agency, adding a table which shows his scheme of classification of rocks, and explain- ing it. The divisions of the azoic system are then described in order, beginning with the oldest—the cascade formation, which consists of gneissose granites or gneisses, basic eruptives and schists, jaspilites and associated iron ores, and granites. The rock of the succeeding republic formation are given as nearly as possible in the order of their ages, commencing with the oldest :—Conglomerate, breccia and conglomeratic schist, quartzite, dolomite, jaspilite and associated iron ores, argillite and schist, granite and felsite, diabase, diorite and porodite, and porphyrite. The author gives a full account of the character, composition, and mode of occurrence of jaspilite, and discusses the origin of this rock and its associated ores, which he at one time considered eruptive ; but new evidence discovered by the State Survey and the United States Survey leads him to believe that he will have to abandon that view entirely. In the newest azoic formation, the Holyoke formation, the following rocks are met with:—Conglomerate, breccia and conglomeratic schist, uartzite, dolomite, argillite, greywacke and schist, granite and elsite (?), diabase, diorite, porodite, peridotite, serpentine, and melaphyre or picrite. The conglomerates of the Holyoke formation contain numerous pebbles of the jaspilites of the underlying republic formation ; a description of the Holyoke rocks is given, and special points in connexion with them are discussed. The author next treats of the chemical deposits of the azoic system, gives a provisional scheme of classification of ores, and discusses the origin of ore deposits. The rocks of the palzeozoic system are next described, and it is maintained that the eastern sandstone of lower silurian age underlies the copper-bearing or Keweenawan rocks. The veins and copper deposits are described in detail, and the paper concludes with some miscellaneous analyses and descriptions, as well as a list of minerals found in Michigan. After the reading of this paper, the President noted that it presented three sets of questions of much importance, viz., those bearing on the archzan rocks, the iron deposits and jaspilites, and the copper and gold deposits re- spectively. As regards the classification of the archzean rocks, some might wonder what the terms used by the author meant. The words laurentian and huronian used in Canada seemed not to be tolerated in Michigan. ‘The officers of the United States Geological Survey have described all the archzean formations noticed by the author ; the cascade as the fundamental complex, the republic as the lower marquette, and the Holyoke as the upper marquette. Was each State of the Union going to divide these archzean rocks after its own fashion? With regard to the iron rocks, he would observe that the author, after enumerating all the views in favour of their volcanic origin, now admitted that he was wrong, and that Irving and others were correct. The most important question was how the iron ores were really formed, and to this it was difficult to find a complete answer in the paper. Sir Archibald Geikie remarked that it was hardly possible to criticize a voluminous paper of this nature, in the reading of which much of the detailed statement of facts was necessarily omitted. One of its most interesting points related to the nature and classification of the rocks intermediate between the base of the Cambrian system and the oldest or fundamental gneisses. The plan which Prof. Wadsworth followed of adopt- ing local names for the several subdivisions of the series in each region was no doubt in the meantime of advantage, until some method of correlation and identification from region to region could be discovered. But it unavoidably led to temporary con- fusion, for the same rock-group might turn out to have received many different names, He thought it would be of service if geologists could agree upon some general term which would denote the whole of the sedimentary groups or systems which intervene between the old gneisses and the O/ened/us-zone. Various names had been proposed, such as azoic, eozoic, pro- terozoic, algonkian, to each of which some objection may be raised. The existence of a number of very thick systems of sedimentary deposits between the base of the Cambrian forma- tion and the gneisses was now well established in this country and in North America. In the upper members of this series fossils had been found, and it might eventually be possible to group the rocks by means of paleontological evidence. But in the meantime it would be convenient to class them under one general name which would clearly mark them off from the true archzean gneisses, &c., below them and the palsozoic rocks 118 NATURE | DECEMBER I, 1892 above. Dr. Hicks congratulated Prof. Wadsworth on his important communication; but he strongly objected to the application of the term Silurian, instead of Cambrian, to the lower palzozoic rocks of America. Dr. Hicks did not think that the author had proved his case with regard to the Keween- awan rocks, and he was still inclined to believe that they would prove to be, as suggested by other American geologists, of pre- Cambrian age—the apparent superposition being due to over- thrust faults. The term eozoic, now that worm-tracks have been discovered in the pre-Cambrian rocks, is more correct than azoic for the sedimentary rocks of that age. Moreover, other organic remains will certainly be found, for it is inconceivable that ancestors of the forms comprising the rich fauna at the base of the Cambrian should not have been entombed in earlier rocks. Mr. H. Bauerman, considering the three hypotheses as to the origin of the iron ores—namely, dehydration of limonites in sandy beds, transformation from siderite, and the breaking- up of highly ferriferous igneous masses into quartz and hematite —thought that the first was the most likely, although there were certainly difficulties in connexion with it which made it desirable that the newer views upon the subject should be presented. He was therefore glad that they were likely to have a detailed exposition of the author’s views in the journal. As regards the origin of the copper deposits, he believed that Dr. Wadsworth agreed with the views brought before the society several years since. In conclusion, he called attention to the gold deposits, which were of comparatively recent discovery, and interesting from the large number of minerals associated with the auriferous quartz veinstuff. Sir Lowthian Bell and Mr. Marr also spoke. —The gold quartz deposits of Pahang (Malay Peninsula), by H. M. Becher.—The Pambula gold-deposits, by F. D. Power, Zoological Society, November 15.—Dr. A. Giinther, F.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair.—The Secretary read a report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s Menagerie during the month of October 1892, and called special attention to a very fine male Ostrich (Struthio camelus) pre- sented by Her Majesty the Queen, and to a specimen of what appeared to be a new and undescribed Monkey of the genus Cercopithecus, obtained by Dr. Moloney at Chindi, on the Lower Zambesi, for which the name Cercopithecus stairst was pro; osed. Attention was also called to the receipt of a series of specimens of mammals, birds, and reptiles, brought by Mr. Frank Finn, on bis recent return from a zoological expedition to Zanzibar, and received from several correspondents of the Society at Zanzibar and Mombasa.—The Secretary exhibited (on behalf of Mr T. Ground) a specimen of the Siberian Pectoral Sandpiper (7ringa acuminata) illed in Norfolk.—Mr. G. A. Boulenger read a paper describing the remains of an extinct gigantic tortoise from Madagascar ( Zestudo grandidiert, Vaill.), based on specimens obtained in caves in South-west Madagascar by Mr. Last, and transmitted to the British Museum. The species was stated to be most nearly allied to Zestudo gigantea of the Aldabra Islands;.—Mr. W. Bateson and Mr, H. H. Brindley read a paper giving the statistical results of measure- ments of the horns of certain beetles and of the forcipes of the male earwig. It appeared that in some of these cases the males form two groups, ‘‘high” and ‘‘low”; the moderately high and the moderately low being more frequent than the mean form in the same locality. It was pointed out that this result was not consistent with the hypothesis of fortuitous variation about one mean form.—A communication was read from Mr. O. Thomas containing the description of a new monkey of the genus Semnoptthecus from Northern Borneo, which he proposed to call S. everetti after Mr. A. Everett, its discoverer.—Mr. G. A. Boulenger read a description of a Blennioid fish from Kamtscha'ka helonging to a new generic form, and proposed to be called Blenniophidium petropault. The specimen had been obtained in the harbour of Petropaulovski by Sir George Baden Powell, M.P , in September 1891. Royal Meteorological Society, November 16.—Mr. A, Brewin, Vice-President, in the chair.—An interesting »aper by Mr, J. Lovel was read on the thunderstorm, cloudburst, and flood at Langtoft, East Yorkshire, July 3, 1892. The author gives an account of the thunderstorm as experienced at Driffield on the evening of this day ; the full force of the storm was, how- ever, felt in the wold valleys, which lie to the north and north- west of Driffield, where great quantities of soil and gravel were removed from the hillsides aad ca ried to the lower districts, doing a large amount of damage. Many houses in the lower parts of Driffield were flooded, and a bridge considerably NO. 1205, VOL. 47] injured. ‘The storm was most severe in a basin of valleys close — to the village of Langtoft, where three trenches, sixty-eight yards in length and of great width and depth, were scooped out — of the solid rock by the force of the water from the cloudburst. From the appearance of the trenches it is probable that there were three waterspouts moving abreast simultaneously. This particular locality seems to be favourable for the formation of cloudbursts, as there are records of great floods having pre- viously occurred at Langtoft, notably on April 10, 1657, June, 1857, and June 9, 1888. The author gives, in an appendix, a number of observations made on similar occurrences, together with particulars and opinions as to the cause of such outbursts by several eminent authorities —-Mr. W. H. Dines also read a paper, remarks on the measurement of the maximum wind pres- sure, and description of a new instrument for indicating and recording the maximum. For some years the author has been conducting a large number of experiments with various forms of — anemometer ; and in the early part of the present year recom- mended the adoption of the tube anemometer for general use, as it appeared to possess numerous advantages. The head is simple in construction, and so strong that it is practically inde- structible by the most violent hurricane. The recording apparatus can be placed at any reasonable distance from the head, and the connecting pipes may go round several sharp corners without harm. The power is conveyed from the h without loss by friction, and hence the instrument may be made sensi- tive to very low velocities without impairing its ability to resist the most severe gale. In the present paper the author describes an arrangement of this form of anemometer which he has devised | for indicating very light winds as well as recording the maximum wind pressure. Linnean Society, November 17.—Prof. Stewart, President, in the chair.—The President having announced a proposal ly the council to present a congratulatory address to the Rev. Leonard Blomefield (formerly Jenyns) on the occasion of the seventieth anniversary of his election as a Fellow of the Society, and in recognition of his continuous and useful labours as a zoologist, it was moved by Sir Wm. Flower and seconded by’ Dr. St. George Mivart, that the address he signed and forwarded as proposed. This wascarried unanimously. In moving the resolution, Sir Wm. Flower took occasion to sketch the scientific career of Mr. Blomefield, who is nowin his ninety-third year, and to recapitulate the works of which he is the author under his earlier and better known name of Jenyns. The address, which was beautifully illuminated on vellum, was then signed by those present.—Mr. George Murray exhibited and made remarks upon a genus of Algee (Halicystis) new to Britain, the species shown being A. ventricosa from the West Indies, and JZ. ovalis from the Clyde Sea area.—Mr. Buxton Shillitoe exhibited an artificial cluster of the fruit of Pyrus sorbus, as put up for ripening by cultivators in Sussex.—A paper was then read by the Rev. Prof. Henslow on a theoretical origin of endogens through an aquatic habit based on the structure of the vegetative organs. The lecture, which was very fluently delivered, was profusely illustrated, and drew forth some interesting criticism from Prof. Boulger, Messrs. Henry Groves, H. Goss, and Patrick Geddes, to which Prof. Henslow replied. —On behalf of Mr. George Lewes, who was unable to be present, a paper was read by Mr. W. Percy Sladen on the Buprestide of Japan, upon which some criticism was offered by Mr. W. F. Kirby. Royal Microscopical Society, November 16.—Dr. R. Braithwaite in the chair.—Mr. T. F. Smith read a note on the character of markings on the /Podura scale.—An account of Mr. W. West’s paper on the freshwater algz of the English lake district was given by Mr. A. W.. Bennett, who thought it was an excee ingly important con- tribution to our knowledge of the algz of that district.—- Mr. F. Chapman gave a résumé of Pt. 3 of his description of the foraminifera of the Gault of Folkestone.—Mr. C, Haughton’ Gill read a paper on a fungus internal y parasitic in certain diatoms, illustrating his subject with specimens and photomicro- graphs. Mr. Bennett said that he had obs: rved structures which might be of asimilar character in desmids. He should like to enquire if by the term ‘‘spores” Mr. Gill did not mean zoospores? Had he observed them to he possessed of vibratile cilia? And could he form any idea as to how they came to be inside the diatoms? It was possible that they might he trans- mitted in some way by inheritance, and if so that might account for their great abundance in particular species. Mr. Gill said DECEMBER I, 1892] NATURE 119 _ that the question how these things got into diatoms was one still -underconsideration. As to the movements of the spores he was not at present perfectly certain that they moved at all more than _a very short distance from the orifice of the beak, but he had not _ yet had time to examine them sufficiently to be able to answer _ the question as to whether they were ciliated. Diatoms were by no means the tightly shut-up boxes which they were supposed _ to be ; they could not live or absorb nutriment unless there was _ some sort of e, and he thought there was very likely a ‘means of penetration all over them to admit of the diffusion of fluid throughout.— Mr. E. M. Nelson called attention to the fine adjustment of Messrs. W. Watson’s Van Heurck microscope, _ which he said had been wrongly described as being on Zent- _ mayer’s plan ; he found that Messrs. Watson’s adjustment was ided with spring stops, which obviated all the evils com- d of in Zentmayer’s system ; the adjustment-screw was also _ left-handed, so that the apparent and real motions were made to coincide, which was a great advantage when working with high 3 OXFORD. ‘University Junior Scientific Club, November 9.—The --~Presi Dr. J. Lorrain Smith, in the chair.—The President gave an exhibit to illustrate the relation of ventilation to Boa ago! products, after which he called on the Rev. F. J. _ Smith for his paper on the inductoscript and spark photography. The paper, which was illustrated with experiments, and a large and varied selection of lantern slides, dealt with the recent researches of the writer and others in an exhaustive manner. It was shown how impressions of coins, &c., could be taken on phot hic plates and paper by means of the electric par the various results produced by changes of pres- sure, &c., in the atmosphere. The second part of the paper _ dealt more with the instantaneous photography produced by the _ electric spark, and the exhibits included photographs of bullets _and other rapidly-moving objects, which had been taken by the reader of the . G. C. Bourne read a paper on Ma CAMBRIDGE. _ Philosophical Society, November 14.—Prof. T. McKenny Hughes, President, in the chair.—The President exhibited (1) a live tarantula, (2) quartz crystals of unusual form. The following communications were made :—(1) Preparations were exhibited showing the division of nuclei in the sporangium of a ies of 7richia, one of the Myxomycetes. The nuclei divide throughout the sporangium, with clearly recognizable _karyokineti ures, immediately before the formation of the spores, by J. J. Lister. (2) On the reproduction of Orditolites. Mr rh B. Brady has described specimens of Orbitolites, which he obtained in Fiji, showing the margin of the disc crowded with young shells. Mr. Brady’s material was worked at in the dry state, and it was at his suggestion that the author collected spe preserved in spirit from the Tonga reefs. Examina- tion of this material shows that large brood chambers are formed at the margin of the disc during the later stages of grow ese are at first lined with a thin layer of protoplasm. Ata later stage the central region of the disc is found to be _ empty, and the whole of the protoplasm is massed in the brood chambers in the form of spores. The spores have the structure of the ‘‘ primitive disc,” which during the early stages of growth of the Orbitolites occupies the centre of the shells. They are liberated by absorption of the walls of the brood chambers, and each becomes the centre of a new disc, which is built up by additions of successive rings of chamberlets at the margin. The reproduction of Orbitolites therefore takes place by spore forma- tion. The spore contains a single nucleus, lying in its *‘ primordial chamber.” After several rings of chamberlets have been added, a stage is reached at which the nucleus appears to be represented _ by numbers of i lar, darkly staining masses scattered through the protoplasm of the central part of the disc. In the later ' stages numbers of oval nuclei are found in the protoplasm, often arranged in pairs, and in favourable preparations they may be seen to be undergoing amitotic division — | he fragmentation of the oosper.n nucleus in certain ova, by S. J. Hickson.—On _ Gynodicecism in the Labiatz (second paper), by J. C. Willis. _ —The observations made in 1890-91 on Origanum (see Reporter, No. 937, June 7,. 1892) were continued, chiefly on female plants. Six of these, derived from seed of the hermaphrodite plants of 1890, were observed, and their variations noted. It NO. 1205, VOL. 47] seems possible that some of the six, at any rate, were derived not from the normal, but from the abnormal (female) flowers of the parent. Attempts were made to determine if the occur- rence of female flowers or flowers with one, two or three stamens only, on hermaphrodite plants, was due to lack of nourishment. A string was tied tightly round the main stalk of an inflorescence, about the middle, and it was found that more variations (12 : 1) occurred above than below. Analysis of the three years’ observations shows that the abortion of the stamens tends to occur symmetrically rather than not, 7.¢. most common- ly all four abort, and next in frequency is the abortion of the two anteriors: then of the two posteriors. These observations are still in progress, and it is hoped to publish full details in 1896 or later. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, November 21.—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—Observations of the minor planets, made with the great meridian instrument of the Paris Observatory, from October 1, 1891, to June 30, 1892, by M. Tisserand.—Deter- mination of the centre of the mean distancés Of the centres of curvature of the successive developments of any plane line, by M. Haton de la Goupillitre.—Observations of Holmes’ comet (November 6, 1892) made at the great equatorial of the Bor- deaux Observatory, by M. G, Rayet.—Exploration of the higher regions of the atmosphere by means of free balloons provided with automatic recorders, by M. Gustave Hermite. Small balloons were filled with coal-gas and provided with recording barometers and minimum thermometers. The former consisted of metallic aneroid boxes on Vidi’s system, re- cording the pressure by the motion of a smoked plate in front of a glass style. These aneroids weighed less than 100 grs. The writer hopes to reduce their weight to 10 grs. Some of the balloons were lost or destroyed, but most of them were returned, after a journey exceeding in many cases 100 km. Two successful registrations of tem- perature have been made so far, giving a fall of 1° C. for every 260m. and 280 m. respectively. —Observations of Holmes’ comet made at the Algiers Observatory (equatorial coudé), by MM. Trépied, Rambaud, and Sy.—Observations of Holmes’ comet (November 6) made with the eguatorial coudé of the Lyon Observatory, by M. G. Le Cadet.—Elliptic elements of Holmes’ comet of November 6, 1892, by M. Schulhof (see our Astronomical Column).—On the calculation of inequalities of a high order. Application to the long-period lunar inequality caused by Venus, by M. Maurice Hamy.—Distribution into four groups of the first # numbers, by M. Désiré André.—On electric oscillations, by M. Pierre Janet. A gap in a circuit containing a high resistance of some 20,000 ohms is bridged by another containing a coil resistance with self-induction and a bridge resistance without. The terminals in the same gap are also connected with a condenser, and a Mouton’s désjoncteur is introduced in the circuit, rotating at a high speed. The differences of potential between the terminals of the tworesistances are measured by an auxiliary condenser and a ballistic galvano- meter. It is thus possible to determine the form of the oscillations. On suddenly breaking the short circuit in the gap, it was found that the ends of the resistance without self-induction reached a constant difference of potential in a series of oscillations which were always of the same sign, whereas those of the other showed a series of positive and negative oscillations.—On some results furnished by the formation of soap bubbles by means of a resinous soap, by M. Izarn. Very thin and permanent bubbles are obtained by pounding together ro gr. each of colophonium and potassium carbonate, adding 100 gr. of water and completely dis- solving by boiling. For use, it must be diluted with four times its bulk of water.—Action of piperidine upon the haloid salts of mercury, by M. Raoul Varet.—On the exchanges of carbonic acid and oxygen between plants and the atmosphere, by M. Th. Schleesing, jun —A new case of living Xiphopage, the Orissa twins, by M. Marcel Baudouin.—Notes on the feet of batra- chians and saurians, by M. A. Perrin. —On asymmetric growth in polychzetous annelids, by M. de Saint Joseph.—Influence of moisture on vegetation, by M. E, Gain. Experiments with soils kept in a given state of humidity have led to the following con- clusions: For each plant there exists a certain proportion of moisture most favourable to its growth. A high comparative moisture in the soil accelerates the growth, especially of the stem and leaves. The air being dry, fructification is slower with a dry than with a humid soil. _ Inflorescence is retarded either by dry soil or by moist air, and is hastened by the reverse con- 120 NATURE | DECEMBER 1, 1092 ditions, The most favourable conditions for exuberant growth of flowers are a moist soil and dry air, especially the latter.— Researches on the mode of production of perfume in flowers, by M. E. Mesnard. By the action of pure hydrochloric acid on sections immersed in strongly-sweetened glycerine, the essential oils are easily separated. It is found that the oil is generally located in the epidermic cellules of the upper surfaces of the petals or sepals. In every case the oils appear to have been derived from chlorophyll. The perfume is not given off until the oil is sufficiently freed from the intermediate products, and it exhibits some inverse relation to the amount of tannin and pigment produced in the flower.—On the existence of a conidian apparatus in the Uvedinez, by M. Paul Vuillemin.—On_ the presence of Actinocamax in the Pyrenzan chalk, by MM, Roussel and de Grossouvre. — Stratigraphic consequences of the preceding communication, by M. A. de Grossouvre,—On the formation of the Arve valley, by M. Emile Haug.—On an ex- periment which appears to produce an artificial imitation of the doubling of the canals of Mars, by M. Stanislas Meunier. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. LONDON. THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1. Linnean Society, at 8.—Notes on CEcodoma cephalotes and the Fungi it Cultivates: J. H. Hart.—On a Small Collection of Crinoids from the Sahul Bank, North Australia: Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell.—Descriptions of Twenty-six New Species of Land Shells from Borneo: E, A. Smith. CHEMICAL Society, at 8 —On the Formation of Orcinol and other Con- densation Products from Dehydracetic Acid: J. Norman Collie.—Isola- tion of Two Predicted Hydrates of Nitric Acid: S. U. Pickering.—An- hydrous Oxalic Acid: W. W. Fisher.—Observations on the Origin of Colour and of Fluorescence: W. N. Hartley.—The Origin of Colour—Azo- benzene : H. E. Armstrong.—The Reduction Products of aa’ dimethyl aa’ diacetylpentane: Dr. Kipping.—The Products of the Action of Sulphuric Acid on Camphor: Drs. Armstrong and Kipping.—Methods for Showing the Spectra of easily Volatile Metals and their Salts, and of per ag their Spectra from those of the Alkaline Earths: W. N artley. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Experimental Researches on Alternate Current Transformers: Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S. (Dis- cussion.) Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 6.—Photographs of Flying Bullets, &c. (Illus- trated): Prof. C. V. Boys, F.R.S. SUNDAY, DECEMBER 4. Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—Bacteria and Infectious Diseases (with Oxy-hydrogen Lantern Illustrations): Dr. E. E. Klein, F.R.S. MONDAY, DeEceEmprr 5. Society or Arts, at 8.—The Generation of Light from Coal Gas: Prof. Vivian B. Lewes. Vegponte INSTITUTE, at 8.—Principles of Rank among Animals: Prof. arker. Society oF Cuemicar Inpustry, at 8.—A New Form of Filter Press for Laboratory Use: C. C. Hutchinson.—The Production of Acetic Acid from the Carbohydrates : Messrs. Cross and Bevan.—Electrolytic Soda ged Chlorine ; the Present Aspects of the Question: Messrs. Cross and evan. Lonvon INSTITUTION, at 5.—Reading as a Recreation: Edmund Gosse. Roya INSTITUTION, at 5.—General Monthly Meeting. ARISTOTELIAN SociEty, at 8.—Symposium—Does Law in Nature exclude ie Seely of Miracle? R. J. Ryle, Rev. C. J. Shebbeare, A. F. and, TUESDAY, DrecEMBER 6. ZooLocicat Society, at 8.30.—A Revision of the Genera of the Alcyo- naria Stolonifera, with Descriptions of One New Genus and several New Species : Sydney J. Hickson.—Upon the Convolutions of the Cerebral Hemispheres in Certain Rodents: F. E. Beddard, F.R.S.—On a New Monkey from South-East Sumatra’: Prof. Collett. INSTITUTION OF CivIL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Monthly Ballot for Members.— The Manufacture of Small Arms: John Rigby. (Discussion.) WEDNESDAY, DrEcEMBER 7. GEOLOGICAL Society, at 8.—Note on the Nufenen-stock (Lepontine Alps): Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.—On some Schistose ‘‘Greenstones” and Allied Hornblendic Schists from the Pennine Alps, as Illustrative of the Effects of Pressure-Metamorphism : Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.—On a Secondary Develop t of Biotite and of Hornblende in Crystalline Schists from the Binnenthal: Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S.—Geological Notes on the Bridgewater District in Eastern Ontario: J. H. Collins. Society or Arts, at 8.—The Chicago Exhibition, 1893: James Dredge. ENTOMOLOGICAL Society, at 7.—Further Observations upon Lepidoptera (Illustrated by the Oxy-hydrogen Lantern): Edward B. Poulton, F.R.S. —The Effects of Temperature on the Colouring of Pieris napi, Vanessa atalanta, Chrysophanus phloeas, and Tephrosia punctulata: Frederic Merrifield. —Notes on Hydroptilide belonging to the European Fauna, with Descriptions of New Species ; Kenneth J. Morton. (Communicated by Robert McLachlan, F.R.S.)—On some Neglected Points in the Structure ofthe Pupa of Het Lepidoptera, and their Probable Value in Classification ; with some As.ociated Observations on Larval Prolegs : Dr. Thomas Algernon Chapman.—Description of a New Species of Butterfly, of the Genus Calinaga, from Siam; James Cosmo Melvill. THURSDAY, DecemsBer 8, Royat Society, at 4.30.—On the Photographic Spectra of some of the Brighter Stars: Prof. J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S.—Experiments in Examination of the Peripheral Distribution of the Fibres of the Posterior NO. 1205, VOL. 47] i Roots of some Spinal Nerves : Dr. Sherrington.—Preliminary Account of — the Nephridia and Body Cavity of the Larva of Palemonetes varians: P| Edgar J. Allen. ; er MarTHEMATICAL SociETy, at 8.—Note on Cauchy’s Condensation Test for the Convergency of Series: Prof. M. J. M. Hill.—Additional Note on Secondary Racker Circles : J. Griffiths.—Notes on Determinants: J. E. Campbell.—A Geometrical Note; R. Tucker. Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 7.- A tlea for Catholicity of Taste in Music (Illustrated): Sir Joseph Barnby. SATURDAY, DECEMBER Io. : INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, 2 to 4.—Students’ Visit to the Ma- chinery and Inventions Division, South Kensington Museum. BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED Booxs.—Berzelius und Liebig, Briefwechsel 183 (M Leh- 1-184 mann).—A Short Manual of Orthopcedy, Part I.: H. Rigg ( )-— Congrés International de Zoologie, Deux Session & Moscou: Premiére Partie (Moscou).—Congrés International d’Archéologie. rx-éme Session & Moscou, vol. 1 (Moscou).—A Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda : W. H. Hudleston and E. Wilson (0ulau).—Annuaire de l’Observatoire Municipal de Montsouris, 1892-93 (Paris, Gauthier-Villars).—Les Textiles Végétaux : H. Lecomte (Paris. ‘Gauthier-Villars),—Besals d’Or et d’Argent : H. Gautier (Paris, Gauthier-Villars).—Past and Future: C. M. Paul).—Toothed Gearing: A Foreman Pattern Maker (C. Lockwood).— Modern Views of Electricity, 2nd edition: Prof. O. J. Lodge (Macmillan). —The Universal Atlas, Part 21 (Cassell).—Grasses of the Pacific Slope, Part 1: Dr. G. Marge |e heen gr i Keimplasma, Eine Theorie des Vererbung : Prof. A. Weismann (Jena, Fischer).—Die Zelle und die Gewebe : Prof. O. Hertwig (Jena, Fischer).—Extinct Monsters: Rey. H. N. Hutchin- son (Chapman and Hall).—The Algebra of Coplanar Vectors and Trigono- metry: R. B. Hayward (Macmillan).—Science in ee’? Allen (Lawrence and Bullen). —The Chemical Basis of the Animal Body: Dr. A. Sheridan Lea (Macmillan). 5 PAMPHLETS.—Quelle est la Race la plus Ancienne de la Russie Centrale : A. Bogdanow (Moscou).—Descriptive Notes on certain Implements, Weapons, &c., from Graham Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, &c.: A. Mackenzie.— Notes on the Shuswap People of British Columbia: G. M. Dawson.—Some Laws of Heredity and their Application to Man: S. S. Buckman (Glouces-+_ ter).—Sur la Constitution des Dépéts Quaternaires en Russie et leur relations au Trouvilles Résultant de |’Activité de l’Homme Prehistorique : S. Nikitin (Moscou).—Ueber die Entwicklung von Milz und Pankreas ; Dr. C. von Kupffer (Miinchen).—Verg.-Anatomische Studien iiber die Nerven des Armes und der Hand: Dr. W. Héfer (Miinchen).—Die Lendennerven der Affen und des Menschen: Dr. A, Utschneider (Minha das Vorkommen Offener Schlundspalten ; Dr. E. Tettenhamer (Miinchen). SErIALs.—Mittn. der Deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Natur und Vélkerkunde Ostasiens in Tokio, 50 Heft (Tokio).—Traité Encye. de Thoteererhc, Premier Supplément: A cinguiéme fascicule,C. Fabre (Paris, Gauthier- Villars).— Natural Science, Decr. (Macmillan).—A Monograph of Oriental Cicadidz, Part 7: W. L. Distant (London). CONTENTS. PAGE Chemical Lecture Experiments, By Sir Henry E. | Roscoe, F.R.S ... ob ote g tS eae een cae aie A Manual of Photography. By W.J.L. ..... 98 Matriculation Chemistry .-.).). + 1. 5 °ubwie 99 Our Book Shelf :— Cooke: ‘‘ Vegetable Wasps and Plant Worms; a. Popular History of Entomogenous Fungi, or Fungi . Parasitic upon Insects”. 5 (bse eee 209 Nayudu: ‘Notes on Qualitative Chemical Analysis” 100 ‘© Science Instruments” .°. 2). 5. se ae ees a 100 Letters to the Editor :— Universities and Research.—Prof. George Francis Fitzgerald, F:R.S:) 0.) 5a Get eens te 2200 The Stars and the Nile.—Captain H. G. Lyons, RvB. ko ee oe sk A Paleozoic Ice Age. —W. T. Blanford, F.R.S. ; Henry F, Blanford, F:RiSivece a eee LOL Geology of Scotland.—Prof. Grenville A. J. Cole tor British Earthworms.—William Blaxland Benham 102 Egyptian Figs.—Rev. George Henslow . . . . . 102 Iridescent Colours. —Baron C. R. Osten Sacken . 102 The Afterglow.—Soreno E. Bishop ....... 102 Osmotic Pressure. By J. W. Rodger. ...... 103 A Sanitarian’s Travels. (J//ustrated.) ...... +. 105 Gauss and Weber |: 20-5:.5080) Des ee The Anniversary of the Royal Society ...... 106 Notes 05. oS Oe, Gee rr Our Astronomical Column :— : Comet Holmes (November 6, 1892). . ..... . II4 A Bright Comet:..)30 60.) 60s Su. (Ch es Astronomical Instruments up to Date . ..... . II4 Motion ‘of 8 Persei)j'00 00.0. Ge. So ee Proper Motions =. 2.00%. 6) 6 os Oe ne Geographical Notes. ... 115 Mr. Joseph Thomson’s Journey to Lake Bangweolo 115. University and Educational Intelligence . ... . 116 Societies and Academies ........++e.-+ I16 Diary of Societies): 50. 606) 5. % s = Ser ea ee) eee Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received .... . 120 ete te kK: 5 soon i : : his colleagues of various _Pearson’s action. tunately been attached to the word “absorb,” and to NATURE 12! THURSDAY, DECEMBER 8, 1892. THE NEW UNIVERSITY QUESTION. [fae correspondence between Prof. Huxley and Prof. Pearson which has appeared in the 77mes is not pleasant reading. With infinite pains and trouble an Association had been formed to support the foundation in London of a university of a certain type. A nucleus of the most eminent teachers or ex-teachers in London had collected around them a powerful body of supporters from the provinces. In Prof. Huxley as President, and Sir Henry Roscoe as Vice-President, the Association secured the services of two men distinguished both as professors and for their knowledge of affairs. It appears to have been less fortunate in its secretary. Prof. Karl Pearson had some difference with his fellow committee- men on a question of procedure. He himself has described the divergence as not fundamental and has publicly stated that he believes that the other members of the committee were aiming at securing the establish- ment of a university of the type which he himself approves. So comparatively trifling was the issue, that, according to Prof. Huxley, Prof. Pearson himself pro- posed that the reason to be given for his resignation should be “ pressure of work.” No doubt can therefore exist as to the cogency of this motive. His position was apparently even more clearly defined by his not voting against the course of action proposed on the occasion of ameeting which was shortly to take place between the Senate of the University of London and the Committee of the Association, and by his spontaneously pledging himself “to say nothing as a member of the deputation, contrary to what was then agreed to.” It is therefore no wonder that Prof. Huxley was surprised, when on the very next day Prof. Pearson wrote to the 7Zzmes, discussing resolutions which Prof. Huxley regarded as confidential and accusing offences, of which the day before he thought so little that he had voluntarily stated that “pressure of work” was the reason to be given for his resignation. One good result may perhaps follow from Prof. Owing to the sense which has unfor- the assumption that the title “‘ Professorial University ” meant a University governed solely by Professors, an - opinion has got about that the members of the As- sociation are impracticable persons, who have _pro- pounded an unworkable scheme. It is true that both accusations are directly met by the published programme of the Association. It is there made clear that a voluntary absorption is all that is aimed at, and that laymen as well as experts are to have a share in the management of the University. Prof. Pearson’s defection has made it still more obvious that the Association scheme is intended, not to gratify theorists, but to sup- port a policy which is capable of realization. Prof. Pearson declares that he desires a University on the model of Berlin; but the question at once arises, Is the model to be followed exactly, or aremodifications tobe intro- duced ? Is the University to be free from all State control ? NO. 1206, VOL. 47] Prof. Huxley desires that it shall be free, and under exist- ing circumstances we cordially agree with him. Let the State, if it will, nay as it must, support and subsidize the new University as it supports the British Museum, but let the control of the one, as of the other, be in the hands of an independent Governing Body. But, if this condition is realized, there is at once a fundamental difference be- tween the actual University of Berlin and the possible University of London. The external element furnished in Germany by State control must in England be supplied by lay members of the Governing Body, and the differ- ence thus established will run throughout the whole of the constitution. Prof. Huxley publishes in his letter to the 7zmes an outline of a scheme for the organization of the University which is too interesting to be omitted here. He explains that he gives the rough notes on which his evidence before the Gresham University Commission was based. The scheme is as follows :— “ Do not venture to ask for all I want, but for as much as it seems possible to get on the way to that. “ Suggestions tentative and open to modification. “(a) Retain title and prestige of University of London ; reorganize it in such a manner as to secure general uni- formity and efficiency of work with freedom and elasticity. In short, unify without fettering. “ (6) Make the institutions which contain technical schools of theology, law, medicine, engineering, and so on into colleges of the University. Let these examine their own candidates for degrees, under conditions determined jointly by them and the Senate of the University ; and present such as they declare fit to the University for ad eundem graduation. **(c) Deal in the same way with institutions giving adequate instruction in the other categories of University work—if they so please ; or let the University examine. “(d@) Provide ample means for instruction in the modes of advancing natural knowledge and art, either in material connexion with the existing University or in particular colleges. **(e) Professoriate to have large but not preponderant representation in Senate, and wide, but not exclusive, influence in regulating instruction and examination in accordance with the general aim at unification. “(f) All state and municipal contributions, private endowmentsand University fees for instruction and exam- ination to be paid into a University chest. All professorial staff and current expenses (save in cases that may be re- served) to be paid out of the University chest; also building and fitting expenses where there isnosufficient endowment of a college. The payment of the professorial staff to be primarily regulated by the kind and amount of the work done for the University, not by number of students. “(g) No bar to be placed in the way of any one who desires to profit by any description of University instruc- tion. If, after trial, he does not profit, time enough to exclude. Value of exclusion as disciplinary measure.” Any one who takes the trouble to compare this scheme with the original programme of the Association will see that they are in close accord. It is true that the Asso- ciation put forward the complete voluntary absorption of the colleges as the result most to be desired, but it dis- tinctly contemplated the possibility of relations between the University and institutions or colleges which were not completely absorbed, and it will be seen that the only terms on which Prof. Huxley will permit relations to be established between the University and the colleges secure to the former a very large measure of authority. 122 NATURE [DecEeMBEk 8, 1892 Prof. Huxley himself describes his scheme as of a tentative character, but whatever plan be finally adopted it is desirable that the real aims and objects of the Asso- ciation shall be fully understood. It is desired that there shall be one University in London which shall-be a central authority to organize and improve higher education. No reasonable person has ever supposed that the existing University of London was to be destroyed as a sort of peace-offering to its critics, or that existing colleges were to ‘be ignored or’ dragooned into self- effacement. What is desired is that the Senate of the existing University should be reconstituted by the ad- dition of professors teaching under the control .of the University and by a reduction in the number of its lay members, if, with the new additions, it would otherwise be of unwieldy size. It is desired that a share in the benefits to be obtained from the University should be given to any college only in so far as it is willing to put into the hands of the Uni- versity the appointment and control of those of its chairs which might be recognized by the University. It is hoped that the advantages which would accrue from this partial fusion would be so great as to lead to the gradual voluntary “ absorption ” of the colleges. To make this desirable end attainable it is necessary that the. College Councils should not’ be represented, as such, on the Governing Body of the University, but no objection would, we believe, be felt to temporary arrangements which might. facilitate the inauguration of the new state of things. The sooner it is clearly understood that the Association is the result of the labours and the exponent of the views of the “ practical men ” who are, according to Prof. Huxley, to be found in the professorial ranks, the better it will be for the Association and for London. Prof. Pearson’s withdrawal from the secretaryship appears, under all the circumstances, to afford a sufficient guarantee of this. IN SAVAGE ISLES AND SETTLED LANDS. In Savage Isles and Settled Lands ; Malaysia, Austral- ; asta, and Polynesia, 1888-1891. By B. F. S. Baden- “Powell, Lieut. Scots Guards, F.R.G.S. (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1892.) “a tS book contains the impressions of Lieut. Baden. Powell during a journey round the world of over three years’ duration ; jottings limited chiefly to his own personal doings and observations. The journey was evi- dently a leisurely peregrination with many divergences to places of interest off his direct route out to Brisbane in Queenslard, whither he was ‘bound to assume official duty on the staff of the governor of that colony, and an equally unhurried saunter home ‘again through the Pacific and America. The author does not propose to look at things with scientific eyes, and it is possible here and there throughout the book to detect that he has no pro- found acquaintance with the o/ogies. Consequently his book does not fall to be rigidly criticized in these pages. His eyes, however, if not scientific, were kept at all events very wide open, and what came under his own observation NO. 1205.:VOL 417] is clearly and accurately described in a chatty and pleasant style and with a good deal of quiet humour. It is easy to see that the ‘‘tramp” enjoyed his trip, and the reader, drawn on by his cicerone’s mood, accompanies. him through savage isles and settled lands with equal satisfaction. Lieut. Baden-Powell started off through the European continent vzé@ Cologne and Vienna to Rustchuk, thence across Bulgaria, through which “ a railway journey is not very interesting.” Nevertheless, “little picturesque villages are seen nestling in the valleys, and distant glimpses of the Balkans gained.” Beyond Shumla we get through the mountains and “ pass through miles of swamp, the railway almost level with the water, and reeds growing up all around, in some places so high as to cut out all view from the carriage windows. Passing along the edges of large lakes, the train starts up thousands of wild fowl, which fly around till the air is quite darkened by them, and on we go, mile after mile, with more and more duck rising from the water,” evidently a sportsman’s paradise. Thence our guide conducts us to Constan- tinople and on to Egypt, and though he takes us by well- trodden paths and tells us little that is new or wonderful, he enlivens the way with a constant flow of time-beguil- ing taik and anecdote. sets out for southern Australia, but he wanders as usual off his main road for some weeks into Ceylon and India to luxuriate amid their tropic scenery and ancient monuments. Of the three southern colonies of the Australias traversed on his way to Queens- land he gives us a few brief notes. Of the latter colony, where he spent some years in the enjoyable | and not very arduous duties of A.D.C. to Sir Anthony Musgrave and Sir Henry Norman, he has a great deal that is interesting totell. He visited much of the country, and saw something of its aboriginal as well as of its adopted natives, and found interest and amusement in both. Ata vice-regal ball at Hughenden, a town 240 miles inland, he finds himself a fellow-guest with the butler of the hotel he was staying at, and his host’s house- maid, “‘who was quite the belle of the ball, and who, when supper was served, turned waitress again. Such is society ina Bush town.” “It was in this district,” he continues, “that I first set eyes on some real wild blacks. The aboriginals of Australia are an extraordinary people. To look at they are quite unlike any other human beings I ever saw. A thick tangled mass of black hair crowns their heads ; their features are of the coarsest ; very large broad and flattened noses; small, sharp, bead-like eyes and heavy eyebrows. They generally have a coarse tangled bit of beard; skin very dark and limbs extra- ordinarily attenuated like mere bones. But they always carry themselves very erect. ... They wander about stark naked over the less settled districts, and live entirely | on what they can pick up. . , . If not the lowest type of humanity they would be hard to beat. few signs of human instinct, and in their ways seem to be really more like beasts.” Mr. Baden-Powell thus summarizes his opinions on Australia as a field for emigration (and those who know the Australasian colonies will recognize their truth) : “The labouring man will find it a paradise ; the professional man will find his profession overstocked ; and the man with money to invest will - probably be ruined. .. . My personal advice to would- From Egypt Mr. Baden-Powell — They show but ee DECEMBER 8, 1892} NATURE 123 be emigrants except of the lowest [? lower] class is like Punch's—Don't. * ’ From Queensland it was easy and natural for our Vea veller to be attracted across to New Guinea, the land of so much myth and mystery. Here he fell in with the indefatigable administrator, Sir W. Macgregor, and was able to lend him a helping hand in the skirmishing incident on the capture of the natives of some villages guilty of the murder of several Europeans. He spent some days at Samarai, the head-quarters of the south- district ; and we feel sure that the almost unsur- passable | panorama visible from its hill-set bungalow of “ mountains wooded to the peak,” and green isles, spread out on every side, basking in an azure sea, and pictur- esquely veiled in haze as they lessen away to beyond the horizon, must have rewarded him for his visit, even at the: expense of a bout of fever. His account of what he saw and did in Papua occupies some eighty pages, and contains more trustworthy and interesting information than many of the narratives of men who have spent a much’ longer time in the country than Mr. Baden-Powell did. The next region he visited was the Malay Archi- pelago. He only gazed on Sumatra, “ that extraordinary island which contains probably a greater variety of big _ game, of useful plants, and of wonderful scenery than any other country of its size” ; but he visited many of the ‘most interesting places in pai and the Straits Settle- ments, and made extensive journeys in Borneo, where he shot some of “ the very so giaama ogg 3 proboscis- monkeys (Larvatus nasalis) . I should imagine,”. he remarks, “his ponderous nose would get very much in the way of his biting any one, and he certainly has no other means of defence.” Our space will not permit us to follow Mr. Baden-Powell! through New Zealand and the various islands of the Pacific sojourned in by him, be gire to note his account of the preparation ies king’s cava,” of which he was a witness, in Samoa :— « “This was a great event. None of the Consuls even _ever before partaken of ‘king’s cava.’ But there was | a certain amount of sham about it. First, the root was produced—genuine enough, I dare say. Six men then sat in a-row outside the house, the nine-legged cava ‘bowl. beforethem. Each man was then given some water to wash his mouth out, and a packet of cava wrapped in a bit of leaf was given to each. I shuddered at the awful thought of what was about to happen. In true native fashion these nasty old men were undoubtedly = to chew the root, and I... would have to w the nauseous stuff ! I watched very carefully and prs much relieved when I saw the packets collected again _and put in the bowl. It was ready prepared [outside in a less orthodox and less disquieting fashion] and the little ceremony was only to represent formally the mode in which it ought to be done, the cava being ‘taken as chewed.’ Then the bowl was solemnly brought into the ‘house and put on the floor at the end opposite the king.” This is an interesting instance of the evolution of ‘what might have been as meaningless a ceremonial as are many of those survivals of abandoned customs which are familiar to us in many other parts of the world. From Samoa Lieut. Baden-Powell made his way ‘home by the usual route v7/é the Sandwich Islands and ‘through the States. _ In Savage Isles and Settled Lands ” is a book we can heartily recommend. It is elegantly got up, is illustrated by | NO. 1206, VOL. 47 | excellent wood engravings, and has a map of the author’s route. Nearly every page presents in a few words some bright vignette that will please and inform those who have never had the opportunity of visiting those lands and isles, and will set the home-come traveller a-dreaming with grateful satisfaction of delightful days that are past, and help him to live them over again more delightfully still in the present, H.'O. F. PROPERTY. Property: Its Origin and Development. By Chas. Letourneau, General Secretary to the Anthropological Society of Paris, and Professor in the School of Anthropology. (Walter Scott, 1892.) ESS than a generation ago the history of early civilization was summed up, if not in the three words hunting, pasture, and agriculture, at least in the formula of Sir Henry Maine: “ Society develops from family to tribe, and from tribe to State.” Recent inquiries have discredited both of these formulas, and taken us back to the genesis of the family itself, and beyond civilization to barbarism and savagery. If we listen to Prof. Letourneau (to say nothing of Morgan and Mac- lennan), we may reconstruct the evolution of society in all its stages out of savagery by the “ ethnographic method,” —“‘ looking upon existing inferior races as living representatives of our primitive ancestors” (Preface, page ix). It must be remembered that in using this ethnographic method we assume that the order of pro- gress has been substantially identical in all cases, and also that the simplest forms come first in time (p. 70, cf. 126). Both assumptions would need justification before the results of the new method could be finally accepted. Prof. Letourneau had applied the method with great learning and ingenuity in his earlier book on the evolution of marriage. In the volume before us he applies it to property. He begins with a chapter on property amongst animals ; ants and bees, as we might expect, are shown to be more highly developed in this matter than many men, and they have many of the vices of men. They pro- vide for the future. Their property is that of a community ; but one community wars on another for pillage. There are not only parasites, but idle aristocrats among them. The amazon ants, who cannot even feed themselves, but de- pend on their black slaves, are well known from Huber’s description, and are a standing refutation of Solomon's high opinion of ants. On the whole, among animals, pro- perty is due simply to the instinct of self-preservation ; : and Letourneau ascribes it to the same origin in the case of men. Among the “ anarchic hordes,” which come first in his series (p. 23), and of which the Fuegians are a specimen, there is collective property. If union is strength it is weakness that first leads to union (cf. p. 368). But there is no personal property except in tools and weapons, “the immediate result of personal labour ” (p. 39). Provision for the future is unknown. In the second stage (among the “ republican tribes ”) the union is more highly organized ; there is tribal government, with minute regulation of conduct in regard to the dealings of individuals with the necessaries of life. The most remark- able example is perhaps that of the people of Paraguay 124 NATURE [December 8, 1892 among whom (as our author shows) the Jesuit mis- sionaries found and did not make a system of com- munism (pp. 42 seq.). In nearly all the instances of this class the sense of property was most strongly developed in regard to the hunting ground of the tribe, though (in the case of the Iroquois, &c.) it embraced the Long Houses of the clans: of the tribe, an anticipation of Fourier’s phalansteries. The differentiation of the clan from the tribe is ascribed to the growth of the taste for property itself (cf. p. 365). Letourneau would explain the present universality of hunan sympathy as a bequest to us from the days when all. property was common (p. 57). The republican organization passed into the monarchical,where the tribe was governed by its chief (pp. 56 seq.). This political change was rather an effect than a cause of coincident industrial changes, especially the introduction of private property in slaves and women. “ A comparison of the American tribes, placing them in a graduated series from the primitive system of communistic equality up- ward, plainly shows that, at least in this part of the world the establishment of aristocracy and _here- ditary monarchic power has merely crowned an economic evolution, whereof the point of departure was the institution of slavery, and the consequent de- velopment of agriculture, whence arose the rupture of primitive equality, creation of exchangeable values, development of private property, contrast between rich and poor, foundation of castes, and hereditary succes- sion” (p. 61). This passage, amongst others, betrays the tendency—fashionable in some quarters at the present time—to regard all social development as due mainly, if not wholly, to economic causes. Not that economists by profession are grate Persone to our author. On the contrary, they are only mentioned to be rebuked, and their doctrines only to be caricatured (see pp. 91, 96, cf. 120, 124, &c.). But, as by some sections of German Socialists, so by Letourneau, we are given to understand that the politics, religion, and general character of a society are determined by the conditions of industry and the terms of property therein prevailing, while no sufficient allowance is made for the reaction of the former set of phenomena on the latter. Tosum up: at this third stage in the development from savagery (the early monarchical system), the idea of per- sonal property is extended from weapons and tools which a man has made, to the trees which he has planted, and then to the plot of ground he has cleared and sown. After that the idea of private property may be considered to be full formed and definitely Jaunched on its modern career of development (p. 72). The great cause of private property is agriculture. Where there was only pasture, as with the Hottentots, the private property was only in cattle, women, and children (p. 79). Agriculture brings us to extended forms of slavery, and to forms of property and modes of valuing and exchanging it that approach more and more to modern ideas. We need not follow our author into the mzzuzi¢ of his account of “primitive monarchies” and empires. He gives a survey of mankind from China to Peru, and from the earliest times to the period of Roman, feudal, and modern civilization. The earliest stages of the develop- ment are (rightly enough) treated more fully than the later, the later being the more generally known. The NO. 1206, VOL. 47] of “ grams.’’ differentiation of clan from tribe and of family from clan, the formation of village communities for the purpose of agriculture, the introduction of inheritance, and of private property in estates, are all traced out in chapters that are full of interest even when not above cavil. Prof. Letourneau has perhaps been too ready to point a moral for the benefit of his own generation. But ‘after all he gives his readers the facts, and they may find their own moral, which may or may not be his. One of the best instances where the materials presented seem to- justify a different moral than the one drawn from them is that of the dessa or village community of Java. It is pronounced to have excellent results, particularly in increasing population (p. 121), and is contrasted with “ the selfish African system” (p. 122) } but by our author’s own account it is acombination of private and collective pro- perty, not an example of the latter by itself (cf. pp. 114,115). The book is, we may presume, translated from the French ; and this will account for the use of “ alienist” for “lunacy doctor” (p. 370), disengaging ” for “ analyzing ” (p. 373), and “salaried” for “ wages-earning” (p. 375). But, asa rule, the language is correct and clear English. 1. “OUTLINES OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.” Outlines of Organic Chemistry. By Clement J. Leaper, F.C.S. Specially written for Schools and Classes connected with the Department of Science and Art. (London : Iliffe and Son, 1892.) ”“T“HIS little work is intended, as the title states, for the use of beginners. But the author has made the way: of beginners hard, by leaving in his pages the largest collection of misprints and other slips which we recollect to have met with in so small a compass. On the very first page, in the opening lines, there oc- curs a wrong formula for urea ; and the book ends with a wrong formula for aldehyde-ammonia. We do not pro- pose to convert this notice into a table of errata ; but the following may be given as illustrating the sort of guid- ance which the beginner may expect. On p. 75, in the brief space of three iines, we meet with “(COOH,),” “C.H;(OH;)” and “C,H,(OH,)COOH,” as represent- ing respectively oxalic acid, glycerin, and—monoformin ! The blunder, in each case, consists, of course, in placing a coefficient inside instead of outside the bracket ; but we doubt whether, even with this correction, the last expres- sion, with its carboxyl-group in place of the group O.CHO, would be recognized, even by an experienced chemist, much less by a beginner, as representing mono- formin. Blunders, due to carelessness, are not confined to for- mule. Thus we find : “ Pure white precipitate of silver oxide (p. 13), whereas the context shows that silver chloride is meant; “ethene dichloride, C,H,Cl,” (p. 37) ; ‘*lead the gas into lime water, and note the formation of. insoluble carbon dioxide (p. 51) ; “‘ by the further chlorin- _ ation of methyl chloride we get echylidene chloride” — (p. 67) ; whilst, on p. 99, “‘ grains” is twice given instead But the worst blunder we have met with occurs on p. 109, where, possibly owing to a transposition of the pages of the author’s manuscript, the explanations LEAPERS DECEMBER 8, 1892] NATURE : 125 _ which should follow Experiment 112 (Preparation of Ethy] __ Nitrite) have been moved on by a whole page, and made _ to follow Experiment 115 (Preparation of Nitro-ethane). _ The utterly bewildering effect of this jumble, which is en- ___ hanced by the unexpected re-entrance of the subject of _ nitro-ethane in the middle of a paragraph a little later on, cannot be realized without reading the passage. _____ The work is intended to combine practical with theo- __ reticalinstruction. The selection of experiments is, on _ the whole, judicious, and the practical directions are gener- ally good. This is not to be wondered at, as the author las evidently, in these points, followed pretty closely erson Reynolds’s “ Experimental Chemistry,” details as the substitution of a tin oil-can for 5 flea te tuch a distilling flask (p. 99), or a peculiarity in the bending of a tube (p. 74), and to the reproduction of some of the illustrations—in every case without acknowledgment. _ Prof. Reynolds is not, however, responsible for the illus- _ tration on p. 17, in which the distillate from a Liebig’s _ condenser is represented as falling from a considerable height into a flask placed below. It is not true that (p. 12) “every organic compound containing nitrogen will, when fused with metallic sodium, convert the latter into sodium cyanide.” Diazo-com- _ pounds do not yield any cyanide; and compounds __ containing sulphur as well as nitrogen form thiocyanate. Nor is heating a cyanide with excess of concentrated _ sulphuric acid (p. 76) a method of distinguishing it from a formate. © The author’s style is occasionally slovenly, and some- times worse: “ Observe how the fact that oxalic acid so readily split up into CO, CO, and H,O support (szc) this graphic formula for.it” (p. 117). On the whole, we suspect that teachers will prefer a text-book which calls for fewer marginal corrections. Ble Geant OUR BOOK SHELF. An Introduction to te Study of Botany, witha special _ chapter on some Australian Natural Orders. By. _ Arthur Dendy, D.Sc., and A. H. S. Lucas, M.A. Smail ___+‘8vo, 272 pages with about 30 pages of woodcuts. ____ (Melbourne and London: Melville, Mullen and Slade, _ THE authors of this little work are both teachers of Natural Science in the University of Melbourne and it __ is specially intended for the use of students in Australia. With this object in view it would have been better per- _ haps to have selected common Australian types to illus- trate the life history of the great divisions of the vegetable kingdom; but Pinus is taken as a representative of - gymnosperms and Vicéa of angiosperms. Whether these . Pia as bork easily procurable in Australia we are able to say, but even in that case it would have been stter to have taken native plants. Possibly the prepar- ation of illustrations may have influenced the authors, for they are largely, in the first part, “ modified,” “ simplified,” or “‘ adapted ” figures from well-known books, or they are simply copied. ‘Taken as a whole, we do not doubt that this primer will prove useful to students, but it needs much revision to make it what it ought to be. Here and there, where we have tested it, we have found serious shortcomings. Take for example the account of the divisions of the vascular cryptogams. “*y, Filicinee.—These are the ferns which constitute a very large and interesting subdivision. The full account already given of the common bracken renders a detailed NO. 1206, VOL. 47] description unnecessary in this place. There are two principal subdivisions of the Fi/¢cine@e ; the homosporous, which produce only one kind of spore, and the hetero- sporous, which produce large megaspores and small microspores. The former include all the ordinary ferns and are again subdivided into six ‘families,’ of which the Polypodiacez are the best known and most abundant, including most of the common ferns, such as Pteris.” One would have expected a word or two respecting the heterosporous group—the RiAzzocarpee, with some mention of Marsilea,so memorable in the history of Australian exploration ; but the authors seem to have come to grief between the older and newer classifications of vascular cryptogams, for in another place (p. 90) we read of “heterosporous ferns.” The definition of the Agudsetinee contains no reference to the spores; and the description of the Lycopodinee contains no information at all. It runs thus: “This group includes the club-mosses (Lycopodium) and the beautiful Se/aginel/a, a plant frequently grown in conservatories for decorative pur- poses. They are all of rather small size, and are popularly spoken of as “mosses” owing to the general appear- ance of the plant with its numerous very small leaves.” Comment on such a description would be superfluous. In the classification of the cellular cryptogams, lichens are altogether left out, and are apparently not mentioned anywhere. In fact the same incompleteness and inexact- ness pervades the book, which opens with a eulogistic preface by W. Baldwin Spencer, Professor of Biology in the Univerzity of Melbourne. W.B. H. A German Science Reader. (Modern German Series.) Compiled by Francis Jones, F.R.S.E. (London: Percival and Co., 1892.) THE idea of introducing to English readers extracts from the works of many well-known German scientific authorities will be thoroughly welcomed. The author has brought together sixteen very interesting articles on several branches of science, supplemented with notes, in which difficult passages are translated, and a glossary of the technical terms not usually found in. dictionaries. Among the articles we may mention, Electric Telegraphs by Bernstein ; Ice and Snow by Kantz; Air by Miiller; Aniline Dyes by Kekulé; Spectrum Analysis by Kirchhoff and Bunsen, &c. W. More About Wild Nature. By Mrs. Brightwen. don: T. Fisher Unwin, 1892.) Mrs. BRIGHTWEN’S book on ‘‘ Wild Nature Won by Kindness ” was so widely appreciated that she has been encouraged to prepare a second volume of the same general character. It speaks well for her knowledge of animals, and for her interest in their habits, that the new sketches are written in as fresh and bright a style as if she had never before occupied herself with the mass of subjects with-which she deals. She is a careful and accurate observer, and all readers who care for natural history will find much to please them in the facts and impressions she records. The author’s illustrations add greatly to the charm of the text. (Lon- LETTERS TO THE .EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended or this for lany other part of NATURE. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. ] Arborescent Frost Patterns. On Sunday last, December 4, I observed a curious pheno menon, which I do not remember having ever seen before in | the streets of London. Along the Euston Koad, the Marylebone G 126 Road, and other thoroughfares having an east and west direc- tion the paving flags were all covered with a striking, vegetable- like pattern which might be most appropriately described as an arborescent tracery. The pattern was not formed of the usual small and delicate frost figures such as we are familiar with on window panes, but was made up of large and boldly-fronded designs such as shown in the sketch, which I hurriedly made on the spot :— => The ‘‘ fronds” were from one to two feet in length, and often most gracefully curved. A keen wind was blowing at the time from a few degrees north of west and the flags had evidently been coated with a thin layer of mud from the previous night’s rain. I attribute the pattern to the rapid freezing and evapora- tion of the water in this surface layer of mud which was going on during the morning. I only noticed the tracery along east and west thoroughfares ; in sheltered streets not swept by the cold wind no design was visible. The phenomenon may be known well enough to others, but by many, like myself, it may have hitherto been passed over unnoticed. My chief object in sending this description is to call attention to the very vegetable- like appearance of the pattern. If allowed to dry in a calm atmosphere and then buried under a fine alluvial or other de- posit a record would be preserved which the future geologist might at first sight be tempted to read as ‘‘ vegetable remains.” I have seen very similar tracery in the London clay about Clacton-on-Sea and elsewhere. R, MELDOLA. Ice Crystallites. THE interesting facts recorded by your correspondent C. M. Irvine on p. 31 recall some unrecorded observa- tions of my own. On several occasions during recent winters I have observed these crystallographic forms of ice on a gravel walk by the side of my lawn, in places where, owing to faulty gradients, the water does not completely drain away at the surface, and the ground just below the surface is in consequence more saturated with water than at other spots. Theacicular ice- forms have appeared in bundles standing up between the pebbles and capped by earthy material, just as described by Mr. Irvine, and in previous communications to NATURE by Mr. B. Woodd Smith (see his letter on p. 79). The nature of the soil agrees with that described by these two observers, so far as permeability to water is concerned ; and I think they appeared on the occurrence of clear frosty weather after a thaw and melt- ing of previous snow. My observations, however, extended further than theirs appear to have done. 1 was’at the time pur- suing the study of the glassy acicular crystallites of sulphur (which are erroneously described as ‘‘ crystals”? in most text- books on chemistry). These, on examination with polarized light (as I have described elsewhere) are found to be destitute of any crystalline internal structure (in fact truly vitreous or isotropic masses in spite of their crystallographic outlines) ; such structure developing, as devitrification proceeds, by crystallization in the orthorhombic system, to which the outlines of the crystallites do not conform. In Nature (vol. xxxvii. p. 104) is a letter from myself, recording some observations on the vitreosity of ice, as exhibited under certain suitable conditions by hailstones, and referring to a previous letter (/ézd. vol. xxxvi. p. 77), wherein the vitrifica- tion and devitrification of water was suggested as the possible NO, 1206, VOL._47 | NATURE [ DECEMBER 8, 1892 cause o1 certain structural phenomena observed in them from time to time. It was with those ideas present to my mind that during recent winters I have made an examination of the acicu- Jar ice-forms referred to, which struck me as made up of unusually clear and transparent ice. On taking my microscope out of doors, fitted with a polarizing apparatus, when the temperature was a few degrees below freezing, with a thick overcoat on to prevent the heat of one’s body from affecting the ice-needles, 1 found that, on taking them from the ground and placing them at once on the stage between crossed ‘‘ Nicols,” they appeared to be completely isotropic, as they had no reaction on polarized light. I have concluded, therefore, that these ice-needles are strictly analogous (physically) to the prismatic crystallites of sul- phur ; and they resemble precisely the microscopic lathe-shaped forms, into which I have seen a perfectly clear minute plate of sulphur-glass break up in the first stage of devitrification. The explanation suggested by Mr. Woodd Smith, that they may have been formed by a slow growth of ice at their base, the molecular movement of water in the soil keeping up the supply so long as refrigeration continued, has seemed to me the most natural one ; their isotropic molecular structure is no doubt due to the rapidity of freezing owing t> a sudden fall of temperature at the spot. - A. IRVING, Wellington College, Berks, November 27. The Volucelle as Alleged Examples of Variation “almost. Unique among Animals. Ir is barren work for the parties in a controversy merely to deny each other’s statements without adducing further evidence. Mr. Bateson first stated that var. mystacea did not mimic Bombus muscorum. I replied that it did, and the statement in my letter in no way depended on the case at the Royal comes of Surgeons, but on a careful comparison of the insects in the Oxford Museum. It is useless for me to repeat that I regard it as an example of mimicry, not indeed equal to that afforded by the same fly and Bombus hortorum, but far better than many others which are generally believed to be instances of this principle (such as the resemblance of Clytus ardetis, or even the resemblance—admitted by Mr. Bateson in his first letter—of Volucella inanis, to a wasp). I therefore propose to furnish the Editor of NATURE with photographs of the Volaucelle and — humble-bees for reproduction, so that readers can judge of the matter for themselves. I will do my best to obtain a negativ which shows the coloured bands. ; Although I believed that the two London Museums supported my view, it will be obvious to any one who reads the letter that I did not rely on such support, but on my own comparison of the insects, Mr. Bateson has offered no further evidence in support of his remarkable assertion that the variation of the Voelucelle is unique. Iam not surprised that he should pass over this part of my letter, for I felt sure that there was no further evidence to offer. It will be remembered that this evidence was contained in the ‘‘brief statement of facts” given in his first letter, and is practically summed up in the sentence ‘‘ This fly exhibits the. rare condition of existing in two distinct forms in both sexes.” In assuming this rarity to be so excessive that the words *‘al- most unique” may be applied to it, and in evidently considering that we must proceed as far as the peach and nectarine in order to find a parallel, Mr. Bateson exhibits a want of acquaintance with the facts of variation which is very surprising in one who is believed to have spent some years in their study. For there is no essential biological difference between this variation and many others, examples of which I gave in my last letter, and which could easily be multiplied. In fact, many a ‘‘ showcase ” would have corrected such a mistake. Compared with the magnitude of this erroneous statement in Mr. Bateson’s first letter, the details under discussion assume very small propor- tions. In considering that ‘‘no speculation is needed to enhance the exceptionally interesting facts of the variation and the re- semblances of the Voluce//e,” it would appear that Mr. Bateson seeks to replace that most invaluable servant of science, specula- tion, by far-reaching and unsupported assertion, In his last letter Mr. Bateson says ‘‘it is admitted that in making this statement Mr. Poulton relied not on_ original authorities, but on the general impression of others.” So far from this being the case I stated my belief that the impression is prevalent among those who ave original authorities on the Hymenoptera and their parasites, and I also showed that nothing DeEcEMBER 8, 1892] NATURE 127 ___ is advanced by the authorities quoted by Mr. Bateson which can be regarded as antagonistic to this impression by any one who knows a little about the working of heredity in insect varieties. _ __A word about ‘‘showcases.” I hope that no reader of a NATURE may be led to think lightly of these as a means of instruction, and as one of the chief objects of a great museum, because Mr. Bateson states that there is a wrong identification in one at the Royal College of Surgeons, and because of the distinc- tion which he is so careful to draw between these and other me of the most valuable specimens in the world are in ses.” They form one of the most admirable features museum arrangement, and the best material obtainable forthem. This is equally true on the continent and n country, where Prof. Sir W. Flower and Prof. we devoted an immense amount of time and labour department, an important recent feature of both their eums being the illustration of the uses of colouring in animals. Prof. Lankester too is developing the same method "instzuction with great success in the Oxford Museum. Tt is in no way rewarkable or reprehensible that four recent _ writers (Mr. Lloyd Morgan, Mr. Beddard, Mr, Romanes, and ____ myself) concerned with this subject and knowing the care taken _ in choosing these illustrations, should also make use of some of _ them in their published works. __. One ‘‘ difficulty” brought forward by Mr. Bateson is so hat I did not allude to it before, and only refer to it now wise he repeats it. Heseems to think that doubt is thrown eory of mimicry because V. pe//ucens does not resemble yet lives in its nests —as if any believer in natural maintained that all closely allied forms must defend elves in the same way ! to Mr. Bateson’s statement at the end of his letter that he atended to draw attention to the matter (and not to hurt eby), I can only say that this statement implies an nary want of acquaintance with the niceties of the language. It is so easy to correct mistakes without pthing but a feeling of gratitude in the mind of one made them, that, in justice to Mr. Bateson’s intelli- ee oeee ies to doubt the accuracy of his memory. ovember 27. EDWARD B, POULTON. 2 gee aga _ “A Criticism on Darwin,” __ I WRITE to protest against what appears to be a growin: habit on the part of certain publishing firms of advertising their in a most misleading manner, viz. by selecting any : from a notice of the book which may serve to indicate the writer’s opinion on the work as a whole is favourable, reas, if quoted with its immediate context, the passage would rove the precise opposite. Forexample, I see in NATURE and sewhere an advertisement of Mr. David Syme’s book ‘‘ On the Modification of Organisms ; a Criticism of Darwin”’ (Simp- kin, Marshall, and Co.), in which I am quoted as having called the writer ‘‘a shrewd critic.” Standing by itself these words nply that I have somewhere recommended the work as well of perusal. ‘he fact of the matter, however, is, that the occur in a foot-note which I added to the proof of my re- ublished book on ‘‘ Darwin and After Darwin,” for the te ‘of showing the extraordinary confusion of | prevails on the part of Darwin’s critics, even with Else- reference to the very fundamental parts of his theory.” Animals’ Rights. T AM hot surprised that you should find my essay on **Animal»’ Rights” an ‘‘absolutely useless” one, for I certainly did not design it to be a congenial hand-book for the apologists of Vivisection. Nor do I the least object to your wing what conclusions you like from the premisses laid down by me, even though you seek your justification of . vivisection from the very definition that seems to me to be ‘most clearly condemnatory of it. But, as a matter of fact, NO. 1206, VOL, 47 and not of personal opinion, I beg to point out that you have utterly misrepresented the leading principle of the book, and that the two contradictory definitions of animals’ rights, which you attribute to my confusion of mind, are in reality the phantom creation of your own. On p. Q, in referring to Herbert Spencer’s definition of Auman rights, I claim for animals a ‘‘due measure” (not an equal amount) of the same ‘restricted freedom ”’—a claim which by no means prohibits all use and employment of animals, as you conveniently assume. On p. 28 I give, not a second definition, but a repetition and amplification of the one given on p. 9; and the ‘‘ due measure of restricted freedom” is explained as being ‘‘a life which permits of the individual development, subject to the limita- tions imposed by the permanent needs and inierests of the community.” Surely this is intelligible enough; yet the reviewer has utterly failed to understand it. HS DART: 38 Gloucester Road, N.W., November 26. Induction and Deduction. Miss JONES has not quite understood me. I maintain that definitions should be aréitrary, but not necessarily that they should be made at random. If they are so made it will, as she points out, seldom happen that they turn out useful, or have any real applications, though this would not affect their logical validity if it amused any one to make them and investigate their consequences. Such definitions with no real applications are actually made by pure mathematicians. The peculiar value of the definitions of geometry consists however in the fact that they have so many real applications, and itis only by a long pro- cess of survival of the fittest that a few such happy definitions are weeded out from among the many which lead to nought. The definitions of geometry could not now be laid down at random, but they are none the less arbitrary, for they require no support from any @ priort considerations. Epwarp T. Drxon. Trinity College, Cambridge, November 28. The Present Comets, I HAVE to notice the following mistake in my letter which appeared in NATURE (vol. xlvi. p. 561). I called comet Brooks, comet ‘‘c,” I now find it should be called comet ‘‘ @.” I have since writing been quite satisfied that the head of comet Swift extends less towards the 2 than towards the s (as suggested in my letter). T. W. BACKHOUSE. West Hendon House, Sunderland, November 26. —— The Afterglow. AFTER witnessing, with Profs. Lyon and Orr, remarkable effects of afterglow on November 27, I waited for the next issue of Nature (No. 1205), in the expectation that similar phe- nomena would be mentioned as having been seen in the British Isles. Curiously enough, the letter on ‘‘ Afterglow” in that issue comes from Honolulu, dated November 8. It is possible, however, that the effects of volcanic dust from one of the great eruptions of the past summer are now beginning to be noticeable in opposite hemispheres. The Krakaido eruption of August 27, 1883, appears to have caused exceptional afterglows in Honolulu on September 5, and in Western Europe by November g, in the same year. From the top of Killiney Hill, on November 27, at 4 30 p m., we witnessed an extraordinary combination of cloud-effects, such as I do not remember having seen since the winter of 1883-4. On the west, dense clouds were forming upon Two Rock Mountain, and streaming down into the hollow of Carrick- mines ; but beyond them a clear golden sunset, passing above into green and intense blue, was visible above the summits of the hills. Fleecy cirrus clouds in the zenith were a delicate pink against clear blue, and this glow extended to all the higher cloud- masses in the east, unul the sea itself became rose-pink by re- flection. But in the extreme east the exceptional magenta tints, almost violet, that characterized many of the Krakatdo glows, were strikingly apparent, though in part veiled by the low grey cloud of the Channel. These effects were at their- maximum when the sun had set half an hour ; they would doubt- less have been of much longer duration but for the near clouds forming on the mountains. : i One’s thoughts at once turned to the great eruption of Sangir in the Philippines, which occurred, however, as far back as G 2 128 NATURE [ DeceMBER 8, 1892. June 7 of this year. Weather and locality have been against my seeing clear sunsets until to-day, when no unusual effects were noticeable; but Mr. Bishop’s letter makes it possible that in other places similar effects may be observable. GRENVILLE A, J, COLE, Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin, December 4. ELECTRICAL STANDARDS. HE following supplementary report has been pre- sented to the President of the Board of Trade by the Electrical Standards Committee :— To the Right Hon, A. J. Mundella, M.P., President of the Board of Trade. Subsequently to the presentation of our former report to Sir Michael Hicks-Beach in July, 1891, we were in- formed that it was probable that the German Government would shortly take steps to establish legal standards. for use in connection with electrical supply, and that, with a view to secure complete agreement between the proposed standards in Germany and England, the Director of the Physico-Technical Imperial Institute at Berlin, Prof. von Helmholtz, with certain of his assistants, proposed to visit England for the purpose of making exact com- parisons between the units in use in the two countries, and of attending the meeting of the British Association which was to take place in August in Edinburgh. Having regard to the importance of this communica- tion, it appeared desirable that the Board of Trade should postpone the action recommended in our previous report until after Prof. Helmholtz’s visit. That visit took place early in August, and there was a very full discussion of the whole subject at the meeting of the British Asso:iation in Edinburgh, at which several of our number were present. The meeting was also attended by Dr. Guillaume, of the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, and Prof. Carhart, of the Uni- versity of Michigan, U.S.A., who were well qualified by their scientific attainments to represent the opinion of their respective countries. It appeared from the discussion that a few compara- tively slight modifications of the resolutions included in our previous report would tend to secure international agreement. An extract from the report of the Electrical Standards Committee of the British Association, embodying the results of this discussion, was communicated to us by the Secretary, and will be foundjin the appendix to this report. Having carefully reconsidered the whole question in view of this communication, and having received the report of the sub-committee mentioned in resolution 14 of our previous report, we now desire, for the resolutions contained in that report, to substitute the following ;— RESOLUTIONS. (1) That it is desirable that new denominations of standards for the measurement of electricity should be made and approved by Her Majesty in Council as Board of Trade standards. (2) That the magnitudes of these standards should be determined on the electro-magnetic system of measure- ment with reference to the centimentre as unit of length, the gramme as unit of mass, and the second as unit of time, and that by the terms centimetre and gramme are meant the standards of those denominations deposited with the Board of Trade. , (3) That the standard of electrical resistance should be denominated the ohm, and should have the value 1,000,000,000 in terms of the centimetre and second. (4) That the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice 14°4521 grammes in mass of a constant cross sectional area, and of a length of 106°3 centimetres may be adopted as one ohm. NO, 1206, VOL. 47] (5) That a material standard, constructed in solid metal, should be adopted as the standard ohm, and should from time to time be verified by comparison with a column of mercury of known dimensions, (6) That for the purpose of replacing the standard, if lost, destroyed, or damaged, and for ordinary use, a limited number of copies should be constructed which should be periodically compared with the standard ohm. (7) That resistances constructed in solid metal should be adopted as Board of Trade standards for multiples and submultiples of the ohm. (8) That the value of the standard of resistance con- structed by a Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in the years 1863 and 1864, and known as the British Association unit, may be taken as ‘9866 of the ohm. (9) That the standard of electrical current should be denominated the ampere, and should have the value_one- tenth (ol) in terms of the centimetre, gramme, and second. (10) That an unvarying current which, when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water, in accord- ance with the specification attached to this report, deposits silver at the rate of o'001118 of a gramme per second may be taken as a current of one ampere. (11) That an alternating current of one ampere shall mean a current such that the square root of the time- average of the square of its strength at each instant in amperes is unity. -(12) That instruments constructed on the principle of — the balance, in which, by the proper disposition of the conductors, forces of attraction and repulsion are pro- duced, which depend upon the amount of current passing, and are balanced by known weights, should be adopted as the Board of Trade standards for the measurement of current whether unvarying or alternating. - s (13) That the standard of electrical pressure should be denominated the volt, being the pressure which, if steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one ohm, will produce a current of one ampere. : (14) That the electrical pressure at a temperature of 15° centigrade between the poles or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as Clark’s cell, prepared in accordance with the specification attached to this report, may be taken as not differing from a pressure of 1°434 volts, by more than one part in 1000. . (15) That an alternating pressure of one volt shall mean a pressure such that the square root of the time- average of the square of its value at each instant in volts is unity. (16) "That instruments constructed on the principle of Lord Kelvin’s quadrant electrometer used idiostatically, and, for high-pressures, instrument on the principle of the balance, electrostatic forces being balanced against a known weight, should be adopted as Board of Trade standards for the measurement of pressure, whether un- varying or alternating. COURTENAY BOYLE. G. CAREY FOSTER. KELVIN. R. T. GLAZEBROOK. P. CARDEW. J. HOPKINSON. W. H. PREECE. W. E. AYRTON. RAYLEIGH. T. W. P. BLOMEFIELD, Secretary. November 29. ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF GRAFTING. Bae volume before us contains the record of several , years of research upon the effects of different forms of grafts (using the term in its widest significance) in the vegetable kingdom. t “Ueber Transplantation am Pflanzenkérper. Untersuchungen zur Physiologie und Pathologie.” Von Dc. Hermann Vochting. Mit xz Litho- graphierten Tafeln und 14 Figuren im Texte. (Tiibingen : Laupp, 1892.) Poe nt ee ee : -DEcEMBER 8, 1892] NATURE 129 Opening with an historical introduction which deals briefly with the development of the art from classical times down to the present day, the author proceeds to indicate the general scope of his own investigations, and to describe the methods of experiment which he employed. The immediate problems which he sets himself to solve are contained in two questions which occur on an early page of his book, namely—lIs it possible to remove parts of a given plant and transplant them to any other position in the same ora similar plant? And upon this question follows the second —What is the nature of the reaction _ which occurs between the newly-introduced portion and __ the surrounding tissues ? _____ But although these form the proximate questions which are to be answered by means of a large number of well- conducted experiments, it soon becomes clear to the reader that the chief interest which attaches to the results _ obtained depends on their application to the theory of _ polarity of cells and tissues which Prof. Véchting has al- _ ready put forward elsewhere. ___ The plants chiefly (but by no means exclusively) used in _ the investigations were Beta vulgaris and Cydonia japo- _ mica. The former is of a fleshy and succulent character, whilst the latter is a woody plant which happens to be specially adapted to the various operations of grafting, and, as it is a perennial, it admits of the results of the experiments being watched for a considerable period of time. Prof. Véchting distinguishes in every part of the plant between a “shoot-pole” and a “root-pole,” and _ these he considers to be always present, however small _ * the plant member, or piece of excised tissue, may be. ‘The polarity manifests itself at the free surfaces, much as the effects of the magnetism of'a bar magnet are visible __ atits ends ; and moreover, just as the pieces of a broken magnet are themselves duly polarized, so also fragments of tissue exhibit relations of polarity identical with those characteristic of the organism from which they were _ The first precaution necessary to secure success in _ grafting is to respect the existences of the shoot- and root- poles, and to insert the scion in such a way as to bring its poles into due correspondence with those of the stock. Acting upon this principle it is found that, generally ee speaking, any member may be grafted on any other __ member unless there is some special reason to the con- _ trary, such as may be connected, for example, with nu- __ trition or water-supply. The leaf of the beet will “ take” __ if grafted on a root, and vice versa, and it was also found _ that it was possible, in the case of roots with diarch bundles, to effect a union even when the xylem planes in the two portions were made to cross each other at right angles ; analogous results were also obtained with leaves. Hence the author concludes that there is no _ inherent fixity in the organization of plants which pre- determines a definite sequence of the chief members of which they are composed. _____ Experiments were made with the object of determining _ the mutual reactions between the stock and the scion, and the conclusion arrived at is that beyond such changes as may be referred to nutritional and similar causes, the two remain unaltered, at least in so far as their specific characters are concerned. Prof. Véchting criticises un- favourably the various alleged cases of the so-called “ graft-hybrids,” and points out that even in one of the _ best authenticated examples, that of Cyé/sus Adamt?, all attempts to produce the hybrid afresh have resulted in failure. The most interesting part of the book is occupied with the account of researches into the behaviour of trans- lanted portions of tissue, the direction of whose “ po- arity ” does not coincide with that of the parts into which they are introduced. When the inserted portion of tissue is rotated on its longitudinal axis so that its own tangential surfaces are applied to the radial ones of its new host, NO. 1206, VOL. 47] difficulties arise in the accomplishment of a complete union, and these difficulties are further increased to a maximum when the tissue is put in upside-down, so to speak, that is with its own poles presented to sémz/ar poles in the stock. A great number of experiments were instituted to investigate these reactions, but space forbids any attempt to do more than briefly summarize the most important points. In the case of Cydonia japonicaa ring of rind was cut out of a twig and replaced in the reversed direction. In many cases the twigs behaved as if the tissue had not been restored at all, simply dying, whilst in others a subsequent healing took place. This healing was accompanied by a swelling at the upper junction, together with the appearance of a ridge of tissue which was formed along the longitudinal suture of the ring from above downwards and was derived from the cam- bium of the ring, and not by an ingrowth of callus from the uninjured cortex of the twig, as might perhaps be sup- posed. In this way connection between the interrupted rind was re-established, and growth recommenced. But both at the edges of the tissue-ridge, and also between it and the original underlying xylem, the cell elements were found to be disposed in a remarkable manner, forming curved unions with the cells of the healthy tissues. For the histological details the reader is referred to the original treatise ; suffice it to say that Prof. Véchting be- lieves that he has found in the appearances thus. pre- sented, additional evidence for the validity of his theory of the polarized condition of living tissues. He conceives of these polarities as properties which are the expression of the innermost relationships existing between the con- stituents of which cells are built up. He further regards the polarity of any tissue as irreversible when once the direction has been imparted to it, and he finds justifica- tion for this view not only in the details of his own ex- periments on grafting, but also in the results of investiga- tions conducted by Kny and others, on the effects of compelling parts of plants to grow in a reversed position. After discussing some of the objections to his theory, without, however, disposing of them all, the author con- cludes by stating, with considerable reserve, some of the wider applications of his theory in explaining geotropism and other allied phenomena. The book certainly forms one of the most important of the recent contributions to plant physiology, and the ex- perimental details are well illustrated in the eleven plates which accompany the text, whilst the diagrams in the body of the work serve to render the author’s theoretical views more intelligible. J. B. NOTES. A GOLD MEDAL is to be presented to M. Pasteur on December 27, his seventieth birthday. ON Monday Lord Durham laid the foundation stone of a new wing of the College of Science, Newcastle, which, like the Col- lege of Medicine in the same city, is a branch of the Durham University. The College of Science was established at West- gate-hill, Newcastle, in 1871. Lord Armstrong laid the foun- dation stone of the present premises at Barras Bridge in 1887, and in the following year the existing wing was opened by the Marquis and Marchioness of Lorne. The success of the institu- tion is strikingly indicated by the fact that the increase in the number of students has rendered a new wing absolutely neces- sary. Dr. WERNER SIEMENS, the well-known electrical engineer, died at Berlin on Tuesday. He was seventy-six years of age. Mr. W. H. Preece, F.R.S., has been appointed a member of the Royal Commission on Electrical Communication with Lighthouses, &c., in the place of Mr, Edward Graves, de- ceased, 130 Mr. W. Marvrieu WILLIAMS, who had a considerable reputation as a metallurgist and a popular writer on scientific subjects, died at his residence, near Willesden, on November 28. He was in his seventy-fourth year. Among his writings are his well-known books on ‘‘The Fuel of the Sun,” ‘* Science in Short Chapters,” and ‘‘ Through Norway with a Knapsack.” WE have to record the death of two distinguished Continental cryptogamists, Dr. F. v. Thiimen, the well-known mycologist, formerly Director of the Chemico-Physiological Experiment Station at Klosternenberg ; and Dr. C. M. Gottsche, of Altona, one of the authors of the Synopsis Hepaticarum, ‘and one of the leading authorities on Mosses and Hepatice, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. The Master and Fellows of Gonville and Caius College, Cam- bridge, have elected as Honorary Fellows the following graduates of the college :—Alexander Henry Green, F.R.'S., bracketed sixth Wrangler, 1855, formerly a Fellow of the College, late ‘Professor of Mathematics, Yorkshire College of Science, now Professor of Geology, Oxford ; Arthur Ransome, M.D., F.R.S., First-class Natural Sciences Tripos, 1856, Physician to the Man- chester Hospital for Consumption and Diseases of the Throat ; and George John Romanes, F.R.S., Sir Robert Rede’s lecturer, 1883, late Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution of Great Britain. AN important conference on technical education was held at Newcastle on Saturday. It was summoned by the Technical Education Committee of the Northumberland County Council. Sir M. White Ridley, the Chairman of the Council, said that the scheme of the Technical Education Committee, generally speaking, had opened out two progressive educational roads from the elementary day school onward—first, for day scholars, by means of scholarships ; and secondly, for evening students by a graduated system of classes. The work in progress under that scheme had already been very extensive. As regarded agricul- ture, there had been courses of lectures, on manuring Jand, poultry-keeping, farm stock, fdairy work, &c. Educational courses had been given in mining, mechanics, electricity, engi- neering, ship-building, &c. As regarded the fishermen also, a very successful method had been adopted of teaching the men a few plain scientific facts with regard to coastal navigation, the habits of fishes, and soon. After the delivery of the Chairman’s speech the Committee’s scheme was carefully discussed. PRIzEs and certificates in connection with the City and Guilds of London Institute will be presented on Monday, December 12, at Merchant Taylors’ Hall, Threadneedle-street, by Mr. William Anderson, F.R.S The Lord Mayor will preside. AT the General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Institution on Monday, the special thanks of the members were returned to Mr. Ludwig Mond for a donation to the fund for carrying on investigations on liquid oxygen. Mr. STREETER held a reception on Saturday at 18 New Bond Street for the first display of sapphires from the Montana mines. At the same time an assortment of chrysoprase jewels was exhibited, and also a black diamond, said to be the largest yet discovered. Mr. Streeter also showed, among other things, a collection of different specimens of pearl-bearing oyster shell, and some curious formations of pearls in shell and loose, and in a variety of natural colours. In the current number of the Geological Magazine it is noted that Mr. Joseph E. Carne, Curator of the Mining and Geologi- cal Museum, Sydney, New South Wales, who so ably assisted the late Mr. C. S. Wilkinson during the Mining and Metallurgical Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, in 18g0, has been appointed by the Minister of Mines to the post of Geologicah NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE [ DeceMBER 8, 1892 Surveyor. Mr. Carne entered the service of the New | Wales Government in 1879. THE French Association for the Advancement of Science has received from an anonymous donor the sum of 600 francs, to be given in two prizes (of 400 and. 200 francs), to the authors of the best memoirs containing an investigation, according to local documents, of the frequency of rabies, and the prophylactic measures in operation in a department of France, /a Seine excepted, or in a region (two or three departments) of France or of Algeria. The statistical figures must relate to ten years at least, and comprise the results of 1892. Manuscripts to be sent to the secretary in Paris before March 31, 1893. The following points are noted for investigation :—The number of rabid animals, of dogs, of persons bitten, and dead through rabies, also of those vaccinated at the Pasteur Institute; separate the cases of rabies in large towns from those in the rest of the department ; measures of sanitary police, their effect and diffi- culty of application ; causes of more or less frequency of rabies, and of vaccination ; measures taken in frontier departments, &c. Dr. B. PasQuaLe has undertaken a study of the phenomena and causes of the very destructive disease of the vine known as ‘* mal nero,” his observations having been made chiefly in Sicily. The disease makes its appearance in the form of black spots and streaks on the leaves. Dr. Pasquale finds it to be always accompanied by a Schizomycete, which he believes also to be its cause, and which is parasitic, especially on the tissues rich in i protoplasm and in other plastic substances, such as the cambrium, ¢ the medullary rays, the cortical parenchyma, and the soft bast of — the axile organs. THE Botanical Gazette states that, in a report to the Cornell University, Prof. L. H. Bailey firmly establishes the commercial value of the electric light for certain winter crops, especially for lettuce. Certain kinds of plants, which are injured by the direct rays of the light, are not injured, but may even be benefited, when the light passes through a clear glass globe or through a glass roof. Auxanometric records appear to show that the light accelerates growth, but does not change its normal periodicity. This is in harmony with the observations of Prof. G. Bonnier, re- corded in the Comptes rendus, who finds that the electric light, promotes the formation of chlorophyll in all kinds of plants, both woody and herbaceous. THE third appendix, 1892, of the Kew Bulletin has been issued. It consists of a list of the staffs of the Royal Gardens, Kew, and of botanical departments and establishments at home and in India and the colonies, in correspondence with Kew. _M. Epovarp BraNtLy, Professor of Physics at the Ecole Libre des hautes études, Paris, writes to us to complain that experiments made by him are attributed to Mr. Dawson Turner in our account of “ Physics at the British Association ” (NATURE, August 18, p. 384). We learn that in Mr. Turner’s paper, and in the condensed report furnished by him for publication, full justice was done to Prof. Branly’s work. The reference to Prof. - Branly was unintentionally omitted when the report was being cut down for NATURE. Messrs. MACMILLAN & Co, will publish immediately a new book by Professor Oliver Lodge; entitled ‘‘ The Pioneers of Science.” In this volume, which will be fully illustrated with portraits and diagrams, the author describes in popular language the history and progress of Astronomy. His aim has been to ul state scientific facts and laws as simply as possible, to present in turn a living figure of each Pioneer, and to trace his influence on the progress of thought. DuRING the past week barometric depressions have reached our western coasts with considerable frequency. As these dis- 7 ‘ mands PLAGE A tes ee eundiic DEcEMBER 8, 1892] PO NATURE turbances were passing away from our islands, sharp frosts occurred in the north, where the shade temperature fell as low __ aS 13° in the north of Scotland on Thursday, December 1. The __ gales which accompanied the depressions were confined more _ particularly to the north and west. On Saturday, the 3rd instant, a large cyclonic disturbance appeared from off the Atlantic, and in the rear of this cold north-westerly winds set _ in with snow or hail showers generally ; in many parts of the i country the snow was sufficiently heavy to interfere seriously _ with traffic. The temperature continued to decrease, the highest daily maxima being generally below the average for the time of year, and at places in the north and north-east of our islands the maximum thermometer at times did not rise above : the freezing point. For the week ended the 3rd instant the 1 oe Teports show that the rainfall was greatly in excess in Scotland, and rather so in the south of England and some of Bae the westecn districts ; but in the eastern parts of Great Britain, and in the north of Ireland, there was a deficiency. In the south-west of England the deficiency, from the beginning of the year, is vail! very great, being 22 per cent. of the average —— amount, P.3 Mr. A cc. RussELLt, in his presidential address to the Royal Societ of New South Wales, mentions a very curious drift of a “current bottle” thrown from the Austrian man-of-war Sada, . about half-way between Sydney and New Zealand. This bottle found its way through twelve degrees of latitude and four of ____ longitude to the coast of Australia, two miles north of Tweed tiver, where it was found just eleven months after it was thrown into the sea. Mr. Russell states that from what is : bing of the currents, which set strongly to the south along the x Pie sit of New Zealand, and thence northward towards New Caledonia, until it got into the current setting from there to the coast of Australia; a journey of at least 2,500 miles in 335 days, and doubtless subject to many deviations which made its course longer and all the more surprising. ae w. Painz, secretary of the Belgian Microscopical Society, ay has published an interesting paper on filiform inclusions in the ao ond of St. Denis, Mons, which strangely simulate organic He has at the same time discussed the origin of me: ‘and has repeated the experiments with colloid i silica and certain salts by which very similar appearances are ns r The paper, which is illustrated with a plate, is a _— ‘contribution to the literature of a very interesting . “Mr. W. HoLLanpD contributes to the December number of the _ Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine some good practical hints on _ sugaring. Moths, he says, often come more readily when sugar i applied to the twigs and branches of the trees they feed upon, _ sugar placed on the trunks of trees ; Xanthia citrago, for __ instance,‘will hardly come at all to sugar put on the trunk of the _ lime tree ; an occasional one only will be got in this way, but i by sugaring below the tips of the outermost branches all round a the tree Mr. Holland generally tinds about fifty on one tree, ___ besides other species. In the case of Xanthia aurago again, the best place to sugar is along the outside of the beech wood _ beneath the ends of the overhanging branches, or on the twigs of the hedge below them. Mr. Holland has repeatedly _ taken about 100 ina night in this way, when trunks sugared inside and outside the wood have not yielded one specimen. Other things may be got in the same way by selecting the place according to the species wanted. Among other points to which he calls attention is the necessity of recognizing early what is going to be a species of the year, for every year brings some NO. 1206, VOL 47 | particular kind more plentifully than usual. ae or ty igs of something near their food-plant, than they will to The sugar Mr. Holland uses is ‘‘ Egyptian raw,” a date sugar. This is very dark and strong stuff, sand- -like, and free from lumps, and it mixes easily without boiling. He simply mixes it with beer, and then adds a drop or two of essence of pears just before starting out. There is rum enough in good sugar, and to add more is only to make the moths drop off before they can be bagged. “* Jamaica foots” is a good sugar too, but it is lumpy and needs salad Old black treacle will do fairly well as a bait, but “golden syrup” Mr. Holland believes to be a fraud. Beet- root sugars, or refined sugars, are of course bad, and if he happens to be in a place where he can get only these, then, and then only, he adds rum. TuEsecond volume ofthe Transactions of the Leeds Naturalists’ Club, to which we referred last week, includes an interesting paper on the structure and life-history of a fungus, by Mr. Harold Wager, assistant lecturer and demonstrator in biology, in the Yorkshire College, Victoria University. The paper deals with a small microscopic fungus, Peronospora parasitica, as a type of the fungi. Mr. Wager points out that, although in some respects this may not be the best type for the purpose, it has the advantage of having a comparatively simple structure and method of development easy to understand, and serving as an excellent introduction to the morphological study of the fungi. This type is also the more interesting because many structural details, which are fully described by Mr. Wager, have been more fully worked out in it than in any other. The paper is carefully illustrated, and the author gives a useful summary of the methods employed in the: examination of the various structures he mentions. A NOVEL utilization of aluminium is that for the construction of aluminium slate-pencils. Major von Sillich, of Meiningen, found that aluminium gives a stroke on a slate, and a German company has undertaken the manufacture of pencils based on that fact. They are 5mm. thick and 14mm. long. They need no pointing, and are well-nigh inexhaustible and unbreakable. The writing, which is as clear as with ordinary pencils, requires a little more pressure. It can be erased with a wet sponge. A COLORIMETER for comparing the intensity of colour in a ‘solution with a standard solution has been constructed by Papasogli. It consists of two graduated cylindrical vessels of equal diameter, through which light is transmitted from below. A vertical telescope fixed above the tubes shows the two halves of the field equally illuminated if the amounts of coloration are the same. If they are not, the heights of the liquids in the tubes can by a simple contrivance be so regulated that the colours have equal shades. Under these conditions, the concentration of colouring matter is inversely proportional to the length of the column of liquid tested. THE Trinidad Field Naturalists’ Club has held its first annual meeting, and has evidently good reason to congratulate itself on its success, which has surpassed the highest expecta- tions of the members. Mr. Caracciolo, the chairman, in his presidential address, reminded the club that the gardens, plains, mountains, and rivers of Trinidad swarm with animal forms, about a good many of which very little is yet known, THE latest instalment of the Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland includes the address by Mr. Robert Dundas, president, at the opening of the pre- sent session. Speaking of railways, Mr. Dundas said that a continual improvement in rolling stock generally can be noted. Larger and more commodious carriages are gradually taking the place of the smaller ones, and there is a marked increase in the application of the bogie principle, which does well, and makes an easy running carriage when properly constructed. 132 NATURE [DeceMBER 8, 1892 ‘‘ Long carriages,” said Mr. Dundas, ‘‘ cannot be built to go round ordinary curves without either a bogie or radial axle ; and between the two experience leaves very little doubt as to which is the better. The radial axle is an awkward arrange- ment, and does not act with the same smoothness as a well- constructed bogie with properly balanced springs to regulate its motion, and a bogie of short wheel base is not so good as a long one; the wheel base should always be more than the gauge to produce good results. There is no better test to determine what is good or bad in rolling stock than the effect on the permanent way.” A VALUABLE paper on the copper resources of the United States, read by Mr. James Douglas before the Society of Arts on November 30, is printed in the current number of the Society’s journal. Mr. Douglas notes that though for many years no new copper mine has been opened, the larger and richer ones, which have been able to maintain existence in the face of depressed prices, are directing their efforts, not so much towards increas- ing their capacity for production as towards reducing the cost of reduction, saving, as far as possible, the precious metals asso- ciated with their ores, and securing for themselves the profits which have heretofore been made by the refining companies, to whom they sold their furnace material. ‘‘ The effect of this change of policy,” said Mr. Douglas, ‘‘ may tell upon the mar- ket. It certainly will affect the copper refineries of this country and the continent. It would seem, therefore, that the era of rapid expansion is drawing to its close, and a healthier one of economical treatment is being inaugurated. The demand for copper is so great, that; if this policy be pursued by the large existing mines, there will be room for the appearance of new competitors, without imminent risk of over-production.” Mr. W. J. L. ABBoTt contributes to the new instalment of the Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association an interesting note on the occurrence of walrus in the Thames valley. Z7zche- chus rosmarus, Linn., has been recorded from several places on the east coast, from the Dogger Bank, and from the peat near Ely. In the Thames valley it was discovered at a depth of 33 feet 2 inches during the excavations for the new London Docks. It was, however, considered to have ‘‘tumbled down from above,” and so was passed by. In 1888 Mr. Abbott saw a tusk taken out of the gravel in the course of excavations for a wharf in Upper Thames-street ; it was associated with bones of pachyderms. Although he felt sure of its identity, he was unable to procure the specimen, probably because his eagerness to obtain it manifested itself to the workman, who immediately affected that he would not part with it. Not long afterwards, in an excavation between Leadenhall and Fenchurch streets a number of bones were taken out of the gravel which underlies the peat, which in turn underlies the Roman layer. The upper part of the gravel is stained somewhat by the peat, as are the contained bones. Amongst the latter there was a large part of the skull of a walrus, with one tooth still left 2 sz/z, the others having been destroyed in the rough usage to which it had been submitted in bygone times. The state of preservation is seen to be exactly similar to that of the other bones found with it; while its position, Mr. Abbott thinks, leaves no question as to its Pleistocene age. He holds therefore that in future Trichechus rosmarus should be added to the Thames valley fauna, AT the meeting of the chemical section of th: Franklin Institute on October 18, Mr. Palmer read a note on a lilac colour from extract of chestnut. He said that in experiment- ing with a commercial extract of chestnut wood, with the idea of making galloflavine therefrom, he had obtained an unlooked- for result. The extract was somewhat fermented; that is a pat of the tannin had been changed into gallic acid ; and the NO. 1206, VOL. 47 | design was to convert this gallic acid into galloflavine by the usual method. A solution of the 51° extract was made strongly alkaline with potash, and subjected to the action of astream of air for about ten hours. below 50° F. At the end of the period of oxidation the potash was neutralized with acetic acid. The solution so obtained was tested for galloflavine by working therein cotton and wool yarns with the addition of potash alum. obtained, a clear, bright lilac was developed on both the animal and the vegetable fibre. The body giving this colour has not as yet been separated from the oxidized extract. A BOOK entitled ‘‘Mind and Matter: an Argument on Theism,” by the Rev. James Tait, of Montreal, has been so well received that a third edition, revised and enlarged, has just been issued (London: C. Griffin and Co.). Whatever may be said of Mr. Tait’s theology, he has a good deal to Jearn as to the temper in which the consideration of scientific problems should be approached. It seems a little foolish, at this time of day, to talk about the ‘‘horrible plaudits ” whies ‘‘have ac- companied every effort to establish man’s brutal descent.” A PAPER embodying various suggestions to travellers was read at the June meeting of the Queensland branch of the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia by Mr. J. P. Thomson, the honorary secretary of the Society. The paper, revised and enlarged, has now been reprinted from the Society’s ‘‘ Pro- ceedings and Transactions.” Tue Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge has issued a new edition of ‘* Sinai: from the Fourth Egyptian Dynasty to the Present Day,” by the late Major H. S. Palmer. ‘The little book has been revised throughout by Prof. Sayce. Messrs, NEWTON & Co. have issued a catalogue of science lanterns, magic lanterns, dissolving view apparatus, and la slides, manufactured and sold by them. The catalogue is ac- ai companied by a supplementary list for season 1892-93. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Lesser White-nosed Monkey (Cercopithecus petaurista $) from West Africa, presented by Mr. W. H. Henniker ; two Great Kangaroos (Macropus giganteus 2 2) . from Australia, presented by Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott, J.P., F.Z.S.; a Common Chameleon (Chameleon vulgaris) from North Africa, presented by Miss ‘Iruefitt; a Sykes’s Monkey (Cercopithecus albiguiaris 9) from West inde deposited. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet HoLMEs (NOVEMBER 6, 1892).—Computations of the orbit of this comet show now that it is an elliptic one, the period extending to 6°78 years, very nearly the same as that of Wolf Comet, 1884 III. -1891 II. The time of perihelion occurred on June 20°7357 of this year, and the comet’s orbit may be mentioned as lying wholly between those of the planets Jupiter and Mars. The following elements and ephemeris are due to Mr. A. Berberich, and are derived from observations made on Nov- ember 9 (Karlsruhe), November 18 (Hamburg), and November 25 (Berlin) :— Elements. Epoch 1892, November 25'5 Berlin M.T. M = 22 56 3°6 m-Q = 18 12 14°8 QB = 331 4 23'2 > Mean Equator, 1892.0 € s'2030: 38:8 ¢ = 23 9 06 = 523'°335 log @ = O'554151 The temperature, meantime, was kept While no yellow colour was — yaad son te Yu - on the surface of Mars. ; this rapid DeceMBer 8, 1892] a Ephemeris. Berlin Midnight. Binet A. Decl. Log 4. Log ». : ¥8q2. h <4 eat J . ™ Dec. 8 © 45 33 +35 23°6 0'2580 0°3958 eo 46 3 35 18°4 10 46 34... 35 13°4 I .. Biahnee, > 3S 9°5 ae per iY ae 25. 8°97 0°2696 0°3981 13+... 48.17 34 59°0 1 «= 4855 -- 34 54'4 15 «= 49:34 34 50°0 A New Comet (Brooks, NOVEMBER 20).—On the evening November 20 a telegram was received at Kiel announcing the discovery of a new comet by brooks on November 20. Its sition on November 20°875, Greenwich M.T. was given as A. 12h: 57m. 40s., Decl. + 13° 25’. Its physical appearance was described as ‘‘ circular, diameter equal to 1’, brighter than a third magnitude star, some eccentric condensation, no tail.” _ From observations made on November 21, 24, and 26, Prof. e Kreutz has found the following elements and ephemeris, which _ has been communicated by a Kiel circular post-card :— rei es ake ati Elements, T = 1893, January 6°953, Berlin M.T. ie w = 84 24°5 #2 ; Q = 185 10°7 Bi 2 = 143 18°6 hah hos logg = 008130 a Ephemeris, 12h. Berlin M.T. ‘. “figs. habe R a App. Decl. Log A. br. Eg a » m. ‘ eee... £3 28 54 +24 18°5 00876 2°3 (Sa w=, 13' 39 55 28 20°5 0°0449 2°9 ina. Fa 54 6 33 171 okererest 3°7 te oats ua ae 33 17 39 19°3 .. 99550 ... 4°6 Ce os Oh At 4 et: . .OG826. 2. 5°7 A New oe covered ed by Mr. Freeman is now supposed most probably to be a nebula _ Tue CHANNELS OF Mars.—In our Astronomical Column for November 17 we referred to the most recent hypotheses that had been put forward with respect to the doubling of the channels ‘the Another suggestion has lately come under our notice, and this, although explaining the phenomena \ in quite a different way, has a point or two in its favour. This explanation appeared in the Shanghai Mercury on October 14, and was written by Mr. T. W. Kingsmill, the following being a brief summary of the main points :— _ As Mars revolves round the sun, under the rule of gravitation, she must have tides on her surface, and since her moons are not sufficiently large to cause any sensible rise, her tides must be mostly solar. Now the best views we have of this planet is when he is in opposition, that is when we are interposed ‘between him and the sun, so that we should always see him best at high tide. The writer then makes rather a strong point t eccentricity of the orbit of Mars, and the conse- quent heavy fall which he makes when plunging towards the sun. Situated further from the sun than we are, Mars of course must be reckoned as an older member of our system, and since he is smaller than our earth, it is only natural that his surface crust would be thicker than ours. Granting this then the in- ternal pulp would not have such a power to compensate for hil, as our earth does internally, for there would not be much of it, so that an external compensation, assuming the crust to be too thick to alter its form, would have to take place at the surface. On the surface of course the water is the only available power, therefore we should expect, to put it in Mr. _ Kingsmill’s own words, ‘‘that the water in the ocean would be projected into the Martial hemispheres, and as the planet a ed the sun, solar tides would sweep round the planet ; that the canals should sometimes appear and sometimes be duplicated . . . . is only what 4 priori might be anticipated.” Those interested in this question wi!l be glad to hear that M. Stanislas Meunier (Comptes rendus for November 21, No. 21) has been continuing his experiments on this subject, which we referred to a fortnightago. He finds now that by employing a metallic sphere instead of a polished mirror, and covering its surface with the veil as he did his former experiments the NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE | University. results are more striking, and bring out more clearly the pheno- mena really observed on the planet’s surface. ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHyYsSICS.—The November number of Astronomy and Astrophysics, among many of its interesting articles contains one by Prof. Pickering on the lunar atmo- sphere, which will be read with much interest. Accompanying the article is an illustration of the recent occultation of Jupiter, at which time a dark band tangent to the moon’s surface but on the planet was both observed and photographed. Prof. Coakley writes on the ‘‘ Probable origin of Meteorites,” the conclusions which he draws referring their origin to prehistoric lunar eruptions. rof, Hale, in addition to several articles on solar physics, describes generally the proposed new giant Chicago refractor, and from all accounts the observatory when finished and ready for work will be operated by simply, pressing buttons; the observing chair will be entirely eliminated, the floor of the observatory, capable of motion in the vertical direction, serving the purpose. Mr. W. W. Campbell gives rather a lengthy account of his observations on the spectrum of the late Nova, and the result may be summed up in the words, ‘‘ While the hypothesis of two bodies quite generally satisfies the observa- tions, and has the further very great advantage of simplicity, there are a few not unimportant points furnished by the photo- graphs which favour the existence of three or four bodies, two or three yielding bright line spectra and one a dark line spectrum,” A New OsservaTory,—M. S. de Glasenapp recently announced to the French Academy of Sciences that a new astro- nomical observatory has been erected at Abastouman, in the government of Tiflis. The observatory has been called Géor- gieioskaja, in honour of its founder, and it is situated at a height of 1393 metres above the level of the sea, its terrestrial co-ordi- nates being latitude + 41° 45’ 43” longitude, east of Paris 2h. 41m. 58°5s. At present it is provisionally supplied with a refractor of about nine inches belonging to the St. Petersburg Work has already bcen begun, and from all accounts the situation seems to be most favourable, many double Stars measures having been obtained, which in ordinary circum- stances are accounted very difficult objects with such an aper- ture. ‘Le observatory was opened on August 23 of this year. and up to November 5 as many as 4co double stars have been measured,,omitting observations of the total lunar eclipse and of some phenomena of Jupiter’s satellites. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. Dr. Karu DIENER has returned to Vienna from his geological expedition in the Himalayas, which has resulted in important additions to the data available for a geological description of the great mountain system. In June the expedition commenced work in North Kumaon, crossiug the Utadurrha Pass (17,600 feet), and after more than three months spent amongst the border ranges of Tibet, returned to India by the valley of Alaknanda. For a month the party never camped at a less height than 14,500 feet, and the highest summit reached was over 19,000 feet. Dr. NANSEN is threatened with a serious rival in Lieutenant Peary, who has obtained leave from the United States Navy for three years to be spent in Arctic exploration. The base of his projected journey would be the farthest point reached by him on his recent journey in Greenland, and “an incidental object ” would be to reach the pole by travelling over the frozen surface of the sea which he believes to surround it. FRIEDRICH HELLER VON HELLWALD, well known asa writer on geography and ethnology, died on November 1, aged fifty years. He was born at Padua, and grew up with an equal knowledge of German and Italian, a fact to which much of his ultimate success as an author may have been due. He was an officer in the Austrian army, but devoted most of his time to historical research and literary work. His earliest work, ‘* Amerikanische Volkerwanderung,” appeared when he was twenty-four years of age, and later he wiote on the Russians in Central Asia, the native people of various parts of Asia, the history of civilization, and other subjects. His ‘‘ Die Erde und ihre Volker” formed the basis of Stanford’s ‘‘ Compendium of Geography and Travel.” For many years Hellwald edited the geographical journal Das Ausland, Caprain H. L. GALLWEY, vice-consul for the Oil Rivers Protectorate, gave, at the meeting of the Royal Geographical Society on Monday, a detailed account of his travels in the Benin country, of which notice has already been taken in this column (vol. xlvi. p. 65). The fact that some of the deltaic streams are clear and transparent, while the Niger water is very muddy, makes it probable that they are small independent rivers. An account of a visit to Benin city gives some idea of the decadence of native West Africa since the time of the early writers on the region, if these were to be trusted. Mr. E. WILKINSON read a paper on the Kalahari desert, at the same meeting. It described a waggon drive through part of the desert area in company with two others, whose names were disguised under initials. Although great scarcity of surface- water was found, and the draught oxen and horses had some- times to be watered from ‘‘ sucking holes,” where natives sucked up the water and filled the buckets from their mouths, the land was fairly well grassed in most parts, and Mr. Wilkinson believes it possible that it may subsequently become useful for grazing. A rough geological survey of the district passed over was made. Granite covered a large part of the surface, and appears to be the bed-rock of the whole district examined. Hard crystalline siliceo-calcareous beds and highly-altered ferruginous shales, as well as quartzite were also found, but vast accumu- lations of blown sand masked the true geological structure in almost every place. THE Geographical Society of California claims to have achieved ‘‘ an immense success.”’ The Society was incorporated on December 11, 1891, for ‘‘ the acquisition and dissernination of scientific geographical knowledge,” and has already achieved a membership of 400. Monthly lectures have been given, anda bulletin has heen published. We hope that a society which has begun so well will fulfil the Latin proverb which it has adopted for its motto, ‘* Vires acguirtit eundo.” THE ANNIVERSARY DINNER OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY. ‘THE anniversary dinner of the Royal Society was held on the evening of St. Andrew’s Day at the Hotel Métropole. It was more largely attended than any previous anniversary dinner, covers being laid for about 230. The chair was occupied by the President, Lord Kelvin. Ou his right were Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, M.P., Sir James Paget, the Italian Ambassador, Prof. Raoult (medallist), Sir Hl. Ro-coe, M.P., Sir James Lister, Lord Justice Lindley, Sir B. Samuelson, Sir A. Moncrieff, Sir U. Kay -Sbuttleworth, M.P., Sir C. E. Bernard, the Dean of St. Paul’s, Mr. John Hutton, and Sir H. Acland. On the left of the chair were Mr. Arthur Acland, M.P., Prof. Huxley, Mr. James Bryce, M.P., the Swedish Minister, Lord Ashbourne, Sir G. Stokes, the Treasurer of the Society (Sir John Evans), Mr. Alma Tadema, Sir R. E. Welby, Mr. Herbert Gardner, M.P., Sir Godfrey Lushington, Mr. Bryant, and Dr. Mackenzie. The vice-chairs were occupied by Sir B. Baker, Prof. Roberts-Austen, Loid Rayleigh, Prof. M. Foster, Sir A. Geikie, Mr. Norman Lockyer, Dr. Pye-Smith, Prof. Vines, and Mr. Rix (assistant secretary). The first toasts were ‘‘The Queen and the Prince and Princess of Wales,” and ‘‘ Her Majesty’s Ministers and the Members of the Legislature.” Mr. Shaw-Lefevre, in the course of his reply to the latter, said that men of science a; a rule were unwilling to abandon the quiet fields of research in order to launch on the stormy seas of politics ; and if they were willing, they were too philosophical to swallow the creeds of either political party. He thought that the two older Universities might help in this matter, and do more to justify their right of representation by emulating the example of the London University in returning men of science to Parliament. If there was any man in the country whose presence in the House of Commons would add to its quality and power, it was Prof. Huxley. Mr. Acland, in proposing the next toast, said,—I have to propose to those who are here present, and who do not bear the title of “‘F.R.S.,” the toast of ‘The Royal Society ”—a society ancient, independent, distinguished, and most beneficent in its operations duiing a course of more than two centuries. Why I, a mere politician, have been selected to propose this toast Ido not know. In looking over a list of the late proceed- ings of your society a day or two ago, I tried to discover some links between yourselves and the Education Department, over NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE ‘selves real benefactors of mankind.” [DecemBeEr 8, 1892 which I preside. I came across the words, ‘‘ On character and behaviour,” and I thought that that looked like the kind of language which we employ in our instructions to her Majesty’s inspectors of schools. But it was not so. The subject to which the words had reference was ‘‘on the character and behaviour of the wandering cells of the frog, especially in relation to micro-organisms.” I feel that I must fall back upon some more substantial links than that, and I fall back upon the fact that I have the honour to preside over certain institutions in which members of your society are engaged. There is the Dean of the Royal College of Science at Kensington, Prof. Huxley; and your foreign secretary, Sir Archibald Geikie ; and, altogether, including those who examine for us from time to time, there are something like thirty members of the Royal Society who are connected with those insti'utions, and I con- sider it a very high honour to be linked with institutions with which they are connected. Whether some of my friends at Kensington look on their connection with the State in the same light, I do not know. When I have the honour of going over the laboratories of my friends, Prof. Thorpe and Prof. Riicker, I am inclined to doubt it. with the State goes, the Royal Society do most admirable service. They act as unpaid judges. for the administration of a sum of £4,000, which the State would find it very difficult to administer on its own account; and they do the work in so impartial and admirable a manner that no man in his senses could complain. There is one other link between us. There are present here a large number of men who are interested in the work of education; and I think they will agree with me that we have one great task before us. Between the Universities and the University Colleges with which most of them are connected and the great sphere of elementary edu- cation there lies a large region, at present unorganized and chaotic, which we want to organize and bring into working order as soon as possible. There are many men of science in these colleges who often greatly regret to find willing lads, with the highest scientific capacity, brought under their notice and care, whose only lack is a lack of adeqvate educational prepara- tion for their work. It is that which we want to remedy, andif I~ am enabled to take however humble a share in remedying it, I shall be proud of the task. wastes is the waste of intellect. For those lads who go to our colleges in every part of Great Britain and Ireland we want to hold out one great possible goal—the blue riband of science— the title of Fellow of the Royal Society. You at any rate in your scientific honours have no distinction of class, and, as your medallists to-day will testify, no distinction between one country | and another. You regard all as equal when you adjudge your honours to the fittest men to bear them. I connect with this toast the name of your distinguished President, Lord Kelvin. It was tiuly said some nine years ago, when his claims were urged for the Copley Medal, ‘* there is scarcely a branch of ph. science to the substantive advant:ge of which he has not con- tributed” ; and I understand that while he has touched both the. highest and the most abstruse subjects, he has not failed to con- descend even to humble matters like the domestic water-tap. Among those of you who know far better than I do what Lord Kelvin has done, both for abstruse science and for the welfare of mankind, there can be no limit as to the value of his work to future generations. I am sure that he himself cannot possibly say how great the value of what he has done may be in the far- off future. But I understand from Sir Archibald Geikie that your president has attempted to put a limit to the in- quiries of the geologists, when they look into the backward past. He has definitely said that in looking back- wards they must not go beyond the moderate limit of twenty million years. I understand that this is a grievance on the part of the geologists, but I hope that the President will not give unnecessary pain to his geological friends. In the draft of the “preamble of your charter—it was drafted by Sir Christopher Wren—it was said Fellows of the Royal Society, by ‘‘ their labours in the disquisition of nature, would try to prove them- I give’ you the toast of ‘* The Royal Society,” coupled with the name of Lord Kelvin, and I assert that your present President has done his part in proving himself a benefactor of mankind. . i The Chairman, in replying, said,—I thank you very newts for the kind manner in which you have received this toast. feel the honour you do me, but I also feel my incapacity to say But as far as the present connection We want to engage in the task of the reclamation of waste; and one of the most serious of all | ‘es ought to be said for so great an institution. _ the impro “that tthe important duty, the publication of their proceed ings for Fr ae eee: Fe : ings Be FT "Royal foaled 5 from the subjects of oar every-day work, is a stimulus which is of the highest value. ; on paeny doing goes back to his work with something which constitutes so much of the delight of life. “not. - DECEMBER 8, 1892] NATURE 143 I can only say in. my own way that I believe the Royal Society, as an institution, has up to the present time persevered in well-doing, and had been successful in its efforts. The Royal Society has certainly endeavoured to carry out the objects of its institution—namely, to inquire into natural knowledge and vement of it. The mode of carrying out that object wears considered, no doubt, by those who founded the 3 and they determined to hold regular meetings, a sconwis of the character of a debating society-— : discussions could be raised by questions pre- | the truth arrived at thereby. That object has been the inception of the Society to the present day ; ect has heen imitated by other societies over a large pa the civilized world. Indeed, the Royal Society self only followed in the path of other learned societies in Tealy. which had determined that by personal discussion onanen ions in regu lar meetings truth might be arrivedat which ‘be lost. We often find complaints that meetings ific societies are unsatisfactory. We have even complaints of the world, is not altogether ideally perfect. Some the s of science above all, and heartily wish ; Boal Royal Society, think that the ‘society ought to be _ a body for merely recording and indexing the work that has been done all over the world. That is a part of the work of the aoe which is not neglected. The council has had most mae Serene, careful, and laborious consultations from year to ar with reference to this work—not only as to the publication Piek eanactions and proceedings, but as to the catalogu- ® ing and indexing of the proceedings of scientific bodies and workers all over the world. One very important part i of the work of the Esooety consists of the cataloguing of all werk aon publi 3,and a very dry and fatiguing subject is to wor The difficulty here is emdarras de richesses, the la nie of these papers is itself a truly Herculean Royal Society had not only capacity, but had also rreat. ' it would make short work of this task. _ wol " not a cal index, it would publish the papers: and id put them in such a form that any one could find ticular subject at once, and_ the particular id page in which it was treated. This is an ex- difficult subject, but the first necessity is funds, and fe supplied all the rest would follow. The publish- ing, however, is not the only work of the society. an of its work is in its meetings and discussions, sever has not felt the stimulus of attending those meet- ardly yet found out the spirit of scientific enquiry. say the fact that we can attend meetings of the and hear papers on subjects very far removed The worker who has heard what other yee in it, which, at any rate, brightens his life, and drudgery and heavy work necessary for success in speatienshic investigation less irksome and dry. For myself I to oy: that my connexion with the Royal Society, extending t many years, has been one of unmixed benefit and are, and has given to me some of the happiest of those s of knowledge and memory the possession of which Mr. Acland ‘remarked upon my having been hard upon the geolo- gists. I hg not think that I have actually been so. I do in one science for the mathematician, another for the t for the physicist, and another for the geologist. All pi ca is one science ; and any part of science which places itself outside the pale of the other sciences ceases for the time being to be ascience. The sooner it returns to the pale of the other sciences the better ; and when all are working for a com- mgn goed the better it will be for the progress of each. , in proposing the next toast, said that he had to discourse on t e merits of the gentlemen to whom medals had been awarded, There was one the adequate treatment of whose _ merits would occupy the whole available time; and yet Mr. Sha v-Lefevre wished him to say something about his capacity to become a legislator and also to give an opinion upon geo- _ logical time. He would answer the first interrogation by telling a story. When he was a very young man a solicitor in large practice discovered in him what that gentleman believed qualities that would command success at the Bar, which he had never discovered NO. 1206, VOL. 47 | himself, and proposed to advance him an income for a certain number of years until he could pay the amount back out of the fees he was sure to earn. He was sorry to say his reply was this, ‘So far as I understand myself, my faculties are so entirely confined to the discovery of truth that I have no sort of power of obscuring it.” With regard to political life, the absolute contradictions that were made by politicians of opposite sides upon matters of fact were absolutely fatal to his chances ina political career. Coming to the subject of the toast, he narrated the history of the Copley medal. A bequest of £100 was left to the Society 188 years ago by Godfrey Copley, a Fellow of the Society, for improving natural knowledge. The medal was thrown open to all the world, a step much disapproved by certain narrow-minded persons at the time ; bat that step was the real reason why, a century later, Sir Humphry Davy could really call it ‘*the ancient olive crown of the society.”” The value of the medal was originally fixed at 45, people being able to get five per cent. for their money in those halcyon days. He did not like to dwell upon its appre- ciation now lest the County Council should put in a claim for unearned increment. The medal had certainly done nothing for itself ; the appreciation of its value had arisen entirely from surrounding circumstances, the chief being the wisdom and integrity of some eighty successive councils, A complete list of the awards was published every year. Going back one hundred years from 1887—he had a reason for not taking a later date— the century began with John Hunter, and finished with Joseph Hooker. Between them was a galaxy of the heroes of science, French, German, Scandinavian, Italian, American, and English ; and, although one star might differ from another star in glory, none was unworthy of its place in the constellation. The present council had not fallen below the standard of its pre- decessors ; there was no biologist, no scientific physician, no anthropologist, no archzologist to whom the name of the illustrious Rector of the University of Berlin, Rudolph Virchow, .was not familiar. No one had done more to put pathology on a scientific foundation; no -one had done more for critical anthropology, especially in con- nection with archzology. Without venturing on the dangerous field of politics, he would add that these merits were, to his mind, greatly enhanced by the fact that Virchow had never merged the citizen in the philosopher, but amidst great difficul- ties and with undaunted courage, he had taken an active, a disinterested, and a thoroughly independent course in the Legislature of his country. The next medal in order of age was that founded by Count Rumford at the commencement of this century, on equally cosmopolitan principles, but limited in scope to the physico-chemical sciences. In these sciences hardly anything had attracted popular attention more of recent years than the marvellous power which spectroscopy had placed in our hands to discern the chemical composition of bodies which were millions and billions of miles away; and, for anything we knew to the contrary, these minute and careful inquiries into the constitution of stars might be fost-mortem examinations. In the accurate examination of stars by the spectroscope, he understood from others that Dr. Dunér, of Sweden, had laid secure foundations for all future investiga- tions. The Royal medals were founded by the Sovereign some sixty-odd years ago, were now maintained by her Majesty, and were confined to-British subjects. There were two medals every year, and they were usually allotted one to physical and chemical science, and the other to biological science. They were usually given to younger men; and it was so in his own case forty years ago. The value of the medal was inexpressible to him. In his younger days, if a man took to science, it was thought he was going to the bad. The receipt of the medal made an entire revolution in the minds of his friends ; and he was a respectable person from that time. On the present occasion the first of these medals was awarded to the present ‘Director of the Astronomical Observatory in Oxford, Prof, Pritchard, and he was told that there was no observatory in the three kingdoms i in which so much admirable work otf observation was being done. Only ashort time agothe Royal Astronomical Society awarded its gold medal to the Director of the Oxford Observatory. He was further told that the director was tack- ling what he understood was one of the most difficult pieces of astronomical work—parallax determination ; and that he had already printed off more stars than anybody else. Besides this, he was hard at work on the great international chart of the heavens. It was obvious that this gentleman must be in the 136 full vigour of youthful energy, and therefore ‘he treated with contempt a rumour that had reached him that the direcior was in his eighty-fourth year. They would join with him in wishing Prof. Pritchard a long continuance of the health and strength. which were turned to such splendid account. The second of these medals was awarded to Dr. Langley, of the University of Cambridge, for the long-continued and very valuable physiolo- gical researches. There was a familiar phenomenon observable before sitting down to dinner, and known as watering of the mouth. If it were possible to determine the exact condition of that operation in physiology the exact knowledge would be a key to an immense range of the secrets of Nature.- It was these problems that Dr. Langley had been investigating, and he had come nearer to their solution than any one else. The Davy medal was awarded to adistinguished French savant, M. Raoult, whose work was considered of the highest importance ; and he rejoiced that the recipient of the medal was present. “Che Dar- win medal was instituted in honour of one of his best and dearest friends, and it was now conferred upon a man who was one of the stanchest friends he had had for the last forty years. He might fairly appeal to Sir Joseph Hooker’s present activity, put him down also among the young men, and thereby save the credit of the council in the matter of its own regulation. To those who knew the ‘‘ Life and Letters of Darwin,” talk about Sir Joseph Hooker’s right to the Darwin medal was as futile as the attempt to judge Manlius in sight of the Capitol. He knew no more remarkable example of life-long devotion, of stores of informa- tion laid open, of useful criticism, and of still more useful en- couragement, by one man to another, than that exhibited by Sir Joseph Hooker in this picture. It might be that even the man whose motto was ‘It’s dogged as does it,” and who so pa- tiently laboured for half a lifetime at the great fabric of the origin of species, might have fainted by the way without this friend’s aid. And assuredly Hooker’s great study of geogra- phical distribution was a most important factor in Darwin’s work. it lay in the eternal fitness of things that Wallace and Hooker should receive the Darwin medal ; and that these old young-men should give it a heightened value for the young young-men to whom it would hereaiter pass. Prof. Raoult returned thanks, speaking in French. Dr. Langley responded for the other medallists and himself. Sir James Paget briefly proposed ‘‘ The’Guests.” The Swedish Minister, in responding, said—The honour to be your guest and to participate with you in the celebration of this interesting day cannot be more thankfully felt than by me, who still has to consider this favour, above all, as a compliment to the country where you have selected this year your Rumford medallist. This distinction to my fellow-countryman, Prof. Dunér, whose meiits Prof. Huxley has so eloquently explained to you, is a new link in the long chain of tokens of sympathy and appreciation from this society to scientific Scandinavians, a chain of which one of the oldest links is the creation of the Linnean Society. More than ahundred years have passed since, and in the meantime many systems have been altered; and, especially in the last twenty years, those alterations have so closely followed the one upon the other that we laymen have been accustomed to believe we were entitled toask every new morning, ‘‘ What great discovery will this day bring?” In one department, how- ever, scientific men as well as laymen cannot admit the possi- bility of any alteration, and that is in our conyjction and belief that this country occupies a prominent place in the universal scientific movement—a proof of which, among many others, is the fact that no other institution in the world encourages as much as does this society other countries’ scientific researches. Mr. Alma-Tadema also responded, remarking in the course of his speech that there was no art without science, neither was there any science withcut art: and that art coloured life as the sun colours the flowers of nature. AZOIMIDE. FURTHER communication concerning azoimide, the interest- ing compound of hydrogenand nitrogen, N3H, discovered two years ago by Prof. Curtius, 1s contributed to the current number of the Berichte by Drs. Noelting and Grandmougin of Miilhausen, in conjunction with Herr QO, Michel. As described in our note of vol. xliv. p. 600, Drs. Noelting and Grandmougin have pre- viously shown that azoimide may be obtained by indirect means NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE [ DEcEMBER 8, 1892 from the singular compound prepared somewhere about the year a 1866 by the late Dr. Peter Griess, and which has hitherto been N : known as diazobenzene imide, CoHy—NC I. This com- N ape pound is now recognised as the pheny] ester of azoimide, It is, however, a substance of very considerable stability, and suecess- _ fully resists the attack of concentrated alcoholic potash, even under pressure. Alihough thus stoutly resisting direct attack, Drs. Noelting and Grandmougin have shown that by under- mining its constitution by the introduction of a couple of nitro groups in the place of two hydrogen atoms, it becomes weakened so greatly as to be no longer capable of withstanding the action of the alkali, and is decomposed with production of the potassium salts of azoimide and dinitro-phenol— _~ This interesting result is now supplemented by showing that it is not necessary to introduce ¢wo nitro groups in order to render diazobenzene imide sufficientiy negative in character as to be susceptible to the attack of alcoholic potash, that o#e such group suffices, provided it be introduced in the para or ortho position. A nitro group introduced in the meta position appears to exert much less weakening power, quite inadequate for the purpose. N=N i an me N Para nitro diazobenzene imide, () , isa substance crystalliz- a ad NO, ; ing well in colourless tabular crystals. When these crystals are allowed to fall slowly into a cold solution of one part of caustic potash in ten parts of absolute alcohol, they instantly dissolve and the liquid becomes coloured adeepred. If this red solution is warmed for a couple of days over a water bath, and the larger portion of the alcohol subsequently distilled off, upon acidifica- tion of the residue with dilute sulphuric acid, and again dis- tilling, azoimide, N,H, passes over along with the vapours of water and alcohol. In order to free the azoimide from alcohol it is only necessary to neutralize the distillate with soda, and evaporate the solution to dryness, when the sodium salt of azoimide, N,Na, is obtained ; the sodium salt is then dissolved in water, the solution acidified with sulphuric acid, and sub- jécted to distillation, when an aqueous solution of azoimide is obtained. The yield of azoimide is usually only about 40 per: cent. of the theoretical, owing to secondary reactions which occur simultaneously with the main one. The ortho compound, N=N 7 N rate S, to the extent of about 30 per cent. A very much larger yield, about 85 per cent., is afforded by the dibrom derivative of N=N +7 N No.’ treated in a similar manner, also furnishes azoimide ‘ the para compound, Br ( ) Br, a substance which is readily rg NO, ; obtained in the form of long colourless prisms. Azoimide has also been obtained to the extent of 30 per cent. of the theoretical amount by the decomposition of a nitro toluene derivative of — N=N . . THE NEW STAR IN THE CONSTELLATION / ’ December 8, 1892] OF AURIGA. ‘THE appearances which the new star has presented were * exceedingly remarkable, and observations, both spectro- scopic and photometric, were far more numerous than have been ained during former occurrences of this kind. The latter have been sufficient to establish the unsuitability of several explanations which have been sspersed with regard to former new stars, suggestions which at the time appeared more or less plausible. On the other hand, however, it is very difficult to establish, from the publications of observers up to the present time, all details required for a general proof of a definite hypothesis, It appears to me appro- priate to suggest a new attempt at explanation, which seems to an ever than others with the principal results of observa- tion, the final tests of which hypothesis: must, however, for the present remain a matter for the future. But if this attempt should in the present instance meet with difficulties—a case which I admit to be possible, if not probable—it yet deserves a some- what more detailed explanation, because it thoroughly takes 4 account of, as I believe, possible conditions, and therefore contains a possible hypothesis with regard to the ap- earances of certain new stars. In the following remarks I shall strictly adhere to the facts which are to be considered, according to the statements of the observers, as the result of their observations, whereas a proof of the latter is beyond the limit of this article. I may here mention that I have already eouponed he most essential of the following remarks in March of the present year.” The chief results of observations, which may be said to con- _ tain the characteristics of all the appearances, are :— a 1. According to Herrn Lindeman ® the light-curve of the Nova presented the following appearances :— _ “From February 1 to 3 the photometric curve rises quickly to a bri of 4.7m., then gradually sinks till February 13, and then quicker until February 16 to 5.8m., reaches a second ‘maximum of 5.14m. on February 18, has a second minimum on February 23, likewise of 5.8m., and then a third maximum on March 2 again of 5.4m., upon which it sinks till March 6, slowly at first, and then quicker, in a straight line till March 22 down to 23. I may here add that from the photographs taken at Harvard College, it was possible to show that the star ; e visible from the beginning of December, 1891, that already in the period of time December 20-22 it showed a aximum of‘brightness which reached almost, but apparently ‘not entirely, a maximum on February 3. _2. The spectrum of the Nova was most remarkable. Prof. Vogel, in summing up the results obtained at Potsdam, r) tes :— ; ©The observations have led to the exceedingly interesting result that the spectrum of the Nova consists of two superposed _ Spectra, and that a number of lines, especially those of hydro- gen, which appear bright in one spectrum and dark in the other, are closely adjacent to one another. This fact admits of hardly any other explanation than the presence of two bodies, the component motions of which in the line of sight are very siderable, . . . The bodies separate from one another with a relative velocity which during four weeks’ observations (in February) suffered no appreciable change, and which amounted to at least 120 miles per second.” It may be further added © that among the very broadened bright lines there were noted “several intensity maxima, two being especially stiiking. _ It has been suggested as an explanation of the facts of observa- tion that two heavenly bodies have passed very close by one another, and that thus changes in their atmospheres have arisen which have caused the sudden brightening up of the bodies. The above hypothesis is, however, in this form too vague to be fol- lowed in detail. In reverting to an idea of Klinkerfues, it is true that a more distinct picture of the whole occurrence has been drawn, by assuming tidal effects of the two bodies upon each other: in this manner where the tidal crests of the atmo- sphere appear, there the darkenings take place by absorption, and where the ebb predominates a brightening is the result, t Translation of an article by H. Seelinger, in Astronomische Nach- vichten (No. a 18),. 2 “On a General Problem of the Mechanics of the Heavens,’’ p. 23. (Miinchen, 1892.) 3 Astr. Nach., No. 3094. 4 Viertel, jahrsschrift der Astr. Geselisch., Band 27, p. 141. 3 Astr. Nachr., 3079, p. 110. NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE 137 because here the absorbing strata of the atmospheres are less powerful. It must be mentioned, however, that the statical theory of Ebb and Flow that has been applied is altogether inappropriate to give an idea of the deformations which doubt- lessly occur at such a near proximity. The effect of the two heavenly bodies on each other in Nova Aurigz, as is still to be shown, would have to be one that is almost always suddenly appearing anit immediately afterwards vanishing. Moreover it must not be overlooked, that with incandescent bodies their atmospheres must be regarded as outward shells which quite gradually emerge into denser strata, while these also are deformed in a lesser degree. In other respects, too, it will be difficult to explain the appearances of a new star as a consequence only of the effects of absorption of atmospheres. It has also been assumed for the most part that besides these (absorptions), eruptions of gas from the centre of the body take place. This assumption, it is true, contains nothing impos- sible, but without a definite form it hardly admits of discussion. At all events it will be necessary to suggest further hypotheses in order to apply this attempt at explanation to single cases. Moreover, it remains yet unexplained why in Nova Aurigz the one spectrum is chiefly an absorption spectrum and the other a gas spectrum. By special assumptions this difficulty can be certainly eliminated, but it is not very probable that on this account confidence can be placed in the correctness of the hypothesis. Other facts appear, however, in the case of Nova Aurige which do not speak in favour of this hypothesis, however generally it may be expressed. It is at least very striking that just in this case such enormously great velocities of cosmical bodies appear, such as have hitherto not been found anywhere else. The occurrences of these velocities must therefore be numbered among the facts to be explained. Further on formulz will be given from which, at least to a certain degree, the mechanical conditions of the close approach of two bodies can be computed. From this it follows that in the case of Nova Aurige the two bodies can describe a parabola round each other only if their masses are much larger than 15,000 times the sun’s mass. For a hyper- bolic movement one can obtain an essentially smaller value of the mass, by assuming that the enormous relative velocity of 120 miles observed has been ; roduced to a small degree by attraction and has existed almost entirely from the beginning. Thus the choice is left between the assumption of extremely large masses or the giving up of an explanation of the great relative velocity. Neither of these two assumptions contain, it is true, an impossibility, but I do not think that doubtful proofs for the correction of the hypothesis can be noticed in either of them. According to my opinion they rather render it (the hypothesis) very little plausible. The formulz already mentioned indicate what will be ex- plained further on, namely, that the supposed effect of the two bodies, in the case in hand, must have taken place very quickly indeed, perhaps even in the period ofa few hours, This effect must necessarily have occurred upon the first brightening up (beginning of December 1891). Why then the Nova attained several weeks later (beginning of February 1892) a second maximum, and to all appearances a greater maximum, and why the light-curve sank only very little till the beginning of March but afterwards very rapidly, seems to me, on the ground of the hypothesis in question, to be explainable only with great diffi- culty, if it can be explained at all, Atall events, this difficulty will remain unless it be altogether removed in detail. The difficulties hinted at above entirely disappear in the following supposition, There is no doubt, especially in accord- ance and with the results obtained from stellar photographs, in which Mr, Max Wolf has co-operated, that space is entirely filled with more or less extensive formations of very thinly scattered matter. With regard to their physical properties, these formations will probably show very varied constitutions, the reason for which we will leave an open question, as we do not wish to investigate it here. It is itself not very improbable that a heavenly body should get into such a cloud, but in any case it is more probable than the grazing together of two com- pact bodies, as is required in the above-discussed hypothesis. As soon now as the body commences to enter a cosmic cloud a suriace heating will be set up at once, and indeed it must be so, whatever may be the constitution of the thinly-scattered matter. In consequence of this heating, the products of vapour- izaation will form round the body ; these will partly be separated 138 NATURE [DeceMBER 8, 1892 from it and will adopt very quickly that velocity which the adjacent parts of the cloud possess. It is interesting to compare this process with a similar one, which takes place in a well-known way in the appear- ance of shooting stars or fireballs. In this case a com- pact budy enters with a certain velocity into a formation of very thin matter (the upper stra'a of the atmosphere), is heated and partly vapourized, and a luminous tail, which is clearly visible for a long time after the sudden appearance of the meteor, marks the path which the latter has taken. The detached particles have quickly lost their relative velocities against the air, for they apparently do not partake of the move- ment of the meteor. If we consider spectroscopically the star on its commence- ment to become bright by resistance, two superposed spectra will openly reveal themselves, one in general continuous and provided with absorption bands in consequence of the heaping up of the glowing gases, and the other in the main consisting of bright iines. Both spectra, according to the relative motion in the line of sight, will appear pressed up against one another. Thus altogether an appearance is found very similar to that observed in Nova Aurigze, and they will agree entirely if one assumes that also those parts of the cloud nearest the body have sustained physical perturbations by a direct frictional warming of the detached particles, &c. This assumption seems to me to contain by no means a difficulty considering our lack of knowledge with respect to the properties of this cloud matter. Whether this is at all necessary I am unable to say on the ground of the publications at hand. The ‘investigation is important to decide whether, on the lines laid out, we can obtain a plausible explanation of the great relative velocities shown by the two spectra. | When the body approaches the cloud the latter will evidently lengthen itself in the direction of the former. This lengthening will grow with the mutual approach, just as the relative velocity of the single parts of the cloud will grow towards the body. ’ Without certain suppositions on the structure of cloud matter it is difficult to conceive of the processes of movement which take place, so we must content ourselves with contemplating the one or the other case, which admits of a closer invest- igation. If, for instance, we suppose that the single particles of the cloud follow for the main part the effect of the body, they will describe conic-sections—that is, hyperbolas round the centre of the latter asforces. Their greatest relative velocity decreases quickly with the distance of the body, so that the surroundings of the latter will be filled with particles moving with very different velocities. One can easily see that no very extra- ordinary assumptions are necessary to suppose very great velo- cities for these particles that pass near the surface of the body, velocities amounting to those stated in the case of Nova Aurige, even if they are at the outset very small. It follows from the above that the spectral-lines of the particles which are moving from the body with such different velocities must be very much enlarged, and that to explain the different brightenings of the single parts of the lines as probably intensity maxima does not raise the least difficulty, but is a necessary accompanying phe- nomenon. This point seems to me to be important, for it can- not be deduced from the hypothesis of two compact masses passing close by one another, and must here lead to the rather improbable assumption of several moving bodies. As long as the body remains in this, so to speak, atmospheric formation, the appearances above mentioned must always be called forth anew, whence it follows that the peculiarities of the spectrum conditioned by the whole state of things, not consider- ing smaller perturbations, must on the whole remain constant for some time, a point which in the above hypothesis is at first not by any means clear. Ina similar manner it will not be as- tonishing if the star during that time changes its brightness less strongly, while after its exit from the cloud this brightness will decrease rather rapidly. This too agrees with the light-curve in the case of the Nova. Finally, even the periodical fluctuations of the magnitude can be explained quite naturally. We call to mind here the well-known fact confirmed lately by the photo- graphs of Max Wolf, that similar occurrences appear in shooting stars, which may, indeed, be explained with difficulty. We must, however, in any case assume that the star entered the cosmical cloud in question about the beginning of December and left it not long before the beginning of March. Now the question is urged upon us How was it possible that for such a long NO, 1206, VOL. 47] time the great relative velocity could remain constant though — such a resistance must have taken place that could develope the heat necessary for the glowing of the body? Wearehere ~ gving to decide this question by comparing the resi-ting power of the star to that of a meteor in the upper strata of our at- mospbere. ‘pss Let us assume, quite generally, that the motion of the star in - a straight line is given by the equation eee ado Be ag = te yt) (1) where wv is the velocity, za positive number > Land A acon- stant, which is directly proportional to the surface of the globular body and the density of the medium and inversely proportional to the mass of the body. We compare equation (1) with the equation for the motion of a meteor ° dv’ dt’ in which the time / is referred to another unit selected for the purpose. If wesupposev’ = wv; 7’.= vt;A = Ave", The latter equation beco.nes identical with (1), that is the movement of the star corresponds point to point with the motion of the meteor, if the latter equations are satisfied. Representing now m, O, 7, 5, m’, O', 7’, 8, as masses, surfaces, radii, and densities of the star and meteor, and D and D’ the density of the cosmical clouds and the npper strata of the atmosphere in question, we Pee Soe Ege Ewe bite < antes Re AY Ce have :— ; rn DOm . , I DOm’ eS Se Su2Se Pat PEs \ nv b'O’m ” wel * P’U'm. or also ee =(2 y rs D If we put x = & times the sun’s radius (=700 million metres) and x = 7’ metres, and further corresponding to the observations of the new star v = 30 (unit of velocity of Earth in its orbit) and # = 100 days and v’ =2 which corresponds to a relatively quickly-moving meteor and finally 2 = 2, we have :— ph gO 6, oe oe es y= + k 700 millions , 7'3'D : J and 2’=08, 185/; I= sp a Thus the movement of thestar takes place proportionally in roo days, just as that of the meteor in 0'185 seconds if we suppose y=. very small fraction of a second, and since within a hundredth part of a second the movement in the highest regions of our at- mosphere shows no longer a perceptible decrease of velocity, such a decrease will not enter in the case of the star. We have evidently to deal here with the same appearance which points — out that small heavy objects possess a far greater resistance to air than large ones, and that with large meteors (fireballs) the | air resistance, as it has been proved, influences the elements of the orbit far less than is the case with small meteors. We have still to show that in spite of the small decrease of movement, enough energy of movement is changed into heat in order to bring the star into a surface-glowing condition, and such a condition has by all means taken place inthe Nova. We must therefore calcuiate the quantities of heat Q and Q’ which is radiated in one second of time, and from a unit of surface on both bodies. If we call P and P’ the losses in acting power during the times ¢ and 7’, v and a the velocities belore the entrance into the resisting media, we have :— Pit As we are free to assume 7 small, we can obtain a and P=m (v,2- 2); P=m! (uv, -v?) and taking into consideration the above equations : with the above numbers 2,= 15; x will be =2 v oie a Gi 38755 so that we can assume that the density of the cosmic medium, compared to these already very thin air strata, in which evidently NATURE 139 ; the glowing of the meteor occurs, is not very dense, and that o=r's | a'o 4'0 6'o 8°o 1c’o M4 one yet gets the necessary quantity of heat. pe ——| a ——— — | — f it may be remarked that we can vary all these numbers | p—, | jo: age , | ome . sp _ within very wide limits without fearing any contradiction, so : “Pass grat — dt lige. tion : it we may conclude, therefore, that no difficulty in the sug- | 26 “98 8: | ees ae 6 i ‘hypothesis arises from this point of view. fos 4866 Shor 8-958 ate ie _ I have now to deduce the formule I have mentioned above, 20 2°429 | 3'226 5°345 6838 8-059. athe and it will be seen that these are very interesting. 24 | 2178 | 2827 | 4603 | 5806 6902) 7-802 If we take w as the sum of two masses revolving round each 28 2°027 | 2°569 | 4°343 | §:204 | 6112 | 6-902 n a conic section, V the velocity, and retaining for the rest 32 | 1°941 | 2-400 3°753 4740 «5°555 -6°265 ee: ot momentiatace, we have for the parabola 36 | 1°900 | 2293 | 37510 | 44it | 5158 | 5810 ee a en ee 40 | 1°d92 | 2°234| 3°345 | 4181 | 4877 | 5'486 ee ae ena Oe. eon Yav” 44 IQIL | 2°21 a | 4°029 | 4°688 | 5°266 hi, mS 4 1°953 | 2°220 | 3°107 | 3°941 4°574 | 5°131 Dat 2 tan k v+/s tan3}/, v = Avo, 52 | 2°O17 | + 2°257 | 3179 | 3911 -4°528 | 5'072 eRe tse < ; : ye 2 36 ex 2°323 | 3°217 | 3°936 4°547 pe: | ee ty B.S ; Oo | 22 2°420 | 3°301 | 4°020 | 4°633 | 5°17 2 wymence Ht Tollows without further difficulty : 64} 2°342 | 2°552 | 3°438 | 4170) 4797 5°351 | ee oe ~ a 68 | 2°510) 2°729 | 3644 4°404 | 5°056 | 5°635 ee ibsin i, 0 1t — 7), 10), of as Sean Se | SRA) 4754 | 5°45 | Ooze yap) Oe re aes 2 : pa ‘02 3°307 | 47390 | §'200-; 6°055 ‘739 _ One takes ¢ as the velocity of the earth in its orbit with the 8o | 3477 3°830 | $408} 6°12}. 7048 7843 radi and 8g the sun’s mass and the mass of the earth = i 84 4°308 4°802 0'480 | 7°824 8'972 9°991 sothat #?=c?R. If we consider further that the expression 83 6'991 7°938 | 10960 | 13 320) 1§°328 | 17°COI a in nv [1 —2/g sin? #/y v] | Sin 2V —"/g Ser 2 | Septet Anes can attain the maximum value x2 it follows that Pet hee ap aed r To api ly this to the Nova we must remember that Mere i i ' em : = = eos apply eases - c ? __ of sight. the orbital velocit may be greater than that in the line ioe ae — les, more than two months have passed since the of the bodies took place, which time must with that of perihelion, up to the time that we um ob-ervations in hand. Thus ¢ is much Formula (4)— nave — ‘ still ] 1 ean arto ee Bag aj "The cons de ion of a hyperbolic movement takes a similar Vo represents the velocity at an infinitely large distance, we v2? - v2 = 24% 0 _ wees ; . ording to the Theoria Motus— , _ étan F ~ log tan (45° + 1/2 F) = we 4 v hic it is found at once that— V2\2 7 V \3ca Wee) (ex) a* | (5) 8 (e — cos F Ys? “he OES A cos F ) “etan F — log tan (45° + 1/2 F) | pression for X, if one allows F to vary from 0°90’, first decreases, reaches a minimum, and then increases to infinity. : lhe minimum value can easily bz determined for then 3_esin oF ‘ 4{e - cos b)? _ _ This equation can be easily solved for special values of e. _ For the theoretical calculation which is requisite, [ have em- _ ployed another proceeding, as I have already computed the : pias values of X for a special value of ¢, as the following table shows :— [e tan F — log tan (45° + 1/2 F)] must be = 1, NO. 1206, VOL, 47] For very large values of e the minimum of X occurs if sin F = ,/2/3, and the minimum value of X becomes Min X = jy RE 1612Je,.. . .(6) But one practically commits no error if one employs (6) also for the values of e nearly equal to 1, asis evident from the following computation of the minima values taken from the above table, and calculated according to fo: mula (6). e Direct. Formula I 1°5 1°60 1°5 19 2'0 2 23 fer 4 3°2 3°2 6 3°9 39 8 4°5 46 10 5 RSE One obtains :— M> O'OIO4( I — Me) (Uz) ve BSN ee ou For the above assumptions— is Coy (= = (go; we find 4 > 16800 n/e( 1 - sts ie which formula holds good for values of e, which do not quite equal 1, In order to include also the parabola we suppose ga 2\3/2 > 15000 vel ove ) ails lc vl ce (7a) Thus in this case we result in extremely large masses, which are not very probable, or we must assume that ve = very nearly 1. Even for Me = 0°9, according to the above formula, u>12004/e, and we may consider the above-given assertion as justified. It has already been remarked that this suggested inequality proves only that w is very much greater than the right side (of the equation). It is easy to find a higher limit for u if bi, does not differ much from unity. V? - V,? ; , If we put Vig vi = v, we obtain cos F = ve, and according to formula (5) : a= (t= ee eee t+) \c/ Ro evtank — ylogtan(45°+ 2b) 140 - NATCORE [ DECEMBER 8, 1892 Given ¢, e, and v, we can calculate the right-hand side. But we seek, however, the maximum value of y =ev tan F ~ vlog tan (45°+1/2F)=sin F — v log tan (45° + 1/2F) by determining e¢ as function of v. It is = (con ~ —7-.)OF 2 de sige cosF/0e envi — ve . I . Thus y increases so long as ¢ < ae and decrease; continu- Vv ally for e > ne ; I 7 The maximum for y takes place when e? =-; NY v and is y= Vite ~ rio Ma) N ‘Thus we have ct/V 1 — v\3?2 eer inen inte A Se cele Gi) >4(¢) (Ps) aadcckahes (+ Nt - ’) Aes J1—y — vlog Ne and with ¥ = 30 and ¢ = 60 days, v w> 27800/ + 3 “\" aS: kote Ji — v — v log ar ee For the above example Me = o'9 results « > 2800 as considerably larger masses than formerly. seb I have now further to prove that a very close proximity of the two bodies can have only taken place for a very short space of ume. To do this we use the following relations. We find above for the parabola : w= ees 3; « = sin $v(1 — 2/3 sin? 1/22), 4h*x It follows, therefore, that i y2 = 2h Vv Vi ra Weta) 2x Thus we have SWE S 2 OBVERES Sec (9) For the hyperbola we have eat TE V2 — Vy" and, according to formula (5) 2. Y 2)3/2 apices, ED: Veal ye: J/2 Therefvre, oss ee ” hed Aged Vorx. J/2 For eccentricities which are not very nearly equal to I, we had - X 1367 Je and it is certainly 3/4 ros ale Vv? a V,? . t> 1°05 VV2 me V ott . (10) For V) = 0. (10) is naturally changed into (9). For the hyperbola, how- ever, it is possible to suggest a second relationship, Since 2% = Mie Nel r Vea (5) can also be written 3/2 ne (<) Vo¥X. id and because #24 = aV,’, it follows that re nfo Vix = V9, Ld _ e-cosF I cos F where “etan F — logtan (45° + 1/2F) NO. 1206, VOL. 47] An easy calculation yields now oy _ -1 OF esin F — cos F log tan (45° + 1/2F) + esin F log tan( 45° + 1/2 F)}. It is quite evident that the quantities in brackets always remain positive, for it is ‘ log tan (45°+1/2F)=2tan4 F +§ tan? 1/2 F+ ...> 2 tan1/2F, and in Consequence of it the quantity in brackets >(e — 1)? cosF, . [(1 + €) cos F -- 2e Thus, ar is negative, and y decreases as F increases. From this it follows that y>1, and the relation >V,j, is the result, If we apply this formula to Nova Aurigz, we obtain for Ae =o'5VV2-V;? = 108 miles, V, = 60 06 96 72 o'7 86 84.5 = 08 | 72 CA 0'9 — 108 In the vicinity of perihelion the velocity has been under every condition greater than 120 miles, and we shall therefore obtain values of 7 that are considerably too small, by supposing 7>t x 85 miles. One day before or after perihelion it is there- fore certain that 7>7°3 million miles. ; aN It will therefore hardly be possible to assume that any notice- able influence of the supposed two bodies can have lasted longer _ than a few hours. , ; Since the above article was written Nova Aurigze has by its reappearance attracted considerable attention, and especially by the observation as made by Prof. Barnard. With regard to this reappearance one must necessarily sce an evident confirmation of the critical part of my article. Nor has my hypothesis been contradicted in any way, for it is evident in itself that the supposed formations of the nebulous or dusty matter are more copious in certain parts of space, and one may have different ideas of the distribution of density of these formations. To the observation made by Prof. Barnard (Astr. Wach., 3114) I wish to add the following remarks, I had formed an idea of the whole process which caused the outburst of the Nova, which idea is as perfectly represented in Prof. Barnard’s drawing, kindly communicated to me by Prof. Kreutz, as I could expect. During the appearance of the Nova in the winter nothing similar was seen so far as I know. It does not follow from this, therefore, that it did not exist, and it would also have been possible to have expected information from the photographs as has often occurred before. I applied on this account to Dr. Wolf, in Heidelberg, and asked him whether he had photo- graphs of the region of the Nova at that time, and whether, perhaps, any nebulous object was to be seen on them ; but, un- © fortunately, Dr. Wolf did not possess such photographs. It remains doubtful, I am sorry to say, whether so delicate an object would have been visible on the plates. = W. J. LOCKYER. HINTS FOR COLLECTORS OF MOLLUSKS: AF TER the collector has brought home the spoils of his excursion there is still a good deal to be done before the wet and dirty shells, covered with parasitic growths or in- habited either by the original mollusk or some hermit crab, will be ready to be placed in the cabinet. Some of them, if living, may find a temporary place in an aquarium for the study oftheir — habits, but, for the most part, the collector will wish to prepare his specimens either for anatomical use in {he future or as dry specimens for his cabinet. The preparation of mollusks for anatomical purposes has been described in a special chapter of these instructions. For ordinary rough work nothing is better than clean go per cent. alcohol diluted with a proper proportion of water. Ifthe specimens are large they should be first put into a jar kept for that special-purpose, in which the alcohol is com- paratively weak, having, say, 50 per cent. of water added to it. © After the immersion of specimens in this jar for several days the fluids will have been extracted by the alcohol, and a specimen can then be removed, washed clean of mucus and dirt, which will almost always be found about the aperture of a spiral shell, and ' Reprinted from ‘‘ Instructions for Collecting Mollusks, and cther Useful Hints for the Conchologist,”’ by William H. Dall ; issued by the Smithsonian Institution as Part G of Bulletin ofthe U. S. National Museum, No, 39. ontime fe 3 LES ee DEcemser 8, 1892] NATURE 14! placed in its own proper jar of go per cent. alcohol diluted in the proportion of 30 per cent. with pure water. Specimens to be prepared for the cabinet require the removal of the soft parts if they are still present, the cleaning off of parasitic or incrusting growths, and, in the case of bivalves, securing the valves in a convenient position for the cabinet. The different classes of shells may be treated under several heads. Land and Fresh- Water Shells. Land and fresh-water shells are much more easy to deal with than marineshells. In the case of spiral shells, such as Limnea, Planorbis, Paludina, &c., the shell may first be washed clean of mud or comfervoid growth, which may be conveniently done with the assistance of an old tooth or nail brush. In the case of these forms the easiest way to remove the soft parts is to place the shell for twenty-four hours in weak alcohol, after which those can readily be removed ; but in any case where the expense of alcohol is an object to be avoided, it will be sufficient to place them in a small tin kettle, or other receptacle suitable for _ the purpose, and cover them with cold water, which should then be slowly brought to the boiling point. As soon asit has reached the boiling point it may be removed from the fire. The shells should not be put into water already boiling, as it frequently cracks delicate shells, and the sudden change of temperature injures their polish and general appearance. _ For removing the soft parts from spiral shells the collector will usually find a crooked pin sufficient. For this purpose one of those long steel pins used by ladies as hat pins is convenient. By heating the pointed end in the flame of a candle or alcohol me the temper can be taken out of the steel, so that it can be ly bent into any shape desired. ‘The proper form for reaching the retracted parts in a spiral shell will of course be a ral. With a small pair of plyers, different forms can bz ex- perimented with, and those which are most satisfactory decided on. After the right form has been obtained, by heating the pin again and plunging it suddenly into cold water, the temper of the steel will be measurably restored and the instrument for use. Similar pins in their ordinary condition are con- - venient for cleaning out sand or parasites from the recesses of sculptured shells, and for other purposes. The attachment of a gastropod to its shell is at the central axis or pillar of the shell, usually from half a turn to a turn and a quarter behind the aper- ture. By applying the pressure of the extractor carefully in this vicinity the attachment will give way and the extractor may be withdrawn, bringing with it the soft portions of the animal. In large and heavy shells, in which the muscular attachments are Strong and deep-seated, and it is desired to obtain a good hold of the animal in order to extract it from the shell ordinary steel fish-hooks may be used. These may be softened by heat, straightened out, and twisted into a spiral of the proper form, and retempered. Then they can be securely fastened to small wooden handles by the shank of the hook. In this way the barb of the hook will assist in retaining the soft parts on the extractor when it is withdrawn from the shell. Several German firms advertise sets of implements for cleaning, cooking, and extracting the animals from shells of mollusks, but it would seem to the writer that any person of ordinary intelligence and some little mechanical ingenuity, such as all naturalists are expected to possess, should be able to provide himself with the necessary appatatus without purchasing expensive paraphernalia of this kind. Shells which have no operculum require merely to be cleaned after the animal has been removed, and in the case of nd and fresh-water shells this is usually a very simple matter. Shells which possess an operculum should ‘retain it in the cabinet, as it is often of great value in determining the relations of the species, since the operculum is a characteristic feature in the economy of the animal. It should be detached from the body of the animal after the latter has been extracted from the shell, carefully washed and cleaned, and if flat and horny may be dried between two pieces of blotting paper, under a weight. This will prevent it from becoming contorted in the process of drying. For removing the thick incrustation of lime and _per- oxide of iron which frequently forms upon fresh-water shells, a few tools resembling engraver’s tools or the little chisels in use by dentists for excavating teeth are very convenient. A suitable too!, however, can easily be made by softening and grinding down an old file to a triangular point. A little experience will enable the collector to become expert in scaling off the objection- able matter without injury to the surface of the shell. Naked slugs should be preserved in alcohol, after being NO. 1206, VOL. 47] ‘condition. sketched in the living state. Some of the older naturalists had a way of skinning slugs, inflating and drying the empty skins for preservation in their collections, much as entomologists some- times treat caterpillars ; but this ingenious device has nothing to recommend it to a scientific collector, even if he has the dexterity to practise it. The internal shell of such slugs as Limax may be represenied in the collection if desired, but, in any case, specimens should be carefully preserved in spirits. The bivalve shells, such as Unio, if taken alive, may be left in the sun for a short time, when they will usually open, and, the muscle connecting the two valves being cut, the valves may be cleaned. It is desirable for cabinet purposes to preserve the two valves in their natural position, attached to each other by the ligament which holds them together in life. This ligament dries to a very brittle, horny substance. Consequently the shells must be placed in position when fresh in order to make a success of the operation. After cleaning away the animal matter and thoroughly washing the interior of the shell, it is a good plan to note the locality with a soft lead-pencil upon the shell itself. Then bring the two valves together in their natural position and tie them in that position with a piece of tape or soft twine, which should be allowed to remain until the ligament is thoroughly dry. Specimens prepared in this way are more valuable for exchange and more attractive to the eye than those with which less care has been taken. It is always desirable, however, to have some specimens with separated valves of every bivalve species in the cabinet, in order that the characteristics of the interior may be easily examined. Fresh-water bivalves are usually covered with a thin and highly polished, often very elegant, greenish or brownish epidermis. Sometimes the shell is so thin that, in drying, the contracting epidermis splits and cracks the shelly portion so that it becomes worthless for the cabinet. This often happens with marine mussels, but it is almost characteristic of the thin fresh-water Unionide. Various methods have been adopted to prevent this unfortunate result. Some collectors have varnished their shells immediately after they were obtained. Others have used sweet oil or other oils in the hope of keeping the epidermis in a soft These applications are all objectionable for one reason or another, as the first endeavour of the collector who desires to make a really scientific collection should be to keep his specimens as nearly-as possible in a perfectly natural con- dition. The most satisfactory substance tor application to the shells in question is probably ordinary vaseline, which should be applied in very small quantities, so that the specimen will have no greasy feeling and will absorb the vaseline sufficiently not to become sticky to the touch. Glycerine, which has been recom- mended by several collectors, like oil, leaves the surface sticky and offensive to the touch; besides rendering it liable to catch everything in the way of dust with which it may come in contact. Very small gastropod shells need not have the soft parts re- moved. If they are put into a vial of alcohol for twenty-four hours, then taken out and allowed to dry, the soft parts will become desiccated without any offensive odour, and they may be placed in the cabinet without further preparation. It may be noted, however, that if the cabinet contains many such shells, careshould be taken to guard against the access of miceand vermin, which are apt to attack them in the absence of something more attractive in the way of food. For those shells which possess an operculum, after the operculum has been dried and the shell cleaned and ready for the cabinet, it is customary to insert a little wad of raw cotton, rolled so as to fit the aperture snugly, the outer surface of it being touched with a drop of mucilage. The operculum can then be laid upon this in its natural position and the mucilage and cotton will retain it so without making it difficult to remove for an examination of the shell if desired at any time. For the preservation of eggs of mollusks when they have a horny or calcareous shell, small glass tubes securely corked are the best receptacles. Most of these eggs are so small that they may be preserved in a dry state or in alcohol without trouble, but the eggs of some of the tropical land snails are so large that it will be necessary to drill a small hole and extract the fluid contents as if they were bird’s eggs in order to preserve them, Such eggs are the best preserved in alcohol. Marine Shells. The preparation of marine shells for the cabinet does not essentially differ from that required for land or fresh-water shells, except that in the marine shells the muscular system is 142 NATURE [ DECEMBER 8, 1892 often.much more strongly developed and the creatures them- selves much larger than the fresh-water forms, and the manipu- lation is therefore somewhat more difficult. The marine forms are also more apt to be incrusted with foreign bodies, bored by predatory sponges, like C/iona, or even by other mollusks, or perforated by certain annelids which have the power to dis- solve the lime of which the shell is composed, and in this way secure a retreat for themselves. Shells which do not contain the living animal are frequently occupied by hermit crabs or by tubicolous annelids, The latter fill up the larger part of the spire with consolidated sand or mud, in the centre of which they have their burrow. . The hermit crabs do not add anything to the shells which they occupy, but, on the contrary, by their constant motion are apt to wear away the axis or pillar of the shell, so that oftena specimen of this sort may be very fairly preserved and yet on the pillar show characters entirely different from those which one would disco, er in a specimen which had never been. occu- pied bya crab. A shell which the crab has selected for its home is often taken possession of, as far as the outside is con- cerned, by a hydractinia, a sort of polype, which produces a horny or chitinous covering which is very difficult to remove from the shell to which it is attached. As the hydractinia grows it finally covers the whole shell, to some extent assumes its form, and then, if the creature has not attained its full growth, this is apt to take place around the edges of the aperture, which are continued by a sort of leathery prolongation which assumes in.a rough way the form ofashell. The crab, when he grows ‘too large for the shell in which he has ensconced himself, is usually obliged to abandon it and find a larger one, which is always a difficult and more or less dangerous operation ; but if his shell is overgrown by the polype referred to, it often happens that the polype and the crab grow at about an equal rate, so that the latter finds himself protected and does not have to make a change. It is supposed that the polype profits to some extent by the microscopic animals attracted by the food or ex- crement of the crab, so that this joint housekeeping is mutually beneficial, and, for such cases, since the word farastte would not be strictly accurate, the word commensal has been adopted. These modified shells often assume very singular shapes. The polype is able in the course of time to entirely dissolve the original calcareous shell upon which its growth began, so that if the spire be cut through it would be found throughout of a horny or chitinous nature. Some of the older naturalists were deceived by forms of this sort and applied names to them, sup- posing that they were really molluscan shells of a very peculiar sort. In removing the animal matter from the shell of large gas- tropods it will often require a good deal of time and care to get out all the animal matter from the spire, but it is well worth while to take the trouble, as the presence of such matter forms a constant attraction for museum pests of all descriptions. A medium-sized syringe is convenient for washing out the spire of such shells, The ordinary marine gastropods may be treated in a general way like the fresh-water gastropods. There are, however, abnormal forms, especially among tropical species, which require particular attention. Some species become affixed to corals and overgrown by them, retaining only a small aperture through which the sea water can reach the prisoner. Such specimens are best exhibited by retaining a part of the coral and cutting the rest away, showing at once the mode of occurrence and the form of the covered shell. Borers are always more difficult to handle and prepare for the cabinet than other mollusks. They are usually more or less modified for their peculiar mode of life, and frequently rely upon their burrow as a protection, so that the shell is reduced, relatively to the animal, to a very small size. Most of these forms are best kept in alcohol. The hard parts may properly be repre- sented in the cabinet by other specimens. Some of the bivalves, such as the American ‘‘ soft clam,” possess very long siphons, covered with a horny epidermis, and it becomes a question as to whether an attempt should be made to preserve this epider- mis in the cabinet or not. The writer has seen very nicely prepared specimens in which the fleshy portions had all been taken out and replaced by cotton, so that the epidermis of the slphon retained its original position and form ; but such speci- mens are always very delicate, easily broken, and liable to attack by insects, so that it would seem hardly worth while to go to the trouble, when specimens may be preserved complete in alcohol showing all the features referred to. Boring shell- NO. 1206, VOL. 47] fish, like Pholas, frequently have accessory pieces, which are liable to be lost when the soft parts are removed unless care is taken to avoid it. Other bivalves have the internal ligament reinforced by a shelly plate, which is called the ossiculum. This is very easily detached and lost, and, being an object of great interest, special pains should be taken to preserve it, even if it should become detached. JAPANESE CAMPHOR. THE United States Consul at Osakaigives in a recent report the following particulars, reprinted from the November number of the Board of Trade Journal, respecting the Japanese camphor trade :— The camphor tree, from which the resinous gum is distilled, is a species of the laurel, and is found in the provinces of Tosa, Hiuga, and Satsuma, in the south of Japan. Large groves of the. trees are owned by the Japanese Government, the wood being very desirable for shipbuilding. The districts in-which the camphor tree is found are mountainous and situated far from the sea. No reliable information can be obtained as to the cost of producing the gum before being transported in junks to Hiogo. The peasants who engage in distilling the roots and branches of the trees are said to be poor, and employ the rudest machinery. The market value of crude camphor gum and of oil of camphor per picul (1334 lbs.) during the past year was as follows :— Drained, 38°25 dols. : wet, 37°00 dols. ; old dry, 43°50 dols. ; average, 36°50 dols. ; camphor oil, 5°25 dols. erie ais The highest and lowest prices during the same period were as follows :—Highest, 40:00 dols. ; lowest, 33°00 dols. Camphor gum is exported in tubs measuring about 63 cubic feet ; oil in kerosene tins and’ cases. The grades are from old dry down to new wet, and the various grades depend upon the quantity of adulteration. In oil there are two grades—white and brown. "2 yas age Adulteration is practised for the most part by adding water and oil just as far as the buyer will tolerate. In some case 20 Ibs. of water will run out of a tub in twelve hours. The unadulterated article, known as the good old dry, can some- times be bought. The only system of tests in determining value of the different qualities is by burning and by absolute spirit. The percentage of pure camphor which the crude yields when refined varies according to the quality of the crude. The. average per- centage of gum produced from the wood as compared with the original weight of the wood cannot be accurately ascertained here, the only foreigner known to have visited the camphor dis- tricts having declined to furnish any information on the subject. The total exports of-camphor from Hiogo during 1891 in catties of 1} lbs. each amounted to 3,850,400 catties eoneet to the following destinations : Europe (countries not specified), 1,777,300 catties; London, 335,600 catties; Germany, 209,200 catties; United States, 1,277,000 catties; China, 51,900 catties ; France, 199,400 catties. | : As regards the manufacture of camphor the following par- ticulars are extracted from a report by the United States Consul at Nagasaki. eae Camphor is found alike on high elevations and in the valleys and lowlands. It is a hardy, vigorous, long-lived tree, and flourishes in all situations, , Many of these trees attain an enormous size. There are a number in the vicinity of Nagasaki which measure 10 and 12 ft. in diameter. The ancient temple of Osuwa, at Nagasaki, is situated in a magnificent grove of many hundred grand old camphor trees, which are of great age and size, and are still beautiful and vigorous. It is stated that there are trees at other places in Kiu Shiu measuring as much as 20 ft. in diameter. ‘The body or trunk of the tree usually runs up 20 and 30 ft. without limbs, then branching out ‘in all directions, forming a well- proportioned, beautiful tree, ever green and very ornamental. The leaf is small, elliptical in shape, slightly serrated, and of a vivid dark-green colour all the year round, except for a week or two in the early spring, when the young leaves are of a delicate, tender green. The seeds or berries grow in clusters — and resemble black currants in size and appearance. The wood is used for many purposes, its fine grain rendering it especially valuable for cabinet-work, while it is used also for shipbuilding. The roots make excellent knees for ships. In the manufacture of camphor the tree is necessarily destroyed, but, by a stringent law of the land, another is planted DEcEMBER 8, 1892 | in its stead. ‘The simple method of manufacture employed by the natives is as follows :— The tree is felled to the earth and cut into small pieces, or, more properly speaking, into chips. A large metal pot is partially filled with water and placed over a slow fire. A wooden tub is fitted to the top of the pot, and the chips of camphor wood are placed in this. The bottom of the tub is perforated so as to permit \he steam to pass up among the chips. A steam-tight cover is fitted on the tub. From this tub a bamboo pipe leads to another tub, through which the enclosed steam, the generated camphor and oil flow. This second tub is connected in like manner with a third. The third tub is divided into two compartments, one above the other, the dividing floor ing perforated with small holes, to allow the water and oil to pass to the lower compartment. The upper compartment is supplied with a layer of straw, which catches and holds the camphor in crystal in deposit as it passes to the cooling process. The camphor is then separated from the straw, packed in wooden tubs of 1334 Ibs. each, and is ready for market. _ After each boiling the water runs off through a faucet, leaving the oil, which is used by the natives for illuminating and other UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. _ CAMBRIDGE.—Mr. W. Ridgeway, late Professor at Queen’s College, Cork, has been elected to the Disney Professorship of Archzology for the customary period of five years. Prof. Ridge- way’s recent work on the origins of weights and measures have made him well known as a scientific archzologist. Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., Assistant Director of the Cavendish Laboratory, has been appointed a member of the ' Financial Board ; Mr. Lewis, Professor of Mineralogy, and Dr. Gaskell, F.R.S., have been elected members of the General Board of Studies ; and Mr. E. W. MacBride, Scholar of St. John’s College, has been appointed Demonstrator in Animal Morphology, in the place of Mr. J. J. Lister, of the same Col. ie. he Museums and Lecture Rooms Syndicate propose to intro- duce the electric light into the dissecting-room of the Anatomy school, the lecture room, and histology class-room of the De- partment of Physiology, and the Philosophical Library, at an “ee not exceeding £100. By the death, on November 30, of Dr. F. J. A. Hort, Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, the University has lost not only a great theologian, but a distinguished student of science. Dr. Hort was second to Prof. Liveing in the Natural Sciences Tripos of 1851, the first ever held. He received the mark of distinction in Physiology and in Botany. In 1856, and again in 1871, he was an examiner for Honours in this Tripos. Throughout his life his interest in the scientific progress of the University was deep and hearty. _A Syndicate has been appointed to consider the whole ques- tion of the times of holding Tripos examinations, and the changes that would follow if these were altered. The disadvant- = of the present system, by which much of the benefit of the er term and of the Long Vacation are lost to students and teachers alike, have of late been forcibly brought before the Senate. It is to be hoped that, by bringing about a rational “Easter” or otherwise, the Syndicate’s efforts may lead to a reformation. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Meteorological Journal, November, 1892.—Wind “measurement by H. W. Dines. The two instruments generally in use, viz. the Robinson cup anemometer and the pressure plate, are both more or less unsatisfactory in obtaining the ex- treme pressure. The wind never blows uniformly, whereas the instruments are calibrated on the supposition that it does so. And the method of exposure is often unsatisfactory ; any obstacle to the free circulation of the wind either at the side or even behind or below the anemometer, vitiates the results. The usual factor & for conversion of velocity to pressure in the equation P = 4v? is too high. The value ‘005 was given originally in a book on engineering, with a footnote stating that the experiments on NO. 1206, VOL. 47] NATURE 143 which it rested were doubtful, but it has since been copied without the note. Recent experiments show that ‘003 is probably more correct, but with such a varying element as the wind, any factor is of little use in deducing extreme pressures from velocity anemometers. Instruments of different sizes give different results, and those calibrated by indoor trials give more wind than those tested out of doors. In some respects it is more desirable to register the pressure than the velocity, but a pressure plate which is to register 30lb. per square foot is hardly suitable to record so small a force as one ounce, so that on many days no sign of motion is given. The author concludes from many careful experiments that the tube form of anemometer is most likely to give satisfactory results, as, apart from electricity, it is the only kind in which the motion or pressure can be trans- mitted to a distance without loss by friction, In this instrument the registering apparatus is placed away from the part exposed to the wind.—The storms of India, by S. M. Ballou. In this article, which is a continuation of previous papers, the author treats of the storms which accompany the winter and summer rains.—The first aerial voyage across the English Channel, by R. de C. Ward. ‘This voyage was successfully carried out by Dr. Jeffries and M. Blanchard on January 7, 1785. The balloon left Dover at th. p.m., and descended a few minutes before 4h. p-m., not far from Ardres.—On the production of rain, by Prof. C. Abbe. The author reviews the natural process of the for- mation of rain, viz. saturation by aqueous vapour, condensation into visible particles, and the agglomeration of these into drops large enough to be precipitated. The problem of artificial for- mation of rain will be partially solved if some method is invented to bring about a sudden formation of large drops out of the moist air that exists between the small particles of every cloud. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, November 28.—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—Note accompanying the presentation of a work on the new methods of the ‘‘ Mécanique Céleste,” by M. Poincare. —On the existence of distinct nervous centres for the perception of the fundamental colours of the spectrum, by M. A. Chauveau. If one goes to sleep on a seat placed obliquely in front of a window which allows the light from white clouds to fall equally on both eyes, the coloured objects in the room appear illuminated by a bright green light during a very short interval when the eyelids are opened at the moment of awakening. The pheno- menon is not observed except at the moment of awakening from a profound sleep. From this it is concluded that there are dis- tinct perceptive centres for the green, and probably also for the violet and the red. Ofthese, the green centres are those which first regain their activity on awakening.—Note on the obser- vatory of Mont Blanc, by M. J. Janssen.—On the laws of expansion of liquids, their comparison with the laws relating to gases, and the form of the isothermals of liquids and gases, by E. H. Amagat. The substances examined were water, ether, alcohol, carbon _bisulphide, hydrogen, nitrogen, air, oxygen, ethylene, and carbonic acid, the pressures ranging from 50 to 3000 atmospheres, and the temperatures from 0° to 200°. For both liquids and gases, the isothe: mals present a slight curvature turned towards the axis of abscisse. The angular coefficient increases with the tempera- ture. This effect is specially pronounced in the liquids, where it corresponds to a widening-out of the network, well exempli- fied in carbonic acid, in the part corresponding to the lower temperatures. This widening-out gradually disappears as the temperature rises ; in the lighter gases, the variation with the temperature is very small. — Observations of Holmes’s comet (**f” 1892), made at the Paris Observatory (west equatorial), by M. O. Callandreau.—On a remarkable solar protuberance observed at Rome on November 16, 1892, by M. P. Tacchini.— On universal invariants, by M. Rabut.—On straight-line con- gruences, by M. E. Cosserat.—On the passage of a wave through a, focus, by M. P. Joubin. An apparatus for showing the complementary character of transmitted and _ reflected Newton’s rings is mounted vertically, and illuminated by a small bright point placed at a distance of 1'20m, along the axis of symmetry. On moving a microscope along the axis of reflection the rings first appear with a black centre, which changes into white at the first focus of reflection, and again into black at the second. —On the depression of the zero, observed in boiled thermometers, by M. L. C. Baudin. The secular 144 NATURE | DecemBEr 8, 1892 depression of the zero, brought into prominence by heating to 100°, may be greatly reduced by keeping the thermometers for several days immersed in a liquid boiling at 400° or 500°,—On the fusion of carbonate of lime, by M. A. Joannis.—Action of antimony on hydrociloric acid, by MM. A. Ditte and R. Metzner.—On the zincates of the alkaline earths, by M. G. Bertrand.—On anhydrous and crystallized fluorides of iron, by M. C, Poulenc, —Preparation of metallic chromium by electrolysis, by M. Em. Placet. An aqueous solution of chrome alum, to which is added an alkaline sulphate and a small quantity of sulphuric or other acid, is electrolyzed. Pure chromium is deposited at the negative pole. It is very hard, and of a fine bluish-white colour. It resists atmospheric influences, and is not attacked by concentrated sulphuric acid, by nitric acid, or by concentrated potash solution. Articles made of brass, copper, or iron may be coated with chromium, thus giving them a metallic lustre resembling oxidized silver. Large quantities of the metal can be prepared without difficulty.—On the preparation of hydrobromic acid, by M. E. Léger.—Reply to M. Friedel’s observations on the rotatory power of the diamine salts, by M. Alb. Colson.—Point of fusion of solvents as the inferior limit of solubilities, by M. A. Etard.—Action of the chlorides of dibasic acids on cyanacetic sodium ether; succinodicyanacetic ether, by M. Th. Muller. — On the functions of hydurilic acid ; pieparation of potassium hydurilates, by M. C, Matignon.—Researches on the colours of some insects, by M, A. B. Griffiths.—Microbicidal action of carbonic acid in milk, by M. Cl. Nourry and C. Michel.—On a nervous ganglion of the feet of Phalangium opilio, by M. Gaubert.—Myxosporidia of the bile-duct of the Fishes; new species, by M. P. Thelohan.—On the modifications of absorp- tion and transpiration which occur in plants under the influence of frost, by M. A. Prunet. The rapid dessication of the young shoots of frozen plants is due to the substitution of an intense evaporation for the normal function of transpiration, and to an almost complete suspension of absorptive functions. —4cidi- contum, anew genus of Uredinei, by M. Paul Vuillemin. —On the clasification and the parallelisms of the miocene system, by M. Ch, Depéret.—On the existence of micro-granulite and orthophyre in the primary formations of the French Alps, by M. P. Termier.—On the mineralogical modifications of the calcareous strata in the inferior Jurassic of Ariége due to lher- zolite, and their bearing on the history of this eruptive rock, by M. A. Lacroix.x—On the geographical distribution, the origin, and the age of the ophites and Jherzolites of Ariége, by M. de Lacvivier.—Geological observations on the Creux de Souci (Puy-de-Déme), by M. Paul Gautier. BERLIN, Physiological Society, October 28.—Prof. du Bois Rey- mond, President, in the chair.—Prof. Gad spoke on the respira- tory centre on the basis of experiments made in his laboratory by Herr Marenescu. According to these, the centre for the co-ordination of the respiratory muscles lies in the formatio reticularis grisea and alba below the hypoglossal centre, on each side of the hypoglossal tract, whereas in the apex—of the calamus scriptorius there is an inhibitory centre (nceud vital) whose stimulation may cause death. It further appeared from these experiments that the respiratory centre is not confined to a limited area, but is diffuse and quite distinct from Flouren’s ** noeud vital.” November 11.—Prof, du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. Ad. Loewy had investigated the influence on re- spiration of the upper tracts leading from the cerebrum to the respiratory centre, an influence which is specially marked after section of the vagi. He found that these tracts do not simply hand on to the centre impulses received from the periphery up the trigeminal nerve, but that they automatically maintain the rhythm of the centre after the vagi have ceased to function. Dr. René du Bois Reymond :spoke on the sensation of warmth which ensues on immersing the hand in a vessel of carbon dioxide. Sulphurous acid, bromine vapour, nitrogen peroxide, ammonia and hydrochloric acid gas produce the same effect. The intensity of the sensation varies with the different gases. Thus carbon dioxide produces the same sensation as air warmed to 20°, while that of nitrogen peroxide is as of air at 30° and that of ammonia and hydrochloric acid gas as of air above 40°. The phenomena do not as yet admit of a physical explanation, but must be regarded rather as resulting from a chemical stimula- tion of the sensory nerves for heat perception. The President NO. 1206, VOL. 47] exhibited a torpedo recently born in Berlin, in which he had detected an active electric organ immediately after birth, by means of a nerve-muscle preparation and a galvanometer. This observation was first made in 1831 by Davy, but had not since then been repeated. . BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIAL RECEIVED. Booxs.—The Scenery of the Heavens: G. E. Gore. and edition (Sutton). —Johnston’s Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry, from the Edition by Sir- C. A. Cameron, revised and enlarged by C. M. Aikman (Blackwood).—Coal Pits and Pitmen: R. N. Boyd (Whittaker).— Practical Electric-Light Fitting: T. C. Allsop (Whittaker).—Swund and Music: Rev. J. A. Zahm. (Chicago, McClurg).—Results of Meteorological Observations made in New South Wales, 1880, 1881, 1882, 1883, and 1884 (Sydney, Potter).—Mineral Resources of the United States, 1889-99: D. ‘1. Day (Washington).—Pro- - ceedings of the American Association held at Washington (D.C.) —Meteoro- logical Observations and Results at the U.S. Naval Observatory, 1888 (Wash-- ington D.C.).—Magnetic Observations at the U.S. Naval Observatory, r89r (D.C.).—The Building of the British Isles: A. J. Jukes-Browne, 2nd edition (Bell). —Poems in Petroleum: J. C. Grant (t. W. Allen).—Electric Lightung and Power Distribution. Part 1: W. P. Maycock (Whittaker).—Old and New Astronomy : R. A. Proctor, completed by A. C. Ranyard (Longmans).— Painters’ Colours, Oils, and Varnishes : G. H. Hurst (Guidia) still further north. / DECEMBER 15, 1892]. NATURE 151 _ length of theday. Except at the time of the equinox, the gradual Re ing or shortening of the day, as the solstice is approached, most materially affects, especially in the higher __ latitudes, the total amount of sunshine received in twenty-four ___ Butare there any convenient and readily accessible tables—as _ there easily might be—which would at a glance show-numerically _ the comparative amounts of sunshine at certain selected times _ and places? I would wish to see such tables, say, for every _ tenth day, for the three months from an equinox toa solstice, for every third degree of latitude in each hemisphere. I see _ not how, without this, either the causes or the effects of meteoro- _ logical changes in different regions at different seasons can be tly estimated. I would propose to express the amount of _ Sunshine during twelve hours at the equator at the equinox by, __ Say, 100; the figures rising above this, or falling below it. _ Thus there would be more than 100 given for the latitude of the _ Tropic of Cancer at the summer solstice, with a vertical sun and _ more than twenty-four hours’ sunshine ; with 100 for a latitude % REGINALD COURTENAY, The Imperial Hotel, Sliema, Malta, November 14. 4 Sr, Quaternions. __By the kindness of the author I have just received a copy of Mr. Heaviside’s paper ‘‘ On the Forces, Stresses, and Fluxes of rgy in the Electromagnetic Field” (P%z/. Trans., 1892, P- 423), in which he reopens a question debated in your columns some time ago—the question of Quaternions versus other methods of vector analysis for the use of physicists. At present the matter stands thus:—There are two Sra sieesem systems of vector analysis before the public -—Quaternions and the Ausdehnungslehre—and quite a ‘multitude known ones, of which Prof. Gibbs’s seems _ to be one of the least open to objection, and of which, _ in my opinion, Mr. Heaviside’s is by no means so. It would wish to make an appeal to Mr. Heaviside and Prof. Gibbs on independent of the merits or demerits of their par- _ Of the Ausdehnungslehre I do not feel competent to speak. As to Quaternions, there are undoubtedly some inconveniences in ic: lications, and I am quite willing to concede that @ grave one is the very frequent use of the letters S and V (Mr. Heaviside uses the latter). I do not regard the sign of the scalar product which vexes the soul of Mr. Heaviside as of any nce. But while thus admitting that a better system than Guat ernions is conceivable, I think I can show that the position of the dissenters is little short of suicidal. ___ The band of physicists who use and urge the use on others of ‘vector snipes is woefully small. Let me put a question to two _ of the justly best known of that band, Prof. Gibbs and Mr. Heaviside. What is the first duty of the physical vector analyst a physical vector analyst? I think I may anticipate that answer will be—to convince the world of mathematical Slate that vector analysis must be unshelved and set to work. The next question that arises is one of tactics. What should be the plan of campaign to bring this desirable result about ? Here I am afraid we cannot hope for unanimity even among the members of the small band, and this is to be most grievously deplore But surely every sane man will agree that what most certainly the analysts should not dois to present their arguments to those they would convince in a dozen different mathematical s, each of which is puzzling enough to those learned in allied . Grant this, and it follows that Quaternions andthe A gslehre should be left in sole possession of the field. The day for Prof. Gibbs’s improvements is not yet. Prof. Gibbs and Mr. Heaviside have not yet convinced the rest of the small band—not to say each other—of the merits of their algorithms. Let me implore them to sink the individual in the common cause, and content themselves with the faith that posterity will do them justice. Apart from the question of notation there seem to be two 3chools of opinion as to the proper conduct of the campaign. To vary the metaphor, Maxwell, Clifford, Gibbs, Fitzgerald, Heaviside prescribe a course of spoon-feeding the physical public. Hamilton and Tait recommend and provide strong meat. Ido not think that harm, but rather good, will come _ from this double treatment, as one course will suit some patients and the other others. ws let the spoon-feeders provide spoon- NO. 1207, VOL. 47] too long, however, to justify this opinion, but I | meat of the same 4nd as the other physiciats. Is not Maxwell, Clifford, and Fitzgerald’s food as digestible as Prof. Gibbs’s and Mr. Heaviside’s ? ALEX. MCAULay. Ormond College, Melbourne, October 31. Animals’ Rights. MR. SALT disputes the justice of the statement that he has given two contradictory definitions of animals’ rights, inasmuch as, according to him, that which he has set forth on p. 28 is but a repetition and amplification of the one to be found on p. 9. By the definition on p. 9 animals’ rights are said to consist in a ‘* due measure ” of the restricted freedom which constitutes the right of man, z.e. (as Mr. Salt notes) the freedom ‘‘to do that which he wills, provided he infringe not the equal liberty of any other man ”—‘‘a restricted freedom ” which guarantees to the harmless individual the security of his life and liberty. But on p. 28 the rights of animals (which were said before to consist in a ‘due measure ” of that just quoted) being here stated to be ‘‘ subject to the limitations imposed by the perma- nent needs and interests of the community,” are found to be burdened with so serious a qualification that security for the life and liberty of the harmless individual is by it completely destroyed. A European might settle with confidence in an unknown island, on the assurance that he would be allowed a measure of the general right of the natives to the freedom to do that which they would, provided they infringed not the equal rights of any other, but were he afterwards to discover that the **measure ” of this right which was considered to be the ‘‘ due ” of a foreigner was in reality limited ‘“‘by the needs and interests of the community,” and that, a community where the custom of enslaving and eating strangers had existed from time immemorial, we venture to assert that his departure from the island would be effected with as little delay as possible. We should much regret misrepresenting Mr. Salt’s statements, but the assertion that the second definition of rights is but a repetition and amplification of the first is manifestly untenable, and if, by ‘‘due measure” for animals of the rights of man, Mr. Salt would have us understand that he meant—only such a measure as is consistent with the nullification of the most fundamental privileges secured by them, he must have been discussing the subject in a vein of sarcasm which we are bound to confess we had quite failed to appreciate. THE REVIEWER. The Height and Spectrum of Auroras. THERE was a magnificent aurora on the evening of the 4th, part of which, from 1oh. 464m. to 48m. or 49m., was an intense red. I noted the positions of some of the features at the exact half-hours and also at some other times, for comparison: with any observations that may have been made in other places, for ascertaining the height of the phenomenon ; and I hope some such observations have been made of the recent display, and will be made of further ones in the future, for Dr. Veeder, of Lyons (New York), has kindly consented to calculate the heights from the observations. 1 am surprised that none of our persevering photographers have as yet obtained a good photograph of the auroral spectrum. I do not think it would be more difficult than the stellar photo- graphs that have been taken, seeing that the exposure might go on for hours. It would be desirable to have it done with a camera that could be pointed in any direction at will, so that wherever the observer saw a bright portion of the aurora he could direct the instrument to it. T. W. BACKHOUSE. Sunderland, December 6. The Teaching of Botany. THERE appeared in NATURE (vol. xxxi. p. 229) a paper entitled ‘‘Experiments suitable for illustrating Elementary Instruction in Chemistry,” by Sir H. E. Roscoe and W. J. Russell. 1 have long felt the want of a similar series of experi- ments in physiological botany. There is not much difficulty in teaching the morphological side of the subject, but it is not easy for the ordinary high-school teacher to devise and carry outa suitable series of experiments for demonstrating the more im- portant aspects of physiological botany. If some master in the 152 subject would do for botany what Sir H. E. Roscoe has done for chemistry he would confer a great boon on teachers and young students. A. Hi. Egyptian Figs. My attention has been celled to a very obvious slip of the pen in my note on Egyptian Figs, in that I have written ‘‘ Pliny’ instead of ‘‘ Theophrastus.” The former, as all know, was a Latin author, but he simply copies from the latter. Having both authors before me at thetime, I accidentally put one name for the others. The refs. are as follows:—Theoph. iv. 2 ; Dioscor. 1. 1 ; Plin. xiii. 7. GEORGE HENSLOW. A Palzozic Ice-Age. I CANNOT understand how, when writing on this subject ante, p. 101), I overlooked the circumstance that the ancient boulder-beds of Australia, India, and South Africa received full notice in Prof. J. Prestwich’s ‘‘ Geology,” vol. ii. pp. 143-146. December 9. W. T. BLANFORD. SCHEELE. URING this month Sweden commemorates the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the birth of one who has conferred an imperishable lustre on her annals. Carl Wilhelm Scheele—although a German by nationality, for he was born at Stralsund, the capital of Pomerania—spent practically the whole of his. short life in Sweden, and is usually regarded as a Swede. The son of a tradesman, Joachim Christian Scheele, and the seventh child of a family of eleven, Scheele, as a boy, gave little promise of the genius and power which astonished the scientific world towards the close of the last century. It is perhaps indicative of a certain mental imperfec- tion that he should have been wholly incapable of learning a foreign language; although he lived in Sweden during more than half his life his knowledge of Swedish was so imperfect that his memoirs, ad- dressed to the Academies of Stockholm and Upsala, were invariably written by him in German and had to be translated by others before publication. By what influences he was led to the study of chemistry is unknown. There was nothing apparently in his home life; or in the mode or circumstances of his education to direct his inclination towards science. Asa boy he began the study of pharmacy, and at his own wish was appren- ticed to an apothecary at Goteborg named Bauch, with whom he remained eight years. Here he had access to the standard treatises on chemistry of that time, and he devoted all his leisure, often working far -into the night, to the study of the works of Neumann, Lemery, Kunkel, and Stahl. Kunkel’s Laboratorium was, indeed, his chief instructor in practical chemistry, and it was by diligently repeating, in the first instance, the experiments contained in that book that he acquired that extraordinary manipu- lative skill and analytical dexterity on which his success as an investigator ultimately rested. ' When twenty-three years of age Scheele removed to Malmé6, and some years afterwards to Stockholm, where he superintended the shop of an apothecary named Scharenberg. It was about this time that his career asa discoverer began, by the isolation of tartaric acid from cream of tartar. He ascertained many of the charac- teristic properties of this acid and prepared and ex- amined a number of tartrates. These early efforts met, however, with a somewhat untoward reception. It seems that Scheele drew up an account of his observations and forwarded it to Bergman, who then filled the chair of chemistry in the University of Upsala as the successor of Wallerius. Bergman failed to appreciate the significance of the work of the young and unknown apothecary and by NO. 1207, VOL. 47] NATURE [ DECEMBER I5, 1892 some mischance the manuscript was lost. The importance of the discovery was, however, recognized by Retzius, who induced Scheele to write a second account of his work and to submit it to the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm, by whom it was eventually printed. In 1771 Scheele published his memorable essay, “ On Fluor Mineral and its Acid,” in which he first demonstrated the true composition of fluor- spar, showing that it “consists principally of calcareous earth saturated with a peculiar acid,” named by him “fluor-acid.” Although he found that the “ fluor-acid ” (hydrofluoric acid) dissolved “ siliceous earth,” he failed to recognize the change thereby produced in the “ fluor- acid” and was thus led to an erroneous conception of its real nature. He was in fact led astray by the circum- stance that his experiments were for the most part made in glass vessels, and hence the fluor-acid was contamin- ated with more or less silica and hydrofluosilicie acid. The origin of the silica in the acid prepared by Scheele was first clearly indicated independently by Wiegleb and Meyer. In 1773 Scheele went to Upsala as pharmaceu- tical assistant to Mr. Lokk, in whose shop he chanced to meet the chemist Gahn. Lokk and Gahn were speculating on the cause of the different mode of action of distilled vinegar on nitre before and after fusion. This was explained by the young assistant, who pointed out the nature of the change effected on nitre by fusion ; and the fact that it is converted into a salt (potassium nitrite) from which a peculiar acid, differ- ent from true “ spirit of nitre,’ can be obtained by treat- ment with distilled vinegar. Gahn, struck with the sagacity of the young pharmacist, offered to introduce him to Bergman. The invitation was at first declined ; Scheele had not forgotten the unfortunate incident of the tartaric acid memoir. Eventually he allowed himself to be con- vinced that Bergman’s action was due more to inadvertence than to indifference, and the acquaintance which followed rapidly ripened into astrong friendship. In 1774 Scheele, at the suggestion of Bergman, published his well-known memoir “On Manganese, Manganesium, or Magnesia Vitrariarum.” This essay, although marred and in part obscured by the phlogistic conceptions of the period, will for ever remain one of the classics of chemistry. In it Scheele not only established the nature of “ pyrolusite ” or “ wad,” but, in studying the action of acids upon the mineral, he was led to the discovery of baryta and of chlorine, the properties of which he minutely describes. In 1775 appeared his memoir on arsenic acid which he prepared in several ways; he discovered many of the more striking properties of this body and obtained a number of its salts. In the course of the investigation he discovered arseniureted hydrogen, and the well-known pigment Scheele’s Green. In the same year he published his essay on benzoic acid, the “flowers of benzoin” of the apothecary. After a stay of two years in Upsala Scheele was appointed by the Medical College Drovisor of the pharmacy at K6ping, a small town on the north shore of Lake Malar. Instead of the prosperous business he had been led to expect he found nothing but discom- fort and disorder, and the remainder of his life was spent in aconstant struggle with privation and debt, relieved at length, to some extent, by a grant, at Bergman’s instiga- tion, from the Stockholm Academy. Of this money Scheele set aside one-sixth for his personal necessities, and devoted the remainder to his researches. In 1777 he took over the business of the pharmacy from the widow of the former proprietor, but it was only by unremitting industry that he was able to discharge the obligation he thereby incurred. Nota year passed, however, without Scheele publishing two or three memoirs, every one of which contained a discovery calculated to enhance his reputation as the greatest experimenter of his time. This untiring devotion to science at length began to tell upon a frame constitutionally weak and doubtless further enfeebled by privation, and by the worry DECEMBER 15, 1892 | of debt and difficulties. He struggled on, however, a martyr to rheumatism and suffering from a complication of internal disorders until he was struck down in the spring of 1786. Some time before his fatal illness he had formed the resolution of marrying the widow of his pre- decessor so soon as his circumstances should permit: on his death-bed he carried out this project, bequeathing to his wife such property as he had been able to acquire. Two days afterwards (May 21, 1786) he died at the age of forty-four. _ The eleven years during which Scheele lived at Képing were fruitful in investigations of the highest importance ‘in every department of chemistry. In that time he discovered molybdic, tungstic, and arsenic acids - among, the inorganic acids; and lactic, gallic, oxalic, citric, malic, mucic, and uric among the organic acids. He also discovered glycerin, determined the nature of Prussian blue, and prepared hydrocyanic acid. He de- _monstrated that plumbago is nothing but carbon asso- ciated with more or less iron, and that the black powder left on the solution of cast-iron in mineral acids is essen-, tially the same substance. He determined the chemical nature of sulphuretted hydrogen, discovered arseniureted hydrogen, and invented new processes for preparing » powder of algaroth, calomel, and magnesia alba. He made numerous analyses of air by absorbing the oxygen with a mixture of iron filings and sulphur. He _concluded that “ our atmosphere contains always, though with some little difference, the same quantity of pure or fire air [oxygen] viz. 8; which is a very remarkable fact ; and to assign the cause of it seems difficult, as a quantity _of pure air [oxygen] in supporting fire, daily enters into a new union; and a considerable quantity of it is likewise Sg a or changed into aerial acid (carbon dioxide) as well by plants as by respiration ; another fresh proof of the t care of our Creator for all that lives.” ' eele’s greatest work, however, is unquestionably his treatise on “ Air and Fire,” which appeared in 1777 with a preface by Bergman, who, according to Thomson, A ae its publication. This elaborate essay shows Scheele at his best and at his worst ; it testifies to his genius as an experimentalist and to his weakness as a theorist. No one can read this, or indeed any other of Scheele’s memoirs, without being impressed by his extraordinary ap ang which at times amounted almost to divination, and _by the way in which he instinctively seizes on what is es- sential and steers his way among the rocks and shoals of contradictory or conflicting observations. No man was ever more staunchly loyal to the facts of his experiments, __ however strongly these might tell against an antecedent ‘or congenial hypothesis. Had Scheele possessed that _ sense of quantitative accuracy which was the special _ characteristic of his contemporary Cavendish, his work on “Air and Fire” would inevitably have effected the overthrow of phlogistonism long before the advent of Lavoisier. His memoir is essentially an essay on oxygen, of which he was an independent discoverer, in its rela- tions to life and combustion. It is perhaps idle to speculate on the causes which prevented his clear recog- nition of the full truth. It may have been that he was essentially a Jreparateur like Priestley, and that quanti- tative chemistry had few attractions for him; it is far more probable that the character of his work was deter- mined by the circumstances of his position, by his poverty, his lack of apparatus, and his want of assistance. As it is, it remains one of the most remarkable circumstances in the history of human knowledge that a man working under such adverse conditions in a small village on the shore ofa Scandinavian lake should have been able to change the entire aspect of a science. It was stated by Crell, the editor of the well-known Neue Entdeckungen and Annalen, in which many of Scheele’s papers first appeared, that the great Swedish NO. 1207, VOL. 47] NATURE 153 chemist was invited to this country with the offer of an easier and more lucrative position than that which he had:at K6ping ; but that his partiality for Sweden and his love of quiet and retirement delayed his acceptance of the offer until a change in the English ministry put a stop to the negotiations. Thomson, the author of the “History of Chemistry” in mentioning this cir- cumstance, expresses his doubts as to its truth, and states that he made enquiries of Sir Joseph Banks, Cavendish, and Kirwan, but none of them had ever heard of such negotiation. Indeed the circumstance is intrinsically improbable. “I am utterly at a loss,” says Thomson, “to conceive what one _ individual in any of the ministries of George III. was either acquainted with the science of chemistry or at all interested in its progress. What minister in Great Britian ever attempted to cherish the sciences, or to reward those who cultivate them with success? . ; If any such project ever existed, it must have been an idea which struck some man of science that such a proposal to a man of Scheele’s eminence would redound to the credit of the country. But that such a project should have been broached by a British ministry, or by any man of great political influence, is an opinion that no person would adopt who has paid any attention to the history of Great Britain since the Revolution to the present time.” T. E. THORPE. WERNER VON SIEMENS. RNST WERNER SIEMENS was the eldest son of Christian Ferdinand Siemens and Eleonore Deichmann ; he was born in 1816 at Lenthe in Hanover, where his father was engaged in the business of agricul- ture and forestry. From his very childhood the subject of this memoir learnt the lessons of self-control and responsibility, for owing to his mother’s delicate health and his father’s occupations, the care of his younger brothers and sisters devolved on himself and his sister Mathilde; in these younger days he also learnt tact, and his father taught him that difficulties had to be faced and overcome, and! that duties must never be avoided. In 1823, a few months after the birth of his brother William (whose lamented death occurred here nine years: ago), the family removed to Menzendorf near Liibeck,. in the Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg. In the Gym- nasium of Liibeck Werner was educated up to his. eighteenth year, when, by the advice of his father—who with rare prescience saw in Prussia the nucleus of German Unity and Empire—he went to Magdeburg to volunteer for service in the Prussian Army. For three years he studied in the Military School of Berlin, and in 1838: received his commission as a lieutenant in the artillery, and returned to Magdeburg ; he was soon transferred to the Technical Division of the Artillery at Spandau,. and afterwards to Berlin. In July, 1839, his mother died, and six months after- wards his father ; and then, at only twenty-three years of age, he became the veritable guardian of his younger brothers and sisters. In 1842 he took out a patent in Prussia for electro- plating and gilding, and having established a factory in Berlin for putting his invention into practice, he urged his brother William to devote his attention to the subject. This the younger brother did; and the story of his enterprise and success in this country then and ever since has been told by Dr. William Pole in his most interesting biography of him ; to this volume and to the works of Dr. Werner von Siemens, the first volume of a translation of which has recently been published by Mr. Murray, we are indebted for much of the informatiom contained in this short notice. 154 NATORE [ DECEMBER 15, 1892 In 1844 the young artillery officer was appointed to the important post of Superintendent of the Artillery work- shops, and in 1847 he became a member of the commission then instituted for introducing the electric telegraph into Prussia. Next year his military duties called him to Kiel, where in conjunction with his brother-in-law, Prof. Himly, he protected that port against the attack of the Danish fleet, by means of submerged mines connected with the shore by cables, at once the precursor of the submarine cable and the torpedo. In the summer of 1848, as commandant of Friederichsort, he built the fortifications for the protection of the harbour of Ecken- forde, which afterwards became so celebrated. In the same year he was recalled to Berlin in order to erect a line of telegraph from Berlin to Frankfort-on-the-Maine, the first electric line laid in Germany, and with this his official military career terminated, and he devoted his attention altogether to those scientific discoveries and inventions which have made the name of Siemens a ‘household word in every region of the globe, In 1874 Dr. Werner Siemens was elected a member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, and the speech he made upon that occasion enables one to understand and appreciate his connexion with physical science. He -was professionally connected with the application of science, which unfortunately left him but little leisure for those purely scientific investigations to which he always felt specially attracted. He says, to quote his -own words in the speech just referred to, “ My problems were generally prescribed by the demands of my pro- fession, because the filling up of scientific voids which I met with presented itself as a technical necessity. I will only here mention cursorily my method of measuring high velocities by means of electric sparks, the discovery -of the electrostatic charge of telegraph conductors and its laws, the deduction of methods and formulz for testing underground and submarine cables, as well as for deter- ‘mining the position of faults occurring in their insulation, NO. 1207, VOL. 47] my experimental observations on electrostatic induction, and the retardation of the electric current thereby, the con- ception and realization of a reproducible basis of measure- ment for electrical resistance, the proof of the heating of the dielectric of a condenser by sudden discharge, the discovery and explanation of the dynamo electric machine. I think I may claim that many of my technical contributions are not without scientific value, among which I may mention the differential regulator, the manufacture of insulated conductors by pressing gutta- percha around them, telegraphic duplex, diplex, induction and automatic recording instruments, the ozone apparatus, and measuring instruments of different kinds. I had the honour of seeing these recognized by receiving from the Berlin University the distinction of Doctor of Phil- osophy, onoris causa.” The reply to this speech was made on behalf of the Berlin Academy by Prof. du Bois Reymond, the Secretary of the Physical and Mathematical Section, and some of the words he then spoke will show how Germany appreciated one of her ablest sons, one whom we also may claim, for when Werner Siemens was born, the King of England was Elector of Hanover. “ By appropriating such a scientific form as yours, my dear Siemens, no Academy need be untrue to the laws of its foundation. Yours is the talent of mechanical discovery, which primitive people not improperly described as divine, and the cultivation of which constitutes the as- cendancy of modern culture. Without having yourself worked with your hands in practical mechanics, you have reached the highest point in that art as creating and organizing head. With clear view and daring mind you soon grasped the great practical problems of electric telegraphy, and thus secured to Germany an advantage which ,Gauss, Wilhelm Weber, and Steinheil could not have procured for it. Your labours were for electricity what Frauenhofer’s were for light, and you are the James Watt of electro-magnetism. Now you rule over a world which you created. Your telegraph lines sur- round the globe. Your cable ships navigate the ocean. Under the tents of nomads using bows and arrows, through whose hunting grounds your messages pass, your name is mentioned with superstitious awe.” : This poetical description is fully justified by the great undertakings that have been carried out by the Siemens firm. The Indo-European telegraph, 2750 miles in length, passes across Europe, through a part of Russia to Tabreez and Teheran in Persia, and thence to India. But for the international character of the firm this work could probably never have been accomplished. But with Mr. Carl Siemens in St. Petersburg, Dr. Werner in Berlin, and Mr. William in London, to carry out the necessary negotiations, the tender was accepted in June, 1869, and the work was completed in December of the same year. Since then eighteen cables of a total length exceeding 21,000 miles have been constructed at their Woolwich works and laid in the Atlantic by the Pavaday, by the firm of Messrs. Siemens Brothers and Co., Limited, of which firm Dr. Werner von Siemens was Chairman and Mr. Alexander Siemens is the Director in London. In a single line of the speech just alluded to Dr. Werner refers to the dynamo machine. On this machine the whole supply of electricity for lighting, transmission of power, and other large purposes is dependent ; and it is interesting in this connexion to note that the only rival to the electric light for large effects is the regenera- tive gas lamp invented by Dr. Werner’s youngest brother, Mr. Frederick Siemens, the inventor, with Sir William Siemens, of the regenerative gas furnace. Dr. von Siemens was a Knight of the Prussian order pour le mérite, an honour conferred only on those who have been distinguished for their services to science and industry. The honorary degree conferred upon him by the University of Berlin, and his membership of the DECEMBER 15, 1892] NATURE r55 Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin, have already been referred to. Dr. von Siemens was a member of many _ learned societies, and only in the spring of this year he _ was elected one of the sixteen honorary members of the Institution of Civil Engineers. The late Emperor Frede- ick III. of Germany conferred upon him the patent of nobility in 1888, and the present Emperor has expressed _ his sympathy with his sorrowing widow and family. _ Dr. Siemens was unfortunately one of those attacked the influenza epidemic, and although he recovered pm it, it left him weak, and he has since been ailing yre than once. A work on which he has been spending nis Spare moments was an autobiography, giving reminis- _ cences of himself and of the firm of Siemens and Bie Halske. This was published in Berlin a fortnight ago. On Tuesday, the 6th inst., Dr. Werner breathed his last at half- a veg six in the evening, just within a week of completing Ss hen aga year. It may truly be said of him that, e has passed from us, his life’s labours will posal endure, having left an indelible mark on the world’s SS. funeral took place on Saturday. The London, are, Vienna, and St. Petersburg factories of the firm of which the deceased was a member, sent officials and workmen ; the many thousands following the hearse, and the respectful attitude of the bystanders in the streets through which the funeral procession passed testifying to __ the regard in which he was held. The Emperor William was re ted by Prince Leopold, the Empress Frede- _ rick by Count Seckendorff, and the German Empire by Chancellor Caprivi. Science and art and industry, the ons _ City of Berlin and the town of Charlottenburg were eed, by deputies and deputations, all combining _ to do’ me to one esteemed of all. EF, 5. ‘Ss NOTES. re are glad to announce that Sir Archibald Geikie has under- taken to write the Life of Sir Andrew C. Ramsay, his prede- cessor in the Geological Survey. Sir Andrew Ramsay spent nearly the whole of his scientific career in the service, so that the record of his life and the story of the progress of the Survey are _ closely bound together. This is the third member of the staff of the Survey whose memoirs Sir Archibald Geikie will have written, the two others being Edward Forbes (whose Life he wrote in conjunction with the late Prof. George Wilson) and Sir Roderick Murchison. Sir Archibald joined the staff under ihe ag and grew into the closest relations of friendship with aah regret te have to record the death of Mr. H. T. Stainton, RRS. He died on December 2 at the age of seventy. He was indefatigable in his study of entomology, to which he made many important contributions. His chief work is ‘‘ Natural History of the Tineina,” in four languages, with many plates. His “Manual of British Butterflies and Moths” is also well known. Mr. Stainton was one of the founders of the Entomologists’ Monthly Magazine, and remained to the end of his life one of its editors. He was for many years secretary of the Ray Society and of the Zoological Record Association, and _ one of the secretaries of Section D of the British Association. From 1848 he was a Fellow of the Entomological Society, of which he was at one time president ; and from 1859 he was a Fellow of the Linnean Society, of which he was at one time vice-president. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1867. THE Chemical Society held a special meeting on Tuesday, the anniversary of the death of Stas. A paper, prepared for the occasion by Prof. J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., on ‘‘ Jean Servais Stas, and the measurement of the relative masses of the atoms of the chemical elements,” was read and discussed. NO. 1207, VOL. 47 | THE new Victoria buiidings of University College, Liverpool, which include the Jubilee Tower, were formally opened on Tuesday. Lord Spencer, as Chancellor of the Victoria Univer- sity, took part in the ceremony. At a banquet held in the evening, Mr. Bryce announced that the Queen, out of certain funds belonging to the Duchy of Lancaster, had been pleased to bestow upon the two great Lancashire Colleges a sum of £4000, to be applied in some permanent form, such as might be agreed upon by the authorities of the Colleges, particularly the principals, to commemorate the event of that day, and Her Majesty's interest in the growth of the institution. On Monday, at Merchant Taylors’ Hall, Dr. William Anderson presented the prizes in connection with the City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advancement of Technical Education. Afterwards, addressing the students, Dr. Anderson called attention to the extraordinary advantages enjoyed by students of the present day in comparison with those within the reach of students of the past generation. In nearly all towns men and women were improving their knowledge in almost every branch of art and science to which their necessities or their inclinations led them. He had come to the conclusion that the aids given nowadays to manufactures and commerce were absolutely indi- spensable if England was to hold her own, and to overcome the difficulties which high-priced labour, the restrictions of the Legislature, and the interference of trade organizations imposed. Dr. T. JEFFREY PARKER, F.R.S., of Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand, who is now in this country, will read a paper on the cranial osteology, classification, and phylogeny of the Moas (Dinornithidz) at the Zoological Society’s meeting on the 14th of February. THE committee appointed by the Board of Agriculture to inquire into the plague of field voles in Scotland have declined for the present to recommend the adoption of the plan lately carried out in Thessaly by Prof. Loeffler, who claims to have got rid of voles in that district by feeding them with prepared bait containing the germs of mouse typhus. It is thought that Prof. Loeffler may not have attached sufficient weight to other causes which have doubtless operated to reduce the swarms of voles in Thessaly, such as the heavy rains which on the low ground would flood the holes and runs of the mice. The chair- man of the committee, Sir Herbert Maxwell, and the secretary, Mr. J. E. Harting, with the sanction of the Board of Agriculture and of the Treasury, are about to proceed to Thessaly for the purpose of taking evidence there and reporting. A NEW edition of M. Alphonse Bertillon’s important book on ‘‘ Identification Anthropométrique ” will be published in January. The book has been entirely recast and considerably enlarged. It is the result of ten years of observation, and has been prepared, not merely for the anthropometric service directed by the author, but for all who desire to have a proper comprehension of man’s physical qualities. In addition to the copies intended for the use of the penal administration of the French Ministry of the Interior, a small number of copies will be reserved for persons who may desire to subscribe for them. On the.evening of Thursday the 8th instant a deep baro- metric depression advanced upon our. north-west coasts, and proceeded with considerable rapidity in a south-easterly direc- tion, completely traversing Great Britain, as far as Dover, and travelling throughout its course at the rate of about 36 miles an hour. Its passage was accompanied by gales and by heavy rain or sleet, with severe snowstorms on the east coast. This dis- turbance passed away to the eastward, and was followed on Saturday bya fresh depression which appeared in the north- west, causing a strong gale in that district, and heavy squalls in. most other parts. The changes of temperature were very 156 NATURE [DECEMBER 15, 1892 irregular, the air being warm and moist under the influence of the cyclonic systems, but cold and relatively drier in the rear of . the disturbances ; in Scotland the frost was at times severe, the lowest of the minima being as low as 8° in the east of Scotland. In the early part of the present week a temporary improvement took place, with a generally rising barometer and falling ther- mometer, but these conditions soon gave place to a fresh dis- turbance in the north-west, accompanied by south-westerly winds generally. The Weekly Weather Report for the period ending the roth instant showed that the temperature was below the mean in all districts, the greatest deficiency being about 7° over the northern parts of the kingdom. Rainfall exceeded the mean in the north-west of England and the north of Ireland, but in all other districts it differed little from the average amount. Bright sunshine was more prevalent than for many weeks past, except in the north of Scotland, where only 5 per cent. of the possible amount was registered. A ForeIcn OFFice ‘‘ Report on the Social and Economical Condition of the Canary Islands” (No. 246, 1892) contains some details with respect to the climate. There is no record of the freezing point having been touched at Laguna (Teneriffe), 1840 feet above the sea. At Vila Flor, also in Teneriffe, 4335 feet above the sea, the highest point where cultivation exists, the lowest temperature recorded in 1890-91 was 28° ; the lowest reading at the sea level during the same period was 49°. The highest summer reading at Iaguna was 104°'9 in 1885. The average maximum temperature near the sea in the summer is about 82°. The annual rainfall at Laguna is 29°4 inches, but at Santa Cruz (Teneriffe), at the sea level, it is only about 11 inches, and at Las Palmas it isas low as 8°4 inches. The greater part of the rain falls in the Monte Verde, where the vapour.is carried from the sea by the trade wind. The rain generally begins early in October and ceases early in May. THE country between the Nile and the Red Sea has not always been so barren as it is to-day. There is ample evidence that in former times bodies of cavalry from three to five hundred in number ranged without commissariat difficulties over districts which are now deserts. The Arabic names of the valleys are names for trees, and there can be little doubt that at one time ithe valleys abounded with the trees after which they were called. How is the change to be explained? Much light is thrown on the problem by a most interesting paper printed in the new mumber of the Aew Bulletin, to which it has been communicated by Mr. E. A. Floyer, F.L.S., Inspector-General of Egyptian Telegraphs. It is an extract from the report (which will be published in French by the Egyptian Government) of the ex- pedition despatched by the Khedive to this region in 1891. The writer believes that the mischief has been done during the last twelve hundred years, and that it is to be attributed to the Arab and his camel ; the camel having eaten the leaves and shoots of the trees, the Arab having converted into charcoal the stem, root, and branch. The writer is inclined to state the matter thus: So long as the valleys were all the Arab had to depend on for feeding his camels, so long he preserved his trees for his camels, But by degrees some Arabs got a footing in the Nile Valley. They hired their camels to the farmer to carry their harvest. They went back to their deserted valley and brought away the trees in form of charcoal. Thus the land was gradually made bare. If this explanation is correct—and there is evidently much to be said for it—the writer points out that a like cause may be invoked over large areas to explain, for example, the disappearance of the frankincense and spices from Southern Arabia, to explain the thousands of chariots and horsemen in Palestine, and to explain how in early times a greater fertility and population existed in many countries whose history, like that of Palestine, seems out of proportion to their present circumstances. It is a pity, by the way, that in so good NO. 1207, VOL. 47] a paper nature should be spoken of as having produced in the camel ‘‘a Frankenstein.” Frankenstein in the story was not the monster, but the monster’s creator. Ir is by no means certain that the harm which the camel is capable of doing in Egyptian territory has even yet been ex- hausted. The writer of the report considers it possible that the prosperity in Egypt in which all Englishmen are rejoicing may seal the destruction of the remaining trees, and leave the country bare save of Calotropis procera and the plants which nourish a few sheep and donkeys, attended by herdsmen, fed by grain from the Nile Valley. ‘‘The camel,” he says, ‘‘ will then, having so to speak burnt its boats, be domesticated in the Nile Valley. And it is interesting to speculate as to how he will develop there. Already the massive Cairo camel is a type distinct from other camels, surpassing all in its cumbrous massive proportions.” ne THE December number of the Kew Bulletin contains, besid the paper on the disappearance of desert plants in Egypt, inter- esting sections on the Taj Gardens, Agra ; Indian gutta-percha ; the Gold Coast botanical station ; Ramie machine trials at New Orleans ; Lord Bute’s ‘‘ Botanical Tables” ; and miscellaneous notes. Reference was made to the ‘‘ Botanical Tables” in the historical account of Kew, printed in the Azdletin in 1891, p. 291. Since that was written the authorities at the Royal Gardens have had an opportunity, through the gracious permission of the — Queen, of examining the copy in the Royal Library at Windsor, _ which formerly belonged to Queen Charlotte, to whom the work was dedicated. On the fly-leaf of the first volume of the Windsor copy is the following note in pencil, written by the Rev. John Glover (appointed Royal Librarian by William IV.) :— ‘© Of this work only sixteen copies were printed for presents, at a cost, it is said, of more than £10,000. This copy belonged to Queen Charlotte, and was purchased at the sale of Her Majesty’s Library for, I believe, £100.” There seem, however, to have been only twelve copies. The general nature of the contents is indicated in the Bulletin. There are nine volumes, and the work contains 654 plates, all of them apparently drawn and engraved by John Miller,an excellent German artist—Johann Sebastian Mueller, who thus anglicised his name. CEYLON is sending to the Chicago Exhibition a complete reproduction of a Buddhist temple and many interesting speci- mens of ancient Sinhalese art, including, according to the Ceylon Observer, *‘exquisitely-carved pillars, massive doorways and dados, beautiful windows and frescoed panellings of courts.” There will also be, among other things, a display of jewellery, lace, and pottery. It is hoped that these treasures will do some- thing to further in America ‘‘ the interests of the most modern product of Ceylon, tea.” Av the recent meeting of the Congress of Americanists at Huelva, Mrs. Zelia Nuttall, of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, pre- sented a preliminary note on the calendar system of the ancient Aztecs. Guided by a statement in a Hispano-Mexican MS. which she has recently discovered in the National Central Library of Florence, Mrs. Nuttall claims to have found the key to the Aztec calendar system. She exhibited tables showing that the Mexican cycle was 13,515 days, and that it comprised 52 ritual years (less five days at the end of the cycle), of 260 days each, or 51 lunar years of 265 days each, based on nine moons, or 37 solar years each of 365 days. At the end of the fifty-first lunar year Io intercalary days placed the solar years in agreement with the lunar years in such a manner that the new cycle recommenced in the same solar and lunar positions as the 13,515 preceding days. Each period commenced with a day bearing one of the four names: acatl, tecpatl, calli, tochtli. The calendar system and tables, 14 metres long, designed to December 15, 1892] NA TURE ; illusteste this communication, were subsequently placed on & “exhibition i in the Spanish section of the Historical Exhibition at _ Madrid. Her Majesty the Queen of Spain commanded that Mrs. Zelia Nuttall should be presented to her, and expressed : much interest in her work. Bp : Noone expects to see the corncrake in Great Britain after the summer months. According to the Llangollen Advertiser, a q specimen was caught last Thursday in the neighbourhood of 3 Pentrefelin, Llangollen. Several local naturalists have seen the bird, and agree that it is a corncrake. ‘am luminous fungus has been forwarded to Europe from Tahiti. It is said to emit, at night, a light resembling that of bit _glowworm, which it retains for a period of twenty-four rs after having been gathered, and it is used, by the native women, in bouquets of flowers for personal adornment in the and dress. It belongs to the section ‘‘dimidiati” of the us Pleurotws, in which no luminous species has been hitherto 0 wn, although there are several in the genus, and has been ' named by M. Hariot Pleurotus /ux. It is believed to grow on oe trunks of trees. _A THEORETICAL investigation of the conditions under which Lippmann’s coloured photographs are produced is given by M. G. Meslin in the Ann. de Chim. et de Phys. for November. He maintains that the colours produced are complex, and belong to the higher orders of Newton’s scale. This is illustrated by the change in colour observed when the thickness of the film increases. When moist air is blown upon it the film swells, and the bright colours give way to others consisting principally _ ofred and green. The impure nature of the spectrum ordinarily _ obtained would account for its ‘‘ metallic” appearance. Besides, _ there is a blue or greenish-blue region which extends beyond the : _ ved end of the spectrum. The composite nature of the colours - reflected from the surface of the spectrum photograph may be shown by projecting a similar spectrum upon the film. The colours will then appear very brilliant. But if, for instance, the green is projected upon the red of the film, green is reflected all the same, although less distinctly thanbefore. The same thing happens in other parts of the spectrum. On moving it from the violet towards the red, the violet, arriving at the green portion, _ is interrupted by a broad band. On further displacement this q band, the breadth of which is about equal to the distance between the E and the b lines, moves through the green and yellow and reaches the red. At this moment the blue and violet regions show the greatest brightness. There is only one band observed throughout. This observation is in accordance with the thick- ness attributed to the layers, viz. between 200 and 350mm. Hence the paths traversed by the light will range from 400uu to 7OOup, giving * for none of the colours, 3 * = 600mm for the violet, 650umu for the blue, and 7oouu for the green. It will be still greater, i.¢. 3 * for the red, in the infra-red region of the spectrum. There we shall have a black band in the red, while the blue is at its maximum, owing to the retardation being equal to two wave-lengths. Hence the blue region beyond the red corresponds to the infra-red region of the incident spectrum, which in long exposures is able to produce a photographic effect. DuRING the year 1891 about 450 more persons were killed by wild beasts in India than during the preceding year. The num- ber in 1890, however, was abnormally low, and the Pioneer Mail calculates that last year’s figures were about 250 in excess ofthe mean. In one district of Bengal—Hazaribagh—no fewer than 205 deaths were due to a single brood of man-eating tigers. The yearly average of persons destroyed by wild beasts in our Eastern dependency is between 2500. and 3000, The NO. 1207, VOL. 47] 137 mortality from snake-bite is on a much larger scale. Year by year it varies from something over 21,090 to something over 22,000, AN excellent account of the Experiment Stations established in the United States in the interest of agriculture is given by Mr. R. Warington, F.R.S., in a paper issued by the National Association for the Promotion of Technical and Secondary Education. A fully equipped Experiment Station, he says, is a large and costly piece of machinery, embracing many depart- ments of work. There is one in every State of the Union, and in some States there are more than one; the total number is fifty-four. These Stations are endowed by Congress, £3000 a year being paid to the Station or Stations of each State. Ifthe income derived from the State Legislatures, and from other sources, be included, the average income of each Station is nearly 44000. In nearly every instance the station is connected with the States Agricultural College, and the Station buildings are in its immediate vicinity. The publications of the Stations are made in the form of periodical bulletins and annual reports ; for the printing of these a special grant is made by the State, and they are distributed by the Federal Government post free. The issues are very large : 60,000 copies of each Station bulletin are printed in Ohio, Any farmer in the State can at his request receive the bulletins regularly without payment. Mr. Warington expresses a hope that our own County Councils may be encouraged to try to do for agriculture in Great Britain what is so ener- getically done for itin America by the various States. A SERIES of investigations on soils isin progress at the Mary- land Agricultural Experiment Station, in co-operation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity. So far the work has been on the physical structure of the soil and its relation to the circulation of soil water, and the physical effect of fertilizers on soils as related to crop production. The surface tension of various solutions was first of all deter- mined. The solutions chosen included common salt, kainit, superphosphate of lime, soil extract, and ammonia. ‘Lhe soil extract was made by shaking up a little soil with just sufficient water to cover it. The water was afterwards filtered off and used for the determination, This operation reduced the surface- tension of water considerably, but the experiments do not appear sufficiently complete to indicate reasons for this. Analyses of the soils are not given. Ammonia and urine lowered the surface-tension of water considerably below that of the soil ex- tract, and still more below that of pure water. Common salt and kainit increase the surface tension of water, and no doubt this is the reason why the application of these substances to the soil tends to keep it moist, whereas the excessive use of nitro- genous manure has the reverse effect. THE Chamber of Commerce at Reims has published the statistics of the trade in champagne since 1844. In 1844-45 the value of the trade was 6,635,000 francs, and in the following year it exceeded seven millions. In 1868-69 it amounted to nearly sixteen millions, but fell to nine millions in 1870-71, and then rose in 1871-72 to twenty millions, The value in 1872 73 was twenty-two millions, and it oscillated between this sum and seventeen millions until 1889-90, when it became twenty-three millions. The figures were 25,776,000 in 1890-91 ; 24,243,996 in 1891-92. The number of bottles used in France rose from 2,225,000in 1844-45 to 4,558,000 in 1891-92, while the number exported rose during the same period from 4,380,000 to 16,685,900. The year in which most bottles were sent abroad was 1890-91 (nearly twenty-two millions). Messrs. SWAN, SONNENSCHEIN AND Co. have issued a translation, by Dr. E. L. Mark, Professor of Anatomy in Harvard University, of the third edition of Dr. Oscar Hertwig’s 158 NATURE [ DEcEMBER 15, 1892 ‘* Lehrbuch der Entwicklungsgeschichte des Menschen und der Wirbelthiere.” The volume is entitled ‘‘ Text-Book of the Embryology of Man and Mammals.” The translator, in his preface, expresses his belief that the work ‘‘covers the field of vertebrate embryology ina more complete and satisfactory way than any book hitherto published in English.” THE latest instalment of the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia contains a valuable paper, by Prof, E. D. Cope, on the Batrachia and Reptilia of North Western Texas. The statements presented in the paper are based on collections made along the eastern border of the Staked Plain of, Texas, between Big Spring (on the Texas Pacific R. R.) on the south, and the Salt Fork of the Red River, near Clarendon (on the Denver and Fort Worth R. R.) on the north, a distance of about 250 miles. The collections were made incidentally to geological and paleontological explorations con- ducted by a party of the Geological Survey of Texas, which was under the direction of Mr. William F. Cummins. While attached to this party Prof. Cope picked up such specimens as came in his way, and a good many others were obtained by Mr. Cummins and by Mr, William L. Black of the party. The total number of species enumerated is thirty-three. The paper may be regarded as supplementary to one published as Bulletin 17 of the U.S. National Museum in 1880, on the Zoological position of Texas. THE following are the lecture arrangements at the Royal Institution before Easter :—Sir Robert Stawell Ball, six lectures (adapted to a juvenile auditory)jon astronomy ; Prof. Victor Horsley, ten lectures on the brain; the Rev. Canon Ainger, three lectures on Tennyson ; Prof. Patrick Geddes, four lectures on the factors of organic evolution; the Rev. Augustus Jessopp, three lectures on the great revival—a study in medizeval history ; Prof. C. Hubert H. Parry, four lectures on expression and design in music (with musical illustrations) ; the Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, six lectures on sound and vibrations. The Friday evening meetings will begin on January 20, when a dis- course wiil be given by Prof. Dewar on liquid atmospheric air ; succeeding discourses will probably be given by Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. Alexander Siemens, Prof. Charles Stewart, Prof. A. H. Church, Mr. Edward Hopkinson, Mr. George Simonds, Sir Herbert Maxwell, Bart., the Right Hon.%Lord Rayleigh, and other gentlemen. THE micro-organism which has been shown to be the exciting cause of tetanus or lockjaw is just now especially attracting the attention of bacteriological investigators. Kitasato, who it will be remembered was the first who successfully isolated the bacillus of tetanus, has been continuing his researches on the protective inoculation of animals against this malady. In the current number ofthe Zeztschrift fiir Hygiene appears an account of some extremely interesting results which he has obtained with mice and guinea-pigs. In his experiments Kitasato introduced subcutaneously into these animals small splinters of wood which had been previously soaked ‘in bouillon-cultures of tetanus, so prepared that only the spores were present. He wished in this way to imitate as nearly as possible the actual manner in which tetanus is communicated, and which in consequence of the sensitiveness of the bacillar form to heat and light and the ex- tremely refractory nature of the spores, is almost invariably due to the accidental introduction of the latter. This theory is also supported by the fact that between the infliction of the wound and the development of symptoms of tetanus there is invariably a distinct lapse of time, during which the spores grow into bacilli and elaborate their toxic products within the system of the animal affected, after which the typical appearances of tetanus arise. The protective material used in these investiga- NO. 1207, VOL. 47] tions was the serum of a horse artificially rendered immune against tetanus, and in every case out of those mice which had received a small wood-splinter two were put aside and not subsequently inoculated with the protective serum. Kitasato. found, as he had expected, that a definite period of time elapsed between the introduction of the splinter and the development of tetanus symptoms ; but with hardly an exception, all those mice subsequently treated with the serum recovered, whilst those which had received no protective treatment died exhibiting the typical characteristics of tetanus. Moreover, it was found that the earlier the application of the serum took place after the in- fection and quite irrespective of the appearance of any signs of tetanus, the more successful was the result and the smaller the dose of serum necessary,:whilst when the wood-splinters and the serum were introduced together no. symptoms whatever of tetanus declared themselves. The same successful results were obtained in the case of guinea-pigs. In connection with the excessively hardy nature of the spore-form. of tetanus, Hervie- jean (Ann. de la Soc. méd-chir. de Liége, 1891) has- found that even after eleven years such spores still retain their power for mischief. A small fragment of wood was extracted from the ankle of a child who had died of tetanus, and after being kept for nearly eleven years part of it was introduced under the skin. of a rabbit, which afterwards died of tetanus, The infection was further confirmed by the discovery of tetanus bacilli in the pus of the wound. THE chloraurates and bromaurates of cesium and rubidium. have been prepared by Messrs, Wells and Wheeler, and are described in the current number of the Zeitschrift fiir Anor- ganische Chemie. They are all four beautifully crystalline sub- stances. The crystals, which have been measured by Mr. Penfield, belong to the monoclinic system, and form an isomor- phous series of identical habitus. These salts are so compara- tively insoluble in water that they are obtained in the form of crystalline precipitates when concentrated solutions of chlorides. or bromides of czesium or rubidium are mixed with strong solu-- tions of chloride or bromide of gold. They are, however, sufficiently soluble to admit of recrystallization from water. The: crystals of caesium chloraurate, CsAuCl,, exhibit an orange- yellow colour; those of the corresponding rubidium salt, RbAuCl,, possess a more deeply orange tint ; while the two: bromides, CsAuBr, and RbAuBr, are jet-black but yield: a dark red powder upon pulverization. The casium.compounds. are much less soluble than the rubidium ones, so that the crystals are usually much smaller. The more soluble rubidium salts readily form very large crystals ; the chloride in particular yields crystals whose size appears only to be limited by that of the crystallizing vessel and the depth of the solution. The crystals, however, whether large or small, all partake of the same character ; they are elongated prisms terminated by the basal plane,‘orthodome, clinodome, and small pyramidal planes.. The faces are usually extremely brilliant, but those of the bromides.are often singularly hollow or cavernous. In addition. to this well-defined series, another chloraurate of caesium has. been obtained containing water of crystallization. This salt,. 2CsAuCl,.H,O, is formed when a large excess of gold chloride is present compared with the amount of cesium chloride. It separates in the form of light orange-coloured tabular crystals. belonging to the rhombic system, which exhibit the peculiar property of undergoing an internal change accompanied by. elimination of the water of crystallization, within a few minutes: of their removal from the mother liquor. The change is probably due to the passage of this hydrated salt into the relatively more. stable anhydrous chloraurate described above. It betrays itself — in a most interesting manner under the microscope, in polarized light. When a crystal plate is removed from the mother liquor, , _ DECEMBER 15, 1892] NATURE 159 rapidly dried by means of blotting-paper and placed under the _ microscope, the Nicols being crossed, it simply produces the __ usual effect of causing the field to become coloured with some homogeneous tint. But after the expiration of three or four minutes the molecular change begins to be rendered apparent _ at the circumference of the field by a rapid augmentation of the a ing effect ; in another moment it commences to dart across _ the field in all directions, the brilliantly coloured rays being _ feathered with offshoots, reminding one of the rays of crystal- _ lizing ammonium chloride. This beautiful effect continues until, in less than ten minutes after the removal of the crystal from the mother liquor, the rearrangement of the molecules has become _ so general that light is no longer able to penetrate, and the _ tystal becomes completely opaque. Messrs. Wells and Wheeler j have also attempted to prepare the analogous compounds con- _ tainingiodine, but have not yet obtained them in a condition ‘so pure or well crystallized as the salts described above. ~ _ THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the ‘past week include a white-fronted lemur (Lemur albifrons 2 ) from Madagascar, presented by Mr. M. C. Parker; a brown _ capuchin (Cebus fatuellus 6) from Brazil, presented by Mr. Earle Tudor Johnson ; a large-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis) from Mashonoland, South Africa, presented by Mr. B. B. Weil ; two black-backed jackals (Camis mesome/as) from South Africa, _ presented by Capt. Ralph H. Carr-Ellison ; a common fox (Canis vulpes 2) from Arabia, presented by Miss Morgan; a _leadbeater’s cockatoo (Cacatua leadbeateri) from Australia, pre- _ sented by Lieut.-Colonel Warton ; a Rhesus monkey (Jacacus _ rhesus) from India, deposited. -_ OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comer Hotmzs (November 6).—The following is the ephemeris for Comet Holmes for the ensuing week :— y] 1892. R.A. (app.). Decl. (app.). Log ». Log 4. - h. m. s. ers ‘Dec. 15 ... 0 49 34 +34 50°r Te sce: $0 25: ... 45'8 0°4004 ... 0°2813 4 . es ey A 41°6 bieree revs) OX QE 37°5 a RSP Sat 27 is 33°6 GEO": 53 14 29°8 0°4027 0'293I fy ABD g has 54 3 26°'1 22... 0 54 53 +34 22°6 Owing to the extremely bad weather, observations of this comet have not been numerous, but from all accounts not much change has taken place in the general appearance, except that the : nucleus seems to possess two small tails, which extend towards the ragged edge of the exterior portion. _ Comet Brooks (NoveMBER 20, 1892).—Last week the only ephemeris of this comet at hand was one showing its position every fourth day, but Prof. Kreutz has now communicated to Astronomische \achrichten, No. 3132, a daily ephemeris, from which the following is extracted :— 1892. ee) re (app. Log ~. Log A. Br. ‘Dec. 15...13 50 10 ... +31 57°3 . 10x. 54 6... 33 17°2 ... 0°0974 ... O'0001 .. 3°67 17...13 58 19 ... 34 41°2 18...14 253... 36 9°5 ... 00946 ... 9'9775 ... 4°13 19... 7 51 37 42°2 20... 317... 39 19°3 ... O°092I ... 9°9550 ... 4°63 21... 1913... 41 08 22... 2546... 42 46°6 ... 0°0808 ... 9°9332 ... 5°17 From the column showing the brightnesses it will be seen that a considerable increase in this comet is taking place. The comet will be easily found by the fact that it lies in the pro- longation of a line joining 8 and y Bootis (December 18) at a distance equal to that between those two stars. NO. 1207. VOL. 47] . Royal Observatory of Capodimonte. THE New Brooks’ Comet.—The following positions of this comet are reported from Marseilles, by MM. Esmiol and Fabry :-— Marseille App. App. R.A. .D. Date. Mean Time. 3 P.D ae: ee! * h. m. s. nes St ad Nov, 24° .¢< WAS dea 2a 2180 5 74 St 33 24 06 37 CSR eee 8S 90°90}... 74°33! 183 29 5. 16 AS AO 84 SE Od IO ce 272k 40'7 30... EO 40" 49° i213" 14577 71 34 49°0 The comet presented the appearance of a nebulosity about 1’ in diameter, diffuse at the edges, and brighter towards the centre, but without a well-defined nucleus. Its brightness was about that of a star of eleventh magnitude. Nova AuRIG&,—Nova Aurige has again increased in mag- nitude, observations showing that visibly it is 8°5, while photo- graphically it is three magnitudes fainter. ASTRONOMY AT COLUMBIA COLLEGE, U.S,A.—The latest number of the bulletin issued by this college informs us that with the consent of the governing body of the New York Hospital and the college trustees, a new but small observatory is about to be erected on the site Bloomingdale. The instrument, which is at present being constructed by Wauschaff, at Berlin, is a zenith telescope, and it is one of a pair which is going to be used for observations to obtain accurate determinations of the variations of terrestrial latitudes. The other instrument, by order of the Italian government, is going to be mounted at the Both instruments will soon be, if not already, in working order ; the observers in America are Prof. Rees and Mr. Jacoby, while M. Higola will undertake the Italian observations. The library of this college has been recently very much in- creased by the purchase of the fine library of astronomical and physical works belonging to Mr. Struve, former director of the Pulkowa observatory. ‘This addition amounts to no less than 4361 bound and unbound books, together with 3056 pamphlets. CoMPANION TO THE OBSERVATORY FOR 1893.—This annual Companion for the coming year is very similar to the one last published. Mr. Denning gives a list of the principal meteor showers deduced from recent observations, while ephemerides for the planets, together with their satellites, are also inserted. Solar observers will find the ephemeris given on page 22 very useful, this table giving the position-angle of the sun’s axis, and the heliographic latitudes and longitudes of the centre of his disc. In addition to several other handy tables and ephemerides, the times of minima of variable stars not of the Algol type, variable stars of the Algol type, maxima and minima of variable stars, and finally a table of double stars are also included. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. Major Tuys, who has recently returned from the Congo Free State, reports that the railway from Matadi to Stanley Pool is progressing rapidly. The works are practically completed for only 14 kilometers out of the 400, but this includes the most difficult region, including the greater part of the ascent to the plateau. In a few months it is hoped that 40 kilometers will be com- pleted, and the malarial coast-belt can then be traversed rapidly, obviating a serious risk to the health of travellers to the Upper Congo. WE are pleased to find that the Manchester Geographical Society has published the concluding part of the seventh volume of its Journal although, as we had occasion to remark on the appearance of the previous part, it is greatly to be regretted that the people of Manchester do not take a greater interest in a Society which is one they have reason to be proud of. It is, we are convinced, solely to this want of local apprecia. tion that the Journal has to be issued so far behind its proper date as to impair the usefulness of its contents. In the current number there is an interesting paper on Japan by Mr. W. M. Steinthal. Mr. G. A. CRAIG has, we understand, resigned the secretary- ship of the Liverpool Geographical Society on account of ill- health. THE Scottish Geographical Magazine for this month contains a paper by Captain Lugard, entitled ‘‘ Characteristics of African 160 NATURE [ DECEMBER 15, 1892 Travel.” The Society presented Capt. Lugard with its silver medal and an honorary diploma of Fellowship. A similar award has been made to Mr. Joseph Thomson in recognition of his services to Geography in Africa. Dr. J. TROLL, an Austrian explorer, is at present engaged in a journey through Central Asia. He reached Samarkand in the end of October. Thence he’ proposes to pass through Russian and Chinese Turkestan and Mongolia, intending to return by Pekin and Shanghai. In the course of his journey he hopes to visit the ruined city of Karakoram, the ancient capital of Jenghiz Khan. j A RAILWAY has recently been opened from Wiborg, in Fin- land, to the Imatra Falls, thus bringing the finest rapids in Europe within six hours of St. Petersburg. Hitherto the falls have been reached by canal-steamer and coach, the journey occupying not much less than twelve hours. Mr. JOSEPH THOMSON proposes to use the name ‘‘ Living- stonia ” to describe the whole British sphere of influence north of the Zambesi and west of Lake Nyasa. It is little to the credit of British cartographers that the attempts hitherto made to associate Livingstone’s name with the continent of which he was the greatest explorer have practically failed. THE DESTRUCTION OF IMMATURE FISH. M®: ERNEST W. L. HOLT contributes to the new number of the Marine Biological Association’s Journal another very interesting paper on the results of his North Sea Investigations. He has much to say as tothe destruction of immature fish in the North Sea, and makes the following observations on proposed remedial measures :— It will be admitted that the continued destruction of large num- bers of valuable fish before they have had a chance of reproducing their species can only result in increased deterioration of the in- dustry, and that some measures must be taken to put a stop to it. unless we are prepared, and able, by artificial propagation to re- stock the sea as fast as wedepleteit. Briefly the various proposals that have. been put forward fall under three headings, viz. closure of grounds frequented by small fish, restriction of sale of undersized fish, and enlargement or alteration of mesh. We have seen that some of the smack-owners have adopted the eminently practical method of forbidding their boats to fish where they are likely to catch much small stuff; but the buyers, though as loud as any in their outcry, do not appear inclined to avail themselves of their undoubted power to check the evil. The proposals for legislative action have been so much discussed of late that T need only advert tosuch as affect the North Sea district. It is a matter of common knowledge that the bulk of the de- struction by deep-sea trawlers takes place on the eastern grounds, to which I have alluded elsewhere ; and since these lie wholly or in part outside the three-mile limit; it has been proposed that they shall be closed to trawling by international agreement. Whether such agreement could ever be arrived at is questionable and if it were, it is not likely that the ensuing legislation could be easily enforced. The great extent of the grounds would in- volve an enormous and costly Marine Police force, of mixed nationality ; and even were such a body much more efficient than one has any reason to expect, there might be considerable diffi- culty in adequately watching grounds which extend in some cases over fifty miles from shore. Indeed, on our own coasts and elsewhere the success with which legislation limited to the territorial area has hitherto been enforced is hardly such as to encourage us to extend the principle to the open sea. The various standards of size which have been advocated, in proposals for prohibiting the sale or possession of undersized fish, differ according as the subject has been treated with regard to the marketable qualities of the fish, or to its powers of repro- duction ; and it may be assumed, I suppose, without argument that the latter isthe more rational method of treatment. Still it may beas well to recapitulate the sizes proposed at the Fishery Conference at Fishmongers’ Hall last February, since they may be taken to represent the most recent trade opinion on the subject. They are for turbot and brill twelve inches, for soles and lemon sole (Pleuronectes microcephalus) ten inches, and for plaice eleven inches. How far they fall short of the biological limits, at least for the North Sea district, can be judged by com- paring them with the table of sizes on p. 384 of the Journal ; and, indeed, I may remark that the prohibition of the sale of NO. 1207, VOL. 47] turbot and brill under twelve inches in length is rather a work of supererogation, since the number of smaller fe of these species that come to market, at all events at Grimsby, is utterly insignificant. — ) The benefit to be expected from any measure of prohibition depends of course on the vitality of the fish, and it is very generally asserted that the bulk of the small fish trawled on these eastern grounds would not survive if returned. My own experience leads me to believe that this view is correct! so long as the present system of long hauls is maintained. Hence we must seek for sucha limit as will render the grounds most fre- quented by these small fish unprofitable to the fishermen (since any less limit would only involve an infinitely greater waste than takes place at present), and in doing so it is necessary to glance at the general conditions of this fishery. Exclusive of less important forms, the species chiefly met with are plaice, turbot, and soles. The plaice, on most grounds, do not exceed a length of fifteen inches, and are mostly less than thirteen inches in Iength. The turbot are fairly abundant, but, as I have already shown, almost all immature ; soles are scarce. It is only the certainty of being able to fill up with small plaice that induces the fishermen to cross to the eastern side, since the soles and turbot would not nearly pay his expenses by them- selves. Now I am confident that if the Conference limit of eleven inches for plaice were enforced, there would still be enough saleable fish left to make the grounds worth visiting, whereas if it were raised to fifteen or even fourteen inches the grounds would assuredly be left alone ; and although such would be below the biological limit, I believe the practical closing to our huge fleets of such a magnificent nursery for young plaice would be in itself a sufficient protection for the species. Certain rough patches of ground, practically surrounded by areas yield- ing only small fish, abound with only large fish; these would still be accessible to fishermen, whereas in any scheme of geo- graphical restriction it would hardly be possible to exempt them. Moreover the restriction of size would probably do away with the destruction of small plaice by sbrimp or sole-trawls, since the fish are not injured by being caught in these nets, and if un- saleable? would probably be returned. : For turbot, brill, and sole I would advocate the adoption of the biological standards. They are all rather hardy forms, and it appears that immature brill and such immature turbot as are — found on our own coasts are chiefly caught on certain banks where the intricate nature of the ground renders short hauls a necessity, so that they could be returned to the sea in good con- dition, as indeed the smaller of them usually are at present by | many fishermen. With regard to soles, I do not think that many undersized fish are caught by deep-sea traw lers,® and the substi- tution of a size limit for the present prohibition of the use of a fish-traw! in the Humber would’do away with the anomaly of a. law which is not enforced. There is a strong feeling: amongst inshore fishermen that the bye-law alluded to is unequal in its operation, since it offers no check to the destruction of small fish on off-shore grounds, only accessible to large boats. Hence a regulation as to the size of fish landed is perhaps preferable to one based solely on territorial conditions somewhat imperfectly understood. An objection which I have heard urged against any scheme for keeping our trawlers off the eastern grounds is that the summer sole trade in the North Sea would thereby be left entirely in the hands of foreigners. I think that this is, perhaps, rather overstating the case, but anyhow I cannot see that it furnishes any excuse for the present enormous destruction of small plaice and turbot, whilst it is at least possible that the abstention of our own fleet from these grounds in the summer would result in a_ corresponding increase in the number of soles in the localities where that species congregates in the winter months. I have no knowledge of the migrations of soles, but the Great Silver Pit is equidistant from the Humber and the nearest eastern ground, and as it is the nearest point at which similar physical conditions. can be attained, it does not seem improbable that the winter supply of soles in the Pit is in part recruited from the east side of the North Sea. 1 Owing to the great mass of fish caught ina single haul, I consider it quite possible to hold this view without throwing any doubt on the value of the results obtained by my friend Dr. Fulton in his experiments on the vitality of trawled fish (Report S F. B., 1891). x 2 The possession, as well as the sale, should be prohibited, to guard agains the possible danger of small fish being utilized as manure when the fishermam is also a farmer in a small way. Z 3 The small solescaught on the Dogger and on the Dowsing are really solanettes (Solea mznuuta). DECEMBER 15, 1892| NATURE 161 Another objection is that boats of British nationality are not the only ones engaged in the small fish trade, and it is true that ‘during the summer months a number of German, Dutch, and Danish boats are occupied in catching small: plaice. But they are all ofsmall tonnage, some of them only open boats; and [ understand that from the manner in which the trawl is handled by German and Danish boats no injury is done to the unmarketable fish, whilst the saleable part of the catch appears to be exported chiefly to London. Hence the proposed mea- sures of prohibition would give no advantage to these nations. The German steam trawlers, according to my information, do not molest the small ae at all. Of the proceedings of the Dutch bombs I have little knowledge, but from the small size of their gear, their share in the destruction cannot be a very one. Foreign-caught fish, except Norwegian salmon and ‘mackerel and Dutch soles, including only a small percentage of undersized fish, rarely come to the Grimsby market, but on two _ occasions large consignments of small plaice, comprising, as I compute, some 31,000 fish, were sent from Denmark, and recently a consignment of turbot has arrived from Norway. These last fish were about 300 in number, all undersized, viz. from 94 to 17 inches, whilst 4 were only from 8 to 9 inches. This is the only instance which has come under my notice of any considerable number of turbot less than 12 inches being t in the market, and, as we have seen, our own fishermen were not concerned in it. The last and perhaps the most important objection arises from the difficulty in allowing for that variation in the size of fish of the same species on different parts of our own coast to which Mr. Calderwood alluded in the last number of the Journal, p. 208. The impossibility of utilizing a uniform size limit for all districts sufficiently exemplified by the limit of 11 inches for _ the plaice proposed by the Conference of last February, which was the result of a compromise between the trade representatives of the North Sea and south and west coast districts. While _ perhaps unnecessarily high for the Plymouth district, we have seen that it is altogether too small for the North Sea. The difficulty of having different limits, of local application, will _only be felt at such a central port or market as London, to which fish are brought, whether by rail or sea, from all districts, but with proper organization the obstacle does not seem insu- It is conceivable that the law might be evaded by running cutters irom boats fishing irf one district to the parts of another, where the limit was lower, but it is little likely that the firms which are in a position to undertake them, .would lend themselves to such operations. There is not the slightest reason to é a general conspiracy of evasion amongst the fisher- men, and the boats which respected the law would form a more efficient police than all the cruisers in the navy, so far as one may judge by the conditions on the Scotch coast, where con- victions of trawlers for infringement of the territorial restriction are frequently secured by the evidence of local line fishermen. I must leave to others, who are acquainted with the local conditions, to decide whether the imposition of a size limit is ‘desirable in other districts, but for the North Sea I have not the slightest hesitation in recommending this method of legislation, _in the terms I have proposed above, as cheaper and likely to be infinitely more efficacious than any other that can be devised in maintaining the supply of the more important kinds of flat-fish. I need hardly observe that its application to the halibut, which is chiefly a line fish, could not fail to be beneficial to that species, since there is no en but that fish caught on the hook will usually survive if returned }* but I do not think that the limit need be as high as the biological one, owing to the difference in the conditions of the trawl and line fisheries. I am not prepared to enter at present into the question of mesh legislation, beyond pointing out that it appears to be the only method by which the destruction of immature round fish, notably haddock and whiting, can be checked, since these species are fatally injured by being caught in the trawl, and would not survive if returned. Any great enlargement of the mesh does not appear advisable, since it would afford an opportunity of escape to the mature sole, of which that active species would be extremely likely to avail itself. The remedy seems to lie rather in an alteration of the arrangement of the meshes in the cod- ends, so as to prevent them from closing. On this subject I have been making investigations, but they are not yet sufficiently complete to yield reliable deductions. It is sufficiently evident, as has often been pointed out, that the great breadth of some of * Except fish with air-bladders, caught at considerable depths. NO. 1207, VOL. 47] the flat-fish render it impossible to deal with the whole question by restrictions of mesh alone. The last matter with which I have to deal is the destruction of very small fish by shove-net and shrimp ‘“‘seines.” If it were only possible to induce the men to cull out the small fish in the water they would do no harm at all, and practically IL suppose that, as matters are, they do not greatly injure any species of known value except the plaice, although the small number of sole, turbot, and brill destroyed may represent, from the relative scarcity of these species, a more considerable injury than one would suppose. When fishing by day the shove-net men usually return the fish to the sea, but by night this is im- possible, and the seine men do not seem to make any effort in that direction either by day or night. It is a difficult question to deal with, since the shrimp appears to be almost a necessity to some people ; at the same time the small plaice which are destroyed must represent an infinitely greater value than the shrimps. If hatcheries were established, and young turbot, brill, sole, and plaice were enlarged after they had been reared through the delicate larval and metamor- phosing stages, it is reasonable to suppose that they would be conveyed or would find their way to the sandy margins, which seem best adapted to the succeeding stages of their life-history, only to fall into the net of the shrimper. I should say that to prohibit the use of any sort of shore shrimp nets during night-time would be a beneficial measure, but there is perhaps sufficient reason for abolishing the industry altogether. Those engaged in it might be sufficiently compen- sated at a moderate expenditure, if indeed it be not cuntrary to public policy to admit the existence of a vested interest in an occupation which is essentially injurious to industries affecting a much greater section of the community. THE NEW TELEPHOTOGRAPHIC LENS. [N a small pamphlet of thirty pages, written and published by Mr. T. RK. Dallmeyer, the author brings together the various notices bearing on the subject of his new telephoto- graphic lens that have appeared during the last twelve months. He also gives an account of the ‘‘simple” and ‘‘ compound ” telephotographic lens, with general instructions for their use, including tables of their properties, and a table showing the diameters of circles of illumination necessary to cover the various sized plates used at the present day. The telephotographic lens is, we may say, the latest advance made in the science of optics as applied to photography. By it we are now able to obtain large pictures of animate things situ- ated at long distances with short exposure. In this invention Mr. Dallmeyer has produced a useful, and what may prove a valuable, instrument, and he has opened up quite a new horizon which will not suffer from lack of workers. Hitherto the principle involved in the apparatus for the pro- duction of large images consisted first in obtaining the primary image, and second, in subjecting this image to the process of enlargement. To obtain the former a concave mirror, or more generally double convex lens, has been employed, while the subsequent magnification has been produced by placing a secondary magnifier or second positive lens behind the plane of the primary image. This method, except in the case of astronomical work, has not been, we may say, popularly used, for the cumbrousness of the apparatus required, and the length of time necessary for exposure have quite prohibited its use for anything but in- animate subjects. It is well known that the focal length of a lens is measured for practical purposes from the principal plane passing through one of the nodal points nearest the principal focal plane to that plane : in most lens-constructions this nodal point lies within the lens- mount. Now it will be seen that if this nodal point could be thrown in front of the lens, that is, on that side away from the focus, the focal length, if measured from the lens, would be shorter. This is exactly what Mr. Dallmeyer hasdone. In the simple telephotographic lens the anterior element, which is of large aperture and short focus, is a positive lens, while the pos- terior is negative, and of a fractional part of the focal length of the former lens. A diagram showing the lenses in position aud the path of a ray of light remind one at first sight of the prin- ciple of the Galilean telescope, with this difference, that the rays emeiging are not divergent, but convergent. In the construction 162 under consideration the size of the image thrown on the screen can be varied at will by simply altering the distance between the elements, but the further the lens is from the focussing screen, the more will be the time of exposure. With such a lens as this Mr. Dallmeyer has taken many ex- cellent pictures, but perhaps the best idea of its properties will be gathered from the facts obtained by photographing—by means of two cameras, one supplied with a ‘‘long focus landscape lens,” and the other with the ‘‘ new telephotographic lens ”— the flame of an oil lamp placed at a distance of 20 feet. With equal extensions of the camera the image of the flame given by the new lens was five times greater than that by the other. In the compound lens the anterior element before referred to is here replaced by a complete portrait lens, while a negative symmetrical combination takes the place of the posterior element. This lens may be said to be more perfect than the simple lens, Mr. Dallmeyer having been able to introduce con- siderable improvement in the construction. Some excellent work done with this lens has been exhibited by Messrs. F. Mackenzie and Annan at the Camera Club. The pictures represented a building at a distance of 500 yards. The first, (aken with an ordinary rapid rectilinear lens with an exten- sion of 14 inches, gave the house as $ of aninchlong. The second—with the compound tele-photo lens, extension 9 inches from the back lens—gave 24 inches as the size of the house, while the third, with 30 inches’ extension, gave the house as 64 inches. Although these numbers can give one a very good idea of what this new lens can accomplish, yet the direct copies from photo- graphs inserted in the pamphlet under consideration convey a more vivid impression. There is no doubt that this lens will find some very valuable applications, that of astronomical photography not being the least of them, for every one knows the great advantage a short telescope has over a long one if the degree of magnification in both are equal. WwW ARBORESCENT FROST PATTERNS. WE have received the following letters with regard to arborescent frost patterns, to which Prof. Meldola called attention in last week’s NATURE :— I AM very glad that Prof. Meldola has called attention to the curved figures of frozen mud (of which the specimens on December 4 were unusually fine), because I hope that some one will explain why the sexangular crystallization which is universal in snow, and general in water, is exchanged both on windows and on muddy pavements for curves. Probably I ought to know all about it, but I cannot remember seeing an explanation, and shall be obliged by reference to one, which will probably be of interest to others besides G SYMONS. 62, Camden-square, London, N.W. THE interesting ‘‘ fronds” of muddy ice observed by Prof. Meldola (p. 126) are not very uncommon on the pavements in these ‘*‘ Northern Heights.” I saw them onthe date which he named, and have more than once studied them. I then noticed that the ‘‘ interstitial” pavement seemed partly cleared of mud, as ifthe water had drawn this towards the groups of crystals. The mode of formation recalled to my mind certain phenomena in crystal building within rocks, and I suspect the mud has its influence. Indeed, it seems to me very probable that all these ‘¢dendritic”’ growths of crystals are the results of ‘‘ impeded” or ‘* constrained ” crystallization, to some of which I have called attention in noticing a structure in the Charnwood syenite (Quart. Four. Geol. Soc., 1891, p. 101). . On this point Prof. Sollas makes some important remarks in his well-known paper on the Wicklow granites. T. G, BONNEY. THE beautiful curved forms assumed by the ice on the paving flags last Sunday were very noticeable in this neighbourhood and Hampstead as well as in other parts of London. What I observed were not quite like those described and figured by Prof. Meldola, but resembled rather the scrolls and volutes which are frequently used in decorative art. The finest piece that I saw was in this square, where several of these scrolls radiated from a central point, and spread over several feet of the pavement. A friend, Mr. E. Swain, observed that where one of these scrolls came upon a puddle of clear water the crystals were continued in a straight line. Such forms are not at all unusual in the freezing of muddy water, and at the pre- sent moment the puddles in the road opposite my house are NO. 1207, VOL. 47] NATURE [ DECEMBER 15, 1892 filled with rectilinear crystals of ice, which assume a curved form in the mud at their margins, The peculiarity on Sunday was their large size and beauty. Something analogous takes place when gold or silver is reduced frem solutions of its salts by more electro-positive metals. Under certain circumstances the metal will present itself in the form of curved crystals, if the term be allowable. A pretty spray of gold of this character is figured in the report of my lecture ‘* On the crystallization of silver, gold and other metals,” in the proceedings of the Royal Institution, vi., 428. If a piece of cuprous oxide be immersed ina_ solution of nitrate of silver, there shoot from its surface thin threads of silver, which, after proceeding straight forward for a while, suddenly turn at an angle of 120° or 60°, and make perhaps many other deviations: but sometimes these threads, instead of being straight, are curved ; and in that case the threads that branch from them are curved likewise. A magni- fied drawing of such a formation is given herewith. These strange departures from the usual rectilinear course of crystal formation are very curious, and deserve more study than has hitherto been given them. J. H. GLADSTONE, 17, Pembridge-square, December Io. PROF. MELDOLA’s letter (p. 125) has been interesting to me, - as I noted a striking and similar phenomenon here on Thurs- day, December 8, in the forenoon. The trottoirs of several streets (east, west, north and south) were covered all over with beautiful patterns, somewhat different from Prof. Meldola’s illustration, there being innumerable dark, broad, sharply-con- toured leaf-like patches, distant several inches from each other, and connected by finely curved and branched tendril-like stalks. Foggy, with a faint north breeze. I should presume the *“leaves ” were due to sparse drops of sleet fallen during the night. Freiburg, Badenia, December 10. D,. WETTERHAN. THE graceful arborescent frost patterns described by Prof. Meldola in last week’s NATURE were very conspicuous on the foot-bridge by the side of Charing Cross railway bridge, on the same morning, this being a situation still more exposed to the wind which he mentions as the probable cause. December 12. J. T. RicHarpDs. I OBSERVED the same phenomenon as Prof, Meldola describes in NATURE of December 8, on the same date, December 4, on pavements in Cheltenham, about 10.45 a.m. ; after mid-day they had gone. I saw the patterns on pavements running north and south, as well as east and west. They were most exquisite ; some like the illustration, others much more minute ; but always in a connected design over the whole flag. They had all the appearance of fossil vegetation. I never saw anything of the kind before. J. J. ARMITAGE, December 13. Mr. A. W. BENNETT and Mr. E. L. Garbett have also sent communications corroborating the phenomenon observed by Prof. Meldola. The former attributes it to ‘‘ defoliation of the stones as the result of weathering or wear.” DECEMBER 15, 1892 | NATURE 163 THE MAKING OF RIFLES. ' AT a recent meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Mr. John Rigby, superintendent, Enfield Factory, read an in- teresting paper on the manufacture of small:arms, We repro- duce from the abstract printed for the Institution Mr. Rigby’s lucid account of the various processes of manufacture of the components of the Lee-Metford Mark I. magazine-rifle, of 0°303 ‘inch bore, the weapon adopted for the British Army—an ac- count which he prefaced with a general description of the Enfield ‘he mos - important part of a rifle was the barrel, which had ays engaged the special attention of gun-makers, Up to the the Crimean War, it was, for the bulk of British troops, tively rude tube of iron, lap-welded under rolls and ering « » with a cylindrical bore of about ? inch diameter. The barrel of the present day was a steel tube of _ accurate workmanship, only ;%; inch bore, almost perfectly true and st rifled to 5/5 inch, and so closely inspected that the existence of the most minute grey or seam in the bore, requiring a highly sed eye to detect it, was sufficient to condemn it. e material used was produced either by the Siemens- Martin or _ the crucible process of manufacture, and was supplied to Enfield _ asasolid round bar 13 inch diameter and 154 inches long. After _ severe testing, this bar was passed through a rolling-mill to draw it to its full length : it was then taken to the forge, the swell at _ the breech-end was stamped to the required shape by a steam- hammer, and afterwards straightened cold. The next step was to submit the bar, without annealing, to the turning and drilling-machines, The latter were horizontal, the drills operating from each end. In the process of drilling, the barrel revolved _ at nearly 1,000 revolutions a minute against half-round bits held _ flat down, a capillary tube, of brass, supplying a soap-and-oil emulsion, at a pressure of 80 Ib. to the square inch, to wash out ___ the swarth and cool the cutting-edge. The drills advancing from ____ each end continued boring until a small disk about $5 inch _ diameter broke out, and the two holes met. The tendency __ of the drills to follow the line of axis of a revolving bar was _ one of those curious occurrences in practical mechanics which _ might be accounted for after observation, but which no one would predict. Occasionally, through some defect in the steel, a drili wandered from the axial line ; in this case the barrel was taken from the machine and reset sufficiently to bring the hole true again. To test its truth, a ray of light was made to illuminate the flat bottom of the hole while the barrel slowly volved, It was very rarely that a barrel was rendered waste from bad drilling. Rough-boring followed with a three-edged bit, the blade being about 4 inches long. The rough external turning was effected in self-acting lathes, which gave the required “curved taper. Three or four cutters acted simultaneously, ___ each producing a long cutting that attested the quality of the _ metal of the barrel. The operation of barrel-setting followed. ; vi to rough-turning, the barrels were fairly straight git internally, but the removal of the metal caused slight in- _ equalities which were tested by the eye of the barrel-setter, and corrected by transverse blows. This constituted skilled labour of a peculiar character, and was performed by young men of _ good sight, who were specially trained for the purpose. After middle life the eye generally lost some of the quality necessary for this work, and it was rare to find a man excel in it after that period. Many mechanical devices had been ccntrived to _ supersede the simple ray of light laid, as if it were a straight edge, along the surface of the bore ; but the eye still remained the arbiter of straightness and could be relied on for very accurate results. The construction of the barrel was completed by the i tant operation of rifling. In British small-arm factories the system was followed of planing out each groove separately with a hooked cutter, and had been brought almost to perfection. InContinental and American factories the grooves were ploughed out eerie with several cutting or knife-edges set at an angle and following one another in the manner of a single-cut file or float. Similar machines had been tried at Enfield, but did not give as smooth a cut as the slower-moving, single-tooth machines. A few passes of a lead lap, fed with fine emery, removed any burr that might remain, and completed the polish ; a cylindri- cal ips spinning rapidly, was then passed through, and gave the final finish to the barrels. The limits of gauging were from 3 to 0°305 inch. ext in importance to the barrel was the mechanism of the breech, for which the material preferred was crucible cast-steel NO. 1207, VOL. 47 | fee of amild character, but capable of being hardened in those parts exposed to the pressure of the bolt. The body was forged in two operations under the steam-hammer ; it was then drilled and subjected to along series of operations, in the course of which the end was recessed to receive the screwed end of the barrel, and the corresponding thread in the recess was milled out in a specially-contrived machine, which insured that the thread should always start in the same place relative to the gauged part of the body, a point of great importance. The bolt, also of crucible cast-steel, was forged under the steam-hammer. A special ma- chine, invented at Enfield, was used to finish the bolt after shaping. After machining, the bolts, packed in wood char- coal in iron cases, were heated and hardened by immersion in oil. The temper of the handle was then reduced in a lead bath. The rest of the bolt was tempered straw-colour. The bolt-head was similarly hardened and tempered. The other components of a complete rifle were mostly shaped by mills built up to the proposed profile, or by copy-milling machines. The process of drifting was used with good results at Enfield. All such slots or perforations as had parallel sides, and were not cylindrical, were so finished, The common prac- tice in drifting was to push the drift, but at Enfield much better work wasaccomplished by pulling. It was found that used in this way drifts were very valuable for interchangeable work. The sides were cut with successive teeth, each slightly larger than the preceding one, andjthe whole length of the drift was drawn through. Emery wheels were also largely used at Enfield as a substitute for finish-milling and filing. ‘The wheels ran under hoods connected with a pneumatic exhaust that carried away the heated particles of steel and grit.. It was popularly sup- posed that a machine once adjusted to turn out a component of a certain size and shape was capable of reproducing such in large numbers, all absoiutely identical. This was so far from being the case that no die, no drill, and no milling-cutter actually made two consecutive articles thesame size. The wear of the cutters or dies proceeded slowly but surely, and it was only possible to produce in large numbers components of dimen- sions varying betweenja superior and an inferior limit, In small- arm manufacture a variation of about one two-thousandth of an inch was about the amount tolerated, but it varied according to the size of the piece. A difference of diameter of one two- thousandth of an inch in the sight axis-hole, and in the size of the pin or axis, would cause a serious misfit, whereas a similar difference in the measurement of the magazine, or of the recess in which it lay, would be quite immaterial. The operations of gauging, proving the barrel, and sighting, were successively de- scribed, as also the manufacture of the stock, which was of the wood known as Italian walnut, though largely grown in other countries. Among the smaller components, the screws were mentioned as being rapidly produced by the automatic screw- making machines of Pratt and Whitney. The Component Store received the various finished parts, which numbered 1591, or, including accessories, 1863, and issued them to the foreman of the assembliny-shop. Theoreti- cally, the assemblers should have nothing to do but to fit and screw them together, but in practice small adjustments were found necessary. The amount of correction was* generally ex- ceedingly small, and was done wherever possible with the aid of emery wheels. The completed arms were submitted to inspec- tion, and then issued in cases of twenty each to the Weedon Government Store or elsewhere. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. CAMBRIDGE.—The General Board of Studies propose that, in view of the increased attention given to palzeontology in the Geological Department, a Demonstrator in Palzeozoology be appointed, whose stipend shall be paid out of the students’ fees. The Botanic Garden Syndicate report the completion of the fine range of plant-houses, which have for some years been in course of erection at a cost of some £6000, It is noteworthy that the expense has been kept within the estimate. The Senate has determined to raise the fee for the Doctor’s degree (including M.D. and Sc.D.) from £20 to £25. It has rejected the proposal to increase the annual dues of under- graduates from 17s, to £2, and of graduates from 17s. to £1, which was put forth in view of the financial needs of the Univer- sity, by the Fees Syndicate. The proposal to accept life- 164 NATURE [DECEMBER 15, 1892 compositions for the annual dues was also rejected. Dr. Allbutt Regius Professor of Physic, has been appointed an Elector to the Chair of Botany, in the place of the late Dr. Hort. The discussion on the plans for the new Geological Museum (given at length in the University Reporter for December 13) was highly interesting, and appears on the whole to have been favourable to the scheme proposed, subject to relatively unim- portant modifications. Prof. Newton objected that the arrange- ment of its contents should be zoological rather than strati- graphical ; and the Registrary (Mr. J. W. Clark) took exception to the plan of lighting, which would be better if it were from the top rather than the sides. The geological staff were unani- mous that the plan put forward was that which best met their needs. It was agreed that the architectural effect of the museum would be very fine, and worthy of Sedgwick’s memory. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, November 24.—‘‘ Ionic Velocities.” By W.C. Dampier Whetham, B.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Communicated by J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. From a series of determinations of the electrolytic conductivity of various salt solutions combined with Hittorf’s values for the migration constants, Kohlrausch calculated the velocity of differ- ent ions under a potential gradient of one volt per centimetre. Dr. O, Lodge actually observed the velocity of the hydrogen ion as it travelled along a tube filled with sodium chloride dis- solved in jelly, decolourizing phenol-phthallein as it went. He found ‘0029 cm. per sec., and Kohlrausch gives ‘0030. The author has measured the specific ionic velocity of other ions by observing the motions of a junction between two salt SCALE 41H solutions of slightly different density and different colours, when a current was passed across it. From the velocity of the bound- ary, that of the ion causing the change in colour can be deduced, The apparatus consisted of two vertical glass tubes about 2 cms. in diameter, joined by a third considerably narrower, which was bent parallel to the others for the greater part of its length. The tube was filled with the solutions in such a manner that the boundary was formed in the vertical part of the junction tube. When the solutions are of different specific resistances there will be a discontinuity of potential gradient at the boundary and a consequent electrification. The effect on the velocity of the boundary is, however, non-reversible, and, for small differ- ences, can be eliminated by taking the mean of the velocities in opposite directions. The direct estimation of potential gradient is unsatisfactory, but by measuring the current (y), the area of NO. 1207, VOL 47 | cross-section of the junction tube (A), the specific resistence of the solution (7), and the velocity of the boundary (v) we can find the specific ionic velocity v, for v, = 7! The first solutions used were those of copper and ammonium chlorides dissolved in aqueous ammonia, the former being blue, the latter colourless. The junction travelled with the current with a velocity of 1°57 cm. per hour going upwards and of 1°60 cm. per hour coming downwards, The mean gives as the specific ionic vel. of Cu in solutions of ‘1 gram. equiv. per litre 000309 cm. per sec. This agrees exactly with Kohlrausch’s number for infinitely weak solutions of 00031 cm. per sec. Other measurements were made for chlorine and for the bichromate group (Cr,O,). _ The method was extended to alcohol solutions. The velo- cities of both ions ofa salt were determined by using two pairs of solutions. Thus the velocity of chlorine was found by using a cobalt chloride-cobalt nitrate pair, the colours of which are blue and red respectively, and that of cobalt by a cobalt chloride- calcium chloride pair, these being blue and colourless. The sum of these velocities was compared with that deduced by Kohlrausch’s method from the conductivity of the solution. The following are the results :— SPECIFIC IONIC VELOCITIES. I.—Agqueous Solutions. Velocity Velocity Ion seen ye calculated 0°00026* : Copper BF Bb cevet 000031 ‘ 0'00057* ; Chlorine:...: cans 000059" 0'00053 Bichromate 0°00048 } 0°000473 group (Cr,O,)-~ 0°00047 0°00046 *Preliminary observations. IIl.—Akcoholic Solutions, Vel. of Anion Vel. of Kation Sum of vels. Sum of vels. observed observed observed calculated Cobalt Chloride... 0'000026 0°000022 0'000048 0’oc Cobalt Nitrate 0°000035 0'000044. 0'000079 0°'000079 December 8,—‘‘ On theVelocity of Crookes’ Cathode Stream.” By Lord Kelvin, P.R.S. In connection with his splendid discovery of the cathode stream (stream from the cathode in exhausted glass vessels subjected to electric force), Crookes found that when the whole of the stream, or a large part of the whole, is so directed as to fall on 2 or 3 sq. cm. of the containing vessel, this part of the glass becomes rapidly heated up to many degrees, as much as 200° or 300° sometimes, above the temperature of the surroundings. Let v be the velocity, in centimetres per second, of the cathode stream, and p the quantity of matter of all the mole- cules in 1 c.c. of it, Supposing what Crookes’ experiments seem to prove to be not far from the truth, that their impact on the glass is like that of inelastic bodies, and that it spends all their translational energy in heating the glass. The energy thus spent, per square centimetre of surface struck, per second of time, is $pz*; of which the equivalent in gramme-water-centi- grade thermal units is approximately 4pv%/42,000,000, The initial rate at which this will warm the glass, in degrees centi- grade per second, is Salt 10° x 42.04 isn where o denotes the specific heat of the glass, and @ the thick- ness of it at the place where the stream strikes it. The limiting temperature to which this will raise the glass is 3 a a oe oo E 42,000,000 where E denotes the sum of the emissivities of the two surfaces of the glass in the actual circumstances. It is probable that p differs considerably from the average density of the residual air in the enclosure. Let us take, how- ever, for a conceivably possible example, p = 10-8, which is what the mean density of the enclosed air would be if the vessel were exhausted to 8 X 10~% of the ordinary atmospheric density. } DECEMBER 15, 1892] WNATURE 165 To complete the example, take i @ = 100,000 cm. per sec. (being about twice the average velocity of the molecules of ordinary air at ordinary temperature) ; and take oa =i cm., as it might be for an ordinary glass vacuum bulb ; and take E= BV0> which may not be very far from the truth. With these assumptions, we find, by (1) and (2) approximately, I” per second for the initial rise, and 375° for the final tempera- ture, which are not very unlike the results found in some of Crookes’ experiments. — The re of the cathode stream of the velocity and density which we have assumed by way of example is pv”, or es per square centimetre, or about 100 milligrams heaviness per square centimetre, which is ample for Crookes’ wonderful mechanical results. _ The very moderate velocity of 1 kilom. per second which ___ we have assumed is much too small to show itself by the optical colour test. The fact that this test has been applied, and that no indication of velocity of the luminous molecules has been found, has, therefore, no validity as an objection against Crookes’ doctrine of the cathode stream. Chemical Society, November 17.—Sir Henry Roscoe, Vice-President, in the Chair.—The Chairman congratulated the Fellows on the great improvement effected in the Society’s rooms by the alterations carried out during the recess An address has been forwarded to the sister society in Berlin on the occasion of the celebration of its twenty-fifth anniversary. resolution was passed at a meeting of the Council expressing ot hay tg that, through the death of Dr. Longstaff on Sep- “ 23 last, the Society has lost its senior Fellow and one of its Founders. The following papers were read :—Fluosul- ic acid, by T. E. Thorpe and W. Kirman. This paper has n already reported in this volume, page 87.—Note on the interaction of iodine and potassium chlorate, by T. E. Thorpe and G. H. Perry. The reaction which occurs when iodine and — chlorate are heated together is usually ted by the equation 3KC10O, + I,=KCIlO,+ KCI+ KIO, +ICi+0O, ; the authors find, however, that the main reaction consists in a simple interchange of iodine and chlorine thus— 2KCl1O, + 1,=2K10,+Cl,.—The magnetic rotation of sulphuric and nitric acids, and of their aqueous solutions ; also of solutions of sodium sulphate and lithium nitrate, by W. H. Perkin, sen. The author has previously shown that the molecular rotation of sulphuric acid is considerably influenced by the presence of water; the rotation rapidly falls for small dilutions, but diminishes as the amount of water is increased. The results are now extended ; in the cases of sulphuric acid and sodium sul- phate there is no apparent connection between the values repre- senting the rotation and the extent to which dissociation is sup- posed to occur down to solutions containing 9 per cent. of acid or 12 per cent. of sodium sulphate. At a temperature of 90° the rotation is increased instead of diminished as indicated by the dissociation hypothesis. The results are not inconsistent with the assumption that the hydrate (HO),SO is formed. In the case of nitric acid, the curve connecting rotation and percentage of acid is a straight line down to solutions containing 33 per cent. of HNO, and then apparently bends down somewhat ; the results are not in agreement with the exigencies of the disso- ciation hypothesis. A compound of the composition (HO),NO may be produced. Lithium nitrate resembles nitric acid in its behaviour. The rotations of strong aqueous solutions of the haloid hydrides change very rapidly with small dilutions, but more slowly with larger dilutions, becoming finally nearly sta- i ; such behaviour is not in accord with the dissociation h is.—Note on the refractive indices and magnetic rota- tions of sulphuric acid solutions, by S. U. Pickering. Van der Willingen’s results for the refractive indices of sulphuric acid -solutions yield curves showing a well-marked ‘‘ break” at 84°5 cent. (H,SO,; H,O), another ‘‘ break” at 57°7 per cent. FH,SO, ; 4H,O), and another at 24-30 per cent. The first two of these are also found on the magnetic rotation curves and all three of them agree with breaks found in the examination of other properties. The molecular volumes of solutions of the same strength as those used by Perkin when plotted out exhibit the same three breaks on the curve.—The hydrate theory of NO, 1207, VOL. 47] solutions. Som-: compounds of the alkylamines with water, by S. U. Pickering. The following table gives the compositions of a number of crystalline hydrates of fatty amines which the author has succeeded in isolating and analyzing :— EtN H,,5H,O EtNH.,5'5H,O PrN H,,5H,O0 Bu*N H.,7H,O0 Et,.NH,5H,O Me,NH,7H,O Pr,NH,5H,O Pr®N H,,8H,O Me,NH, HO PrNH,,8H,O Et,N,2H,O Et,NH,8H,O Me;N,3H,O Me,N,11H,O The freezing points of the hydrates ranged from + 5° to-—71° ; indications of the existence of other hydrates were also obtained by ‘‘ breaks”’ in the curves representing the freezing points of the solutions, and in every instance but one a hydrate of the composition thus indicated in the case of one amine was actually isolated in the crystalline condition in the case of some other amine. In connection with this subject Prof. Thorpe showed a very pretty experiment to illustrate the fact that whilst a mixture of triethylamine (15-50 per cent.) is clear and transparent at ordinary temperatures, the solution becomes turbid on warming, owing to the amine being thrown out of solution ; on applying pressure to the warm liquid, however, re-solution occurs.—The atomic weight of boron, by E. Aston and W. Ramsay. The authors have investigated the atomic weight of boron ; the atomic weight found from determinations of the water of crystallization of borax is 10921 to‘or. The conversion of anhydrous sodium borate into sodium chloride by distilling it with hydrochloric acid and methyl alcohol and weighing the sodium chloride obtained gives an atomic weight of 10°966 for boron. The authors consider that Abrahall’s number (10°825) for this constant is too low, as the boron bromide employed by him might have been contaminated with the compound BBr,,HBr.—Methoxyamido-—1: 3-dimethyl- benzene and some of its derivatives, by W. R. Hodgkinson and L. Limpach. An almost theoretical yield of 1: 2 : 4 -metaxyl- enol may be obtained by steam distilling a diazotized 5 per cent. solution of the corresponding xylidine sulphite. The product solidifies in a mixture of solid carbonic anhydride and ether. On nitration a’theoretical yield of a mononitro-derivative (NO,: OH = 1:2) is obtained. A number of other compounds are described. —An extra meeting of the Society will be held on Tuesday, December 13, at 8 p.m., the anniversary of the death of Stas. A paper by Prof. J. W. Mallet, entitled **Jean Servais Stas, and the measurement of the relative masses of the atoms of the chemical elements” will be read and discussed. Physical Society, Nov, 25.—Prof. S. P. Thompson,F.R.S.,. Vice-President, in the chair.—The following lication was made: Experiments in electric and magnetic fields, constant and varying, by Messrs. Rimington and Wythe Smith. In the first set of experiments shown exhausted electrodeless tubes and bulbs were rotated rapidly in a constant electric field between two parallel charged discs. Double fan-shaped images were produced by the tubes, due to the displacement currents which pass to equalize the potentials at the ends of the tubes. ‘These fans were not symmetrical with respect to the lines of electric force, but were displaced in the direction of rotation. In explanation of this phenomenon it was pointed out that as a tube rotated the potential difference between its ends increased until this difference was sufficient to break down the dielectric in the tube. The discharges would therefore pass at the ends of the intervals during which the difference of potential was rising, and consequently the images would be displaced from the symmetrical position in the direction of rotation. The number of discharges produced during one revolution was found to de- pend on the strength of the electric field, but not on the speed of rotation, and that end of the tube which was approaching the negatively charged plate appeared brightest. These experiments were referred to as examples of the direct conversion of mechanical energy into light. Instead of rotating tubes in a constant electric field, the tubes were next kept stationary, and a varying electric field produced by connecting the plates with an influence machine allowed to spark ; under these conditions the tubes and bulbs were seen to glow. Using large suspended plates charged by an induction coil, long tubes were caused to glow brightly even at considerable distances away from the plates. The glow could be apparently wiped out by passing the 166 NATURE [ DECEMBER 15, 1892 hand along the tube. Another series of experiments were per- formed in varying magnetic fields. With a view to showing Hertzian phenomena to large audiences the authors tried Geissler tubes to replace the spark-gap in resonators, with great success. When large Leyden jar circuits were used the effects were very brilliant. Another form of resonator consisted of a bent wire terminating in two plates, between which an exhausted tube was placed. This tube became luminous when the resonator was placed in the vicinity of a fairly large Hertz oscillator. Other experiments similar to those shown before the society at Cambridge by Prof. J. Thomson, on discharges in exhausted bulhs were.then made, the bulbs being placed with a coil of wire of four turns, forming the connection between the outer coatings of two small jars, whilst sparks passed between knobs connected with the inner coatings. The bulbs glowed brightly at each discharge, rings of light being seen near their inner surfaces. On putting a ring tube outside the coil this was also seen to glow. The most brilliant part of the glow always occurred in close proximity to the wire coil. A secondary coil, wound by the side of the above-mentioned primary, could be short-circuited at will; this had the effect of decreasing or extinguishing the luminosity in the bulb or tube. Bright sparks passed between the secondary terminals when held a short dis- tance apart, but the shock experienced by touching the ends was not serious. The above arrangement, with the addition of two Geissler tubes placed in series between the outer coatings of the jars, was used to illustrate the fact that closing the secondary diminishes the impedance of the primary circuit of a transformer. Experiments on condensers made of tin-foil on glass were shown. In one of them, parts of the coatings in the form of letters had been removed, and the spaces became luminous when the con- denser was connected with an induction coil. In another experiment a glass plate was moved to and from a condenser, and a musical note could be heard whose pitch increased as the distance between the glass plates diminished. The note was said to be the octave of an open organ pipe, whose length was equal to the distance between the plates. Mr. Swinburne thought some of the effects shown were not Hertzian, but merely cases of ordinary mutual induction. He inquired whether the vacuum tubes would still glow if the Leyden jars were removed from the so-called resonating circuits. He was also of opinion that in the magnetic experiments the surfaces of the bulbs, and not the enclosed gases, took the charges. Mr. Watson asked if the authors had tried screening off the long waves by a wet cloth. If. the effects still existed, this would prove that they were Hertzian. Mr, Blakesley wished to know if the images of the rotating tubes were at equal angular distances. Mr. Smith pointed out that these distances were not equal, but corresponded to equal changes of potential. Prof. Ayrton remarked that the only cases where the materials of the bulbs, tubes, &c., did not influence the results were those in which discharges were pro- duced by varying magnetic fields. Mr. E. T. Carterthought an induction coil a more efficient machine for producing the glow in tubes than the alternator, &c., used by Mr. Tesla. Mr. Trotter asked if the authors had observed whether the’ glow produced by passing a discharge through a wire wound ina long pitch spiral round a tube formed an open or a closed circuit of light. Prof. S. P. Thompson said he first noticed that sparks passed between pieces of metal in the vicinity of an induction coil sparking into a condenser in 1876, when he was showing some experiments on telegraphic apparatus before the society, but unfortunately he did not pursue the subject. Long before Mr. Tesla’s investigations Dr. Bottomley had shown that exhausted tubes could be caused to glow, but it was not until Tesla produced such phenomena on a large scale that people recognized how much light could be got in that way. Mr. Rimington, in replying to a question by Prof. Thompson, said the notes heard when the glass plate approached the con- denser were of very high pitch. The explanation why in the experiments performed in varying magnetic fields, the bright parts of the luminous discharges were near the wire, appeared to be that the E.M.F. was greatest in these places. Although he had not tried the experiment, suggested by Mr. Swinburne, of taking off the Leyden jar, he felt sure that doing so would stop the glow. Geological Society,, November 23.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communica- tions were read :—Outline of the geological features of Arabia Petrea and Palestine, by Prof. Edward Hull, F.R.S.. The region may be considered as physically divisible into five sec- NO. 1207, VOL. 47 | tions, viz. (1) The mountainous part of the Sinaitic Peninsula ; (2) the table-land of Badiet-el-Tih and Central Palestine ; (3) the Jordan-Arabah valley ; (4) the table-land of Edom, Moab, and the volcanic district of Jaulan and Haurdn ; and (5) the maritime plain bordering the Mediterranean. The most ancient rocks (of Archzean age) are found in the southern portion of the region ; they consist of gneissose and schistose masses pene- trated by numerous intrusive igneous rocks, They are suc- ceeded by the lower carboniferous beds of the Sinaitic peninsula and Moabite table-land, consisting of bluish limestone with fossils, which have their counterparts chiefly in the carboniferous limestone of Belgium, and of a purple and reddish sandstone (called by the author ‘‘the desert sandstone,” to distinguish it from the Nubian sandstone of Cretaceous age), | ing below the limestone. The Nubian sandstone, space from the carboniferous by an enormous hiatus in the succession of the formations, is probably of Neocomian or Cenomanian age, and is succeeded by white and grey marls, and limestones with flint, with fossils of Turonian and Senonian ages. The Middle Eocene (Nummulitic limestone) beds appear to follow on those of Cretaceous age without a discordance ; but there is a real hiatus, notwithstanding the apparent conformity, as shown by the complete change of fauna. In Philistia a calcareous sand- stone in which no fossils have been observed is referred to the Upper Eocene ; for the Miocene period was a continental one, when faulting and flexuring was taking place, and the main physical features. were developed—e.g. the formation of the Jordan-Arabah depression is referable to this period. In Plio- cene times a general depression of land took place to about 200-300 feet below the present sea-level, and littoral deposits were formed on the coasts and in the valleys. To this period belong the higher terraces of the Jordan-Arabah valley. The Pliocene deposits consist of shelly gravels. Later terraces were formed at the epoch of the glaciation of the Lebanon moun- tains, when the rainfall was excessive in Palestine and Arabia. The volcanoes of the Jaulan, Hauran, and Arabian desert are considered to have been in active operation during the Miocene, Pliocene, and Pluvial periods; but the date of their final ex- tinction has not been satisfactorily determined. After the read- ing of this paper the president remarked on the interest of the geology of an area, which was that of the Bible. Many authors had recorded their observations on this district, one of the latest being the author of this paper. Some years ago Mr. Holland had read a paper before the Society, and he (the speaker) believed that that writer was actually the first to prove the existence of carboniferous fossils in the Sinaitic pexinsula. He remarked that Lepidodendron mosaicum, deseri by: Salter, was somewhere preserved in the Society’s museum, so. that the Society had long ago had evidence of carboniferous rocks. Mr. Bauerman’s paper, which was a reconnaissance in a comparatively unknown district, created great interest ; and when that paper was read doubt was expressed as to whether the fossils then exhibited were carboniferous or triassic. After the researches of Prof. Hull there was no doubt that carbon- iferous rocks do occur in the region. As regards the granitic rocks (extending far up the Nile valley, in the Sinaitic penin- sula, and elsewhere), they were all of much the same character, and, according to Sir William Dawson, occurred at two horizons —the lower rocks being granitoid and gneissic, the upper more or less volcanic, but still pre-carboniferous. He asked the author whether the Poudingues de Jebel Harotin of Lartet were or were not ancient volcanic rocks, The Nubian sandstone of older writers included many things, but the age of the various sandstones was now satisfactorily determined by the author. Some were carboniferous, others (in the speaker’s opinion) ceno- manian. Thecalcareous formations of Judza were well known from the writings of Lartet, Fraas, and others ; but the exact line of demarcation between the Nummulitic limestone and the true Cretaceous had never been determined. It was a curious fact, as stated by Von Zittel, that not one fossil was common to the two deposits, which were nevertheless quite conformable. Miocene beds appeared to be absent, for, as noted by Lartet and confirmed by the author, this was a period of movement, -, when the great valley and the great fault were initiated. He (the speaker) felt that there were many difficulties connected with the depression which had not yet been cleared up. Lartet, Hitchcock, and others had traced the general direction of the fault ; but the author had determined its exact site at more than one point. The most interesting point in this connection was the question of the age of the 700-foot sad lle separating the Akabah watershed from the Jordan-Arabah depression. This on the determination of this question. DECEMBER 15, 1892| NATURE 167 saddle, in fact, separates the Jordan-Arabah depression from the Red Sea basin. Was it probable that this saddle was con- temporaneous with the longitudinal fracture? _Much depended Canon Tristram had shown that the fishes of the Jordan waters presented some curious analogies with the fish fauna of those of Africa, and Giinther, after studying his specimens, had confirmed this view. He (the speaker) believed that this connection was not over the saddle of the Arabah, but might have been the 285-foot pass of the gorge of Jezreel. If the Pliocene depression, which the author thought was at least 200 feet, was a little greater, it would at least cause an outflow in this direction. As to the date of the basaltic eruptions, he thought the author’s explana- eet not unreasonable. He remarked that the Jordan- _ Arabah valley must have been of considerable antiquity, and had many lateral valleys of erosion more or less pointing towards the central hollow of the Dead Sea, whether from the Jordan or the Arabah end. Whither had the material thus eroded vst It could not have passed over the saddle into the Red Sea, for the drainage had evidently been towards the _ Dead Sea for ages. He allowed that much was soluble lime- _ stone ; but that must be precipitated somewhere, and the oaly conclusion he could come to was the somewhat heretical belief that ‘the bottom of the Dead Sea had been an unsound one. Messrs. Irving, {. B. Lee, Topley, Hinde, and Whitaker also spoke. The author accounted for the change of species be- tween the Cretaceous and Eocene limestones, as determined by Zittel, by supposing that at the close of the Cretaceous period the sea-bed had been elevated into a land-surface—but without flexuring—owing to which the life-forms of the Cretaceous - ocean were destroyed, and upon resubmergence new forms _ entered from the outer ocean ; in this way there would be no speereiic discordance of stratification, but complete change _ of species. As regards the origin of the saddle in the Arabah _ valley, he believed it was formed during the formation of the valley itself, not subsequently ; the valley contracted very much at the saddle.—In reply to Mr. Topley’s question, the author stated he had been informed that there was a very distinct ter- race of gravel near the lake of Huleh, corresponding in level with that in the Arabah valley. About 1200 feet above the Dead Sea surface the intermediate representatives of this terrace may be found, but doubtless had been to a large extent swept away by floods and rains. In attempting to account for the difference between the faunas of the Red Sea and Mediter- ranean, it would be clear that once the isthmus of Suez had been converted into land, and the seas dissevered, differentiation _ would begin and proceed till all the forms unsuited to each had si ; difference in the temperature of the waters of the two seas would be the chief cause of differentiation. -The base of the Keuper formation in Devon, by the Rev. A. Irving.— The marls and clays of the Maltese Islands, by John H. Cooke. Koen orne se OXFORD. University Junior Scientific Club, November 23.—The above club held its 124th meeting in the Physiological Labora- tory, Dr. J. Lorrain Smith, President, in the chair.—Mr. E. M. Hamilton, Keble, brought before the club what proved to be a most interesting subject in his exhibit of ‘‘ Flexible Sandstone,” he pointed out that but little was known of the structure and consistence of this curious rock ; it was found in India and was known by the name of Itacolumite. Mr. Hornby, Queen’s, mentioned that he had investigated part of the specimen exhibited under the microscope atter previous crushing ; he held that the flexibility was due, not to mica, as was by some pro- posed, for in some specimens there was no mica, but rather to rough ball-and-socket joints between the grains; this idea was suggested the irregular indentations observed in some ules projections in others.—Prof. Green agreed with . Hornby’s theory as extremely probable ; he gave an able résumé of the subject, and expressed his idea that there are more than one kind of rock roughly known as Itacolumite. He pointed out how the ball-and-socket arrangement might be pro- duced, by the influence of pressure, in the presence of some dissolving agent, of which the power would be increased at any point of pressure, and so allow one granule to bore into another.—Mr. Sworn then gave a somewhat lengthy description of some results he had obtained with his rotatory hypsometer in actual use. When after the lapse of time, this subject was exhausted by Mr. Sworn, the club heard Mr. McDonald, Keble, who read a very able paper on the stereochemistry of nitrogen ; the paper contained a review of all the latest work on this NO. 1207, VOL. 47} subject, and was amplified by models illustrative of the constitu- tion of the various isomeric bodies mentioned.—During the meeting it was announced that Lord Kelvin had consented to deliver the ‘* Robert Boyle” lecture in connection with this club, next summer term, the subject being ‘‘ Magnetic Waves.” December 2.—Dr. J. Lorrain Smith, President, in the chair. —In the absence of Mr. Gunther, Magdalen, Mr. Hill, New College, gave his exhibit of a caterpillar which was found in Java. It was interesting on account of the curious flattened hairs with which it was provided, and has not yet been classified. After a short discussion the President read a paper on the thyroid gland, in which he described a series of experiments performed by him on cats as being the most suitable animal. He found that although the cats almost invariably died after removal of the thyroid gland, yet some lived a considerable time, and even improved in health and appearance. One cat in particular was even now in good health, although it was operated on in June of the present year. However, in this case a decrease of temperature brought on distressing symptoms such as convulsions. He further showed that though the respiration temperature and amount of the products of metabolism varied, the ‘‘ quotient” remained constant. The animals thus, after removal of the gland, dying ‘‘quantitatively and not qualitatively.” After a discussion, in which Dr, Turrell, Messrs. Pembery, Ramsden, Butler, and others took part, Mr. V. H. Veley read a paper on the necessity of water in chemical reactions. The author reviewed the works of Baker and others, illustrating his remarks by experiments. Then passing to his own research he showed that concentrated nitric acid did not react with dry sodium nitrite, and further that dry carbon dioxide and sulphurous oxide were not absorbed by dry calcium oxide. If absorption did take place, the amount was directly proportional to the quantity of water present. DUBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, November 16.—Prof. W. Noel Hartley, F.R.S., in the chair.—Prof. T. Johnson described an Irish alga—Pogotrichum hibernicum—new to science. He found it growing on A/aria esculenta, Grev., at Kilkee, co. Clare, in September, 1891. PP. hibernicum differs from P. filiforme, Rke, in having unilocular and plurilocular sporangia in the same tuft, in having endophytic proliferous hyphze, and in size. Comparison between P. hibernicum and Litostphon laminaria,. Harv., of which herbarium material had been examined, was. made. The paper was well illustrated by means of the Society’s electric projector.—Mr. Alfred Harker then read a paper (com- municated by Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.), on the use of the protractor in field-geology. Representing the inclination of a plane to a fixed plane as a vector of the type given by the gnomonic projection, the author deduces the laws of composi- tion and resolution of such vectors, &c. Since the quantities can be laid down at once by astraight protractor, the common. problems of field-geology and mining admit of ready graphical solutions.—Mr. John R. Wigham described a means of prevent- ing the pollution of water of cities and other places where ball hydrants are used. He described the action of ball hydrants which, while making a perfectly tight and true joint while the pressure of water was in the mains, immediately fell from their seats when that pressure was removed for repairs, attachment of service pipes, &c., or reduced for any reason, and thus im- mediately admitted into the mains any liquid, whether pure or impure, which might be lying on the surface of the street or roads near the hydrant, and pointed out a simple remedy devised by Mr. Kelly, water inspector of Blackrock township. It con- sists of a spiral spring inserted beneath the ball of the hydrant, which assists the water to keep the ball in its place, and is at the same time strong enough to hold the ball firmly there when the pressure of water is removed. By the adoption of this spring, which is easily applied and inexpensive, costing only a few shillings, all danger of pollution from surface water is ab- solutely averted.—Mr. G. H. Carpenter submitted a supple- mentary report on the Pycnogonida collected by Prof. Haddon in Torres Straits, enumerating two additional species— Pa//enopsis Hoekii (Miers), and Rhopalorhynchus clarip~es, sp. nov.—Sir Charles A. Cameron, M.D., communicated a paper on the action of phosphine on selenium di-oxide. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 5.—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—On an opinion brought forward at the British Association concerning sun-spots, by M. H. Faye. Regarding the suggestion that an electric discharge, in accelerating evapo- 168 NALURE [ DEcEMBER 15, 1892 ration, might produce a lowering of temperature sufficient to cause the local decrease of brilliance known as a sun-spot, M. Faye points out the improbability of an electric discharge in a mobile medium lasting for a whole month, with the vapours constantly condensing on every portion of the sun’s surface. — Chemical study of opium smoke, by M. Henri Moissan, Samples of the preparation of opium for smoking purposes, known as chandoo, were subjected to fractional distillation between the temperatures of 250° and 400°. At the former temperature a bluish smoke was given off, carrying with it certain agreeable perfumes and a small quantity of morphine. This ceased after a while, and the temperature had to be raised to 300°, when a more whitish smoke was liberated, which was less odorous and more acrid, and contained a small quantity of morphine, together with more or less poisonous bases. The latter reaction was also the only one obtained from the combus- tion of ** dross” and adulterated opium, which give off poisonous compounds, such as pyrrol, acetone and hydropyridic bases. —Ob- servations on the preceding communication, by M. Arm, Gautier. —On stereochemical notation, by M. C. Friedel (reply to the second note by M. Colson).—Calculation of continuous beams ; a method in accordance with the new regulations of the minis- terial order of August 29, 1891, by M. Bertrand de Fontvio- lant. This isa method of graphic statics applicable to all cases of moving loads, based upon the construction of the ‘‘ lines of influences” of the bending moments, shearing stresses, re- actions of supports, and elastic yieldings respectively. The problem is the following: Given two points in a plane, A and B, and a system of parallel continuous forces whose intensities are linear functions of the abscisse of their points of appli- cation, to trace a funicular curve of these forces with polar dis- tance equal to 4 the projection of A B on a direction per- pendicular to these forces. —Observations of Wolf’s periodic comet, made with the great telescope of the Toulouse Obser- vatory, by MM. E. Cosserat and F. Rossard.—Observations of Holmes’s new comet, made at the Algiers Observatory, by MM. Rambaud and Sy.—Observations of Krooks’s comet (discovered November 21, 1892), made at the Marseille Observatory, by M. Esmiol.—Observations of the same, made by M. Fabry (see Astronomical Column).—On infinite groups of transfor- mations, by M. A. Tresse.—On an indeterminate problem of analysis connected with the study of hyperfuchsian functions resulting from hypergeometrical series with two variables, by M. Levavasseur.—On the fusion of carbonate of lime, by M. H. Le Chatelier.—Remark on a note by M. Barthe concerning the volumetric estimation of the alkaloids, by M. P. C. Plugge.— Physiological researches on opium smoke, by MM. N. Gréhant and Ern. Martin. Experiments performed upon a dog under con- ditions analogous to those observed by opium-smokers failed to produce any perceptible effect. One of the experimenters then smoked twenty pipes himself, the quantity of opium amounting to four grains. The experiment lasted for an hour. After the fourth pipe a frontal headache supervened, which became general after the sixth. At the tenth he felt giddiness, especially in walking ; but these effects were not aggravated up to the close of the experiment, and had disappeared an hour after- wards. The respiration showed a lesser amplitude towards the end, the beating of the heart was slightly less frequent, and the curves of pulsation were more flattened at the summits.— On the measure of the permeability of soils and the determination of the number and the surface of the particles contained in I cc. of soil, by MM. F. Houdaille and L. Semichon.—On the ex- changes of carbonic acid and oxygen between plants and the atmosphere, by M. Th. Schloesing, jun.—The artificial produc- tion of rutile, by M. L. Michel. The following is a new pro- cess: Heat during several hours in a graphite crucible, at a temperature of about 1200°, an intimate mixture of 1 part titaniferous iron and 2} parts pyrites. Oncooling, a crystalline mass is found, which breaks easily, and exhibits all the physical and chemical characteristics of pyrrhotine. This mass is riddled with small holes, to the walls of which are attached crystals, which possess the composition and thecrystallographic and optical properties of rutile. They can be easily separated by means of hydrochloric acid.—On a new ellipsometer, by M. Jannettaz.—On the existence of inversion phenomena in the neighbourhood of Gréoulx (Basses-Alpes), and on the age of these dislocations, by M. W. Kilian. BERLIN. Physical Society, November 4.—Prof. du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Dr. du Bois described and explained the phenomena he had observed during the passage of polarized NO. 1207, VOL. 47] light through gratings, and dealt with the polarizing effects of the latter. He also discussed the relation of the phenomena to those described by Guy, as accompanying the deflection of light at metallic edges, and to those observed by Hertz during the polarization of long electric waves by wire gratings. Dr. Gross made a further statement on entropy, criticizing Clausius’s proofs and advancing a general theorem from which the principle of entropy can be deduced. His views were opposed by Prof. Planck. Prof. Erdmann exhibited excrescences 3 c.m. in length attached to an aluminum penholder which had lain in contact with mercury ; they consisted of hydrate of alumina, NVote.—In the report of the meeting of October 21 (NATURE, vol. xlvii. p. 24), column one, last line, for ‘‘lime-spectrum”’ . read ‘‘line-spectrum,” and in last line of column two, for ‘“‘amalgams” read ‘‘ alloys.” Meteorological Society, November 8.—Prof. von Bezold, President, in the chair.—Dr. Lachmann spoke on temperature. extremes in the United States (North America), based on the Books.—Child-Life Almanac, 1893 (Philip).—An Elementary Text-Book of Physiology: J. M‘Gregor-Robertson, 2nd edition (Blackie).—Reformed Logic: D. B. McLachlan (Sonnenschein).—The Naturalist on the River Amazons: H. ates; with a Memoir of the Author, by E. Clodd (Murray).—Elements of Agriculture: Dr. W. Fream, 4th edition (Murray). —Our Earth—Night to Twilight: G. Ferguson (Unwin).—Report on the Meteorology of India in 1890: J. Eliot (Calcutta) —Carl Wilhelm Scheele, Nachgelassene Briefe und Aufzeichnungen: A. E. Nordensk‘dld (Stock- holm, Norstedt). ; PAMPHLFT.—Columbus and his Discovery of America: H. B. Adams and H. Wood (Baltimore). SeriaLts —Journal of the Marine Biological Association, new series, vol. ii., No. 4 (Dulau).—Engi ing M ine, D ber (New York),— Himmel und Erde, December (Berlin, Paetel).—Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, December 189 (Singapore).— Actes de la Société scientifique du Chili, tome ii, rére livraison (Santiago). CONTENTS. PAGE Criticism of the Royal Society ...... 2 hh eS The Elements of Physiology. ByL. E.S. .... 146 Applied Mechanics. By G:'A. B..;\. 4). we meee eee Our Book Shelf :— aR. Wright : ‘‘ Man and the Glacial Period” .... . 148 Kapple and Kirby : ‘‘ Beetles, Butterflies, Moths, and other Jpsect$”) os cicec4 ob. Ao. ae ee sea. The climate throughout was found agreeable, and > were few mosquitves. [he river does not overflow, so > are no malarial swamps along the banks. BREATH FIGURES: _upon glass, and by electrifying it made a latent impression, Weick teedeled itself when breathed upon. About the same time we R. (now Sir W. R.) Grove made similar impressions th simple paper devices, and fixed them so as to be always visible. A discussion of Karsten’s results occurs in several places, ‘but Ihave not been able to find details of his method of per- forming the experiment. During my attempts to repeat it some _ effects have appeared which seem to be new and worthy of ” After many trials I found the following method the most successful :—A glass plate, six inches square, is put on the table j ‘insulation : in the middle lies a coin with a strip of tinfoil ing from it to the edge of the glass: on this coin lies the glass im , four or five inches square, and above it a second It is essential to polish the glass scrupulously clean and y with a leather : the coins may be used just as they usually or chemically cleansed, it makes no difference. The tinfoil one coin are connected to the poles of a Wimshurst machine which gives three or four inch sparks. The handle is ned for tw» minutes, during which one-inch sparks must be pt passing at the poles of the machine. On taking up the iss one can detect no change with the eye or the microscope ; t when either side is breathed upon, a clear frosted picture ears of that side of the coin which had faced it: even a ptor’s mark beneath the head may be read. For convenience coca sal where the breath seems to adhere will be called white, _ the other parts black. In this experiment the more projecting _ parts of the com have a black counterpart, but there is a fine ~ gradation of shade to correspond with the depth of cutting in the device : ue soft undulations of the head and neck are delicately u Bowe microscope shows that moisture is really deposited over je whole surface, the size of the minute water granulation increasing as the point of the picture is darker in shade. There seems to be no change produced by the use of coins of different metals. _ Ifsparking is allowed across the glass instead of at the poles _ of the machine, traces of metal are sometimes deposited beyond _ the disk of the coin, but not within it. _ \_ Paper read by Mr. W. B. Croft before the Physical Society of London on _ June 24, 1892. NO. 1208, VOL 47] "years back Prof. Karsten, of Berlin, placed a coin Around the disk isa black ring quarter inch broad: some times the milling of the coin causes radial lines across this halo. If carefully protected there appears to be no limit to the per- manence of the figures, but commonly they are gradually obscured by the dust gathered up after being often breathed upon: some of the early ones, done more than two years back, are still clear and well defined in the detail. It is possible to efface them with some difficulty by rubbing with a leather whilst the glass is moist. They are best preserved by laying several together when dry and wrapping them in paper : they are not blurred by this contact. It is a curious fact that certain developments take place after a lapse of some weeks or months, The dark ring around the disk gradually changes into a series of three or four, black and di alternately ; other instances ofsuch a change will be noted ow. Let it be noticed that in coin pictures the object is near to, but not in contact with, the glass: for in the best specimens the rim of the coin keeps the inner part clear of the surface. Obviously a small condenser is made by the coins: it is not essential ; at the same time images made by a single coin, put to a single pole, are inferior. The plan which gives the surest and most beautiful results is to place five or six coins, lying in contact side by side in a cross or star, on either side of the glass: it is not necessary that each coin should exactly face one on the other side. There has not appeared any distinction between the figures made by positive and negative electricity. Whenseveral coins are placed side by side, touching one another, there appear in the spaces between them, which are mostly black, well-defined white lines, common tangents to the circular edges of the coins. If these are of equal size the lines are straight ; otherwise they are curved, concave towards a smaller coin. They seem to be traces in that plane of the loci of intersection of equipotential surfaces. Similar effects are obtained when coins and glasses are piled up alternately, and the outer coins are put to the poles of the machine. With six glasses and seven coins perfect images have been formed on both sides of each glass. With eight glasses the figures were imperfect ; but there is little doubt this could be pees by continued trials as to the amount of electricity applied. If several glasses are superposed and coins are applied to the outer surfaces, there are only the two images at the outside. After the electrification there is a strong cohesion between the plates. It requires some practice to manage the electrification so as to produce the best results. There are two forms of failure which present interesting features. Sometimes a picture comes out with the outlines dotted instead of being continuous. At other times, if the electrification is carried too far, the impression comes out wholly black ; but on rubbing the glass when dry with a leather the excess is somehow removed. Naturally it is difficult to rub down exactly to the right point, but I have succeeded on several occasions in developing from a blank all the fine detail of elaborate coins. Here, again, we have another instance of the development by lapse of time, for an over-excited piece of glass usually gives a clear picture after an interval of a day or two. Impressions from stereotype plates have been taken of which the greater part is legible: the distinctness usually improves after a few days. In default ofa second plate, a piece of tin-foil about the same size should be put on the opposite side of the glass, Sheet and plate glass of various thicknesses have been used without any noticeable change either in the treatment or the results. I have put an impressed glass on a photographic plate in the dark, but did not get any result on developing : my imperfect skill in photographic matters leaves this experiment inconclusive, Probably all polished surfaces may be similarly affected: a plate of quartz gives the most perfect images, which retain their freshness longer than those on glass. Mica and gelatine give poorer results: it is not possible to polish the surface to the necessary point without scratching it. On metal surfaces fairly good impressions can be produced if, as Karsten advises, oiled paper is put between the coin and the surface. In the order of original discovery the figures noticed by Peter Riess should come first. He discusses a breath-track made on 188 NATURE [DECEMBER 22, 1892 glass by a feeble electrical discharge ; as well as two permanent marks, noticed by Ettrick, which betray a disintegration of the surface, I have found that when a stronger discharge is employed more complex phenomena ofa similar kind are produced. A six-inch Wimshurst machine is arranged with extra condensers, as if to pierce a piece of glass. If this is about four inches square the spark will generally go round it. Fora day, more or less, there is only a bleared watery track, 3%; inch wide, when the glass is breathed upon ; but after this time others develop themselves within the first, a fine central black line with two white and two black on either side, the total breadth being the original ;% inch. These breath-lines do not precisely coincide in position with the permanent scars, but the central one is almost the same as a permanent mark, which the microscope shows to be the surface of glass fractured into small squares of considerable regularity : on either side is a grey-blue line always visible, which Riess ascribes to the separation of the potash, After several months I found two blue lines on either side, which I believe were not visible at first. Ofcourse these blue lines may be seen on most Leyden jars, where they have discharged themselves across the glass. In 1842 Moser, of K6nigsberg, produced figures on polished surfaces by placing bodies with unequal surfaces near to them ; the action was ascribed to.the power of light, and his results were compared with those of Daguerre. Moser says, ‘‘ We cannot therefore doubt that light acts uniformly on all bodies, and that, moreover, all bodies will depict themselves on others, and it only depends on extraneous circumstances whether or not the images become visible.”” In general, the multitude of images would make confusion ; it can only be freshly polished surfaces that are free to reveal single definite impressions. |Howeyer great Moser’s assumption may be, there are many achievements of modern photography that would be as surprising if they were not so familiar. I have not the means of knowing the precise form of Moser’s methods: in the experiments which follow there is usually contact and light pressure, and if they are hot wholly analogous, they may for that cause help to generalize the idea: in none of these is electricity applied. A piece of mica is freshly split, and a coin lightly pressed for thirty seconds on the new surface: a *breath-image of the coin is left behind. At the same time it may be noticed that the breath causes abundant iridescence over the surface, whilst it is in a fresh state. .It is not clear how the electricity of cleavage can have an active agency in the result. It is familiar to most people that a coin resting for a while on glass will give an outline of the disk, and sometimes faint traces of the inner detail when breathed upon. An examination-paper, printed on one side, is put between two plates of glass and left for ten hours, either in the dark or the daylight : a small weight will keep the paper in continuous contact, but this is not necessary if thick glass.is used. A perfect breath-impression of the print is made, not only on the glass which lay against the print, but also on that which faced the blank side of the paper. Of course the latter reads directly, and the former inversely ; the print was about one year old, and presumably dry. More often both impressions are white, sometimes one or other or both are black. At other times the same one may be part white and part black, and they even change while being examined. During a sharp frost with east winds early in March, 1890, these impressions of all kinds were easy to produce, so as to be quite perfect to the last comma ; but in general they are difficult, more especially those from the blank side. At the best period those from the blank side of the paper were white and very strong ; also there were white spots and blotches revealed by the breath. They seemed to correspond with slight variations in the structure of the paper, and suggest an idea that the thickness of the ink or paper makes a minute mechanical indentation on the molecules : the state of these is probably ten- der and sensitive under certain atmospheric conditions, ashappens with steel in times of frost. The following experiments easily succeed at any time :— Stars and crosses of paper are placed for a few hours beneath a plate of glass : clear white breath-figures of the device will appear. A piece of paper is folded several times each way to form small squares, then spread out and placed under glass : the raised lines of the folds produce white breath-traces, and a letter weight that was above leaves a latent mark of its circular rim. No. 1208, VOL. 47] Some writing is made on paper with ordinary ink and well dried : it will leave a very lasting white breath-image after a few hours’ contact. If, with an ivory point, the writing is traced with slight pressure on glass, a black breath-image is made at once. Of course this reads directly, and the white one inversely. It is convenient to look through the glass from the other side for inverse impressions, so as to make them read direct. __ Plates of glass lie for a few hourson a table-cover worked with sunflowers in silk: they acquire strong white figures from the silk. ae In most cases I have warmed the glass, primarily for the sake of cleansing it from moisture; but I have often gone to a heat beyond what this needs, and think that the sensitiveness has been increased thereby. It isnot easy to imagine what leads to the distinction between black and white, different substances act variously in this respect. I have placed various threads for a few hours under a piece of giass, which lay on them with light pressure : wool gives black, silk white, cotton black, copper white. A twist of tinsel and wool gives a line dotted white and black; after a time these traces show signs of developing into multiple lines as in the spark figures. Two cases have been reported to nie where blinds with em- bossed letters have left a latent image on the window near which they lay ; it was revealed in misty weather, and had not been removed by washing. I have not had a chance to see these for myself, but both my informants were accustomed to scientific observation. A glass which has lain above a picture for some years, but is _ kept from contact by the mount, will often show on its inner side an outline of the picture, always visible without breath. It seems to be a dust figure easily removed : possibly heat and light have loosened fine paint particles, and these have been drawn up to the glass by the electricity made in rubbing the outer side to clean it. The picture must have been well framed and sealed from external influences ; most commonly dust and damp get in and obscure such a delicate effect. I am not able to suggest simple causes for these varied effects. I am not inclined to think, except in the case of water-colours, which is hardly part of the enquiry, that there is a definite material deposit or chemical change ; one cannot suppose that imperceptible traces of grease, ineradicable as they may be, would produce complete and delicate outlines. The cleaning off of impressions may at first seem to indicate a deposit; but — this renewal of the surface might rather be like smoothing out an indented tin-foil surface: such a view might explain the case © where a blank over-electrified disk is developed into fine detail. The electrified figures seem to point to a bombardment, which produces a molecular change, the intensity of electricity bringing about quickly what may also be done by slow persistent action of mechanical pressure. At present it seems as if most of the phenomena cannot be drawn out from the unknown region of molecular agency. While experimenting I was not within reach of references to former researches, but I have since done my best to find them out, and to indicate all I have learnt in the body of my paper. Poggendorff, vol. Ivii. p. 492; translated in Archives de ? Electricité, 1842, -p. 647. Riess’ ‘‘ Electrische Hauchfiguren” in ‘* Repertorium der Physik” ; translated in Archives de 1 Electricité, 1842, uaa? 4 va Reiss’ ** Die Lehre von der Reibungs Electricitat,” vol. ii. pp. 221-224. Mascart, ‘‘Hlectricité Statique,’’ vol. ii. p. 177. Taylor’s ‘* Scientific Memoirs,” vol. iii. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Journal of Science, December.—An experimental comparison of formulz for total radiation between 15° C, and 110° C., by W. de Conte Stevens. The formule given by Dulong and Petit, by Rosetti, Stefan, and Weber, were tested for a comperatively small range of differences by a determina- | tion of the heat radiated from an iron disc at a distance of about 30 cm. from a thermopile. The results tended to show that H. F. Weber’s formula (Sz¢zungsber., Berlin, 1888) agrees most closely with experiment. Stefan’s formula, according to which the heat emitted in unit of time is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature, is also fairly accurate, DECEMBER 22, 1892 | NATURE 189 _ but Dulong and Petit’s values are too high, and Rosetti’s too _ low.—Notes on silver, by M. Carey Lea.—Notes on silver _ chlorides, by the same. Fused silver chloride poured into petroleum and placed in the sunlight without removing it from the liquid, is instantly darkened. From this it appears that the presence of oxygen or moisture is not essential to the darkening of silver chloride in light. The chlorine may be taken up by some other substance.—A remarkable fauna at the base of the Burlington Limestone in north-eastern Missouri, by Charles Rollin Keyes.—Glacial pot-holes in California, by H. W. Turner. —The lavas of Mount Ingalls, California, by H. W. Turner. —A method for the quantitative separation of barium from stron- tium by the action of amyl alcohol on the bromides, by Philip E. Browning. The solubility of barium bromide is about 0°0013 2. on the oxide in 10 cc. of amyl alcohol, while that of stron- tium ide is 0°2 grm. To obtain the bromides, the pre- -cipitated and thoroughly washed carbonates of Ba and Sr are _ treated with hydrobromic acid obtained by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on potassium bromide.—Note on the method for _ the quantitative separation of strontium from calcium by the action of amyl alcohol on the nitrates, by P. E. Browning. _ Recent work on this method has shown that the total correction amounts to 0'0006 grm. on the strontium oxide, and o‘oo10 on _ the calcium as sulphate, —Study of the formation of the alloys of tin and iron, with descriptions of some new alloys, by W. P. s a on the Cambrian rocks of Pennsylvania and j land from the Susquehanna to the Potomac, by C. D. ~ Walcott.—Volcanic rocks of South Mountain in Pennsylvania and Maryland, by G. H. Williams. Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 11.—On _ the behaviour of allotropic silver towards the electric current, by A. Oberbeck.—On the indices of’ refraction of dilute soluti by W. Hallwachs.—On capillary constants, by M. _ Cantor.—On the chemistry of the accumulator, by M. Cantor. _ On the fall of potential during discharges, by O. Lehmann. __ A series of important investigations on discharges between _ electrodes and in tubes without electrodes.—Expansion of water - _ with the temperature, by K. Scheel.—A method for determining _ the density of saturated vapours and the expansion of liquids at higher tem ures, by B. Galitzine. This method has the advantage of extreme simplicity combined with accuracy. A small tube, about 5 cm. long and a few mm. thick, is closed at one end and drawn out into a capillary at the other. After determining the weight and internal volume of the tube, a small quantity of the substance to be investigated is introduced _ into it in the liquid state. This is made to boil, and then the _ tube is sealed by fusing. On raising the temperature, the sur- separation between the liquid and its vapour is _ displaced, until at a certain temperature all the liquid is converted into saturated vapour. ‘The tube is then cooled until the vapour reappears, when the temperature is again taken. _ This can be repeated several times, thus giving an accurate value for the density of saturated vapour at a certain temperature. The same process can be used to determine the expansion of the _ liquid. As the temperature rises, the volume of the liquid will in general increase up to a certain point, when the vaporization becomes more pronounced. This maximum, which can be ob- served more accurately by drawing out the tube near that point, gives a value for the expansion. For the density at that point is a function of the density at o° C. and the temperature, and the pressure is that of the saturated vapour at the same tem re. Thus it is only necessary to find the volumes of the and the vapour, and the density of the latter from the i experiment.—On radiant energy, by B. Galitzine.— ote on the electricity of waterfalls, by J. Elster and H. Geitel. —Apparatus for demonstrating the Wheatstone bridge arrange- ment, by A. Oberbeck.—Determination of the coefficient of self-induction by means of the electro-dynamometer, by O. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon. __ Royal Society, December 15.—On some new reptiles from the Elgin Sandstone, by E. T. Newton, communicated by Sir Archibald Geikie, F.R.S. During the last few years a number of reptilian remains have been obtained from the Elgin Sandstone at Cuttie’s Hillock, NO. 1208, VOL. 47] near Elgin, which are now in the possession of the Elgin Museum and of the Geological Survey. These specimens repre- sent at least eight distinct skeletons, seven of which undoubtedly belong to the Dicynodontia, and one is a singular horned reptile, new to science, All the remains yet found in this quarry are in the condition of hollow moulds, the bones themselves having entirely disappeared. In order, therefore, to render the speci- mens available for study, it was necessary, in the first place, so to display and preserve these cavities that casts might be taken which would reproduce the form of the original bones. Gutta- percha was found to be the most suitable material for taking these impressions ; and in some instances, especially in the case of the skulls, the casts had to be made in several parts and after- wards joined together. The first specimen described is named Gordonia Traguairi ; it is the one noticed by Dr. Traquair in 1885, and referred to the Dicynodontia ; besides the skull, it includes fragmentary portions of other parts of the skeleton, and is contained in a block of sand- stone which has been split open so as to divide the skull almost vertically and longitudinally. The two halves have been so developed that casts made from them exhibit the left side and upper surface, as well as the main parts of the palate and lower jaw. In general appearance this skull resembles those of Dicy- nodon and Oudenodon. The nasal openings are double and directed laterally ; the orbits are large and look somewhat for- wards and upwards. The supra-temporal fossa is large, and bounded above by the prominent parieto-syuamosal crest, and below by the wide supra-temporal bar, which extends downwards posteriorly to form the long pedicle for the articulation of the lower jaw. ‘There is no lower temporal bar. The maxilla is directed downwards and forwards to end in a small tusk. Seen from above, the skull is narrow in the inter-orbital and nasal regions, but wide posteriorly across the temporal bars, although the brain-case itself is very narrow. There is a large pineal fossa in the middle of a spindle-shaped area, which area is formed by a pair of parietals posteriorly and a single intercalary bone anteriorly. The palate is continuous with the base of the skull; the pterygoids on each side send off a distinct process to the quadrate region. Towards the front the mediam part of the united pterygoids arches upwards, and the outer sides descend, forming a deep groove ; from the evidence of other specimens it is clear that the palatines, extending inwards, converted this groove into a tube, and thus formed the posterior nares. The ramus of the lower jar is deep, with a large lateral vacuity, and the two rami are completely united at the symphysis. The back of this skull is not seen, but two other specimens, referable to this same genus, show that the occiput had two post-temporal fossze on each side. This specimen is distinguished from Dicynodon by the pres- ence of two post-temporal fossze on each side of the occiput, by the small size of the maxillary tusk ; and probably by the elongated spindle-shaped area enclosing the pineal fossa, and also by the slight ossification of the vertebral centra. A second and much smaller specimen, provisionally referred to G. Traquairi, has, besides the skull, a fore-limb well pre- served. ‘Lhe humerus of this shows the usual Anomodont expansion of its extremities ; its large deltoid crest is angular, and set obliquely to the distal end. Three other species are referred to the same genus, namely :— Gordonia Huxleyana, which is distinguished from G. Traquatri by its proportionately wider and more depressed skull, and by the absence of the concavity between the orbits which is present in the latter species. The humerus has the distal extremity oblique to the deltoid crest, which was probably rounded and not angular. G. Duffiana has the skull even wider than in G. Hux/leyana, and the portion of a humerus found with this skeleton has the two extremities set nearly at right angles'to-each other. G. Fuddiana has an elongated skull resembling that of G. Traquairi, but the parietal crests are less developed, the bones of the nasal region are much thickened and overlap the nasal apertures, the small tusk is placed a little further back and points more directly downwards, and the pineal fossa is smaller than in either of the other species. A second generic form is named Getkia Elginesis. Thisisa skull nearly allied to Ptychognathus, Owen, but is distinguished by its shorter muzzle and the entire absence of teeth ; the upper part of the skull, between the orbits, is also peculiar, forming a deep valley open anteriorly, with a ridge on each side, the anterio 190 NATURE [DECEMBER 22, 1892 end of which forms a large prominence above and in front of the orbit. The occiput has only one (the lower) post-tem poral fossa open on each side. The maxilla is produced into a tooth-like prominence, which occupies a similar position to the tusks of Gordonia ; but the bone is too thin to have supported a tooth, and in all probability it was covered by a horny beak. The lower jaw has a strong symphysis, a distinct lateral vacuity, and the oral margin, at the foot of each ramus, bears a rugose prominence. . Elginia mirabilis is the name proposed for the skull of a reptile, which, on account of the extreme development of horns and spines, reminds one of the living lizards Moloch and Phry- nosoma. The exterior of this skull is covered in by bony plates, the only apertures being the pair of nostrils, the orbits, and the pineal fossa. The surfaces ofthe bones are deeply pitted, as in crocodiles and labyrinthodonts. The horns and spines, which vary from jin. to nearly 3 in. in length, are found upon nearly every bone of the exterior. The development of the epiotics, and the arrangement of the external bones, resemble more the Labyrinthodont than the reptilian type of structure ; while the palate, on the other hand, conforms more nearly to the Lacer- tilian type, and, with the exception that the pteryevids are united in front of the pterygoid vacuity, agrees with tue palate of Jeuan, and Sphenodon. ‘There are iour longitudinal ridges along the palate, some of which seem to have carried teeth. The oral margin was armed witha pleurodont dentition, there being on each side about twelve teeth with spatulate crowns, laterally compressed and serrated. With the exception of the smaller number of the teeth, we have here, on a large scale, a repetition of the dentition of Zgwana, This peculiar skull seems to show affinities with both Labyrinthodonts and Lacertilians, and is unlike any living or fossil form ; its nearest, though distant, ally ‘apparently being the Parezasaurus from the Karoo beds of South Africa, Linnean Society, December 1.—Prof. Stewart, President, in the chair.—A letter was read from the Rev. Leonard Blome- field, expressing his high appreciation of the compliment paid him by the presentation of the illuminated address which had been signed by the Fellows present at the last meeting of the Society and forwarded to him.—Messrs. H. and J. Groves ex- hibited specimens of several Irish Characee collected during the past summer. JVitella tenussima from Westmeath and Galway had not been previously recorded from Ireland, and a large form of WV. gracilis from two lakes in Wicklow had been only once previously met with. Referring to the former, Mr. H. Groves remarked that although it might be expected to occur in all the peat districts it had only been found in two widely separated localities in England, namely, in the Cambridgeshire Fens and in. Anglesea.—Mr. A. Lister made some remarks on the nuclei of Mycetozoa, exhibiting some preparations under the microscope.—Mr. E, Cambridge Phillips forwarded for ex- hibition a hybrid between red and black grouse, which had been shot in August near Brecon.—-Mr. J. E. Harting exhibited and made remarks on some coleopterous larvee which had been vomited by a child at Tintern, and had been forwarded by the medical attendant, Dr. J. Taylor Brown, for identification. The precise species had not been determined, but was considered to be allied to Blaps mortisaga, Mr. Harting drew attention to the fact that cases of voiding coleopterous larvae were men- tioned by Kirby and Spence (7th ed. p. 71), and by the late Dr. Spencer Cobbold in his work on parasites (1879, p. 269).— Mr. D. Morris exhibited some tubers of Calathia allonia, eaten as potatoes in Trinidad, where it is known as Tapee Nambour. Apparently a corruption from the French ‘¢opinambour (arti- choke).—A communication was read from Mr. J. H. Hart, of the Botanic Gardens, Trinidad, on Ccodoma cephalotes and the fungi it cultivates.—Prof. F. Jeffry Bell contributed a short paper on a small collection of Crinoids from the Sahul Bank, North Australia, some of which were new, and Mr. Edgar Smith communicated descriptions of some new land shells from Borneo.—The meeting adjourned to December 15. Physical Society, December 9.—Mr. Walter Baily, Vice- President, in the chair.—The Chairman announced that an extra meeting would be held on January 13, 1893.—Prof. S. P. Thompson’s communication on Japanese magic mirrors was postponed.—Mr. W. B. Croft read a paper on the spectra of various orders of colours in Newton’s scale. After referring to the definition of the order of colours by reference to the retarda- tion in wave-lengths, produced by different thicknesses of selenite NO. 1208, VOL. 47] between crossed polarizer and analyzer, the author went on to say that several books on optics implied that the number of bands in the spectra of these colours was the same as the order of the colour. On obtaining selenites of the first four orders of red from Messrs. Steeg and Reuter, he found that the first three orders gave one dark band each, and that of the fourth order three dark bands. Further experiments showed that the thicknesses of the selenites were in the proper proportions re- quired to give the first four orders of red. The numbers of bands, the author explained, depended on the numerical possi- bilities of wave-length within the visible spectrum—that is, whether a multiple of the wave-length of one visible wave can be another multiple of a different wave. For example, taking the visible spectrum as extending from A (0‘000760) to H (0°000394) and the wave-length of the line E in the green as 0000527, it was shown that the first order of red was due to extinction of green by a thickness of crystal proportional to I x 0'000527, and would give one band in the green. For the second order, the thickness of crystal was proportional to 2 xX 0'000527, viz. 0’001054, and this number was no other integral multiple of any other wave-length between A and H ; consequently there could only be one band. Similarly it was — shown that the third order of red could only have one band or possibly produce a shortening of the spectrum. With the fourth order of red three bands were obtainable, for 4 x 0°000527 = 3X 0'000703 and = § X 0000422. fore possible near E, A, G, respectively. At the conclusion of his paper, Mr. Croft directed attention to a very simple form of diffraction apparatus, by which most of the ordinary diffraction phenomena could be well seen, and which also served for spectrum observations. Mr. H. Miers pointed out that in Lewis Wright’s ‘‘ Practical Optics” a chart showing the bands corresponding to the first four orders of red was given, So far as he was aware, the subject was not fully discussed in the book. Inreply, Mr. Croft said he had noticed Mr. Wright’s _ chart, but believed the text implied that the number of bands should be the same as the order of the colour. Tyndall made definite statements to that effect.—Dr. W. E. Sumpner read a paper on the diffusion of light. The influence of diffusion in increasing the illumination of rooms and open spaces, had not, in the author’s opinion, been sufficiently appreciated. Being, impressed with the great importance of the subject, he was led to make determinations of the co-efficients of reflection, absorp- tion, and transmission of diffusing surfaces. to terms sometimes vaguely used, several definitions were pro- posed. Reflecting power was defined as the ratio of the amount of light reflected from a surface to the total amount of light incident upon it ; 2//umination of a surface, as the amount of incident light per unit of surface ; wit guantity of light as the flux of radiation across unit area of a sphere of unit radius at whose centre a unit light is placed ; and dréghtmess as the candle- power per unit area in the direction normal to the surface. Denoting these quantities by 7, I, Q and B respectively, and assuming the cosine law of diffusion (z.e. the candle-power in any direction is proportional to the cosine of the angle between the direction and the normal to the surface) it was shown that a B = 71, and that the average illumination (I’) of the walls of a room is related to the illumination (I) due to the direct action If the re- flecting power of the walls, &c., be 50 per cent., 7 = 4, and I’ =2I, whilst if »=0°8, a number approximately true for white sur- faces, then I’ =5I. The illumination due to the walls may, there- fore, be far more important than that due to the direct rays from the lights. When the surfaces consist of portions of different of the lights as expressed by the formula I’ = a : reflecting power, the average reflecting power may be found ~ from the equation 7 ini a &c., A being the total surface, and A,, A,, &c., the areas of surfaces whose reflecting powers are 7, No, &c.,-respectively. This law is shown to quite accurate for spherical enclosures. power, the surface was attached to a large screen of black velvet placed perpendicular to a 3-metre photometer bench. Two lights were used, one a Methven 2-candle standard placed at the end of the bench remote from the reflecting surface, and the other, a glow lamp of about 20-candle power, was attached to a slider which also carried a Lummer-Brodhun photometer. The glow-lamp served to illuminate the reflecting surface, but the photometer was screened from its direct rays. The formulze used in reducing the observations are worked out in the paper Three bands were there-. In measuring reflecting © Ce ke a re To give precision _ -DrcEMBER 22, 1892 | NATURE 191 ind tables of results given. Absorbing power was determined yy measuring the candle-power of a glow-lamp, first when un- overed, and then when surrounded by a cylinder of the substance test. It was found to be of great importance to dis- tinguish between apparent and real absorption, for reflection from the surfaces of the cylinders increases the internal / nati The true absorption coefficient (a) is given fo =F, where 7 is the reflecting power and 2, and another part by diffusions according to the cosine sthods for discriminating between the different parts sfore devised both in the reflection and transmission ents, and consistent results subsequently obtained. and curves showing the close agreement of calculated nd observed values, are included in the paper. An abstract of me of the tables of numbers is given below :— o & Be = & Be Hratt & 8 as | ae % = & 82 138 92 105'0 80 12°2 | 11°2 103'4 35 150 | 54°4 104°4 22 7'0 | 76'0 105°O 82 50 to 70 40 55 40 25 13 20 12 _ Blackvelvet_... 0'4~—-\(appar- _ Arc lamp globes— ent) Light opal... 15 _ Dense opal . , oo 39 Ground glass | me 42 _ Theoretically the sum of the reflecting, absorbing and. trans- { powers should be unity, but from the above table it will ced that they exceed 100 per cent., by amounts greater an can be accounted for by experimental error, This dis- , the author thought, might be attributed to the law of 0 not being exactly fulfilled. Mr. A. P. Trotter said he ad been interested in the subject of diffusion for many years with a view to obviating the glare of arc lamps. Some experi- ments he made on reflecting power gave unsatisfactory results, owing, as he now saw, tv his not taking the solid angles sub- e by the reflecting surfaces into account. The reflecting _ power of substances was of great importance in the illumination f rooms; in one case measured by Dr. Sumpner and himself, _ two-thirds of the total illumination was due to the walls. It would greatly simplify measurement of reflecting power if some ‘substance could be adopted as a standard. Referring to the cosine law, he said he had found it true, except when the angles of incidence approached go”. In cases where considerable total _ reflection took place the apparent brightness near the normal _ direction was greatly in excess of that in other directions. These points he illustrated by polar curves. He had also con- _ sidered what should be the nature of a roughened or grooved surface to give the cosine law of diffusion. No simple geo- metrical form of corrugations, &c., seemed to fulfil the required conditions. Dr. Hoffert said the high numbers given for the reflecting powers of substances were very interesting. Most le had noticed the effect of laying a white table cloth in an ordinary room. He had also observed that wall papers of the NO. 1208, VOL. 47] same pattern, but slightly different in colour, had very different effects in producing increased illumination, and wished to know if the influence of small differences in colour and texture on diffusing power, had been investigated. Mr. Blakesley defended the cosine law, and suggested that the summation of the powers exceeding unity might be due to the fact that the enclosure reflected heat as well as light, thus raising the temperature and increasing the efficiency of the radiant. Mr. Addenbrooke said the importance of the subject was impressed on him when he passed through America three years ago and noticed the crude manner in which electric lighting was there carried out. If using good reflecting surfaces increased the illumination of a room 50 per cent., it was like reducing the cost of electricity from 8d. to 4d. per unit. He could hardly conceive any subject of more practical importance than the one before the meeting. Dr. C. V. Burton did not understand why the cosine law should be objected to, for it was possible that no surface was perfectly diffusive. The effect of reflection from walls, &c., say in illuminating a book would not, he thought, be so great as would appear from the numbers given, for one usually read near a light, and the reflected light falling on the book was only a small part of the whole, on account of the greater distances of the walls. Another member pointed out that in experiments such as those described, it was very important to screen the photometer and surfaces from all radiation other than that under test. He rather doubted whether any surface reflected as well as mirrors. White surfaces might appear to do so, but this was probably because the eye would overestimate it, owing to the superiority of white in aiding distinct vision. Dr. Sumpner in reply said he had, as stated in the paper, used white blotting paper as a standard of reflecting power and found it very con- venient. His most careful measurements had been made on whitish surfaces and not on coloured ones. Where one colour, say red, preponderates in a room, the average light would be much redder than that emitted by the source owing to the other colours being absorbed. In considering illumination as related to distinct vision, it was necessary to take account of the eye itself, for the pupil contracted in strong lights and opened in feeble ones. This subject he hoped to treat fully in a subsequent paper. Entomological Society, December 7.—Frederick DuCane Godman, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The President announced the death, on December 2, of Mr. Henry T. Stainton, F.R.S., an ex-President and ex-Secretary of the Society.—Mr. Jenner Weir exhibited a species of Acrzea from Sierra Leone, which Mr. Roland Trimen, F.R.S., who had examined the specimen, considered to be a remarkable variety of Telchinia encedon, Linn. It was a very close miwic of Limnas alcippus, the usual West African form of Limnas chrysippus. The upper wings of the specimen were rufous and the lower white, as in the model, and the resemblance in other respects was heightened by the almost total suppression of the black spots in the disc of the upper wings, characteristic of the usual markings of 7. encedon.—Mr. F. J. Hanbury exhibited a re- markable variety of Lycena adonis, caught in Kent this year, with only one large spot on the under side of each upper wing,. and the spots on the lower wings entirely replaced by suffused white patches. He also exhibited two specimens of Noctua xanthographa of a remarkably pale brownish grey colour, ap- proaching a dirty white, obtained in Essex, in 1891; and a variety of Acronycta rumicis, also taken in Essex, with a dark hind margin to the fore wings.—Mr. H. J. Elwes exhibited a living specimen of a species of Conocephalus, a genus of Locus- tide, several species of which, Mr. McLachlan stated, had been found alive in hothouses in this country.—Dr. T. A. Chapman exhibited immature specimens of Zeniocampa gracilis, T. gothica, T. populeti, T. munda, T. instabilis and 7. leucogra- pha, which had been taken out of their cocoons in the autumn, with the object of showing the then state of development of the imagos.—Mr. F. W. Frohawk exhibited a living specimen of the larva of Carterocephalus palemon (Hesperia paniscus) hyber- nating on a species of grass which he believed to be Bromus asper. The Rey. Canon Fowler and Mr. H. Goss expressed their interest at seeing the larva of this local species, the imagos of which they had respectively collected in certain woods in. Lincolnshire and Northamptonshire. Mr. Goss stated that the food-plants of the species were supposed to be Plantago major and Cynosurus cristatus, but that the larva might possibly feed on Bromus asper.—Mr. C. G. Barrett exhibited a long series. of remarkable melanic varieties of Boarmia repandata, bred. 192 NATURE [ DECEMBER 22, 1892 by Mr. A. E. Hall from lJarve collected near Sheffield. —Mr. W. Farren exhibited four varieties of Papilio machaon from Wicken Fen ; also a series of two or three species of Mepticule pinned on pith with the ‘‘ minutien Nadeln,” for the purpose of showing these pins.—Canon Fowler exhibited specimens of Xyleborus perforans, Woll., which had been devastating the sugar-canes in the West Indies.—Mr. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S., showed, by means of the oxy-hydrogen lantern, slides of various larve and pup, in illustration of his paper, read at the October meeting, entitled, ‘‘ Further experiments upon the colour- relation between certain lepidopterous larvee and their surround- ings.” He stated that he believed that nineteen out of twenty larvee of Geometride possessed the power of colour adjustment. Mr. F. Merrifield, the Rev. J. Seymour St. John, and Mr. Jacoby took part in the discussion which. ensued. —Mr, F. Mer- rifield read a paper entitled, ‘‘ The effects of temperature on the colouring of Preris napi, Vanessa atalanta, Chrysophanus phleas and Ephyra punctata,” and exhibited many specimens thus affected. Mr. Poulton, Dr. F. A. Dixey, Mr. Elwes, and Mr. Jenner-Weir took part inthe discussion which ensued.—Mr. Kenneth J. Morton communicated a paper en- titled, ‘‘ Notes on Hydroptilide belonging to the European Fauna, with descriptions of new species.”—Dr. T. A. Chap- man read a paper entitled, ‘‘On some neglected points in the structure of the pupa of Heterocerous Lepidoptera, and their probable ‘value in classification ; with some associated observa- tions on larval prolegs.”” Mr. Poulton, Mr. Tutt, Mr. Hamp- son, and Mr. Gahan took part in the discussion which ensued. —Mr. Cosmo-Melvill communicated a paper entitled, “* Description of a new species of butterfly of the genus Calinaga, from Siam.”—Mr. W. L. Distant communicated a paper entitled, ‘‘ Descriptions of new genera and species of Neotropical Rhynchota.”’ PaRIs, Academy of Sciences, December 12.—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—On certain asymptotic solutions of differential equations, by M. Emile Picard.—Description of a, new electric furnace, by M. Henri Moissan. The furnace consists of two bricks of quicklime one upon the other, the lower one of which is pro- vided with a longitudinal groove which carries the two electrodesy and between them is a small cavity serving as crucible, which contains a layer of several centimetres of the substance to be experimented upon. The latter may also be contained in a small carbon crucible. The highest temperature worked with was 3000° C., produced by a current of 450 amperes and 70 volts consuming 50 horse-power. In the neighbourhood of 2500°, lime, strontia and magnesia crystallized in a few minutes. At 3000° the quicklime composing the furnace began'to run like water. At the same temperature the carbon rapidly reduced the oxide of calcium to the metallic state. The oxides of nickel, cobalt, manganese, and chromium were reduced in a few seconds at 2500°, and a button of uranium weighing 120 gr. was ob- tained from the oxide in ten minutes at 3000°.—Action of a high temperature on metallic oxides, by M. Henri Moissan. In all the experiments, the simple elevation of temperature pro- duced the crystallization of all the metallic oxides experimented upon.—On the existence of the diamond in meteoric iron of the Caiion Diablo, by M. C. Friedel. A careful analysis has placed beyond doubt the existence of diamond in a portion of the Arizona meteorite presented to the Ecole des Mines. in small grains or a fine powder disseminated through the iron.— On the laws of expansion of fluids at constant volume ; coefficients of pressure, by E. H. Amagat.—On the means of diminishing the pathogenic power of fermented beet-root pulp, by M. Arloing. —On the employment of free balloons for meteorological observa- tions at very great heights, by M. Ch. Kenard.—Photographic observations of Holmes’s comet, by M. H. Deslandres.—On the locus of the mean distances of a point of an ordinary epicycloid, and of the successive centres of curvature which correspond to it, by M. G. Fouret.—On ordinary linear differential equations, by M. Jules Cels.—On the common cause of the evaporation and surface tension of liquids, by M. G. van der Mensbrugghe. —On the relation between the velocity of light and the size of the molecules of refracting liquids, by M. P. Joubin. From a comparison of a large number of substances the following law is deduced: The refraction is proportional ‘to the square root of the quotient of the weight of the molecule by the number of constituent atoms (mean weight of the atom).—On the anomalous propagation of the light waves of Newton’s rings, by M. Ch. Fabry.—On transparent diffusing globes, by M. Frédureau.— NO. 1208, VOL. 47] It occurs |. On a relation between molecular heat and the dielectric constant, by M. Runolfsson.—On the employment of guard-ring con- densers and absolute electrometers, by M. P. Curie.—On the density of oxide of carbon and the atomic weight of carbon, by M. A. Leduc.—Critical reduction of Stas’s fundamental deter- minations on potassium chlorate, by M. G. Hinrichs.—On a chloro-iodide of carbon, by M. A. Besson.—Action of anhy- drous hydrofluoric acid on the alcohols, by M. Maurice Meslans. —Action of sulphuric acid on citrene, by MM. G. Bouchardat and J. Lafont.—Analysis of sulphate of quinine and quantitative determination of quinine in presence of the other cinchona alkaloids, by M. L. Barthe.—On the assimilation of the omasum to the abomasum of the Ruminants from the point of view of the formation of their mucous membrane, by M. J. A. Cordier. —On the differential osteological characters of rabbits and hares ; comparison with leporides, by M. F. X. Lesbre.—Remarks on the preceding communication, by M. Milne-Edwards.—Myxo- sporidia of the bile-duct of fishes; new species, by M. P. Thélohan.—Method for ensuring the conservation of vitality in plants brought from distant tropical regions, by M. Maxime Cornu.—On the difference of transmissibility of pressures across ligneous, herbaceous, and succulent plants, by M. Gaston Bonnier.—On the structure of the Gleicheniacee, by M. Georges Poirault.—Salivary secretion and electric excitation, by M. N. Wedensky.—Action of the extract of cows’ blood on animals affected with glanders, by M. A. Babes.—The blizzard of December 6 and 7, 1892, by M. Ch. V. Zenger. : BOOKS and SERIALS RECEIVED. Books.—The Elements of Graphic Statics: L. M. Hoskins (Macmillan). —Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Reactions of certain Organic Sub- stances: Dr. E. A. Letts (Belfast, Mayne and B»yd).—L -rd Rosse on the Gospel : Modernized by E. L. Garbett (W. Reeves).—An Atlas of Astro- nomy: Sir R. S. Ball (Philip). —Pioneers of Science : Prof. O. ‘ millan).—Collected Mathematical Papers of Prof. A. Cayley: Vol. V. amb. Univ. Press).— British Journal “Photographic Almanac, 1893 (Greenwood).—A Manual of Bacteriology: Dr. G. M. Sternberg (New York, Wood).—La Terre Les Mers et Les Continents: F. Priem (Paris, J. B. Bailliére). J - Sertats.—L’ Anthropologie, Tom. 3, No. 5 (Paris, Masson).—Economic Journal, December (Macmillan and Co.).—Journal of the Chemical Society, December (Gurney and Jackson). : CONTENTS. PAGE | Mr. C. Dixon on Bird-Migration ......... 169 Domestic Electric Lighting . ..- 4.5 ass Our Book Shelf :— Vasey: ‘‘Grasses of the Pacific Slope, including Alaska and the Adjacent Islands.”—J. G. B. . . Gray: ‘* Aids to Experimental Science”. . . . . ~« 173 Allen: ** Science in Arcady” ...° 7). aan eS Letters to the Editor :— ‘ Macculloch’s Geological Map of Scotland.—Prof. J. W. Judd, FUR.S. 3) 2. 0 eee 173 Glaciers of Val d’Herens.—William Sherwood. . 174 Ancient Ice Ages.—T. Mellard Reade. . . ue Ue The Earth’s Age.—Bernard Hobson; Dr, Alfred Russel Wallace:: 320 cs;4Nee CS pees The Colours of the Alkali Metals. —Wm. L. Dudley 175 Osmotic Pressures.—Prof. Spencer Pickering, F.R.S. 175 On a Supposed Law of Metazoan Development.—R. Asshetony! 2.974209 ee ee 176 Oxygen for Limelight.—T. C. Hepworth ..... 176 The Starof Bethlehem: )).0) 280 4% 2 Vea 177 Fujisan. (Z/lustrated.) By J. W.J. - . MEMS ae ivf.) The Galileo Celebration at Padua. By Prof. Antonio Favaro 10.8 fe Ao. a er Sit RichardsOwens 3), 09.0 ea meray to | Notes foe ee ee Oe ee Our Astronomical Column :— Comet Holmes (November 6, 1892)... .... . 186 Comet Brooks (November 20, 1892). . . 186 ’ Swift’s Comet Bi aren 8S ae (aie Ultra-violet Spectrum in Prominences Oe 2 ea | Ephemeris for Bodies Moving in the Biela Orbit . . 186 Madras Meridian Circle Observations re 186 The Juba River Io) 82 005) US 186 Breath Figures. By W. B. Croft 187 Scientific Serials 2%) 22)... “oo. Jot es 188 Societiesand Academies .... 189 Books and Serials Received 192 NATURE 193 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 29, 1892. J GORE’S “ VISIBLE UNIVERSE.” The Visible Universe. By J. Ellard Gore, F.R.A.S. (London : Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1893.) 7 HE object of this book is “ not to propound any new Pp hypothesis, but simply to explain and discuss theories which have been supported by well-known and other men of science” as to the “ evolu- ‘the Solar System,” and to give a popular account “construction of the Universe as we see zt, and its able development from pre-existent matter.” r. Gore has already acquired considerable success as dular writer on astronomical subjects, and the scheme e present volume is, as we might expect, a very good ‘The first three chapters are devoted to a popular e nt of the hypotheses of Kant and Laplace, the principal objections that have been urged against them, and the modifications and additions suggested by recent research. In subsequent chapters such subjects as the fuel ofthe sun, the luminiferous ether, the constitution of matter, celestial chemistry, and the meteoritic hypothesis are dealt with. Mr. Gore then reaches the purely descriptive ‘ ‘portion of his subject, and gives excellent chapters on the _ Milky Way, and on “ the latest results respecting the dis- igfithition of stars and nebulz and their relative motions.” Various theories of the construction of the Universe are then discussed, and in a final chapter the idea of infinite ‘space anda nite universe is developed. _ Although the general scheme of the book is excellent, _ the execution falls in many places far short of its promise and our expectations. When Mr. Gore confines himself to the historical and descriptive his work is, on the whole, well done, but in discussing theories he has in several cases obviously ventured out of his depth, and has con- j “sequently spoiled what would otherwise have been a valuable addition to popular astronomical literature. # _ For his chapters on the Nebular Hypothesis and Faye’s theory of the formation of the solar system Mr. Gore has oa availed himself of M. Wolf's “ Les Hypothéses Cos niques.” He has also introduced extensive _ quotations trom “ the late Mr. Jacob Ennis,” but in con- : sidering Ennis as an authority, Mr. Gore is probably alone. Mr. Ennis was, on his own admission, not a ‘mathematician, and certainly did not by “his own dis- _ coveries,” place the nebular hypothesis on a firm mathe- 4 matical basis. He proved Marscould not have satellites ; that the heat of the sun was entirely due to chemical combination ; that Sirius has twelve planetary attend ints; _ and made several other equally important discoveries. _ fis muthematical demonstration of the truth of the _ nebular hypothesis is about as sound as the well-known proofs that the earth’s surface is flat. Mr. Gore would _have done well to have omitted the quotations from Ennis, _ and to have filled the space with a fuller account of the recent mathematical investigations of the nebular _ hypothesis, especially those of Prof. G. H. Darwin. Quoting freely from Young and Sir William Thomson, Mr. Gore is fairly safe in his chapter on the fuel of the sun, but he is in error in stating that “ the NO. 1209, VOL. 47 } meteoric theory of the sun’s heat must be abandoned.” It is true that the larger portion of the solar heat is believed to be due t6 shrinkage, but it is generally con- ceded that a considerable fraction has its origin in falls of meteoric matter into the sun. A glaring case of the misuse of a scientific term occurs in this chapter (p. 52), where Mr. Gore is responsible for the statement that “the theory generally held by astronomers ascribes the heat of the sun to shrinkage of its mass caused by gravi- tation.” Mr. Gore surely meant volume. The chapter on celestial chemistry is meagre and un- satisfactory. It seems incredible that the application of photography to spectroscopic work is not even mentioned, and that no allusion is made to the Draper catalogue of photographic stellar spectra, to Rowland’s photographic map of the solar spectrum, or to any of the recent photo- graphic work. Mr. Gore is also in error in this chapter when he states (p. 79) that although the great nebula in Andromeda “ has never been resolved into stars the evi- dence of the spectroscope shows it is not gaseous.” Bright bands have been seen in the spectrum by Backhouse Fowler, and myself, and these have been identified as probably due to carbon radiation. The Meteoritic Hypothesis is dealt with in consider- able detail,and here Mr. Gore is most seriously in error. He gives what is professedly “a review of the principal facts and arguments advanced by Lockyer,” and care- fully enumerates all the objections that have been urged ‘by “his opponents,” ending the account with the opinion that “ onthe whole, therefore, we seem bound to conclude that the weight of evidence is against the truth of the Meteoritic Hypothesis.” The chapter bears internal evi- dence that Mr. Gore began his consideration of this hypothesis with th: opinion which he eaunciates as his final judgment, already formed. The summary of Prof. Lockyer’s book has not been made with the care that should have been bestowed upon it. There are at least two misquotations; on p. QI, the substitution of “ periastron” for “ perihelion” makes nonsense of what is otherwise an important paragraph, and on p. 113 the omission of the word “ other” con- siderably modifies the meaning of the passage quoted. There are several errors due to hasty compilation, observations and theories being attributed to Prof. Lockyer in cases where he only quotes the observations and adopts the theories. On p. 92 Mr Gore says “he (Lockyer) also finds line absorption in Comet Wells and the great September comet of 1882.” This is mis- leading, the observations of absorption having been made by Copeland, Maunder, and Vogel. On p. 93 we find the “theory that the light of comets is due to collisions between the component meteorites” attributed to Prof. Lockyer. The theory is due to Reichenbach, Tait, and Sir William Thomson ; Prof. Lockyer’s contribution being the demonstration that spectroscopic observations lead to and support the hypothesis. The results of Tait’s cal- culations given on pp. 227-229 of the “ Meteoritic Hypo- thesis” are also attributed to Lockyer on p. 93 of Mr. Gore’s book. On p. 95 we read, “‘ the spectra of the true nebulz consist of a very faint continuous spectrum crossed by one, two, three, or four bright lines.” Lockyer gives seventeen bright lines in his table. Mr. Gore’s foot- note that “the complete hydrogen series of lines were K 194 NATURE [DECEMBER 29, 1892 photographed by Dr. Huggins in 1890,” in the great nebula in Orion is also a mistake. Mr. Gore has evidently failed ,to appreciate the importance of several portions of Prof. Lockyer’s book, and has consequently omitted to mention them in his summary. Thus the observations of meteoritic glows recorded on pp. 49-51 of the ‘“ Meteoritic Hypothesis” are entirely passed over. In these experiments it was found that on slowly warming meteorites in a vacuum tube through which electric dis- charges were passing, the spectrum of hydrogen was first developed, then carbon was added, and the first line due to any metal was the 500 line which is the characteristic nebular line. Further heating gave the 495 line and then the B magnesium lines. These experi- ments, omitted in Mr. Gore’s summary, are an effective answer to the objections of Messrs. Liveing and Dewar given on p. 116 of this book, for we have here the 500 line developed in presence of hydrogen, and at a lower temperature than the B lines. Mr. Gore believes that “ one of the crucial tests of the meteoritic hypothesis” is the question of the identity of the 500 nebular line with the magnesium fluting at this wave-length. He says (p. 86) that “it is on the identity of this fluting (or rather its brightest edge) with the chief line in the spectrum of the nebulz that the meteoritic hypothesis mainly depends,” and from pp. 118-121 it is obvious that he thinks the evidence conclusively against the hypothesis on this point. In the first case the identity of the 500 nebular line with magnesium is not essential to the meteoritic hypo- thesis, although the latest observations have strongly supported the case for the identity. The main point is whether the 500 nebular line is due to high or to low temperature, and whether nebulz are high or low tempera- tute phenomena. Previous to the publication of Prof. Lockyer’s book all cosmical bodies were believed to be cooling. The nebulz were considered to be the hottest of all bodies, and on losing heat were supposed to pass into stars of the Sirian type. Further loss of heat con- verted them into stars of the solar type, and by still further loss they became red stars with banded spectra before reaching final extinction. This hypothesis was sup- plemented by Dr. Croll, who suggested that nebulz were formed by the complete and almost instantaneous vola- tilisation of these dark bodies on collision, the heat generated by impact being sufficient for the purpose, Lockyer’s hypothesis supposes nebulz to be loose swarms of colliding meteorites. Condensation of these swarms by gravitation increases the number of collisions, and as the temperature rises we get stays with bright lines in their spectra. Further increase of temperature gives red stars of Secchi’s III. class, which pass with still rising tem- perature into stars with fine absorption lines in their spectra, and so on until the Sirian type is reached, in which we have the highest temperature. Collisions have now ceased and the process of covling begins, the stars passing into the solar type, then into red stars of Secchi’s IV. class, and to final extinction. The lines in the spectra of nebulz and bright line stars according to this theory may be due to three causes. (a) Radiating vapours filling the interspaces between the meteorites ; the lines of hydrogen and the bands of NO. 1209, VOL. 47 | carbon being due to these. (4) Low temperature lines of metals, due to grazing collisions of meteorites. (c) High temperature lines of metals, due to direct collisions. It is essential to the theory that low temperature lines o metals should be found in nebulz spectra, and the low temperature origin of the 500 line seems clearly esta- blished. Its chemical origin is of quite secondary im- portance. That it is due to low temperature is shown by the experiments on meteoritic glows which Mr. Gore omits ; by its presence in comets away from the sun, as observed by Huggins in 1866 and 1867 (this being the only line present), by Vogel in Coggia’s comet, and Konkoly in the great September comet of 1882 ; and also by the fact that it persists in all temporary stars as the temperature falls and is the last line to disappear. Until these facts are explained away the foundation ofthe meteoritic hypothesis remains unshaken. Mr. Gore seems unaware that this main point is now generally admitted, for although the low temperature origin of nebulz was denied by Dr. Huggins as late as 1889, it was adopted in his Address to the British Association at Cardiff in 1892. There is early evidence in the book that Mr. Gore has entirely failed to grasp this essential point of the hypo- thesis. On p. 41, discussing Croll’s impact theory of the formation of nebula, he says, “according to Prof. Lockyer the temperature of the original solar nebula was as high as that of the sun at present.” Mr. Gore would have done well to have noted that on p. 528 of his book Prof. Lockyer explicitly states that ‘the temperature of the most prominent radiating vapours in nebule is about that of the Bunsen burner.” Mr, Gore’s misconception of the theory and the spirit in which he approached its discussion are also shown on p- Io1, where he says, “ All these conclusions rest, of — course, on the supposed coincidence of certain lines inthe — spectra of comets, nebula, and stars, with bright lines and flutings, a coincidence which has been disputed by other observers. Relying, however, on the accuracy of his experiments, Lockyer proposes a new grouping of cosmical bodies. He supposes some of these bodies to be increas- ing in temperature, while others—like our own sun—are cooling.” To this he adds a footnote, “ Lockyer’s curve rests on this assumption, but it should be stated that some astronomers doubt that the sun is really cooling.” We should be glad to know who these “‘ astronomers ” are. Mr. Gore himself is evidently not of their number, for he distinctly recognizes the sun asa cooling body in his chapter on the fuel of the sun, and specially mentions it as such on pp. 42 and 53. It is possible that Mr. Gore has misurderstood the apparently paradoxical fact that a body, in changing from a gas to a liquid, may rise in tempera- ture while losing heat, but that will not justify the loose style which leaves it to be understood by the general reader that Lockyer’s curve rests solely on his experi- ments, and the “assumption ” that the sun is cooling, and that this fact is doubted by some astronomers. We are quite aware that Mr. Gore's expression will bear other in- terpretations, but this is the idea conveyed to several readers to whom we have shown the book. Returning tothe question of the coincidence of the 500 nebular line with magnesium, the evidence recorded by Mr. Gore is in favour of, rather than against, the identity. u y Beep EMBER 20, 1892) NATURE 195 ‘His facts are:— Huggins finds the wave-length in the Orion nebula as 5004°75, the magnesium fluting being 5006°5, a difference of 1°75. At the same time, Huggins finds very little, if any, sensible motion in the line of sight. “Mr. Keeler finds as a mean from 10 nebulz 5005°68, “Magnesium being, according to his measurement, _ §006°36, a difference of ‘68. These latter observations completely invalidate Huggins’s evidence on _ this point, especially as Mr. Keeler recognizes a motion of recession for the Orion nebula of 10°7 miles per second. Mr. Gore ought to have recorded the fact that in ; Keeler’s observations the comparisons for different nebulz gave the magnesium sometimes more refrangible and sometimes less refrangible than the nebular line. Later observations of Keeler, “corrected for the earth’s orbital motion and the sun’s motion,” give the nebular line a wave- ength of 5005°93, ze. only “43 from the magnesium. Assuming Keeler’s latest results as perfectly correct, and _ placing his position at Charing Cross, while representing _ the position found for this line by Dr. Huggins in 1868 at St. Paul’s Cathedral, we find Dr. Huggins’s limiting posi- _ tions in 1889 as the extreme east and extreme west ends _ of Green Park, his 1890 position in the middle of Green _ Park, while the magnesium fluting will be at Cecil Street. When we consider that a motion in the line of sight of less than twenty miles per second will make the nebular line and the magnesium fluting absolutely coincident, that _ the rate of the sun’s motion in space is estimated but not absolutely known, that these measurements are probably _ the most difficult of all astronomical observations, and _ that every increase of power and accuracy has brought the lines closer together, we are certainly moz¢ justified in stating that the “ weight of evidence” is “against the - truth of the hypothesis.” The differences in recorded _ wave-lengths of well-known solar lines by experienced observers are in many cases greater than the difference _ in question here. __ Mr. Gore regards the dispersion used by Prof. Lockyer __ as insufficient, and yet he records that sixteen prisms were used by Locbert Ball in his interesting work on this subject, to which I invite the reader’s attention. I mean ¢he slowwess with which the difference between the length of summer and that of winter ts varying in the neighbourhood of tts maximum. To compute this difference and its mean value, we put a-= the mean distance of the earth from the sun, é = the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit, w = the longitude of the perihelion of the earth’s orbit, T = the length of the year in mean solar days, 4 = the difference between the lengths of the two seasons in mean solar days, the mean value of this difference during the interval between the two dates, corresponding to w=, and WO = We > @). : Then, the eccentricity remaining always extremely small, the difference between the areas of the two segments in which the line of the equinoxes divides the earth’s orbit, may be put—and with sufficient accuracy, = 2ae . 2a sin w = 4a’ sin w. Hence, we find, by Kepler’s first law, A 4a’e sin w TY wa? (1 — 2)’ and consequently, by neglecting the third and higher powers of ¢, n= ee 4Te sin @ Tv Observing that the eccentricity remains sensibly constant for a period of time, which is doubtless to be reckoned by many tens of thousands of years, we obtain, by means of the formula just found, 2 2 y= Alef sin wdw : dw Co ®@] @] — 4Te cos w, — cos, Tv We Tere @) : Finally, by substituting the numerical values of our constants, we shall have the following formule for computing A and 9 :— A = 465¢ sin w, qe 465¢ (cos w, — COS we) Ws es @) é positive values designating that in the Northern Hemisphere and negative values that in the Southern Hemisphere the summer exceeds the winter. From the first formula we deduce that, for a given eccen- tricity, the disparity in the lengths of the seasons shall be as great as possible when the line of the equinoxes is perpendicular to the axis major of the orbit. Now, putting ¢ = 0, 071, the maximum eccentricity, the values of a and 7 for a few values of w are as follows :— re y go Fe : ee eS 95-85 ... 33 80 or 100 ... 324 100-80 .... 33 75 or 105 32 105-75... 32% WOOT TIO a6 3 DIO JO. i ae OS OF 115° <... - 30 116-65"... 32 60 or 120 284 120-60 ... 31% 55 or 125 27 125-55 (44) a0 50 or 130 25 130-50 ..... 30 45 0r135 ... 23 135-45 29% __ If we remember that the longitude of the perihelion increases in about twenty-one thousand years from 0° to 360°, then, it will be seen by inspecting these results that, for example, during the interval between the two dates corresponding to w = 65° and NO. 1209, VOL. 47] w = 115°, z.e. during a period of nearly three thousand years, the mean difference between summer and winter will be thirty- two days, and that during this period the difference itself will never sink* below thirty days. N. L. W. A. GRAVELAAR, Deventer, Netherlands, December 17. Aggressive Mimicry. In his last letter Mr. Poulton observes that I am one of ‘*four recent writers” who have made use of the collections in the Natural History Museum and the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, for the purpose of illustrating the pheno- mena of mimicry between Volucella and Bombex, This is the case, but I should like to add that the species which I have depicted are not V. dumbylans and B. muscorum (the question- able resemblance of which in nature, and the erroneous labelling of which in the ‘‘show-cases,” constitute the grounds of Mr. Bateson’s somewhat ‘ aggres-ive” criticism on other *‘ recent writers”), but V. dombylans and B. lapidarius, where the fact of resem}Jance can admit of no doubt (‘* Darwin and After Darwin,” p. 329). Indeed, Mr. Bateson fully recognizes the close similarity in appearance between these two species; and, as Irefrained from giving the hypothetical explanation of it to which he objects, I avoided all the issues which have since been raised in the NATURE correspondence. Madeira, December 15. GEORGE J. ROMANES. Artificially Incubated Eggs. I HAVE been repeatedly informed by poultry-growers and market-men that hens raised from artificially incubated eggs were much less fertile than those produced in the natural way. My information has been derived from persons who did not even know each other. It occurs to me that if true it isa curious matter and worthy of some attention. - W. WHITMAN BAILEY. Brown University Herbarium, Providence, R.I. December 10. ; THE PROPOSED UNIVERSITY FOR LONDON. A GENERAL meeting of the Association for Pro- moting a Professorial University for London was held on Wednesday, December 21, when a report, which we print below, was presented by the Executive Committee. We would call the attention of our readers to the penultimate paragraph of this report, which indi- cates the existence of an agreement, on matters of prin- ciple between the Senate of the University of London and the Association. The last general. meeting of members of the Associa- tion was held on June 14, 1892, when the Executive Committee presented for approval a series of proposals for the organization of a University in London. These proposals were adopted as the formal expression of the objects of the Association. ; Since that meeting the efforts of the Committee have been directed to the furtherance of the principles em- bodied in the above-mentioned proposals—by endeavour- . ing to obtain the adhesion of literary and scientific men, and of other persons interested in the matter; by organizing a body of evidence to be presented to the Gresham University Commission, and by such other means as have suggested themselves from time to time. Immediately after the last general meeting, Prof. Huxley became a member of the Associaticn, and con- sented to accept the office of president. Sir Henry Roscoe and the Master of University College, Oxford, consented to become vice presidents; and the first of these gentlemen has since been an active member of the — Executive Committee. f The number of members of the Association is now one > hundred and fifty. Evidence in support of the principles of the Associa- tion has been given before the Gresham University Com- mission by the following gentlemen :—Prof. Ayrton, Mr. F. V. Dickins, Prof. G. C. Foster, Principal Heath, Prof. submitted to the Royal Commission. DECEMBER 29, 1892] NATURE 20! _ Henrici, Prof. Huxley, Prof. Ray Lankester, Prof. Henry Nettleship, Prof. Pearson, Sir H. Roscoe, Prof. Riicker, _ Dr. Russell, Prof. T. E. Thorpe, Prof. Unwin, Dr. Waller, Dr. Windle, Prof. Weldon. During the month of November the Committee were informed that a Committee of the Senate of London University had drawn up a series of resolutions, to be Your Committee srefore requested the Vice-Chancellor to allow its members to address the Committee of the University Senate in support of the proposals of the Association. The Vice-Chancellor replied by inviting the Executive Committee of the Association to attend a meeting of the University Committee on Wednesday, December 7. At this meeting the objects of the Association were explained by the President, Sir Henry Roscoe, and Prof. Weldon, and the Vice-Chancellor in reply made an important statement, to the effect that the resolutions which were put forward by the Committee of the Senate were in- _ tended to be understood in such a manner as to render them perfectly consistent with the programme of the As- sociation. The resolutions proposed by the University Committee, and since adopted by the whole Senate, are as follows :— _ The Senate having reason to believe that a distinct expression of opinion may be useful to the Commis- * sioners at the present stage of the inquiry, desire to recall to their attention the fact that during last year the Senate fs Pela Scheme for a Reconstitution of the University which provided forthe constitution of Faculties consist- ing of teachers and of Boards of Studiesin each Faculty, and for the election of members of the Senate by the Faculties ; and that the Scheme further proposed to con- fer on the University power to hold real property and to accept grants, gifts, devises, and legacies for the Py) see of the University, including the establishment of Professorships and Scholarships, whether attached or not to any particular College, and the furtherance of gular liberal education and of original research. Senate now desire to state that, if in accordance with the decision of the Commissioners, the Senate is prepared, in order to promote the efficiency of the Uni- bie cea with a view to its reorganization as a Teach- ing University in and for London, without curtailment of the functions which it now discharges— (a) To establish and incorporate with the University Faculties in Arts, Science, Laws, and Medicine, and Boards of Studies acting thereunder. - (6) To provide for the incorporation with the Univer- sity of Teaching Institutions of the higher rank. (©) To utilize, with their consent, existing organizations for higher culture, and subject to such utilization to insti- tute and maintain Professorships and Lectureships, whether for academical or other purposes, and generally to assume such functions as may be required for the irth ce and superintendence of a regular liberal edu- cation, and for the promotion of original research. . ot accept and administer fees and such other public or private, as may be necessary, and may be granted or given for the purposes of the reorganized University. (e) To provide for the adequate representation of the Professoriate on the Senate. ‘The Committee regret that Prof. Pearson, whose energy and enthusiasm have been.of such essential service to the Association, has felt obliged to retire from the office of Secretary. His place has been taken by Prof. Weldon. THE MANCHESTER MUNICIPAL TECHNICAL SCHOOL. I N his interesting address on technical education, when distributing the prizes of the Manchester Municipal Technical School, on the roth inst., Mr. Balfour pointed NO. 1209, VOL. 47] out that the occasion was an important one, not only in the history of technical instruction in Manchester, in the history of the Corporation of that city, but also in the commercial and manufacturing history of Manchester itself, since this was the first public occasion of the dis- tribution of prizes to the scholars of the Technical School and the School of Art since these schools were taken over by the municipality, and supported ou. of the public funds of the city.* The fact that the Cor- poration of the northern metropolis has taken pos- session of the School of Art and of the flourishing Technical School, founded a few years ago on the site of the old Mechanics’ Institution, is one which may well claim the attention of the leading states- men of our time, and Mr. Balfour has done good service to this great educational movement by thus placing prominently before the country the part which our muni- cipal authorities are now playing in the matter. Fully alive to the revolution which these changes are bring- ing about in our educational system, Mr. Balfour, speaking to the teachers and students, insisted that there is now thrown upon them something more than personal responsibility, something more than the desire for self-advancement. They are concerned, he said, in a national work, and ought to look at it from a national point of view, and it is this public aspect of the question which justifies and more than justifies the Corporation for having taken up this great work and for having created the greatest technical school at present ex'sting in Eng- land, but which, great as it is, is still in its infancy, and will yet show developments which will astonish those who are now devoting their time to it in so public-spirited a fashion. Then spoke Mr. Councillor Hoy, the chairman of the Technical Education Committee of the Corporation, and in thanking Mr. Balfour for his “ thoughtful and charm- ing address” added that it was only nine months since these schools were handed over to the Corporation, that they had to master the whole machinery of the education, to arrange all the details of the transfer, but that in addi- tion they had plunged right away into the necessary steps for erecting a new and enlarged school. So it is evident that the men of Manchester do not allow the grass to grow under their feet. They know that the business they have undertaken is a big one, and they, like good business men, are pre- pared boldly to meet the necessities of their position. How boldly and how completely they propose to do so will be seen when we learn what are the proposals which they have made for carrying on their work, for making the necessary preparations, for giving the highest and most complete technical training which can be given in all those matters upon the satisfactory accomplishment of which, the industry and commerce of the vast district of which Manchester is the centre depends. At present the work of the Technical School is carried on in three different buildings, one the old Mechanics Institution where the great bulk of the teaching is done, another in an old warehouse fitted to suit the wants, as far as may be, of the electrical engineering department, and a third in the buildings of a school where a very completely- equipped department for the scientific study of the cotton manufacture is arranged. Needless to say that none of these three buildings provide sufficient or adequate accommodation for the proper practical teaching and illustration of their subjects, and no sooner had the Cor- poration Committee become acquainted with what they had to do, and the means placed at their disposal for doing it, than they made up their minds that a new building must be erected. fully representative of the present needs, and with room, if possible, for future developments. But before committing themselves to plans or estimates, this committee wisely determined to see with their own [ DecEMBER 29, 1892 NATURE 202 “SLOSLIHOUY ee » Onio vas «8S3W ke ain . a [-: fone : os e — : cae : eS Geinae aai9 13S “Nola anon TOOHIS Sr otM 23 aLSBHONY : : pete Be NO. 1209, VOL. 47 | DECEMBER 29, 1892 | eyes what was doing and had been done elsewhere. They visited the English schools, such as they are, and, more important, they went abroad and inspected the well- ‘known technical schools on the continent, and on their return they issued an interesting report containing not only an account of what they saw and learnt, but the con- clusions they drew as to how far their Manchester school should be modelled on foreign lines. This journey of inspection gave the members of the committee a new and d view. of their duties, and they returned home with determination that if they could not approach teissniot such buildings asthe Zurich Polytechnicum or the Technical High School of Charlottenburg, at any rate bay: Aang put up a school which should be as complete in its parts as any similar institution abroad and capable of doing for their centre work equally useful and of ex- erting an equally beneficial influence on their population as any of the foreign schools. Some captious critics were one their condemnation of such a way of spending iblic money as that of sending a number of Manchester men on an educational tour abroad. In fact, no money pias be or has been more judiciously or more economic- ally spe Without a knowledge from personal obser- vation of what is doing elsewhere, these gentlemen could not possibly have carried out their business to a success- ful issue ; with such a knowledge they can and will do it. _ Fortunately for Manchester, the necessity for technical aining of the people was long ago preached by one of her most distinguished sons, the late Sir Joseph Whit- worth, and his legatees, knowing his views, presented a site for the school of 5000 square yards, situated in the centre of the city, and well placed as regards light and air. On this site the Corporation have decided to build a spacious, not to say magnificent, school, a perspective sw of which is found on the opposite page. The whole Gk Oasis, including 770 yards in addition given by the ‘orporation, is to be covered by buildings, and in it umple accommodation will be found for the work carried on in the present temporary premises. This will include engineering, mechanical, electrical, civil and sanitary, the chemical industries, the cotton manufacture, spinning and weaving, the building trades, dyeing and calico printing, metallurgy, letterpress and lithographic printing, and other minor industries; industrial art and design, and the subjects classed under the heads of commercial and eco- nomical instruction. And in addition to these proper accommodation for the teaching of the pure sciences, : latices, foreign languages, to say nothing of manual instruction and gymnastics. All these matters require means of giving practical instruction, not only lecture rooms, but laboratories, workshops, and museums, so the of satisfying all their needs is a complicated one, one which the committee are determined to do their best to carry out. The size of the proposed building called forth a large number of competing designs from some of the first architects of the day, and the first senbe ce was awarded by the Committee, assisted by Mr. Waterhouse, R.A., to Messrs. Spalding and Cross, of Lon- don. Their design is in Renaissance style of the early French period, and the internal arrangements are made with the view of giving as much light as possible. The material is red brick with terra cotta facings ; it is roofed with green Whitland Abbey slates. The building will be fireproof throughout, and the flooring covered with wood blocks, except in the case of the dyehouse and laboratories, where impervious paving is needed. One great desi- deratum in such a building is proper ventilation; this will be arranged on the plenum or plus pressure system, the air being pumped throughout the building by fans worked by electricity, and the lighting will also be elec- trical. The building is six stories high, none of the rooms will be lower than 15 feet clear, and averaging from 25 to 30 feet in depth. The class rooms, lecture theatres, NATURE drawing and designing offices, laboratories, library, work- NO. 1209, VOL. 47 | 203 shops and administrative department, as well as the stu- dents’ and lecturers’ rooms, are all lighted from the face of the building with wide continuous corridors all round each floor, lit from internal areas, and each department will be as far as possible separate and self-contained. The total available floor-space exceeds 150,000 square feet exclusive of the corridors. The main entrance hall is 85 by 50 feet, and it is to be utilized as an_ industrial museum ; on the first floor is a public lecture hall 30 feet high, and of the above dimensions. On the third floor is the chemical laboratory arranged for 80 work- ing benches. Two independent staircases, as well as a spacious passenger lift give access to the different floors, and extra exits are provided in case of fire. The basement, which is only seven feet below the ground line, is to be fitted with heavy machinery and other apparatus used in industrial operations on a considerable scale.- Here we find the electrical and mechanical workshops and testing machinery ; rooms for purposes in which stability is necessary; experimental steam engine, dynamo, and secondary battery rooms; spinning and weaving machinery for cotton and silk; rooms for bleaching, dyeing, and finishing ; plumbers’, bricksetters’, and masons’ workshops ; shops for repairs, and construc- tion of new apparatus, &c. The upper stories contain the laboratories, general and special, lecture rooms, draw- ing offices, gymnasium, library, and students’ reading and common rooms. The following is the space allotted on the various floors for the several departments :— Sq. feet. 1. Administration, Museum, Lecture Hall, Library, Reading .Room, Gymnasium, and other offices ... oe “tS .-- 26,837 2. Mechanical Engineering ... ivi ... 18,266 3. Applied Physics and Electrical Engineering 13,666 4. Textile Trades 18 3 ae Sec RO, ZEI 5. Applied Chemistry, Dyeing, &c., Metallurgy 29,232 6. Building Trades... 2 ey sie 40,922 7. Letterpress and Lithographic Printing ... 2,798 8. Industrial Design . oa is ass 13,453 g. Commercial Subjects 11,844 10. Domestic Economy Subjects 6,461 Total ee esa . 152,690 As if to indicate the determination to make the utmost of their building, the Committee have asked Sir Howard Grubb to design a small astronomical and meteorological observatory on the roof! This in the centre of smoky Manchester ; but experts say that even here much useful work can be done. The estimated cost of the building, including fittings, apparatus,and machinery is about £ 125.000 ; towards this sum the Committee have available £14,000 balance of profit from the Jubilee Exhibition ; £5000 promised by the Whitworth trustees ; and the property belonging to the old schools estimated at £31,000. The remainder of the sum, about £75,000, the Corporation will borrow for a period of thirty years on the security of the Id. rate. This great school will be governed by a Committee of thirty-six persons, twenty-four of whom are members of the City Council, twelve being chosen from the public in- terested in the progress of Industrial and Commercial Education. Enough has been said to give the reader an idea of the scale and completeness of the proposed Municipal School. To work this properly will cost nearly £ 10,000 per annum. The fees will be low, but nevertheless will bring in a goodly sum, and the funds available from the Local Taxation (Customs and Excise) Act of 1890—commonly termed the beer money—will provide the remainder. Such a school, holding as it will do an intermediate position, between the Board Schools on the one hand, and highest University Education as given in the Owens 204 NATURE [ DECEMBER 29, 1892 College on the other, cannot fail to exert a most important influence on the future development of trade and manu- factures in Lancashire. What Manchester is doing in this magnificent way, other towns, notably Birmingham, Salford, Stockport, Oldham, Bolton, and others, are also doing, it is true on a smaller scale, but still in a manner sufficient for their needs. How long will it be before London moves ? H. E. ROSCOE. FHE MONT BLANC OBSERVATORY.' ‘Ee project of establishing a meteorological and astronomical observatory on the summit of Mont Blanc has, under the care of M. J. Janssen, of the Meudon Observatory, made considerable progress during this year’s summer months. It has been decided to use the snow itself as a foundation on which to rest the building. That this can be done with security was shown by some experiments carried out at Meudon last winter. A minia- ture mountain was made of snow pressed to the same density as that which is found on Mont Blanc at a depth of one or two metres below the surface. This being made level at the top, discs of lead 35 cm. in diameter, and weighing each about 30 kgr., were placed on the snow, one upontheother. After twelve of these had been piled up, with an aggregate weight of 360 kgr., they were re- moved and the depth ofthe impression measured. It was not more then 7 or 8 mm. Thus a structure measuring Iom. by 5m. might safely weigh 187,000 kgr. without sinking into the snow more than a few centimetres. The summit of Mont Blanc is formed by a very narrow edge of rock 1oo m. long, running from west to east, and covered by snow which is thicker on the French than on the Italian side. The level of this snow has not shown % Janssen, Comptes rendus, November 28. NO. 1209, VOL. 47] _ ciate the services rendered by men of science. any important oscillations throughout a number of years. To obviate the disturbing effects of the storms which fre- quently rage round the summit, the building is constructed _ in the shape of a truncated pyramid, the lower floor being sunk into the snow. The rectangular base measures 10m. by 5m. The upper floor, which will be devoted to the observations, is covered with a flat roof, towards which ascent is made bya spiral staircase leading from the basement upwards through the whole building, and above the flat roof to a small platform destined for meteorologi- - cal observations. eit The whole observatory has double walls to protect the observers against the cold. The windows and doors are also double, and provided on the outside with shutters closing hermetically. The floor is made of double planks, and furnished with trap-doors giving access to the snow supporting the observatory, and to the screw-jacks placed in position for adjusting the level of the -building in case the snow should yield. The building will be pro- vided with heating apparatus and all the furniture neces- sary to make habitation at such an altitude possible. Up to the present the observatory has been transported in parts to Chamounix. On the Grands-Mulets a cottage has been erected for the use of the workmen and for storing the things destined for the observatory. — ; On the Grand Rocher Rouge another cottage has been built, only 300 m. below the summit, in which the workers and observers can, if necessary, take refuge. Three-quarters of the materials for the observatory have been transported to the Grands-Mulets (3000 m.) and the rest to the Rocher Rouge (4500 m.). Next year the erection on the summit will be carried out. An astronomical dome, which is to complete the observatory, will also be taken in hand. The work done up to now has been carried out under great difficulties, owing to the fact that everything had to be carried by hand. But no accident has, so far, marred the success. Dr. Capus, who accompanied M. Bonvalot in his well- known expedition to the Pamir, has promised his assist- ance for certain observations. But the observatory will be international, and open to all observers who wish to work there. E. E. F. @A. MM. PASTEUR’S SEVENTIETH BIRTHDAY. F RENCHMEN may be cordially congratulated on the enthusiasm with which the seventieth birthday of M. Pasteur was celebrated on Tuesday. It afforded a most striking illustration of the way in which they appre- But the: celebration was not, of course, one in which only the _ countrymen of M. Pasteur were interested ; representa- tives of science from many different parts of the world were present to do honour to the illustrious investigator. The ceremony took place in the great amphitheatre of. the Sorbonne, which was crowded by a brilliant assembly including many of the foremost men of the day, not merely in science butin politics and literature. M. Carnot was present, and among those who supported him was M. Dupuy, the Minister of Public Instruction. M. Pasteur entered the amphitheatre leaning upon the arm of his son and upon that of. the President of the Republic. All who were present rose to their feet and greeted the hero of the day with loud cheers. M. Pasteur, who was much affected by this reception, took his place beside his colleagues of the Institute and a row of Ambassadors and Ministers. The proceedings were opened by M. Bertrand, per- petual secretary of the Academy of Science, who acted as chairman. At his request an address was delivered by the Minister of Public Instruction, who spoke eloquently of the great qualities displayed by M. Pasteur during his splendid career, and of the benefits conferred on man- =r) DECEMBER 29, 1892] NATURE 205 kind’ by his labours. After the Minister came M. d’Abbadie, the President of the Academy, who, ex- ate ig the congratulations of the Institute, presented to M. Pasteur the large gold medal which had been struck in commemoration of the day.. The medal bears on the obverse a likeness of M. Pasteur, while on the reverse is the following inscription : “Io Pasteur, on his seventieth birthday, from grateful science and humanity, Dec. 27, 1892.” M. Bertrand also spoke, and both his speech and that of M. d’Abbadie were cordially plauded. Sir Joseph Lister, one of the delegates sent by the Royal Society, was warmly greeted. He read in h the following address :— renc _“M. Pasteur, the great honour has been accorded me of offering you the homage of medicine and surgery. - There is certainly not in the entire world a single pe:son to whom medical science is more indebted than to you. Your researches on fermentation have thrown a flood of light which has illuminated the gloomy shadows of sur- gery, and changed the treatment of wounds from a ‘matter of doubtful and too often disastrous empiricism into a scientific art, certain and beneficent. Owing to ioe surgery has undergone a complete revolution. It s been stripped of its terrors, and its efficiency has been almost unlimitedly enlarged. But medicine owes as much to your profound and philosophic studies as does rgery. You have raised the veil which had for cen- turies covered infectious diseases. You have discovered and proved their microbic nature, and, thanks to your initiative, and in many cases to your own special labour, there are already a host of these destructive disorders of which we now completely know the causes. ‘Felix ui potuit rerum cognoscere causas.’ This know- has already perfected in a surprising way the re aa of certain plagues of the human race, and has marked out the course which must be followed in their prophylactic and curative treatment. In this way your fine discoveries of the attenuation and reinforcement of virus and of preventive inoculations serve, and will serve as a lode-star. As a brilliant illus- tration, I may note your studies of rabies. Their originality was so striking that, with the exception of certain ignorant people, everybody now recognizes the reatness of that which you have accomplished against is terrible malady. You have furnished a diagnosis which immediately dispels the anguish of uncertainty which formerly: haunted him who had been bitten by a dog mistakenly supposed to be suffering from rabies. ‘If this were your only claim on humanity, you would deserve its eternal gratitude. But, by your marvellous. system of inoculation against rabies, you have discovered. how to follow the poison after its entry into the system, and to conquer it there. M. Pasteur, infectious maladies bie ge Pg you know, the great majority of the maladies which afflict the human race. You can therefore under- stand that medicine and surgery are eager on this great occasion to offer you the profound homage of their admiration and of their gratitude.” : - Among other addresses was a striking speech by the Mayor of Déle, M. Pasteur’s birthplace. After the pre- sentation of gifts by foreign delegates, M. Pasteur rose and spoke a few words, which, according to the Paris corre- spondent of the 7zmes, were “ broken by sobs.” A speech was then read for him by his son. In this speech, as re- ported in the 7zmes, M. Pasteur said, after referring to M. Carnot’s presence :—“ In the midst of this brilliant scene my first thought turns with melancholy to the recollec- tion of so many scientific men who have known nothing but trials. In the past they had to struggle against the prejudices which stifled their ideas. These prejudices overcome, they encountered obstacles and difficulties of all kinds. Even a few years ago, before the public authorities and the Municipal Council had provided Science with splendid buildings, a man whom I NO. 1209, VOL. 47] loved and admired, Claude Bernard, had for a laboratory, a few steps from here, nothing but a low, damp cellar. Perhaps it was there he was struck by the malady which carried him off. When I heard of. the reception intended for me, his memory rose first of all to my mind. Ihail that great memory. It seems that you have desired by an ingenious and delicate idea to make my entire life pass before my eyes. One of my Jura countrymen, the Mayor of Déle, has brought me a photo- graph of the humble house where my father and mother lived under such difficulties. The presence of all the pupils of the Polytechnic School reminds me of the glowing enthusiasm with which I first entered on the pursuit of science. The representatives of the Faculty of Lille recall forme my first studies on crystallography and fermentations, which opened quite a new world to me. What hopes filled me when I discovered that there were laws behind so many obscure phenomena! You have witnessed, my dear col- leagues, by what a series of deductions I have been enabled as a disciple of the experimental method to arrive at physiological results. If I have sometimes disturbed our academies by somewhat livelier discussions, it is be- cause I was passionately defending truth. “You, lastly, delegates of foreign nations, who have come so far to give France a proof of sympathy, you afford me the most profound gratification which can be ex- perienced by a man who invincibly believes that science and peace will triumph over ignorance and war; that peoples come to an agreement not to destroy, but to build up, and that the future will belong to those who have done most for suffering humanity. I appeal to you, my dear Lister, and to you~ all, illustrious representatives of science, medicine, and surgery. Young men, trust those certain and _ powerful methods, . only the first secrets of which we yet know. And all of you, whatever your career, do not allow yourselves to be infected by vilifying and barren scepticism ; do not allow yourselves to be discouraged by the gloom of certain, hours which pass over a nation. Live in the serene peace of laboratories and libraries. Consider first of all,. ‘ What have I done for my education?’ and then, as you advance, ‘ What have I done for my country ?’ until the. moment when you will perhaps have the immense happi-- ness of thinking that you have contributed in some way to’ the progress and welfare of mankind. But .whether your efforts are more or less favoured in life you must, on, nearing the grand goal, be entitled to say, ‘I have done what I could.’ I express to you my profound emotion and warm gratitude. Just as, on the back of this medal,’ the great artist Roty has concealed under roses the date of birth which weighs so heavily on my life, so you have- desired, my dear colleagues, to give my old age the spec- : tacle which could most delight it—that of these eager and. loving young men.” esa This closed the ceremony. M. Carnot, before quitting the building, walked over to M. Pasteur and embraced him. The celebration was one of which France has. good reason to be’ proud; and Englishmen may well re- gret that such a demonstration, common to governors and governed, would in this country be impossible. ‘NOTES. Tus week the American Society of Naturalists has been holding at Princeton, N.J., its eleventh annual meeting, the chair being occupied by Prof. Henry F. Osborn, Columbia College, New York. On Tuesdaya lecture was to be delivered by Dr. C. Hart Merriam on the Diak Valley Expedition (illustrated). On Wednesday, after the transaction of general business, the following reports on marine biological laboratories were to be read:—The Sea Isle Laboratory, by Prof. J. A. Rider, University of Pennsylvania ; a marine station in Jamaica, by 206 NATURE [DECEMBER 29, 1892 Prof. E, A. Andrews, Johns Hopkins University ; the marine laboratories of Europe, by Dr. D. Bashford Dean, Columbia College ; and the outlook for a marine observatory at Woods Holl, by Prof. C. O. Whitman, University of Chicago. In the evening the annual dinner of the society was to be held, and the presideént’s address was to be delivered. The following are the principal arrangements for to-day (Thursday) :—A paper isto be read by Dr. C. W. Stiles, Agricultural Bureau, Washington, on the endowment of the American table at Naples; and reports are to be read on botanical explorations in Florida, by Prof. W. P. Wilson, University of Pennsylvania; the summer work of the U. S. Fish-Commission Schooner Grampus, by Prof. William Libbey, Junr., Princeton College ; and expedi- tions of the American Museum of Natural History into New Mexico, Wyoming, and Dakota, by Dr. J. L. Wortman, American Museum Natural History. Then will come the annual discussion, the subject being, What were the former areas and relations of the American Continent, as determined by faunal and floral distribution? The following papers will be read :— Introduction, and evidences from past and present distribu- tion of mammals, by Prof. W. B. Scott, Princeton College ; evidence from past and present distribution of reptiles, by Dr. George Baur, University of Chicago; evidence from the dis- tribution of birds, by Prof. J. A. Allen, American Museum of Natural History ; and evidence from the distribution of plants, by Dr. N. L. Britton, Columbia College. Special meetings have been held by the American Societies of Anatomists, Morphologists, and Physiologists. WE learn, from the Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift, of the death, at Vienna, of the veteran palzontologist, Dr. D. Stur, Director of the Imperial Geological Institute in that city, and author of several finely illustrated works on palzo-phytology. Dr. VOLKENS, Privatdocent at the University of Berlin, and Dr. Lent are about to start for East Africa, where they pro- pose to carry on scientific investigations. The former has received | a grant from the Prussian Academy of Sciences, and will devote | himself especially to botanical study. Dr. Lent has received aid from the German Colonial Society, and will give especial attention to geology. Dr. F. BUCHANAN WHITE has presented his fine collection of lepidoptera to the Museum of the Perthshire Society of Natural Science, which is in process of being greatly enlarged. The collection contains twelve thousand specimens, which have been collected by Dr. White in many parts of Europe, though mainly in Great Britain and largely.in Perth- shire. Many are type specimens, which have been described and figured by the collector in his numerous descriptive papers, and several represent species that have now become extinct. DuRInG the latter part of last week an area of low pressure lay to the south-westward of our islands, causing south-easterly gales on our western coasts. This disturbance, however, although it advanced from off the Atlantic, remained com- paratively stationary for two or three days, during which time the weather continued fine and dry over England. At the close of the week the low pressure area gave place to an area of high barometer readings, which gradually spread over the United Kingdom from the continent, bringing dry weather and severe frost, with fog in many places. The thermometer in the shade fell to 9° in Leicestershire, and to 17° in London in the night of the 26th, and in many places the day temperature continued much below the freezing point during both Monday and Tuesday. At this time the anticyclone had become thoroughly established, and the area of cold was increasing both in size and intensity, although the conditions in the extreme north indicated a possible change. The Weekly Weather Report for the period ending NO. 1209, VOL. 47 | the 24th inst. shows that temperature was above the mean in all districts, being as muchas 5° or 6° over Ireland. During the early part of the week the night minima were very high for the time of year. Rainfall was less than the mean in all dis- tricts, the deficiency being most considerable in Scotland and in the south-west of England. Bright sunshine was also very deficient ; in Scotland and Ireland there was only from 2 to 3 per cent. of the possible amount, THE Weather Bureau of the U.S. Departellill of Agricul- ture has published some valuable ‘‘ Observations and Experi- ments on the Fluctuations in the Level and Rate of Movement of Ground-water on the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station Farm, and at Whitewater, Wisconsin,” by Franklin H. King. The author holds that a careful and detailed study of the movements of ground-water ought to supply very import- ant knowledge bearing upon the contamination of drinking waters and the spreading of certain classes of contagious di- seases, and thus help to place the water-supply for both urban and rural purposes under better sanitary conditions, Every advance which is made towards the increase of yield per acre necessarily means an increased demand for water, so that market gardeners even in Wisconsin and Illinois, where both the annual and summer rainfall is relatively large, are turning their attention, Mr. King says, to the question as to the best means for pro- viding irrigation. A rapid and economical advance in this. direction demands, he thinks, a much more thorough knowledge. of the movements of underground water than we at present possess. He also urges that in the utilization of natural sub- irrigation, and in the reclaiming of swamp lands for agricul- tural purposes, there is imminent need for new knowledge in the same direction. Mr. King does not overrate the importance of his own researches. He regards them simply as Pee studies. H. HABENICHT, of Gotha, has contributed a paper to Ausland (No. 49) on the frequency of icebergs in the Gulf Stream and variations of climate, based upon the reports of ice- bergs published since 1883 in the pilot charts of the North Atlantic Ocean, He gives a table showing the number of bergs reported in each year in the Gulf Stream, with a summary of the temperature conditious experienced in. Europe during each of the four seasons. The number of icebergs varied considerably in different years, from ten in the year 1888 to 674 in the year. 1890. The table shows some unmistakable coincidences, between the frequency of the bergs and the character of subse-’ quent weather about six months afterwards. The extremely low minimum of iceberg frequency in 1888 was followed by the warmest year of the series; all the seasons of 1889 were warm over Europe. There was another less marked minimum of icebergs in 1889, and this was followed by a relatively warm year in1890. The remarkable maximum of bergs in 1890 was followed in 1891 by the coldest winter that had occurred for, twenty years, and the cold winter was followed by an abnormally. cold spring and summer, The table also shows that the coin- cidences are more marked with iceberg maxima than with minima. Two of the latter in two successive years were followed by only one warm summer, while in the case of the’ maxima the decrease of temperature occurred in the next year. Mr. D. T. MacbouGAL contributes to Science, December 2, an interesting account of some explorations recently made by a botanical expedition in Idaho. The work of the expedition was planned by Dr. G. Z. ‘Vasey, chief botanist of the U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. ° The results are summarized thus :— The basins of Lakes Coeur d’Alene and Pend d’Oreille and of the Clearwater and Palouse rivers were explored ; the botani- cally unknown area in Central Idaho now being limited on the south by the Snake River basin, on the west by the Snake River DECEMBER 29, 1892 | NATURE 207 and the basin explored. About 25,000 specimens of dried plants were collected, representing nearly 1000 species, many of them -undéscribed forms. Valuable facts concerning general distribu- tion of plants were obtained, since the area explored is one -where the Rocky Mountain flora meets and intermingles with the Pacific coast flora in a very interesting manner, while the Opportunity afforded by numerous mountain slopes for the of some problems of vertical distribution was not neglected. ‘ AN important paper on fossil mammals of the Wahsatch and ~ Wind River Beds, by H. F. Osborn and J. L. Wortman, has been issued as a bulletin by the American Museum of Natural History, and has also been published separately. It includes a ii) plate and eighteen figures in the text, and is devoted principally to a description of a collection made by Dr. Wortman during _the summer of 1891. The authors claim that many new facts ____ of great interest are brought out by the material in the collec- ‘tion. Ina preliminary note it is stated that the department of mammalian palzontology in the American Museum of Natural : ory was established in May, 1891, and that the purpose of the trustees i§ to procure a representative collection of the American fossil mammals from the successive geological hori- zons of the West for purposes of exhibition, study and publica- tion. The staff consists of Prof. H. F. Osborn, of Columbia College, Curator, and of Dr. J. L. Wortman, assistant in Palzontology. Mr. Charles Earle and Mr. O. A. Peterson are also engaged as assistants, and Mr. Rudolph Weber as draughts- man. The collections are to be made readily accessible to “students, and exhibited as rapidly as they can be put together and mounted. A list of such duplicate specimens as are avail- able for purposes of exchange is to be prepared. A series of casts of the best preserved types is also in preparation for exchange. LAST week we printed an account of the ceremonies connected with the Tercentenary of Galileo at Padua. In addition to what was then stated we may say that after Prof. Favaro’s oration the delegates were invited to present the addresses of which they were the bearers; whereupon, the English delega- tion having by lot been placed first in order of precedence, at the request of his colleagues, Profs. Darwin and Stone of ; and Oxford, Sir Joseph Fayrer spoke first, on pre- senting the addresses of the Royal College of Physicians of London and the University of Kdinburgh, with which he was entrusted. He spoke in Italian to the following effect :— ‘*Profondamente commosso all’onore accordatomi dal Reale Collegio dei Medici di Londra, ed anche dall Universita di Edinburgo, nel nominarmi il loro delegato, io mi presento b coma questa insegne adunanza, per far onore alla memoria diuno dei pit grandi uomini e dei pit illustri sapienti del mondo, e per render omaggio da parte del detto Collegio, cosi pz hwtng dell’ illustre centro di scienza e di filosofia in Scozia, i iclito scienzato, nonche a felicitare di cuore colla massima riverenza, questo antico seggio di scienza e di filosofia in cosi lieta e fausta occasione, nella quale si commemorano le scoperte gloriose del celebre e rinomato filosofo, col nome del quale é intimamente collegata la sua storia passata ed anche la sua rino- manza attuale. La scienza di tutto il mondoé senza dubbio in questo luogo ora rappresentata. Da ogni parte sono venuti messaggi di Simpatia, ma da nessuno forse, con maggiore premura e zelo che dei compatrioti di Harvey e Newton. Questi, impugnando la facciola caduta dalla mano morta di Galileo, la innalzd e la sostenne per illuminare le tenebre e rischiarare di vera luce i luoghi finallora oscuri anche al gran filosofo stesso; l’altro avendo terminato i suoi studi ed essendo laureato in questa universita, divenne dipoi, come socio del Collegio di Londra, famoso per le sue scoperte sulla circolazione del sangue. I suoi studi anatomici che fece a Padova svilupparono in lui quel genio al quale il mondo intero é@ debitore. Signori miei, non é solo allo scopritore del termometro, e, come si pud dire, all’ in- _ventore del telescopio ; non é neppure all’ astronomo famoso NO. 1209, VOL. 47] che ha stabilito il sistema eliocentrico, ed ha quasi anticipato le scoperte di Kepler, e che ha dimostrato i satelliti di Giove, le fasi del pianeta Venere, i movimenti diurni e mensili della luna e le macchie solari ; non é@ infine all’ autore del ‘ Saggiatore,’ del ‘Sidereus Nuncius’ e del ‘ Dialogo dei due Massimi sistemi del Mondo,’—ma é piuttosto al fondatore della filosofia sperimentale che noi rendiamo adesso omaggio ed onore. Egli, osando, pensare ed investigari da se stesso, rigettando gli assiomi degli antichi sistemi di filosofia, anche quello di Aristotile stesso, e rifiutando gl’ insegnamenti della teologia dogmatica, stabill il sistema del libero esame, affer- mando che la scoperta della verita dev’ essere il primo motivo, e che si deve cercarla per via di sperimenti e non sull’ altrui autorita, e che la verita é unica, tanto in respetto alle scienze divine come alle umane. Ardisco dire che nessun migliore tributo si pud fare al yran maestro adesso commemorato, che questa riconoscenza. festiva dopo trecento anni, dell’ assiduo e instancabile lavoro che ha rovesciato non soltanto il sistema Tolomaico, ma ha dato un nuovo impulso vitale ad ogni ricerca scien ifica e filosofica. Signori, con queste poche parole hotentato d’esprimere i sentimenti dell’ illu-tre Collegio e dell’ inclita Universita dei quali io sono il modesto interprete, e ho l’onore di sommettere queste indirizzi, e con esse, i voti pitt sinceri dei miei colleghi per la prosperita futura di questa venerabile Universita, la quale, molto avanti a Galileo é stata un primo centro della vita intellettuale in Europa, e che anche adesso e famosa per la sua propria eccellenza e pei suoi rapporti col gran savio di cui si pud dire, come hadetto Dante di Aristotile : ‘ Tutti l’ammiron, tutti onor gli fanno,’ ” Pror. DARWIN of Cambridge followed Sir Joseph Fayrer with an interesting and eloquent address, also in Italian. He was succeeded by other delegates. We may note that every attention was shown to the foreign delegates, and the great success of the commemoration was courteously assigned by the University authorities in large measure to the sympathy and interest evinced by other nations. Itis satisfactory that no in- considerable share of this was attributed to the English ; their addresses being delivered in Italian evidently afforded much pleasure. THE Mediterranean Naturalist, noting the fact that new and spacious buildings are about to take the place of the old bio- logical station at Cette, expresses regret that no institution of this kind has yet been established in connection with the Mal- tese Islands. It points out that the marine fauna and flora of Maltese waters offer themselves as a rich and practically un- touched field of research, the careful working out of which would be attended with scientific and economic results of the greatest importance. THE same journal mentions that a petition is to be presented to the Governor of Malta praying that the Maltese fisheries may be more efficiently protected. At present considerable latitude is allowed both as regards the methods practised and as regards the times at which the fishing is carried on. ‘‘ This,” says our contemporary, ‘‘is not as itshould be. No other food supply can take the place of fish, and the fisheries of the islands under adequate protection and judicious management will always be an unfailing and increasing source of wealth.” THE Department of Public Instruction in New South Wales has published in its Technical Education Series (No. 10) the first part of what promises to be a most valuable ‘‘ Bibliography of Australian Economic Botany,” by J. H. Maiden, curator of the Technological Museum, Sydney. Much information on the properties and uses of Australian plants, and on the products obtained from them is embodied in books of travel, in exhibi- tion literature, pamphlets, proceedings of learned societies, professional journals, and newspapers. It is the author’s object to render this scattered information convenient for refer- ence. A GERMAN translation, by Count Goertz-Wrisberg, of Dr. W. Fream’s ‘‘ Elements of Agriculture,” has been published by 208 NATURE [ DrcEMBER 29, 1892 Paul Parey, of Berlin, under the title of ‘‘ Landwirtschaft in England.” THE current number of Wundt’s Phzlosophische Studien icon- tains two experimental articles—both dealing with problems of psychological optics. The first (A. Kirschmann, ‘‘ Beitraege zur Kenntniss der Farbenblindheit ”) gives an account of a numberof interesting cases of colour-blindness, together with criticisms of existing theories. A unique case is that of an inherited, unilateral (left) blindness to the qualities violet, green and yellow. In the second (E. B.. Titchener, ‘* Ueber binoculare Wirkungen monocularer Reize ’’) an attempt is made to show that stimulation of one retina is followed by an excita- tion-process in the other. The psychophysical results are supported by recent physiological discovery. THE following are the arrangements at the Royal Institution for the Friday evening meetings before Easter, 1893 :—Friday, January 20, Prof. Dewar, F.R.S., liquid atmospheric air; Friday, January 27, Francis Galton, F.R.S., the just- perceptible difference ; Friday, February 3, Alexander Siemens theory and practice in electrical science (with experimental illustrations) ; Friday, February 10, Prof. Charles Stewart, some associated organisms; Friday, February 17, Prof. A. H. Church, F.R.S., turacin, a remarkable animal pigment con- taining copper; Friday, February 24, Edward Hopkinson, electrical railways ; Friday, March 3, George Simonds, sculpture considered apart from archeology; Friday, March 10, Sir Herbert Maxwell, early myth and late romance; and Friday, March 17, William James Russell, F.R.S., ancient Egyptian pigments. On Friday, March 24, a discourse will be delivered by Lord Rayleigh. On March 31 and April 7 (the Fridays in Passion and Easter Weeks) there will be no evening meetings. THE following are the arrangements for lectures at the Royal Victoria Hall in January :—January 3, Mr. Charles E. Reade on a trip through India, with anecdotes of the mutiny ; “January 10, Mr. A. Hilliard Atteridge on some old Belgian towns; January 17, Prof. Carlton Lambert on the romance of the stars; January 24, Dr. Dallinger on spiders, their work and their wisdom. THE fermentative changes which the leaves of the tohacco plant are made to undergo before they are worked up and finally handed over to the public, are of the greatest importance in determining the quality of any particular tobacco. It was formerly supposed that the alteration in its condition thus brought about was due to purely chemical changes induced by the process of ‘‘ sweating” which the leaf undergoes, but some interesting experiments made recently go to show that these important results are effected by special micro-organisms. In a paper read before the German Botanical Society, Suchsland gives an account of some investigations which he has been con. ducting on the bacteria found in different kinds of tobacco, He has examined fermented tobacco from all parts of the world, and found large numbers of micro-organisms, although but few varieties, mostly only two or three different species in any particular brand and but rarely micrococcus forms. But what is of especial interest is the discovery that pure. cultures of bacteria obtained from one kind of tobacco and inoculated on to another kind, generated in the latter a taste and aroma recalling the taste and aroma of the original tobacco from which the pure cultures had been in the first instance procured. Thus it may be possible in the future to raise the quality of German tobacco, not, as heretofore,.so much by careful culture and judicious selection of varieties, which has so far proved unsuccessful, but by inoculating pure cultures of bacteria found in some of the fine foreign tobaccos on to our own raw material, whereby similar fermentative changes may be induced NO. 1209, VOL. 47] and the quality correspondingly improved. The further results promised by Suchsland will be looked for with much interest. In connection with the above experiments on the “‘ transplanta- tion,” so to speak, of micro-organisms, it is interesting to note some results obtained lately by Nathan (Die Bedeutung der Hefenreinzucht fiir die Obstweinbereitung). The amount of alcohol present in such wines as cider, currant wine, etc., is generally from 3 to 4 per cent. Thissmall proportion is possibly in part due to the necessarily large dilution of the fruit with water, which considerably reduces the nitrogenous constituents of the ‘‘must,” and also to the fact that the yeast, according to Hansen mostly: present on sweet fruits is the Saccharomyces apiculatus, which only possesses a feeble fermentative power. Experiments were made to see whether, by increasing the nitrogenous constituents of the ‘‘ must,” and introducing a pure cultivation of a vigorous wine-yeast, the yield of alcohol would be greater. It was found that by adding a small amount of nitrogenous material, such as 0°15 gram. ammonium chloride, and 5 cubic centimetres of wine-yeast per litre to the ‘*‘ apple- must” (which was the fruit selected) 2 per cent. more alcohol was obtained, and not only was this the case, but this cider possessed a finer and more vinous taste than that untreated, or which had only received an additional supply of ammonium chloride without the wine-yeast. Kosutany in a paper published in the Landw. Versuchsstationen, 1892, has recorded the results of his investigations on the behaviour of certain species of wine-yeast. He states that not only is the percentage of alcohol yielded very different with particular yeasts, but that also the taste, smell, and bouquet of the wine inoculated with special cultures were distinctly different according to the variety of yeast employed, It is hoped that, as in the case of tobacco so with wine, it may be possible to raise the quality by the judicious transplanting of bacteria obtained from finer brands. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a —— Squirrel (Sc¢urus ——) from China, presented by Mr. Julius Neumann ; a Crowned Hawk Eagle (Sfizaetus coronatus) from South Africa, presented by Mr. T. H. Mills ; a Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus $ ) from India, deposited; three Sulphury Tyrants (Pitangus Sulphuratus) from South America, six common Widgeons (Mareca penelope, 3 8, 3%), four common Pintails (Dafila acuta, 26,29), two Pintailed Sand Grouse (Pterocles alchata, $ 2) European, purchased. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Jupirer’s FirtH SATELLITE.—Mr. A. A. Common, in a letter to the 7imes for December 28, writes with respect to the fifth satellite of Jupiter :— ‘* This extremely difficult telescopic object discovered by Prof. Barnard last September at the Lick Observatory has been looked for with the 5ft. reflector on several occasions. On October 18° and on December 13 it was pretty certainly seen, by me on the first occasion, and by Mr. Albert Taylor on the second. The last two evenings (Sunday and Monday) have been very fine, and on each, between five and six o’clock, the satellite has been seen with certainty by Mr. Taylor and in glimpses by me. ‘‘ The brightness seems less than that assigned to it by Prof. Barnard, but this may be due to the very much better sky they enjoy at Mount Hamilton ; the glare from Jupiter would be with them very much less, so that they would have the planet on a much darker background, and it would appear brighter than it does here. ‘*T have not heard of any other observations having been made out of America.” ComET Brooks (NOVEMBER 20, 1892).—Zadinburgh Circu- Jar, No. 36, gives the ephemeris of this comet, from which the following extract is made. This comet, according to Ber- ey DECEMBER 29, 1892 | NATURE 209 E berich’s computations, will soon commence to decrease in bright- mess. : Berlin, Midnight, 1892-93. % = = ano Log ». Log A. Br. Dec. 30 ... 15 57 15 ... 58 310 “31 ... 16 16 30 ... 60 21°3 ... 0°0820 ... 9°8589 .. 7°66 Jan. ff ... 16 38 18... 02 1°9 aig) 2 AO. 4.03 29°7 ... O°O812 .., 9°8530 ... 7°89 3 + 17 29 49 «.. 64 41°7 4. 17 59 0 «.. 65 34°5 --. 0°0807 ... 9°8521 ... 7°95 5 .. 18 29 40... 66 5°4 Comer HotMEs (NOVEMBER 6, 1892).—The following is a iti of the ephemeris of this comet for the present a ‘ Berlin, Midnight. uv 1892-3. : ea aes (pp). Log ~ Log 4. neees GO) kb 2 22 +33 59°5 a (jl. 3 24 572 GR uae See 4 27 55'1 0°4096 0'3284 ae en 5 31 53°1 : q: 6 36 51°3 Aisi. ee ae 49°6 5+. I 8 50 33 47°9 O°4119 0°3400 THE MARKINGS ON Mars.—In No. 25 of the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Mr. Schaeberle has a preliminary note on the question as to whether the darker and the brighter areas on Mars are water and land or vice versd. Having observed the planet from June 11 up to the present time he has been led to the conclusion opposite to that of Schiapa- relli, Flammarion, and other observers, and considers that after all the dark ions should be considered as land and the bright as water. In raising such a question as this Mr. Schaeberle ____ has been very reserved, for should his opinion receive due atten- ____ tion, as of course it should do, and be corroborated, the planet’s surface will be looked upon in quite a different light than for- _ merly. In this note he sets forth a few of his reasons for coming to such a conclusion, and it may interest many of our readers if we state some of them briefly. If the dark marking- be taken as land, would not the irregular gradations of shade be more naturally ex»ected than if we consider them as fixed surface facnenn _**Light reflected from a spherical surface of water in a slight state of agitation would vary uniformly in intensity. At opposition, the centre of the planet would, for a water sur- face, appear brightest. Observations show that within a certain distance from the edge of Mars there is a gradual increase in ie steady lustre of the brighter areas towards the centre of the jlanet.” Assuming these dark areas to be water, then they should thus be least dark near the centre, which is somewhat contrary to observation. With reference to the ‘‘ canals,” he _ says that they on this hypothesis ‘‘ correspond to the ridges of mountains which are almost wholly immersed in water,” while with regard to their observed doubling he remarks that they can be explained as ‘‘ representing parallel ridges of which our own earth furnishes examples.” _an observed terrestrial observation, the view of the lower end of ‘San Francisco Bay from Mount Hamilton, San Francisco being fifty miles away. At all hours of the day, he says, ‘‘ the aalies of San Francisco Bay (as seen from the top of Mount Hamilton) is much érighter than the neighbouring valley and _ mountains at the samedistance.” He further adds that the line ight makes an angle of more than 87° with the normal to the surface of the bay, while the observer's position ‘‘ varies all the way from being nearly in a direct line between the bay and the sun to the position in which the sun is nearly in the direction of the bay.” | THE Lick OBSERVATORY.—Miss Milicent W. Shinn is the writer of a very interesting pamphlet on the history of the Lick Astronomical Department of the University of California. In these few pages she brings together much with regard to the early events connected with the founding of the giant refractor that is not generally known. For instance, it is curious to read how Mr. Lick wished to be immortalized by leaving bequests for costly statues of himself and his family, and when urging that such statues would be preserved for all time, was answered by Mr. Staples that ‘‘ more likely we shall get into a war with Russia or somebody, and they will come round here NO. 1209, VOL. 47] As a concluding argument he takes » with warships and smash the statues to pieces in bombarding the city.” Mr. Lick was so struck by this, that he asked, ** What shall I do with the money, then?” How this question was answered is now well known, and astronomical science was presented with the finest object-glass that was ever made. Mr. Lick’s deed prescribed that the Observatory should be ‘*made useful in promoting science,” and up to the present these words have been carried out to the letter. The big telescope has not been preserved for one side of astronomical science, but has dived into all branches, as every astronomer is aware Not only have minute double stars been observed and measured, but the spectroscope has been employed, from which excellent results have been published, while lunar photographs, equalling, if not excellmy, those that had been previously obtained, have brought to light much to set us thinking about. Jupiter's fifth moon is perhaps the latest arrival of which we have heard, and this, following just 300 years after Galileo’s discovery, would alone render the Observatory famous. That the Lick Astronomical Department, during the few years of its existence, has done an immense amount of good work, especially when one takes into account the comparatively small staff on hand, cannot be denied, and we hope the day will come when the number of such telescopes will be increased, for the ever- opening fields of 1:esearch point out how necessary they are. WASHINGTON MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. — The United States Naval Observatory has quite recently published their magnetic observations that were made during the past year, prepared on the same plan as that for 1889-90. The observa- tions for 1891, as Mr. Hoogewerff (who was in charge for the greater part of the year) informs us, are better than those of former years, owing to the fact that the reductions took place at no very distant dates from the observations, the experience thus gained helping to correct and guard against conditions which might have tended to give rise to errors. The introduac- tion contains a description of the buildings, methods of observ- ing, together with the personnel during the year, concluding with a description of the tabular results. The tabular results, as usual, show the mean hourly readings for the elements for each month, Table I. containing the mean values for the four years 1888-91. Simultaneous with this volume was also issued the meteoro- logical observations and results for the year 1888. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. A SPECIAL number of the Mouvement Géographique is devoted to a series of important despatches from M. Alexandre Delcommune, chief of the Lomami. expedition of the Katanga Company. Entering the Lomami from the Congo, the party left the river on May 13, 1891, and explored the entirely untraversed territory between its upper valley river and that of the Sankuru as far as 8°S. Thence they turned eastward and reached Lake Kassali on the Lualaba, and struck south through Garenganze’s country to Bunkeia. Making a circuit through Katanga and westward, they found the Lualaba near its source, and following it for 200 kilometres, discovered a grand gorge at Nzole, where the river flowed in a succession of wild cataracts between cliffs nearly a thousand feet high, and not more than forty yards apart. From the rapids they returned to Bunkeia, travelled mnorth-eastward over the plateau, crossing the Luapula at its outflow from Lake Moero, and ultimately reached Lake Tanganyika. The difficulties overcome were very great, and the sufferings of the caravan have rarely been surpassed even in the grimmest records of African travel. AMONGsT the English travellers who have recently arrived in London are Mr. Selous, the famous South African hunter, and Mr. Conway, who has probably climbed higher than any other European in the Karakoram range. Both gentlemen will read papers to the Royal Geographical Society early next year. THE arrangements for the Royal Geographical Society's even- ing meetin:s after Christmas are unusually varied. Mr. Hose will describe his journey up the Burram river in Sarawak to Mount Dulit, at the first meeting in January. The second meeting will be devoted to the Island of Yezo, when Prof. Milne and Mr. Savage Landor will read pipers, Papers by Captain Bower and the American traveller, Mr. Rockhill, on Tibet, will be given later; and Lieutenant Peary will personally describe 210 his experiences in the north of Greenland. In March Prof, Bonny will lecture on the action of ice in producing geogra- phical forms, and there will be other papers dealing with the scientific basis of geography. THE death of Cardinal Lavigerie on November 24 removed one of the most powerful personages who have recently influ- enced the geography of Africa. It is very largely on account of his labours that the French Roman Catholic missions have played so conspicuous a part in combating the slave trade, and to him also is due the formation of a much-needed Belgian Anti-slavery Society. THE British Government having decided to relieve the East African Company from the responsibility of occupying Uganda, an Imperial commission, under the charge of Sir Gerald Portal, will set out from Mombasa as soon as it can be got ready to take over the administration of the country. Another fact of some interest is the revival by Mr. Cecil Rhodes of the idea of exploring Africa by telegraph. He proposes to lay down a line from the Cape to Uyanda, and ultimately to extend it to Egypt. Ina few months the South African Com- pany’s wires will have reached the mission station of Blantyre north of the Zambesi, and there are no serious physical diffi- culties in continuing the line to the head-waters of the Nile. The effect on the exploration of Africa will be enormous, not the least important. result being the possibility of arriving at the true longitudes of places in the interior of the continent. DEW AND FROST. A PAMPHLET recording some interesting ‘‘ Observations on Dew and Frost,” by the Hon. R. Russell, has just been published by Mr. Edward Stanford. Wereprint Mr. Russell’s ** Summary of Results” :— The observations were begun with the object of verifying the commonly received theory of dew, and with a strong feeling that the results obtained by Col. Badgeley, described in the Proceedings of the Royal Meteorological Society for April, 1891, opposed as they were in some measure to the accepted teaching on the subject, would not be corroborated. When, after ex- posing inverted glass tumblers and pans on grass and bare earth in the summer of 1891, dew was often found in surprising amount in the interior, I attributed the deposit to vaporous air which might have entered under the rim and parted with its moisture in the calm of the inclosed space. But when it was found that a tumbler pressed down into dry earth, and other vessels admitting little air from outside, were considerably be- dewed in the interior ; and when, further, similar vessels inverted on earthenware or metal plates were found to be very slightly or not at all bedewed inside, it became more probable .that the vapour condensed in the interior of vessels over grass and garden earth had proceeded from the earth beneath. Next, it was found that china plates, admitting a flow of air between their lower surfaces and the ground, were more heavily bedewed on their lower than on their upper surfaces, and that a cylinder of. glass was most bedewed on the lower outer and upper inner surfaces. These observations confirmed the suspicion that the dew on the inside of the hollow vessels was derived from the ground. It was for a Jong time a matter of doubt and difficulty that vessels inverted over dry, dusty earth and dry turf were found copiously bedewed within on the morning following exposure. On many mornings the amount of dew in the interior increased in some proportion to the precautions taken to exclude free air, and it seemed highly improbable that moist air penetrated, without de- positing on its way much of its moisture, either through the dusty earth banked round the edges of the vessel, and exposed to the sky, or else through the dusty covering of earth below the vessel from lower layers. In December, 1891, during hard frost and very fine weather, with calm or very light airs, the ground being frozen hard, leaves of bushes, ferns, &c., were seen to be frosted both on their upper and lower sides, though much less on the lower sides facing the bare ground than on the upper sides facing the open sky. Where thick fern grew between the observed leaves and the ground, there was no rime on the lower sides of the overhanging ferns or leaves. This seemed to show that the rime on the lower sides of ferns was due to exhalation from the ground, for the interruption of radiant heat from the earth by dry litter would rather favour than reduce the frosting of the under sides. Live leaves on bushes, and dead leaves on the ground, were whitened with NO. 1299, VOL. 47] NATURE { DECEMBER 29, 1892 frost on their upper sides, and had a thin film or coat of trans- parent ice on their lower sides. Leaves and sticks on the ground were less frosted on the sides facing the ground than on the top. Thick planks between a few inches and one foot above the ground were about a third as much frosted on the lower as on the upper sides. Considering that the upper side of a plank I inch thick would fall toa considerably lower temperature by radiation than the lower side, it may be supposed that the de- position would have been largest on the lower side if they had been at the same temperature. That much frost came from the air independently of the ground, was shown by the white roofs 12 feet above the surface of the earth. On the other hand the grass was much more heavily frosted. Moreover, tumblers in- verted and pressed down on dry, hard, bare earth, on sand, and on hard turf, were moderately frosted inside, besides being thickly frosted outside. The indications, on the whole, seemed to resemble those of the previous June, but the vapour condens- ation attributable to exhalation from the earth bore a much smaller proportion to the total deposit than in the case of dew on interior surfaces observed in summer — Boards, tiles, and stones (sandstone) in heaps were frosted on the top, and especially in cracks and indentations of the top surface, but not in the interstices between the separate pieces. Stones on the ground were sometimes not frosted at all on the top, but much on the parts against the sandy earth, and where bedded in the ground. Further experiments in May and in the summer months of 1892 gave strong confirmation of the evidence that much dew and frost are caused by exhalation of vapour from the earth, even in dry weather. The facts that— (1) A large quantity of dew was invariably found on clear nights in the interior of closed vessels over grass and sand. (2) Very little or no dew was found in the interior of vessels inverted over plates on the ground. (3) More dew was found on the lower side of a square, slightly raised, china plate over grass or sand than on the lower side of a similar plate placed upon the first. (4) The lower sides of stones, slates, and paper on or sand, were much more dewed than the upper sides. he flat wooden back of the minimum thermometer on clear evenings when lying on earth, sand, or grass was almost invariably wet — before the upper surface. : (5) The lower side of plates of glass, 1 or 2 in. above grass, were as much or more bedewed than the upper sides. (6) Leaves of bushes, leaves lying on the ground, and blades of grass were about equally bedewed on both sides. . (7) The interior of closed vessels inverted on the grass and | covered with two other inverted vessels of badly-conducting substance was thickly bedewed, and the grass in the three circular inclosures also thickly bedewed. (8) The deposit of dew on the interior of closed vessels inverted over dry garden earth was much less than over sand or turf, although the powdery condition of the earth in the morning showed that no deposit from the air had taken place on its sur- face during the night. (9) Usually a greater amount of dew was deposited in the interior of vessels when the earth was moist at a little depth below the surface than when the earth was at its driest. (10) The temperature of the space under a glass plate or other object suspended near the surface of the ground was higher than that of the upper surface of the object, and, nevertheless, — a cloudy film was produced first on the lower surface, —amounted to a proof that a large part of the dew formed is derived from vapour from the earth. Moreover, the Jarge difference often observed between the quantity of dew deposited in the interior of a vessel inclosing a plant, and the quantity of an empty vessel, proved that much dew may be derived from the earth through plants. Drinking glasses inverted over grassy turf, and over turf close by, from which the grass was removed, showed a similar excess of deposit on the glasses inclosing grass. More vapour was condensed on plates suspended over grass than over bare earth, In these cases the conditions are somewhat artificial, and the grass, which was covered by a suspended plate or inclosed by a glass, would be warmer than if the exposure to the sky were free, but the disturbance thus caused would tell as much against as in favour of deposition on the interior surface. It may be objected that the air in and above the grass would be colder, owing to the radiating grass, than over the bared spot, and that DECEMBER 29, 1892] NATURE 211 therefore more dew would be deposited from the air; but this objection would scarcely be valid where a small plant was in- ed on bare earth and the deposition on the interior of the glass compared with that on a glass not inclosing a plant. Recent investigations have proved the evaporation from plants to be very large, and since evaporation proceeds by night as well as by day, there can be no reason why a moderate pro- portion of the dew deposited on the surface of blades of grass and on leaves of plants generally should not be derived from the vapour which they exhale. The fact that an equal quantity of dew is deposited on glass, china, painted wood, &c., exposed to the sky to that depo-ited on grass, may seem to minimize the influence of plant exhalation, but we must remember that the whole of the stratum of air near the ground is rendered more rap by these exhalations, and that therefore the dew-point is sooner reached on the surface of any body exposed to the sky in the midst of vegetation than on bare open ground. Moreover, the thickness of the substance prevents earth heat from much affecting the upper surface. The effect of grass in promoting dew formation is owing—(t) To its radiative power cooling its surface below the dew-point. (2) To the consequent c oling of the stratum of air in and over the grass to'a point much below that of the air a few feet higher. (3) Tothe obstruction offered by the grass to any light air or breeze on a nearly calm night, and the consequent settling down, without much disturbance, of acold heavy stratum. (4) To the prevention by the grassy covering of the drying-up process by sun and wind which takes place on bare ground, and to the moist earth which therefore exists under grass near the surface evenin dry weather. (5) To exhalation of vapour from the grass. The realization of these causes explained what was always, previous to these observations, a difficulty to me, the almost sare absence of dew on heather and dry fern in the summer. after heavy dews, heather was invariahly found perfectly dry. In fine, calm winter weather, with white frost, heather may be a good deal whitened, and the frost is then derived preely from the open air. Wood, being a good radiator and conductor, is heavily bedewed and frosted. Stones, whether of sandy composition and appearance, or of close grain like flint, pebbles, and slate, are not oiten visibly bedewed or frosted on the top on clear nights. On their sur- faces, touching or very close to the ground, they are heavily be- dewed and frosted. A moderate radiative power, their usual situation removed from grass an‘ vegetation, and in the case of o close grained stones, a conductive power greater than that leaves, a and wood, though less than that of metals, pre- vent the deposition of much atmospheric moisture on their exposed sides. But when air highly charged with vapour im- ene on them in a confined space, as on their !ower sides, con- densation readily takes place, just as it will take place when any substance, even polished metal, is held above the spout of a kettle of boiling water. It is apparent that since stones act as condensors to the vapour constantly arising from the earth, and since the heat of the sun and temperature of the air by day only slightly raise the temperature of the earth immediately beneath a large stone, while the radiation of heat from the stone and low air temperature of the night cause the lower side of the stone to be very cold at night, a rather large amount of moisture must be deposited on its lower surface in every twenty-four hours, and the ground on which it rests must in our climate remain always very moist. The space between the stone and the ground conse- uently hecomes the abode of many insects which live well in pand darkness. ional observation of the distribution of dew, without careful comparison with the state of the weather, gives an im- pression of capriciousness which only continuous records com- prising various conditions can remove. Deposition is generally favoured by a humid air, and therefore in this country by southwesterly and westerly winds, which bring over the land the vapour derived from evaporation of the Atlantic Ocean. A smaller fall of temperature by radiation brings about condensation, and there is less tendency in any deposit to evaporate than in a drierair. Radiation may produce a greater fall of temperature indry air, but the distance from the dew- point is commonly too wide to compensate greater humidity with greater cooling. Calm is also very favourable to dew-formation. It allows parcels of vapour in the air to remain sufficiently long in contact with cold radiating substances to become greatly cooled, and so to become condensed upon them, and it prevents the dispersion NO. 1209, VOL. 47} of the stratum of air near the ground, which is continually cool- ing by contact and radiation. Thus dew goes on forming while the air falls lower and lower beyond its original dew point, and while by a very gentle movement an interchange is kept up be- tween the warmer air touching the ground beneath the grass, and the cold air on the surface of the grass, and between differently cooled layers and portions of air above it. If the air is very humid, a very slight air or breeze is favourable to heavy de- position. On ordinary clear nights, calm and light airs allow the reduction of the lowest stra'um of air to the dew-point, and there is no liability to evaporation of the minute deposited par- ticles by portions of air above the dew-point being driven against them. When the air is rather dry, as often happens at night in dry summer weather, and in winter frosts, calm is frequently a necessary condition for the deposit and appearance of dew and white frost. The deposit may be observed to take place on the cessation of wind, and again, the change from calm to wind soon dries off the dew which has already formed. On other occasions, when there is a gentle air or breeze, dew and frost are deposited only in sheltered places, as on the most sheltered slopes of fields, on banks sloping to leeward, on leaves on the lee side of bushes and trees, on the lee side of mole-hills, posts, railings, and other objects. Hollows, depressions, and cracks, in paper, glass, stones, tiles, wood, and leaves, are more bedewed than flat surfaces from the same reason,—the reduction below the dew- point of air less diluted than that which is more free by currents of higher temperature and greater dryness. With a fresh west wind in a clear night, the raised and ribbed parts of leaves, &c.; may be thickly bedewed and frosted, but the hollows and folds scarcely if at all less, and the sides of buds, thorns, &c., are more frosted than the points. The wind is, in fact, often sufficiently removed from the dew-point to prevent deposition or continuance of moisture on all parts which’are fully exposed to it. Not even free radiation to a clear sky then avails to plant frost-growths upon the object whose temperature is being perpetually supplied by the forcible impact of warmer air. Free radiation or exposed situation is, on the whole, perhaps the most effectual cause of dew on very many nights in the year. In a level country those parts of a field which are least sheltered by trees and hedges gather most dew and frost on calm nights. Similarly, those parts of any flat substance, such as a sheet of glass or paper, which have the most uninterrupted exposure to the sky are most bedewed, The tops of bushes, posts, railings, inverted drinking glasses, pans, &c., are on calm nights, and sometimes breezy nights, more bedewed than the sides. Greater cold by greater radiation in these cases produces greaterdeposition from the cooled air which comes in contact with the freely radiat- ing surfaces. It must be remarked, however, that radiation from fine points, such as the tips of sharp thorns, is often not sufficient to counteract in air which is not very humid the effect of the continual impact of air above the dew-point and higher in tem- perature. Close to the ground the case is different, for there the temperature of the low stratum of air is lower, and usually about the dew-point, there is littke movement, and vapour from the ground increases humidity ; but even in this situation the points of grasses, &c., are often less bedewed than the sides. That free radiation is by no means necessary for the formation of heavy dew on grass is proved by the experiments detailed above, made during the summer of 1892. The grass was found heavily bedewed in dry weather within three enclosures of earthenware by which radiation was arrested. Since grass covered by hollow vessels, and the interior of hollow vessels themselves, are thickly covered with dew, it would seem likely that the grass under overhanging trees would be as thickly bedewed as the exposed grass in a field, and that the under sides of the overhanging leaves would also be wetted. This is not the case. And there are differences in the two situations sufficient to account for the absence of dew under leafy trees. In the first place, on a calm night, the air under a tree is warmer than in the open owing to radiation from the ground being arrested. Secondly, whatever vapour escapes from the earth is unable to condense on the grass which covers it, the grass being but little colder than the air and vapour. Thirdly, and herein lies the chief difference, the air under the tree moves freely and is above the dew-point, since the earth and other objects which it touches are warmer than the grass and air out- side. If the air were confined in a small space, the increments of vapour issuing from the earth, and the gradual cooling of the grass under the tree and of the tree itself, might cause deposition, but air which has parted with much ofits moisture outside is 2:12 constan'ly mixing with a considerable body of air already warmed under the sheltering canopy. Thus all objects under the tree remain above or not much below the dew-point of the air which touches them. Yet, on a cal: night, long grass and other sub- stances a little raised above the ground are sometimes heavily bedewed, though largely hindered by overhanging branches from losing their heat by radiation, They often remain nearly dry till the morning hours, and then reacha temperature below the dew-point. The absence of dew under trees and bushes is, within limits, roughly proportional to the area of ground covered, A large surface of dry ground slowly parting with its heat during the night has a powerful effect in preventing condensation. Small bushes on a humid clear night are often much bedewed even on their lower leaves. On thenight of October 5, 1892, both sides of the leaves of bushes in all sheltered situations were found thickly bedewed, but where leaves were either exposed to the slight breeze which was blowing, or near the wall of the house on which the sun had shone, they were dry. The warm, dry wall of a house acts a part similar to that of the earth under a tree in radiating warmth to neighbouring objects, and in warming the air by contact. The vapour emerging from earth sheltered by foliage several feet above it has time to mix well with air before coming in contact with solid objects. In the hollow vessels, and even in the space between a raised plate of glass and the earth, the vapour which rises from the earth has no time to become equally distributed in the air before meeting with sub- stances coider than itself ; in the closed vessels the initial amount of vapour is augmented so as to produce constant saturation. Objects, such as drinking-glasses, raised several feet above the grass, were seldom much beaewed, and often quite dry. The increase of pasture-land in England must have a con- siderable effect in increasing cold by radiation, and in diminish- ing the amount of vapour in the air at night by deposition on grass. The sensible moisture at night must be increased near the ground, the dew-point being quickly reached on a clear night over grass. The large quantity of dew found on plates and other objects over sandy ground, dry to a depth of several inches, proves the possibility of a large emanation of noxious vapours from soil containing decaying organic matter below a covering of sand. The ague of parts of East Anglia and of sandy malarious districts may be thus accounted for. Houses built on sandy ground over a damp subsoil may be considered as scarcely more wholesome thanif built on the damp soil itself. In late summer an1 early autumn the high temperature of the soil in comparison with the temperature of the surface and of the air near the ground at night, must have a powerful effect in the production of vaporous exhalations. The heavy rains which so often occur in October, the wettest month of the year, must co- operate with a falling air-temperature in driving out air from the pores of the earth. ; In nearly all the conclusions of Wells, as stated in his ad- mirable ‘‘ Essay on Dew,”’ my observations lead me to concur, He found that calm is favourable to the precipitation of dew ; that if, in the course of the night, the weather, from being calm and serene, became windy and cloudy, not only did dew cease to form, but that which had formed either di-appeared or diminished considerably ; that if the clouds were high and the weather calm, dew sometimes formed to no very inconsiderable extent; that dew oftem forms on shaded grass even several hours before sun- set, and continues to form after sunrise ; that, if the weather be favourable, more dew forms a little before, and, in shaded places, a little after sunrise, than at any other time; that on substances elevated a few feet above the ground it forms much later in the evening, but continues to form as long after the rising of the sun as upon the ground ; that dew is more abun- dant shortly after rain than during a long tract of dry weather ; that dew is always very copious on those clear and calm nights which are followed by misty or foggy mornings, and also on clear mornings after cloudy nights, and generally after hot days ; that more dew was formed between midnight and sunrise than between sunset and midnight, owing doubtless ‘‘to the cold of the atmosphere being greater in the latterthan in the prior part of the night ;”’ that whatever diminishes the view of the sky diminishes the quantity of dew; that a substance placed on a raised board of some extent acquired more dew on a very stili night than a similar substance lying on grass ; that bright metals attract dew much less powerfully than other bodies, that a metal which has been purposely moistened will often become dry NO. 1209, VOL. 47] NATURE _ |DEcEMBER 29, 1892 though similarly exposed with bodies which are attracting dew, and that wool laid upon a metal acquires much less dew than an equal quantity laid upon grass in the immediate vicinity ; that a metal plate on grass always became moist on the lower side during the night, though the upper side was often very dry, but that if the plate was elevated several feet in the air, the condition of both sides was always the same, whether dry or moist ; that wool on a raised board was commonly colder than on the grass on very still nights, and that the leeward side of the board was colder than the windward ; that bare gravel and garden mould were very much warmer after sunset than neighbouring grass ; that on dewy nights the temperature of the earth half an inch or an inch beneath its surface was much warmer than the grass upon it, and than the air ; that metal covering grass was only slightly colder than the grass covered, and this again colder than the earth ; that metal thus exposed was warmer than air 4 feet above it, and much warmer than neighbouring grass ; that the variety in the quantities of dew, formed upon bodies of the same kind in different situations, was occasioned by the diversity of tem- perature existing among them ; and that on nights favourable to the production of dew, only a very small part of what occurs is owing to vapour rising from the earth. The last of these conclusions Wells supported by the obser- vation that the dew on the grass increased considerably about sunset, the same time at wh ch dew began to show itself on the raised board, and by the reflection that, ‘‘ though bodies situated on the ground after they have been made sufficiently cold by radiation to condense the vapour of the atmosphere will be able to retain the moisture which they acquire by condensing the vapour of the earth ; yet, before this happens, the rising vapour must have been greatly diminished by the surface of the giound having become much colder.” He adduced the fact that substances on the raised board attracted rather more dew throughout the night than substances lying on the grass. He admitted that all the dew on calm, cloudy nights might be at- tributed to condensation of the earth’s vapour, since on such nights the raised board was dry. But if the grass was moist on these calm, cloudy nights, and the moisture were owing to earth-vapour, it is only reasonable to infer that a very much larger quantity was owing to earth- vapour on clear nights when radiation was comparatively free. Moreover, the fact that substances on the raised board became wetter than substances on the grass may be attributed to the non-conducting wood intercepting the warmth radiated from the ground, and thus allowing a substance on the upper surface of the board to become colder than a substance on the grass. And with regard to the “ rising vapour ” being greatly diminished by the surface of the ground having become colder, it does not appear that such diminution actually occurs, owing possibly to the influence of the high temperature of the preceding day reach- ing the moist earth at a little depth below the surface about the same time. I have found the deposition of earth-vapour to pro- ceed at arapid rate after sunrise over grass. Wells explains with much ingenuity the reason why leaves of trees often remain dry throughout the night, while those of grass are covered with dew. But he does not, I think, attach sufficient weight to the fact which he mentions among others, that the air near the ground is near one of its sources of moisture, while the tops of trees are removed from that source. ‘The air is both damper and colder near the ground ; a stratum of cooled air rests upon warm earth emitting vapour. The tops of trees are pervaded by air which is drier and warmer, and the leaves do not allow air to rest long enough on their cooled surfaces to part with sufficient heat in order that condensation may ensue. I have found that when the air is clear and not humid, radia- tion into space is often not sufficient to cause visible dew or frost except in sheltered calm places, and in the same condition of air deposition takes place more on broad surfaces than on thin shoots, threads, and points, and more on the faces than on the edges of leaves. It appears necessary that a certain stability of temperature below that of the air, and a certain protection from re-absorption by the drier portions of air which pass over, should be attained in order that dew and frost may accumulate. When, on the other hand, the air is very moist, with a tendency to mist or fog, a very large condensation takes place on exposed objects, and especially on those which are at some height above the ground, such as the branches and twigs of trees. Points, thorns, spiders’ webs, and other thin filaments are then heavily bedewed. Mist or fog often follows. When some mist has formed on such a night, there is a heavy DECEMBER 29, 1892] NATURE 213 precipitation on trees, &c., which is increased by wind, and large drops of rain on to the ground beneath them. This condition seems best explained by Aitken’s discoveries showing the possi- bility of a super-saturation of air when the number of dust- particles is unusually small in a mass of air which is humid and cooled tosaturation. The dust-particles from their minuteness, and from their inability to fall below the temperature of the air owing to the cloud canopy above, do not condense much of the vapour, and consequently any solid object of the same or slightly lower temperature brings about precipitation from the passing air, which may possibly be super-saturated. A slight fall of temperature in the air, or sometimes an increase of dust- particles, then proluces fog. A dry fog may thus result from cold causing coniensation ona very large number of dust-par- ticles which are radiating heat rather freely, and a damp wist from partial condensation from super-saturated air on a com- paratively small number of dust particles not radiating freely owing to a clouded sky. These considerations explain why a dry fog is densest in London and a wet mist densest inthe country. A dry fog is the work of cold radiating particles, a wet mist is the work of cold air mixing with warm. ‘‘ Ina fog,” says Angus Rankin,! “* the watery vapour in condensing has more particles to condense on, and consequently the particles of fog are smaller, and on meeting with an object with a higher temperature, instead .of wetting it, the object dries them up by parting with some of its heat. On the other hand, ina mist, the particles of dust, being few, have more water condensed on each, and so are larger and do not readily evaporate with small increments of heat.” Yet in a damp mist the addition of a large number of dust-particles, as in a town by day, scarcely increases the density of the mist. In fact, the wet mist is less dense in London than in the country, owing to the higher temperature and lower humidity of the air. Dry or radiation fogs, which cling to the ground, are the most dense in smoky places. In fogs with frost in winter, such as have occurred several times in the last few years, I have always found the windward side of objects to be much more heavily frosted than the lee- ward, and the rime to attach itself most to points and edges. Trees have thus hecome laden with rime, even so as to break down branches ; iron points of railings, splinters of wood, wires, and blades of grass have borne spikes and fern-like growths an inch or more long, and heather and fern in hollows have been whitened as if witha fall ofsnow. In weather of this kind it is difficult to say what is dew or frost proper, and what is deposited moisture from super-saturated air and from fog. On the same night a white frost may present the characteristics of fog- sig in a valley and of clear condensation on a neighbour- ing hill. Dew and frost are in fine the result of many causes which inter-operate ina complex manner. The importance of the laws of gases of the multitude of fine adaptations in the relations of vapour, air, water, earth, and plants; the importance, too, of the thermal receptivity of boundless space, gives an interest to this branch of meteorology which is second only to its beauty. ARBORESCENT FROST PATTERNS. PROF. MELDOLA’S account of Arborescent Frost Patterns has excited a good deal of interest, and we have received many letters on the subject, some of which we have already published. To-day we give revroductions of photographs we have received from Mr. J. Maclear, Cranleigh. Fig. 1 re- presents a photograph of a facsimile tracing of a ‘* Nature print” of an ice crystallite taken by Mr. A. Anderson on a still and sunny early morning in january 1887, afier a not very severe frost. The sunshine had just dried the rest of the frost off the flagstone, and left this\mud and ice-crystallization, which he promptly secured on soft piper by means of a soft pad- pressure, and thus got a perfec Nature printed impression. The original (now unfortunately lost) showed an appearance of vegetable (moss) growth, even more strikingly than in this tracing from it. With regard to Fig. 2 Mr. Maclear writes :—‘‘ The melting ice under the dabbing pad formed a natural pigment with the t Journal of the Scottish Meteorological Society. Third Series. No. viii NO. 1209, VOL. 47] mud on the flagstone, the rest of the flagstones being perfectly dry already by the early morning sunshine.” Prof. Meldola sends us the following interesting letter which he has received from Corbridge on-Tyne :— ‘*T was much interested by your note in NATURE the other day, anent the frost markings of a vegetable pattern. I have seen just the same forms several times tn the north, but it is [ think the least common of the patterns usually met with. I write, however, to call your attention to Figs. 1 and 7 of , Plate Fic, Ace crystallite, ** Nature printed’? by A Anderson, January 1887. Facsimile tracing by J. Maclear, January 1887. Size of crystal 14} inches X 13 inches, vii, illustrating the article on Meteorology in the ‘“‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana” (1845, vol. i. of plates, vol. v. of text). These figures are very like yours and some of the others given with them are also very interesting. I have often shown my students when out in the fields in cold weather how exactly the mud- Mr. A Nature ‘print,” made V Size of crystal, 10} inches Fic 2.—Photograph from the original “ Anderson, ofan ice crystallite, January 1887. Xx 7 inches. cum-frost markings of the common feathery volute type imitate the so-called Cauda-galli fossil fucoid (?) which is one of the most abundant objects on the surface of the carboniferous lime- stone courses ahout here. As far as form goes they are identical, and there is no structure to be discovered in the fossil markings, ‘* Corbridge-on-Tyne, December 16. G. A. LEBOUR. PROF. SOLLAS writes to us:—The correspondence on this ubject that has lately appeared in your columns (particularly Prof. Bonney’s reference), leads me to anticipate a communica ‘ion T hope shortly to present to the Royal Dublin Society on he growth of crystals. The arborescent forms assumed by ice are merely a special case of a very general problem—that of the 214 forms assumed by crystals under different conditions. Petrol.- gists have loug been familiar with the tendency of crystals de- veloping in a viscid medium to excessive growth in One or more directions. Felspar is a familiar instance, the lath-like forms which it frequently assumes being due to elongation along one axis (#), the length of prisms measured along this axis ofien exceediny by ten times that along the axis y or z, The cause of this need not now be discussed ; it will be sufficient to add that the phenomenon is not special to felspar, but is of quite general occurrence. With this tendency is connected the origin of curvilinear forms. We may consider the molecules forming the growing face of a long prism ; the spheres of influence of these lie half within and half without the substance of the crystal, Cousidering this influence as attractive (directly or in- directly), we may say that the attraction of the molecules lead- ing to further deposition is one-half their total attraction. If now from the face we pass to the edge between two faces at right angles, only one-quarter of the sphere will be immersed, and the attraction may be spoken of as-three-quarters of the whole ; while if from the edge we pass to a corner, only one- eighth is immersed, and the attraction becomes seven-cighths. From this it follows that growth should be more rapid at the edges than over the surface of the face, and still more rapid at the coruers. In accordance with this we find young growing prisms in a viscid medium increasing so rapidly at the edges as to leave a space in and about the axis filled with the medium in a non-crystailine state. I deed, a viscid medium is not necessary; hollow prisms are of common occurrence whenever crystallization takes place with rapidity. Further, in quite embryonic crystallites, V yelsany figures elongated prism- like forms, in which the four corners are produced parallel to the lung axis into processes r.sembling spines. There is an additional reason pointed out to me by Prof. Fitzgerald why growth should be more rapid at the edges and corners than over the general surface, and that is that these parts are m »re exposed to molecular bombardment. If crystals are more readily built up along edges and corners, we should expect them to be more readily unbuilt in these regions, and this is in accordance with observation ; the zonal felspars o! igneous rocks, in the formation of which intervals of solution have alternated w th periods of growth, usually present, in the outlines of cach resuiting envelope, rounded corners, The influence of corners is well seen in some glassy rocks where small prisms of felspar (andesite) may be observed, with five or six slenderer but longer prisms springing from a corner in radiate divergence. From this it is but a step to curvilinear growth. Let a prism tend to rapid rectilinear growth, and any check immediately in front will lead to a forwaid grow h from a corner in a slightly different direction ; even the competition of molecules for this centre of atitraciion may by overcrowding bring about this result, and thus both branching and curvilinear forms may arise. This is beautifully exemplified in the spherulites of many igneous rocks, where we find in the centre ot a radiately crystallized sphere a long prism of felspir serving as a nucleus, and from the eds of this slen ter, almost linear, prisms diverge towards a spherical surface which by repeated branching and associated curving they everywhere reach, leaving abvut the sides of the nucleus a spherical space almost devoid of crystal struc'ure.. The whole arrangement in median longitudinal section presents a remarkable resembl ince to the lines of furce as shown by iron-filinys about a bar magnet. Evidently in rapid crystallization with a tendency to linear grow'b, divergence may be repeated at such frequent intervals as to produce forms*which to the unaided eye appear to be cuntinuvus curves. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON, Mathematical Society, Lecember 8.—Mr. A. B. Kempe, F R.S., President, in the chatr.—The following communica- tions were made:—On a theorem in differentiation, aud its application to spherical harmonics, by Dr. Cauchy’s condensatiun test tor the convergency of series, by Prof M. J. M. Hill. Cauctty’s conden-auon test for the con- vergency of series is as tollows:—It f(z) be positive for all values of 2, and constantly decrease as # increases, then the series 2/(z) and %a"/(a”) are voth convergent or both divergent, No. 1209, VOL. 47] NATURE Hubson.—On , [ DECEMBER 29, 1892 where a is any positive integer not less than 2. There is aclear reason why a cannot be untty, for then 3a%/(a") = 3/(1), which is always infinite, It is proved in Chrystal’s ‘‘ Algebra” that the theorem is also true if @ have any positive fractional value not less than 2, see part 2, chapter xxvi., § 6, cor. 1. The proof there given when a les between the consecutive positive integers J and ~ + 1 is based on Cauchy’s proof for the two cases a= and a=f/+1. But this proof will not apply when I2. If a@ <1, then this is no longer true. The problem then considered in this paper is so to recast the proof fur fractional values of @ as not 10 exclude the case I1. The demonstration depends on the following theorems. I. If 3a”/(a”) be convergent, then— > Slaf(iyt ... +f) + (it <'a7* = a7 45 > an" fa”) — a ar fq") II (B.) If xa%f(a”) be divergent, and if a”/ (4) do not diminish as # increases beyond a certain value, then— Sfe)> SHe+ TS ant n= Ie 3 48 Dy where s is an integer taken large enough, and A is some finite quantity. —Aduitional note on secoudary fucker circles, by Mr. J. Griffiths—Notes on determinants, by Mr, J. E. Campbell. In accordance with the late Prof Smith’s notation, a determinant of the Zt class may be written . | aiyk eer | The fact that a determinant of the second class (an ordinary determinant) is not altered if the vertical columns be written horizontally is expressed by the identity | ay | = | a | For determinants of higher class it is known that any of the suffixes can be interchanged, excepi the first: and it the class be even, the first suffix can also be interchanged with any other, but for delerminants of odd class this is not true. By con- sidering a cubic determinantas an ordi: ary determinant iu alter- nate numbers, the author trices to explain this essential distine- tion between determinants of odd and even classes. It the element Bagge cicinten Mtr os 2 and appr = % the determinant is 803 skew symmetrical. It Is easily scen that skew symmetrical de terudnants of even class and odd degree vanish identically. This is analogous to the well-known theorem in ordinary deter- minants; but there is no corresponding analogue to the theorem that skew symmetrical determinants of the second_class and even ? : and let (f, 7) denote - attachment, a good figure was projected on the screen. / _ DECEMBER 29, 1892} degree are perfect squares. The reasoning which establishes these propositions does not apply to skew symmetrical deter- minants of odd class. By a different method it is shown that they vanish identically whether the class be even or odd. It is next shown that if we form any determinant of even class 24 from 2 ordinary determinants, in a manner analogous to that in the rule for the multiplication of two ordinary determinants, the determinant so formed is the product of the 2/ determinants ; and if any determinant of odd class 2f + 1 is formed from 2p + tordinary determinants, the determinant so formed is the product of the last 2 of these ordinary determinants into the first taken, with all its signs positive. A somewhat similar result is shown to hold for determinants of alternate numbers. As an application, let a Sd Sl ago on 7 e—«@) (y - 2) * aaa gk 8 | pipe fae Hie SS 4 | led (x - @,)? Soe aoe. oe @ | iy at B,)? Ol heey ee eat he ie we get (0, ©), (0, 1) | ‘aX apg (ap — ay) (By — Bg) (1,0), (1,1) | “(x — ay)? (x — By)* (x — ag)? (x — By)” Suppose, now, z = 1, we get that the primitive of (00), (01) Ni tk : (10), (11) (x - a) (y — By) Similarly, by multiplying, | I ee et - | weg ees es I coer | Clee — : | . (x abs a,)8 iy ae By) aa i rae . we get that the primitive of (00), (01), (02) (10), (11), (12) = 0, (20), (21), (22) = Tn: aa + og Migs ; (# — a) (v — By) (* — a) (vy — Ba) _ Similar ges are obtained for differential equations, which are in the form of determinants of higher class. A further application is obtained by taking powers of different invariantive bce of which (123) is the simplest for the ternary quantic. The resulting invariants are seen to be determinants of some even class.—A geometrical note, by Mr. R. Tucker. —The Presi- dent (Major MacMahon, F.R.S., in the chair) made an im- a of a problem, the solution of which thought would be subsidiary to the sought-for solution of the ‘‘ stamp folding” problem. Linnean Society, December 15.—Prof. Stewart, President, in the chair.—The President announced the recent death of Mr. Hi. T. Stainton, a Fellow and former Vice-President of the Society, and of European reputation amongst entomologists, by whom his loss would be widely felt.—Mr. D. Morris exhibited a series of botanical photographs from the west coast of Africa, and gave some interesting details about the appearance and mode of growth of some of the more remarkable forest trees and plants of that region.— The Secretary exhibited a large collec- tion of photographs of Lichens, very neatly mounted and labelled, which had been recently presented to the Society by Prof. Arnold, of Munich.—On behalf of Mr. George Swainson, of St. Annes-on-Sea, Lancashire, Mr. A. R. Hammond exhibited an art dipterous larva, belonging probably to the genus Dixa, of which by means of the oxyhydrogen lantern, «ith microscopic He NO. 1209, VOL. 47] NATURE 215 referred to the different views which prevailed concerning the dorsal and ventral aspects of this larva, and pointed out that the tail-plates possessed features which in allied forms were charac- teristic not so much of the larval as of the pupal stage.—A paper was then read by Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S., on the classification and geographical distribution of the Zaxacee and Conifer, his remarks being illustrated by a specially prepared map, Jent by Mr. C. B, Clarke, and by specimens of the fruit and leaves of some of the more notable forms.—Mr. George Brook followed with a paper on the affinities of M/adrepora, and here again, by means of the oxyhydrogen lantern, an excellent series of coral sections was projected, which illustrated very clearly the author’s remarks on comparative structure. —A short note on the abnormal form of the lens in the eyes of an albino rat, by Prof. R. J. Anderson, was read on his behalf by the Secretary. The meeting then adjourned to January 19, 1893. Zoological Society, December 6.—Dr. St. George Mivart, F.R.S., Vice-president, in the chair.—The Secretary read a report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s menagerie during the month of November 1892.—Dr. Hickson read a paper entitled ‘‘A Revision of the Genera of the Alcyonaria Stolonifera, with a description of one new genus and several new species.” The author commenced by stating the grounds upon which it might be considered desirable to retain the suborder Stolonifera, and criticized the views of those who place these Alcyonarians in the suborder Alcyonida. Of the genera that had already been proposed only four could now be retained, namely, Zudipora, Clavularia, Cornularia, and Sympodium, and the author proposed to add one more, namely, Stereosoma. . The genera Sarcodictyon, Rhizoxenia, Cornu- larieila, Anthelia, and Gymnosarca must be abandoned, and the species incorporated in the other genera. A description was then given of the new genus S¢ereosoma, a form found on the coast of North Celebes, distinguished from all other Stolo- nifera by certain characters of its tentacles and by the absolute non-retractability of its polypes. Several new species of Clavularia were then described from North Celebes, Diego Garcia, and Australia. This was followed by a summary of ail the species of the genus known toscience.—Mr. F, E. Beddard, F.R.S., read a description of the convolutions of the celebral hemispheres in certan rodents. The paper referred chiefly to Dasyprocta Celogenys, Lagostomus, Hydrocherus, and Doli- chotis, being the genera of rodents in which the brains show the greatest development of convolutions.—A communication was read from Prof. Collett, containing adescription of a new monkey from S.E. Sumatra, for which he proposed the name Semnopithecus thomasi.—Mr. H. J. Elwes read the second portion of an account of the butterflies collected by Mr. W. Doherty in the Naga and Karen Hills and in Perak. Paris, Academy of Sciences, December 19.—Annual Public Meeting. —The President, M. d’Abbadie, gave a brief survey of the life and work of those lost to the Academy by death during the year. Among these were the following members: M. D D, A. Kichet, distinguished for his medical discoveries ; M, de Quatrefages de Bréau, the naturalist ; M. jurien de la Graviére, Vice-Admiral under the Empire; M. Pierre Ossian Bonnet, geometrician ; Admiral Mouchez, late Direcior of the Paris Observatory. Foreign Associate : SirG, B. Airy. Académicien libre: M. Lalanne. Correspondents: MM. Gilbert, Abria and Adams. The prizes were awarded as follows: The Grand Prize of the mathematical sciences to M. Hadamard for his solution of the problemof determining the number of primary numbers inferior to a given quantity. One Prix Bordin to M. Gabriel Koenigs for his solution of a problem concerning geodesic lines ; another to M. Humbert for his work on hyper- elliptic surfaces. The Prix Poncelet to the builders of the Forth Bridge, Sir John Fowler, and Sir Benjamin Biker ; the Extra Prize of 6000 francs to M. Hédouin for his work on the Chaunel currents; the Prix Montyon to M. N. J. Raffard, civil engineer ; the Prix Plumez to M. Augustin Norman d, for his g:ometry of ships. In Astronomy, the Prix Lalande was doubled, and awarded to Mr. Barnard and Mr. Max Wolf; the Prix Damoiseau to M. Radau for his work on lunar inequalities of long period caused by planets ; the Prix Valz to M. Puiseux for his researches on the eguatorial coudé and other instruments; the Prix Janssen to M. | acchini for his solar work. Statistics: The Prix Montyon to MM, M. 216 NATURE [ DECEMBER 29, 1892 Bastié and J. Dardignac for works on the population of France and hygienic statistics respectively. Chemis'ry: The Prix Jecker to M. Bouchardat for his researches on the terebene carbon compounds. Mineralogy: The Prix Vaillant to M. Lacroix for his work on the application of optical characters to the determina'ion of rocks and mineral species. Botany: The Prix Desmaziéres to M. Pierre Viala for his ‘* Malardies de la Vigne”; the Prix Montagne—rooo francs to. M. ’Abhé Hue, and 500 francsto Dr. F. Xavier Gillot for their mycological researches ; the Prix de la Fons Mélicocq to M. Masclef for his ‘* Botanic Geography of Norhern France.” Medicine and Surgery : Prix Montyon—one to MM. Faraboeuf and Varnier for work on obstetric medicine, another to M. Javal for ophthal- mometry, a third to M. Lucas Champonniére for his work on hernia; the Prix Barbier was shared between M, Laborde (‘*Death by Chloroform”) and MM. Cadéac and Albin Meunier (‘‘ Alcoholism,” &c.); the Prix Bellion to Dr. Theodore Cot.1 for his work on ‘‘The Education of the Senses”? ; the Prix Lallemand was shared between M. Binet (‘*Les Altérations de Ja Perso nalité”) and M. Durand (‘‘ Tes Origines Animales de Homme”). Physio- logy: the Prix Montyon to M. Heédon (diabetes) and M. Cornevin (breeding of domestic animals); the Prix Pourat to M. H. Roger for his researches on the inhibitory power of the nervous shock. Physical Geography: the Prix Gay to M. Moureaux (distribution. of magnetic elements in France). General Prizes: Prix Montyon, for improvements in unheal'hy industries, to M. L. Guéroult (crys'al cutting); the Prix Delalande Guérineau, to M. Georges Rolland for his work on the Algerian Sahara; the Prix Jér»me Ponti, to M. Le Chatelier for his researches on dissociation and chemical equilibrium ; the Prix Leconte (50,000 fres.), to M. Villemin for his demonstration of the specific na ure and the tran.miss- ibility of tuberculosis. The Comptes ren us contains a complete list of the prizes to be awarded in the next few years. BERLIN. Physical Society. November 18.—Prof. Du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Prof, Neesen gave an acc -unt of ex- periments made with a view to the photographic recording of the oscillation of projectiles. He employed hollow projectiles in whose interior was placed a sensitive plate, illuminated by sunlight through a small opening. During its rotaory flight the ray of light described curves on the plate, from whose position, taken in conj inciion with that of the sun, the oscilla- tion of the axis and point of the pr jectile would be ca'culated. The results obtained showed that both the axis and point per- form oscillatory movements during the flight which are very different from those usually believed to take place. In order to study these more accurately, Prof. Neesen 1s busy with the con- struc:ion of some arrangement which may ad nit of the mtro- duction into the projectiles of sensitive plates which shall not participate in the ro'atory motion. Decemher 2.—Piof. Du Bois Reymond, President, | in the chair.—Dr. (u Bois gave an account of experi nents mave by Mr.: Shea in Berlin on the refraction of light in metals, and in connection with this referred to a theoretical treatise which he had recently pulished un the same subject in conjunction with Dr. Rubens. Pnysiological Society, November 25.—Prof. Du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Ir. Treitel gave an account of observations he had male on two snails enclosed in ‘air-tight glass vessels. Dr. Ad. Baginski gave an acc wnt of a very fatal epidemic among rabbits in the same hutch, in which a post- moriem examination of the dead ani -als showed a serious affection of the liver and intestinal mucous membrane. The liver was filled with cysts of various sizes, in which, t»gether with coccidize, some very remarkable growths were found, which led to very marke | changes of the epithelial cells. —Dr. Rawitz made a short preliminary statement of bservations on Annu- lata made durirg his stay at the biological station of R »vizno, on the coast of the Adriatic. While one species was tound to be extremely sensitive to light, and to draw in its tentacles at once when sha:led, another closely related s ,ecies was q tite un- responsive, while, on the other hand, it reacted! immediately to the slightest touch. The first species was much les; sensitive to touch. AMSTERDAM. Royal Academy of Sviences, October 29.—Prof, van de Sande Bakhuysen ia the chair. —Prof, Engelmann spoxe (1) on NO. 1209, VOL. 47] the influence of central and reflected irritation of the nervus opticus on the movement of the cones of the retina; and (2) on the theory of the contraction of muscles.—Pro!. Schoute proved 2 a = 1 is the equation of a given ellipse, E, and f(x,y) contains the terms of the #th order of the equation of a curve C” with reference to the same axes. The sum A of the eccentric anomalies a, of the 2, points S, common to E and C” is determined by the relation J\a, 26) Jia, - ib) He indicated several peculiar cases of this general theorem.— Prof. Kamerlingh Onnes communicated some measurements, by Mr. Leeman, relating to Kerr’s phenomenon when reflection takes place at the pole of a cobali-mignet. The constancy of the difference of phase S, discovered by Dr. Sissingh was con- firmed. The measurements agree with “ theory of Gold- hammer, contrary to that of Drude. » Leeman finds a magn: to-optic dispersion in S. November 26.—Prof. van de Sande Bakhuysen in the chair. — Prof. Schoute con inued his communication of October 29, on a general theorem in the theory of plane curves, and corrects a theorem of Laguerre.—Prot, Lorentz d alt with the relative motion of the earth and the luminiferous aether.—-Prof, Kam-:lingh Onnes spoke of measures on the relation of spark length and difference of potential made by Dr, Borgesius at Groningen with a dou le bifilar electrometer of his own con- struction, he differences hitherto found are explained by a correction for pres ure and temperature having been omitted. Discharge between two concentric cylinders depends, as Gaugain stated, on the density of the inner one o ly. Provoking glow discharge on the inner one of two c ncentric cylinders proves successiul in maintaining constant high porenuals, the following theorem :—If * + a goa CONTENTS. Gore’s Visible Universe. By A. Taylor . | The Iron Manufacture in America, " _— Party A County Fauna: ) 6 oe ‘ : Our Book Shelf :— Kimuins : *‘ The Chemistry of Life and Health” Kitcnener: ** N :ked- Eye Boner with Illustrations and Floral Problems ” 198 Gaye: ‘¢The Great World’s Farm: some Account of Nature’s Crops and how they are Grown” Letters to the Editor :— Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars.—C, E. PAGE 193 195 197 ea a Stromeyer 199 Remarkabie Weapons of Defence. —G. F. Hampson; E. Ernest Green . , Sharia f°.) A Suggesiion.—Old Subscriber. 199 Supersutions of the Shuswaps of British Columbia, — Col nel C Bushe ero The Great Ice Age. —N. L. W. A. Gravelaar 200 Aggressive Minucry. —Dr. George J. Rumanes, Bae 200 asec Incubated Eggs, —W. Whitman Bailey 200 The Proposed Univer-ity for London 200 The Manchester Municipal Technical School. (/dlustvated.) By Sir Hen:y E, Roscoe, F.R.S. 201 The _ Blanc Observatory. tens cs By E. E. F. dA. ‘ : peng has M. Pasteur’s Seventieth ‘Birthday . 2 is Use eeeeeeeam Nites . PPE Our Astronomical! Column: _ : Jupier’s Fitth satellite. . . se aa Comet Brooks (November 20, 1892) . 7a 208 Comet Holmes (November 6, pices Bc, PAD 209 The Markings on-Mars ... oe 6 a arethie aiet ae The Li k Observatory. eran Washington Magnetic Ob. ervations .° eam 209 Gecgrap'ical Notes. : “ito 209 Dew and Frot, By the Hon. R. Russell. » jot ieee Arborescent Frost Patterns (//us/rated.) By Prof. G. A. Lebour; Prof. Sullas, F.R.S. é 213 Societies and Academies .__ . Rei 214 NATURE 217 THURSDAY, JANUARY 5, 1893. SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES. XXVIII.—S1rR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE. OME MONTHS ago the British Association for the ? Advancement of Science was holding its annual meeting at Edinburgh under the presidency of Sir Archi- bald Geikie, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. _ It may well be said that a more appropriate choice could hardly have been made by the Council of the learned Association. Not only is Sir Archibald a thorough Scot, born and educated in Scotland, where he fulfilled for many years the most important duties as _ a member of the geological staff, and later as a professor in the University of Edinburgh, but, having long been engaged in the supervision of the Scottish Survey, he mapped with his own hand many hundreds of square _ miles of country, and through the entire scenery of Scot- land there is not a single point with the peculiarities of which he did not make himself thoroughly familiar. His knowledge of the ground is not at all restricted to geo- logical relations. In Sir Archibald the qualities of the geologist are combined with those of the enthusiastic lover of landscape, and his able pencil excels in drawing original sketches in which the outlines, peculiar shades, _ and, one might say, the general spirit of the scenery are fixed with the most striking accuracy. Cbviously, there- fore, he was the right man to be placed at the head ofthe Edinburgh meeting, which many prominent foreign in- vestigators attended in the hope of afterwards travelling, both as tourists and as men of science, through the most interesting fields of the Highlands. Nobody could have been better fitted to introduce them to the country. When _ putting Sir Archibald in the chair at Edinburgh, the _ British Association not only did due justice to one of the most distinguished sons of “modern Athens,” it also took the best course to secure from foreign guests the fullest recognition of the various merits of Scotland. Sir Archibald Geikie was born at Edinburgh in 1838. _ We learn from a notice in the Mining Journal that he _ was educated at the Royal High School and at the Edin- _ burgh University. When he was only twenty years old he became an assistant on the Geological Survey for Scotland, and proved so able that in 1867, when the _ Scottish branch of the Survey was made a separate es- _tablishment, Sir Roderick Murchison deemed he could mot do better than confer the directorial powers on the _ young assistant whom he had appreciated at work. Four _ years later, the chair of Geology and Mineralogy at the _ University having been founded by Sir Roderick with a concurrent endowment by the Crown, Archibald Geikie _ was invested with the new professorship, which he resigned only at the beginning of 1881, when he was appointed to succeed Sir Andrew C. Ramsay as Director-General of _the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and _ Director of the Museum of Practical Geology in Jermyn Street. _ That the new Director had not disappointed the hopes he had excite.!, appeared with sufficient clearness when, NO. 1210, VOL. 47 | some time ago, the Queen conferred on him the honour of knighthood. Now it is our duty to note the chief features of his activity, and to state what personal part Sir Archi- » bald Geikie has played in the recent progress of science. It is scarcely necessary to say that his geological achieve- ments are too important to be conveniently reviewed in a few lines. Nevertheless we shall try to givea general idea of the prominent results to which his name must be attached. Early appointed, as he was, as an officer of Scotland’s Survey, he had, from the beginning, to deal with the most puzzling problems involved in the stratigraphy of the Highlands. The case was a very difficult one, and gave rise to much controversy between Sir Roderick Murchison and many other geologists, among whom it will be sufficient to quote the respected name of Nicol. As in the Highlands gneisses and ordinary crystalline schists were seen resting, with apparent conformity, on Silurian strata, it had been admitted by Murchison that the sequence was a normal one. Therefore the crystalline schists had to be regarded, in spite of their Archzan appearance, as metamorphosed Silurian deposits. Such an assumption had a considerable bearing on other geological problems, as it rendered highly probable the theory that the so-called primitive gneisses were altered sediments, and had nothing to do with the early crust of the molten globe. That Sir Archibald should at first have taken his Director’s side is not at all surprising. But he was never quite satisfied ; and his love of truth led him, as soon as he was in a position to do so, to undertake a detailed re- view of the facts. Since the discovery of Silurian fossils in the rocks of N.W. Sutherland, it had been recog- nized that the key to the structure of the Scottish High- lands was to be searched for in that region. Accordingly, in the years 1883 and 1884, MM. Peach and Horne were entrusted with a careful study of the Durness and Eriboll districts. They were very far from being directed to obtain means of justifying the old survey. “It was a special injunction to the officers” (we quote Geikie’s own words) “to divest themselves of any prepossession in favour of published views, and to map the actual facts in entire disregard of theory.” From the work ably carried on by the distinguished surveyors, and verified on the spot by the Director- General, it appeared clearly that Murchison had been deceived by prodigious terrestrial disturbances, of which, at the time, nobody could have formed an idea. Over immense reversed faults, termed ¢hrust flanes by Geikie and his officers, the older rocks on the upthrow side had been, as it were, pushed horizontally forward, covering much younger sediments ; and the displacement attained the almost incredible distance of more than ten miles. Sometimes an outlier of the displaced ground was found capping a hill, while the remainder had been swept away by erosion, and the strangeness of the case led the observer to write, “ One almost refuses to believe that the little outlier at the summit does not lie normally on the rocks below it, but on a nearly horizontal fault.” Disturbances of that kind had already been noticed in some coal-basins, as, for example, on the southern limit of the French and Belgian coal-field, where similar outliers had been termed by M. Gosselet “lambeaux de L 218 NATURE [January 5, 1893 ‘Lh QoiR itil GN poussée.” But they occurred on a much smaller scale, and there was no reason why the phenomena should be considered otherwise than as quite exceptional. To recognize the generality of that class of stratigraphical accidents was a conquest of a high order, not only for Scottish geology, but for ail countries where the work of orogenetic disturbances has for a long time suffered from the agencies of erosion. The Highlands of Scotland belong to that part of the old European continent which in earlier Paleozoic times emerged from the sea. Near the end of the Silurian period it was subjected to enormous pressure, which resulted in folding and breaking. the whole border of the dry land, raising in the air a series of high mountainous ridges, the Caledonian chain of M. Suess. But millions of years have since passed over the land, and the continued action of atmospheric powers has left but a very small part of the original mass. It is ex- tremely difficult, therefore, to restore the broken continuity; and through the quiet appearance of thenow planed ground, the geologist is everywhere bound to search after the scattered signs of previous plication and fracture. This is now the task to be fulfilled by the detailed Survey, and every stratigraphical difficulty has to be treated in the newly-acquired light. A few years after that discovery had been made in Scotland, Prof. Marcel Bertrand made in Southern France quite similar observations, showing that very limited patches of older formations, which had been till then re- garded as remnants of ancient islets, projecting out of younger geological seas, were nothing else than outliers of reversed folds, the remainder of which had disappeared under the action of rain and rivers. In this manner the correction of a long accepted error has led to stratigraphical conclusions of the highest im- port. In the meantime these gigantic displacements showed themselves accompanied by intense modifications of the rocks, so that Geikie was entitled to write: “In exchange for this abandoned belief, we are presented with startling new evidence of regional metamorphism on a colossal scale, and are admitted some way into the secret of the processes whereby it has been produced.” This is not the only occasion on which Sir Archibald has given proof of his readiness to admit frankly and decidedly the correction of opinions which have long been held. Some years ago, when the Lower Cambrian fauna had been detected by the officers of the Survey much below the Durness limestone of the Highlands, in a series of strata which rests unconformably on the Torridon sandstone, he was the first to announce the fact before the Geological Society, The “ Precambrian,” which he had till then been rather reluctant to recognize, has now taken its place in the scale of divisions. Moreover, he has created a new name, that of “ Dalradian,” for the long strip of Precambrian deposits which extends from Donegal to the centre and south-west of Scotland. As one of the most characteristic formations in Scot- land is the Old Red Sandstone, we cannot be surprised that Sir Archibald has devoted much care to the de- scription of the. peculiarities of that interesting group of strata. After a long and detailed study of the whole ground, he has summed up his views in some important memoirs, published in the Transactions of the Royal So- ciety of Edinburgh. There he has called again to life the NO. 1210, VOL. 47] “old and long-extinct lakes, where the grits and con-— glomerates of the Old Red were piled up through the - disintegration of surrounding formations, namely, Lake © Orcadie, Lake Caledonia, Lake Cheviot, Welsh Lake, - and Lake of Lorne ; each of them being a separate basin, where the work of sedimentation has been many times — interrupted by volcanic outbursts, while in the adjacent and more quiet seas there were accumulated the marine — deposits of Devonshire. But the chief work of Sir Archibald seems to be his exhaustive review of the volcanic history of the British Isles. While his brother, Dr. James Geikie, the author of “The Great Ice Age,” has done excellent service by deciphering the marks of former ice action on the soil of the United Kingdom, Sir Archibald has been particularly attracted by the work of fire, ze. by the records of that volcanic activity, the evidence of which is so deeply im- pressed on the scenery .of the Hebrides, of Wales, and other districts of Great Britain. _ The British Isles are now a very quiet ground, where explosive activity and projection of stones seem to be restricted to electoral periods ; and although Scotland has been from time to time shaken by minor earthquakes, no _ human eye has ever seen there any volcanic outburst. Nevertheless, during Tertiary times, immense sheets of lava were poured out in the north-west of the country. To discern the site of the centres of eruption, and deter- mine the old chimneys, the remnants of which give a glimpse into the lowest parts of ascending lavas; to discriminate the volcanic mechs, the intrusive sheets and dykes, the bedded lavas and the tuffs—this was the first part of the task undertaken by Sir Archibald. But it was not enough for him to re-ascend in the past to the beginning of the Tertiary period. Not only in the Old Red of Scotland, but in the very heart of the oldest forma- tions known in England and Wales, there were numerous evidences of previous volcanic activity. To use Geikie’s words: ‘ Placed on the edge of a continent and the margin of a great ocean-basin, the site of Britain has lain along that critical border-zone where volcanic energy is more active and continuous.” hee The chief outlines of that marvellous story, which was hardly suspected some years ago, were recently traced in Geikie’s presidential addresses to the Geological So- ciety of London ; a work which has been qualified by Mr. Iddings, the distinguished American petrographer, as “one of the most important contributions to the history of volcanic action.” Nevertheless, itis only a preliminary paper, and in the same manner as he already has devoted a special memoir to the volcanic outbursts of Tertiary times, Sir Archibald promises to publish in a short time a detailed account of the Palzeozoic eruptions. In order to become competent for such an under- taking, the author had prepared himself without sparing time, labour, or trouble. Having travelled over much of Europe, from the north of Norway to the Lipari Islands, he was anxious to learn from personal observa- tion the broad features of that American continent, the geological censtruction of which seems to have been conceived on a much larger scale than that of Europe. Therefore in 1878 he rambled over many hundreds of miles in Western America, from the Archzan fields of Canada to the huge volcanic plateaux of Oregon and / January 5, 1893| NATURE 219 Idaho, where a country as large as France and Great Britain. combined has been flooded with a continuous - Sheet of basalt. But stratigraphical studies were only art of the necessary initiation. Sir Archibald had been “one of the first field-geologists in England to perceive the importance of microscopic investigation as an adjunct to field work. He might well have left the care of that special study to some officer in the Survey; but _ he wished to make himself master of the subject, Con- nected by personal friendship with Zirkel, Renard, and other eminent petrographers, he gave to that branch of the ey such a vigorous impulse, that upwards of 5000 ‘slices of British rocks were soon prepared and classed in the collections of the museum in Jermyn Street ; and if he can now rely with full confidence on “his distinguished professional officer, Mr. Harris. Teall, for any determination of rocks, he himself has won all 4 ‘necessary competence in that department of science, which has been so much enlarged during the last twenty years. An undertaking so ably provided for could not but prove successful. It is not, of course, our purpose to give an account of the results arrived at. The “ History of Volcanic Action in the Area of the British Isles,” as it was presented i in the presidential addresses for the years 1891 and 1892, is so much condensed that it must be read in extenso by every one who takes interest in the matter. We would only call attention to the final summary, where some important and far-reaching conclusions are deduced from the observed facts. One of them is that British volcanoes have been active in sinking rather than in rising areas; to which it is added that the earlier eruptions of each period were generally more basic, while the later intrusions were more acid. ‘When presenting “‘a connected narrative of ascertained knowledge regarding the successive epochs of volcanic energy in this country,” Sir Archibald did more than write an important chapter of British geology. It may be said that he definitively settled the long-controverted question, whether there has been any essential difference or not between the display of volcanic activity at various _ geological periods. Not very long ago some scientific _ schools—aboveall, on the Continent—showed the greatest reluctance to admit that true volcanoes could have existed during the Palaozoic era. When they were told of Cambrian lavas and felspathic ashes, of Silurian tuffs, especially of Precambrian felsites, they could not restrain a strong feeling of incredulity. Against old granitic or _ porphyritic eruptions they had nothing to object; but the _ volcanic facies appeared to them a privilege restricted to recent geological times. To this the present writer might _ bear personal testimony, as he found his “ way of Damas” Wales, and gather with his own hands pieces of vesicular lava embedded in the tuffs of the Snowdon, or boulders of true felsite lying at the base of the Cambrian series at _ Llanberis. ; _ Not only has Sir Archibald, in common with his countrymen, always escaped that kind of misconception, _ but he will have contributed more effectively than any _ other to place the matter in the true light. Thanks, to _ the cliffs of Scotland, he has been able to trace the roots of _ old volcanoes, to show true volcanic bombs entombed in NO. 1210, VOL. 47 | _ only when he was fortunate enough to ramble over North. sediments, and to mark the site round which vast piles of lavas and tuffs, 5000 or 6000 feet in thickness, had been heaped up. Likewise, in his previous paper on Tertiary volcanoes, he had established by indisputable sketches that the granitic rocks of the islands of Mull and Skye were ejected during the earlier part of the Tertiary period, and that they belong to the central mass of in- trusions, the lateral veins of which have taken the form of granophyres. There is another kind of useful geological work which Sir Archibald has a right to be credited with ; we allude to the restoration of the most friendly relations between the official Survey and the Geological Society of London. For many years those relations had been maintained at a rather low temperature ; both independ- ent geologists and Government’s surveyors showed, as it were, more inclination to mutual:and severe criticism than to brotherly co-operation. This period of mis- understanding is now well over. Thanks to the present Director, the Geological Society has more than once received the éarly flower of the capital results obtained by the Survey, and the recent Presidentship of Sir Archi- bald has solemnly sanctioned the return of a harmony which will prove of great benefit to the advancement of ‘geological science in England. This is a very brief and imperfect account of the chief work accomplished by the field-geologist, a work which would have been sufficient for the whole of a man’s life. But we have now to consider in Sir Archibald the master who has been engaged in important educational duties. When he was appointed in 1871 to the chair of Geology at Edinburgh he had the whole work of that department to organize, a task which may be wearisome, but which involves great benefit for a man of labour, as he must face every difficulty, and obtain day by day a clear and personal idea of all that is required for teaching. To that we are indebted for the undisputed superiority which Sir Archibald has displayed in his “ Text-book,” as well as in his other educational writings, such as the “ Class- Book,” a very model of clearness, whereby it has been once more demonstrated that those only are qualified for writing elementary books, who are in the fullest possession of the whole matter. Likewise he is the author of small books or “ primers” on physical geology and geography, of which some hundreds of thousands of copies have been sold, and which have been translated into most European languages as well as into some Asiatic tongues. This exceptional success will be easily understood if we remember that in Sir Archibald’s works the traditional barrenness of geology is always smoothed and adorned by a deep and intense feeling for nature. Nobody has done more than he to associate geological science with the appreciation of scenery. In numberless writings he has undertaken to explain the origin of existing topographical features. Among others reference may be made to the volume on “ The Scenery of Scotland viewed in connection with its Physical Geology,” first published in 1869, of which a new edition appeared in 1887; also to ‘Geographical Evo- lution,” in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for 1879; and “On the Origin of the Scenery. of the British Isles,” published in NATURE (vol. xxix. pp. 347, 396, 419, 442). 220 NATURE [ JANUARY’ 5,'1893 ‘ ‘Nevertheless, whatever might have been the attain- ments of the geologist and of the teacher, they would not have been sufficient to secure universal recognition, had tot Sir Archibald been provided in addition with the best powers asa writer. From the beginning he was strongly convinced of the importance of cultivating: the literary element in scientific exposition, not only in order to make science interesting and intelligible to those outside the circle of actual workers, as he did in writing “ Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad,” but because he did not admit the right of a man of science to appear before the public without putting on the “ nuptial dress.” Every one who knows Sir Archibald will readily admit that in doing so he is not impelled by a desire for personal dis- play. He is essentially a man of thought as well as of action. “ Res non verba” might well serve him as mo tto, and whoever has seen his silent but piercing attention in listening to some scientific controversy would never be tempted to suspect him of a wish to search after re- sounding manifestations. But he has too much of the artist’s temper to neglect correctness and elegance in the utterance of his thoughts. And since nothing in the world is less common than the union of scientific insight and acuteness with a vivid appreciation of nature anda delicate feeling for style, it is not strange that Sir Archi- bald’s fame has passed far beyond the circle of profes- sional men. The portrait will be duly completed when it is added that no one could have a better renown for frankness, fair dealing, and perfect trustworthiness in every relation of life. It is highly gratifying for England that the recognition of such achievements has not been left to future times, and that the present generation has not failed in the duty of rewarding so much continuous and fruitful labour. He was admitted to the Roya Society before reaching the age of thirty, a most unusual honour ; he has been Vice- President, and was recently elected Foreign Secretary, of that Society. Since 1890 an Associate of the Berlin Academy ; elected by the Royal Society of Sciences at Gottingen, after the death of Studer, the Nestor of Swiss geologists ; enrolled among the members of the Imperial Leopold-Caroline German Academy, of the Imp erial Society of Naturalists of Moscow, &c., &c., he was chosen in 1891 as a correspondent by the French Academy of Sciences, and in the same yeat he was made a knight. An honorary LL.D. of the Universities of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, he has received the Murchi- son medal of the Geological Society of London, and twice the MacDougal Brisbane Gold Medal of the Royal Society of Edinburgh has been conferred on him, in recognition of the zeal and skill displayed in explaining the geological peculiarities of his mother-land. He is now at the summit of his career, and not so heavily laden with years but that we may express for him the wish ad multos annos. Let us hope that he will long remain at'the head of the distinguished staff to which he has given so profitable an impulse, and continue to serve as a comforting example for those who refuse to acknowledge any other means of genuine success than constant labour and faithfulness to duty. A. DE LAPPARENT. NO. F210, VOL, 47] SHAKING THE FOUNDATIONS OF SCIENCE? Sch judge by the columns of the daily press, we must © expect to find a large number of enterprising company-promoters coming forward shortly to urge, in Parliament and elsewhere, that leave may be given them to confer lasting benefits upon Londoners. The good they propose to do comes in the shape of underground intercommunication. Locomotives of the ordinary construction, it would seem, are not to be employed, but instead of them cable traction or electric energy in. some shape or another. On these points, however, we must speak with caution, for we are told that an absence of definite statements and programmes is one of the main features of the pronounce- ments so far issued. : On two previous occasions it has been our duty to draw attention to a scheme, intended to provide more ready means of intercommunication between dif- ferent parts of London, which threatens to inflict serious damage upon the property of the nation. It so happens that one of the schemes to which refer- ence was made in the opening paragraph is a rehabilita- tion and expansion of that very project against which we protested on the previous occasion. The attempt, which has already once been thwarted, to render the study of the sciences involving exact measurement impossible at South Kensington, is again to be re- peated, and it is necessary to warn the public that an enterprise undertaken nominally for their interests, which are, or the moment, regarded as identical with those of the company-promoter, will strike a fatal blow at the utility of institutions on which many thousands. of pounds of money, public and other, have already been spent, and on which it is in contemplation to spend many thousands more. Our protest on the former occasion was based on scientific grounds. There were others strongly urged from other points of view, and as a result of the opposition the scheme was withdrawn for a time. In the shape it now assumes it is still more objection - able, as the scope is now a more ambitious one. Our objection was simply to the route to be followed. In London we have only one locality where telescopes are nightly used by teachers and students ; we have only one institution the function of which is limited to physical and chemical teaching and research, where delicate measurements are essential, and form part of the routine work; we have only one institution, the function of which is to teach applied science in the most efficient manner—that is, by teaching in which experi- ment and observation, and of extreme delicacy, must go hand in hand with the wva voce exposition of the professor of each branch of applied science. The contemplated railway proposes to sweep all these away. Astronomical Observatories, the various Labora- tories of the Royal College of Science, and of the City and Guilds Institute, are not to be considered the least in the world. This is practically what it comes to; for we doubt whether either teacher or taught will care to remain in a locality where neither valid experi- ments nor observations are possible. ® Continued from vol. xliii. p. 146. January 5, 1893] NATURE 22i _ We need not waste time in considering whether some means could not be found to continue to take astrono- mical photographs of say an hour’s exposure, or to use chemical balances of the greatest delicacy, with a railway or tramway of any kind running intermittently within twenty yards of the laboratory in which the work is sup- posed to be carried on ; and it is also clear that the result would be disastrous if the traffic were carried on at any practicable depth. ‘Last year a joint Committee of the Houses of Lords and Commons fully considered the question as to the principles on which future extensions of what may be called omnibus traffic should be carried on, and they came to the conclusion that electric and cable railways constructed at a considerable depth below the surface would probably be the most convenient means for uniting the various parts of the metropolis more closely. _ Some people have attempted to read into this part of the Committee’s report that given a cable or electric railway there will be no shaking! And it has been sug- gested that all such opposition as we have expressed above should disappear. This of course is the view of the company-promoter, but it will commend itself to no one else. In fact there are special objections to an electric railway in addition to those earthquakes more or less mitigated which are associated with any. system of No evidence was laid before the Committee as to some of the disadvantages which aie incidental to the use of electricity. It is true that these disadvantages are not such as to interfere with the further extension of electrical railways, but they are of sufficient import- ance to be considered in deciding on the routes which the railways shall follow. Experiments made some little time ago in the neighbourhood of the South London Electrical Railway proved that the electrical disturbances were so great that it was doubtful whether ordinary higher students’ work could be carried on within a quarter of a mile. A quarter of a mile! And the proposed railway, or electric way, or cable way, or tramway is to-run within twenty yards of electrical and magnetic laboratories. “ Rien west sacré pour un sapeur /” an evil hidden in the _ ground ceases to be one. ’ It must not be forgotten that the interests at stake are not only those of the higher sciences and research. It might, perhaps, be argued that as the instruments used for investigation become more sensitive, and as the neces- sity for accuracy increases, it may be necessary that researches of a special character should be carried out in places specially selected for their freedom from all external disturbance. A serious damage will, however, be done to our large towns if it becomes necessary for every middle-class youth who wants to master more than the elements of science to become a boarder at a country college. It is frequently complained that there is an increasing separation between class and class, those who are able to do so leaving the towns for the more distant suburbs. It would be a thousand pities if the higher education were also, even in part, to be banished from our great centres of population. It may be urged by the promoters of eas company that it will be easy for them or the Government to plant the NO. 1210, VOL. 47] Royal College of Science elsewhere, but if the buildings of the College are notoriously inadequate, it was clearly stated at the time when the proposal to place a collec- tion of pictures on the site reserved for science made it necessary to explain the future policy of the Department of Science and Art, that the collections and the labora- tories attached to them were in the future to be housed on the plot close to the present site. But as stated before, it is not necessary only to base our case upon the injury which would certainly be done to the Royal College of Science ; it must be remembered ‘that hard by is the City and Guilds Central Institution, | in which extensive and costly laboratories, built by the munificence of the City Companies, have during the last few years been filled with students, many of whom are engaged in advanced studies. Every argument which applies to the one case holds good in the other. The work of the City Companies and the interests of these institutions are endangered in the same way, and for the same reasons, as those of the Government College over the way. On the previous occasion, when it was proposed to bring a railway at the back of the Central Institution, the Professors there, with the sanction of the City and Guilds of London Institute, opposed the scheme. We understand that the Professors have again made a re- presentation to the Institute which in all probability will result in steps being taken to prevent the construction of any railway or tramway which would interfere with the work carried out in the Physical Department of the Central Institution. In both these institutions it is as important that the apparatus should be used without let or hindrance from external disturbances, as say, that the reading-room in the British Museum should not be rendered uninhabit- able by a nuisance produced either by private individuals or by some company in the neighbourhood. On these grounds we protest in the name of science against a railway of any kind in Exhibition Road. If there is one district in the metropolis which ought to be thus secured, it is the neighbourhood of the great national scientific school and its associated collec- tions. And here a word about these Science Collections. There are philistines among us who think that the collec- tions would do very well without the schools, as the schools could do very well without either higher teach ing or research. There is no doubt a certain advantage to be gained by collecting types of all sorts of apparatus, exhibiting them appropriately labelled in glass cases, through which the public may gaze with, it is to be feared, somewhat indis- criminate admiration ; but it must always be recollected that the nation is proud of the British Museum and Art Galleries, not merely because they play a useful part in educating the crowds who visit them, but also because they are centres to which students resort from all parts, not only of the United Kingdom, but of the civilized world, not to gaze at the collections but. to wse them. In like manner a national! collection of scien- tific apparatus should be brought together, not merely to be stared at, but to be used. By an arrangement more logical than those to which our haphazard English 222 NATURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 present attained. ~ < It is almost ludicrous that at the very moment when a Royal Commission is sitting..to determine the constitution of a new University for London, Par- liament ‘should be asked to sanction a Bill which, if it serves as a precedent, may make the teaching of some of the most important sciences impossible within the metropolitan area. Indeed, in this danger we find a new confirmation of the importance of the policy which we have often urged upon those who are directly interested in the constitution of the future University. Science teaching in Exhibition Road is threatened to-day. It may be threatened somewhere else to-morrow. It will be impossible for’ a number of competing colleges to defeat the railway engineers, or to pre- serve intact for scientific research a number of build- ings planted upon sites sélected without reference to the new danger which has arisen. They will be at- tacked in detail, and beaten one by one. How immensely in this, as in many other matters, would their position be strengthened if they were able to speak with one voice in support of a plan decided on in common, and defended together. If the hoped-for University of the future already existed ; if it spoke with the prestige of the exist- ing University of London, combined with that of the consolidated teaching staffs of the London Colleges; if the support of a Government Department could be asked to aid a University which, like the British Museum, commanded universal respect and support ; then it might be possible to obtain a ready hearing for opinions given with all the weight of a great institution of which the country would be justly proud. Till the union is effected, which alone will make science in London able to meet its enemies in the gate, we must struggle as best we can to prevent irreparable mischief. We can only hope that the Vice- Presiden of the Council, who is known to have the interests of the higher education ‘at heart, will not allow a railway, electrical or other, to injure the teaching institutions clustered round the magnificent collections of apparatus in his charge. SOUND AND MUSIC. Sound and Music. By the Rev. J. A. Zahm, C.S.C., Pro- fessor of Physics in the University of Notre Dame. Large octavo, 452 pages. (GBicego* A. C. McClurg and Company, 1892.) > handsomely got-upand lavishly illustrated volume is, the author informs us, a largely expanded tran- script of a course of lectures delivered by him, in 1891 “in the Catholic University of America, at Washington, D.C.” Its “main purpose is to give musicians and general readers an exact knowledge, based on experiment, of the principles of acoustics, and to present at the same timea brief exposition of the physical basis of musical harmony.” A clear intimation is given at the outset (p. 18) of the predominant 7é/e which experiment is to play in the ac- oustical portion of the undertaking. Had Prof. Zahm not had at his disposal “all the more delicate and import- ant instruments” of research and verification, in the NO. 1210, VOL. 47] t } : . , . * customs too frequently lead, this second: object is at , theory of sound, constructed by Dr. Koenig of Paris, . ‘he would ‘‘ not have attempted to give the present lec- ‘tures on sound” before such an audience as that which actually attended them. With Dr. Koenig’s apparatus around him, however, he had assured means of ‘‘ enter- taining” his hearers, and of “ illustrating in a way that would otherwise be impossible the most salient facts and phenomena of sound.” The late Isaac Todhunter has deprecated the systematic repetition of perfectly esta- blished experiments, on the ground that their results. ought to be believed on the statements of a tutor—* pro- bably a clergyman of mature knowledge, recognised ability, and blameless character ”—to suspect. whom. was in itself irrational Prof. Zahm’s practice pushes to a great length a view directly opposed to that. enunciated—with obvious humorous exaggeration—by the well-known Cambridge private tutor. Not content with a single experiment decisive of each successive issue pre- sented, he performs a whole series bringing into action all the resources of. his superbly found collection of acoustical apparatus. It is no detraction from the clear — and interesting manner in which these formidably numer- ous experiments are set forth, to say that the amount of space necessarily devoted to explaining the mechanism of the apparatus used gives to parts of Prof. Zahm’s- volume somewhat of the look of an acoustical instrument- maker’s illustrated catalogue. Subject, however, to this- defect, if defect it be, the lectures are decidedly pleasant and attractive reading. The illustrations, too, are thoroughly clear and beautifully executed, so that our author may be fairly congratulated on success in ‘entertaining’+ the word is his own—his hearers. and readers. His object, to give to general readers. an “exact knowledge” of the principles of acoustics, has also been in a fair measure attained, but subject to certain not inconsiderable deductions, In de- scribing the processes and results of experiment Prof. Zahm is clear and thoroughgoing: in expounding the parts of acoustical theory which must be mastered if the facts thus obtained are to be understood in their mutual relations, he is often vague and superficial. Thus. the nature of wave-motion, the formation of stationary undulations, the composition of small vibratory move- ments—matters of crucial importance to any connected comprehension of Acoustics—receive from himno effective elucidation. Nay, heis even chargeable with having, by the misuse of a technical term of perfectly settled mean- ing, written in a way likely to confuse his readers’ ideas. on these very matters. On p. 46 he calls certain points in a series of progressive waves “ NODAL points where there is no motion,” thus confusing two things which ought to be most carefully distinguished from each other, a point of momentary rest in a progressive wave, and one of permanent rest in a stationary undulation. The. usage which restricts ‘node’ to this latter meaning is so well established that such use of it as the above is quite, inexcusable, especially in an author who himself else-. where, p. 146 &c., employs it in its ordinary signification.. The same indifference to accuracy of expression recurs. in this volume with a frequency not creditable to a professor of an exact science. Thus on p. 50 the return movement of a prong of a tuning fork is said 1 ** The Conflict of Studies,’’ p. 17. January 5, 1893] NATURE 223 to ‘pull’.air particles apart. that the motions of particles of a water wave “are always at right angles to the direction of the wave itself.” On p. 68 the author corrects this statement, but in doing so, takes occasion to speak of a plane “in,” instead of ‘passing through’ the line of progression, On p- 380 he describes harmonic partial- -tones as “ modifying the quality of their fundamental,” though he obviously means the quality of the compound sound due to the fundamental and other partial-tones combined. On p- 387 it is said that the ‘‘ratios of frequencies” which ize particular sounds “are called intervals,” and that by dividing one note by another we obtain the intervals between them. Language of this kind is, indeed, hardly misleading, but it is certainly very slip- shod, Before passing from the more generally acoustical, to the more specially musical portion of Prof. Zahm’s _ volume, it is proper to point out one important respect in which it has the advantage over most, or possibly all, the manuals on the same subject which have preceded it. This merit consists in giving a somewhat full account of elaborate experimental researches on beats, combination- tones and quality conducted by Dr. Koenig, the results of which are to a considerable extent at variance with conclusions previously announced by Prof. Helm- holtz. In the opinion of our author, Dr. Koenig is “one who, not excepting even the eminent German ghilosophes just mentioned (Helmholtz), has contributed m science of acoustics” (p. 17). A more balanced judg- ment, while placing great reliance on Dr. Koenig’s ex- perimental skill and on the superlative excellence of the apparatus construcied by him, would probably attri- bute to Helmholtz’s opinion a preponderant weight in interpreting and correlating the results of experiment. Be that, showever, as it may, Prof. Zahm has done excellent service by popularizing the work so laboriously _ performed, and so modestly placed on record, by the eminent instrument-maker to whom no one who has put his hand to acoustical work can fail to be under consider- able practical obligations, The specifically musical are decidedly the least meritorious parts of our author’s performance. The looseness of phraseology already complained of is here at its worst. On p. 166 we are told that a ‘comma,’ (34) is “ the smallest interval used in music.” A beginner might easily take this to mean that notes differing by only that interval were actually heard consecutively in a musical phrase—of course an absurd supposition. Very misleading, again, is the statement on p. 388 that tones, like major and minor tones, that differ from each other only by a comma “are considered in music to have the same value.” The only rational meaning to be got out of it seems to be that zw the equally tempered scale the distinction between major and minor tones is obliterated On p. 389 the notes of the diatonic scale, and their relations, in respect to rapidity of vibration “to one another,” are set out, and it is added that all but the second and the seventh of the intervals thus indicated are consonant. The essential piece of information, that it is not the intervals formed by these notes with “one another,” but with ¢he onic, that are in question, is with- NO. 1210, VOL. 47] On p. 52 we are told than any other person to the advancement of the held, and so the reader is left free to suppose e.g. that the tritone, F—B, isa consonance. On p. 390the ‘ inversion’ of intervals i is mentioned without any explanation of its meaning. Attention may well be called to a process of reasoning which occurs on pp. 388-390. Prof. Zahm abruptly introduces (p. 388) calculation by “ frequency-ratios”’ ; assumes, without attempt at proof, that addition of two semitones is performed by squaring the ratio }#, and then remarks (p. 390) “From the foregoing we observe that the sum of two intervals is obtained by multiplying, not by adding their ratios together.” An assumption in a particular case is thus made to do duty as a erates demonstration. On p. 396 we read that “so perfectly does the interval of the fifth answer the requirements of the ear that even unpractised singers find it quiteynatural to take a fifth to a chorus that does not quite suit the pitch of their voice.” If, as this passage appears to suggest, practised singers in America find it still more natural to accompany melodies in consecutive fifths, wonderful effects may surely be expected from the choruses to be heard at the Chicago exhibition. On p. 429 our author describes a diagram by Helm- holtz as concerned with the transposition of an interval by an octave, whereas what it really deals with is the enlargement of the interval in question by the addition to it of an octave. On p. 430 he writes down, as con- stituents of the chromatic scale of C, the notes EZ, Fh, Bg and Cb. On p. 441, he tells us that in listening to such violin players as Joachim, Wilhelmj, and others “one can always hear distinctly the Zartcnz, or beat-tones, that add such richness and volume to violin music.” To gauge the amount of truth contained in this remark it suffices to bear in mind that in the case of most major, and of all minor consonant chords, Tartini’s tones cause a decided dissonance. Players who made them ‘always distinctly audible’ would soon be reduced to permanent inaudibility themselves. Prof. Zahm’s volume is creditably free from milepeints the following have, however, been noted : . 23, 1. 16 eee: for ‘ periods.’ 68, 1. 21 ‘amplitude’ for ‘ amplitudes.’ : 1. 8 “Ajugari’ for ‘ Agujari.’ , in diagram, Byg for By. , oy in diagram I, bg for B. 388, ll..11 and 12, G for F. meee GERLAND’S ETHNOLOGICAL ATLAS. Atlas der Vilkerkunde, (Berghaus’ Physikalischer Atlas, Abth. vii.). Bearbeitet von Dr. Georg Gerland, Pro- fessor a.d. Universitat in Strassburg. (Gotha : Perthes, 1892.) NTHROPOLOGY owes much to Prof. Gerland, whose completion of the two last volumes of the late Prof. Waitz’s “ Anthropologie der Naturvolker ” isa monument of that co-ordinated knowledge of fact which is the source of sound principle. His new “ Atlas of Ethnology,” while forming part of the great Physical Atlas of Berghaus, may be obtained and used as a separate work by anthro- (224 NATURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 —— — pologists, to whom it will be of great service in methodizing the vast and growing information with which they have to deal. has difficulties which even the greatest skill cannot altogether overcome, but Prof. Gerland may well be content with his success in making evident at a glance the characteristics of mankind, seen from. many points of view. Their distribution over the earth, as thus made evident, may often lead straight on into theories of origin. The fifteen plates contain nearly fifty maps, each suggesting a principle, or showing where there is room for one. Plate I. represents on two planiglobes the classifi- cation of human races as to skin and hair. Prof. Gerland does not even combine these two characteristics, and points out in his introductory remarks that any attempt to map out man into defined physical. races is impossible, for such division does not exist in nature. Anthropologists of course know this, but care is not always taken to make it clear that race- types are not so much complete realities as statistical abstractions from partial realities, the various measurable characters of skull, limbs, complexion, hair-form, &c., co n- bining and blending too intricately for absolute definition. I was struck by meeting lately in a popular book with a confident mention of the four distinct Aryan race-types, and it occurred to me that it would bring the statement down to its bearings to put one of Prof. Gerland’s plani- globes before the author, desiring him to define and map out these varieties of mankind. Even in Gerland’s broad general distinctions of complexion and hair, an anthropologist not thoroughly special on the anatomical side may find novelty and difficulty. The opinion that all native Americans are similar as to race is here strongly and probably with reason modified by the native Brazil- ians being separated on the complexion-map from other peoples of North and South America, and placed to match the ‘l'artars and Chinese. What amount of evidence there is for placing the Berbers of North Africa under the same map-colour seems not so clear, but it is to be noticed that the same tint includes several more or less distinct grades in Broca’s scale.. An attempt is even made to separate the friz-haired negroids into classes according to the arrangement of their corkscrew-tufts of hair on the skin. Plate III.,in twomaps, classifies man according to his religious beliefs and customs, and here the prevalence of special rites offers instructive generalizations. Thus the American line which limits the smoking of tobacco as a religious ceremony, indicates the spread of this peculiar rite from some religious centre over an enormous area. No doubt it is rooted in nature, from the fact that its narcotic ecstasy brought the priest into direct visionary contact with the spirit-world. But none the less, it proves the religions of savage tribes, separated by great distances on the map, to be bound together by historical con- nexion. Not less remarkable is the compactness of the districts of Eastern Asia and the opposite Continent of America, where masks are used, app:rently originally with religious significance Here again it is evident that we have to do not merely with independent growth from the human mind, but in some way with historical transmission. It must be remeihbereds in using these maps, that they bind their author. only to fact, and not to theoretical interpreta- NO. 1210, VOL. 47] This application of graphical method, it is true, . tion, This same plate maps out the immense districts whose natives have a myth of a deluge, the upheaving of the earth, &c., but it cannot distinguish in North and South America, for instance, between regions where deluge- myths are old,and those where they were introduced by the Jesuits a few generations ago. Plate 1V., mapping out regions liable to special diseases, as malarious fevers, pestilence, cholera, yaws, &c., contains in a condensed form a vast coilection of knowledge, bearing on anthro- pological arguments as to the relation of race to physical constitution, and thus opening into one of the great problems of the history of man. Plate V. classes out the varieties of human food, clothing, dwellings and occupa- tions. Plate VI. and onward map out the distribution of nations and tribes at different periods as known to history, Plate XIV. being devoted to the distribution of languages over the world. Anthropologists who keep this atlas at hand as a help in their work will by practice find out its merits and defects. The representation of the geographical distribu- tion of arts and customs has long been a feature of the Pitt-Rivers Museum, where so far as possible each series, illustrating development and transmission of culture, is accompanied by a small world-map coloured to show the parts of the world it occupies. It is of course impossible to Prof. Gerland to work in such detail, involving as it would do hundreds of separate charts. He has to indicate his distributions on a moderate number of plates and mostly uses planiglobes, a pro- jection which, after being neglected for generations, will, in its improved modern arrangement, certainly come into more general favour. On these, by ingenious devices of tinted patches and streaks, combined with lines and dots, he succeeds in giving a more general survey of man and civilization than our students have ever had in their hands before. EDWARD B. TYLOR. OUR BOOK SHELF. Castorologia; or, The History and Traditions of the Can- adian Beaver. By Horace Martin, F.Z.S. (London : Stanford, 1892.) “ BEAVER” was once the most important fur in the world. In former days the pelt of this Rodent was the standard by which all barter in the Dominion of Canada was regulated, and “beaver” passed as current coin throughout the whole of North America. Even now the quantity of beaver skins brought to England is consider- able. Mr. Poland, in his ‘* Fur-bearing Animals,” tells us that upwards of 63,000 beaver skins were sold by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1891. But ‘ beaver-hats ” formerly required a much larger supply than this, and in 1743 it is said that 127,000 beaver-skins were imported into La Rochelle alone. Our ‘‘top” hats are now made of silk, and beaver has become a fur of second-rate importance. Besides the fur of the beaver many other points of interest attached to this animal will be found discussed more or less completely in Mr. Martin’s volume. Long before its fur was required for hats cas¢oreum or castorin —a substance found in two large glands, situated near the base of the beaver’s tail—was a much-valued specific in medicine, as spoken of by Hippocrates and Pliny. Even at the present time its use is by no means aban- doned, jand the “ crude article” is “ still sold at our drug- stores” at prices varying “from eight to ten dollars a © E _ Janvary 5, 1893] NATURE 225 _ pound.” But in past centuries castoreum was considered _ asovereign remedy for every kind of disease. Many _ amusing details on this part of the subject are given by Mr. Martin, mostly extracted from the “ Castorologia” of Johannes Francus, published in 1685. The wisdom of Solomon himself is attributed by this learned author to the virtues of the beaver. To acquire it, it is only neces- sary “to wear ahat of beaver’s skin, to rub the head and spine with that animal’s oil, and to take twice a year the weight of a yold crown piece of castoreum.” Atthe end of his volume Mr. Martin places a short account by Mr. C. V. Riley, the well-known American entomologist, of Platypsil/us castoris, a parasite on the _ beaver, and one of the most remarkable among the many extraordinary forms of parasitic insects. Mr. Riley cor- rectly refers this creature to the coleoptera, although other naturalists, and, amongst others, its discoverer, Ritsema, have expressed different views on this point He omits, however, to refer to the excellent account of Platypsz/lus castoris, written by the late John Leconte, and published in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London for 1872. Dr. Leconte has here shown that it is necessary to make a special family (Platypsillida) for the reception of this curious parasite, but that it must be unquestion- ably referred to the coleoptera. n account of these and other peculiarities the beaver is unquestionably an animal of great general interest, and Mr. Martin has done well to devote a volume to what is evidently his favourite theme. There is, we must allow, little, if anything, original in it, and the statements on scientific points cannot always be implicitly depended upon. But the author has brought together a large amount of information on the subject, and his book is “ popularly written ” and “fully illustrated,’ though we cannot quite agree to his claims to have produced an “exhaustive monograph.” An Ailas of Astronomy. By Sir Robert Stawell Ball, LL.D., F.R.S. (London: George Philip and Son, 1892.) A NEw book by Sir Robert Ball is always a matter of interest, but the present one naturally lacks the usual characteristics. It is described as “a series of 72 plates with introduction and index.” In addition to monthly and general maps of the stars, the atlas reproduces pictures of the sun, moon, planets, and comets, and contains diagrams illustrating their motions and dimen- sions. As the book is chiefly meant to be a companion to more general works, the introductory matter is pur- sely brief, but still it has several features of interest. ial attention may be drawn to the excellent de- scription of a simple graphical method of determining the orbit of a binary star. _ To the serious student who may possess a small tele- the new atlas will be very useful. Here he may learn how to determine the positions of sun spots, how to find the places occupied by the various planets, and what objects are most likely to be within reach of his instrument. Those interested in selenography will derive much assistance from the twelve plates showing the moon at different phases, which have been specially drawn by Mr. Evger, each being accompanied by an index map. One can only wonder, however, that some of the recent excellent photographs of the moon have not been pressed into the service. The star maps, on the whole, are excellent, and our only complaint is of the excessive density of the Milky Way, which, in some parts of the maps, is almost sufficient to obliterate the names and numbers of the stars. The monthly maps will be particularly useful to those who are just learning the constellations, a new feature being a belt indicating the track of the planets. Spectroscopic astronomy is entirely omitted, the author being of opinion that this great branch of work can only NO. 1210, VOL. 47] or assimilation of y. And when, at my request, receive justice in a separate atlas. In this we heartily agree, and trust that such an atlas will soon be forth- coming. The author’s large following of readers will no doubt welcome the new comer, but we must express regret that astronomical photographs are not more fully represented. It would be interesting, for example, to reproduce a series. of photographs of typical nebulz, all of which, we believe, are now available. A plate showing the advantages of photography in the delineation of stars would also add. to the interest of the atlas. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected’ manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.| Vector Analysis. I FANCIED that, in reply to the voluminous letters of Prof. Willard Gibbs (NATURE, xliii. 511 ; xliv. 79), I had said ina few words all that is requisite (if, indeed anything de requisite): to show the necessary impotence, as well as the inevitable un- wieldiness, of every system of (so-called) Vector Analysis which does not recognize as its most important feature the product (or the quotient) of two vectors :—i.¢. a Quaternion. A recent perusal of the first four pages of a memoir by Mr. O. Heaviside (Phil. Trans. 1892) :—for so far only could I go:—has dispelled the illusion. For he calls the correspond-. ence just spoken of a ‘‘ rather one-sided discussion” :—a truly Delphic delivery :—cleared up, however, by what follows it. I particularly desired to read the memoir (which the Author had kindly sent me) as I hoped to learn from it something new in Electrodynamics. But, on the fifth page, I met the check-taker as it were :—and found that I must pay before I could go- further. I found that I should not only have to unlearn Qua- ternions (in whose disfavour much is said) but also to learn a new and most uncouth parody of notations long familiar to me ; so I had to relinquish the attempt. In the last of the four pages of my progress, I had found that Mr. Heaviside (though, as above stated, he has a system of his own) is an admirer of Prof. Gibbs’ system, to such an extent at least that he thinks ‘‘ his. treatment. of the linear vector operator specially deserving of notice.” There I was content to leave the matter. But Mr. Heaviside has just published (Z/ectrician, 9/12/92) an elaborate attack on Quaternions, of a kind which is calcu- lated to do real injury to beginners. In answer to his remarks, in which he continues to point to me as the persistent advocate of a system which all right-minded physicists should avoid, I would simply refer him (and his readers, if there be such) to a brief Address which I gave a short time ago to the Physical Society of Edinburgh University (Piz/. Mag. Jan. 1890). One or two sentences, alone, I will quote here :-— ‘if we can find a language which secures, to an unparalleled extent, compactness and elegance, and at the same time is transcendently expressive—bearing its full meaning on its face— it is surely foolish, at least, not to make habitual use of it.” ‘* For (Hamilton) the most complex trains of formulz, of the most artificial kind, had no secrets :—he was one of the very few who could afford to dispense with simplifications: yet, when he had tried quaternions, he threw over all other methods in their favour, devoting almost exclusively to their development the last twenty years of an exceedingly active life.” f The main object, however, of my present letter, is to call attention to a paper by Dr. Knott, recently read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Dr. Knott has actually had the courage to read the pamphlets of Gibbs and Heaviside ; acd, after an arduous journey through these trackless jungles, has emerged a more resolute supporter of Quaternions than when he entered. He has revealed the (from me at least) hitherto hidden mysteries of the Dyadic, and of Prof. Gibbs’ strange symbols Pot, Lap, Max, New, &c. The first turns out to be only the linear and vector function ; and the others are merely more or less distressing symptoms characteristic of impel — r. Ko 226 NALIURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 translated into intelligible form the various terms of one of the less formidable formule of Mr. Heaviside’s memoir, I was surprized to find two old and very unpretending friends masquerading in one person like a pantomime Blunderbore. In one of his Avatars the monster contains, besides the enclos- ing brackets, no fewer than 24 letters, 12 suffixes, 3 points, and signs! When he next appears he has still the brackets to hold him together, but although he has now only 18 letters, he makes up his full tale of 44 (or 46) symbols; for he has 9 suffixes, 3 indices, 3 points, 5 signs, and 3 Zazrs of parentheses ! T used to know him as compounded of 14 separate marks only, viz.:— V°vae+ 2Svv,Soo,:—but, unless I had required to dissect him, I should never have put him in anything resembling his new guise. Dr. Knott’s paper is, throughout, interesting and instruc- tive :—it is a complete exposure of the 1-retensions and defects of the (so-called) Vector Systems. ‘‘ Wer diesen Schleier hebt soll Wahrheit schauen!” I find it difficult to decide whether the impression its revelations have left on me is that of mere amused disappointment, or of mingled astonishment and pity. P. -G. Tarr. Edinburgh, 24/12/92. cots, —_—— 28 Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars. WITH reference to Mr. C. E. Stromeyer’s letter on the above subject, which appeared on p. 199, it may be of interest to point out that his plan of determiuing the distance of a binary star is by‘no means a new one. The method was, I think, first suggested by Mr. Fox Talbot at the Edinburgh meeting of the British Association in 1871 ; but the mere idea was sufficiently obvious as soon as the pos- sibility of determining velocities by the spectroscope had been demonstrated by Dr. Huggins. The first discussion of the geometrical conditions of the problem was given by Prof. C. Niven in the A/onthly Notices, vol, xxxiv. No. 7, where he exhibits the relation connecting ‘the parallax, the relative velocity, and the elements of the orbit of a double star, and computes the value of the product (7V) of the parallax and velocity for a small number of binary systems. : In a paper published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy for May, 1886, I examined the same question from a slightly different point of view, being at the time unaware of Prof. Niven’s paper, and was led to similar results. An epitome of this paper was published in your Astronomical Column, vol. xxxiv. p. 206. From the results obtained it appeared that, all things considered, y-Coronz Australis and a-Centauri were the most likely binaries to yield to this method of eliciting the secret of their parallax, while a-Geminorum, one of the stars selected by Mr. Stromeyer, was shown to'be most unfavourable on account of the situation of its orbit. In the Monthly Notices for March, 1890, I again drew atten- ‘tion to the subject in view of the accuracy of the results ob- tained by the photographic method in the hands of Prof. Pickering and Prof. Vogel.. In this paper I gave an extended list of binaries with the usual geometrical and dynamical elements, and in addition the two elements A and B on ‘which the relative velocity depends. . I also -gave the greatest value which 7V can attain in each case and the velocity to be expected in the case of those stars whose parallaxes had been de- termined, ‘ Again in Mr. J. E. Gore’s valuable. catalogue of Binary Star Orbits, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy for June, 1890, columns 18 and 19 are devoted to the constants A and B computed from my formulz (which I may say ought more properly to be called Prof. Niven’s formulz on account of the priority of his paper) for eighty-one different orbits. y The subject has also been discussed by Miss Clerke in ‘‘ The System of the Stars,” pp. 199-201, where references to most of the original publications will be found. “ie I may perhaps add that the inverse problem of determining the elements of the orbit from spectroscopic observations alone has also been investigated by me in the Monthly Notices, vol. li. No. 5, where I have deduced the principal elements of the orbit of 8-Aurigze, a spectroscopic double which no telescope can divide. I have been disappointed that astronomers engaged on -spec- troscopic determinations of stellar velocities have not devoted amore attention to observations of already known binaries, which NO. 1210, VOL. 47] appear to me to offer a promising field of work, and have often regretted that at this observatory we have not the means of undertaking the investigation, and if Mr. Stromeyer’s letter has no other effect than to bring the subject once more forward it will have done good service, but I should like to point out that the second of the stars selected by him ought on no account to be taken as a test of the feasibility of the method, since the accurate discussion of the conditions shows that unless this is an exceptionally remote system the velocity must be very small indeed. For instance, assuming Johnson’s parallax, viz. 0”*20, the relative velocity of the components amounted last year to only 0°6 miles per second. In the northern hemisphere the most favourably situated binaries are 70 Ophiuchi, é-Ursze Majoris, and, if Peters’ orbit represents the real motion of the pair, 61 Cygni; while for the southern hemisphere special attention ought to be directed to a-Centauri and y-Coronz Australis. In Mr. Gore’s Catalogue, referred to above, will be found all the materials for determining when to observe any known binary most favourably in this respect, and for deducing its parallax from the measures obtained, and it ought to be borne in mind before letting the subject sink back once more into oblivion, that, other things being equal, this method is most likely to succeed in the case of the most distant systems, where the parallax is so small that the ordinary trigonometrical method necessarily fails us, and that when the micrometer, the helio- meter, and the stellar photograph break down, the spectroscope will sound the further depths with ever-increasing facility. _ Dunsink Observatory, co. Dublin. ARTHUR A. RAMBAUT. December 30. December Meteors (Geminids). THESE meteors were moderately abundant on the night of -December 12, which appears to have been a very favourable one in regard to weather. The chief radiant point was observed in the normal position very close to a Geminorum, and there wasa strong contemporary shower from a centre east of 8 Geminorum. At 1oh. 10m. December 12, a fireball estimated to be twice as brilliant as Venus was observed by Mr. Booth at Leeds. It moved rather slowly from 150°+43° to 188°+ 41°, and divided into two pieces at the finish. - ’ r. Wm. Burrows, of Small Lane, Ormskirk, writes to me with reference to a meteorite which he observed to fall at a later hour on the same night. He says the time was 6.52 a.m. (December 13), and refers to the phenomenon as follows :— ‘* Seeing the meteor was coming to the earth I crossed the road to where it appeared to be falling, and it fell about two yards from me. When it struck the earth it made a noise like the report ofa gun; it also went black instantly. While descending it had a tail of fire about a footlong. It is 13 inch in diameter one way, and Iiinch another, and one inch thick.” Mr. Burrows sends drawings of the object, and it being still ‘in his possession it is hoped the matter may be suitably investi- gated. Should it prove a veritable meteorite one interesting cir- cumstance in connection with it will be that its descent took place concurrently with the shower of Geminids. It is significant that December 9-13 constitutes a well-defined zrolitic epoch, rendered memorable by the fail at Wold Cot- tage, Thwing, Yorkshire, on December 13, 1795, and by many others, such as that at Massing, Bavaria, December 13, 1803, at Weston, Connecticut, U.S.A., December 14, 1807 ; at Wiborg, Finland, December 13, 1813; at Ausson, France, December 9, 1858; at Baudong, Java, December 10, 1871, &c.. Bristol, January I. W. F. DENNING. The Earth’s Age. As Dr. Wallace (NATURE, p. 175) trusts ‘‘that on further consideration ” I shall ‘‘ admit that” my ‘‘ objection is invalid,” it is evident that I have failed to make clear to him my argument showing that his data do not warrant his conclusion. He overlooks the fact that a thickness of 177,200 feet of sedimentary rocks is, standing alone, a perfectly indefinite quantity ; to make it definite it must have a definite area. As he mentions no area for it we are justified in assuming that he means the land area of the globe, whereas his calculation is made as though area were not of the essence of the problem, in short, as if the formation of a pile of sediment 177,200 feet thick, of no matter what area, were the problem. Se ee _ January 5, 1893] NATURE 99 “<= In Sir A. Geikie’s calculation and all other similar ones with which I am acquainted, the thickness of the sedimentary rocks is tacitly assumed to be their thickness all over the land area. of: the globe. ; Dr. Wallace’s calculation leads to the absurd result. that con- tinents are growing nineteen times as fast as materials .are produced to supply their growth. Leaving the question of the conclusions to which ‘Dr, Wal- lace’s data logically lead, I may say that I am not, responsible, | ‘and do not hold him to be responsible, for the absurd theory as to the thickness Of Sedimentary rocks on which they are based. __ Pane ay ss | In order to arrive at a scientifically accurate result, what we require to know is the present actual thickness in every part of the world, plus all the thickness which has previously existed in, but since been denuded away from, every area. The existing thickness in geologically explored areas can perhaps be ascer- tained within certain limits of error from geological maps. and memoirs. For instance where the surface consists of Torridon Sandstone overlying Archzean gneiss of igneous origin, the thickness of sedimentary rock is that of the Torridon Sandstone only, if we assume that the gneiss there is part of the metamor- osed original crust of the earth, for the existence of which enbusch has recently argued. : It is easily demonstrable, first, that in many places. the ig thickness of each formation, where undenuded, is far from being the maximum thickness, and,’ secondly, from the thinning out in some directions, or merging, near-the old shore- line, into conglomerates, that some formations were never de- posited’ over certain areas ; indeed, the very existence of a sedimentary deposit necessarily implies that of land undergoing denudation and not receiving deposit, although.it may well be doubted whether the land area was always nineteen times the area receiving deposit. Reasoning from the deposits preserved as'to those removed by denudation, it is highly improbable that any considerable area ever received either the complete series of deposits, or on the ara anything like the maximum thickness of the deposits it. y received. In addition to this, some formations usually ‘ed to be successive may be really contemporaneous, so that the figures representing maximum thicknesses usually taken in calculating the earth’s age are probably far above the truth for the purpose in question. The immense labour involved in calculating the existing thickness of sedimentary rocks in each area, and the thick- ness which there is any reasonable ground for supposing to have been at any time denuded from that area, as well as the uncertainty of the results, has probably deterred geologists from attempting the task, especially as large areas are very im- known. BERNARD Hopson. Tapton Elms, Sheffield, December 24. THE first part of Mr. Hobson’s letter alone requires notice from me, as the latter part characterizes as absurd the views of those eminent geologists who have estimated the total thickness of the sedimentary rocks, and seems to assume that such writers as the late Dr. Croll and Sir Andrew Ramsay overlooked the very obvious considerations he sets forth. As regards myself, he reiterates the statement that when geologists have estimated the total thickness of the sedimentary rocks at 177,200 feet, they mean that this amount of sediment has covered the whole land surface of the globe; that, for example, the coal measures, the lias, the chalk, the greensand, the London clay, &c., &c., were each deposited over the whole of the continents, since it is by adding together the thicknesses of these and all other strata that the figure 177,200 feet (equal to 33 miles) has been obtained. ‘ Mr. Hobson concludes with what he seems to think is a reductio ad absurdum ;—*‘ Dr, Wallace’s calculation leads to the absurd result that continents are growing nineteen times as fast as materials are produced to supply their growth.” _ But the apparent absurdity arises from the absence of any definition of the ‘‘growth of continents,” and also from sup- posing that the growth of continents is the problem under dis- cussion. The question is, as to the growth in thickness, of sedi- mentary deposits such as those which form the geological series. These deposits are each laid down on an area very much smaller than the whole surface of the continent from the denudation of which they are formed. ‘They are therefore necessarily very NO. I210, VOL. 47] much thicker than the average thickness of the denuded layer, and the ratio of the area of denudation to the-area of deposition, which I ‘have estimated at 19 ‘to 1, gives their proportionate thickness. ‘If Mr.’ Hobson stilt maintains that he is right, he can oily prove it by adducing ¢vidence that every component of the series of sedimentary‘rocks has once coveted the whole land- surface.of the globe ; fot by assuming that it has done so, and characterizing the teaching of all geologists. tothe contrary as absurd. ALFRED R,) WALLACE. Ancient Ice Ages. Mr. READE in his letter (NATURE, p. 174) refers to the striations on the pebbles forming the conglomerates at Abberley and the Clent Hills. Following the late Sir Andrew Ramsay, he considers the deposits to be of glacial origin, but goes further than that -dis- tinguished geologist in citing them as proof of a former ice age. It is but reasonable to suppose that g/aciers existed in past ages in places where the conditions—such as high altitude and abundant precipitation—were favourable. as Before, however, the existence of a former glacial period can be established, we must have evidence of contémporaneous deposits of undoubtedly glacial origin, and extending over wide- spread areas-—say half a hemisphere. J. Lomas... University College, Liverpool, December 31. Printing Mathematics. _) THE use of the solidus in printing fractions has been advocated by authorities of such weight that it seems almost a heresy to call it into question. . Yet I venture to think that there is. a good. deal to be said against it. In such matters the course preferred by mathematical writers and their printers is apt to take precedence over that which is most convenient for the great body of those who will read their work. It is tacitly assumed by those who prefer this notation that the getting of mathema- tical formule into line with ordinary printing is an unmixed advantage. No doubt it is easier to set up the work in type thus, but with the consequent rapidity and cheapness of printing the advantage ends. Most people will agree that it is much pleasanter to read a mathematical book in which the letterpress is well spaced, so that the formulz stand out clearly from the Yor eae explanatory language, than one in which the two run together ° in an unbroken stream: just as a book divided into paragraphs is more readable than one which is not. The old style is more restful to the mind and eye, and one can more readily pick out - the salient features of the demonstration. Another aspect of the question seems to me more important. In making any calculation mentally it is much easier to visualize fractions, more especially if complicated, as written in the _ ordinary way than as written with the new-fashioned notation. The component parts of the mental picture are imagined as spread over a plane instead of being arranged along a line, and can be thought of separately with less confusion. From a similar point of view it will be admitted that it is inconvenient . to write mathematical expressions in one form and to print them in another. Then, again, J doubt whether the assumption that the solidus notation conduces to accuracy is justified. No doubt the printer makes fewer original errors ; but whereas with the old notation — his frequent glaring errors are more readily detected by the proof- reader (or, if missed by him, by the ordinary reader), with the new notation the misplacement or omission of a solidus is, from the simplicity of the error, likely to beoverlooked. Ingeneral, no one will be the poorer if alittle more trouble is taken with the printing, and a little more paper is used for the book. The symbol / has advantages over its equivalent --, and to its restricted use, such as is made by Sir G. Stokes, one can hardly object ; it matters little how such expressions as@/é or dy / dx are printed. But it is the thin end of the wedge; and one is under a debt of gratitude to Mr. Cassie for showing, in your issue of November 3, to what it may lead. May it bea long time Kors we have tu learn -to substitute for the harmless expression, wee its newest equivalent, J2 \.1 4/2 |. f/c|d+eNX3l° I trust that no one will interpret the final note of exclamation as. a factorial symbol. M. J. JACKSON. D. I. Sind College, Karachi, November 23. 228 4 pe ~*~. “Phe Teaching of Botany. I po not think there is at present any book in English giving practical instructions for experiments in Physiological Botany. There is, however, an excellent book of this kind in German, Dr. W. Detmer’s ‘‘ Das pflanzen-physiologische Praktikum,” published by Gustav Fischer, Jena, 1888. This, no doubt, con- tains allthat your correspondent “A. H.” (NATURE, ance, p- 151) requires, though it is perhaps somewhat more advanced than is necessary for school teaching. H.Scorr. Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey. THE ORIGIN OF THE YEAR IV. 6 fivgenaa reformation of the Egyptian calendar, to be gathered, as I suggested in my last article, from . the decree of Tanis, is not, however, the point to which reference is generally made in connection with the decree. The attempt recorded by it to get rid of the vague year is generally dwelt on. . Although the system of reckoning which was based on the vague year had advantages with which it has not been sufficiently credited, undoubtedly it had its drawbacks. The tetramenes, with their special symbolism of flood, seed, and harvest time, had apparently all meant each in turn ; however, the meanings of the signs were changed, the ““winter season” occurred in this way in the height of sum- mer, the “sowing time ” when the whole land was inundated, and there was no land to plant, and so on. Each festival, too, swept through the year. Still, it is quite certain that information was given by the priests each year in advance, so that agriculture did not suffer ; for if this had not been done, the system, instead of dying hard, as it did, would have been abolished thousands of years before. Before I proceed to state shortly what happened with regard to the fixing of the year, it will be convenient here to state a suggestion that has occurred to me, on astro- nomical grounds, with regard to the initial change of n. tt is to be noted that in the old tables of the months, in- stead of Sirius leading the year, we have Teyi with the two eathers of Amen. In later times this is changed to Sirius. I believe it is generally acknowledged that the month tables at the Ramesseum is the oldest ‘one we have; there is a variant at Edfu.. They both run as follows, and no doubt they had their origin’ when a 1st Thoth coincided with an heliacal rising and Nile flood. NATURE Egyptian bok Ramesseum. Edfu, Thoth June-July | 'Texi Tex Phaophi July-Aug:| Ptah (Ptah-res- aneb-f) Ptah (Men x) Athyr Aug.-Sep.| Hathor ? “iets -Choiak Sep.-Oct. | Paxt Kehek Tybi Oct.—Nov.) Min Set-but Mechir Nov.—Dee.| Jackal (rekh-ur) | Hippopotamus | (rekhur) Phamenoth| Dec.-Jan. » _ (rekh- Hippopotamus netches) (rekh-netches) Pharmuthi | Jan.-Feb. | Rennuti Renen Pachon ~ | Feb.—Mar.| xensu xensu Payni | Mar.—Ap. | Horus (xonti) cole (Hor-xent- . xati) Epiphi Ap.—May | Apet Apet Mesori May-June) Horus § (Hor-m-| Horus (Hor-ra-m- xut) xut) I am informed that Teyi,in the above month-list, has some relation to Thoth. In the early month-list the goddess is represented with the two feathers of Amen, and in this early stage I fancy we can recognize her as * Continued from p. 35. NO. 1210, VOL. 47 | [January 5, 1893. Amen-t; butin later copies of the table the symbol is changed to that of Sirius. This, then, looks. like a change of cult depending upon the introduction of a new, ‘star—that is, a star indicating by its heliacal rising the Nile rise after the one first used had become useless for such a purpose. I have said that the Ramesseum month list is probably the oldest one we have. It is considered by some to date only from Ramses II., and to indicate a fixed year ; such, however, is not Krall's opinion.’ He writes:— _ “ The latest investigations of Diimichen show that the calendar of Medinet-Abu is only a copy of the original composed under Ramses II. about 120 years before. .. . “ But the true original of the calendar of Medinet-Abu does not even date from the time of Ramses II. It is known to every Egyptologist how little the time of the Ramessids produced what was truly original, how much just this time restricted itself to a reproduction of the traditions of previous gererations, In the calendar of Medinet-Abu we have (p. 48) not a fixed year instituted under Ramses II., but the normal year of the old tine, the vague year, as it was, to use Dschewhari’s words quoted above (p. 852), in the first year of its institution, the year, as it was before the Egyptians had made two unwelcome observations : First, that the year of 365 days did not correspond to the reality, but shifted by one day in four years with regard to the seasons; secondly—which of course took a much longer time—that the rising of Sirius ceased to coincide with the beginning of the Nile flood. “We are led to the same conclusion by a considera- tion of the festivals given in the calendar of Medinet-Abu. : They are almost without exception the festivals which we have found in our previous investigation of the calendars of Esne and Edfu to be attached to the same days. We.know already the Uaya festival of the 17th. and 18th Thoth, the festival of Hermes of the roth Thoth, the great feast of Amen beginning on the 19th Paophi, the Osiris festivals of the last decade of Choiak, and that of the coronation of Horus on the 1st Tybi. “ Festivals somehow differing from the ancient tradi- tions, and general usage are ‘unknown in the calendar of Medinet-Abu, and it is just such festivals which have enabled us to trace fixed years in the ‘calendars of Edfu and Esne. gabe Re _ “We are as little justified in considering the mytho- logico-astronomical representations and inscriptions on the graves of the time of the Ramessids as founded ona fixed year, as we can do this-in- the case of the Medinet- Abu calendar. . In this the astronomical element of the calendar is quite overgrown by the mythological. Not only was the daily and yearly course of the sun a most important event for the Egyptian’ astronomer, but the priest also had in his sacred books’ many mythological records concerning the god Ra, which had to be taken into account in these representations.. The mythological ideas dated from the oldest periods of Egyptian history ; we shall, therefore, be obliged for their explanation not to remain’ in the 13th or 14th century before Christ, but to ascend into previous centuries; / should think about the middle of the fourth millennium before Christ, that ts the time at which the true original of the Medinet- Abu calendar was framed. Further we must in these mythological and astronomical representations not over- look the fact that we cannot expect them to show mathematical accuracy—that, on the contrary, if that is a consideration, we must proceed with the greatest caution. We know now how inexact were the representa- tions and texts of tombs, especially where the Egyptian artist could suppose that no human eye would inspect his work ; we also know how often representations stop short for want of room, and how much the contents were mutilated for the sake of symmetry.” Ob. cit. p.°48. January 5, 1893] NATURE 229 There is also, as I have indicated, temple evidence that ius was not the first star utilized as a herald of sun- rise. We have then this possibility to explain the varia- tion from the true meaning of the signs in Ramessid times. cw ww Dh SS A i : te a Saris. Se e323 ire PreSiriam., ZS59.,5 582555 ee fee eeeesess EE en 5 83 e - Sirian, — Send HSES.25 3192 B.C. 522253 893 528 ies. AR ZOCSRa Cees And it may be gathered from this that the Calendar was a anized * when the Sirius worship came in and that the change effected in 619 B.c. brought the hieroglyphic signs back to their natural meaning and first use. _ Before I pass on it may be convenient in connection with the above month-tables to refer in the briefest way to the mythology relating to the yearly movement of the sun, in order to show that when this question is considered at all, if it helps us with regard to the mythology con- nected with the rising and setting of stars, it will as assuredly help us with regard to the mythology of the various changes which occur throughout the year. _ We have, as we have seen, in the Egyptian year really the prototype of our own. The Egyptians, thousands of years ago, had an almost perfect year containing twelve months, but instead of four seasons they had three, the time of the sowing, the time of the harvest, and the time of the inundation. Unfortunately, at various times in Egyptian history, the symbols for the tetramenes seem to have got changed. -above-given inscriptions show that they had a distinct symbolism for each of the months. Gods or goddesses are given for ten months out of the twelve, and where we have not these, we have the hippopotamus (or the pis) and the jackal, twocircumpolar constellations. I think there is no question that we are dealing here with these constellations, though the figures have been sup- posed to represent something quite different. There are also myths and symbols of the twelve changes during the twelve hours of the day ; the sun being figured as a child at rising, as an old man when setting in the evening. These ideas were also transferred to the annual motion of the sun. In Macrobius, as quoted by Krall, we find the statement that the Egyptians com- ared ‘yearly course of the sun also with the phases of human life. Little child = Winter solstice. Young man = Spring equinox. Bearded man = Summer solstice. Old man = Autumnal equinox. - With the day of the summer solstice the sun reaches the greatest northern rising amplitude, and at the winter solstice its greatest southern amplitude. By the solstices ot oe is divided into two approximately equal parts ; uring the one the points of rising move southwards, during the other northwards. - This phenomenon, it is stated, was symbolized by the two eyes of Ra, the so-called Utchats, which look in dif- ferent directions. They appear as representing the sun in the two halves of the year. _ We have next to discuss the fixed year, to which the _ Egyptian chronologists were finally driven in later Egyptian times. ' _ The decree of Tanis was the true precursor of the * Goodwin has already asked, ‘‘ Does the Smith Papyrus refer to some rectification of the Calendar made in the 4th Dynasty, similar to that made in Europe 'rom the old to the new style,” quoted by Riel, ‘‘ Sonnen- und Sirius-Jahr,” p. 36r. NQ. 1210, VOL. 47] Julian correction of the calendar. In consequence of this correction we now add a day every four years to the end of February.’ The decree regulated the addition, by the Egyptians, of a day every four years by adding a day to the epacts, which were thus 6 every four years instead of being always 5 as they had been before. In fact it replaced the vague year by the sacred year long known to the priests. ; But if everything had gone on then as the priests of Tanis imagined, the Egyptian new year’s day, if deter- mined by the heliacal rising of Sirius, would not always afterwards have been the Ist of Payni, although the solstice and Nile flood would have been due at Memphis about the 1st of Pachons; and this is, perhaps, one among the reasons why the decree was to a large extent ignored. Hence, for some years after the date of the decree of Tanis there were at least three years in force: the new fixed year, the new vague year, reckoning from Pachons, and the old vague year, reckoning from Thoth. But after some years another attempt was made to get rid of all this confusion. The time was 23 B.C., 216 years after the decree of Tanis, and the place was Alexandria. Hence the new fixed year introduced is termed the Alexandrine year. This new attempt obviously implied that the first one had failed ; and the fact that the vague year was continued in the interval is sufficiently demonstrated by the fact that the new year was *}%—54 days en retard. In the year of Tanis it is stated that the 1st Pachons, the new New Year’s Day,the real beginning of the flood, fell on the 19th of June (Gregorian), the summer solstice, and hence the Ist of Thoth fell on the 22nd of October (Gregorian). In the Alexandrine year the 22nd of October is represented by the 29th of August, and the 19th of June by the 2oth of April. It is noteworthy that in the Alexandrine year the heliacal rising of Sirius. on the 23rd of July (Julian) falls on the 29th of Epiphi, nearly the same date as that to which I first drew attention in the inscriptions of the date of Thotmes and Pepi. This, however, it is now clearly seen, is a pure accident, due to the break of con- tinuity before the Tanis year, and the s/zf between that and the Alexandrine one. It isimportant to mention this, because it has been thought that somehow the “ Alexan- drine year” was in use in Pepi’s time ! It would seem that the Alexandrine revision was final, and that the year was truly fixed, and from that time to this it has remained so, and must in the future for ever remain so. It must never be forgotten that we owe this perfection to the Egyptians. One of the chief uses of the Egyptian calendar that has come down to us was the arrangement and dating of the chief feasts throughout the year in the different temples. The fact that the two great complete feast calendars of Edfu and Esne refer to the only fixed years evidenced by records, those of Tanis and Alexandria, one of which was established over 200 years after the other, is of inesti- mable value for the investigation of the calendar and chronology of ancient Egypt. In an excellent work of Brugsch, “ Three Festival Calendars from the Temple of Apollinopolis Magna (Edfu) in Upper Egypt,” we have two calendars which we can refer to fixed years, and can date with the greatest accuracy. In the case of one of these, that of Esne, this is universally recognized ; as to the other, that of Apol- linopolis Magna, we are indebted to the researches of Krall, who points out, however, that “‘it is only when the province of Egyptian mythology has been dealt with in all directions, that we can undertake a successful ex- planation of the festival catalogues. Even externally they show the greatest eccentricities, which are not diminished but increased on a closer investigation.” 230 NALIURE [January 5,.1893 About some points, however, there is no question, The summer solstice is attached in the Edfu calendar to the 6th Pachons, according to Krall, while the beginning of the flood is noted on the Ist of that month. In the Esne calendar, the 26th Payni.is New Year's Day. We read :— 26th Payni, New Year’s Day, Feast of the Revelation of Kahi inthe Temple. To dress the crocodiles, as in the month of Mechir, day 8.” Peculiar to the Esne calendar, according to Krall, is the mentioning of the “ New Year’s Festival of the An- cestors” on the 9th of Thoth; to the Edfu calendar, publication No. 1 of Brugsch, the festival “ of the offer- ing of the first of the harvested fruits, after the precept of King Amenemha I.,” on the 1st Epiphi, and “ the cele- bration of the feast of the great conflagration ” on the 9th of Mechir. In feast calendar No. 1, the reference to the peculiar Feast of Set, is also remarkable, this was celebrated twice, first in the first days of Thoth (? 9th ?), then, as it appears, in Pachons (ioth). This feast is well known to have been first mentioned under the old Pharaoh Pepi Merinra. _ It is a question whether in the new year of the ancestors and the feasts of Set, all occurring about the 9th Thoth and Pachons, we have not Memphis Festivals which gave way to Theban ones, for so far as I can make out the flood takes about nine days to pass from Thebes to Memphis, so that in Theban time the arrival of the flood at Memphis would occur on gth or 10th Thoth. There is no difficulty about the second dating in Pachons, for.as we have seen this followed on the reconstruction of the calendar. It is also worthy of note that the feast of the “ Great Conflagration ” took place very near the Spring Equinox. It is well to dwell for a moment on the Edfu inscrip- tions to see if we can learn from them whether they bear out or not the views brought forward with regard to this reconstruction. As we have seen it is now acknowledged that the temple inscriptions at Edfu (which are stated to have been cut between 117 and 81 B.C.) are based upon the fixed year of Tanis ; hence we should expect that the rising of Sirius would be referred to on 1 Payni, and thisisso. But here, as in the other temples, we get double dates referring to the old calen- dars, and we find the “ wounding of Set” referred to on the 1st Epiphi and the rising of Sirius referred to under 1 Mesori. Now this means, if the old vague year is re- ferred to, as it most probably is, that 5 Epacts 30 Mesori x 4 = 140 years had elapsed since the beginning of a Sothic cycle, when the calendar coincidences were determined, which were afterwards inscribed on the temple walls. We have, then, 140 years to subtract from the beginning of the cycle in 270 B.c, This gives us 130 B.C., and it will be seen that this agrees as closely as can be expected with my view, whereas the inscription has no meaning at all if we take the date given by Censorinus. I quote from Krall? another inscription common to Edfu and Esne, which seems to have astronomical significance. “1. Phamenot. Festival of the suspension of the sky by Ptah, by the side of the god Harschaf, the master of Heracleopolis Magna (Ar). Festival of Ptah. Feast of the suspension of the sky (Es). “ Under the 1st Phamenot, Plutarch, de Iside ac Osiride c. 43, b, notices the euSacts *Oaipidos eis thy ceAjynv. These are festivals connected with the cele- bration of the winter solstice, and the filling of the Uza- t Oo the 7th Epiphi of the roth year of Ptolemy III. the ceremony of’ the stretching of the cord took place, Diimichen, Aéz. Z. 2, 1872, p. 41. 2 OD, Ccit., p. 37- NO. 1210, VOL. 47] eye on the 30th Mechir. Perhaps the.old year, which the Egyptians introduced into the Nile valley at the time of their immigration, and which had only 360 days, com- menced with the winter solstice. Thus we should have in the ‘festival of the suspension of the sky,’ by the ancient god Ptah—venerated as creator of the world—a remnant of the time when the winter solstice marked the beginning of the year, and also the creation.” The reconstruction of the calendar naturally enhanced the importance of the month Pachons; this comes’ out very clearly from the inscriptions translated by Brugsch. On this point Krall remarks :— ‘It is therefore quite right that the month Pachons,. which took the place of the old Thoth by the decree of Tants, should play a prominent part in the feast calendars of the days of the Ptolemies, and the first period of the Empire in general, but especially in the df calendar, which refers to the Zanztic year. The first five days of Pachons are dedicated in our calendar to the celebration of the’ © subjection of the enemies by Horus; we at once re- member the above mentioned (p. 7) record of Edfu of the nature of a mythological calendar, describing the advent of the Nile flood. On the 6th of Pachons—re- member the great importance of the sixes in the Ptole- mean records—the solstice is then celebrated. The Uza-eye is then filled, a mythical act which we have in’ another place referred to the celebration of the solstice,. and “everything is performed which is ordained” in the’ book ‘‘on the Divine Birth.” , Next let us turn to Esne. The inscriptions here are stated to be based on the Alexandrian year, but we not only find 1st Thoth given as New Years Day, but. 26 Payni given as the beginning of the Nile flood. Now I have already stated that the Alexandrine year was practically a fixing of the vague Tanis year ; that is, a year beginning on Ist Pachons in 239 B.C. If we assume the date of the calendar coincidences. recorded at Esne to have been 15 B.C. (we know it was after 23 B.C. and at the end of the Roman do- minion), we have as before, seeing that, ifthe vague Tanis year had really continued, it would have swept forward. with regard to the Nile flood, Pachons 30 Payni 26 ee & 6 xX 4 = 224 years after 239 B.C. This double dating, then, proves the continuation of the vague year of Tanis if the date 15 B.c. of the inscription. is about right. _Can we go further and find a trace of the old cycle beginning 270 B.c.? In this case we’ should have the rising of Sirius 270 4)255 years 64.= say § Epacts and 2 months. Let ay This would give us 1 Epiphi. Is this mentioned in the: Esne calendar? Yes, it is, “1 Epiphi. To perform the: precepts of the book on the second divine birth of the’ child Kahi.” gee tT 4y Now the 26th Payni, the new New’s Year Day, is asso~ ciated with the “ revelation of Kahi,” so it is not impos- ‘sible that “the second divine birth” may have some’ dim reference to the feast. bi ; It is not necessary to pursue this intricate subject — further in this place ; so intricate is it that, although the suggestions I have ventured to make on astronomical grounds seem consistent with the available facts, they are suggestions only, and a long labour on the part of 'Egyptologists will be needed before we can be said to be on firm ground. J. NoRMAN LOCKYER, 3 January 5, 1893] NATURE 231 HANDBOOK TO THE BRITISH MARINE FAUNA. ee.” ma HE admirable monographs issued under the auspices of the Ray Society, and in Van Voorst’s series, by _ such well-known authorities as Forbes and Hanley, Alder _ and Hancock, M‘Intosh, Allman, Hincks, Brady, Norman, - and others, are amongst the most creditable and useful uctions of British Zoology, and all naturalists must evoutly trust that there are still others of a like’ classical nature to follow, and that, for example, Prof. M‘Intosh _ will soon be able to complete his long-expected work on the British Polychzeta. _ But many Marine zoologists feel that, quite apart from such exhaustive and expensive monographs, and only aspiring to occupy a very much humbler position, there is _ pressing need of a “pocket” or seaside “ Invertebrate pean, which could be used in much the same way as he b ists’ “Field Flora.” It has been suggested to me more than once during the last few years that I would be doing useful work in compiling such a book ; and as no one else seems ready or willing todo so, I feel inclined to make the attempt. Some material has already been accumulated for the purpose, but before going further I wish to lay my views before my fellow zoologists, in the ange they will be kind enough to criticize the scheme an _. PROPOSED give me the benefit of their advice. Phe only existing work of the kind is Gosse’s well- Known, and, so far as it goes, very excellent little “ Manual of Marine Zoology,” but that book does not really meet the present want, as not only is the date of publication 1855-6, since when the number of genera and species has __ probably been something like doubled, but also Gosse . i the names of the species, while the book I __. think of would, in order to be of any real use, require to aim at Biving a brief but sufficient diagnosis and figure of every British species. I would adopt as “ British” the area defined by Canon Norman’s British Association Committee in 1887. — _ Probably the most convenient form of publication «would be some four to six small volumes, each dealing with one or two of the largegroups. This would allow of the groups being published as they were ready, not necessarily in zoological order, and would also be con- _ wenient for the use of those interested in one set of t _ There would be definitions—perhaps with occasional _ analytical tables or keys—of orders, families, &c., down _ to and including genera. Under each genus would be given all sufficiently defined species with a brief description _. of each eitherin tabular form or in series, as seems most suitable in each case, and with an indication of size, ange, and habitat. Many species might be described wery briefly in terms of preceding species, the differences merely g pointed out. By simplicity of language, avoidance of unnecessary repetition, and use of con- ‘tractions it might be hoped that each species could be confined on an average to a couple of lines. _ Hlustrations would be either in the form of numerous small outline figures on thin paper plates inserted as near as possible to the pages where the descriptions occur, or as small groups of cuts (as in “Gosse”) in the text. _ ‘There would be a figure of the whole animal in each important genus, or small family, and the figures of the _ Species would represent the diagnostic points only, ¢.g. in the zoophytes there would be a figure in the genus _ Plumularia of an entire colony, or shoot, while the Species Ainnata, setacea, catharina, &c., would be repre- sented each by a small figure showing the pinnz, calycles, __ or nematophores as the case required. I shall now give a few examples, taken from different _ groups, of the method in which the genera and species _ might be treated, in order that specialists may have the _ | pportunity of judging and criticizing. NO, 1210, VOL. 47] I. From Ccelenterata :—Genus ANTENNULARIA. Stems simple or branched ; pinnz verticillate ; nema- tophores along the stems; gonothece axillary, unilateral. A. antennina, L., stems clustered, usually simple ; hydro- thecze separated by 2 joints. 6 to 9 in. high. Gen. distr. deep w. A. ramosa, Lamk., stems single, usually branched ; hydro- thecze separated by I joint only. 6to gin. high. Gen. distr. deep w. II. From Crustacea :—Family Marp«. Hyas. Carapace tuberculous, no spines; branches of rostrum not divaricated; second joint of antenna dilated ; no teeth beneath last joint of walking legs. Hf, araneus, L., carapace not contracted behind post- orbital process. 3 in. Common, shallow. H. coarctatus, Leach, carapace contracted behind post- orbital process. rin. Gen, distr. shallow. Pisa, Carapace may be tuberculous, with strong postero- lateral spine; branches of rostrum divaricated at extremity ; second joint of antenna slender ; terminal joint of walking legs toothed beneath. P. tetraodon, Leach, carapace with small tubercles ; antero-lateral margin with 4 spines. 2 in. Rare, S. coast. P. gibbsii, Leach, carapace with large rounded elevations, but no tubercles, no spines on antero-lateral margin. Rare, deep w., S. coast. Mata. Carapace covered with numerous sharp spines ; branches of rostrum strongly divaricated ; no teeth beneath terminal joint of walking legs. M. squinado, Latr. 10 in, long. S. and W. coasts o England. III. From Tunicata :—Family MoLGuLIp&. Eucyra. Branchial sac with no folds. £. glutinans. MO\L., circular area on side free from sand. 4 in. Shallow w., gen. distr. E. globosa, Hanc., entirely covered with sand. 4 in. PERA. Bran. s. with 5 folds each side. P. hancocki, Hrdn., matted fibres at poster. end. 4 in. Trish Sea, 20 fms. Mo.cuLa. Bran. s. with 6 or 7 folds each side. M. inconspicua, A. & H., 6 folds, sandy, dors. lam. entire, no pap. on stigmata. 4 in, M. impura, Hel., 6 folds, sandy, small papillz on edges of stigmata. tin. W. of Ireland, shallow. M. simplex, A, & H., few hairs, little or no sand, 6 folds, anus fringed, dors. tub. horse-shoe, aperture to left. 4-{ in. mM. Ba ha Orst,, 6 folds, anus fringed, dors. tub. horse- shoe, dors. lam. toothed, sandy. rin. E. coast. M. ampulloides, v. Ben., 6 folds, anus fringed, dors. tub. horse-shoe, 3 bars on fold, dors. lam. entire. 1 in. E. coast, shallow. : M. socialis, Ald., 6 folds, anus fringed, dors, tub. horse- shoe, 4 bars on fold, dors. lam. entire, sandy, gregarious. 4 in. shallow w. _ S. coast. M. holtiana, Hrdn., 6 folds, dors. tub. serpentif., hairs but little sand on test. in. W. of Ireland, ro fms. M. occulta, Kupf., 7 folds, dors. tub. horse-shoe, dors. lam. toothed, whole body sandy. 1in. Shallow w. S. and W. coasts. M. oculata, Forb., 7 folds, siphonal region alone free from sand, and retractile between folds of test. 1 in, Gen. distr. Shallow w. M. cepiformis, Hrdn., 7 folds, globular, not attached, no sand. in. S. coast, shallow w. M. citrina, A. & H., 7 folds, attached by left side, no sand. 4-4 in. under st., litt. E. and W. coasts. CYTENICELLA, as MOLGULA, but branchial and atrial lobes laci- niated. C. complanata, A. & H., 6 folds on left, 7 on right, de- pressed, attached, sandy, } in. In conclusion, I need scarcely say that I shall be very grateful for suggestions, and, if the work is carried on, for any information from specialists about less known species, and the discrimination of allied forms, and for specimens, and also for references to any descriptions which might be likely to escape my notice. W. A. HERDMAN. 232 NATURE [ JANUARY. 5, 1893 NOTES. IN consequence of the unavoidable absence abroad of the new President of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, Mr. W. H. Preece, F.R.S., on the 12th inst., he will deliver his inaugural address on the 26th inst. A PUBLIC meeting, arranged by the Technical. Instruction Committee of the Essex County Council, will be held in the Shire Hall, Chelmsford, on Friday afternoon, January 13, at 4.30 p.m., Lord Rayleigh in the chair. An address will be given by Sir Henry E. Roscoe on technical instruction in agricul- tural counties, with especial reference to science teaching. Afterwards a discussion will take place. Dr. Percy RENDALL, F.Z.S., has accepted an appoint- ment as Resident Medical Officer to the Sheba Gold-mining Company in the Barberton District of the Transvaal. He will reside at Eureka City, at an elevation of 5000 feet above the sea-level. Dr. Rendall made a good collection of birds during his recent residence at Bathurst on the Gambia, of which he has given an account in the /ézs for last year (/éis, 1892, p. 215). He has also made many valuable donations to the Zoological Society’s Menagerie, amongst which is the unique example of the Nagor Antelope (Cervicapra redunca), presented by him in June, 1890. Ofthisscarce animal there is, we believe, no ex- ample in the British Museum. Dr. Rendall’s new appointment will give him many opportunities of extending our zoological knowledge of a little known district. LorpD WALSINGHAM, who has devoted much of his attention to the micro-lepidoptera, has filled the vacancy on the staff of the Lxtomologists’ Monthly Magazine occasioned by the death of Mr. Stainton. Last week a preliminary meeting was held at the house of Sir James Paget to consider what steps should be taken with regard to a memorial of Sir Richard Owen. It was decided that a committee should be formed to make the necessary prepara- tions. The following, among others, have consented to serve as members :—The Presidents of the Royal Colleges of Physi- cians and Surgeons and of most of the scientific societies, the Duke of Teck, Lord Playfair, Prof. Huxley, Sir Joseph Hooker, Sir Henry Acland, Sir John Evans, Dr. Michael Foster, Mr. Sclater, Sir W. Savory, Mr. Hulke, Sir Joseph Fayrer, Sir Edward Fry, Dr. Giinther, Mr. Carruthers and Dr. H. Wood- ward. Sir William Flower will act as treasurer, and a general meeting will shortly be called. It has been suggested that the memorial should be a marble statue, to be placed in the hall of the Natural History Museum. PROF. WESTWOOD, who died on Monday at the age of eighty- seven, will be greatly missed at Oxford. To most people he is known chiefly as a writer on the archeology and palzeography of art, but he was equally eminent as an entomologist. He was one of the founders of the Entomological Society, and received one of the Royal Society’s gold medals for, his entomological researches. WE regret to record the death of General Axel Wilhelmovitch Gadolin, an old member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He was born of Finnish parents on July 10, 1828, received his education in the Finnish Corps of Cadets, and till his death re- mained in the Russian Artillery, devoting his leisure time to mineralogical, and especially to mathematical, researches into the molecular forces which act in the formation of crystals. One of his earlier works, published in the Verhandlungen der Mineralogischen Gesellschaft zu St. Petersburg, was on some minerals from Pitkaranta. His chief work, published in 1867, was his ‘* Deduction of all the Systems of Crystals and their Derivates from a Unique Principle.” A deep impression was NO. 1210, VOL. 47 | produced upon the members of the Russian Mineralogical Society by. Gadolin’s first communication upon this subject. The lucidity with which he deduced all systems of crystalliza- tion from fundamental principles of equilibrium of molecular forces, and the simplicity of the exposition of his researches, entirely based upon high mathematical analysis, reminded his hearers of some of the best pages of Laplace’s writings. The work soon became widely known in a German translation. A paper on the resistance of the walls of a gun to the pressure of gunpowder gases also deserves mention, as, in addition to the formerly known formule of highest resistance of cylinders, he gave a new formula of minimal resistance. Later on his method was used with great success by Klebsch, in his well- known ‘‘ Theorie der Elasticitit fester Korper,” for deducing some general equations of equilibrium of solid bodies. THE last issue of the Jzvestia of the East Siberian Geo- graphical Society (vol. xxiii, 3) contains an obituary notice by V. Obrutcheff, of I. D. Chersky, who died in the far north-east of Siberia, during his expedition to the Kolyma river, after having given many years of his life to the active geological ex- ploration of Siberia. He began his work in 1872 at Omsk, where he made most valuable discoveries of post-tertiary mammals. During the next two years he explored the Tunka and Kitoi Alps, but his rich materials were lost during the great conflagration at Irkutsk in 1879. In 1875 and 1876 he explored the Nijneudinsk caves, making again remarkable finds of quaternary mammals ; and then he give fully five years to the study of the stores of Lake Baikal, embodying the results of his extensive researches in a map (6°7 miles to the inch), and in vol. xii. of the AZemozrs of the East Siberian Society, and vol. xv. of the AZemozrs of the Russian Geographical Society. In 1882 and 1883 he explored the Lower Tunguska, and again made rich finds of fossil mammals. The next five years he spent at the Academy of St. Petersburg, preparing the part of Ritter’s ‘‘ Asia ” which is devoted to Lake Baikal, and working out the rich materials collected by another lamented Polish explorer of East Siberia, Czekanowski. He also worked out the collections brought in from the New Siberia Islands by MM. Bunge and Toll, and came to such interesting and new conclusions as to the recent geological history of Arctic Siberia, that the Academy of Sciences sent him out in 1891, atthe head of a new expedition to the Kolyma region. There he died, in the midst of his promising work. THE twentieth annual dinner of the old students of the Royal School of Mines will be held at the Holborn Restaurant, on Tuesday, January 10, at 7 o’clock. The chair will be taken by Mr. W. Gowland, late of the Imperial Mint, Osaka, Japan. ; Mr. G. T. ATKINSON has been appointed Professor of Cryptogamic Botany at Cornell University, Ithaca, State of New York, in the place of Prof. W. R. Dudley, who has gone to the Leland-Stanford University, Paolo Alto, California. Ar the next public meeting of the FrenchAcademy, in December 1893, forty-five prizes will be awarded for the best work tending to the advancement of the various branches of science. Of these, the following are, by the terms of the bequests, open to competitors of all nationalities. The, Prix Lalande will be awarded for the most intereresting observation, or the memoir or work most useful for the progress of Astronomy. Its value is 540 francs. The Prix Valz, of 460 francs, is offered under the same conditions. Three prizes of 10,0c0 francs each, be- queathed by M. L. La Caze, will be awarded annually for the best contributions to Physiology, Physics, and Chemistry re- spectively. The Prix Tchihatchef, of 3000 francs, is offered annually to naturalists who have distinguished themselves most in the exploration of the continent of Asia or the adjacent isles. i) enlarged and revised edition of the first volume, January 5, 1393] NATURE 7797 “OI excluding better known regions such as British India, Siberia proper, Asia Minor, and Syria. The explorations must have _ some object connected with Natural Science, physical or mathe- matical, and will not be awarded for archeological or ethno- graphic work. All these prizes will be awarded in December 1893. Works for competition to be sent in to the Sé&ré/ariat before June 1. The Prix Leconte, of 50,000 francs, for the most important scientific discovery, will be awarded in 1895. THE Royal Academy of Sciences of Turin, in accordance with the will of Dr, Cesare Alessandro Bressa, and in conformity with the programme published December 7, 1876, announces that the term for competition for scientific works and discoveries in the: years 1889-92, to which only Italian authors and inventors were entitled, was closed on December 31, 1892. The ninth 3 5 Bressa prize will be given to the scientific author or inventor, ___ whatever be his nationality, who during the years 1891-94, _ “ according to the judgment of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Turin, shall have made the most important and useful dis- covery, or published the most valuable work on physical and experimental science, natural history, mathematics, chemistry, physiology and pathology, as well as geology, history, geo- graphy and statistics.” The term will be closed at the end of December 1894. The sum fixed for the prize, income tax being deducted, is 10,416 francs. Any one who pro- poses to compete must declare his intention within the time above mentioned, by means of a letter addressed to the Pre- sident of the Academy, and send the work he wishes to be considered. The work must be printed. Works which do not obtain the prize will be returned to the authors, when asked _ for within six months from the adjudication of the prize. None of the national members, resident or not resident, of the Turin Academy can obtain the prize. The Academy yives the prize to the scientific man considered most worthy of it, even if he has not competed. _ Messrs. MACMILLAN AND Co. hope to publish early in the Spring the second volume of Dr. Arthur Gamgee’s Treatise on Physiological Chemistry. This volume, which deals with the Digestive Processes, will be followed at no long interval by an which originally in 1880, _- THE United States Government is inviting the various Euro- _ pean Governments to send delegates to an International _ Conference of Meteorologists, to be held at Washington. The _ following is said to be proposed as a provisional programme of topics to be discussed by the Conference : (a) The organization of additional meteorological work for the benefit of agriculture. (6) The extension to all ports frequented by commerce of the benefits of systematic storm and weather signals, and the in- _ troduction of a uniform system of storm warnings throughout _ the world. (¢) The co-operation of all nations in the publica- tion of a daily chart of the weather over all the habited lands and frequented oceans for the study of the atmosphere as a whole, and as preparatory to the eventual possibility of pre- dicting important changes several days in advance. (d) The equable apportionment of stations, publications, and expenses among the nations, and the suggestion of practical methods by which to secure observations from those countries that are not represented in this Conference. (e) The encouragement by the respective Governments of special scientific investigations look- ing to the advancement of meteorology. Such other matters as the delegates may think advisable to submit for discussion, or for future report, will also be considered. ‘DurincG the past week the sharp frost has continued almost uninterruptedly over these islands, with the exception ofa partial thaw on Friday and Saturday, caused by a disturbance in the west spreading to the eastward. The greatest increase of tem- perature occurred in the north and west, but in the south-east of NO. 1210, VOL. 47 | England the day readings were only slightly above the freezing- point. There was a complete change in the type of weather at the close of the week; a large anticyclone had formed over Scandinavia, and the air over nearly the whole of Europe was intensely cold, the minimum in the shade at Haparanda on Sunday registering 72° below the freezing-point, and the baro- meter on subsequent days rose to 31 inchesand upwards in these islands. These conditions were azcompanied by cold easterly gales in the south-west of England, while a heavy fall of snow was experienced in the south-eastern districts. On the coast of Kent the shade minimum fell to 11° during Monday night. The Weekly Weather Report issued on December 31 shows that the temperature of that period was much below the mean, amounting to 9° or 10° over the greater part of England, and to 12° in the Midland counties. Very little rain fell during the week ; the deficiency of rainfall in the south-western district of England for the last year amounts to 10°8 inches, or more than 25 per cent. below the average of the 25 years 1866-90. A good deal of fog was experienced at the inland stations during the week. SOME very interesting entomological notes from the Eastern Archipelago are given by Mr. J. J. Walker in the January num- ber of the Extomologists’ Monthly Magazine. Incidentally Mr. Walker mentions that Dr. Wallace’s residence in these islands, after a lapse of more than thirty years, is not forgotten, and that the Dutch translation of the ‘‘ Malay Archipelago” is ‘‘as highly appreciated in the lands of which he gives so vivid a picture as the original work is at home.” AT the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt, Berlin, copies of standard mercury resistances are being constructed in which the mercury does not require renewal (Wiedemann’s Annalen). They consist of U-shaped tubes filled with mercury in a vacuum and then sealed by fusion. Into each of the ends are fused three thin platinum wires connecting with the main current, the secondary circuit, and the galvanometer respec- tively. Since the connections are rigidly joined to the glass, it is possible to employ platinum wires as thin as 0°3 mm. so that there is no danger of heat being conducted into the mercury from without. The copy, mounted in a perforated brass box with an ebonite lid, is immersed in petroleum con- tained in another brass box, so that the binding screws are covered. This box is again surrounded during the experiment with a mixture of fine ice and water. The resistance is thus taken at a temperature which can easily be obtained, and which is uniform throughout the containing vessel. AN apparatus for demonstrating the difference of potential at the poles of a galvanic cell has been constructed by Messrs. Elster and Geitel, of Wolfenbiittel (Zettschr. fiir Phys. und Chem. Unterricht). It is a modification of Thoms n's water- dropping influence machine. Two insulated metallic vessels can be filled with water by pressing a rubber ball communicating with a three-necked jar. The jets enter the vessels through two metal rings. One of these rings is connected with the positive pole of the cell. The jet on passing through becomes negatively charged, and the charge is communicated to the vessel and ‘through a wire to the second ring, which acts by induction on the other jet. A strong positive charge is soon accumulated on the outside of the second vessel, and can be exhibited by a gold leaf or aluminium foil electroscope. In 1869 it was decided, in France, to give a medal and pea- sion of 250 francs to every old soldier of the Republic and the Empire who could show two years of service, or two campaigas, or a wound, An interesting statistical record of these ‘‘mé- daillés de Sainte Héléne ” as of ‘a generation which is disap- pearing,” is given by M. Turquan in the Revue Scientifique. The first list, in 1870, comprised 43,592 names ; and these men 234 must have almost exclusively served under the Empire. They are now reduced to 27. The olilest, Vivien by name, a Lyons man, isnow 106. When 13 he was with Bonaparte in Egypt, fought in 22 campaigns, and was one of the Imperial Guard at Waterloo. The youngest is 92, and served in the navy. The mean age of the 27 survivors is 97 or 98 years. The annual number of deaths in this body of menreached a maximum of 6456 in 1872, since which year it has been gradually diminish- jng. The proportional mortality rose, in general, till 1889, but in the years since there has been a marked fall, testifying to the exceptional vitality of those late survivors. M. Turquan calcu- lates that this remnant will have wholly disappeared by the end of the century. Going back to 1815, he estimates the genera- tion to which the men belong at about 300,000, with a mean age of 25 years, and that 500,000 births hetween 1785 and 1795 would concur to its formation. From figures relating to the Napoleonic .w ars he comes to the grim conclusion that one man in five of those born between the years just named was destined to die in war. It is, he says, to the immense losses of men during the ten years of war of the Empire that the present generations owe their low birth-rate. Mr. J. R. S. CLIFFORD offers some interesting observations in the January number of Mature Notes—the Selborne Society’s magazine—on the Death’s-head moth and bees. Last July a friend of his at Gravesend found one of these huge moths trying to gain access to a hive, having evidently been drawn to the spot by the odour of the honey. This disposes of doubts which have been suggested as to the old statements about this moth’s habit of entering hives when it has a chance. The con- struction of modern hives keeps it out, but ‘‘ where old-style hives are used, the moth can and does enter, and occasionally one has been found dead within a hive, the bees, being unable to remove so bulky an insect, having taken the precaution to embalm its body with what is called propolis.’’ According to Mr. Clifford, some Continental bee-keepers have discovered that ‘‘ the bees are aware they are liable to the intrusions of this big moth,” and when the bees are ‘‘ located in the old-fashioned hive, the insects erect a kind of fortification at the portal, This is constructed with a narrow passage and a bend, past which the Death’s-head could not possibly make its way, and which it has no jaws to bite through.” WE learn from the Agricultural Fournal, issued by the Department of Agriculture at Cape Colony, that much atten- tion is being given there to questions connected with the fruit export trade. The department is in correspondence with the steamship companies with a view to securing every possible encouragement to the trade, which is expected to be taken up on a considerable scale this year. Replying to inquiries on the subject, the Castle Mail Packets Company announce that they will give’ every publicity to the rates of freight to be charged and the stowage arrangements, &c. The Company will also concede a somewhat lower rate for the less remunerative fruits carried in the cool chambers, and will reserve a cool’ and well- ventilated part of the vessel for conveyance of fruit as ordinary cargo. Careful instructions have been issued to captains of the Company’s vessels in regard to the stowage and carriage of fruit. Dr. THEODORE MAXWELL has issued a useful catalogue of Russian medical dissertations and other works he has collected and presented to the Royal College of Surgeons of England. In order that the dissertations may be of service to students who do not read Russian, he has indicated the nature of each work in English, and has given references to such abstracts in the Lancet or elsewhere as he has himself made or happens to be acquainted with. NO. 1210, VOL. 47] NAT dead La 5, 1893 AN excellent ‘Child Life Almanack” for 1893, by A. M. Clive Bayley, has been published by Messrs. G. Philip and Son. Itis issucd as an extra number of ‘‘ Child Life,’’ and the object, as : the author explains, is to provide teachers with suggestions both for lessons to be prepared and observations to be made. Teachers who may wish to give ‘‘seasonable” lessons’ will find many most useful hints as to what really goes on in nature during the various periods of the year. Mr. JOHN BROWNING, optical and physical instrument maker, has issued an illustrated catalogue of magic, dissolving view, and optical lanterns, lime-light apparatus, and slides. THE extraordinary diversity in the temperature at which different micro-organisms flourish and multiply, has from time to time been the subject of some interesting investigations by Fischer, Globig, and others. Thus Fischer isolated fourteen different species of bacteria from the sea-water in Kiel harbour, and from soil.in the town itself. These he was actually able to cultivate successfully at the freezing temperature (0° C.) as well as at from 15° to 20° C.. Globig, on the other hand, studied the behaviour of micro-organisms at high temperatures and separated out no less than thirty varieties from garden soil which © would grow at 60°C. Some of these were even able to develop at 70° C., whilst the majority refused to grow at all below 50° C., some still more fastidious individuals objected to any tempera- ture below 60° C., and others again required a temperature of between 54° and 68°C. One bacillus, however, was discovered more catholic in its taste in this respect, for whilst growing at 68° C. it managed to develop also at from 15° to 20°C. Some fresh contributions on the growth of micro-organisms at low temperatures have recently been made by Forster of Amsterdam (‘* Ueber die Entwickelung von Bakterien bei niederen Temper- aturen”), As lar back as 1887 Forster described a phosphor- escent bacillus obtained from sea-water which was found not. only capable of growing, but of producing the phenomenon of phosphorescence at 0° C. In further researches made by this investigator in conjunction with Bleekrode, it is stated that, although not many different species were found by them to develop at o° C., yet immense numbers of individual bacteria belonging to this category were detected in very various media. Thus one cubic centimetre of milk as sent into the market con- tained 1000 such micro-organisms, whilst in a single gram of garden soil as many as 140,000 were found. Large numbers of such bacteria were also present in sea-water obtained from the North Sea, and they were also found on the surface of fresh water fish as well as in their alimentary tract. It is well known that to successfully preserve meat and other articles of food it is necessary to employ a much lower temperature than o° C., and experience has further shown that this is best done when the atmosphere is deprived of all moisture, as is accomplished _ by the compression and subsequent expansion of the air in enclosed spaces. Haddocks imported from Norway and thus artificially frozen were examined by Forster for bacteria. These fish were first killed and then exposed to a temperature of from 20° to 40° below o° C. until they became perfectly hard and stiffly frozen, when they were removed toa cold chamber in which the temperature varied from 8° to 15° belowo° C. In spite of the extremely low temperature to which these fish had been subjected, on examining them when still hard frozen, a considerable number of bacteria were found in the abdominal cavity which had been opened when the fish was killed. It is obvious that during the interval which elapsed between the killing of the fish and their transference to the freezing chamber, bacteria must have been able to gain access, but had not had | time to multiply to any considerable extent before the fish was frozen. Forster points out, what is sufficiently apparent, that the packing of samples of water in ice when sent from a distance JANuARY 5, 1893] NATURE 235 for bacteriological examination to prevent the multiplication of the micro-organisms present, is really of very little if any use at all. Thus it was already shown several years ago by Percy Frankland that the bacteria in filtered Thames water were able to multiply extensively, even when preserved for some days in a refrigerator. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Bittern (Botaurus stellaris), European, pre- sented by Lord Ilchester, F.Z.S.; two Hamsters (Cricetus us e arius), British, presented by Miss Pugh ; two Alligators (Alligators mississippiensis), from Florida, presented by Master Williams ; a Common Snipe (Ga//inago celestis), British, pur- ‘ Sele a Vere vie ise : 2S OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. _ Comet Hoimes (Novemser 6, 1892).—The following is a _ continuation of Herr Berberich’s ephemeris of this comet, the _ places being for Berlin, midnight :— ia) eae RA. Decl. Log ~ Log 4. iat h. m. s. dacs Jan. ae 8 50 +33 47°9 O°4119 0°3400 6... 9 59 46°4 ie 1 8 45'0 pt hip eee 43°7 9+. 13 30 42°6 0°4143 0°3516 _ The comet is now near to and south following 8 Andromedz. Reports from various Observatories state that the comet is now _ Comer Brooks (NovEMBER 20, 1892).—This comet is now travelling very quickly. The ephemeris for Berlin, midnight, 7 is continued below :— eee R.A, Decl. Log *. Log A. Br. as hy m. 3 eats Z Jan] § «. 18 29 40 +66 5°4 ... 0°0805 ... 9°8562 ... 7°82 Pte BGO 49 ... 136 tite pe Was MOUSE 22"!,;.°65 59°2 VOB. 30 O 22 ... 24°6 ... 0°0806 ... 9°8651 ... 7°49 eee a7 8... 64 32°4 - 10... 2051 19 +63 26°0 ... o70811 ... 9°8781 .. 7°01 PR Sa org of brightness is taken as that at midnight on . er 21. The track of the comet lies near the pole of the ecliptic, in the constellation Draco. _ THe Srectrum or Comer Hotmes.—The spectrum of the comet appears to have been continuous without any trace of bright bands. At South Kensington it appeared to have its s test part near the chief carbon fluting (A 517), but there __ was nothing which could be described as a line or fluting. As might be expected, there was a brighter continuous spectrum _ from the nucleus. The same result was obtained by Mr. _ Campbell at the Lick Observatory, and by Prof. Keeler at the Allegheny Observatory. The latter observer remarks that the spectrum is just what we should expect if the comet shines entirely by reflected sunlight. ; “Tue RECENT OpposiTIoN oF Mars.—In the December number of Astronomy and Astro-Physics, Prof. W. H. Picker- 1g summarizes the conclusions derived from the observations of ars at Arequipa as follows : (1) That the polar caps are clearly distinct in appearance from the cloud formations, and are not to be | Sunded with them. (2) That clouds undoubtedly exist upon the planet, differing, however, in some respects from those upon the earth, chiefly as regards their density and whiteness. (3) There are two permanently dark regions upon the planet, under favourable circumstances appear blue, and are pre- sumably due to water. (4) Certain other portions of the surlace of the planet are undoubtedly subject to gradual changes of colour, not to be explained hy clouds. (5) Excepting the two very dark regions referred to above, all of the shaded regions _ upon the planet have at times a greenish tint. At other times _ they appear absolutely colourless. Clearly marked green regions are sometimes seen near the poles. (6) Numerous so-called canals exist upon the planet, substantially as drawn by Prof. Schiaparelli. Some of them are only a few miles in breadth. No striking instances of duplication have been seen at this oppo- sition. (7) Through the shaded regions run certain curved NO. 1219, VOL. 47] branching dark lines. They are too wide for rivers, but may indicate their courses. (8) Scattered over the surface of the planet, chiefly on the side opposite to the two seas, we have found a large number of minute black points. They occur almost without exception at the junctions of the canals with one another and with the shaded portions of the planet. They range from thirty to one hundred miles in diameter, and in some cases are smaller than the canals in which they are situated. Over forty of them have been discovered, and for con- venience we have termed them lakes. The heights of some of the clouds were found to be not less than twenty miles, and indirect observations have led to the conclusion that the density of the atmosphere of the planet is less than that at the surface of the earth, but probably not as much as ten times less. Prof. Pickering is of opinion that the opposition of 1894 will be quite as valuable to observers as that of 1892, the distance being but little greater, while the planet will be much farther north, and there is less likelihood of the surface being so much obscured by clouds as during the recent opposition. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES AN interesting illustration of the rapid development of South Africa is given by the recent appointment of a magis- trate to reside near Lake Ngami to protect the interests of white traders, aud enforce the laws restricting the sale of liquor and ammunition to the natives. THE January number of the Geographical Journal, the new form of the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, contains a paper and map of some importance by Mr. A. P. Harper, descriptive of the central part of the Southern Alps of New Zealand. Government surveyors have been sent for several seasons to map out the glaciers, and an effort is being made by thoroughly exploring and mapping the region to make it the Switzerland of the southern hemisphere in the estimation of tourists, as it is already by virtue of its fine mountain systems. AN important paper on the physical conditions of the waters of the English Channel is published by Mr. H. N. Dickson in the new number of the Scottish Geographical Magazine. He shows how the ebb and flow of the tides in the Channel is affected by the characteristic form of the main feature of the coast-line, viz. bays with the western side run- ning nearly from south to north, turning at a sharp angle, and lying open to the east. The circulation of the water and its temperature were found to be largely determined by these con- ditions. Mr. COLEs gave a successful lecture to young people in the hall of the University of London, on Friday last, covering the first half of his subject, ‘‘ All the World Over,” in a very interesting way. Anecdotes of personal adventure combined with exceptionally fine limelight views of scenery to give a vivid impression of the regions touched upon. The second and last juvenile lecture, under the authority of the Royal Geographical Society, will be given on Friday, January 6, at 4 p.m. THE Royal Scottish Geographical Society announces a course of educational lectures in continuation of those delivered by Prof. J, Geikie and Dr, H. R. Milllast year. The new course will be on the Geographical Distribution of Animals, by Mr. J. Arthur Thomson, who is at present delivering the Thomson Lectures at Aberdeen. The Society has also provided two special lectures to young people, by Prof. C. G. Knott, on Life in Japan, and by Mr. Graham Kerr on his recent travels in South America, ; WE understand that a book of travel in Madagascar and Africa, by Mrs. Colvile, F.R.G.S., describing the observations of the authoress on a recent extensive tour, will shortly be pub- lished by Messrs. Blackwood. Mr. J]. W. GreGorY, assistant in the Geological Department of the British Museum, has joined as naturalist the sporting expedition of Lieutenant Villiers and others, which is on the point of starting up the Juba. From Bardera, the head of navi- gation, the party will traverse unknown regions to Lake Rudolf, and from there attempt to cross in a north-easterly direction, through the Galla country and Somaliland to Berbera, on the Gulf of Aden. 236 NATURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 THE INTERNATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL CON- GRESS AT MOSCOW, “THE International Zoological Congress held its second session in Moscow during the month of August last, and with most commendable zeal the committee, to whose care the editing and publishing of the memoirs read were committed, now publish the first part of the volume of its Proceedings. This part is rinted in royal octavo size, and contains 350 pages, with several illustrations. All the memoirs are in French, thirteen out of the total thirty having been translated from, it is presumed, Russian. In the first section—that of questions concerning biology and systematic and faunistic zoology from a general standpoint—there are three papers. J. de Kennel replies tothe queries of Prof. L. Cosmovici: (1) Ona definite arrangement of the animal kingdom in ‘‘Phyla”; (2) is there a type ‘*Vermes”? (3) on a uniform terminology of the secretory organs of worms. Ch. Girard on some points of nomenclature. J. de Bédriaga on introduced species, and on hybrids, reptilian and amphibian. In Section II.—the same subjects from a special stand puint—there are twelve papers:—P. N. Boutchinsky, on the Black Sea fauna ; refers to a report on invertebrates of the Bay of Sebastopol by Péréiaslavtzeva, who records 639 forms found. He describes three zones : (1) from the surface to a depth of 175 feet ; (2) from 175 to 280 feet in depth, with a minimum tem- perature of 6-7° C.; and (3) from 280 to 700 feet, with a slightly higher temperature than in the previous zone, 8-9° C. From a depth of 700 feet the water contains a quantity, more or less large, of sulphureted hydrogen, the quantity notably increasing with the depth. T. J. Van- Beneden gives a note on the living and extinct Cetacea of the same sea. Gr. Kojevnikov gives:an account of the fauna of the eastern Baltic based on many recent explorations. Dr. J. de Bédriaga treats of European and circum-mediterranean vipers, C. Grévé has a paper on the geographical distribution of the Carnivores, and T. Richard, one on the geographical dis- tribution of the Cladocerous crustacea. H. de Jhéring makes some observations on insects’ nests made of clay, Prof. A. Brandt gives a classification of animal variations according to their causation. Prof. A. Milne Edwards and E. L. Bouvier give a most interesting account of the varieties and distribution of Parapagurus pilosimanus, S. T. Smith. A table with the comparative measurements of forty-two specimens, is appended. P. abyssorum and var. scaber, are reduced to the first named species. F. Vejdovsky describes 7huricola gruberi, n. sp., and Monodontophrya longissime, gen. et sp. nov., the former from a stream near Budenbach, the latter in the alimentary tract and body cavity of Rhynchelmis limosella, Hofm. In a short note Dr. J. de Bédriaga calls attention to some differences between Chalcids simonyz, Steind., and C. wiridanus, which forms Boulenger and Steindacher have proposed to unite, and thinks that Molge luschani, S.eind., neither belongs to Molge nor to Salamander, but to a European and American genus, not however named by him. The third section contains eight papers on histology and embryology. N. Kholodovski, contributions to a mesoderm and metamere theory. A. Ptitzine, note on the formation of the germ of the peripheric nervous system. V. Roudnevy, note on the development of the cardiac endothelium in Amphibians. Mme. O. Tikhomirova, on the development of Chrysopa perla. Fr, Vejdovsky, on the segmentation of the ovum and the formation of the blastoderm in the Pseudo- scorpiones, and on a rudimentary organ in the same. N. Koulaguine, contribution towards the history of the parasitic hymenoptera. A. Tikhomirov, value of embryological research for classification. Section 1V., physiology :—C. Khvorostansky, on the luminosity of animals from the White Sea. In Section V.,devoted to morphology and comparative anatomy, L. Cosmovici writes as to the purport of the ‘‘ aquiferous system,” **segmentary organs,” ‘‘excretory organs,” and ‘‘nephridia.” H. de Jhéring, on the presence or absence of an excretory apparatus in the genital organs of the metazoa.. P. Mitrophanov, note on the metameric significance of the cranial nerves. N, Nassonov, on the position of the Strepsiptera in the animal system, according to the facts of post-embryonal development and of anatomy. A. O. Kovalevsky, on the excretory organs of the terrestrial Arthropods. N. Zograf, on the origin and parentage of the Arthropods, more especially the tracheal bear- ing forms, NO. 1210, VOL. 47]| ‘Honolulu is situated. A BOTANISTS VACATION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. HE new number of the American Bo/anical Gazette (vol. xvii., No. 12) contains the first part of a paper by Prof, D. H. Campbell, describing his experiences during a vacation spent Jast summer in the Hawaiian Islands. We reprint the following passage :— On awakening upon the seventh day out, and looking through the port-hole of my state-room, I saw that we were sailing near land. Rugged barren looking hills were seen ; and, going upon deck, I learned that this was Oahu, the island upon which As we skirted the shore at a distance, I soon spied a grove of unmistakable cocoa palms, the first hint of the tropical vegetation to which I was soon to be introduced. Beyond was the bold promontory of Dimond Head, an extinct volcanic crater, forming a great bowl with rugged sides, right at the water’s edge. Beyond this, and bounded partly by it, is the bay upon whose shores stands the city. Back of it i0se abruptly a chain of mountains, in places about three thousand feet above sea-level, and furrowed by deep valleys, whose walls, as well as the cloud-capped summits of the hills, were covered with the most wonderfully verdant vegetation. Never before had I realized the possibilities of green. Blue greens, yellow greens, gray greens, and positive greens, with all degrees of these and others that are indescribable, combined to form what Whistler would term a symphony in green. As if to vie with the colours of the mountains, the sea ex- hibited an equally wonderful variety of tints. Outside the harbour is a coral reef, and within this the water is of the pale green common to shallow ocean water ; but outside it deepens very rapidly into the vivid blue of the open ocean. From a distance the line is clearly seen ; but, as the observer approaches shore, the water changes from deep blue through every shade of blue and green until the pale green of the water within the harbour is reached. ' As we approached land numbers of the queer outrigger canoes of the natives were met, and from the wharf boys jumped into the water and swam about the ship in the hope Os pe i some of the passengers to throw over to them coins, which they were very skilful in diving for. : On the way to the hotel a few gardens were passed, and in them everything was strange. By far the most striking thing was the superb Poinciana regia. Although I had never seen this before I recognized it in an instant from a description of Charles Kingsley’s, read long ago. Surely in the whole vege- table kingdom there is no more splendid plant. A spreading flat-topped tree, perhaps thirty feet high, with feathery green, acacia-like foliage and immense flat clusters of big flaming scarlet flowers that almost completely hide the leaves so that the tree looks like an immense bouquet. They were in their prime about the time of my arrival in Honolulu, and continued to flower more or less for the next six weeks. Pretty much everything in Honolulu, except the cocoanuts and an occasional haw tree (Paritium tiliaceum) is planted ; but people seem to vie with each other in seeing how many different kinds of plants they can grow, and the result is that the place is like one great botanical garden. To Dr. Hillebrand this is said to be largely due, as he was one of the first to introduce foreign orna- mental plants, and his place, which is kept much as it was at the time he left the islands, was a very remarkable collection of useful and ornamental plants from the warm regions of almost the whole globe. P Probably the first thing that strikes the traveller from the cooler regions is the great variety and number of palms. Of these the beautiful royal palm (Oreodoxa regia) is easily first.. With its smooth columnar trunk, looking as if it had been turned, encircled with regular ring-shaped leaf-scars, and its crown of plumy green leaves, it well deserves its name. Other characteristic palms are various species of betel palms (Areca), wine palm (Caryota), sugar palm (Arenga), and a great variety of fan-palms of different genera. None is more beautiful than a thrifty young cocoa palm, but unfortunately it is very subject in the Hawaiian Islands to the ravages of some insect which eats the leaves and often renders them brown and unsightly. Indeed, it is almost impossible to find a specimen which is not more or less disfigured by this pest. The trunk of the cocoanut tree is usually more or less ciooked, and in old specimens much too tall ye JANUARY 5, 1893] NATURE 237 for its thickness, so that the old trees look top-heavy. The date palm flourishes in Honolulu, where it is quite dry, but does not do so well in the wetter parts of the islands. On stitdying the other trees, one is struck at once by the great preponderance of Leguminos, especially Ceesalpineze and Mimosex. All about the town, and growing very rapidly, is the algaroba (Prosopis juliflora), a very graceful tree of rapid growth, with fine bipinnate leaves and sweetish yellow pods, which animals are very fond of, and which are used extensively for folder. Add to this,that the tree now forms the principal supply of fuel for Honolulu and we can realize its full value. Other leguminous trees that are -planted are the monkey-pod (Pithecolobium samang), tamarind, various species of Bauhinia and Cathartocarpus. One species of the latter with great drooping bunches of golden yellow flowers and enormous cylindrical three or four feet long, rivals the Poinciana when in full flower. _. Mingled with these are a great number of shrubs and trees with showy flowers or leaves, most of them more or less familiar to the stranger, either from pictures or from green-house speci- mens. Several species of Musa are grown, and when sheltered from the wind are most beautiful; but ordinarily the leaves are torn into rags by the wind. The tall and graceful A/. sapientium has been largely supplanted by the much less beatiful Chinese banana, M. Cavendishii, which is short and stumpy in growth, but enormously prolific. The related traveller’s tree (Ravenala y ariensis), isa common and striking feature of many Hawaiian gardens. Of the many showy flowering shrubs, the beautiful Aidiscus Rosa-Sinensis isone of the commonest, and is used extensively for hedges. One of the most striking hedges in the city, however, is the famous one at Puna Hou college, which is 500 feet long and composed of night-blooming cereus. I was not fortunate enough to see this when it was in full flower, - but I saw a photograph of it when it was estimated that there were about 8000 flowers at one time. Of the fruit trees ordinarily grown, the following may be men- tioned. The mango is a very handsome tree with dense dark green foliage and masses of yellow and reddish fruit on long hanging stalks. The bread-fruit tree is common, both cultivated and wild, and is a very beautiful tree of moderate size, with leaves looking like immense fig-leaves, and the fruit like a large osage orange. I sawno ripe fruit, and so had not an oppor- tunity of testing its quality. _Guavas of different varieties are ext common, both wild and cultivated, and the various fruits of the whole citrus tribe grow well. The few specimens of temperate fruits were, for the most part, much inferior to those of the United States. Of the fruits that did not strike my fancy, at least at first, was the alligator pear (Persea gratissima), a big green or purple pear-shaped fruit with an immense single The pulp is somewhat waxy in consistence and very oily. It is eaten as a salad, and very much relished by the islanders, but the taste is acquired. The curious papaya (Carica papaya) is another fruit which did not appeal to my palate. Its big orange fruit, not unlike a melon in appearance when cut open. has a peculiar ‘‘squashy’’ flavour that suggested it having been a day too long. easy showy climbers are planted, some of which, like Stephanotis, Thunbergia and Allamanda are superb ; but there is one that is particularly obnoxious in colour, Bougainvillea, whose magenta floral-bracts are an offence to the eye, forming a cataract of raw colour. It looks, as some one observed, as if it had just come from a chemical bath. _ As soon as one gets fairly away from the city, it is at once seen that all the luxuriant vegetation is strange. Along the seashore is a plain gradually rising into low hills, both almost destitute of trees, except here and there a few cocoa palms along the shore. Of the strictly littoral plants among the most con- spicuous is the curious /pomea pes-capre, with deeply two-cleft leaves and purplish pink flowers, In the fertile lowlands near the sea are the principal cane and rice fields, which with taro are the staple crops. The riceis cultivated entirely by Chinese, near Honolulu ; but on the sugar plantations the Japanese are largely employed. To see a Chinese laboriously transplanting little handfuls of rice into straight rows, or ploughing in the mud and water with a primitive plough drawn by a queer Chinese buffalo are sights very foreign toan American eye. Sugar cane is eminently productive in the islands, and, hitherto, has proved the main source of revenue ; but now the Hawaiians are bewail- ing the depression caused by the free admission of sugar from er countries into the United States; as, hitherto, their pro- NO. 1210, VOL. 47] duct has enjoyed practically a monopoly of the American market, having been admitted by treaty free of duty. I made several trips up the valleys back of the city, but owing to the almost constant rain in many of them, these were not always agreeable. However, one is richly repaid by the luxuriance and variety of the vegetation. For a mile or two we pass between grass-covered hills, or hills overgrown in places with the lantana, which, introduced as an ornamental plant, has become a great pest. This plant covers some of the hills with an absolutely impassable thicket, and spreads very rapidly, so that it is a serious problem what is to be done with it. Of the common roadside plants, an orange and yellow milk- weed and the showy white Argemone Mexicana were the most conspicuous, As one proceeds farther, where more moisture prevails, the variety becomes larger. Thickets of Canna and a Clerodendron with double rosy-white flowers, are common, and the curious screw-pine (Pandanus odoratissimus) is occasionally seen. This latter is a very characteristic plant, but is much more abuudant in some of the other islands. In this region some very showy species of Ipomoea are very common, among them the well-known moon-flower, /. bona-nox. _ With the increase in moisture, as might be expected, the mosses and ferns increase in number and beauty. There are many of them of types quite different from those of the United States. One of the commonest ferns of the lower elevation in Microlepia tenuifolia, a very graceful fern with finely divided leaves and terminal sori. Species of Vittaria, with very long undivided leaves, are also common here. As we ascend one of the commonest ferns is Sadleria cyatheoides, a very large fern, often more or less arborescent. Ascending still higher the number and variety of ferns increases rapidly, and many beautiful and interesting ferns and mosses and liverworts become common. At about one thousand feet elevation we begin to meet with species of Cibotium, to which genus belong the largest of the tree ferns of the islands. Here, also, I met for the first time with the smallest of all the ferns I have ever seen, 7richomanes pusillum. This dainty little fern, one of the Hymenophyllacez, forms dense mats on rocks and tree-trunks, looking like a deli- cate moss. The full-grown frond is fan shaped, and, with its stalk, is not more than half an inch high. These tiny leaves, nevertheless, in many cases bore sporangia. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON, Royal Society, December 8.—‘‘ Preliminary Account of the Nephridia and Body Cavity of the Larva of Pzlemonetes varians.” By Edgar J. Allen, B.Sc., University College, London. . Communicated by Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.S. The Green Gland, in a larva of Pa’emonetes which is a few days old, consists of an end-sac, which communicates by means of a U-shaped tube with a very short ureter, opening at the base of the second antenna. At the time of hatching, the gland consists‘of a solid mass of cells, withoutalumen. In later stages the tube of the gland enlarges to form the bladder. The en- larged bladders of the two sides subsequently meet and fuse in the middle dorsal line, forming the nephroperitoneal sac described by Weldon and Marchal. The Shell Gland is found in late embryos and young larvae of Palemonetes. It consists of a short renal tube, with a con- siderable lumen, which communicates internally with an end- sac, and opens externally at the base of the second maxilla. Sections through the anterior region of the thorax of Pale- monetes show that the body cavity may be divided into four regions : a dorsal sac, surrounded by a definite epithelium, in which the cephalic aorta lies, but which does not itself contain blood ; a central cavity, containing liver, intestine, and nerve- cord ; two /ateral cavities, containing the proximal ends of the shell glands ; and fourthly, the cavitzes of the /imbs, which con- tain the distal ends of the same organs. In late embryos of Palemonetes solid masses of cells lie upon either side of the cephalic aorta. The dorsal sac is formed by the hollowing out of these masses of ceils. Two lateral cavities are thus formed, which are separated by the aorta. The proto- plasm of the cells lining these cavities, which is at first gathered into masses around the nuclei, then spreads out into a thin sheet, drawing away from the lower portion of the aorta, and. causing the two lateral cavities to unite ventrally, andso form a. single sac, 238 NATURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 In the posterior region of the thorax the central and lateral cavities are similar to those of the anterior region, whilst dorsal to them the pericardial chamber lies. This chamber is separated from the central body cavity by the pericardial septum. The genital organs are situated immediately below the front end of this septum. A comparison with the body cavity of Peripfatus suggests the following relations. In the anterior region of the thorax of Palemonetes the dorsal sac is homologous with the dorsal por- tions of the mesoblastic somites of Peripatus, and its cavity is a true ceelom. The central and lateral cavities, together with the cavities of the legs, represent the pseudoccele. In the posterior region of the thorax the cavities are all pseudoccelomic, and agree with those of the adult Peripatus. - December 15.—‘‘ Preliminary Note on the Relation of the Ungual Corium to the Periosteum of the Ungual Phalanx.” By F. A. Dixey, M.A., M.D., Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. Communicated by E. A. Schifer, F.R.S. : Chemical Society, December 1.—Prof. A.’ Crum Brown, Presidént, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— The isolation of two predicted hydrates of nitric acid, by S.:'U. Pickering. The author announces the isolation of two crystalline hydrates of nitric acid: the monohydrate and the trihydrate, melt- ing at —:36°8° and — 18°2° degrees respectively. In the case of either the melting-point is lowered by’ the addition of acid or water.. The existence of these compounds was foreseen from an examination of the curves plotted from Bertholet and Thom- sen’s heat of dissolution values.’ ‘This result is an important confirmation of the author’s views.—Anhydrous oxalic acid, by W. W. Fisher. The best method of obtaining crystallized anhydrous oxalic acid is by allowing the hydrated acid to remain in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid for some months in a sealed’ glass tube. ‘Oxalic acid is soluble in about 30 parts of cold sulphuric acid ; the anhydrous acid dissolves with ab- sorption of heat, whilst the reverse is the case with the hydrated acid.* Anhydrous oxalic acid may be crystallized from nitric acid of sp. gr. 1°5. Oxalic acid may be completely dehydrated in a vacuum at 60°; the anhydrous acid is soluble in ethyl oxalate or glacial acetic dcid, and separates from these solvents in a powdery form.—The production of orcinol and other con- densation products from dehydracetic ‘‘ acid,” by N. Collie and W. S. Myers. The authors have obtained orcinol by the action of barium hydrate on dehydracetic ‘‘acid” or di- methylpyrone ; on boiling a mixture of syrupy caustic soda and dehydracetic ‘‘ acid,” a true carboxylic acid is first produced, and, losing carbonic anhydride, yields orcinol. Among the products of the interaction of barium hydrate and diacetylacetone bright yellow needles melting at 180-181° are found; these probably consist of a naphthalene derivative C,,H,,03;. Amido- dehydracetic ‘‘ acid,” obtained in long needles melting at 192- 196°, by the action of strong ammonium hydrate on dehydracetic ‘* acid,” readily yields dehydracetic ‘‘acid,”’ on acid or alkaline hydrolysis. Observations on the origin of colour and on fluor- escence, by W. N. Hartley. It cannot be stated in general terms that colour is due to special methods of atomic arrangement ; the statement may, however, be applied in a restricted sense to certain organic compounds, especially to those included in the class to which organic dye-stuffs belong. It is pointed out that all open chain hydrocarbons exert a continuous absorption, the extent of which depends on the number of carbon atoms in the molecule. The condition of strain and instability existing in many coloured substances has been remarked by Armstrong ; the author points out that all organic colouring matters are endothermic compounds, and considers this to be the physical cause of what Armstrong terms ‘‘ reactivity ” or ‘‘ high potential.” It is shown that anthracene is not colourless, but has a true greenish-yellow colour in addition to its fluorescence. A num- ber of experiments on fluorescence are detailed, and the follow- ing conclusions drawn from them :—(1) Alcoholic ‘solutions of quinine exhibit a beautiful, bright violet fluorescence. (2) Hydrochloric acid is not fluorescent. (3 and 4) Quinine hydro- chloride and chloroform are feebly fluorescent, but without distinct colour. (5) Both hydrochloric acid and chloroform can extinguish those rays which are the cause of fluorescence in quinine. (6) Some alkaloids may be recognized by the degree and colour of their fluorescence. (7) Normal alcohols of the ethylic series and the fatty acids are fluorescent. (8) Glycerol has a violet fluorescence. (9) Benzene thas a pale blue fluor- escence, azobenzene a greenish-blue. (10) Rock {crystal has a NO. 1210, VOL. 47] pale bluish-violet fluorescence, flint glass a strong blue, and crown glass avery brilliant blue fluorescence. (11) Substances which are not fluorescent in strong solutions may become so on dilution, particularly if they exert a very powerful absorption of the ultra- violet or invisible spectrum.—The origin of colour, v. coloured hydrocarbons and fluorescence: a reply to Prof. Hartley’s observations on the origin of colour and of fluorescence, by Hi. _ E. Armstrong. If attention be paid to vi-ibly-coloured organic substances, it isa most remarkable fact that in those cases in which the ‘‘ constitution” is fairly well established coloured substances are found to be all of one type. The author starts from this basis to inquire whether all coloured organic sub- stances are not similar in type. Hartley's remark that all organic colouring matters are endothermic compounds has little importance in the present connection, inasmuch as the converse does not hold. The author contends that before admitting the fluorescence of many substances, ¢.g. alcohol andits homologues, every precaution must be taken to ensure their purity ; instances in which easy explanation of the fluore-cence of certain substances is possible are given. Hartley’s observation that _ anthracene is coloured strongly confirms the author’s hypothesis. Anthracene is fluorescent, and may be represented by a quinonoid formula, whilst its isomeride phenanthrene, which cannot be so represented, is colourless and non-fluorescent.. Furthermore, whilst intense colour is produced by ‘‘ weighting” what the author terms the ‘‘ quinonoid radicles” of anthracene by re- placing the central hydrogen atoms by a halogen, no such effect attends the similar treatment of phenanthrene, dibromophenan- threné being colourless like the hydrocarbon. And yet anthra- quinone and phenanthraquinone are coloured yellow and deep orange respectively. Reference is made to other coloured hydrocarbons, viz. carotin and the red hydrocarbon, CogH),, recently investigated by Graebe. The formula assigned to the latter by Graebe— fi Ni eae CoHy HC, [ele ar CoH, NHC, —is an improbable one ; such a substance would be colourless. The author gives a possible constitution, and, for the present, proposes to call the compound ‘“‘erythrophene.” The yellow hydrocarbon, C,,f1,,, obtained together with this, is possibly a diphenylated anthracene, and may be termed ‘‘ xant 10phene.” The “‘ quinonoid radicles” in both hydrocarbons are heavily ‘‘weighted,” hence their strong colour. With reference to Hartley’s statement that a very little shifting of the region of absorption determines the presence or absence of colour in a compound, it is contended that this shifting may be due to a special character of structure. The author then explains his views as to the manner in which the ‘‘ quinonoid mechanism ” conditions colour. He suggests that in quinonoid compounds there are two ‘‘ colour cent es’’ corresponding to and expressed by the symbol — in formulz such as he has used in representing coloured substances. ‘These centres co-operate in producing colour through interaction of the light waves which traverse them. Substances in which there are no such co-operating centres may absorb generally and selectively in ‘‘ultra” or ‘‘infra” regions of the spectrum, but without exhibiting “‘ visible colour.”—The origin of colour, vi. azobenzene, by H. E. Armstrong. Azobenzene, a highly-coloured substance, is generally represented as Ph.N: N.Ph, a formula in disaccord with the author’s hypothesis explained in the preceding paper. Moreover, the formule usually attributed to the colourless diazo- salts (Ph.N : N.Cl, for example) represent them as comparable in constitution with azobenzene. The behaviour of azobenzene towards bromine and other reagents leads the author to doubt the correctness of the conventional formula assigned to it, and to consider the following a more probable one :— \4 —The reduction products of dimethyldiacetylpentane, by F. S. Kipping. The author shows that dimethyldiacetylpentane, a diketone produced by the hydrolysis of ethyl dimethyldiacetyl- pimelate is converted by reduction with sodium in a moist ethereal solution into dimethyldihydroxynonane and a compound f t _— eT January 5, 1893] which, judging from the manner in which it is formed, may be regarded as tetramethyldihydroxyheptamethylene. - CH,.CHMe. CMe. OH CH,~ \CH, . CHMe . CMe . OH —The products of the interaction of zinc chloride or sulphuric acil and camphor (third notice), by H. E. Armstrong and F. S. Kipping. The authors have previously shown that the crude product obtained on heating camphor with sulphuric acid or. zine chloride contains 1 : 2: 4 acetylorthoxylene. On oxidizing the oil remaining after the separation of the latter substance, a-methylglutaric acid is formed. This acid being the charac- teristic oxidation product of the phorone obtained by distilling alcium phorate, it is probable that a homologue of this phorone is present in the camphor product.--The Griess-Sand- meyer interactions and Gattermann’s modification thereof, by H. E. Armstrong and W. P. Wynne. In employing the Griess-Sandmeyer methods for displacing the amido-group by halogens, the authors find that, in very many cases, much better results may be obtained by operating at relatively low temperatures instead of at the boiling point. It appears also that the Gattermann process affords a larger yield than the Sandmeyer process, only because it is carried out at a lower temperature.—Methods of observing the spectra of easily volatile metals and their salts, and of separating their spectra from those of the alkaline earths, by W. N. Hartley. Persistent flame colourations of easily volatile metals, such as lithium, potassium, rubidium, czesiun, and thallium, may be obtained by heating beads of their fluosilicates, borates or silicates, on platinum in the Bunsen flame. If the substance to be spectroscop- ically examined be converted into a borate, the spectra of the alkali metals may be first observed, and on subsequently _ passing hydrogen chloride into the flame, the spectra of the alkaline earth metals may be rendered visible. —Manganese borate, its constitution and properties, by W. N. Hartley and H. Ra Manganese borate, after drying i vacuo over sulphuric acid has the composition MnH,(BO;),H,O. On heating at 100° it loses one molecule of water, and at a red heat two molecules more of water are lost, leaving a salt of the com- position Mn(BO,),. From the rate of loss of water with rise of temperature the existence ofa number of intermediate salts is inferred. Manganese borate possesses a maximum of solubility in water at 18°, and a minimum at 80°. This is probably due to dehydration of the compound having the composition MnH,(BO,),. H,0. Anthropological Institute, December 13.—Edward B. lor, President, in the chair.—Mr. Arthur J. Evans read * a paper on the prehistoric interments of the Bahi Rossi caves near Mentone and their relation to the Neolithic cave- burials of the Finalese. He described the recent discovery of three skeletons in the cave of Barma Grande, and showed that _ the character of the sepulchral rites practised, the relics found, and the racial type of the human remains agreed with the earlier _ discoveries made by M. Riviére and others in the same caves. Mr, Evans, however, opposed the theories that had been put forward as to the Palzolithic date of ‘‘Mentone Man.” The bones of extinct Pleistocene animals and implements of the Moustier and Magdalenian types found in the cave earth above the interments proved nothing, for the simple reason that they were interments. No remains of extinct animals had been found in actual juxtaposition with the skeletons. On the other hand the complete absence of pottery, of polished implements, and of bones of domesticated animals in this whole group of interments and the great depth at which they occurred proved that the remains belonged to a very early period. Evidence was here supplied of an earlier Neolithic stage than any yet authenticated. Still the remains belonged to the Later Stone Age and to the days ofa recent fauna. Mr. Evans compared some bone ornaments found with the so-called hammer-heads of the chambered barrows of Scandinavia and the decorative system with that found on Neolithic pottery in northern Europe. He further showed that interments of the same tall dolicho- cephalic race in a more advanced stage of Neolithic culture were to be found in the cave-burials of the Finale district further up the Ligurian Coast. The physical form and the character of the sepulchral rites was essentially the same. Only the skele- tons were here associated with polished axes, pottery, and bones of domesticated animals. The direction from which the new civilizing influences had come was indicated by imported shell NO. 1210, VOL. 47] NATURE. 239 ornaments from the southern and eastern Mediterranean ; in the Mentone caves the imported shells were from the Atlantic. In conclusion Mr, Evans showed that the latter Finale interments exhibited forms of pottery and implements identical with those of the Italian terremare of the other side of the Apennines, and included ceramic shapes which seemed to be the prototypes of vessels found in the early Sikel tombs of Mycenzean age. The Italic culture here revealed fitted on not only to that of the early pile-settlements of the Po Valley and the Lake-dwellings of Switzerland, but might be traced to the Danube valley, to Thrace, and the Troad. Amongst other parallel forms owl- like idols bearing a strong resemblance to those described by Dr. Schliemann from the site of Troy had been found by Padre Morelli of Genoa in one of the Finale caves.—Dr. H. Colley March read a paper in which he sought to prove that the peculiar features of Polynesian ornament are due to a mytho- graphy which is, in the main, a symbolism of origin and descent. Thus regarded, unattractive and bewildering designs are re- solved into emblems of divinity and demonstrations of lineage. He traced the evolution and defined the attributes of Tiki, ex- plained the nature of oromatuas and the meaning of unus, described the various methods of recording pedigrees, whether: along a male or along a female line, and illustrated the mythical use of tapa and sinnet. He discussed, as modes of origin, totemism, gemmation, and generation, of which Polynesian examples were given, tabulated the kinship of the superior gods, set forth in full the Tane cult, especially in relation to the axe and the drum, and endeavoured, in conclusion, to account for. the development of the complicated Mangaian adze. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, December 5.—Sir Douglas Maclagan, Presi- dent, in the chair. —A fter an introductory address by the President, ' a note by Prof. Cayley, on uniform convergency of series, was: read.—Prof, Tait communicated a note by Prof. P. H. Schoute, of Groningen, on the locus of a uniformly revolving line, which’ always passes through a point moving uniformly round a circle, and which always lies in a normal plane passing through the centre of that circle. The degree of the locus is found by an elegant and very simple method.—Dr. C. Hunter Stewart gave’ notice of a paper on the further development of Kjeldahl’s method of organic analysis. The carbon, as well as the nitrogen, ' present can be determined by the same analysis in the developed method, and much smaller quantities than formerly of the sub- stance analyzed lead to results as accurate as those previously obtained.—Prof. Tait read a note on the division of space into cubes. He gives a different, and more direct and short, solution by quaternions than that given by him some years ago. Paris. Academy of Sciences, December 26.—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—Thermal elevation under the influence of injections of soluble microbian products, by MM. Bouchard and Charrin. An elevation of temperature recalling that observed by Koch is produced in a marked degree in tuberculous patients by injec- tions of the toxic substances secreted by the pyocyanic bacillus. —Vessels and clasmocytes of the hyaloid in the frog, by M. Ranvier. —Observations of Holmes’s comet (November 6, 1892) made with the great equatorial of the Bordeaux Observatory, by MM. G. Rayet and L. Picart, report by M. Rayet.—Obser- vations of Swift’s comet (1892, I.) made with the great equatorial of the Bordeaux Observatory, by MM. G. Rayet, L. Picart and F. Courty, report by M. Rayet.—On the laws of dilatation of fluids at constant volume; cvefficients of pressure, by M. E. H. Amagat.—Observations of Holmes’s comet, made with the equatorial coudé (32 cm.) of the Lyon Observatory, by M. G. Le Cadet.—New experimental researches on the personal equa- tion in transit observations, by M. P. Stroobant.—On conju- gate systems and couples of applicable surfaces, by M. A. Petot.—On infinitesimal deformation and Bianchi’s associated surfaces, by M. E. Cosserat.—On contiguous surfaces relative to the hypergeometrical series with two variables, by M. Levavasseur.—Test for the convergence of series, by M. A. de Saint-Germain.—Criterion of divisibility by any number, by M. Fontés.—On the motion of a particle in the case of a resistance proportional to the velocity, by M. Elliott.—General form of the law of vibratory motion in an isotropic medium, by M. E. Mercadier.—Employment of springs in the measurement of explosive pressures. If errors due to the inertia of the moving parts of the indicator are to be avoided, the amplitude of the 240 NATURE [JANUARY 5, 1893 tracing point must not exceed 1 mm. in the case of pressures used in modern firearms.. This necessitates careful reading with a microscope.—On the decrease of temperature of the air with the elevation, by M. Alfred Angot. Experiments conducted on the Eiffel Tower indicate a decrease for each 100 m., be- tween the soil and a height of 160 m.. ranging from 0°6” in December to 1°46° in June. Between 160 m. and 302 m. the decrease per 100 m. ranges from 0°64° in February to 0°96° in October. At 300 m. the decrease per 100 m. is on the average 0°5° in winter, 0°6° in autumn, 0°7° in spring, and o°8° in summer.—On the temperature of the electric arc, by M. J. Violle. From calorimetric measurements made with a portion of the arc light carbon detached from the hottest part during the passage of the current, the temperature of the arc, z.¢, that of the volatilization of carbon, appears as 35c0°, assuming the carbon to have its theoretical specific heat, 0°52, at the higher tempera- tures. This temperature of volatilization is constant, whatever the power employed.—Remarks on high temperatures and the vaporization of carbon, by M. Berthelot. The vapour tension of carbon is quite appreciable even below volatilization, which involves the reduction of a polymer to the monomolecular state, thus in reality representing a chemical process. Higher temper- atures than that of the arc can be attained by purely chemical means, such as the explo-ive combustion of a mixture of oxygen and cyanogen.—On the equality of velocities of propagation of electric waves in air and along conducting fibres, verified by the example of a large metallic surface, by MM. Ed. Sarasin and L. de la Rive.—On nets of electric conduc- tors ; reciprocal properties of two branches, hy M. Vaschy. —On the enfeeblement of electromagnetic oscillations with their propagation and their subsidence, by M. A. Perot.— Determination of the coefficients of self-induction by means of electrical oscillations, by P. Janet.—Doppler- Fizeau’s method, exact and approximate formulz, evaluation of the error involved, by H. de la Fresnaye.—Magnetic properties of oxygen at different temperatures, by M. P. Curie. A series of measurements with oxygen compressed to 5 and to 18 atmo- spheres respectively gave identical results at temperatures between 20° and 450°. Within this range, the volume coeficient of specific magnetization of oxygen varied in- versely as the absolute temperature. . The volume coefficient of magnetization of air at the ordinary pressure and at temperature ¢ is given by 10%; = 2760 x T-?, where T is the absolute temperature.—On the rotatory power of yi at low temperatures, by MM. Ch. Soret and C. E. uye.—On the fusion of carbonate of lime, by M. A. Joannis,— Ammoniacal compounds derived from ruthenium sesquichloride, by M. A. Joly.—On an iodo-sulphide of phosphorus, by M. L. Ouvrard.—Action of bismuth on hydrochloric acid, by MM. A. Ditte and R. ‘Metzner.—Action of potash and soda on the oxide of antimony, by M. H. Cormimboeuf.—Relation between the heats of formation and the temperatures of the point of reaction, by M. Maurice Prud’homme.—On the study of the chemical reactions in a liquid mass by the index of re- fraction, by M. Féry.—On a propylamidophenol and its acetyl derivatives, by M. P. Cazeneuve.— Quantitative deter- mination of impurities in the methylenes, by M. Er. Barillot.— Separation of micro-organisms by centrifugal force, by M. R. Lezé.—Loss of nitrogen in manures, by MM. A. Miintz and A. Ch. Girard.—Fermentation of manure, by M. A. Hébert. — Drying-up of marshes in Russia, by M. Venukoff.—Chemical conditions of the action of ferments, by M. J. Effront.—On trichophytia in man, by M. R. Sabouraud.—Evolution of the functions of the stomach, by M. J. Winter.—On the histology of the organs attached to the male apparatus in Periplaneta orientalis, by M. P. Blatter.—On the presence of a fossil Ara- liacea and Pontederiacea in the coarse Parisian limestune, by . Ed. Bureau.—On a new geological map of the French and Spanish Pyrenees, by MM. Emm. de Margerie and Fr, Schrader. —Differential motion of the ocean and the atmosphere ; water tides and air tides, by M. F. de Saintignon.—On the perfora- tion of the basaltic rocks of the Gulf of Aden by shingle ; formation of a Giant’s Kettle, by M. Jousseaume. DIARY OF SOCIETIES, LONDON. THURSDAY, JANUARY 5. KOVAL INSTITUTION, at 3. —Astron my; >ir Robert S. Ball, F.R.S. Chief Rabbi. NO. 1210, VOL. 47] Lonpon INstTITUTION, at 6.—Jewish Wit and Humour: The Rev. the SATURDAY, January 7. Roya InsTITUTION, at 3.—Astronomy: Sir Robert S. Ball, F.R.S. SUNDAY, January 8. Sunpay Lecture Society, at 4.—In Search of Pharaoh—Ancient Egypt: its Temples, Py id c ts, and Mummies (with Oxy- hydrogen Lantern Illustrations) : Whitworth Wallis. MONDAY, JANUARY 9. Society or CuEmIcaL InpusTRY, at 8.—Qualitative Analysis of Colour- ing Matters: A. G. Green.— The Proportion of Free Fatty Acids in Oil Cakes: Dr. B. Dyer.—Further Noies on Nitrous Oxide: Wa‘son Smith. ARISTOTFLIAN SOCIETY, at 8.—The Psychology of the Subconscious: A. Boutwo: d. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 5.—Social Pictorial Satire (Illustrated): G. du Maurier. TUESDAY, January to. AvruRopoLocical INSTITUTE, a! 8.30.—A Contribution to the Ethno- ey of Jersey: Dr Andrew Dunlop.- Pcints of Contact between Old orld Mythsand Customs and the Navajo Myth, entitled ‘* The Moun- tain Chant”: Miss A. W. Buckland. . GHit's pits WEDNESDAY, JANUARY 11. Gro.oaicat SociF TY, at 8.— Varic lite of the Lleynand Associated Volcanic Rocks: Miss Raisin. (Communicated by Prof. 1. G. Bonney F.R.S.)— On the Petrography of the Island of Capraja: Hamilton Emmons. (Communicated by Sir Archibald Geikie, For.Sec.R.S. ‘ THURSDAY, Janvary 12. he MATHEMATICAL SocrETy, at 8.—On the Applicati:n of Clifford’s Graphs to Ordinary Binary Quantics , 2nd Part, Seminvariants : ‘Ihe President. INST)/TUTION OF ELFCTRICAL ENGINEERS, at 8.—Experimental R bercies : on Alternate-Current Transformers: Prof. A. Fleming, (Discussion.) Lonp. n Institution, at 6.—Electric Lighting (x) Generation of Electric Currents : Prof. Silvanus Thompson, F.R.S. FRIDAY, January 13. Puysicat Society, at 5.— Upon Science Teaching: F. W. Sanderson. AMATEUR SCIENTIFIC SOCIETY, at 8. Geology in 1892: A. M. Davies.— Recent Developments in the Metallurgy of Gold: T. K. Rose. SATURDAY, January 14. Roya. Botanic SocigrTy, at 3.45. CONTENTS. PAGE. Scientific Worthies, XXVIII. —Sir Archibald Geikie. (With Portrvit.) By Prot. A.de Lapparent .... 217 Shaking the Foundations of Science ‘gor cake ie oa Sound and Music...) . sy eis oe ee Gerland's Ethnological Atlas. By Dr. Edward B. Tylor, FURS as, - ee se eee Our Book Shelf :— Martin: ‘* Castorologia ; or, The History and Tradi- tions of the Canadian Beaver” © op «as ena ae a Ball: ‘*An Atlas of Astronomy”. . ..... +. 225 Letters to the Editor :— i Vector Analysis.—Prof. P. G. Tait .....-+. ., 225 Measurement of Distances of Binary Stars.—Prof. Arthur’ A. Rambaut °°... a ee December Meteors (Geminids).—W. F. Denning . 226 The Earth’s Age.—Bernard Hobson; Dr. Alfred Russel Wallace 2 ng serge meee. 5 ee Ancient Ice Ages.—J. Lomas . Sts 9 sn Printing Mathematics.—Dr. M. J. Jackson .. . 227 .H, Scott. . . . 228 By J. Norman The Teaching of Botany.—Dr. The Origin of the Year. IV. Lockyer, FRG) 0 ee ee Proposed Handbook to the British Marine Fauna. By Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.. . .. . tee Notes DCPS e oes eee. 6) 6 ee mie cen Our Astronomical Column:— Comet Holmes (November 6, 1892), . ..... 235 Comet Brooks (November 20, 1892). . . . .. +--+ 235 The Spectrum of Comet Holmes .. ...... + 235 The Recent Opposition of Mars. ....... + + 235 Géographical Notes 0 ee | ge The International Zoological Corgress at Moscow 236 A Botanist’s Vacation in the Hawaiian Islands, By Prof,:,.H.' Campbell. 2... . ug eee Societies and Academies . . 00 ele ai a Diary of Societies - 35... ...°. + 8 ilk tea : NALURE 241 THURSDAY, JANUARY 12, 18093. AMERICAN MECHANISM. Modern Mechanism. Edited by Park Benjamin, LL.B., Ph.D. (London and New York: Macmillan and Co., 1892.) N order to appreciate this volume thoroughly, it is necessary in the first instance to consider the reason for its existence. Appleton’s “ Dictionary of Engineering,” an American book, was published in the year 1851, and was the first togather in cyclopedic form descriptions of products of American mechanical industry. Some ‘thirty years afterwards it became necessary to bring the work up to date, and its complete reconstruction was de- cided upon. The editor observes that no previous work _-0f a technical character had so signally, and so quickly, demonstrated its own usefulness; it rapidly became a recognized standard of American mechanical practice. Owing, however, to the great progress made in mechanical ‘invention, and the marvellous rapidity with which electrical ‘science has advanced, a new record of the results has become necessary, and hence the present volume. The list of contributors includes the names of eminent men, well known in this country for their high attain- ments in the different branches of mechanical and electrical engineering, forming a sure guarantee that the information to be gleaned from the pages is valuable _ andaccurate. It would be impossible in the space at _ our disposal to notice more than a small part of ‘the contents. Some interesting information is to be - found on the subject of aerial navigation, more particu- larly the interesting experiments being carried out by Mr. ‘Hiram S. Maxim. Commenting on Prof. Langley’s state- ment, that with a flying machine the greater the speed _the less would be the power required, Mr. Maxim says: “In navigating the air we may reason as follows: if we make no allowance for skin friction and the resistance of the wires and framework passing through the air— these factors being very small indeed at moderate speeds -as compared to the resistance offered by the aéroplane— we may assume that with a plane set at an angle of 1 in 10, and with the whole apparatus weighing 4000 pounds, the push of the screw would have to be 400 pounds. ‘Suppose, now, that the speed should be 30 miles an hour; the energy required from the engine in useful effect on the machine would be 32 horse-power (30 ‘miles =2640 feet per minute, 2640 400 _ 32). Adding 20 33,000 ‘per cent. for slip of screw, it would be 38°4 horse-power. ‘Suppose, now, that we should increase the speed of the ‘machine to 60 miles an hour, we could reduce the angle -of the plane to 1 in 40, instead of 1 in 10, because the lifting power of a plane has been found to increase in proportion to the square of its velocity. A plane travelling ‘through the air at the rate of 60 miles an hour, placed at -an angle of 1 in 40, will lift the same as when placed at 1 in 10, and travelling at half this speed. The push of ‘the screw would therefore have to be only 100 pounds, -and it would require 16 horse-power in useful effect to -drive the plane. Adding to per cent. for the slip of the one at the same time ? -But with all this (I mean what relates to its effect on anthrax spores) its application in medical and surgical practice has nothing to do, unless it be to demonstrate its comparative po- tency, for, ax Dr. Klein himself points out in his report, ‘‘ The of Bacillus anthracis may be left out of consideration, as do not occur in the living body ; under these conditions the cillus anthracis is always sp vreless ; a malignant carbuncle of the skin contains the Baczl/us anthracis only in, the sporeless state, and in infection with anthrax generally the bacilli are always | in the sporefree state both in the blood and in the - What is of real importance in practice is the effect of ‘‘ Ami- nol” on the other pathogenic germs on which Dr. Klein has tested it. And here again his letter stdtes the case in a manner _ which is apt to mislead: ‘‘ Anthrax bacilli, Staphylococcus aureus sand others were destroyed, but only after a lengthy ex- i | Now what does his report say? ‘‘ Series V. From this series it will be seen, therefore, that the solution used in the same {1 in 600) acted very differently from that used in the previous experiments (I in 6000) inasmuch as the Staphylococcus aureus, which was not killed heretofore in eight hours, was in this instance completely disinfected in that time, and was consider- sly reduced eveninonehour. The sporeless Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus diphtheria, and Streptococcus erysipelatis were killed in one hour.” Can it be fairly said, then, that these were killed only after lengthy exposure, and does the word “‘ only” apply at all to the one-hour results, when it is considered that there was no test made under the one hour? What is there to show that those of which there was no growth after one hour's exposure to the disinfectant had not been killed after ten minutes already ? Does it not look, then, as if Dr. Klein had penned his letter - without consulting either his notes or his report ? A word in conclusion. Ds. Klein, for whom perhaps nobody entertains a higher personal regard than myself, may rest assured that the designation, ‘‘a true disinfectant,” is meant by me to apply only to such strengths of solutions of ‘‘ Aminol” as can pis ge Ag those substances and their respective strengths to which Koch has accorded that appellation. Nor need he to apprehend that anything has been or will ever be done by me _ intention committing him to what is not fully warranted by his actual results as recorded in his authorized published report. HuGo WOLLHEIM. tor, Leadenhall Street, E.C., January 2. THE point at issue between Mr. Wollheim and myself is a very simple one, and needs no long explanation on behalf of Mr. Wollheim. As you will see from the letter which you kindly printed in NATURE, ante, p. 149, Mr. Wollheim, with- out my authority, has sent round a leaflet with my name on it, pear nana bottles of ‘‘Aminol,” stated to be ‘“‘a true i t. 1, On this leaflet my name is introduced in a somewhat mis- \ding manner, for it quotes to a large extent from my reports on the lime and brine experiments on microbes without saying so, but leaving the reader to infer that these reports of mine refer to ‘‘ Aminol.” 2. Mr. Wollheim never asked my permission or informed me of his intention of sending with each sample bottle of ‘* Ami- nol” such a leaflet. It is unnecessary to say that had he asked me whether he could use my name ona wrapper of a t medicine I should have emphatically answered wo. e has recently informed me that he has cancelled the leaflet. 3. The samples of ‘‘ Aminol” sent out were of the strength of I in 5000, the experiments in which I showed that ‘‘ Ami- nol” possesses a certain disinfecting power were made with a strength of 1 in 600. This strength did not kill spores of anthrax in 12 hours; 1 in 6000 did not kill Staphylococcus aureus in 8 hours. A substance which, like the ‘‘Aminol” sent out (viz. I in $000), cannot kill Staphylococcus aureus in 8 hours, and has practically no effect on spores of Bacillus anthracis cannot be considered ‘‘a true disinfectant.” To show that Mr. Wollheim had a very strange idea about NO. 1211, VOL. 47] the whole matter, one has only to compare the actual facts of the case, as regards ‘‘ Aminol” of the strength of 1 in 5000, with the motto put on the leaflet and the inscription on the label of the samples. For Mr. Wollheim quotes Koch to the effect that no disinfectant can be called a true disinfectant that does not kill spores, and notwithstanding that I have shown that ‘“‘ Aminol” even of the strength of 1 in 600 cannot kill spores in 12 hours, yet Mr. Wollheim advertises the ‘* Aminol ” of the strength of 1 in 5000 as ‘‘a true disinfect- ant.” A true disinfectant kills spores after short exposure ; a substance that requires many hours to do so cannot claim the name of a specific disinfectant. Vinegar, dilute acids, alkalies, and a host of substances affect spores after exposure for many hours (8, 12, and 24 hours), yet no one would consider these substances as specific disinfectants. Again, a substance used in a certain strength (say I in 600) may have considerable disinfecting power on non-spore bearing microbes, with or without having any conspicuous action on spores. The same substance more diluted (say I in 5000) may have retained such action only to a very insignificant degree. Take for instance perchloride of mercury ; while this substance is a powerful disinfectant when used in the strength of 1 in 500, I in 1000, even I in 2000, it has greatly less effect when used in more increased dilution. No one is justified in advertising perchloride of mercury of the strength of 1 in 100,000 as ‘‘a true disinfectant,” knowing that 1 in 500 or I in 1000 only can be so called. How much more does this hold good for a substance like ‘‘ Aminol,” which even in the strength of 1 in 600 does not kill the spores of anthrax in 12 hours, a period which for practical purposes of disinfection is out of the question. E. KLEIN. 19, Earl’s Court Square, S.W., January 9. Super-abundant Rain, In NAtuRE of November 10 the fact that ‘‘very nearly one- third ” of the annual rainfall fell in one month at Nant-y-Glyn, in North Wales, is recorded as ‘‘ remarkable.” But at Peshawar, on the north-west frontier of India, we received during last August a rainfall of 17°75 inches, the aver- age local annual fall, calculated from the last fifteen years, being 13°51 inches. We therefore had very nearly sixteen months fall in one month, and by far the largest portion of this fell in ten days of the month. I need hardly add that the whole valley was flooded, and that we have since paid for our super-abundant rain in the form of very prevalent and fatal malarious fever. H. CoLiett. Peshawar, December 19, 1892. Earthquake Shocks. THERE were two unmistakable shocks of earthquake on the afternoon of Tuesday, January 3, the first at 2h. 15m. I5s. G.M.T., and the second at 2h. 17m. I was sitting in a railway carriage at Severn Junction Station waiting for the Bristol pas- sengers, when I felt a sensible upward movement of the seat (as if pushed from below) and saw the carriage sway. The movement was from south to north (7.¢. at right angles to the railway). This was repeated four times in about six seconds. At 2h, 17m. there were two more (less strong) shocks. The carriage was placed in a siding, and there was no train at the station, and the air was calm and frosty. Ice was said to have cracked near here at this time. E. J. Lowe. Shirenewton Hall, Chepstow. A Brilliant Meteor. ON Wednesday, January 7, at about 6.35 p.m., I was fortu- nate enough to see a brilliant meteor descending a little north of Castor. My attention was drawn to it by the brilliant light it threw over the country. The head was a ball of dazzling white and the tail yellow, with red streaks. It disappeared before reaching the earth, and I heard no report or rushing sound whatever. : As the duration was only a few seconds ‘the above are more impressions than observations. W. POLLARD. Pirton, Herts, January 7. 248 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893. CHEMICAL: SOCIETY’S MEMORIAL LECTURES. 7a) an extra meeting of the Chemical Society, held on December 13 last, this being the first anniversary of the death of Stas,a paper was read and discussed which had been prepared for the occasion by Prof. J. W. Mallet, F.R.S., of the University of Virginia, U.S.N.A: —himself a high authority on atomic weight determina- tions, and well known to chemists through his papers on the atomic weights of aluminium and gold, published by the Royal Society of London. The lecture marks a new departure in the work of the society. Hitherto our learned societies have been in the habit of publishing more or less complete—it would probably be nearer the truth to say incomplete—obituary notices of their foreign members. The Chemical Society has come to the conclusion, however, that inasmuch as its foreign members are always men of great distinction who, as a rule, have lived a considerable number of years after accomplishing their life work, it will be to the ad- vantage of its féllows and of chemists generally, if the obituary notices of foreign members take the form of critical monographs of the subjects with which they have principally dealt. The anniversary of the death of the foreign member is obviously the most appropriate occasion for the de- livery of such a lecture. During the past year the society has lost two of its foreign members: Hermann Kopp, noted as an historian, as well as on account of his very numerous exact determinations of atomic volumes and specific heats, and A. W. von Hofmann. The life and work of the first mentioned will form the subject of a lecture to be delivered on February 20 next, by Prof. Thorpe, the Treasurer of the Society, than whom no one is more qualified to undertake the task. Prof. Thorpe is not only a pupil of the deceased chemist, but has rever- ently followed in his footsteps—having very largely extended Kopp’s observations on atomic volumes in an elaborate investigation, the importance of which was recognised by the Chemical Society in 1881 through the award to him of its first Longstaff medal. Von Hofmann, although originally a foreign member, became an ordinary member of the Chemical Society on coming to England as professor at the school in Oxford Street, long since merged in what is now known as ‘the Royal College of Science, London. Hofmann was never again regarded as a foreigner; he served the society both as foreign secretary and as president, filling one of ‘the vice-chairs during the remainder of his life. It is felt that owing to the special nature of his relations to the society and to english chemistry, it will be necessary to deal with his case in an exceptional manner ; it is there- fore hoped that in May next Lord Playfair—who was so intimately connected in his early days with chemical science and with the society—in the first place will pic- ture the state of affairs chemical at and prior to the time of Hofmann’s arrival in England. Sir F. Abel, Hofmann’s first pupil and assistant, will follow with an account of Hofmann at the Royal College of Chemistry, calling to his aid for this purpose the remaining friends and pupils of Hofmann. The coal-tar colour industry, which has now attained such important dimensions, it is well known, had its origin in the Oxford Street laboratory, and Dr. Perkin—its parent—has consented to sketch the history of its development. In this manner it is hoped to impart considerable “local colour” to the Hofmann memorial lecture, thereby distinguishing it from the notice which is being prepared by the German bio- graphers. Passing now to Prof. Mallet’s lecture on Stas, which is of considerable length, as it will occupy fully sixty pages in the Societys Journal, The biographical portion is brief, as a number of such sketches have already been NO. 1211, VOL. 47] published. Stas was born at Louvain on August 21, 1813. He graduated as Doctor of Medicine. His taste for chemical research was evidenced in 1835, when, together with a friend, he investigated in an attic of his father’s. house the crystalline substance phloridzin which they had extracted from the root bark of the apple tree. He con- tinued the study of this substance in Dumas’ laboratory in Paris, and it is an interesting proof of the acumen of © Berzelius that in his annual report on the progress” chemistry he referred to this first research made by Stas. with praise, and a prediction of future eminence for the author. Py The starting-point of the long train of research with which his name will ever be associated was the redeter- mination of the atomic mass of carbon which Dumas and © he together undertook, in order to explain the fact, noticed by Liebig and others, that the sum of the carbon and hydrogen found in hydrocarbons by the combustion. process, as calculated from the carbon dioxide and water, not unfrequently exceeded the quantity of material ana- lyzed. As the result of this investigation, which was carried out with unprecedented care and the most ela- borate precautions, the value hitherto accepted for carbon on the authority of Berzelius (76'432 O=100) was con- siderably reduced (to 75°005). In 1840 Stas was appointed Professor in the Ecole Royale Militaire at Brussels ; he held this post for more than a quarter of a century, until an affection of the bronchial tubes and larynx obliged him to give up lecturing. He then received an appoint- ment in the Mint, but resigned this in 1872 on political grounds, and withdrew into private life. He appears. to have been a man of great independence of character. Apart from his atomic weight investigations Stas did much work of value in other departments. His method of separating alkaloids from organic messes—no other name is applicable—which has been of such service in subsequent toxicological inquiries, was devised in 1850. in the course of the inquiry into the celebrated Bocarmé nicotine poisoning case. He examined into the methods of hydrolysing fats for the purpose of a report on the chemical section of the London 1862 Exhibition. In con- nection with the preparation of international standards. he took an active part, along with Devile, in the inquiry into the properties of the platinum metals. It is known also that he did important work for his Government in investigating alloys for use in the construction of artillery. Prof. Mallet prefaces his account of Stas’s special in- vestigations by an historical survey of the fundamental ideas which have gradually led up to the question, What is the mass of an atom of a particular element? Even in and beyond the days of Cavendish and Priestley the fact that atmospheric air was found of constant or nearly constant composition was long a stumbling-block in the way of clear distinction between a homogeneous com- pound anda uniform mixture. To the labours of Van_ Helmont, Boyle, and Boerhave much credit is due for the gradual advance towards the doctrine of the conservation of matter. The discoveries of Black and Cavendish brought it further into view, and it assumed its due import- ance and began to receive universal recognition with the constant appeal to the balance which Lavoisier made and taught others to make. Next came a comparison of the quantities of different substances, at first chiefly the then. known acids and bases, which would enter into combina- tion with each other. Proust, in the course of his con- troversy with Berthollet as to the fixedness of combining proportions, had‘observed that in certain cases it was true that in different compounds, consisting of the same con- stituents, for a fixed quantity of one constituent, the different quantities of another constituent bear to each. other a simple multiple or sub-multiple relation. To: Dalton, however, belongs the honour of announcing the principle as a general one, and of basing upon it a true chemical atomic theory of the nature of matter. Berzelius, ———O January 12, 1893] NATURE 249 in the early years of the present century, with apparatus in many respects inferior to that of the present day, and with scarcely any aid from chemical manufacturers in preparing pure materials and reagents, but with unsur- manipulative skill and the most honest criticism of his own work, produced the first fairly trustworthy list of numbers representing the proportions by weizht in which the elements combine. Berzelius began work in this direction in 1807, his attention having been attracted by Richter’s investigations; but soon after- wards he became acquainted with Dalton’s new atomic theory of the nature of combination, and appears to have been impressed with its great importance, and at the same time with the need of more exact experimental data for its support and development. The wonderful accuracy of Berzelius’s work generally is illustrated, as Prof. Mallet points out, by the fact that his number for ; 16°021, becomes 15°894, almost exactly agreeing with the latest determinations of the present day, if the weighings of Dulong and Berzelius’s three experiments on _ the synthesis of water be corrected for the buoyancy of the air. Since Berzelius many other chemists have worked in the same field, but his most worthy successor in such labours has undoubtedly been Stas. With greatly better resources in the way both of apparatus and material, with equal earnestness in seeking for the truth, with equal intelligence and skill he took up the task which became that of the largest part of his scientific life, and for a more limited list of elements than Berzelius had investigated, produced results of a degree of accuracy which it is high praise to say would have delighted no one more than Berzelius himself. He aimed at the de- termination with greater precision than any one before him had attained of the atomic weights of some ten or twelve of the elements. But by so determining these constants he endeavoured also to settle several general questions of fundamental importance in regard to matter as studied by the chemist. Thus it has generally been assumed as true beyond dispute since the early part of the present century, that the mass of an atom of a given element is a constant quantity. This has, however, occasionally been doubted, and Stas himself considered the question as one requiring examination. His researches, however, lend no support to it. On this point Prof. Mallet expresses himself strongly in favour of the orthodox view. Assuming that the atomic weights are immutable values, _ the question arises, Are they commensurable? This is the much-discussed hypothesis of Prout, the origin and development of which is very fully discussed by Prof. Mallet. A widespread feeling at one time undoubtedly existed among chemists that Prout’s hypothesis, that the atomic weights of the other elements are integer mul- tiples of that of hydrogen, if not true in its original form would ultimately prove to be so at least in a modified form. That Stas began his work under the influence of this feeling is clear from his own words :— _“Je le dis hautement lorsque j’ai entrepris mes re- cherches, j’'avais une confiance presque absolue dans Yexactitude du principe de Prout.” But his experimental results clearly contradicted the hypothesis, and he satisfied himself that the atomic weights of the elements which he determined with such precision could not with truth be represented by integer multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen, or the half or the fourth of this unit. In his own words :— “ Aussi longtemps que, pour |’établissement des lois qui régissent la matiére on veut s’en tenir l’expérience, on doit considérer la loi de Prout comme une pure illusion. La simplicité de rapport de poids que pré- suppose l’hypothése de Prout entre les masses qui interviennent dans l’action chimique, ne s’observe donc point dans l’expérience; elle n’existe point dans la réalité des choses.” NO. 1211, VOL. 47| The great majority of chemists—Prof. Mallet remarks — at the present day, are probably agreed in believing that the hypothesis of Prout has been shown by Stas to be untenable. But the fact that so many well determined atomic weights, referred to hydrogen as unity present numbers early appr coaching integers,is very striking and calls for further investigation. Stas himself is quoted as admitting this much. Prof. Dewar, in the course of the discussion after the paper was read, drew special atten- tion to this question and gave several most striking instances of the nearer approach to whole numbers which resulted from a recalculation of the accepted values, using the lower value for oxygen (15°87) which so many recent researches tend to support, although on the other hand, of course, some of the values now near to whole numbers. are considerably thrown out. Evidently there is ample opportunity for further experimental investigation of this all-important problem, and it is impossible— notwith- standing the extraordinary degree of accuracy attained by Stas—to formulate any final conclusion. The supreme: interest attaching to the problem was clearly recognised by Stas himself, as the following words show :— “Au point de vue de la philosophie naturelle, la portée de lidée de Prout est immense. Les éléments. des corps composés que nous considérons comme des corps simples en égard A leur immutabilité absolue pour nous, ne seraient eux-mémes que des corps com- posés. Ces éléments, dont la découverte fait la gloire de Lavoisier et a immortalisé son nom peuvent ¢tre considérés ainsi comme dérivant de la condensation d’une matiére unique: nous sommes naturellement conduits a Punité de la matiére, quoi qu’en realité nous constations sa pluralité, sa multiplicité.” This quotation is almost alone sufficient to show that Stas was a philosophical chemist of the highest order, and not a mere mechanical worker, as has sometimes been supposed; his unwearied attention to minutest details has undoubtedly served to completely overshadow the philosophical motives and aspirations by which he was. guided. Stas also endeavoured to obtain evidence with regard to the possible dissociation of the elements at high temperatures and to this end purified his materials with every imaginable precaution. The skill with which he carried out his operations is attested by the statement made by Mr. Crookes,the chairman at the reading of Prof. Mallet’s paper, that he had seen in Stas’s laboratory a large mass of potassium chloride, which Stas had been years in preparing, and in which he had failed to find a trace of sodium even spectroscopically—such an achievement appears almost inconceivable to the chemist. Stas, in fact, in the course of his work investigated the methods of analysis to be used with a degree of rigour, and dis- covered and applied refinements upon older methods of experiment with a degree of patience and skill, such as had never before been used in chemical investigation. Only those who are thoroughly conversant with such work can fully appreciate his labours ; they probably will agree that owing to the multitude and diversity of the precautions to be taken, his work is the most difficult hitherto attempted, and that he stands unsurpassed among all who have undertaken the execution of exact physical measurements. A lengthy section of Prof. Mallet’s paper is devoted to- the consideration of the objects to be aimed at and the methods to be pursued in future work. He advocates the repetition by competent hands of some one at least of Stas’s fundamental results, calling attention to Stas’s own emphatic expression of the wish that this should be: done. It is also most important that no distinction should be made between rare and common elements, and’ that the atomic weights of all should be determined with the least possible delay and the highest attainable degree of accuracy. Certain of the elements particularly calh 250 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 for] a more searching and exact investigation of their atomic masses, e.g. elements such as tellurium, which occupies a position in the periodic system not in harmony with its atomic mass, and cobalt, which plainly occupies the intermediate position between iron and nickel, and therefore should be intermediate in atomic mass. In a number of cases the accepted value is based on the investigation of but a single interchange, the value for iron, for instance, being practically based on the results cbtained on converting the metal into ferric oxide, and wice-versé ; and the relation of hydrogen to oxygen having been established by the reduction of cupric oxide. It is desirable that in such cases other and in- dependent methods should be resorted to, eg. that oxides of a number of metals other than copper should be reduced, with the object of detecting possible constant errors. It is eminently desirable that an attempt be made to directly determine the ratio of hydrogen to each of the halogens without in any way bringing in the atomic mass of oxygen. Prof. Mallet suggests various methods deserv- ing of study. Also it is very important that the metals of the yttrium and didymium groups should be further investigated. Prof. Mallet rightly terms the yttrium -group the opprobrium of inorganic chemistry. Nearly all that has been written hitherto in regard to the periodic relationship among the elements has involved ‘the use of roughly approximate values only ; but it istime » that the foundation be laid for a more minute and critical ‘study of the periodic system of classification. Anomalies in the classification as we now find it in our books, | glimpses of more detailed relations than as yet clearly appear, tantalizing suggestiveness in so much of what , is already before us, call for more precise determinations of the numbers we would discuss before we allow pre- mature discussion to drift into mere fanciful speculation. In regard to the methods which it is desirable shall be © pursued in the determination of atomic masses, Prof. Mallet has much to say. He discusses the selection of ‘processes, the purity of materials, the very numerous directions in which vigilance must be exercised in order to avoid extraneous or accidental causes of error, the -quantities of material to be used, the practical precautions to be observed so as to secure accuracy of manipulation and in weighing and measuring, the mode of stating and calculating results, finally calling attention to the advantage to be derived from the application of greater working force and ampler means than can be commanded ‘by private individuals to the determination of atomic masses ; with reference to this last point, during the discussion on the paper, the opinion was freely expressed ‘that it was undesirable that such work should be carried out in organized public or semi-public laboratories. The question is, no doubt, a difficult one to settle— -such work demands a special temperament combined with genius of a high order and an infinite capacity for taking pains, qualities which must rarely occur united in a single individual. the value of a result may be appraised, it is essential to overlook every detail involved in the determination. Given the man, however, there can be no longer a doubt that every possible assistance he may require should be afforded him. It is marvellous that men like Berzelius and Stas, working all but alone and unaided, should have achieved results of such magnitude and universal importance—the moral effect of their example is certainly not less important than are the actual results of their labour. The last section of Prof. Mallet’s paper is devoted to the discussion of the form in which it is desirable finally to state the results. He here advocates the uni- form substitution of the expression “atomic mass” for “atomic weight,” on the ground that precision in lan- guage conduces to precision in thought—an aphorism NO. 1211, VOL. 47] Moreover, in order that | far too commonly disregarded by chemists. We have now clear conceptions of atoms having constant mass for the same element, of determinable difference of mass in the case of different elements, the several masses and numbers of which regulate the composition of all known substances and the products resulting from interaction among them. The atomic theory has advanced far beyond the condition of a mere working hypothesis on which chemists long stood with more or less uncertain feet ; but even if this were not so, considering it, to use a common metaphor, only as a scaffold, there is no good reason, so long as we stand on it and work from it, that we should be careless about tying our scaffold-poles and nailing our planks. Lastly, Prof. Mallet urges that all atomic masses shall be expressed in terms of the mass of the hydrogen atom taken as unity, objecting strongly to the change to O=16 which several writers have recently advocated, the most objectionable argument put forward in favour of such change being, he thinks, that the numbers we use are expressive of ratios only—that any figures are allow- able which correctly express combining ratios, and that there are no reasons for using one set of figures rather than another save mere arithmetical convenience. This involves a grave error, as in adopting as unity the mass — | of a single atom of any particular element, preferably that one of which the mass is the smallest, we have reason to believe that we express the mass of all the ' others in terms of this as a really existent, definite, | and constant quantity of matter. It is, indeed, difficult to understand when the scientific necessity in so many cases of taking hydrogen as the unit is realized, how the change to O = 16 can be advocated except on the simple utilitarian plea that it is to the analyst’s. conveni- ence. | Prof. Mallet’s monograph is undoubtedly a most ad- mirable exposition of the philosophical lessons to be learnt from the contemplation of Stas’s labours. EXTINCT MONSTERS} PRE volume with this title treats of large animals. It is clearly and simply written, without any pretence at being scientific, and is anexcellent book for boys and unlearned people who are curious to be informed upon the subject of fossil animals. It would have escaped criticism altogether but for emphatic words of praise in the preface, and one or two passages in which the author, with second- hand information, speaks authoritatively of predecessors who restored extinct types of life with the slender materials which were available forty years ago. The attraction of the volume and its novelty is a series of restorations of saurians and mammals drawn chiefly by Mr. Smit. These for the most part are based upon the restorations of skeletons made by Prof. Marsh, whose discoveries have inspired Mr. Smit’s pencil as much as they have in- fluenced the author’s pen. There is not much anatomy beneath the skins of the “ Monsters,” and they have an aspect as though cotton-wool had taken the place of muscle, or as though the drawings were models for the “ Lowther Arcade.” This, however, is of less importance than the answer given to the question, Are they reason- ably faithful to nature? It does not seem to me that they can claim this merit; they are only reasonably faithful to Marsh. Prof. Marsh draws an animal so as to give one type the maximum height to which the bones can be hoiste1; while another is given the maximum length to which the remains can be extended. My own studies would not have led me to reconstruct one of the extinct reptiles upon the lines which are adopted in * “Extinct Monsters.” A popular account of some of the larger forms of ancient animal life. By Rev. H. N. Hutchinson, B.A., F.GS., with illus- trations by J. Smit and others. (London: Chapnan and Hall, Ld., 1892.) een Ne eee January 12, 1893] NATURE 251 these restorations. As an example of how a restoration should not be made, we may instance the figure of Stego- Saurus ungulatus (p. 104), in which the management of the limbs is out of harmony with the evidences of the muscular structure of the tail, and the supra-vertebral crest. The restoration of the Scelidosaurus from the Lias of England is unsatisfactory. There is no better ground for giving a kangaroo-like position to that animal | | tology,” and in Dr. Woodward’s “ Handbook to the than there would be for drawing Teleosaurus in the same position. The mobility of the neck as drawn is aston- ishing. The restorations of mammals are happier. British Museum (Natural History), handed on to the unlearned as representing the best available classifica- tion. On page 75,the author introduces a restored skeleton of Megalosaurus, which is attributed to Prof. Marsh. The skeleton certainly is not referable to Mega- losaurus, which never has the pubic bones or the ilium constructed as in the figure. The restoration has been previously used in Nicholson and Lydekker’s “ Palzon- Geological Department of the British Museum,” but we do- | not remember any published authorization for the use of The sub- | jects diverge less from existing types. And probably the | most successful in the volume is the spirited restoration | of Sivatherium giganteum from the Sivalic Hills, though the.Glyptodon and Irish Deer are meritorious. ‘£In the text the author is generally content with telling the story of the history of science; but he sometimes | occurs in dealing with Stegosaurus. Prof. Marsh’s name as authority for confounding Megalo- saurus with the allied American type. Another example of the same kind of interpretation It is said to have been proved that bones to which the name Omosaurus. | has been applied really belong to Stegosaurus, and that _ an unnecessary name has been disposed of. The ground The four-horned extinct Mammal Sivatherium giganteum. strays into less safe matter. Thus an account is given of the eye of the Ichthyosaurus. And it is urged that the bony plates exercised a pressure on the eyeball, so as to make the eye more convex, and improve the definition of near objects. The study of sclerotic defences does not support this interpretation ; and in at least one generic division of the Ichthyosauria the sclerotic plates do not overlap at all, but join each other by their lateral sutural margins. It is perhaps unfortunate that the author gives cur- rency to nomenclature and classification of the terrestrial types of saurians which may not always prevail. sentatives of birds, and the genera with a reptilian type of pelvis are terrestrial wingless representa- | | | | If the | genera with a bird-like type of pelvis are terrestrial repre- | tives of Pterodactyls, then it may not be an advan- | S ous). | endeavoured to tellthe story which is contained in his tage to have the Dinosaurs treated as a homogeneous group, or the divisions adopted by Prof. Marsh, or in the NO. 1211, VOL. 47] The animal on the left is Heladotherium. on which this determination is made, not being stated need not concern us now; but it is undesirable that a popular work, whose main merit is that it does not pre- tend to teach the facts of science, should appear to enun- ciate judgments on scientific problems. Having de- scribed the immense enlargement of the spinal cord in the sacral region of Stegosaurus, the author remarks :— ‘* So this anomalous monster had two sets of brains—one in its skull, and the other in the region of its haunches !— and the latter in directing the movements of the huge hind limbs and tail did a large part of the work.” Re- marks of this character are sure to be misunderstood, are out of place and incorrect. The author has read much, and shown an excellent capacity for quotation, but has not always succeeded im using the newest results. He has _ conscientiously quotations, but beyond this he does not pretend, except 252 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 ‘in the occasional use of supposed scientific principles as a means of accounting for facts of animal structure. He has dealt with a subject of great difficulty with commendable clearness, and will interest readers who would be unable to follow a more technical exposition of extinct types of life. H. .G..S. ENERGY AND VISION. apo e interesting researches of Prof. S. P. Langley on energy and vision have recently been published in the Memoirs of the American National Academy of Sciences. From this we gather that he was led to in- vestigate the question by the fact that it was not generally recognized how totally different effects may be produced by the same amount of energy in different parts of the spectrum. Two series of experiments were necessary, the first to determine the amount of energy in each ray, the second to observe the corresponding visual effect. The energy was determined as heat by the use of the bolometer, the heat dispersed by a prism being very nearly proportionate to the energy. In the second series of experiments a beam of sun- light from.a siderostat passes ‘through a small hole in a darkened room and falls on a slit with a standard width ofor1mm. It is then received on a collimating lens of 11°9 centimetres aperture and 755 centimetres focal length, after which it passes through a prism of about 60° re- fracting angle. The spectrum thus formed is reflected and brought to a focus on a second slit of one millimetre aperture by a concave mirror, any particular colour being -adjusted on the slit by a rotation of the prism. This. second slit is screened from all possible stray light by a dark curtain, and is used as a source of illumination for a series of numbers from a table of logarithms, which is attached to a sliding screen. The greatest distance from the slit at which the figures could be distinctly read was then determined, and the law of inverse squares applied. For the brighter colours of the spectrum, the light enter- “ing the first slit was reduced by an adjustable photometer wheel. Actinometric measures were made during the progress of the photometric observations, and showed a solar radiation of 1°5 calories per square centimetre per minute ; this naturally being an essential unit. The energy necessary to give the bare impression of luminosity in different parts of the spectrum, expressed in terms of horse-power, was found to be roughly as follows, the sznzmum vistbile being defined as the feeblest light which is observed to vanish and reappear when silently occulted and restored without the knowledge of ithe observer :— Horse-power. ©'000000 000000 00018000 0000000 000000 00000075 0000000 000000 00017000 0000000 000000 34000000 Violet (A 400) Green (A 550) Scarlet (A 650) Crimson (A 750) These values were derived from observations made by a single observer, Mr. F. W. Very, and are, of course, subject to a large percentage of error. The general results of the investigation may be best summarized in Prof. Langley’s own words :— “The time required for the distinct perception of an ~excessively faint light is about one-half second. A re- latively very long time is, however, needed for the re- covery of sensitiveness after exposure to a bright light, and the time demanded for this restoration of complete visual power appears to be greatest when the light to be perceived is of a violet colour. The amount of energy required to make us see varies enormously according to ‘the colour of the light in question. It varies considerably ‘between eyes which may ordinarily be called normal ones, ‘but an average from those of four persons gives the NO. 1211, VOL. 47] following proportionate result for seven points in the normal spectrum, whose wave-lengths correspond ap- proximately with those of the ordinary colour divisions, where unity is the amount of energy required to make us see light in the extreme red of the spectrum near A, and where the six preceding wave-lengths given correspond approximately to the six colours, violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, red. | Crimson Colour Violet Blue| Green | Yellow Orange Red Wave length 400 470 530 580 602} 650 75° Luminosity 1609 | 62,000 100,000 | 28,000 | 14 007 | 1200 5 x It appears from this that the same amount of energy may produce at least 100,000 times the visual effect in one colour of the spectrum that it does in another. If now it be inquired what the actual value of unity is in ordinary measure, we are able to give this also with a fair approximation, and to say that the d7s-véva of the waves whose length is 7500 (tenth metres) being arrested by the ordinary retina, represents work done in giving rise to the sensation of the deepest red light of about ooo! of an erg in one-half pac 9 NOTES. THE Prince of Wales has consented to become Chairman of the Committee for the memorial of the late Sir Richard Owen, and to preside at a meeting to further the object, which will be — held in the rooms of the Royal Society, Burlington House, on Saturday, the 21st inst., at half-past eleven o’clock. Admission will be by tickets, which may be obtained from Mr. Percy Sladen, Linnean Society, Burlington House, W. (who is acting as secretary to the Committee), or from Mr. H. Rix, assistant secretary of the Royal Society. THE annual general meeting of the Royal Meteorological Society will be held at 25, Gre at George-street, Westminster, on Wednesday, the 18th instant, at 7.15 p.m., when the Report | of the Council will be read, the election of officers and council for the ensuing year will take place, and the President (Dr. C. Theodore Williams) will deliver an address on ‘‘The High Altitudes of Colorado and their Climates,” which will be illus- trated by a number of lantern slides. This meeting will be preceded by an ordinary meeting, which will begin at 7 p.m. THE general meeting of the Association for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching is to be held at University College, Gower Street, W.C., on Saturday, January 14, the Rev. C. Taylor in the chair. At the morning sitting (11 a.m.) the report of the Council will be read, the new officers will be elected, and several candidates will be proposed for election as members of the Association. After the conclusion of the formal business Mis. Bryant will give ‘‘A Model Lesson on Geometry, as a Basis for Discussion.” After an adjournment for luncheon at I p.m. members will re-assemble (2 p.m.) to hear papers by Mr. G. Heppel on ‘‘The Use of History in Teaching Mathematics,” and Mr. F. E. Marshall on **The Teaching of Elementary Arithmetic.” Members who wish to have any special matter brought forward at the general meeting, but who are unable to attend, are requested to com- municate with one of the Honorary Secretaries. All interested in the objects of the Association are invited to attend. . Dr. Lupwic Becker has been appointed to the chair of astronomy at the University of Glasgow. THE Comet Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific Coast has been awarded to Mr. Edwin Holmes, of Lon- don, for his discovery of a new comet on November 6. | Own Tuesday next (January 17) Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S., will begin a course of ten lectures, at the Royal Institution, on ‘* The Functions of the Cerebellum and the Elementary Prin- January 12, 1893] NATURE 253 - § ciples of Psycho-Physiology.” will begin on January 20, when Prof. Dewar, F.R.S., will give f x a discourse on ‘* Liquid Atmospheric Air.” F THE severe frost which set in just before Christmas was a Di arcnedal by a rapid rise of temperature in Scotland on pane but in England the thermometer did not rise much above the freezing point until about twenty-four hours later. On the 5th and 6th instant the thermometer fell below 10° in many parts of Great Britain, and snow was falling pox ‘Scotland, which after wards spread to many parts of nd ~The absolute shade minima recorded were—z2° at aem , and 2° at Fort Augustus, in the north of Scotland. e distr bution of pressure was unusually high over Scandi- mavia _ and : northern Europe (inadvertently referred to in our issue last week as over these islands) having reached about 31°3 nmches in Central Russia on the 4th, while areas of low pres- are lay over the Gulf of Genoa and the south-west of Ireland. _ The latter depression gradually extended eastwards, causing strong easterly gales on the Irish coasts, while the anticyclone over (Europ: gradually gave way, the barometer at Haparanda on ‘Monday being 1°5 inch lower than a few days previously. By ‘Sunday all stations reported temperatures above the freezing point, while in the south-west of Ireland the maxima reached 47° and ‘in the south of France even 63°. These changes were accom- panied by rain in most parts of the country, which added ma- ‘terially to the rapidity of the thaw. Bright aurora was seen on Monday night in Scotland and Ireland. On Tuesday an -anticyclone from the north-westward was spreading over our islands, with finer weather and lower temperatures generally, _ frost occurring in the north of Scotland and the central parts of The Friday evening meeting ‘the: femperature in the eastern and midland parts of Eng- ‘was 12° to 13° below the average for the week ; at several of the inland stations in England the daily maxima were below 32° * through the whole period. AN enlightened Bengali, Babu Govind Chandra Laha, has contributed fifteen thousand rupees towards the expenses of the proposed snake laboratory at Calcutta. We may expect, "therefore, that the institution will soon be in full working order. According to the Pioneer Mail, two main lines of research will ‘be red in the laboratory. So-called cures for snake-bites will be tested under strictly scientific conditions, and the pro- s of the snake poison as such will be investigated. The ratory will be the only institution of its kind in the world, o the Committee of the Calcutta Zoological Gardens, who. vhave taken the matter in hand, expect that it will be largely reso to by the scientific inquirers who visit India during cold weather. In accordance with the practice of scientific laboratories in Europe, a charge will be made for the use of ‘the tables and instruments at a rate sufficient to cover working expenses. Work done on behalf of the Government will also be charged for according to a regular scale. THE members and friends of the Society for the Study of Inebriety met on Tuesday to congratulate Dr. Severin Wielobycki on having completed one hundred years of life. PROF, BAIN contributes to the new number of J/ind an interesting sketch of the career of the late Prof. G. C. Robert- ‘son, with whose name Jind will always be intimately asso- ciated. Prof. Bain includes in his article the admirable notice of Robertson written by Mr. Leslie Stephen for the Spectator. WE are glad to note the publication of a fifth edition, revised vand augmented, of the Official Guide to the North Gallery at ‘the Royal Gardens, Kew. It includes a short and interesting _ biographical notice of Miss North. A map is given to convey some idea of the extent to which her collection illustrates the ‘vegetation of the temperate and tropical regions of the world. " NO. 1211, VOL. 47] The Weekly\Weather Report of the 7th instant showed A NEW edition of the list of members of the Institution of Civil Engineers, corrected to the 2nd inst., the seventy-fifth anniversary of its establishment, shows that the aggregate num- ber of all classes is 6341, an increase during the past year at the rate of 34 per cent. A PSYCHOLOGICAL laboratory has been established at Yale College, where Prof. Ladd has for some years been lecturing on physiological psychology. Science gives an_ interesting account of the new institution, which has been placed under the charge of Dr. E. W. Scripture, a pupil of Wundt. The labo- ratory consists of fifteen rooms, three of which, including an “isolated” room, are given over entirely to research. The isolated room is a small room built inside of .another room ; four springs of rubber and felt are the only points in which it comes in contact with the outer walls. The space between the walls is filled with sawdust as in an ice-box. The room is thus proof against sound and light, and, according to Science, affords an oppoctunity of making more accurate experiments on the mental condition than any yet attempted. STUDENTS of ethnography will be interested to hear that Dr. N, B. Emerson, of Honolulu, is preparing a full account of the Polynesian canoe. In a communication printed in the new number of the Journal of the Polynesian Society he points out that the various migrations of the ancient Polynesians and their progenitors, from whatever source derived, must have been accomplished in canoes or other craft, and that the waa, the pahi, &c., of to-day, however modified they may be under the operation of modern arts and appliances, are the lineal descend- ants of the sea-going craft in which the early ancestors of the Polynesians made their voyages generations ago. He holds, therefore, that a comparative study of the canoes cannot fail to shed light on the problems of Polynesian migrations and relationships. AN interesting little paper on the destruction of wild birds’ eggs, and egg-collecting, is contributed to the new number of the Annals of Scottish Natural History, by Col. W. H. M. Duthie. Collectors who require to be specially dealt with he groups in three classes—the aimless, the greedy, and the mercenary, In contrast with these is ‘‘the true collector,” whom Col. Duthie defines as ‘‘a naturalist, acquainting him- self with birds, their habits, flight, migration, language, and breeding haunts ; his egg-collecting being only one of the means of acquiring this knowledge.” The true collector should collect for himself, and should never receive an egg into his cabinet unless authenticated by an individual in whom he can implicitly trust. If all collectors were of this type, egg-dealers would cease to exist, and with them would disappear the tribe of hangers-on whom they maintain. A GooD study of the form of eggs has been recently made by Dr. Nicolsky of St.. Petersburg. He constructs an abstract formula, by which different eggs can be compared without regard to absolute dimensions. Calling the longer axis 1000, he obtains a figure representing the ratio of the longest transverse axis to it, and another, that of the distance of the obtuse end from the ‘‘centre,” or point where the longer axis cuts the plane of the equator ; then forms a fraction with these two figures, and takes it as the formula of the egg. Various explanations have been offered for the different forms of eggs. Dr. Nicolsky traces all to gravity. He considers that every egg not yet coated with a solid shell departs from the spherical form and elongates, simply because of pressure on it by the walls of the ovary. In birds which keep a vertical position when at rest (such as the falcon and owl) the soft egg becomes short through the bird’s weight acting against the ovarian pressure. In birds which, like the grebe, are nearly always swimming, the egg lengthens, because the body weight acts in the same direction as the ovarian compression. Lastly, eggs become 254 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 pyriform (more pointed at one end than the other) in birds which, like the guillemot, often change their position, sometimes swimming and diving, sometimes perching on rocks, &c. An examination of all the eggs in the zoological collection of the St. Petersburg University fully bore out these views. Dr. Nicol- sky thinks it would be useful to test the theory by experimenta- tion, birds being kept in a vertical or horizontal position at the laying time. For twelve years (1878 to 1890) M. P. Plantamour made care- ful observations of the displacements shown by twospirit levels (one north-south, the other east-west), in the cellar of his house at Sécheron. The instruments were transferred to the Geneva Obser- vatory, and the work resumed by M. Pidoux in April 1891 (after six months’ interruption). M. Plantamour found that the mean air temperature had a preponderating influence in the oscilla- tions observed, while some other factors of obscure nature were involved. The first year’s data at Geneva (Arch. de Sci.) reveal an annual oscillation of the ground ofthe Observatory about an axis directed north-east and south-west, such that the south-east part sinks in summer and rises in winter. The east side went down till July 16, then rose gradually till the end of December (29), there- after sinking again. The extremes were — 4°73 and +485 (an amplitude of 9°58). The variations of the south side were similar, but the amplitude somewhat greater. The north-south level showed some quite abnormal variations in the autumn of 1891, to which, however, the author does not attach great importance. AN interesting contribution to our knowledge of the adapta- tion of structure to function in the human body is afforded in an investigation by Signor Minervini (of the Naples Society of Naturalists) of the blood-vessels of the skin in different parts. Portions of skin were prepared so as to show the exact structure of the chiefarteries in them. The results are as follows :— (1) The artery-walls of the skin in men are generally thicker than those of other organs. (2) This greater thickness is due gene- rally, and during most of life, to thickening of the middle layer ; but in childhood the outer, and in advanced years the innermost, layer is most developed. (3) The artery-walls in the hollow of the hand, the finger-tips, and the sole, are, other things equal, thicker than those in the back of the hand, the forehead, the arm, &c. This greater thickness is due chiefly to a greater development of the middle layer, and in all ages of life. The arteries in the hollow of the hand in the case of occupations involving hard manual labour show a greater in- crease of thickness than in the case of those with little or no such work. In these cases all three layers of the artery are thickened, but the middle layer most. (4) In women all the chief arteries of the hollow of the hand and of the back of the hand are somewhat less thick than in men. The difference is not great, but occurs at all ages. IN a paper on the Santa Isabel Nitrate Works, Toca Chile, read lately before the Scottish Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders, and now printed in the Institution’s Transac- tions, Mr. G. M. Hunter has something to say regarding the origin of ‘‘caliche,” as nitrate of soda is called in its native state. Some contend that ‘‘ caliche ” is a marine deposit, others that it is an animal deposit, while others say it is a vegetable deposit. Mr. Hunter holds the first of these views. The coast of Chile has several times been disturbed and upheaved by volcanic agency, and he suggests that a large tract of sea was enclosed and heaved up to the present height of the nitrate region, and there formed an inland sea, which, after a lapse of time under a tropical sun, evaporated, leaving the salts to per- colate and form the beds of nitrate. From the formation of the ground, showing depressions and ravines leading to the sea, it is evident that immense volumes of water at some remote period have passed through them. In proof of this, Mr NO. 1211, VOL. 47] Hunter points out that no “‘caliche”’ is ever found in such places, the accepted opinion being that there has been a ‘‘ wash out,” as it is called. During a later period than that of the formation of the ‘‘caliche” great floods passed over the plains, as is shown by the deep tracks of rivers, and the smooth washed appearance of the surface. Such periodical floods are commom in tropical, rainless regions, and would not call for special remark, but from the fact that wherever these river tracks or washed surface appear no ‘‘ caliche”’ canbe found. This is so well known that even the workmen never attempt to search for it in such places. The only surface indication for the presence of ‘‘caliche” is rising ground covered with small black stones. The ‘‘caliche” in its native state is white, very compact and amorphous, not unlike rock salt, but when rich in iodine it assumes various colours, according to the composition and quality of the iodine it contains. For example, at times it contains masses of bright yellow, red, or blue, and again wholly composed of a dull black colour, in which state it requires an expert to distinguish it from cos¢ra or rock. Mr. E. LoMMEL claims to have found a simple explanatiom of the Hall effect. A simple train of reasoning shows, he says, that the equipotential lines perpendicular to the lines of flow in a plate are also the lines of force due to the current. If iron. filings are strewn upon the plate they will arrange themselves along the equipotential lines if the current be strong enough. On bringing the plate into a magnetic field these lines of force change their position. Hence the lines of flow, necessarily orthogonal to the lines of force, will also change in form and position. ACCORDING to Dr. J. Bohm, the statement that Phytophthora infestans, the fungus which causes the potatoe diseases, hiber- nates in the tubers, is incorrect, nothing whatever being known about its mode of hibernation. He further states that the infec tion of the potatoes never takes place in the soil through the uninjured skin, but is always brought about through injury to: the tubers by insects or snails. In potatoe-heaps sound tubers can never be infected by their diseased neighbours. An infected potatoe either does not germinate at all or Liter a oem plant. IN examining milk which is ipso to contain the felarric bacillus it is usual to subject a sample of the milk to the action. of a centrifugal machine after separating the fat. One method of working is described by Ilkewitsch (Miimchener med. Wochenschr. 1892). The casein in 20 c.c. of milk is coagulated with citric acid, and, after filtering, the residue is dissolved in a solution ofsodium phosphate. The butter-fat is separated by shaking with 6c.c. of an aqueous ether solution, and acetic acid is then added until the liquid is on the point of coagulating. It is then placed in a copper tube tapering at the bottom, and _this- tube isinserted in the centrifugal machine and turned at the rate of 3600 revolutions per minute for fifteen minutes. _ The bacilli collect at the narrow end of the tube together with other sediment and dirt. The liquid is poured off, and the sediment examined microscopically. Thorner (Chem. Ztg. 1892, pp. 791-2) gives another.method, which is as follows :—20 c.c. of the suspected milk are mixed with 1 c.c. of 50 per cent. potash solution, and heated in a bath of boiling water until the fat is saponified, when the solution turns yellowish brown. By this. treatment the casein and albumen become soluble in acid. Twenty cubic centimetres of acetic acid are added, the solution shaken, heated on water-bath for three minutes, transferred to a. strong glass tube, and turned in the centrifugal machine for ten. minutes. The liquid is poured off, and the sediment is washed. by shaking with 30 c.c. hot water, and again turned in the centrifugal machine. The water is poured off, and the sediment placed upon cover-glasses, which are treated in the ordinary way, ay, JANuARY 12, 1893] NATURE 455 staining with hot Neelsen’s solution, decolourizing in 25 p.c. sulphuric acid, and finally staining in methylene blue; instead _ of washing the cover-glasses in sulphuric acid Thérner simply vases a solution of methylene blue containing sulphuric acid. fi A METHOD of producing an intense monochromatic light is 7 described by Dr. Du Bois (Zeitschr. fiir Instr. p. 165). It _ differs from the usual processes in the form in which the sodium is introduced into the flame. A mixture of sodium bromide and bicarbonate is made cohesive by adraganth and moulded into sticks 4 mm. in diameter and 12 to 15cm. long. These are kept in the flame of a Linnemann burner by means of a rack and pinion motion. Their conductivity being very low, they are only vaporized at the extreme end. The latter must be _ coverel to avoid a continuous spectrum. At the greatest in- tensity, two or three centimetres of the substance are consumed per minute. The spectrum exhibits, besides the enormously ; ‘preponderating D lines, a air of lines in the green, and a fainter pair in the red. From the ages of persons who have died i in France during the dast 32 years, M. Turquan computes the average life there to have been about 38 years for women, 36 for men, and 37 years for both sexes together (Rev. Sci.). But this is now exceeded, and the average is over 40 years; a result, partly, of more attention to hygiene, partly of a diminished birth-rate. Froma map showing the distribution of the average life, one finds the average very low in Finistére and Brittany (28 years 11 months in the former) i in the Nord, the Pyrénées Orientales, &c., and especially in Corsica (28 years 1 month). In Vinistire: and _ Corsica one finds least hygiene and most children, but not the ighest mortality of children. In some parts of Normandy, la high infantile mortality, the mean life is yet very long. Thus it is about 48 years in Eure, 47+in Orne and Calvados, _&c. The difference between the average life of men and women rises to 4 years (excess in case of women) in the north- west, and diminishes as you come towards the Mediterranean ; and in Basses Alpes and Gard (in the south-east) man lives longer than’ woman by about a year and a half. In Normandy and Brittany there are most widows, and woman appears to have a grea ter vitality. _ Iris now many years since electric currents were proved to exist in plants. In the study of these currents, an important step in advance was taken when Prof. Burdon Sanderson proved their existence i in uninjured parts of living plants (it was usual before to apply electrodes, often polarizable, to cut parts). As to their certain experiments made by Kunkel, some time ago, led him to think it was in the purely mechanical process of water- motion, set up on application of the moist electrode. The sub- _ ject has been recently investigated by Herr Haake, who pro- nounces against this view. He used Du Bois Reymond’s clay _ electrodes, with some woollen fibres projecting at the ends, and hhe enclosed the leaves in a tube in which they were guarded _ from air-draughts and kept moist. Arrangements were also _ made for various operations, such as varying transpiration, ad- _ mitting hydrogen, removing oxygen, &c. (for details see Flora, _ p- 455, of this year). Herr Haake’s results are briefly these :— _ 4. It is unquestionable that changes of matter of various kinds __ are concerned in the production of the electric currents, especially _ oxygen respiration, and carbonic-acid assimilation. 2. Water- _ ‘movements may possibly share in their production, but certainly ‘their share is but a small one. _ THE Jzvestia of the East Siberian Geographical Society _ (vol. xxiii., 3) contains an account of M. Obrutcheffs’ further _ researches in the Olekma and Vitim highlands. In the north- eastern, formerly quite unknown part of this region, the _ author found a further continuation of the ‘‘ Patom plateau ”— NO. 1211, VOL. 47] that is, a swelling from 3500 to 4000 feet high, devoid of tree vegetation, with ridges and mountains rising over it to heights of from 5000 to 5600 feet. They consist of granite and crystalline schists, probably of Laurentian age, covered with younger, probably Huronian, gneisses and schists. The other parts of the highlands consist of Cambrian and Lower Silurian deposits, while Upper Silurian limestones and Devonian Red sandstones are only met with in the valley of the Lena. We thus have a further confirmation ofthe hypothesis, according to which the great plateau of north-eastern Asia is a remnant of an old conti- nent which has not been submerged since the Devonian epoch. Further traces of mighty glaciation have been found in the south-east part of the region. Asto the gold-bearing deposits, they are pre-glacial in the south, and post-glacial or recent in the north. The high terraces in the valleys are indicative of a considerable post-pliocene accumulation of alluvial deposits,and of a subsequent denudation on a great scale. MEssrs. MACMILLAN AND Co. announce that a new edition of Sir Archibald Geikie’s ‘‘ Text-book of Geology” is in the press, and will appear shortly. THE third and fourth volumes (completing the work) of Mr. H. C. Burdett’s ‘‘ Hospitals and Asylums of the World” will be published by Messrs. J. and A. Churchill about the end of this month. Vol. iii. deals with the history and administration of hospitals in all countries throughout the world. Vol. relates to hospital construction, and contains a bibliography and portfolio of plans. Messrs. R. SUTTON AND Co. have published a second edi- tion of Mr. J. E. Gore’s ‘‘ Scenery of the Heavens,” with stellar photographs and various drawings. Mr. W. F. Denning con- tributes to the volume a chapter on fireballs, shooting stars, and meteors. THE second annual issue of *‘ The Year-Book of Science,” edited by Prof. Bonney, F.R.S., is now in a forward state of preparation, and will be shortly published by Messrs. Cassell and Company. Messrs. DULAU AND Co. have published ‘‘ Annals of British Geology, 1891,” by J. F. Blake. This is the second issue, and geologists will be unanimously of opinion that it is a decided improvement upon the first. It contains a digest of the books and papers published during the year, with occasional notes. LEcTuRES on the ear will be delivered in Gresham College, Basinghall Street, E.C., on January 17, 18, 19, and 20, at 6 o’clock, by Dr. E. Symes Thompson. In Mr. R. Assheton’s letter (NATURE, vol. xlvii. p. 176) the sentence beginning line 31 of the second column should have read thus:—‘‘ But it is more metazoic—if I may use such a word—to call the whole animal resulting from the segmentation of the fertilized ovum, the sexually produced generation.” Two interesting new compounds are described by Prof. Anschiitz, of Bonn, in the current number of the Berichte. They are well-crystallized compounds of the lactides derived from salicylic acid and the next higher (cresotinic) acid with chloro- form, which latter substance is so loosely united with the lactide that warming to the temperature of boiling water is amply sufficient to dissociate them. Hence the compounds may be employed for obtaining perfectly pure chloroform, and for preserving chloroform in a solid form in which it is not prone’to decomposition. The lactide of salicylic acid has long been supposed to be formed when the acid is treated with oxychloride of phosphorus. Prof. Anschiitz, however, shows that the pro- duct of this reaction contains many other substances in addition, but by working under special conditions he has succeeded in 256 NATURE [JANUARY I2, 1893 isolating pure salicylide. Salicylic acid is dissolved in an in- different solvent, preferably toluene or xylene, before the addition of the phosphorus oxychloride. The product of the reaction is washed first with soda and afterwards with water. Owing to the property, discovered by Prof. Anschiitz during the course of the work, which salicylide possesses of combining with chloro- . form, it may be extracted from the white solid product, after drying, by means of chloroform, the compound being deposited from the chloroform solution in large colourless transparent crystals belonging to the tetragonal system. The compound possesses the composition CgH,.CO.0.2CHCl;. The chloro- form readily escapes upon warming, in very much the same manner as the water of crystallization contained in many crystallized salts. The free salicylide remaining is a solid sub- stance melting at 261°. As regards its molecular constitution it is shown, by the amount of lowering of the melting-point of phenol employed as asolvent, to contain four of the salicylic radicles CgH,.CO.O, and is probably a closed ring compound. In a precisely similar manner phosphorus oxychloride reacts with the three cresotinic acids, the acids next higher than salicylic, with formation among other substances of lactides, which may be isolated in the same way in the form of their chloroform compounds, CH3;. C,Hs.CO.0.2CHCl;. Ortho- cresotinic acid lends itself best to this reaction. The pure lactides are readily obtained from the chloroform compounds by warm- ing to 100°, pure chloroform being gently evolved. THE two substances above described, salicylide-chloroform and the corresponding compound derived from ortho-cresotinic acid, are admirably adapted for the preparation of pure chloro- form, on account of their large content of the latter substance, salicylide-choloroform containing 33°24 per cent. and the cresotinic compound 30°8 per cent of its weight. Moreover, in closed vessels they may be preserved any:length of time; when exposed to the open air salicylide-chloroform slowly loses its chloroform, but the cresotinic compound is well-nigh stable, even under these conditions. The same quantity of the free lactide may be used over and over again without decomposition, it being only necessary, in order to re-form the chloroform com- pound, to allow it to remain in contact with the chloroform to be purified for twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature. None of the usual impurities in chloroform crystallize along with the compound, so that a perfect separation is effected. Again, it is well known that pure chloroform decomposes more or less on keeping ; this loss may be avoided by storing it in the form of the lactide, and regenerating it when required by the appli- cation of a gentle heat, with the certainty of obtaining it per- fectly pure. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Rhesus Monkey (Macacus rhesus 9 ) from India, presented by Mr. W. Stutely; two Barbary Mice (AZus barbarus) from North Africa, presented by Lord Lilford ; four Bearded Titmice (Panurus btarmicus), European ; four Ani (Crotophaga ani) from South America; six Hog-nosed Snakes (Heterodon platyrhinos) ; a Striped Snake ( Zropidonotus sirtalis); a Snake (Pitnophis ), from North America, purchased. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE MOTION OF Nova AURIG&.—Prof. W. W. Camp- bell, of the Lick Observatory, has communicated further results relating to Nova Aurige to the December number of Astro- nomy and Astrophysics. He is now perfectly convinced that the variation in the velocity previously suspected is real, and probably due to orbital motion. The values given below have been calculated on the assumption that the brightest line in the spectrum of the Nova, since the reappearance in August, is NO. I2II, VOL, 47] really the chief nebula line. The bright lines were displaced towards the violet, indicating approach, whereas in Fela and March last they were displaced towards the red. Date. V pproach. 1892. a soy of apo Aug. 20 5003 °6 128 2I fey ‘ 125 be 22 a9 125 23 31 147 (3? 2°4 173. Sep. 3 2°4 173 4 1‘9 192 6 2°1 184 2 7 I'9 192 15 22 180: ye 2° I Oct. 12 os ee 19 38 12k.” Nov, 2 4°4 = 3 4°7 87 In the same journal Mr. Sidgreaves points out that the new lines cannot simply be revivals of those of F ebruary, and, further, that on account of the great difference of velociti and the reversed direction, they cannot be supposed to bel the briyht-line component of February. Neither is it ity: that the dark-line component has become a- planetary nebula, and the probability of three bodies rushing together being very small, Father Sidgreaves believes the new results to the view that the compound character of the spectrum was pro- : duced by local disturbances of a single star. ASTRONOMICAL DISCOVERIES IN 1892.—In the Observatory: for January Mr. Denning gives an excellent summary of the astronomical discoveries of 1892, a year which was very pel able for the special attention given to the science by the and the public. In chronological order the principal renal were as follows :— January 20.—Minor planet (324) discovered b by Max Wolf at Heidelberg. (Altogether 27 MiSigs during the year by various observers. ) January 23-30.—Discovery of Nova Aa by Dr. Anderson. February 11.—The great sun- spot, extending over 150,000 miles of longitude, reached the sun’s central meri was followed by remarkable magnetic disturbances and diols of aurora. i : March 6.—Comet discovered by Lewis Swift. ! \ March 18.—Comet discovered by Denning at’ Bristol, 2a this day also, Dr. Spitaler, of Vienna, re-detected the periodical comet of Pons (1819) and Winnecke (1858). August 6.—Opposition of Mars. Mr. Denning writes :: +. Practically our knowledge stands where it stood before. The results are not sufficiently discordant to settle disputed points.” August 27.—A new comet discovered by Brooks, of N.Y. September 9.—Prof. Barnard’s memorable discovery of the fifth satellite of Jupiter. _ October 12.—Comet discovered by photography “by Prof. Barnard. November 6.—Bright comet discovered in Andromeda by- Mr. Edwin Holmes, London. November 20.—A faint comet discovered by Brooke, November 23.—Brilliant shower of shooting stars observed in. Canada and the United States. The shower was evidently that. of the Andromedes connected with Biela’s comet. ComET HoitmgEs.—Mr. Lewis Boss finds for this comet a period of 6°914 years, and concludes that no very close ap- proach to Jupiter can have taken place in recent years; the eccentricity, however, is so small that important perturbations. by Jupiter may have occurred. He further states that ‘the recent remarkable decrease in brightness of the comet seems to do away. with the necessity of supposing that it has been recently made a member of the solar system. This decrease also renders it reasonably certain that the comet must have been subjected to some extraordinary disturbance of its internal economy, by the application of forces from without or within, with the result of giving to it that which was really an unaccustomed and tem- porary size and brightness ” (Astronomical Journal, No. 283). According to Mr. Lockyer’s views, such increase of brightness would be produced by the comet colliding with::another meteor en: . « Rs ng Pf under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, on NO. I211, VOL. 47] January 12, 1893] NATURE 257 | a ‘swarm lying in its track, and it is quite possible that the bright- ening of the comet at the time of the discovery was very sudden, thus explaining why the comet was not detected earlier. Rev. E. M. Searle (Astronomical Fournal, No. 283) x has deduced a period fifteen days shorter than that of Mr. Schulhof, of Paris, finds a period of 6°909 years. He s out that among the known periodic comets that of De Vico shows the greatest orbital similarity to Holmes’s comet, and he considers that they may possibly have a common origin. Mr. Roberts, of the Nautical Almanac Office, accepting as real the supposed impression of the comet obtained by Mr. 01 in a photograph of the region taken on October 18, iod of fifteen years, but the general agreement of the latest co. tions seems to indicate that the image in question could not be that of the comet. Boss. _M. oF _ The comet is now so dim that it is not considered necessary to continue the ephemeris. i ; ce ‘ase 5 ‘. Is OF CoMET Brooks (November 20, 1892).—The lowing ephemeris of Comet Brooks (Berlin, midnight) is in Ast. Nach., No. 3140, by Kreutz :— Date. Re Decl. (app.) Log 7. Log 4. ; ar Re ; Jan. 12...21 4018 ... + 5941 0°0786 9°89015 aie” S04. 58 81 0'079I 9 ‘9012 «14... 22 9 53 56 33°6 0°0797 99114 eed (aS aaa fale 54591 . 0°0803 9°9220 Toure... 30 47 53 25°7 0°08 10 9°9330 os pager oe EO”... 51 54°2 00818 9°9442 Mires S047... 50 25°2 ... 0°0826 ... 9°9556 te 19 s0@2 5523... 48 59°3 00835 ... 9°9670 EOR SHOWER OF NOVEMBER 23, 1892.—Further ‘ THE a few minutes none The radiant was near y and there is little doubt that the shower was that due to Biela’s comet. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. gs ‘In M. Dybowski’s journey from the Mobangi to the Shari, at a recent meeting of the Paris Geoyraphical y, he encountered one of the most systematically cannibal ‘which has yet been described. This tribe, known as Bonjos, have only one object of purchase—slaves to be hey refuse to sell food or any other products of their g eaten. : ; . . country for anything else, and the surrounding tribes capture and export can»e-loads of slaves for this purpose. The French sation experienced great difficulty in obtaining food amongst a people who had no desire for ordinary articles of trade. Tue boundaries of the republics of South and Central America are certainly the least definite lines on the political of the world so far as civilized lands are concerned. The question of delimitation is never at rest. Dr. H. Polakowsky gives in the last number of Petermann’s Mitteilungen a brief account of the negotiations and surveys relating to the frontier of Costa Rica and Nicaragua from 1858 to 1890. The difficulty in this case lies in the fact that the mouth of the San Juan river, a certain point of which was fixed on in 1858 as the coast frontier, is continually changing, and a breakwater belonging to the harbour and canal entrance of Greytown, in Nicaragua, now stands in what was formerly the territory of Costa Rica. On the Pacific coast years of diplomacy were required to fix the centre of Salinas Bay, but it is satisfactory to know that ent boundary stones have now been erected at both ends of the line. Mr. Coes delivered his second lecture to young people Friday evening, when a large audience of both young and old enjoyed his spirited descriptions of Iceland and British Columbia, illuminated by many anecdotes of pers »nal adventure. THE defective condition of the charts, even of the coast of Europe, was strikingly brought out by the recent court-martial on the stranding of H.M.S. Howe in Ferrol Channel. The chart used on board was drawn from soundings made about a hundred years ago, with a few subsequent corrections, which failed altogether to indicate the rock on which the Howe struck. The Spanish authorities are reported to have refused permission for the new chart surveyed by the officers of the Channel Squadron to be published, and meanwhile the Hydrographic Office has cancelled the old chart. A NEW SEISMOGRAPA. BEFORE speaking of this memoir, let me enter a protest against the method of publishing these ‘‘ Annali” in such a way as to convey the impression that the papers composing it were written three years before their actual date. All readers are warned that when the volume is bound up, and the paper covers are removed, they must post-date the papers by three ears. The seismograph described in the present paper is intended for stations of the second class. The objects in view in its con- struction were amplification of the record in a pendulum seis- mograph, and improvement of the warning apparatus in the form of a style seismoscope of the Milne type which the author finds frequently fails. The amplifying lever is composed of fine placfont tubes arranged girder-like in the form of a short hollow triangular prism, sur- mounted by anacute triangular pyramid, which points downwards, and carries at its apex the writing style. The pendulum bobisa flattened cylinder, supported by a placfont wire 1°50 m. long. The amplifying lever at the junction of the three pyramidal and the prismatic tubes supports three radial arms meeting in the centre, as it were, of the pyramid base, and support a ball-and- socket joint of agate, the cup part of which is at the end of an arm projecting from the supporting wall. Immediately above this centre,-and occupying the prism space of the lever, is the cylindrical box, the wire supporting which passes through a small hole in the centre of the base of the prism. We thus have a simple lever of the first order of light girder work. It is prevented from rotating in azimuth by including some steel wire permanently magnetized. The style has been modified by lightening it and making it more rigid and non-oxidizable, which is done by using a capil- lary glass tube.. The registering apparatus is a smoked glass plate, supported over a clock, started at the moment of the earthquake by a seismoscope. To prevent the complex figures of the ordinary registration in a pendulum seismograph, the author has arranged so that the plate shall rotate through a segment of a circle every three seconds, so as to bring a fresh surface of smoked glass beneath the style. Some modifications are then described. The principal one is making the bub annular, carrying a suitable aperture, in which is engaged the short end ofa lever. This lever is composed of three very thin brass tubes, graduating away smaller from the fulcrum, which is a gimbal joint such as suggested by the reviewer some years since in NATURE. This lever carries at-its lower and longer end the style which records on the glass plate as inthe original one described in this memoir. Another modification is a combination of the triple and single suspension of the pendulum bob, that is, the bob ring is first suspended by triple wires to a button which in its turn hangs at the end of a single wire. The details of these seismographs are fairly well worked out, but the employment of aluminium in many of the parts has been neglected. Likewise, no arrangement has been made for the oblique play of the engaged pinion in the newer lever. The only new point about this seismograph is the interrupted rotation of the recording plate. Thishas a decided advantage in giving a dissected record, but is part counterblanced by the fact that important movements that may be taking place at the moment x G* Agamennone, ‘‘ Sopra un Ntiovo Pendolo Sismografico.” Annalz dell’ Ufficio Centrale Meteor. e Geodinamico, ser. sec., pt. 3, vol. xi., 1889- (Roma, 1892.) 258 NATURE [JanuaRY 12, 1893 of the advance are represented by.a curve or curves which would require a series of careful experiments to be carried out in each instrument, followed by difficult and elaborate calculation for each advance. Much credit is due to the author for working out the modifi- cations, but until we have some original method of finding a steady-point, not so far suggested, it is doubtful if we can im- prove on the Gray, Ewing, and Milne seismographs, that are not, as the author imagines, little used or tested instruments. H. J. Jounston-Lavis. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF NEW SOUTH WALES. A SECOND edition of an excellent pamphlet on the ‘‘ Phys- ical Geography and Climate of New South Wales,” by Mr. H. C. Russell, F.R.S., astronomer royal for New South Wales, has just been issued at Sydney. It is published by authority of the New South Wales Government. The following extracts may be of interest to various classes of readers in Great Britain :— Looking back through the pages of history, and the dim traditions of an earlier time, we find abundant evidence of a belief in the existence of a great south land to the south and east of what was then the well known earth, Those early navigators whose travels had fostered this belief, had doubtless followed down the Malay Peninsula and the string of islands which seem to form part of it, in search of spices and other treasures which the islands supplied. Pliny, who had evidently gathered up the traditions of ‘‘ Terra Australis incognita,” says that it lay a long way south of the Equator, and in proof of this mentions the fact, strange in those days, that when some of its inhabitants were brought to civilization they were astonished to find the sun rise on their left hand instead of on their right. And Ptolemy, A.D. 170, after describing the Malay Peninsula, says: Beyond it, to the south-east, there was a great bay in which was found the most distant point of the earth ; it is called ‘*Cattigara,” and is in latitude 84° south ; ‘‘ thence (he goes on to say) the land turns to the west, and extends an immense dis- tance until (as he believed) it joins Africa.” And it may fairly be assumed that the extreme south latitude of Cattigara, and its situation in a great bay where the land turns to the west until it joins Africa, is proof that it was some point in the Gulf of Car- pentaria, for no other place would fulfil the conditions. The idea that the land actually reached Africa was not Ptolemy’s ; it was a necessary part of the system of Hipparchus, for he taught that the earth surrounded the water and prevented it from flowing away. It is not surprising, theréfore, that the early navigators, following down the islands, came at length to that part of the Gulf of Carpentaria where the land turned to the west; and believing Hipparchus’ system of geography, thought that in turning to the west they were in reality turning towards home, and Cattigara was therefore the most distant point known. Marco Polo tells us that the Chinese navigators in his day (A.D. 1293) asserted there were thousands of islands in the sea to south of them, and in the present day we find proofs of their early visits to Australia in the traces of Chinese features amongst the natives of the northern coast ; indeed, some historians think that Marco Polo, in the account he gives of the expedition sent to Persia by the Great Khan, refers directly to Australia, under the name of Lochac. This place he says was too faraway to be subjugated by the Great Khan, and was seldom visited ; but it yielded gold in surprising quantity, and amongst other wonders contained within it an immense lake or inland sea. It is im- possible that such a description should apply, as has been thought, to the Malay Peninsula,—a country within easy reach, and one which his ships must have passed in every voyage; and so far from being beyond his power, it was within the limits over which his sway extended. That Lochac formed part of the main-land ‘was also quite in accordance with theirideas of the earth, which surrounded the ocean, and the abundance of gold is certainly more likely to be true of Australia than of the Malay Peninsula. For long years after Marco Polo we find no direct reference to Australia, except the stories which lived amongst navigators, and seemed to lose none of their marvellous points by transmis- sion. These kept alive the desire to explore the great south land, so rich in treasures and wonders. All the evidence col- lected so far goes to prove that the Portuguese had, early in the NO. 1211, VOL. 47] sixteenthcentury, explored at least the northern parts of Australia. What they learned was, however, kept a profound secret until about 1540, when one of their government maps was stolen ; and there are now in existence six maps believed to be copies of it, which were all published between 1539 and 1555. These all show Australia under the name of the ‘* Land of Java,” the real Java being called the ‘‘ Little Java,” and from this time onward frequent attempts were made to explore what had for so many generations been ‘‘ Terra Australis incognita.” Sturdy naviga- tors could not understand the silence of the Portuguese, — as proof of the richness of the land, about which tradition told wonderful tales. ‘‘It was a land of gold and spices, of magnifi- cent tropical fruits and vegetation—a perfect paradise, in which the happy and simple inhabitants were loaded with jingling ornaments of gold. Its very atmosphere was elixir, and existence a round of enjoyment.” No wonder that in an age when, at least upon the ocean, the power to take was mistaken for the right to do so, there were many who cast longing glances towards the southern Paradise. Whether these stories of gold had any foundation in fact or not, when barter was regularly exchanged on the coast of Australia, it is impossible now to say, but more recent discoveries of rich surface gold lend some colour to them, and the vegetable richness of the northern part of Australia is quite in accordance with tradition. But all the early English naviga- tors were unfortunate, and Australia got a reputation the very reverse of what further investigation has shown that it deserves. In point of fact, all the glowing colouring of tradition is true ; but when Dampier, in 1688, sailed down the western coast, he saw nothing but a ‘‘dry sandy soil,” and the ‘*‘ miserablest people in the world”; and later on, when the first English settlers landed on Australia, they chose a bay, beautiful to look at, but there was no gold and no fruit worthy of the name, the soil was barren and sandy, and the climate in the worst part of its summer. No wonder that the fame of Australia was black- ened, and report made it a miserable land, subject to droughts and floods—a land in which everything was turned topsy-turvy. The summer came at winter time ; trees shed their bark, not their leaves—were brown instead of green ; the stones were on the outside of the cherries ; and the pears, pleasant to look at, were only to be cut with an axe ; and there was nothing to eat, ‘‘unless, perchance, ye’l fill ye with root of fern or stalk of lily.” Such was the early verdict upon Australia. Fortunately the first colonists, once here, were obliged to stop. By degrees. they found that everything that was planted grew well; that wheat in the valley of the Hawkesbury yielded 40 to 50 bushels to the acre, and in one memorable season actually ruined the farmers by its very abundance, for in the then limited market, the price fell so low that it was not worth gathering, and - it was left in the fields to rot, while the farmers sought other work. Horses, sheep, cattle, and pigs throve marvellously, and some of the cows getting away, the bush soon contained numbers of wild cattle. Even wool did not deteriorate in the new Colony ; and step by step the facts became too strong for prejudice, and the first fleeces of Australian sheep sent to England lifted the veil. Manufacturers would gladly take as many as could be sent; their demand for more wool extends with the supply, and now only from Australia can they obtain the fine wools which they need. - Quantity and quality of wool have increased together, and the Grand Prize at the Paris Ex- hibition for our New South Wales wool has proclaimed the fact far and wide. Wool has done still more for the Colony. We took possession of it as a narrow strip of coast country; the de- mand for pasture forced us to find a way over a hitherto impass- _ able range, and the same want has driven all the desert out of the Colony, and covered it with sixty-two millions of valuable sheep — (1892). The country which early writers upon Australia called a barren waterless desert is now growing the finest wool and yielding abundant water from wells, and when, in 1851, it was announced that gold had been discovered in abundance, the world was convinced that Australia was a promising country after all. Year by year the people have been coming in increas- ing numbers to supply our great want (population), and as our numbers increase new avenues of wealth and prosperity are opening before us. ; Geographically, Australia has a grand position, lying between the 10th and goth degrees of south latitude—that happy mean where it is neither too hot nor too cold. Surrounded by the ocean, the sea breezes temper what might otherwise be a hot climate in the summer ; the air is clear and dry, and yet brings rain in heavy showers. Vegetation is abundant, and includes JANUARY 12, 1893] all the cereals and fruits of the world, so that, in the words of the old tradition, it has ‘‘all the conditions which make life a re.:* Australia measures from north to south 1900 miles, and from east to west 2400 miles, and speaking generally, has a rounded outline, the only great inlets on the coast-line being the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Australian Bight. The total area is rather greater than that of the United States, and almost equal to the whole of Europe. On the east, north, and west, and at a short distance from the coast are found ranges of moun- tains, of no great elevation, yet almost the only high land. On the west and north-west coasts the mountains form a bold out- line of granite, rarely more than 200 miles from the coast, and —* to heights of 2000 t» 3000 feet. Between these and the sea the land is low and good, but on the inland side is found a vast table land which slopes towards the unknown interior so ly that the inclination is not easily seen, and no rivers running to the interior have yet been discovered—all known streams running to the sea. _ On the east coast we have also the mountain chain parallel to the coast, but it is much higher and more extensive, and the strip of low land by the coast is much narrower, often not more than 30 miles wide, and at Point Danger the range comes right to the sea. This grand chain of mountains is known generally as the Great Dividing Range, and extends for about 1500 miles along the east coast. Near its southern extremity is the Snowy Range, the only spot in Australia where snow may always be found. The highest peak, Mount Kosciusko, 7170 feet, is also the highest land in Australia. The ravines on its ides always contain snow, and the mountains near it, about igh, are also covered with snow for the greater part of the year. . ' OF this great continent island, the Colony of New South Wales holds the choicest portion—the southern part of the east coast—the part where, with remarkable sagacity, the first settle- ment was made, It has the best climate, all the most important rivers in Australia, the great bulk of the coal land, unlimited stores of all the useful minerals, and the finest pastoral and agricultural lands for extra-tropical vegetation ; besides which, its extensive highlands afford climatic conditions for all pur- poses. It is naturally divided into three portions. The com- paratively narrow coast district, from 30 to 150 miles wide, abundantly watered by rivers and smaller streams coming down from the mountains, The rainfall here, fed by winds from the Great Pacific Ocean, is very abundant, from 40 inches in the south to 70 in the north, and at Sydney 50 inches. The moun- tains have doubtless very much to do with this abundant precipitation, and at times the rains are so heavy that the rivers, fed by mountain torrents, carry heavy and dangerous floods. In years past wheat was largely and profitably grown, but rust has of late so frequently appeared that little or no wheat is grown, for it pays better to supply the city markets with dairy produce, Indian corn, and various kinds of hay. In the northern districts sugar-growing is a profitable industry, and increasing rapidly. About Sydney enormous quantities of sh ~ mg are grown for exportation. The second division includes the mountains and elevated plains, and extends the whole length of the colony, varying in width from 120 to 200 miles. On the south, with the exception of the Monaro Tableland, the country is very rough and mountainous, the highest points, Mount Kosciusko and the Snowy Range, catch the rain and snow that feed the river Murray and the Murrumbidgee. Wheat grows well here, but nearly all the land is used for pastoral purposes. Proceeding north , the mountains decrease in height and extend later- ally. A part of the land is taken up for agriculture, some for mining. In its natural state the western country is open plain or lightly-timbered, and large areas are covered with rich volcanic soil which seems fit to grow anything, but the want of labour and carriage, and the profit and security to be found in raising wool and meat, has for the most part tempted capital into squatting pursuits ; but since the railway has reached this part of the country more attention is being given to agriculture, and it is rapidly extending. Between Goulburn and Bathurst, the western waters form the Lachlan and the eastern the Hawkesbury rivers, and from Bathurst northwards to latitude 25° all the western waters go to form the various tributaries of the Darling river. These mountains are from 2000 to 3000 feet, with some peaks rising to nearly 6000 feet. The central parts of the western slopes are celebrated for rich soil and NO. 1211, VOL. 47] NATURE 259 herbage, and here also the greater part of the gold-mining area, as well as mines for other minerals have been found, including coal, which is also found in great abundance, with iron and lime, at Lithgow and other places. Deposits of copper, silver, lead, tin, and mercury are also found in abundance. A very large portion of the high land here is suitable for agriculture, and is being taken up for that purpose by degrees. English fruits—the apple, cherry, currant, &c.—grow to perfection here, as well as in other parts of the mountain districts. The third division covers by far the greatest area, and consists of the Great Western Plains, extending away to the Darling river, and thence to the south Australian border. Here there are but few known mineral deposits except copper, and the enormous deposits of silver and lead at Broken Hill, and no attempt at agriculture. All the land may be said to be held for grazing purposes, and for that purpose, now that capital has been invested in tanks and wells for water supply, this country is unequalled. Sheep and cattle thrive in a remarkable degree, and form a most profitable investment, the climate being dry and wonderfully healthy for man and beast. These are the three great natural divisions, made so by the conformation of the land and the climate. It will be evident from what has been said of the elevation of the mountains that snow is not a common feature upon them, and the only part where snow lies for any considerable time is the extreme south, As a necessary consequence, the river system is peculiar ; indeed, it has often been asserted that Australia had no rivers— at least none which were of any use as such ; but as we shall presently see, this statement, like many others affecting Aus- tralia, was made in ignorance. The necessity for increased pasture had driven the early colonists to cross the Great Dividing Range, aptly so-named, in search of pasture, in 1815, and the desire to extend the new pastures beyond the Bathurst Plains, which were the first discovered, led them on, and one of the first questions that demanded their attention was to account for the direction in which all the streams were flowing. The shortest road to the sea was to south-west, and yet all the water was running to north-west, and quite naturally it was asked—Could there be a great inland sea into which these rivers discharged? In 1818 Oxley started with a determination to see where at least one of them went to; so he followed the Macquarie for more than 200 miles, and found that he was going due north-west, further and further, as it seemed to him, from the natural outlet on the south coast. At last the river spread out to an apparently interminable marsh. Turn which way he would his progress was stopped by a shallow fresh- water sea, for sea he was at last convinced it must be, so great was its extent, and he was obliged to turn back. He had got there after two very wet seasons (1817 and 1818), and his inland sea is now known as the Macquarie Marshes ; and the mystery was not solved until Sturt, in 1829, found all these streams trending to north-west unite in the Darling, and then turn to south-west. ; Coming from mountains of such moderate elevation, these streams are necessarily dependent upon the rainfall, and have no snow to help them, so that in rainy seasons they become important rivers and in dry ones sink into insignificance; but since most of the rains which feed these waters are, as it were, offshoots of the tropical rains, they seldom fail altogether, and as a rule the Darling is navigable for four months of each year, and sometimes all through the year, up to and beyond Bourke. The current is very slow, seldom reaching two miles per hour, and therefore offers little hindrance to the steamers which carry wool and stores. ; In the exploration of our rivers there was another surprise when settlement extended south-west from Sydney. The waters here were found to flow to the west, and the Lachlan has for a considerable portion of its course a south-west direc- tion, that is, at right-angles to the Macquarie and the Bogan. Could the Lachlan, the Murrambidgee, and the snow-fed Murray. ultimately join the waters that ran north-west from Bathurst? Sturt had not solved this question—he only followed the Darling part of the way down—and it was left for Sir Thomas Mitchell to find the junction of the two river systems in 1835, and to prove that the Darling and the Murray were united at and below Wentworth. After dealing with the rivers and harbours of New South Wales, Mr. Russell discusses the temperature, rainfall, droughts, and winds of the colony. Ofthe temperature he says :— _ 260 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 In works of reference, Australia generally is credited with heat in excess of that due to its latitude. It is difficult to say why, unless it arose from a habit of one of our early explorers who carried a thermometer and carefully published all the high, and none of the low readings he got, until, fortunately for the colony, the thermometer was broken and the unfair register stopped. But not only the interior—Sydney even to the present day is credited, in standard works of reference, with a mean temperature of 66°2°, or more than three degrees higher than the true mean, which is 62’9°. Such an error is not ex- cusable when meteorological observations have been taken and published for just forty years. There is another error made by some writers when describing Australia. It is shown by them inverted on the corresponding latitudes in Europe, and the reader naturally infers that Australia is as hot as those parts of Europe, Confining our attention to New South Wales, that is between 29° and 37° of south latitude, we find that generally it is cooler than a corresponding part of Eutope. The mean temperature of the southern parts of England is about 52°, and that. of France, near Paris, about the same, in- creasing as you go south to 58°5° at Marseilles. Taking this as 2 sample of the best part of Europe, let us see how the mean temperatures in the colony compare with those: Kiandra, our coldest township, situated on a mountain, is 46’; Cooma, on the high land, 54°; Queanbeyan, high land, 58°; Goulburn, high land, 56°; Armidale and New England district, . 56° ; Moss Vale, 56°; Kurrajong, 53°; Orange, 55°. These towns are scattered along the high table-lands from south to north, and represent fairly the climate of a very considerable portion of the whole colony. Next to this in point of temperature is the strip of land between the ocean and the mountains, and which is affected by the cooling sea-breezes. Here we have a mean temperature ranging from 60° at Eden, the most southern port, to 68° at Grafton, one of the northern ports. Sydney, in latitude 34°, has a summer temperature only four degrees warmer than Paris, which is in latitude 49°. Now the usual difference for a degree in latitude is a degree in temperature, and therefore, if Sydney were as much warmer than Paris as its latitude alone would lead us to expect, its temperature should be 74°, and that is 15° warmer than Paris ; but as we have seen, itis only 4° warmer. This single example is enough to prove the comparative coolness of our coast districts. The in- vestigation made during recent years shows that the mean temperature of the whole colony, as derived from forty-five stations scattered over it, is 59°5°, three degrees lower than that of Sydney, or only one degree hotter than that of Paris. It may be mentioned that the highest shade temperature ever recorded in Sydney was 106°9°, and near Paris a temperature of 106°5° has been recorded. The third great district, consisting of lower land and plains to the west of the mountains, has a climate considerably warmer in summer than the parts above described, owing to the powerful effect of the sun on land having little forest and little or no wind ; but in winter the temperature sinks down much lower than the coast districts, owing to the great radiation ; so that the annual mean temperature is not so great as the summer heats would lead one to anticipate. A table has been pre- pared for the purpose of showing by comparison with many places in Europe and America the temperature of the colony. The places have been arranged in order of temperature, taking for that purpose the mean annual temperature. This shows at once that the range of temperature here is equivalent to that offered by Europe from the north of England through France to Sicily. Such a range is more remarkable, because if New South Wales were placed on the map of Europe according to its latitude it would extend from Sicily to Cairo, whereas when placed by its temperature it stretches as we have seen from Sicily northwards to England. Nor is this all that the table shows us. For even when we find a place in Europe with a temperature equal to that of some place here, it is at once observed that the summer temperature in Europe is warmer than the colonial one.and the winter colder ; for instance, Naples, 60°3°; Eden, 60°3°; summer at Naples, 74°4°; at Eden, 67°9°; winter at Naples, 47°6° ; Eden, 51°9 ; and so generally the southern country has the cooler and more uniform temperature. It is worthy of remark that the only places here of equal mean and summer temperature with places in Europe are those which are to be found on the western plains, as at Wagga Wagga, which has a mean temperature of 60°3°; Naples, 60°3°; and summer tem- perature of both is 74°; or again, to compare the places of the NO. 1211, VOL. 47] same or nearly the same latitude, Messina, in Sicily, latitude 38° 11’, has a mean temperature of 66°, summer 72°2°, winter 55°; Eden, New South Wales, in latitude 37°, has a mean temperature of 60°3°, summer 67°9°, winter 51°9° ; ot Cairo, in latitude 30°, mean of 72°, summer 85'1°, winter 58°2°; Grafton, latitude 29° 45’, mean 68'1°, summer 76°8°, winter 58°4°. It is useless to multiply examples,—we have here enough to show how much cooler Australia really is than the fervid imaginations of some writers have made it appear in print. Looking at this question of temperature generally, it will be seen that New South Wales is no exception to the general deduction of science that the southern lands are cooler than those of corresponding latitudes in the north, and it is only during hot winds, which are very rare in New South Wales, that the temperature rises to extremes. But to leave Europe, and compare the climate of New South Wales with that of America. Our limits of latitude would place us from Washing- ton to New Orleans. Now the mean temperature at Washington is 55° and at New Orleans 68°, while that of Eden is 60°3° and Grafton 68°1° ; so that if mean temperature were a complete test of climate it would appear that our coast is hotter than corresponding latitudes in America. But mean temperature is not enough ; we must compare the summer and winter pas oe tures ; and summer at Washington rises to 76°7° and at Eden only to 67°9°, 9° cooler; New Orleans summer is 82° and — Grafton 76°8° ; but 82° hardly represents the summer heat at New Orleans, for it is a Steady broil, during which every day for three months of summer the heat is over 80°, a tem ure that is only reached on this coast during hot winds, or in other words, very seldom. But winter temperature at Washington falls to 37°8°, and at New Orleans to 56°; at Eden 51 9°, and — at Grafton 58°4°. Hence it is evident that on this coast the heat is very much less in summer and greater in winter than upon the coast of America. Such facts place the colony in a very different position in regard to climate from that which it has occupied in published works, for instead of being a hot country we see that its coast districts are much cooler than corresponding latitudes in Europe and America, and that in its elevated districts, which comprise a large part of it and much of the best land, it has a climate no warmer than the best and most enjoyable parts of Europe in much higher latitudes ; but while bringing these facts into due prominence it is not the intention to deny that another considerable part of the colony, forming the western plains, is subject to greater heat, caused, no doubt, by the sun’s great power on treeless plains, and the almost total absence of cooling winds ; yet, although in summer the temperature here frequently rises over 100°, and sometimes up to 120°, yet, owing to the cold at night and in winter, the mean temperatures are not greater than those of corresponding latitudes in the northern hemisphere; and this part of the colony being remarkably dry, the great heat is by no means so enervating as a temperature of 80° in the moist atmo-phere of the coast, and, what is of still more importance, it does not produce those terrible diseases which are usually the offspring of hot countries. This is also, no doubt, due to the dryness of the air. Stock of all kinds thrive remarkably well, and are very free from disease in those hot western districts. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. THE Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science for August 1892 contains :—On the anatomy of Pentastomum teretiusculum (Baird), by Prof. W. Baldwin Spencer, M.A. (Plates i. to ix. ). Whilst collecting on Kings Island, which lies to the west of Bass Straits, half-way between the mainland of Victoria and Tasmania, numerous specimens of the .copper-head snake (Hoplocephalus superbus) were found, in the lungs of which a large species of Pentastomum were parasitic; afterwards the same parasite was discovered in the lungs of the black snake (Pseudechys porphyriacus) in Victoria; on examination there seemed little doubt but that the species was the one described by Baird long ago (1862) from specimens obtained in the mouth of a dead copper-head snake in the Zoological Gardens, London, under the name of Pent. teretiusculum. In this paper we have a very complete account of the anatomy of this form, there being descriptions and figures of its external anatomy, schematic ‘ j x! JANuARY 12, 1893} NATURE 261 representations of the muscular, alimentary, secretory, nervous, and reproductive systems, and an account of the sense organs, The paper is illustrated by ten double plates.—On the minute Structure of the gills of Palemonetes varians, by Edgar J. Allen, B.Sc. (Plate x.). It would seem that so far as the gills is crustacean are concerned, the statement made by Haeckel and Ray Laukester, that the circulatory system of the Decapods is everywhere closed, does not hold true. It would also seem fairly certain that the masses of cells surrounding the venous channels, in which Kowalevsky found litmus deposited a few hours after its injection, exercise an excretory function. In addition to these excretory cells, a large number of glandular bodies occur in the axis of the gill, and these are of two kinds— lear and reticulate glands. _ The number for November 1892 contains :—On the develop- ment of the optic nerve of vertebrates, and the choroidal fissure of embryonic life, by Richard Assheton, M.A. (Plates xi. and xii.). That the optic nerve is formed by the differentiation of the cells of the optic stalk into nerve fibres, which conse- _ quently lose connection with the inner wali of the optic cup, and Piercing the outer wall, make connection with the outer face » is held to be probable by such writers as Balfour, Foster, Marshall, Haddon, and others, whilst the opinion that it is formed by the growth of nerve fibres either from the retina (outer wall of the optic cup) or from the brain, along the optic stalk, but outside it and unconnected with it, is or has been held by His, Miiller, Kolliker, Hertwig, Orr, and has been recently supported by Keibel, Froriep, and Cajal. Schifer seems to be uncertain which cage to cor As the result of the author’s investigations in the frog and chick, he concludes that the optic stalk takes no part in the formation of the nervous parts of the organ of sight. The optic nerve is developed independently of the optic stalk, and at first entirely outside it. The great majority of the fibres forming the optic nerve arise as outgrowths from nerve cells in the retina. —On the larva of Asterias vulgaris, by or W. Field, M. A. (Plates xiii. to xv.).—On the develop- ment the genital organs, ovoid gland, axial and aboral sinuses in Amphiura squamata ; together with some remarks on hzemal system in this ophiurid, by E. W. MacBride, B.Sc. (Plates xvi. to xviii.). Concludes that echinoderms agree with other ccelomata in the origin of their genital cells these latter have at first an unsymmetrical position in echinoderms, - and afterwards take on a radially symmetrical disposition in correspondence with the secondarily acquired radial form of the body. The origin of these cells adjacent to the stone canal rests a comparison of the origin of the genital cells near the n lia in many annelids, but the homology of the stone canal with a nephridium has yet to be proved.—On a new eo and species of aquatic Oligocheta belonging to the nily Rhinodrilide, found in England by W. B. Benham, D.Sc. (Plates xix. and xx.). This new worm receives the name Sj ilus tamesis ; it was found in some numbers in the mad of the Thames, adhering to the roots of Sparganium vramosum, near Goring ; the cocoon is drawn out to a point at one end, while in the other it shows a narrow frayed end. As the home of the Rhinodrilide is America, the author suggests lat the cocoons of this worm may have been introduced into the Thames amongst the roots of water plants, or attached to timber from the United States. American Meteorological Fournal, December.—Atmospheric electricity, earth currents, and terrestrial magnetism, by Prof. C. Abbe. The author has collected from various telegraph companies particulars about electrical storms, which illustrate the magnitude of the disturbances that frequently occur. The present electrical and magnetic observatories, which usually observe only some part of the whole series of phenomena, need to be supplemented by completely equipped establishments recording continuously the north-south, the east-west, and the zenithal-antipodal differences of potential. The ordinary re- cords of atmo pheric electricity give merely the difference of potential of the earth and a point in the atmosphere defined as the end of the water-dropping collector.—Notes on the use of automatic rain gauges, E. Codman. Observations were _ made continuously for three years with the object of showing what difference the size of the gauges would make in the amount of rainfall collected. The largest gauge had a diameter of over 22 inches, and the smallest 2 inches. The results show that the size of the gauge made no practical difference. He also gives the results of rainfall collected in gauges erected at NO. 1211, VOL..47 | various heights on a mast. The result showed that a gauge at an elevation of 50 feet or less above the surface of the ground will collect the same amount as one on the ground, provided both are situated in a position not affected by counter-currents of air. This result agrees with that found by Prof. Hellmann in hisexperiments at Berlin.—Sunshine recorders, by Prof. C. F. Marvin. Thus far two methods only have been in general use, (1) the focussing of the rays of the sun by means of a glass sphere and obtaining a burn on the surface of a card, and (2) the photographic method, producing a trace on sensitized paper. The first method records only bright sunshine, while the latter method is more sensitive and records fainter sunshine. Prof. Marvin has improved a method first developed by D. T. Maring of the Weather Bureau, consisting in principle of a Leslie differential air thermometer, mercury being used to separate the air in the two bulbs. When properly adjusted and exposed to sunshine the lower blackened bulb becomes heated and causes. the column to rise above a platinum point and close an electric circuit. The instrument, of which a drawing is given, is said to respond promptly to sunshine and shadow. The other articles. are :—Late investigation of thunderstorms in Wisconsin, by W. L. Moore.—Observations on the aurora of July 16, by T. W. Harris, and Temperature sequences, by Prof. H. A. Hazen. THE articles in the Journal of Botany for November and December are mostly of interest to students of British botany. Mr, F. J. Hanbury adds two more to his new species of flieracium, H. britannicum and Hi. caniceps; Mr. Bagnall de- scribes a new species of bramble, Rudus mercicus from the Mid- land counties ; and Mr. W. H. Pearson a new British liverwort, Scapania aspera. Mr. G. F. Scott Elliot contributes some use- ful hints on botanical collecting in the tropics. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, December 8, 1892.—‘‘ On the Photographic Spectra of some of the Brighter Stars.” By J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S. The present communication consists of a discussion of 443. photographs of thespectra of 171 stars, which have been obtained at Kensington and Westgate-on-Sea during the last two years. The chief instrument employed in this work has been a 6-inch refracting telescope in conjunction with—at different times— objective prisms of 74° and 45° respectively. By this method the time of exposure is short, and good defi- nition, with large dispersion, is easily secured. The spectra thus obtained will bear enlargement up to thirty times without much; sacrifice of definition. The 30-inch reflector and slit-spectroscope at Westgate-on- Sea have also been used in the inquiry. My object has not been so much to obtain photographs of the spectra of a large number of stars as to study in detail the spectra of comparatively few. In the classifications of stars adopted by others from a con- sideration of the visual observations, only the broader differences in the spectra have been taken into account. Prof. Pickering has more recently employed a provisional classification in con- nection with the Henry Draper Memorial photographs of stellar spectra, but this chiefly relates to photographs taken with small disper-ion. With larger dispersion it becomes necessary to deal with the presence or absence of individual lines. In the first instance, the various stars of which the spectra have been photographed at Kensington have been arranged in tables, without reference to any of the existing classifications, and taking into account the finer details. The basis on which the main tabular divisions of the spectra are founded is the amount of continuous absorption at the blue end. This dis- tinction was not possible in the case of the eye observations. The stars included in the first table are characterized by the absence of any remarkable continuous absorption at the blue end, and by the presence in their spectra of broad lines of hydrogen. These have been further classified in four sub-divisions, depend - ing on the presence or absence of other lines. In the stars of the second table there is a considerable amount of continuous absorption in the ultra-violet, and the spectra beyond K are very difficult to photograph as compared with the stars of the first table. In these stars the thickness of the hydro- 262 gen lines is about the same as in the solar spectrum. These also are arranged in two sub-divisions. In all the stars included in the third table there is a very con- siderable amount of continuous absorption in the violet, extend- ing to about G, and it is a matter of great difficulty to photograph these spectra, as most of the stars of this class are below the third magnitude. The hydrogen lines are very thin. One sub- division includes the spectra which show flutings shading away towards the less refrangible end of the spectrum. The other comprises stars without flutings in their spectra, The brightest star in this table, a Orionis, is discussed in detail, the result tending to show that the temperature ‘of the absorbing iron vapours is not much greater than that of the oxy-hydrogen flame. The relations of the various sub-divisions to which reference has been made are then traced. One important fact comes out very clearly, namely, that whether we take the varying thicknesses of the hydrogen lines or of the lines of other substances as the basis for the arrange- ment of the spectra, it is not possible to place all the stars in one line of temperature. Thus, there are stars in which the hydrogen lines are of the same average thickness, while the remaining lines are almost entirely different. These spectra cannot, therefore, be placed in juxtaposition, and it is necessary to arrange the stars in two series. The next part of the paper consists of a discussion of the photographic results in relation to the meteoritic hypothesis. In the Bakerian Lecture for 1888, I brought together the various observations of the spectra of stars, comets, and nebulze, and the discussion suggested the hypothesis that all celestial bodies are, or have been, swarms of meteorites, the difference between them being due to different stages of condensation. The new classification rendered necessary by this hypothesis differed from previous ones, inasmuch as the line of evolution followed, instead of locating the highest temperature at its com- mencement, as demanded by Laplace’s hypothesis, placed it much later. Hence bodies of increasing temperature were demanded as well as bodies of d-creasing temperature. The question how far this condition is satisfied by the new facts revealed by the photographs is next discussed. This involves the consideration of some points in connection with the hypothesis to which brief re'erence alone has been made in previous communications. ‘The phenomena to be ex- pected on the hypothesis, and the actual facts, are given side by side below :— ‘Nebulae. ' The bright lines seen in nebulze should have three origins :— (1) The lines of those (1) Lines at wave-lengths substances which occupy the | approximately very closely to interspaces between the | the lines of hydrozen, and to meteorites. Chief among | some of the carbon flutings, these, from laboratory experi- | appear in the spectra of ments, we should expect | nebule. hydrogen and gaseous com- pounds of carbon. (2) The most numerous collisions between the meteor- ites will be partial ones— mere grazes—sufficient only to produce comparatively slight rises of temperature, (3) There will, no doubt, be a small number of end-on collisions, producing very high temperatu es, and there should be evidence of some high-temperature lines. (2) There isa fluting most probably due to magnesium at A 500, and the longest flame lines of iron, calcium, and magnesium are seen. (3) The chromospheric line 1), and another line at A 4471 (which is always associated with Dg in the chromosphere) have been recorded in the spectrum of the Orion Nebula. Bright-Line Stars. The lines seen in_ the spectra of bright-line stars should. in the main, resem ‘le those which appear in ne ule. They will differ, however, for two reasons givea in the paper. Prof. Pickering has shown that the Draper Memorial photographs prove that bright-line stars are inti- mately connected with the planetary nebulae, the lines in the specira being almost identical. NO, 1211, VOL. 47] NAIURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 Stars of Increasing Temperature. Stage 1.—Immediately fol- lowing the stage of condensa- tion giving bright-line stars, the bright lines from the in- terspaces will be masked by corresponding dark ones, due to absorption of the same vapours surrounding the in- candescent metedrites, and these lines will therefore vanish from the spectrum. Owing to the interspaces being restricted, absorption phenomena will be in excess, and low-temperature metallic fluiing absorption will first appear. .The radiation spec- trum of the interspaces will now consist chiefly of carbon. Under these conditions the amount of continuous absorp- tion at the blue end will be at a maximum, Stage 2.—With further con- densation, the radiation spec- trum of the interspaces will gradually disappear, and dark lines replace the fluting ab- sorption owing to increase of temperature, though this line absorption need not necessarily resemble that in the solar spec- trum. Stzge 3.—(1) The line ab- sorption and the continuous spectrum at the blue end will diminish as the condensations are reduced in number, as only those vapours high up in the atmospheres surrounding the condensations will be competent to show absorption phenomena in consequence of the bright continuous spec- trum of the still disturbed lower levels of those atmo- spheres. (2) Lines of iron and other substances will disappear at this stage, because the bright lines from the interspaces will counteract the lines in the same positions due to absorp- tion of surrounding vapours, (3) The chances of violent collisions being now enor- mously increased, we should expect the absorption of very high - temperature vapours. The solar chromospheric lines may be taken as examples of lines produced at such tem- peratures. The spectra of stars given in the third table answer these requirements, They show no bright lines under normal con- ditions. The dark flutings in the visual spectrum agree very closely in position with the flutings seen in the flame spec- tra of manganese, lead, and iron. The evidence afforded by the photographs proves the actual presence of carbon radiation, The photographs show a considerable amount .of con- tinuous absorption in the ultra- violet and violet. The spectra consist of nume- rous dark metallic lines, but they do not exactly resemble the solar spectrum. a Tauri and yy Cygni are types of stars at this stage. ad (1) These conditions are satisfied by such stars as a Cygni, Rigel, Bellatrix, 6 Orionis, and @ Virginis. In these there is no continuous absorption at the blue end, the. spectra consisting of simple line absorption. : (2) In the spectrum of a Cygni, which represents the earliest example of this stage. there are a few of the longest lines of iron, but in other stars of this class the iron lines disappear. (3) The new lines which appear include the chromo- spheric line at A 4471, and possibly a few others. The Hottest Stars. The order of the abhsorb- ing layers should follow the original order of the extension of the vapours round the meteorites in the first condi- tion of the swarm, and the lines seen bright in nebuleze, whatever their origins may be, should therefore appear almost alone as dark lines. In stars like a Andromedz we have absorption lines agreeing in position with some of the bright lines which appear in nebulz. JANuARY:12, 1893] NATURE 263 Stars of Decreasing Temperature. Stage 1.—Owing to the di- minishing depth of the ahsorb- ing atmosphere, the hydrogen lines will, on the whole, get thinner, and new lines will appear. These new lines will not necessarily be identical with those observed in the spectra of stars of increasing temperature. In the latter there will be the perpetual losions of the meteorites ing the atmospheres, _ whereas in a cooling mass of r we get the absorp- tion of the highest layers of vapours. The first lines to appear, however, will be the longest low-temperature lines of the various chemical ele- - ments. _ Stage 2.—The hydrogen lines will continue to thin out, and the spectra will show many more of the high- temperature lines of different elements. These will differ from the lines seen in stars of increasing temperature owing to the different per- e composition of the absorbing layers, so far as the known lines are con- _ Stage 3.—With the further thinning out of the hydrogen lines and reduction of tem- ure of the atmo-phere, the absorption flutings of the yt ; of carbon should Taking Sirius as a type of stars in the first stage of de- creasing temperature, it is found that its spectrum shows many of the longest lines of iron. The conditions at this stage of cooling are satisfied by such stars as 8 Arietis and a Persei. In the spectrum of these stars nearly all the solar lines are found, in addition to fairly broad lines of hydrogen. There is undoubted evi- dence of the presence of carbon absorption in the solar spectrum and the spec- trum of Arcturus, the only star which has yet been in- vestigated with special refer- . come : n a ence to this pvint. The photographs, then, give us the same results as the one formerly obtained fro» the eye observations. Comparison is then made between the groups in the classifi- cation first suggested by the eye observations, and the various sub-division~ in which the photographs have been arranged. Geological Society, December 7.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communica- tions were read :—Note on the Nufenen-stock (Lepontine Alps), by Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. In 1889 the author was obliged to leave some work incomplete in this rather out-of-the- way portion of the Lepontine Alps. In the sumwer of 1891 he returned thither im company with Mr, J Eccles, F.G.S., and ‘the present note is supplementary to the former paper. The -Nufenen-stock was traversed from north to south, and a return Section made roughly along the eastern bank of the Gries Glacier. Gneiss abounds on the north side of the Nufenen Pass, followed by rauchwacké and some Jurassic roc». On the flank of the mountain are small outcrops of rauchwacké and of the so-called ‘* Disthene-schists ” (both badly exposed), followed by much Dark-mica schist, often containing black garnets. igher up is a considerable mass of Jurassic rock with the “knots” and ‘‘,risms” which have been mistaken for garnets and staurolites, but Dark-mica schists set in again before the summit is reached. [hey continue down the southern flank of the peak: but rathernorth ot the lowest part of the water-shed, between Switzerland and Italy, the ‘* Disthene-schist ” is again found, followed by a fair-sized mass of rauchwacké. The re- turn sec ion gave a similar as-ociation in reverse order; and both confirmed the conclusions expressed by the auth -r in 1890 as to the absence of yarnets and staurolites from Jurassic rocks (with belemnit. s, &c.), and the great break between these or the underlying rauchwacké (where it occurs) and the crystalline schists, in which garnets often aound, of the Lepontine Alps The crystalline schists and the Mesozoic rocks are thrown into a series of very sharp folds, which, locally, presents at first sight the appearance of interstratification.—On some schistose NO. 1211, VOL. 47] ‘*greenstones”’ and allied hornblendic schists from the Pen- nine Alps, as illustrative of the effects of pressure-metamor- phism, by Prof. T.G. Bonney. The author describes the results of study in the field, and with the microscope, of (@) some thin dykes in the calc-schist group, much modified by pressure ; (2) some larger masses of green schist which appear to be closely associated with the dykes; (c) some other pressure-modified greenstone dykes of greater thickness than the first. The speci- mens were obtained, for the most part, either near Saas Fee or in the Binnenthal. These results, in his opinion, justified the following conclusions :—(1) That basic intrusive rocks, pre- sumably once dolerites or basalts, can be converted into foliated, possibly even slightly banded, schists, in which no recognizable trace of the original structure remains. (2) That in an early (possibly the first) stage of the process, the primary constituents of the rock-mass are crushed or sheared, and thus their frag- ments frequently assume a somewhat “streaky ”’ order ; that is to say, the rock passes more or less into the ‘‘mylonitic” con- dition. (3) That next (probably owing to the action of water under great pressure) certain of the constituents are decomposed or dissolved. (4) That, in consequence of this, when the pressure is sufficiently diminished, a new group of minerals is formed (though in some cases original fragments may serve as nuclei) (5) That of the more important constituents hornblende is the first to form, closely followed, if not accompanied, by epidote ; next comes biotite (the growth of which often suggests that by this time the pressure is ceasing to be definite in direc- . tion); and, lastly, a water-clear mineral, probably a felspar, perhaps sometimes quartz. (6) That in all these cases the hornblende occurs either in very elongated prisms or in actual needles, The author brings forward a number of other instances to show that this form of hornblende may be regarded as indicative of dynamometamorphism ; so that rocks where that mineral is more granular in shape (cases where actinolite or tremolile appears as a mere fringe being excepted) have not been subjected to this process.—On a secondary development of bio- tite and of hornblende in crystalline schists from the Binnenthal, by Prof. T. G. Bonney. Both the rocks described in this com- munication come from the Binnenthal, and were obtained by Mr. J. Eccles, F.G.S., in the summer of 1891. They. belong to the Dark-mica schists described by the author in former papers, and have been greatly affected by pressure. In each a mineral above the usual size has been subsequently developed. Tn the rock from near Binn this mineral is a biotite : the dimen- sions of one crystal, irregular in outline, and having its basal | Cleavige roughly perpendicular to the lines indicative of pres- sure, are about ‘175”X ‘03’. The other mineral, from the peak of the Hohsandhorn, is a rather irregularly-formed hornblende, the crystals (which lie in various directions) being sometimes more than half an inch long. The exterior often is closely asso- ciated with little flakes of biotite. The author discusses the bearing of this fact, and the circumstances which may have favoured the formation of minerals, so far as his experience ges, of an exceptional size. Some remarks also are made on relation of these structures developed in the Alpine schists to the various movements by which those rocks have been affected, and on the general question of pressure as an agent of metamor- phism. The reading of these papers was followed by a discus- sion, in which the President, Mr. Eccles, the Rev. E. Hill, Mr. Rutley, Mr. Teall, and the author, took part. —Geological notes oe | ia Bridgewater District in Eastern Ontario, by J. H. ollins, PARIS. Academy of Sciences, January 2,—M. d’Abbadie in the chair.—M. Loewy was elected Vice-President for 1893. Fizeau and Fremy were elecied into the central committee of administration. The President gave a list of the members, associates, and correspondents deceased and elected during 1892. The new members were MM. Appell, Perrier, Guyon, and Brouardel. Foreign associates; MM. von Helmholtz, and van Beneden. Correspondents, MM. Sophus Lie, Considére, Amsler, Auwers, Rayet, Perrotin, de Tillo, and Manen.— Observations of Brooks’s comet (November 19, 1892) made with the eguatorial coudé of the Lyon Observatory, by M. G. Le Cadet.—On a new method of approximation, by M. E. Jablonski. —On the movements of systems whose trajectories admit of an infinitesimal transtormation, by M. Paul Painlevé.—On the general form of vibratory motion in an isotropic medium, by M. E, Mercadier.—On thermo-electric phenomena between two 264 NATURE [JANUARY 12, 1893 electrolytes, by M. Henri Bagard. The thermo-electrie force between two portions of the same electrolyte in different stages of dilution was determined by experiments performed at the physical laboratory of the Faculty of Sciences at Nancy. The diaphragm employed consisted of goldbeater’s skin, which has the advantage of closely adhering to the glass. The results are given in the case of zinc sulphate. With a 5 per cent. and a 45 per cent. solution the difference of potential ranged from 78 at 17°9° to 155 at 73'5, the unit being 1/1000oth of the E.M.F. of a Daniell cell. The law of intermediate bodies was strictly fulfilled, as shown by opposing a couple of 5 and 25 per cent. in series with another of 25 and 45 per cent. to a third of 5 and 45 per cent., when no deflection of the electrometer was observed between 0° and 73 3°.—On the age of the most ancient eruptions of Etna, by M Wallerant. The first eruptions of Etna have been variously estimated to have occurred in the later quaternary or in the upper pliocene periods. These con- ‘clusions were based on the study of the prismatic basalt laid bare by the sea round the foot of the cone. The pliocene de- posits found in conjunction with part of the basalt appear from palzeontological evidence to be contemporaneous with the sub- Appenine blue marls, which belong to the lower pliocene, In the Cyclopean I-les the basalt is covered with a layer of clay, which is also found interpenetrated by the basalt. The identity of age of the two formations is evidenced by lenticular patches of sand interstratified in the clay, whose particles consist of fragments of pyroxene, peridote, and triclinic felspar, proving that when the sub-Apennine marls were being deposited Etna was the scene of eruptions accompanied by the emission of ashes. DIARY OF SOCIETIES. LONDON. THURSDAY, January 12. MaTHEMATICAL Socigry, at :8.—On the Application of Clifford’s Graphs to Ordinary Binary Quantics , 2nd Part, Seminvariants : The President.— On the Evaluation of a Certain Surface-integral and its Application to the Expansivn of the Potential of Ellipsvids in Series: Dr. Hobson, ‘Society or Arts, at 4.30.—Upper Burma under British Rule : H. Thirkell White. INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERSf at 8.—Experimental Researches on Alternate-Current Transformers: Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S. (Discussion.) ‘Lonpon INnstitTuTiIon, at 6.—Electric Lighting (z) Generation of Electric Currents : Prof. Silvanus Thompson, Ss. FRIDAY, JANUARY 13. PuysicaL Society, at 5.— Upon Science Teaching: F. W. Sanderson. Society or Arts, at 8.—The Development and Transmission of Power from Central Stations: Prof. W. Cawthorne Unwin, F.R.S. INSTITUTION OF CiviL ENGINEERS, at 7.30.—Description of the Design bikie at of a Roadway Bridge over the River Cam: Edwin ulme. AMATEUR SCIENTIFIC SociETy, at 8.— Geology in 1892: A. M. Davies.— Recent Developments in the Metallurgy of Gold: T. Ky Rose. SATURDAY, January 14. ‘RovaL Botanic Society, at 3.45. SUNDAY, January 15. Sunvay Lecrure Society, at 4.—Some Invasions of India and their Results” (with Oxyhydrogen Lantern Illustrations): R. W. Frazer. MONDAY, January 16. ‘RovaL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30 (at the University of London, Burlington Gardens, W.)—Journeys in Sarawak, Borneo (Illustrated by the Oxy-hydrogen Lantern): Charles Hose. Victoria INSTITUTE. at 8.—Why the Ocean is Salt: Prof. Hull, F.R.S. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 5.—The Spanish Armada (Illustrated): F. L. S. Horsburgh. TUESDAY, January 17. ZOOLoGiIcaL SocikTy, at 8.30.—A Proposed Classification of the Hes- periide, with a Revision of the Ger.era: E. Y. Watson.— Descriptions of New Species of Dipterous Insects of the Family Syrphide in the Collec- tion of the British Museum, with Nutes on the Species described by the late Francis Walker: E. E. Austen.—On Two New Species of Copepoda from Zanzibar: Gilbert C. Bourne. MINERALOGICAL SocIETY, at 8.—On a Discovery of Oriental Ruby and Margarite in the Province of Westland. New Zealand: Prof. G. H. F-. Ulrich.—On the Isomorphism of the Red Silvers : H. A. Miers.—On the er Seca of Baddeleyite (Native Zirconia) in Brazil: L. Fletcher, RS: RoyvaL STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45.—The Reorganization of our Labour Department: David F. Schloss. NO. 1211, VOL. 47] InstTITUTION or Civit ENGINEERS, at 8.—Gas” Power for Electric Lighting : J. Emerson Dowson. (Discussion.)—Reception by the Presi- dent and Council. Rovat INsTITUTION, at 3.—The Functions of the Cerebellum, and the 9 nal Principles of Psycho-Physiology: Prof. Victor Horsley WEDNESDAY, January 18. Rovyat Mereorovocicat Society, at 7.15.—Annual Meeting.—The Aligh Altitudes of Colorado and their Climates : Dr. C. Theodore Williams. RovaL Microscopicat Society, at 8.—Annual Meeting.—Presidential Address: Dr. R. Braithwaite. ENTOMOLOGICAL SociETy, at 7.—Election of Council and Officers for 1893; Report of the Council, and Address by the President, F. D. Godman, F.R.S. ‘ THURSDAY, January 19. ROYAL SociEty, at 4.30.—The Bakerian Lecture: The Rate of Explosion in Gases: Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S. ~ ’ LinNEAN Society, at 8.—The Plants of Malanji, collected by Mr. A. Whyte, and described by Messrs. Britten, Baker, and Rendle: W. Car- ruthers, F.R.S.—Report on the District traversed by the Anglo-French Sierra Leone Boundary Commission : G. F. Scott Elliot. = CuEmicat Society, at 8.—The Determination of the Thermal Expansion of Liquids: Prof. T. E. Thorpe, F.R.S.— E. on and Specific Volumes of Certan Paraffins and Paraffin Derivatives: Pro Thorpe, F.R.S., and Lionel M. Jones. -The Hydrocarh: ns fi ) Dec»mposition of the Citrine Dihydrochlorides: W. A. Tilden, F.R.S., and Sidney Williamson.—Camphorsulphonic Derivatives: F. S. Kip and W. J. Pope.—Note on the Decaphanes formed from Terpenes Camphor: Henry E. Armstrong. P INstiruTIon oF Civit ENGINEERS, at 2.30.—Students’ Visit tothe Works of Messrs. Maudslay, Sons, and Field, Westminster Bridge Road, S.E. Rova INsTITUTION, at 3.—Tennyson : Rev. Canon Ainger. Lonpon InstTiTuUTION, at 6.—Electric Lighting (2) Electric Lamps: Prof. Silvanus Thompson, F.R.S. ; FRIDAY, JANUARY 20. eotae Rovat InsTITUTION, at 9.—Liquid Atmospheric Air: Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. ‘ y ip SATURDAY, JANUARY 21. Roya InsTITUTION, at 3-—Expression and Design in Music (with Musical Illustrations): Prof. C. Hubert H. Parry. , CONTENTS. American Mechanism ...........+4..+. 241 Seedlings. By Dr. Maxwell T. Masters, F.R.S.. . 24: Epidemic Influenza 4:4) ¢: «cs. ,6515), See Our Book Shelf :— Wakefield : ‘¢ An Elementary Text-book of Hygiene” “€Ostwald’s Klassiker der Exakten Wissenschaften ” Letters to the Editor :— ; Geographical Names.—Colonel H. H. Godwin- Austen, F.R.S.. - 1. 2 8 ea The Weather of Summer. (With Diagram.)—A. ‘* Aminol.”"—Hugo Wollheim; Dr. E. Klein, Super-abundant Rain.—Sir H. Collett. ..... Earthquake Shocks.—E. J. Lowe, F.R.S. - .. . A Brilliant Meteor.—W. Pollard ........ Chemical Society’s Memorial Lectures ...... Extinct Monsters. (///ustrated.) By H.G.S.... Energy and Vision: .°. « had now been touched by the fascination of ex- _ ploration in the far west. The drudgery of medical prac- a. “became irksome to him, so that when in the year - following his return from Colorado the offer was made to him to take part in another expedition, he gladly availed pores opportunity. He accordingly accompanied ‘Macomb in an exploring expedition in the summer of 1859. from Santa Fé, New, Mexico, to the junction of | the Grand and Green Rivers of the Grand a lo. This journey forms the subject of another { report by him, which, however, was not published for some sixteen years. The shadows of the coming great Civil War. were _ already falling on the United States, when Newberry was at work on the preparation of the record of the results of his western journeys. The storm at last burst in 1861, ‘z y Snape year in which his Colorado report was issued. the many scientific men who placed their services athe posal of the North, Newberry took a foremost pis, medical skill and wide general scientific enabled him to be of great use to the ariny. He specially distinguished himself in the organization and administration of the hospital department, Among the ences of his not uneventful life he had many graphic tales to tell of his experiences during that momentous epoch in the history of the United States. After the close of the war in 1865 he returned with renewed ardour to his’ scientific labours, and specially devoted his energies to the study of the ancient floras and fish-faunas of North America. Among his numerous memoirs on these subjects the two large monographs forming vols. xiv. and xvi. of the series published by the United States Geological Survey are specially worthy of notice. But they represent only a part of the enormous mass of material which he had worked over. Prof. Newberry early in his career saw how great was the aid which geology could afford in the develop- ment of the mineral industries of his native country, and he gave himself with great energy to the practical applications of the science. He became one of the highest authorities on mining matters in the country, NO. 1212, VOL. 47] NATURE 297 and he was mainly instrumental in the equipment of the great mining school of Columbia College, New York. He occupied the Chair of Geology in that establishment, and threw himself heart and soul into its duties. At last, in the midst of his work and honours, a stroke of paralysis disabled him from active duties, and he grew gradually feebler until his death. With him American science loses one of its most honoured and distinguished cultivators. His piercing eyes and well-cut features made him a marked figure in any assembly, while his courtesy and gentleness, and his unfailing helpfulness and serenity, gave him a charm which will endear his memory to a wide circle of friends. A. G. NOTES. ALL eatomologists in the country will learn with great satis- faction that the Treasury has consented, on the recommendation of the Trustees of the British Museum, to make provision in the estimates for the coming financial year for the purchase of Mr. Pascoe’s well-known collection of insects. The importance of the acquisition of this collection by the nation is very great, as it contains an immense number of types, especially of the’ families Longicornes and Curculiones, to which Mr. Pascoe devoted so much attention for a period of more than forty years. Its dispersal or removal to a foreign country would have been an irreparable loss to British entomologists. THE medals and funds to be given at the anniversary meeting of the Geological Society of London on February 17 next have been awarded as follows: The Wollaston Medal to Prof. N. S. Maskelyne, F.R.S. ; the Murchison Medal to the Rev. O. Fisher, the Lyell Medalto Mr. E. T. Newton; and the Bigsby Medal to Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ; the balance of the pro- ceeds of the Wollaston fund to Mr. J. G. Goodchild; that of the Murchison fund to Mr. G. J. Williams; and that of the Lyell fund to Miss C. A. Raisin and Mr. A. Leeds. BETWEEN June 10 and 18 the University of Montpellier will celebrate the third centenary of the foundation of its Botanic Garden, on which occasion it is intended to invite a general congress of the botanists of all nations. A MEETING of the Association for the Improvement o Geometrical Teaching was held on January 14, at University College, Gower Street, the chair being taken by the Master of St. John’s College, Cambridge. The reports of the Council and treasurer having been read and adopted, Dr. Wormell was elected President for 1893, the hon. secretaries (Mr. E. M. Langley, 16, Adelaide Square, Bedford, and Mr, C. Pendelbury, 4, Glazbury Road, W. Kensington), and the other members of the Council being re-elected. Dr. Wormell having taken the chair, Mrs. Bryant gave a model lesson on geometry to a class of about twenty ladies. After an adjournment papers were read by Mr. G. Heppel on the use of history in teaching mathematics, and by Mr. F. E. Marshall on the teaching of elementary arithmetic. The attendance was larger than usual, and interesting discussions followed the lesson and the papers. A DEPARTMENTAL committee, consisting of officers of the Charity Commission, the Education Department, and the Department of Science and Art has been appointed by Mr. Acland, Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Educa- tion, to consider the question of the organization of secondary education in England and Wales, and the relation of the De- partments among themselves in connection with this subject. The Committee consists of the following members :—The Vice- President of the Council (chairman), Sir H. Longley, K.C.B., Chief Charity Commissioner, Mr. T. E. Ellis, M.P., Parlia- mentary Charity Commissioner, and Mr, Fearon, Secretary to the 278 NATURE | JANUARY 19, 1893 Charity Commissioneis, representing the Charity Commission ; Mr. Kekewich, C.B., Secretary to the Committee of Council on Education, and the Rev. T. W. Sharpe, her Majesty’s Senior Chief Inspector of Schools, representing the Education Depart- ment ; and Major-General Donnelly, C.B., Secretary of the Department of Science and Art, Captain Abney, C.B., F.R.S., Assistant-Director for Science, and Mr. Armstrong, Director for Art, representing the Department of Science and Art, Mr, H. W. Simpkinson, Examiner in the Education Department, acts as Secretary to the Committee. On the 25th inst. an influential deputation will wait upon the President of the Board of Trade to urge the adoption of the decimal system of coinage and weights and measures in Great Britain. Among those who propose to form part of the depu- tation are the Agents-General for Victoria, Queensland, and the Cape, and several prominent members of the various chambers of commerce. THE Infant University of Chicago seems to be resolved to arrange its staff of teachers on a scale commensurate with the size of the North American Continent. Thus, the Department of Geology is placed inthe hands of no fewer than seven dis- tinct professors and two assistant professors, each taking some special branch of this wide science under the competent leader-: ship of Prof. T. C. Chamberlin. Three of the professors are non-resident, but they will probably give occasional lectures, and will at least direct the studies in their own branches of research. Mr. JoHN D. ROCKEFELLER, who had already presented the University of Chicago with 2,600,000 dollars, has now given it another million. The university owns land, buildings, and other property valued at £1,400,000 sterling, and the principal is ambitious enough to hope that in course of time it may have **such an array of magnificent buildings as one sees at Oxford or Cambridge.” A BOTANICAL laboratory has been established at Eustis, Lake co., Florida, chiefly for the investigation of diseases of the orange and other species of Czéras, under the direction of Prof. W. T. Swingle. The anatomy, physiology, and pathology of other sub-tropical economic plants will also be investigated. On Saturday last Prof. Flinders Petrie delivered his first lecture as professor of Egyptology at University College, Gower Street. In the course of the lecture he said. that, besides more thar a thousand photographs and various impres- sions or. ‘‘squeezes” of sculpture, a collection of- original objects would be exhibited for the close examination of students. Miss Edwards had formed a collection with much care—as complete and typical as possible. He hoped also to place on loan his own collection, and to have a series of annual loan exhibitions drawn fromthe many valuable private collections in England. ‘There would thus be found a collection of deities, the most complete collection of scarabs, the only chronological collection of beads, a dated series of pottery, the largest collec- tion of funeral cones, and also of Egyptian weights. In certain lines of study their museum would not be merely supplemental, but would be in advance of any historical museums. He pro- posed to give a series of lectures in the autumn and spring, and would prepare students who might wish to undertake practical work in Egypt, where he wonld spend the time before Christmas to. Easter. ; Mr. RowLanD Warp is exhibiting in his studio a valuable collection of African trophies and curiosities, most of which have been brought to England by Captain Lugard and Mr. F. C. Selous. Besides natural history specimens, the collection includes many weapons and products of native art. NO. 1212, VOL. 47 | ANOTHER severe loss has been sustained by science in Russia through the death of the well-known mineralogist, Nikolai Ivanovitch Koksharoff. He died at St. Petersburg on January 2. He was born on December 2, 1818, in West Siberia, ina village near which at that time was the fort of Ust-Kamenogorsk, and he made his studies in the Mining Institute at St. Peters-. burg. In 1841, when he was a mining engineer in the Urals, he accompanied Murchison on his journey to Russia and to the Urals, and the intercourse with the great geologist led him to- adopt a scientific career. He spent the next three years study- ing in Western Europe, and on his return he devoted himself entirely to minerology, and especially to goniometric measure- ments of minerals, in which he was so much aided by his wife- that his numerous writings on this subject are as much her work as his. He lectured in his early years on geology and physical geography, but later on devoted himself almost entirely to the description of Russian minerals, of which he discovered and. described many new ones. His chief works are embodied in eleven large quarto volumes of ‘‘ Beitrage zur Mineralogie Russlands,” illustrated with numerous plates. The twelfth volume was in type when he died. In 1866 he was made a member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, and many scientific bodies of Western Europe elécted him corresponding or honorary member. DuRING the past week the weather has been of a very un- settled character ; at first an anticyclone lay over the greater part of these islands, while areas of low pressure were situated: over the North Sea and to the west of Norway. With these conditions the weather became warmer in this country, the daily maxima varying from 40° to 46°, but over the Continent very low temperatures continued to be registered, the minima im Sweden varying from 60° to 65° below the freezing point, while: exceptionally severe weather also prevailed over France and Germany. On Sunday a depression was passing to the south- ward of ‘these islands, and under its influence north-easterly gales were experienced in the eastern and southern parts of England; a sharp frost occurred over this country, accom- panied by snow in most parts, while a thaw set in over Scot- land and’ rapdidly spread southwards, accompanied by rain, the maximum temperatures reaching from 45° to 50. Subse- quently the conditions were again becoming anti-cyclonic, ac- companied by a return of colder weather, but they were not at all settled ; snow was falling on Tuesday in the south of Eng~ land. For the week ending the 14th instant the temperature was everywhere below the mean, the deficit ranging from 2° to: 5°. The amount of bright sunshine exceeded the average in the north and west of Scotland and in the south-west of England ; elsewhere the amount recorded was very small, being only 3 per cent. in the north-west of England. — Das Wetter of December last contains an account of a heavy thunderstorm which occurred at Paderborn on August 9, 1892, in which a number of living pond mussels were mixed with the rain. The observer who is in connection with the Berlin Metereological Office sent a detailed account of the strange occurrence, and a specimen was forwarded to. the . Museum at Berlin, which stated that it was the Amodonta anatina(L.). A yellowish cloud attracted the attention of several people, both from its colour and the rapidity of its motion, when suddenly it burst, a torrential rain fell with a rattling sound, and immediately afterwards the pavement was found to be covered with hundreds of the mussels. Further details will be published in the reports of the Berlin Office, but the only possible explanation seems to be that the water of a river in the neighbourhood was drawn up by a passing tornado, and afterwards deposited its living burden at the place in ques- tion. January 19, 1893] NATURE 279 * _ ‘Mr. C. F. MAXWELL writes to Scéence from Dublin, Texas, _ that on the night of November 29, about 8 o’clock, a very large __ meteor was seen passing westward, a little to the south of that § place. Just as it seemed to be passing the body exploded, _ ‘producing a sound that was distinctly heard, resembling that of _ arocket explosion or a pistol-shot. After the explosion a body half as large as a full moon moved away to the westward, mak- ‘ing a hissing or frying sound. Mr, Maxwell has seen no one ‘who saw the meteor before the explosion. The whole country ‘was brilliantly lighted for a moment as if by a continued ‘electric discharge, but at the time of the explosion the light was red and blue, or perhaps violet. The sound of the explo- sion was heard by parties five miles west and seven miles east c f Dublin, who could not have been less than ten miles apart 4 an air-line, and they report the sound together with the a pepomens to have been about the same as they were at a iran commanding the NVaiade during the cyclone of OM ‘November 6, 1891, Rear Admiral Cavelier de Cuverville had _the opportunity of testing the efficiency of oil in calming the troubled waves of the North Atlantic. The last number of the Revie Maritime contains an account of his experiences and conclusions. When the waves threatened to become dangerous he gave orders to fill two coal sacks with tow steeped in oil,one of them to be suspended freely at the extremity of a spar spanned ‘to the cat- head, the other near the bridge. The effect was 2 No seas were shipped, and the vessel escaped with- ‘out: breaking aspar. It appears that the oil takes effect upon the “‘ breakers ” due to horizontal translation produced by the wind, leaving the orbital motion or “‘ swell” unaffected. The former is the only element of danger ina rough sea. It was ‘found that two sacks, filled with 5 kgr. of tow, holding 5 litres of colza or machine oil each, were sufficient to protect a vessel 75 m.long. The oil had to be renewed every six ‘hours. Too much oil has the disadvantage of spreading more , and theoretically the best system of distribution would be ode in which the oil would reach the surface from below in a large number of small drops. HERR J, Nave has been fortunate enough to discover at a & prehistoric station near Schaffhausen a piece of limestone, on _ both sides of which are drawings like those which have been found in cayes in France and in the cave at Thayngen. It was found in the lowest part of the yellow ‘‘ Kulturschicht ” among bones and teeth of reindeer, horses, and other animals. On one ‘side | are a horse, a foal, and a reindeer, while several horses ay on the other. The style is not so fine as that of the Wiis drawings, but, according to Herr Naue, they display a power of keen observation, and he points out that it was more difficult to work on stone than on a bone still fresh. Tue remarkable address delivered by Prof. Virchow on his assumption of the office of Rector of the University of Berlin has been issued by the German publisher, August Hirschwald, of that city. The title is ‘‘ Lernen und Forschen.” THE Pharmaceutical Fournal of the Present week prints the first of what promises to be a good series of papers, which are intended to make bacteriology intelligible and interesting to students, and to be of some practical value to pharmacists in business. The ¥ournal rightly thinks that the time has come when pharmacists ought to make themselves familiar with the principles of “this newest department of experimental science.” Last week Lord Kelvin delivered an interesting speech at a dinner given to the members of the new watch factory at Prescot. He said it was something to be proud of that the article they were making was a triumph of mechanism. There NO. 1212, VOL. 47] was nothing in the whole of scientific art, nothing in the results of mechanics applied to the useful purposes for mankind, that was a more splendid success than the science of watchmaking. He had been all his life engaged more or less with scientific experiments, with measurements, and with instruments which their French friends would call instruments of precision. They knew something of instruments of precision in electricity, and they were thankful if they could make a measurement which was accurate to one-tenth or one-twentieth per cent. But what did watchmaking do? The commonest cheap watch—cheap but good—which would issue from the Prescot works would keep time to a minute a week. Now a minute a week, if they made a little calculation, was something like one-hundredth per cent. of accuracy, or just about ten times as accurate as they considered exceedingly good work in electrical measurements. _AT a recent meeting of the College of Preceptors, Mr. Foster Watson read a remarkably interesting paper on Richard Mul- caster, who was head-master of St. Paul’s School from 1596 to 1598. The paper is printed in the current number of the Educational Times. Mulcaster’s ideas were in some respects far ahead of those of his time. The following, according to Mr. Watson, were his ‘‘ main educationa! contentions” :—(1) Cul- ture and learning for those who have the wit to profit by it, whether rich or poor. Adequate knowledge for those who go into trade. (2) Education for girls and women, as well as boys and men. Higher education for girls who have good abilities. (3) Training colleges for teachers. (4) Physical training for all—boys and girls, teachers and pupils, and this to be continued in after-life. (5) Liberal education, with disinterested aims for the elementary schools. (6) The best masters to take the lowest classes. (7) Drawing and music to be taught in every school, not as ‘extras,” but as essentials. ‘* You will notice,” says Mr. Watson, ‘‘that the last-named five aims are only within the field of discussion even yet ; they are not faits accomplis. All this time they have been in Mulcaster’s book, and Mulcas- ter’s book—a few copies of it, very few—have been gathering dust.” THE Association of Officers of Colleges in New England have recommended the gradual adoption of the following changes in the curriculum of New England grammar schools :— (1) The introduction of elementary natural history into the earlier years of the programmezas a substantial subject, to be taught by demonstrations and practical exercises rather than from books. (2) The introduction of elementary physics into the later years of the programme as a substantial subject, to be taught by the experimental or laboratory method, and to in- clude exact weighing and measuring by the pupils themselves. (3) The introduction of elementary algebra at an age not latet than twelve years. (4) The introduction of elementary plane geometry at an age not later than thirteen years. (5) The offering of opportunity to study French, or German, or Latin, or any two of these languages from and after the age of ten years. (6) The increase of attention in all class-room exercises in every study to the correct and facile use of the English language. In order to make room in the programme for these new subjects, the association recommends that the time allotted to arithmetic, geography, and English grammar be reduced to whatever extent may be necessary. The association explains that it makes these recommendations in the interest of the public school system as a whole, but that most of them are offered more particularly in the interest of those children whose educa- tion is not to be continued beyond the grammar school. Mr. WALDO DENNIS gives in Science a minute and very in- teresting account of a snake which he watched for an hour in the woods one morning in July last. It went straight up a tree ‘* without crook or turn,” and by-and-by lay still for a while, 280 basking in the sun. Mr. Dennis notes that while in this posi- tion it lifted up its head four or five inches and gaped. Its mouth opened very wide ; and when the mouth was closing, the nervous spasm, only half expended, again seized upon the jaws, whereupon they went wider than before, the spasm ex- hausting itself at last in a parting wriggle or two to the head. ‘* So natural,” says Mr. Dennis, ‘‘ was this novel performance, that I involuntarily listened for that characteristic accompani- ment, the little agonizing whine so common with the dog, and and not uncommon with us.” ' Few things are more frequently said than that diseases of the nervous system, especially those of a hysterical character, have increased with the growth of civilization. Dr. de la Tourette has been trying to show, inthe Fournal de Médecine, that this is an error, and Dr. D, G. Brinton, in Sczence, ex- presses cordial agreement with him. Travellers who give the soundest information on the subject, says Dr. Brinton, report that in uncultivated nations violent and epidemic nervous seizures are very common. Castren describes them among the Sibiric tribes. An unexpected blow on the outside of a tent will throw its occupants into spasms, The early Jesuit mission- aries paint extraordinary pictures of epidemic nervous maladies among the Iroquois and Hurons. During the Middle Ages there were scenes of this kind which are impossible to-day. THE question as to whether electrification is produced by the friction of gases has been exhaustively dealt with by Mr, Wesendonck, who gives an account of his results in Wiedemann’s Annalen. The apparatus resembled that employed by Faraday with negative results, inthe case of dry air. Mr. Wesendonck used air compressed to 100 atmospheres in Elkan steel bombs of 1000 litre capacity. This was passed through a brass tube widening out into a cone into which a similar cone could be screwed from the opposite direction, so as to leave a conical path for the air issuing from the bomb, The second cone was con- nected to a delicate electrometer, which indicated any electrifi- cation produced by the impact of the air. Ordinary air was thus found to give considerable negative charges, up to 14 volt, if the cones were far apart, and positive charges if they were screwed up close. But no electrification was produced when the air had been previously freed from dust and moisture. Oxygen behaved in the same way. Carbonic acid, evaporated from the liquid state, imparted a strong positive charge to the brass, which was, however, reversed as soon as the cold led to the precipitation of water vapour. Ordinary atmospheric dust was found to electrify the brass negatively, the charge being in- creased by previous drying. It seems, therefore, that pure gases are incapable of producing electrification by friction, and that the effects observed are conditioned by the a" of minute solid or liquid particles. FISHES in badly-ventilated aquaria give various signs of op- pression, such as restlessness, frequent gasping, mounting to the surface, leaping into the air, &c. Experiments have been recently made by Messrs. Duncan and Hoppe-Seyler (Zettschrift fir Phys. Chemie) to ascertain to what point the oxygen-content of the water may be lowered before fishes indicate uneasiness, They were made with tench, trout, and crayfish in an elliptical glass vessel, with pipes for injecting and removing water and air, &c., in one case a pipe communicating with a chamber in which was a live rabbit, conveyed to the fishes air impoverished by the latter’s breathing, while the behaviour of rabbits and fishes in the same air could be compared. With 4 to 3 cubic centimetres O in the litre of water, the fishes seemed well and content, and with the corresponding O tension in the air (8 to 11 volume-percentage) the rabbit was in no difficulty. With 1°7 to 0’8 cubic centimetres O in the water, the trout were evidently ill at ease, and, ifit continued, they died. The tench NO. 1212, VOL. 47] NA hvshasaci [JANuaRY 19, 1893 and crayfish, however, stood still further reductions, the former finding relief at the surface. Reduction of the O to zero soon produced the worst symptoms. Ir was long ago shown by Sir J. B. Lawes that plants on ground that has been long without manure evaporate more water than those on good ground. Further research has proved that transpiration is not proportional to leafy development, for it largely depends on the activity of the roots, as well as evapor- ative surface. M. Dehérain has lately (Ann. Agr.) been led to investigate the influence of manure on the development of roots ; and he finds that roots in unmanured ground have a much larger growth than in manured, having to spread more in search of the scanty nutriment. If, then, a plant with small leafy growth, evaporates more water relatively than one with large, it is probably due to large root-growth procuring more water. The observation of Volkens is cited, that desert plants have extraordinarily long roots. Further, M. Dehérain points out, the solar rays falling on a plant have a twofold work to do, viz. assimilation and transpiration. And these are complementary. In strong leafy plants there is vigorous assimilation, so that transpiration is limited ; while in the leaves (with little chloro- phyll) of an o* seithaite” plant a larger fraction of the solar energy is given to transpiration. In the American Geologist an account is given of a pre- liminary examination of some specimens of a coaly mineral, having the general properties of a cannel, from the Kootanie and Lower Cretaceous of British Columbia. Their examina- tion was of more than ordinary interest on account of their peculiar physical constitution and the great difficulty of ascer- taining their connection with any of the materials ordinarily known to contribute to coal formation. The main characteristics of the mineral are the total absence of structure, and the presence of tubular ramuli resembling fungus mycelia, as well as rounded cavities. Angular fragments of material of the same nature as the larger rod-like bodies appear in the sections, and an amorphous substance either occurring in distinct flakes or -act- ing as a cement to unite the rods. Mr. Penhallow’s examina- tion has made it probable that the origin of these coals must be sought in some other direction than modified vegetable struc- ture. It is suggested that they represent a form of fossil resin accumulated during a period when resin-bearing trees were very . abundant, and possessed a structure favouring the rapid dis- integration of organic tissue. A youNG lady in America seems to have the power of awakening not only the intelligence but the affections of insects. Her experiences are recorded in Sczence by a friend of hers, who signs himself ‘‘B.” In September some one gave her a beetle, which is described as a specimen of Pe/idnota punctata Linn. At first she kept it in a small box, feeding it with grass, leaves, and small pieces of fruits, such as peaches, pears, &c. Occasionally she would give it a drop of water to sip. It would sometimes bite a little out of a leaf, would eat the fruits, and would take water eagerly. From the first she would.take the insect in her fingers several times a day and stroke or caress. it, also putting it to her lips and talking to it all the while she handled it. When she put it to her lips it would brush its antennz over them with a gentle, caressing motion, When she left her room she would shut it up in its box. One day, about two weeks after she received it, she was called out suddenly and neglected this precaution. She was absent for some time, and when she returned the insect was not in its box nor any- where to be seen. Fearing that she might injure it, she stood still and called ‘ Buggie, buggie,” when it came crawling from its retreat towards her. ‘‘ After this,” says ‘‘B.,” ‘*she would frequently leave it free in the room when she went out, and when she returned, if the insect was not in sight, she would January i9, 1893] NATURE 281 call it, and it would crawl or flyto her. As this was continued, would more and more frequently fly to her instead of crawling, at last it flew nearly every time it was called. When it came a in this way she would put it to her lips or to her nose, and the _ insect would appear to be pleased, moving its antennz gently : over her lips, or taking the end of her nose between them and - touching it with a patting motion.” Unfortunately this inte- _ resting beetle lost its liveliness in winter. It was placed ona cloth above the kitchen boiler, where it revived to some extent ; | cember it accidentally fell to the floor and soon after- annual report of the U.S. Commission of Patents for r 1891 has been issued. In addition to the usual statis- nation there are added to this report two tables and as illustrative of the growth of patent-granting from st tem. The first table gives the patents granted in d Ll by years and by States to American citizens. The table does the same for patents granted to citizens of countries. The first diagram has one line illustrating ‘the growth of patent-granting during the century, along with another line denoting the increase of population in the same period. The second diagram has one line illustrating the ata per capita of patent-granting as a whole during the other lines illustrating the growth per capita of anting in the States by groups of States. There is a list of patentees and their improvements, by years, prior tothe yer 1800. apeere selaene of the Lrish Naturalist, a monthly journal re esting volume it is. The editors are Mr. 6. H. iter and Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, and they have secured ym able contributors many good articles on subjects which cannot fail to be attractive to Irish readers. The volume also records work done by some of the foremost of the Irish scientific ; hee s--Villars et Auk its ‘* Annuaire ” 1 the year 1893. It S, as usual, a great mass of scientific information, clearly Among its ‘‘ notices” is an interesting paper upon : the observatory of Mont Blanc, by M. J. Janssen. q | THe Belgian Royal Academy of Science, Letters, and Art has” issued its ‘‘ Annuaire.” Among the contents is a excellent portrait. Messrs. CHARLES GRIFFIN AND Co. have published a ninth edition of ‘*A Pocket Book of Electrical Rules and Tables for the Use of Electricians and Engineers,” by John mro and Andrew Jamieson, The authors state that the wo has been carefully revised and enriched with fresh matter, including several important communications by leading authori- ties on electro-technics. Messrs. GEORGE BELL AND Sons have issued the first por- tion of a supplement to the third edition of ‘‘ English Botany, or Coloured ae of British Plants.” ‘This part has been prepared by Mr. N. E. Brown. The rest will be done by Mr. Arthur Bennett. . In our review of ‘‘ Modern Mechanism” last week (p. 242) a typical American express locomotive with 20 x 24 cylinders was said to be less powerful than an 18 x 26 cylinder British engine. This should, of course, be reversed, the American engine being the more powerful. NO. 1212, VOL. 47] elaborate memoir of Jean Servais Stas, accompanied by THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (AZacacus cynomolgus 9) from India, presented by Mr. F. Skinner; eleven Tuatera Lizards (Sphenodon punctatus) from Stephen’s Island, Cook’s Straits, New Zealand, presented by Captain E. A. Findlay ; a Puff Adder (Vipera arietans) from East Africa, pre- sented by the Directors of the British East African Company ; a Vulpine Phalanger (Phalangista vulpina), from Australia ; a a Stanleyan Chevrotain (7ragulus stanleyanus , $) from Java, deposited ; a Sanderling (Calidris arenaria), European ; two Brown Capuchins (Cebus fatuellus), an Azara’s Fox (Canis azare), a Ring-tailed Coati (Wasua rufa), seven Glossy Ibises (Plegadis falcinellus), 2 Brown Milvago (Milvago chimango), four Barn Owls (Strix fammea), a Ypecaha Rail (Aramides ypecaha), a Chilian Pintail (Dajfila spinicanda), a Geoffroy’s Terrapin (Platemys geoffroyana) from South America, pur- chased ; a Hog Deer (Cervus porcinus), born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet HoitmeEs.—The following tele gram was received from Dr. Copeland on Tuesday evening : :—** Comet Holmes reported suddenly brighter. Stellar” (nucleus). We therefore continue, the ephemeris. (Schulhof, for Paris, midnight.) Date He: A app. Decl. app. h m s o Jan. 19 .. 1:25 §3°2 ... +33 39 20 .. BIAS Piss 39 FE Giixie AO BET cds 39 yy aber gaee \* Ch ee See 39 Be ae Bt ADs 40 Bass GES eR ay 40 BG £34 O'R Gs 41 26) 1.5K 35:.33'0s>-.+33.42 The comet is now almost midway between 8 Andromedz and a@ Trianguli. BuRNHAM’S DouUBLE-STAR OBSERVATIONS. —Mr. Burnham’s splendid series of double-star measures, made chiefly with the 3-foot refractor at the Lick Observatory during the first six months of 1892, are published in 4st. Nach. No. 3141. He states that the superiority of the great telescope for this work has been fully demonstrated. In the present list there are micrometric measures of eight new double stars, and additional measures of 170 old ones. x Pegasi has completed more than one revolution since its discovery in 1880, the period being about eleven and a half years, which ‘‘ is probably shorter than that of any other known pair in the heavens.’ é Mr. Burnham’s connection with the Lick Observatory having permanently ended in June last, the present list of measures concludes his work on double stars. It is to be hoped that the field of work which he has so brilliantly occupied will not be neglected in the future. EPHEMERIS OF COMET BRooKS.—The following is a con- tinuation of Kreutz’s ephemeris for Berlin, midnight :— Date. * A. ~ (app-) Decl. (app.) Log ~. Log 4. Jan, 19.. ae 58 23 rik s 48 59°3 0°0835 9°9670 2052 23S 34. 2% 47 36°7.... 0°0845 9°9786 Tan y ae 46 17°3... 0°0856 9°9902 CRE ees | ee en 45 1'2 ... 0°0867 0°00I7 7 i eet aS. gee 43 48°5 ... 0°0879 0°0132 24 io ASO ae 4239°0 ... o'0891 0°0245 25 4 31 16 .. 41 32°8 ... 070904 0°0358 26.. 23 3517. sg 40 29°6 ... 0°'0QI7 00468 THE ECLIPSE OF the 16, 1893.—In a communication to the Astronomical Society of France, M. de la Baume Pluvinel indicates some of the points to which attention should be directed in the eclipse of the sun in April. In the first place, he does not think any of the precious moments of totality need be devoted to the study of prominences, as these can now be completely studied at any time. The investigation of the corona is all-important, and attempts should be made to obtain ph otographs showing is general aspect with various exposures, as well as photograp s of its spectrum. The different parts of NATURE [JANUARY 19, 1893 the corona are of such varying brightness that it will be impos- sible to obtain all the details with a single exposure. For the spectroscopic work it is also recommended that isochromatic plates be employed, with special reference to the distribution of the material which gives the green line 1474 Kirchoff. Mr. Lockyer proposes to use an objective prism, so as to obtain monochromatic images of the corona, that is, rings correspond- ing to each elementary radiation of the coronal light. This method will not only give the spectrum of the corona, but the dis- tribution of each spectrum line over the whole of it. The problem of the ‘‘ reversing layer” is also wanting definite solution, and it is pointed out that instantaneous photographs may settle the question once for all. M. Pluvinel also points out the import- ance of noting the presence, or absence of the hydrocarbon bands suspected by Tacchini in 1883, as this observation may throw further light on the analogy between the corona and the tails of comets. Photometric observations should also be secured, and the polariscope should be employed to determine the proportion of polarized light in various parts of the corona. Nova AURIG&.—Prof. Barnard has recently made some measures of the position of Nova Aurigz, with a view to de- tecting proper motion. The two comparison stars selected were the stars E and F in Mr. Burnham’s previous list of comparison stars. The results are stated thus (Ast. Mach. No. 3143) :— ‘* The measures with F come out identical with Mr. Burnham’s during February, but those with E seem to show some sort of motion in distance and possibly in angle. From the position of: the comparison star this can. hardly be due to parallax. It is possible, though, if the discrepancy is a real displacement, that it is due to orbital motion, the orbit being so situated as to show no motion with reference to F. The difference is not sufficiently great, considering the distance, to prove anything.” Prof, Barnard further remarks that although the Nova presented no nebulosity at its first appearance, it has always appeared as an undoubted planetary nebula since he observed it on August 19. Estimates of magnitude in the present condition of the Nova will depend greatly upon the telescope and magnifying power em- ployed. Since August the nucleus has become fainter, while the light as a whole has remained essentially constant. ‘* ASTRONOMICAL JOURNAL” PRIZES. — ‘‘A_ gentleman earnestly interested in the development and pyogress of astro- nomy in his native land has authorized the editor of the Astronomical Fournal to offer two prizes, for resident citizens of the United States” (Ast, Four. No, 284). The prizes,will either take the form of money or of gold medals, one being of the value of two hundred dollars and the other of four hundred dollars. In the first instance the prizes will be awarded for observations tending to advance our knowledge of cometary orbits, one being for the best series of measurements of the positions of comets during the year ending March 31, 1894, and the other for the best discussion of the path of a periodic comet, with due regard to its perturbations. With regard to the first, astronomers who hope to gain the prize must frequently be at work until sunrise, as special value will be attached to observations made at inconvenient hours. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. ' THE name Ibea, contracted from the initials of the Imperial British East African Company to designate their territory on the east coast of Africa, has acquired a certain amount of currency, and although open to philological criticism is prac- tically convenient. On the same principle the great Dutch possessions in the East Indies have been termed Noi (Neder- landsch Ost Indie), and Mr, Ravenstein has suggested a similar abbreviation for the German East African territory (Deztsch Ost Afrika), only he would combine the initials with a Swahili affix or suffix signifying ‘‘ land,” and make it either Udoa, or Doani. The cumbrousness of using many words to specify a well-defined region seems to justify a somewhat bolder coinage of new names in geography than has hitherto been customary. THE Mouvement Geographique publishes a sketch map of the Stanley Falls district of the Congo, compiled from the compass- bearings of M. Page, one of the members of the disastrous Hodister expedition. Besides Stanley, Lieutenant Gleerup and Dr. Oscar Lenz are the only other authorities on this stretch of the river. Special information is givén regarding the three groups of rapids which occur between Stanley Falls NO. 1212, VOL. 47] _vals further up the stream. The journey to station and Kibonge. The cataract of Mandombe above Stanley Falls is composed of a succession of falls from six to ten feet high and numerous rapids, but local canoe-men are able to take boats through in four or five hours. Three hours of free navigation leads to the rapids of Mamanga, where the river is barred from bank to bank by a ridge of rock about twelve feet high, and followed by rapids and other smaller falls necessi- tating a portage. Three and a half hours of free navigation lead to Basundu, the last cataract, which canoes are able to pass in about three hours after being lightened. Tue Antarctic whaling fleet, the dispatch of which was noticed in vol. xlvi. p. 477, has been reported from the Falkland Islands. The Ba/aena, which has the most complete scientific equipment, arrived at Port Stanley at the end of November, the Active on December 8, the Diana on December 11. The fourth vessel, the Polar Star, was spoken off the. Plate on November 16. The telegram from Monte Video reports all well, and a preliminary notice of the scientific observations will probably follow by mail. ; IN a communication to the Paris Geographical Society, M. Venukoff calls attention to the fact that although the extensive Government drainage works have almost obliterated the Pinsk marshes from the valley of the Pripet, the most recent non- Russian atlases continue to represent these marshes as they were thirty years ago. Now their site is largely forest and meadow- land. GaN a . TRAVELS IN BORNEO. M® CHARLES HOSE’S paper on ‘‘A Journey up the Baram River to Mount Dulit and the Highlands of Borneo,” read to the Royal Geographical Society on Monday évening, was a. pleasant variety in the succession of African papers which has formed the staple of the Society’s programme ior the session. ' The Baram River runs on the whole northward through eastern Sarawak, reaching the sea in 4° 37/15” N. and 115° 59' 30” E. Its mouth is complicated by a series of sandbanks shifting with the change of the monsoons. The river is in parts very deep, and is navigated by a fleet of Government steamers. The bordering land is low and swampy or covered with jungle until Claudetown, about sixty miles from the mouth, is reached. There the ground rises, and a prosperous trading town has been established by Chinese merchants. At Long Mari, about fifty miles further up, there are great rapids which can only be passed with difficulty, and gorges of considerable depth occur at inter- ount -Dulit-was made up the Linjar, a large tributary of the Baram. The people on the banks of this river have a peculiar custom of keep- ing dead bodies in their houses encased in ornamental coffins for three months before burial ; and Mr, Hose gave some highly interesting particulars regarding their burial customs, their com- plicated subdivisions of the world of the dead, and their habit of interchanging messages with departed friends. At the head of canoe navigation the Sibop tribe hunt various species of monkeys with the blowpipe, the valuable commodity being the intestinal calculi known as Bezoar stones, which are greatly in demand by Chinese apothecaries. : The ascent of Mount Dulit was commenced on September 21, when a hut was built at the height of 2000 feet, and a path cut through the thorny scrub to 4000 feet, near which another hut was built. Several days were spent here collecting natural history specimens, many of which were species new to science ; amongst the smaller quadrupeds /Yemigale hose, and amongst... - birds Calyptomena hosei and Mesobucca eximius may be men- tioned. A cave some distance higher. was found with wild tobacco growing at its mouth and several remarkable ferns, one with fronds 14 feet long ; but except for bats and a solitary snake, the cave was untenanted. The fauna of Mount Dulit closely resembled that of Kina Balu, showing the widespread distribution in the highlands. of Borneo of Himalayan forms. The flat moss-clad summit of Mount Dulit was found to be, by aneroid, 5090 feet ; and there was a magnificent view of distant ranges, the position of a number of peaks in which was fixed. Some natives reported having heard a tiger roaring in the neigh- bourhood, but Mr. Hose found the sound to proceed from a gigantic toad, measuring 144 inches round the body. At the close of the paper Dr. Bowdler Sharpe F.R.S., pointed out the great importance of Mr. Hose’s results ir their bearing on geographical distribution, — q * { 3 January 19, 1893] NATURE BACILLI IN BUTTER. F “THE fact that milk affords a particularly suitable medium for ne the growth and multiplication of most micro-organisms, has rightly led to its being regarded as a dangerous vehicle for eee cnegerion of disease. Onthe Continent the practice of _ boiling all milk before use, and so destroying any pathogenic ‘microves which may be present, is almost universal, and recently a number of iileclal pieces of apparatus have been devised for household use, ensuring the efficient so-called ‘‘ pasteurization ” of milk. In England, however, we but rarely boil our milk in Spite of outbreaks of diphtheria and typhoid fever having been pereene sama traced to a particular milk supply. Ina paper by ‘on the bacterial contents of milk it is stated, that on one occasion out of every thirteen samples of milk supplied to Paris one was found to contain tubercle bacilli, whilst it is well known that the germs of typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, anthrax, &c., thrive readily in this medium. But although milk has been made the subject of much careful experimental investigation, é Hone we little is known of the microbial condition of butter. _ Heim has shown that cholera bacilli purposely rubbed into y typhoid bac be demonstrated after thirty-two days, whilst bacilli similarly introduced were found after three weeks, and tubercle bacilli after the lapse of a month, although Gasperini discovered the latter in butter even after 120 days. erate Lafar has published a paper, ‘‘ Bacteriologische dien iiber Butter” in the Archiv fiir Hygiene, in which he has recorded his investigations of the micro-organisms found in Munich butter. These experiments are instructive as exhibiting the fitness of butter to support a large number of bacteria, and thus an interesting supplement to what is already known roncel the longevity of pathogenic microbes in this medium. The samples examined were prepared from fresh cream and were investigated as soon as possible after the butter was made. It was that the number of microbes differed according as the for experiment was taken from the outside or _ from the interior of the piece of butter. Thus in one _ instance whilst one gram from the centre of the pat contained 2,465,555, on the outside in the same quantity as many as 47,250,000 micro-organisms were found. ‘Taking the average of a number of examinations, it was estimated that the interior of a lump of butter possessed from 10 to 20 millions of teria in a single gram. Lafar is inclined to regard this as an under rather than an over-statement of the number, inas- much as there are always probably present a certain proportion of microbes which will not develop at the ordinary temperature, _ or on the cea ge medium usually employed. He aemetly puts it that, in some cases it is conceivable that the number of organisms swallowed with a moderately-sized slice of bread and butter may exceed that of the whole population of _ Europe! Lafar found that butter kept in a refrigerator, with a _ tem of between 0° to + 1°C. at first (after five days) _ showed a marked reduction in the number of bacteria, but that no further diminution took place, although the sample was kept amonth at this temperature. Samples kept at from 12° to bited a marked increase in the number of micro- ms, a rise from 6 to 35 millions being observed in the course of nine days, whilst when placed in the incubator (35° C.) after four days the bacteria had fallen from 25 to 10 millions, and after thirty-four days only 5 per cent. of the original number present were discoverable. Experiments were also = to ascertain what was the bacterial effect of adding salt to butter kept in a refrigerator. It was found that although the numbers were thereby considerably reduced, that yet, even when as much as 10 ee of salt was added, the complete eria was not accomplished. On examining, however, “soem prepared from these samples, it was that the os ges present consisted almost entirely of a pure cultivation of one particular microbe, which was ap- parently entirely unaffected by the addition of salt, and had "wha multiplied to the exclusion of nearly all the other ‘eria originally present. When samples similarly salted were _ in the incubator (35° C.) the result was rather different, whilst there was more apparent connection between the proportion of salt added and the diminution in the number of _ bacteria, more varieties of micro-orginisms were found on the _ gelatine-plates. But in this case, also, the germicidal effect _ produced was not proportional to the increase in the amount _ of salt. Samples of artificial butter were also examined, and were invariably foundt o be much poorer in bacteria than ordi- NO. 1212, VOL. 47] i a nary butter. Thus, whilst the smallest number found in one gram was 747,059, in real butter considerably over two million microbes was the minimum. Two varieties of bacilli have been. isolated and described, which were found very constanily present in butter throughout these investigations. They. are beautifully illustrated and shown in coloured plates as individual organisms and colonies at the end of the pauper. Lafar pur- poses continuing his investigations, and it is to be hoped that the examination of butter for pathogenic micro-organisms, about which so little is known, will form an important feature in any further researches he may undertake. GRACE C, FRANKLAND. * THE OCCURRENCE OF NATIVE ZIRCONIA — (BADDELEYITE). THE discovery of native zirconia was first made public in my letter to NATURE (vol. xlvi. p. 620) in October last ; at the same time I gave characters sufficient for the recognition of the new mineral, and suggested the name Aaddeleyite, in honour of Mr. Joseph Baddeley who had brought the specimen with other dense minerals from Rakwana in Ceylon. As there was only a single fragment of what at first sight seemed a hopelessly im- perfect crystal, the determination of all the important characters without appreciable injury of the specimen was a task of an attractive kind: the technical details of the investigation (including quantitative chemical analyses) and the line of argument by which definite results were evolved from the observations, were communicated to the Mineralogical Society at the meeting held on October 25 (NATURE, vol. xlvii. p 70), and crystals of hydrous zirconium oxychloride prepared by identical methods from Baddeleyite and artificial zirconia, respectively, were exhibited for comparison. Having regard to the unexpected result of the chemical examination and the difference of the characters of Baddeleyite from those of arti- ficially prepared crystals of zirconia, every care had been taken to get results as accurate as the material itself would admit of. Of course it was hoped that the occurrence of native zirconia, once established, would soon be noticed elsewhere ; and in fact, I hear this morning (January 3) from Dr. Hussak of the Geo- logical Survey of Brazil, that flawless crystals of zirconia are actually met with in the south of Sao Paulo as an accessory constituent of an augitic rock described under the name of Jacupirangite by my friend Mr. O. A. Derby. The Brazilian mineral had three or four years ago been regarded by Dr. Hussak (who had then only a small amount of material for examination) as probably orthite (silicate of cerium, iron, &c.), a mineral with which it agrees in its more obvious external characters, and it was mentioned later under that name in Mr. Derby’s description of the Jacupirangite ; but more recently Dr; Hussak, on isolating a score of flawless crystals from the decomposed rock, recognized. the distinctness of the mineral fron orthite, determined the geometrical and physical characters of the crystals, and decided from a chemical examina- tion that the material was a tantalo-niobate of probably some member of the yttrium-cerium group: these results were pub- lished in the Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1892, Band II. p- 142, immediately after my announcement of the occurrence of native zirconia in Ceylon had been sent for publication, but they had been forwarded from Brazil as early as the month of June. Dr. Hussak now informs me that the Brazilian mineral, which had been sent to Sweden for a complete quantitative examination, has been determined by Prof. Blémstrand to be almost pure zirconia. As regards crystalline form, the parametral elements obtained by myself for Baddeleyite, and announced at the meeting of October 25, agree in a very satisfactory way with those deter- mined by Dr. Hussak for the Brazilian mineral, while as regards optical characters, the two descriptions are practically identical. The only important deviation of external character is in the specific gravity ; that of Baddeleyite is 6°025, that of selected crystals of the Brazilian mineral is 5006. ; Now it.seems almost impossible that the specific gravity of crystals of a simple oxide presenting otherwise identical characters can vary to this extent, and the explanation of all the difficulty will probably be found to be that Dr. Hussak’s specimens really belong to two distinct minerals ; that while the crystalline form and optical characters were determined from the one (zirconia), the specific gravity and the chemical composition 284 NATURE [JANUARY 19, 1893 were originally determined from the other (yttrium tantalate). In fact, it was stated in my former communication that the Baddeleyite of Ceylon is itself associated with such a chemical compound; and I may add that this associated mineral was there designated without the mention of a species-name because it had been found to have a specific gravity (4°9) far below the inferior limit (5°5) hitherto observed in the case of undoubted Yttrotantalite : it was intended to determine later whether or not the lowness of the specific gravity was accompanied by a difference in the proportion of the chemical constituents ; further, the similarity of aspect of the zirconia and yttrium tantalate of Ceylon is such that a confusion of the two would be easy. Inthis way the discrepancy of the chemical results and the complete accuracy of the observations of Dr. Hussak, whose reputation stands so high in the annals of mineralogical science, would be found consistent with each other. There remains the inconvenience that two names have been suggested for the same mineral; but according to the rules of nomenclature formulated by Dana. (rule 13d) the name of Baddeleyite has the prior claim. I may add that the name Brasztlite was in use eight years ago, commercially at least, for the specification of an oil-bearing rock found in the neighbour- hood of Bahia. L. FLETCHER, GAS POWER FOR ELECTRIC LIGHTING. A! the ordinary meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers on Tuesday, January 10, an interesting paper on ‘‘ Gas- Power for Electric Lighting’? was read by Mr. J. Emerson Dowson. The author stated that in Great Britain alone gas-engines had been sold for electric lighting, exceeding in the aggregate 7000 horse-power, and that in Germany engines were used for about 1100 arc- and 90,000 glow- lamps. It was, however, only within the last few years that gas-engines of large size had been before the world ina practical form. The varying load-factor in central stations was a serious trouble, and the author hoped to show that much of the present loss, due to fuel, water, and wages, would be avoided if gas-power were used instead of steam-power. Special reference was made to the central-station at Dessau, belonging to the German Continental Gas Company. That station was opened in 1886 with two 60 horse-power, one 30 horse-power, and one 8 horse-power (effective) engines, worked with town-gas, and all the dynamos were driven by belting and counter-shafts. In 1891 considerable alterations were made. One 60 horse-power engine, with its belting and counter-shaft, was retained, and one of 120 horse-power introduced, coupled direct to its dynamo. The speed of the engine and coupled dynamo was 145 revolutions per minute, and the con- sumption of town-gas was equal to 39 cubic feet per kilowatt. Formerly, without accumulators, it was thought necessary to adjust the size of the engines to the supply, so that they should always be worked to their full extent. It had, however, been found that a limited supply could more advantageously be fur- nished entirely from accumulators, In spite of the loss of about 21 per cent. in the accumulators, large engines worked more profitably in parallel than smaller ones supplying direct without accumulators. Since February, 1889, the Municipality of Schwabing, a suburb of Munich, had used an Otto engine worked with Dowson gas for 10 arc- and 300 glow-lamps. The load was variable, but with an average output of 22°5 kilowatts per hour the fuel-consumption was 3°3 lbs. per kilowatt. The town of Morecambe was lighted by nine arc-lamps and glow- lamps, equal to 1600 of eight candle-power each, the dynamos being driven by Stockport gas-engines worked with Dowson gas. With an output of only 1155 kilowatts per week the consumption of fuel was 2°58 lbs., and the cost of the gas, including wages and fuel, was 3d. per kilowatt delivered. At the chateau of Mr. Say, at Longpont, in the South of France, there were 650 glow-lamps and one arc-lamp, supplied by a dynamo driven by a Crossley engine worked with Dowson gas. The consumption of fuel was 1°2 Ib. per indicated horse-power, and 2°7 lbs. per kilowatt per hour. i It was believed that the late Sir William Siemens first drew attention to the fact, that when illuminating-gas was burnt in a gas-engine to drive a dynamo, much more light was produced electrically than could be produced by burning the same quantity of gas in burners in the usual way. Latterly the consumption of gas per horse power in gas-engines had been reduced, and the NO. 1212, VOL. 47] ratio was at the present time about 20 to 1 in favour of converting the gas into an arc-light, by means of a gas-engine. The author had collected data from various sources, as to the consumption of ordinary town-gas by engines supplying electric light with and without accumulators. The average of all the returns, with engines under varying loads and without accumulators, was about 47 cubic feet per kilowatt-hour; when accumulators were used, the consumption of gas was less, because th engines then worked under a full load. With 47 cubic feet per kilowatt, and 55 watts per 16 candle-power, one light of that power required only 2°6 cubic feet per hour; whereas a standard Argand burner required 5 cubic feet per hour. In this comparison, it was assumed that the glow-lamps and gas- burners were in good order, but under ordinary working con- ditions they did not maintain so high a duty. The question of load-factor was a serious one with any ype of engine, but with gas-engines the loss was much less with steam-engines. When a gas-engine was stopped, its consumption of fuel stopped also, and there was no furnace to maintain, nor was there any water to boil at starting. At the same time, it was desirable that the gas-engine should be worked as much as possible under a full load, and in this respect the experience at Dessau was generally confirmed. A central-station was worked under trying conditions, and in the London district there was only a full output of current during from three to five hours in every twenty-four ; ver, about 60 per cent. of the total output was required during that short period. In practice, this meant that in a station where the current was supplied without accumulators, the engines . were run at a reduced speed during a portion of the time, and at other times some of them were stopped altogether; but all had to be ready to work in the evening, and occasionally in the day-time, when there was fog. Generally, it might be assumed that the average consumption was more than 6 pounds per kilowatt where accumulators were used, and about 9 to 12 pounds where they were not used. In any case, with the best possible arrangement of steam-power, there must be a large amount of fuel consumed which did no useful work; for, even if some of the fires were drawn, they had to be re-lighted, and the large quantity of water which had cooled during the time of standing must be re-heated. ai The author believed that the solution of the difficulty was to be found in the use of gas-plant instead of steam-plant. With a large gas-engine, one brake horse-power per hour could be — obtained with a consumption of about 1 Ib. of anthracite, or 14 lb. of coke; whereas the consumption of coal with the steam-engines used for central-stations, must be taken at about 24 lbs. per brake horse-power, when working under a full load. A saving of not less than 50 per cent. could therefore be effected in stations where the engines were fully loaded ; and where there were great fluctuations in the output, the loss of fuel with boilers not used, or only partly used, could be almost entirely avoided. For a maximum of 400 kilowatts, there would be three gas-generators, each capable of supplying one-third of the maximum required. The production of gas could be raised or lowered in several ways, and the working of each generator could be stopped immediately by shutting off its steam supply. Supposing, therefore, that all three generators were working at their maximum rate, and a gradual reduction was required, this could easily be effected ; and when the production of one or two generators could be dispensed with their operation was at once stopped. The third generator could then be kept at work, and its production adjusted to suit the minimum con- sumption required. A gas-generator had a small grate-area compared with that of a boiler, and much less cooling-surface ; it contained no water, and required no chimney-draught. A generator of the size referred to lost only 6 to 8 lbs. per hour whilst standing. Ifan average of only 4o per cent. of the maxi- mum power were required for twenty-one hours, it was equivalent to letting two of the generators stand for that period ; and at 8 lbs. each per hour that meant a total loss of only 3 cwts.; compared with the much greater waste when steam-power was used. As the use of large engines, driven with generator gas, was of recent date, the author proceeded to describe the gas-plant used, and gave the results of engines working regu- larly with Dowson gas, under the usual conditions obtaining in factories. .He also gave the results of brake-tests made with several engines of large size, and reproduced indicator diagrams taken from engines of different makers. Although admirable results had undoubtedly been obtained from engines / -JANuary 19, 1893] NATURE 285 working with the Otto cycle, he was of opinion, that, with ines of large size, the results would be still better if the cycle e altered, especially when generator-gas was used. His ons for this were fully stated in the paper. The following was a summary of the points urged by the ___ 1.—When town-gas was used for driving the engines of an _ electrical station, the consumption was about 50 per cent. less _ than the volume of gas required to. give the same amount of light _ by ordinary burners. hen town- was used, neither boiler nor firemen sd, and there were no ashes to remove ; less space } mo accumulators were required, except such as spend to equalize the load ef the engines and to asmall amount of storage. The engines could be the most crowded districts, close to where the lights ed, and where boilers were not allowed. generator-gas was used, the consumption of fuel full load would be at least 50 per cent. less than with ower, and the loss due to steam-boilers not being fully could be almost entirely avoided. _ UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. __ CAMBRIDGE.—We regret to hear that Professor Cayley has been suffering from serious illness, and that he is in consequence unable to give this term his advertised course of lectures in Pure __L. Cobbett, M.A., M.B., of Trinity College, has been ap- nted Demonstrator of Pathology in the place of Dr. E. Lloyd 1es, who has resigned the office. . F. Darwin, Deputy Professor of Botany, announces a ial course of lectures in the Chemical Physiology of Plants, > given by Mr. Acton, of St. John’s College, on Tuesdays _ in the present Lent Term. __ Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, F.R.S., announces a second course of ecture ah ge y, to be given in the Easter Term. _Mr. A. E. Shipley has been appointed an additional member of the Special Board for Biology and Geology. te SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. “Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 3a eries, vol. ‘4 pt. 4.—Cottage sanitation (illustrated), by H. cLean ‘Wilson, a paper prepared under the supervision _ of Dr. Spottiswoode Cameron and T. Pridgin Teale, F.R.S. the plots last year, and gave an average yield of eight tons per : Excepting the basic slag, no manure of any kind had ever been applied to the plots. The experiments are being continued and extended.— Wild birds, useful and injurious (illustrated), by C. F. Archibald.—Utilization of straw as food for stock, by h Darby. Showing methods of using chaffed straw as a _ remedy for the deficient hay crop of last summer, with records of previous experiences under similar circumstances.—Yew . cn, by Mr. E. P. Squarey, Mr. Charles Whitehead, Mr. } Carruthers, F.R.S., and Dr. Munro. But few definite con- NO. 1212, VOL. 47] clusions can be arrived at, owing to the conflicting nature of the information available. It appears, however, (1) that both the male and female yews are poisonous ; (2) the poisonous alkaloid (or alkaloids) exists chiefly in the leaves and in the seeds ; (3) the fleshy part of the fruit is harmless, or nearly so ; (4) the amount of poisonous alkaloid in the leaves varies considerably with individual trees, and perhaps with the season of the year. Dr. Munro contributes a review of the chemical work done upon taxine, the only alkaloid in yew which has been investi- gated ; very little is known with certainty about it, either as to its chemical nature or its physiological action. As Dr. Munro suggests, ‘‘ yew leaves merit exhaustive chemical examination.” — Besides the official reports, there are several short articles, including one upon the ferments of milk, abridged by Dr. Munro from Prof. H. W. Conn’s pamphlet on the subject, issued last summer; also a paper upon the decline of _wheat-growing in Engiand, by the editor. American Fournal of Science, January.x—The age of the earth, by Clarence King. This paper contains an application of Lord Kelvin’s reasoning from probable rates of refrigeration to the determination of the earth’s age, aided by Dr. Car) Barus’s recent work in geological physics, especially his deter- mination of the latent heat of fusion, specific heats melted and solid, and the volume expansion between the melted and solid state, of the rock diabase. Thermal considerations have shown that with a given initial excess of temperature of the earth over surrounding space, and an assigned value for rock conductivity, it is possible to determine the curve of temperature from the earth’s centre to its surface. It appears that for an initial temperature of 2000° C., the initial maximum temperature must still extend uniformly from the centre to within a few hundred miles of the surface for any admissible value of the age. But since the pressures increase steadily as we proceed towards the centre, there must be a point at which their effect outweighs that of the temperature, and the material, though very hot, remains in the solid state. Now on the data supplied by Barus’s researches it is possible to state what temperatures are necessary to keep a certain representative species of rock in the fluid state at successive points within the earth. The amount of possible liquid layer is limited by the facts of tidal rigidity, which fix the maximum admissible temperature at 1950° and the age at 24x10% years. Lower values are excluded by the gradient of temperature observed on proceeding downwards from the surface. This value, twenty-four million years, agrees fairly well with the age assigned by Helmholtz and Kelvin to the sun. It is also concluded that the earth never was all liquid, that the original liquid layer did not exceed 53 miles, and that the spheroidal shape is due to the plasticity of the lithosphere as manifested under the action of verv slowly applied forces.—Tertiary geology of Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, by Gilbert D. Harris.—‘‘ Anglesite” associated with boleite, by F. A. Genth.—Preliminary account of the iced-bar base apparatus of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, by . S. Woodward.—Some experiments with an artificial geyser, by J. C. Graham.—Observations of the Andromed meteors of November 23 and 27, 1892, by H. A. Newton.—Preliminary notice of a meteoric stone seen to fall at Bath, South Dakota, by A. E, Foote.—New Cretaceous bird allied to Hesperornis, by O. C. Marsh.—Skull and brain of Claosaurus, by O. C. Marsh. THE Botanical Gazette for October contains an interesting article by Mr. H. L. Russell on the bacterial investigation of the sea and its floor, The author has had the opportunity of carrying on bacteriological observations in sea-water, both from the Bay of Naplesand from the coast of Massachusetts. He finds micro-organisms invariably present in sea water, though not in such large numbers as in fresh water, even at a great distance from the shore, and to a depth of 3200 feet ; and a larger number in the slime at the bottom than in the water itself. Some marine forms are cosmopolitan, and the bacteria that are so universally present in sea-water and mud seem to be quite peculiar to this habitat.—Mr. E, L. Berthoud describes the mode in which the geographical distribution of some plants has been greatly ex- tended by the agency of the buffalo.—In the number for Novem- ber Prof, Underwood gives a report of the proceedings of the International Botanical Congress lately held at Genoa.—Mr. G. W. Martin contributes an account of the development of the flower and embryo-sac in So/idago and Asver. 286 NATURE [JANUARY 19, 1893 Bulletin of the New. York Mathematical Society, vol. ii. No. 2, November 1892.—This number practically consists of one paper, and that a very interesting one, by Dr. Emory McClin- tock, *fOn the Non-Euclidian Geometry,” a subject which has been more than once brought before our readers. In vol. viii. (1873) appeared Clifford’s translation of Riemann’s Habilitationsschrift ‘‘ueber die Hypothesen welche der Geo- metrie zu Grunde liegen”’ (1854). In 1883 this geometry was considered in Cayley’s British Association address, and quite recently (February 25, 1892) in a translation of Poincaré’s ** Revue Generale des Sciences.” ‘‘ The chief lesson to be obtained from all non-euclidian diversions is that the distin- guishing mark of euclidian geometry is fixity of distance- measurement, by which alone it is possible to draw the same figure upon different scales. That the same figure may be drawn upon different scales might. well be laid down as the axiom necessary and sufficient to distinguish euclidian from non- euclidian geometry.’’ To this is appended a footnote which says that this is ‘‘ referred to as ‘the axiom of similars’ by Sir Richard (sic) Ballin the article ‘Measurement’ of the ‘‘ Encycl. Brit.” A short article follows on the new logarithmic tables of J. de Mendizabal-Tamborrel (Paris, Hermann, 1891). In addition there are the usual ‘* Notes,” but no list of publica- tions. No. 3, December 1892.—This number contains a careful criticism of Ball’s ‘‘ Mathematical Recreations,” with suggestions and discussions by Prof J. E. Oliver of Ithaca, New York, and an account of Dr. Julius Bauschinger’s ‘‘ Zweites Miinchener Sternverzeichniss, enthaltend die mittleren Oerter von 18,200 Sternen fiir das Aequinoctium, 1880,” by Prof..T. H. Safford. ** Notes” and ‘‘ New Publications” follow. iViedemann’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 12.—On the temperature coefficient of the electrical resi-tance of mercury and on the mercury resistances of the Imperial Institution, by D. Kreichgauer and W. Jaeger. The coefficient was measured in the case of the copies of standard resistances already described. The formula obtained for the resistance w; at temperature ¢ by two independent methods was We = Wo (I + 0°000875¢ + 0'00000125/") —Generation of electricity by friction of gases against metals, by K. Wesendonck.—On galvanic polarization at small electrodes, by F. Richarz.— Electric oscillations in wires, direct measure- ment of the moving wave, by Kr. Birkeland. The oscillations were produced in two copper wires running parallel to each other at a distance of 80cm. They were 30m. long, and ended in one direction in brass plates 4ocm. square, facing two similar plates connected with the terminals of the spark gap of a power- ful induction coil. The’ potentials along the wire when the coil was working were determined by measuring the length of the sparks crossing between the knobs of a spark micrometer, one of them being connected with the wire by a sliding contact, the other leading through a telephone to earth. Statical effects on the telephone were made inappreciable by: laying a thread moistened with dilute sulphuric acid across the wires near. the “* collector” plates. Under these circumstances the passage of sparks was immediately indicated by the ‘telephone, and their length could be measured down to 0’0005mm.—Determination of dielectric constants by means of the differential inductor, by Oscar Werner.—Measurement of resistances by means -of the telephone, by Max Wien.—Diffusion of light by rough surfaces, by Christian Wiener. Experiments made on cast gypsum show that Lambert’s law of diffusion, according to which the bright- ness of a surface is independent of the angle from which it is seen, is not strictly correct. The brightness at the edge of a round surface is 0°6 times that given by hislaw. In the vicinity of reflecti n points the brightness is greater, and at the greatest brightness the angle of incidence is greater than the angle of reflection.—A unit for measuring intensity of sensation, by the same. —On internal friction of solid bodie., especially metals, by W. Voigt.—Measurement of the coefficient of diffusion of liquids, by F. Niemoeller.—Ahsolute compressi ility of mercury, by G de Metz.—Propagation of energy through the ether, by G. Helm.—On the utilization and action of the tele- phone in electrical null methods; reply to Hr. Winkelmann, by E. Cohn.—On the solution of sodium silicates, and influence of time upon their constitution, by F. Kohlrau ch.— Behaviour of polarized light in refraction, by G. Quincke.—On a mercury arc light, by L. Arons. NO. 1212, VOL. 47]| SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. : Royal Meteorological Society, December 21,— C. Theodore Williams, President, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— Moving anticyclones in the Southern Hemi- sphere, by Mr. H. C.. Russell, F.R.S., Government Astrono- mer, New South Wales. Theauthor describes the results of his practical study of the daily weather charts for Australasia, and states that the leading fact brought out is that the weather south. of 20° S. latitude is the product of a series of rapidly moving anticyclones, which follow one another with remarkable regu- larity, and are the great controlling force in determining local weather. These anticyclones are more numerous in summer than in winter, the average number for the year being 42. They usually take seven or eight days to travel across Australia: in summer, and nine or ten days in winter ; the average daily rate of translation being 400 miles. The shape of the anticyclone appears to undergo some modification as it nears the east coast. The winds on the north side of the anti-cyclone are not so strong as those on the south side, and the intensity of the weather is in proportion to the difference in pressure between the anti- cyclone and the Y-depression, but the relation of the pressures, varies frequently before the wind responds, the pressure appear- ing to be controlled from above by the more or less rapid descent. of air which feeds the anticyclone. Cyclonic storms are very unusual, and do not occur more than once in two or three months.—The tracks of ocean wind systems in transit over ‘Australasia, by Capt. M. W. C. Hepworth. The author has. examined the daily weather charts of Australia and New — Zealand, and has prepared maps showing the daily positions. of the centres of high and low pressures for a whole year. He finds that the wind systems, which make their first appearance to the westward and south-westward, advance to the eastward. rapidly, and frequently very rapidly, during the winter months, but during the symmer months they usually move more slowly, and not unfrequently recurve. Their progress is retarded by contact with the areas of high pressure which they encounter ; the mean of the tracks of these anticyclones, moving also from west to east, appears to be across the southern portion of Aus- tralia and onward, crossing the islands of New Zealand during the winter months, but to the southward of Western and South Australia, across Victoria and New South Wales, and thence to the north-eastward, avoiding New Zealand during the summer — months.— Rainfall of Nottinghamshire, 1861-90, by Mr. H. Mellish. records made in the county during the thirty years, and finds that intthe extreme west the mean rainfall is 27 inches or more, that over the rest of the county it varies between 25 and 27 inches, except north of the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln- shire Railway, where the rainfall is less than 25 inches, and in the north-east towards Gainsborough, where it is not more than 23 inches. The year of greatest rainfall was 1872, and of least rainfall 1887. October is the wettest month and February the driest.—A new instrument for cloud measurements, by Dr. Nils Ekholm. Geological Society, December 21, 1892.—Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Vice-Piesident, in the chair.—The following communications were read :—On a Sauropodous Dinosaurian vertebra from the Wealden of Hastings, by R. Lydekker. In addition to Hoplosaurus armatus and Pelerosaurus Conybearet, there is evidence of another large Sauropodous Dinosaur in the Wealden, now known as Morosaurus brevis. Up tothe present time it has been impossible adequately to compare Hoplosaurus armatus with Morosaurus brevis ; but recently Mr, Rufford has sent to the British Museuin an imperfect dorsal vertebra of a largé Sauropodous inosaur from the Wealden of Hastings, which enabled the required comparison to be made. The author describes the vertebra, contrasts it with that of Hoplosaurus armatus, and gives presumptive evidence that it should be referred to the so-called A/orosaurus Becklest (Marsh), which apparently cannot be separated from A/. (Cettosaurus) brevis. He has not been able to compare Mr. Rufford’s specimen with the dorsals of the American JM/orosaurus, in order to discover whether the English Dinosaur is correctly referred to that — genus. This paper led to a discussion, in which the chairman, Mr. Hulke, Prof. Seeley, Mr. E. T. Newton, and the author took part.—On some additional remains of Cestraciont and other fishes in the Green Gritty Marls, immediately overlying the Red Marls of the Upper Keuper in Warwickshire, by the Rev. P. The author has collected and discussed all the rainfall © January 19, 1893] NATURE 28 / B. Brodie. The vertebrate remains occur in a very thin band of marly friable sandstone lying between two beds of green marl, though in some places the same bed has itself no admixture of sandy material. Bones and teeth are so numerous that it might almost be called a bone-bed. It does not exceed three inches thickness. It contains ichthyodorulites of Cestraciont fishes, abundant palatal teeth of Acrodus keuperinus, ganoid fish- ‘scales, and abundant broken bones, some of which may belong to fishes, others to labyrinthodonts, and amongst the latter a fragment of a cranial apr ber ae iy a the the presence of one of its Fellows who had been con- Baio it for nearly sixty years, and had read his first paper almost half a century ago. He hoped that the Society would nue to receive communications from the same source 2 4gye and value. Mr. J. W. Davis, Mr. H. B. Wood- and Mr. E. T. Newton also spoke.—Calamostachys Schimp, by Thomas Hick. Communicated y J. W. Davis.—Notes on some Pennsylvanian calami- by W. S. Gresley, — Scandinavian Boulders at mer, by Herr Victor Madsen, of the Danish Geological aa . Communicated by J. W. Hulke, F.R.S. During a visit to Cromer in 1891 the author devoted much attention to a search for Scandinavian boulders, and obtained three speci- 1 Toerees (a violet felspar-porphyry) was from the shore, and os “the other two were from the collection of Mr. Savin. The - fitst was considered to come from south-east Norway, and indeed Mr. K. O. Bjérlykke, to whom it was submitted, refers it to the environsof Christiania. The author considered ewe wo specimens presented to him by Mr. Savin, who had taken them out of Boulder Clay between Cromer and _ Overstrand; were from Dalecarlia ; and these were submitted to Mr. E. Svedmark, who compared one of them (a brown of Te nde-porphyry) with the Grénklitt porphyry in the of Orsa, and declared that the other (a blackish - felsite- ) might also be from Dalecarlia. This paper was discussed by Mr. C. Reid, Mr. J. W. Davis, the Rev. P. B. Brodie, Dr. Hicks, Mr. Marr, and the Chairman. } be EDINBURGH. Royal Society, December 19, 1892.—Sir Douglas Maclagan, _ President, in the chair.—Dr. Hunter Stewart read a paper on an extension of Kjeldahl’s method of organic analysis, and de- : yed an apparatus which he had devised for the estimation of _ the amount of organic carbon present in water.—Prof. —— read a note by Dr. W. G. Aitchison Robertson on the madder-staining of dentine. Rabbits were fed on madder for some time and were then killed, the dentine being then found to be stained. When other food was supplied for a time, 1% 2 the process of feeding on madder being resumed afterwards, two _ coloured layers were found in the dentine, with an intermediate ea oaricss layer.—Prof. C. G. Knott read a paper on recent x ovations in vector theory, Heentered intoa critical exami- *. | of the anti-quaternionic attitudes taken up by Prof. _ Willard Gibbs, Mr. Oliver Heaviside, Prof. Macfarlane, and _ others. Tis chief arguments were (1) that the quaternion was as fundamental a geometric conception as either its scalar or its vector part—indeed more fundamental; (2) that in the Sereement of his Seadic pareticn, Prof. Gibbs, being forced tot the ernion in, logically condemned his own position ; git = salty flexible vector analysis must be ih 24 the equations 77 = 2, jk = i, ki = 7, &c., being from the geometrical and physical point of view essentially rotational ; (4) that the -hon-associative character of the vector-analysis, in which i*, 7°, #, were assumed to be + 1, rendered it totally unfit for i ical research ; (5) that this tinkering with the alge- braic sign quite spoiled the real efficiency of the very beautiful quaternion operator y—Prof. Gibbs, for example, being com- og gg gee the (supposed) new functions of operation ot, New, Lap, Max, which in quaternions are the very simplest _ of inverse functions of vy, and are best expressed as such. DvuBLIN. Royal Dublin Society, December 21, 1892.—Prof. A. C. _ Haddon in the chair.—Prof. Sollas, F.R.S., read a paper on _ pitchstone and andesite from tertiary dykes in Donegal. The author found that a microscopical examination of some remark- ably freshjglassy rocks from Donegal revealed a close resemblance between them and rocks of the same age in Arran. This helps to confirm the supposed great extension of tertiary dykes through the north-west of Ireland. Prof. Sollas next read a paper on the variolite and associated igneous rocks of Roundwood, co. NO. 1212, VOL. 47] Wicklow. He described them as a complex of basic rocks, in- cluding altered ophitic dolerite, spilite (variolite du Drac), and spherulitic tachylite(variolite de la Durance). In connection with the epidotisation of the rock the author pointed to the excessive fissuring which it has undergone; and showed that the formation of epidote is attended with considerable diminu- tion of volume, sufficient to account for the cracks. The forma- tion of serpentine and chlorite is attended with expansion, and chlorite can scarcely be formed without the simultaneous libera- tion of a’disproportionately large percentage of quartz. This explains the common association of chlorite with the quartz of quartz veins. —Sir’ Howard Grubb, F.R.S., described a new ‘system of mounting for monster reflecting telescopes. —Mr. H. H. Dixon read a paper on the germination of seedlings in the absence of bacteria. Seeds, the outer coats of which were sterilized, germinated in the absence of bacteria, and being kept absolutely free from bacteria did not, after growth had ceased, suffer the decay of death, but remained for more than twenty months apparently unchanged. An apparatus forsterilising the outer coats of the seeds and sowing them without the introduc- tion of bacteria was also described.—A paper was communicated by Prof. A. C. Haddon, and Miss A. M. Shackleton, describing some new species of Actinize from Torres Straits. ; BERLIN. Meteorological Society, December 6.—Dr. Vettin, Presi- dent, in the chair.—Prof. Assmann gave a detailed description of the meteorographs set up in the ‘‘ Urania-pillars.” Each pillar contains a thermograph, a barograpb, and a hygrograph, placed side by side in a metal case through which a rapid cur- rent of airis keptup. The thermograph consists of a Bourdon spring, filled with alcohol, whose movements are communicated to an external recording-lever. The barograph is made of four boxes joined together, and delicately balanced by a weight, whose movements are similarly recorded externally. The hygrograph consists of a bundle of hairs 2 m. in length. The above instru- ments have continued to work well after several months’ use. Their chief defect is due to the hygroscopic properties of the paper on which the three levers trace their record. ‘The large amount of material in the shape of meteorograms already col- lected has revealed a number of interesting facts. Thus, for instance, the temperatures recorded on two closely-adjacent pillars may differ by 1° or more not only on a warm summer day, but also during the night of November 26, the coldest of this year. In onecase the air was found to be warmed by the adjacent row of houses exposed to direct sunlight. In another the radiation was observed to be greater opposite a gateway than in the street. The very considerable local differences of air-temperature recorded on closely-neighbouring pillars could scarcely have been @ friorz expected. Physiological Society, December 9, 1892.—Prof. du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Prof. Exner, of Vienna, gave avésumé of his researches on the innervation of the crico-thyroid muscle in rabbits and dogs. In each he had found a branch from the pharyngeal branch of the vagus distributed to this muscle, to- gether with the superior laryngeal nerve, to which he has given the name of median laryngeal nerve. ‘The communication was illustrated by an experimental demonstration. —Dr, Hansemann stated that he had obtained photographs of microscopic objects. which when placed in a stereoscope, presented an appearance of solidity. They were produced by taking one photograph of the object in focus for a given level, and then a second photo- graph at a different level. These photographs united stereo- scopically gave the impression of solidity. —Prof. Hilgard drew attention to the remarkable fact that the most civilized races of an- tiquity usually established themselves in dry districts. This he at- tributed to the fact, borne out by numerous analyses of soils in America, that in dry regions the earth is far richer in mineral food-stuffs necessary to plant life than in wet regions where these are largely washed out of the soil. Hence in dry regions simple irrigation suffices to produce a luxuriant vegetable growth, while on the other hand the soil of moist regions is very rapidly exhausted. PaRIs. Academy of Sciences, January 9.—M. de Lacaze-Duthiers in the chair.—Drainage waters of cultivated lands, by M. P. P. Dehérain. An experimental investigation of the substances found in water drained from various cultivations showed that all the waters contained a fair proportion of nitrates. Even beet- root, which not only utilizes nitrogen for the formation of its 288 albuminoids, but also stores nitrates in its tissues, gave 31, 39, and 95 gr. of nitric acid per cubic metre of drainage water. Beetroot gives, however, the least quantity of nitrogen in the drained water in proportion to the crop. Next comes Turkey corn, and then potatoes, It appears certain that all nitrogen which enters the soil is either assimilated or else lost. In the case of a bad harvest there is a loss both from the poverty of the crop and the impoverished state of the soil.—On the small planets and nebule discovered at the Nice Observatory by MM. Charlois and Javelle, and at the Mounier observing station, by M. Perrotin. A list of eight minor planets discovered by the photographic method in four weeks, z.e. one-sixteenth of the time necessary to achieve the same result by eye observation. — Dilatation and compressibility of water,- by E. H. Amagat. Tables are given showing the relative volumes of a quantity of water at pressures varying from I to 3000 atmospheres and temperatures ranging from 0° to 198° ; and others showing the compressibility of water under the same conditions, This is seen to vary inversely as the pressure, and also inversely as the tem- perature up to very high pressures, when it begins to increase with the temperature.— Observations of Brooks’s comet (Novem- ber 19, 1892), made at the Paris Observatory (west equatorial), by M. O. Callandreau.—Observations of solar phenomena, made at the observatory of the Roman College during the third quarter of 1892, by M. P. Tacchinii—On the reduction of elliptic in- tegrals, by M. J. C. Kluyver.—On the thermal variation of the electric resistance of mercury, by M. Ch. Ed. Guillaume. Pointing out the remarkable agreement of his results with those obtained by Messrs. Kreichgauer and Jager, at the Physico- Technical Institute of Germany (see Wiedemann’s Annalen, No. 12).—On the measurement of power in multiphase currents, by M. Blondel.—Absolute value of the magnetic elements on January 1, 1893. Theelements for that date, determined at the magnetic observatory of the Parc Saint-Maur, situated in long. 0° 9’ 23” E. and lat. 48° 48’ 34” N., are the following :— Absolute values on Secular variation January 1, 1893. in 1892. Declination 15 24°3 - 64 Inclination. .. 65 8°5 -—0'5 Horizontal force 0°19596 + 0°00016 Vertical force 0°42207 + 0°00019 Total force 0°46616 + 0'00024 The values for the magnetic and meteorological observatory of Perpignan, long. 0° 32’ 45” E., lat. 42° 42’ 8’ N., are Absolute values on Secular variation January 1, 1893. in 1892 ° 4 ‘ Declination 14 12°9 _-5°9 Inclination 60 13°3 — 1°8 Horizontal force 0°22278 + 0°00030 Vertical force ... 0°38933 + 0'00003 Total force 0°44856 + 0°00017 —On the purification of arsenical zinc, by M. H. Lescoeur. Zinc destined for toxicological operations can be obtained free from arsenic, antimony, sulphur, and phosphorus by two suc- cessive operations, viz. oxidation by means of nitre, and fusion with chloride of zinc.—Combinations of quinoleine with the halogen salts of silver, by M. Raoul Varet.—Symmetric dipropylurea and dipropylsulphourea, by M. F. Chancel.— On a substance derived from chloral, or chloralose, and its physiological and therapeutic effects, by MM. Hanriot and Ch. Richet.—On phagocytosis observed on the living animal, in the branchii of the lamellibranch molluscs, by M. de Bruyne.— New observations on the affinities of the different groups of - gasteropods, by M. E. L. Bouvier.—On an anomaly recently presented by the secular variation of the magnetic needle, by M. Léon Descroix.— Influence of motion on the development of fowls’ eggs, by M. A. Marcacci. AMSTERDAM. Royal Academy of Sciences, December 24, 1892.— Prof. Van de Sande Bakhuysen in the chair.—In a paper read by MM. S. Hoogewerff and W. A. van Dorp, some isoimides of camphoric acid were described. These were obtained by the action of POC], or CH3.COCl1 on some substituted camphoramic ‘acids. The following reaction takes place :— C=NR CHK +CH;.COCI=C,H,.C >O+ COOH c=0 HCl+CH,;COOH NO. 1212, VOL. 47] NATURE [JANUARY 19, 1893 where R is put for CH;, C,H; or C;H;. The isoimides are very unstable ; they easily add one molecule of water, re-generat- ing the acids from which they derive. By the action of heat they are transformed into the ordinary imides C,H,4 _ CoD NR. —The same authors called attention to the fact that it seems to be a general reaction of the anhydrides of bibasic acids to dis- solve in the aqueous solutions of ammonia and the Pecos Cc amines, forming the corresponding acid amides: R C60, O + NHR, = RC GOou — Mr. Bakhuis Roozeboom dealt with the solubility-curve for systems of two bodies. The general form of such a curve in its totality, as yet not known even by the researches of Engel, has been encountered by the author and Mr. Schreinemakers in studying the solubility of Fe,Clg.12H,O in solutions of HC]. The curve is a continuous one, combining the two solubilities of the hydrate, recently made known by the author. It presents a summit when the proportion of Fe,Clf is the same as in the solid hydrate. Part of the solutions give on water-additions a deposit of the hydrate, part of them give redissolution. The general form of the curve for double salts would be represented in its totality by a closed curve, sur- rounding the point, indicating the composition of the double salt. With this form the same division of the solutions in regard to their behaviour on water-addition is possible as above.— Prof. Lorentz treated of Stokes’s theory of the aberration of light. The hypothesis of M. Stokes, that the movement of the ether admits of a velocity-potential, is in contradiction with the _ supposition that, at the surface of the earth, the velocity of the ether is equal to that of the planet. It might, however, be doubted whether, in M. Stokes’s explanation, the first hypo- thesis is really necessary. In the present note it is shown that it cannot be avoided. CONTENTS. Heredity. “By A. E. S.°. 0. 002° 2 oe ee The Basis of Algebra. ByJ.L...... = Ch oe ED Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate. By J. Starkie — ATOPOUE ge oe ee ee 0 en 5 ee ey Our Book Shelf :— Lodge: ‘ Pioneers of Science.”—A. T.. ... . 268 Maycock: ‘Electric Lighting and Power Distribu- Hon ee eae S68 ae ce eo Bates: ‘‘ The Naturalist on the River Amazons”. . 269 Letters to the Editor :— A Proposed Handbook of the British Marine Faun Prof. D’Arcy W: Thompson. ~ 27... 269 On an Abnormality in the Veins of the Rabbit.— Prof. W°-°N. Parker? 05 5 ee ee Difficulties of Pliocene Geology.—Sir Henry H. Howorth a0 rae oe Peis 270 Earthquake Shocks.—E. J. Lowe, F.R.S. -... 270 The Weather of Summer.—A. B. M.. . . ...- . 270 On the Origin of the Electric Nervesin the Torpedo, Gymnotus, Mormyrus, and Malapterurus. By Gustay Fritsch ae oe be Cee aE Australian Travels > 9. ...% One Ns ee ft American Forestry. By Prof. W. R. Fisher. . . . 275 John Strong Newberry. By A.G. ...... +. +. 276 INOTO BS Site seas 3) ule tue) 6° 0! tele ee een Our Astronomical Column :— Comet ‘Holmes’ o(0 0 eee! op ees ee 281 Burnham’s Double-Star Observations ....... 281 Ephemeris of Comet Brooks ....... Pee et | The Eclipse of April 16, 1893 .......-+-- 201 Nova Autipre: 30S. 2 ee a tee OOS ** Astronomical Journal” Prizes » St eae GeographicalNotes. ....... « « Ree Reese TERVOIS IN MOTO. oe a iiow se owt as ree . 282 Bacilliin Butter. By Mrs. Percy Frankland ... 283 The Occurrence of Native Zirconia (Baddeleyite). By L.. Fletcher, F.R.S..:. ..». s+ sate 283 Gas Powerfor Electric Lighting By J. Emerson RPT Ye eee ae eereer ee ee | University and Educational Intelligence . ... . 285 MCIGDCUNC SOCAIG Ss tiene ir.< 089) Was ee pa ta ee Societies and Academies ........:s+0¢.2-+ 200 NALIURE 289 _ THURSDAY, JANUARY 26, 1893. MODERN ADVANCED ANALYSIS. of Numbers. By G. B. Mathews, M.A. Part I. F tonebcidee Deighton, Bell and Co., 1892.) HE book under review is a great contrast in many ways. to the “ Théorie des Nombres” of M. | Lucas, the first volume of which has recently d under the «gis of Messrs. Gauthier-Villars. reminding the reader much of thesame author's ons Mathématiques,” exhales human interest -nigh every page. The former is on severe ' lines, and may be greeted as the first work ¢ kind i in the English language. That this should t is somewhat remarkable. When the late Prof. . S. Smith died prematurely many years ago he left ; his fellow-countrymen a very valuable legacy. Fortunately he had been commissioned by the British Association to p> , canara on the then present state of the Theory ml a subject with which he was pre-eminently _ familiar and i in which his own original researches had _ won for him a great and world-wide renown. The pages of the reports for the years 1864-66 inclusive yield as a consequence a delightful account of modern research in rf subject. It is, however, much more than a recital of victories achieved by many able men in many 3] fields. Prof. Smith’s fertile genius enabled him to Py | the leading facts of the theory, and to impress ~ apon them his own personality in a manner that was scarcely within the reach of any other man. He con- trived to a glamour to those abstract depths of the subject to which few mathematicians have sufficient faith and energy to penetrate. Since that day the scientific world has been yearly expecting his collected _ There is no doubt that their appearance will greatly” stimulate interest and research in Higher Arithmetic. The reports of the British Association are E ‘not sufficiently accessible. Doubtless the papers will 3 ‘soon emerge from the hands of those upon whom has — dev the responsibility of their production. In the » we welcome Part I. of the present work. yl of numbers is the oldest of the mathemati- cal s ciences, and may be regarded as their sire. Just as ied mathematics is based on pure, so pure mathe- matics rests on the theory of numbers. Every investigator finds that sooner or later his researches become a question of pure number. Continuous and discontinuous quantity are indissolubly allied. The theory of series, the theory of invariants, the theory of elliptic functions throw light upon and receive light from higher arithmetic. Algebra in its most general sense is everywhere pervaded by numbers, It may safely be affirmed that there is nothing more beautiful or fascinating in the wide range of mathematics than the interchange of theorem between arithmetic and algebra. A proposition in arithmetic is written out as a theorem in continuous quantity or con- _ versely an algebraic identity is represented by a statement _ concerning discontinuous quantity. In this country the _ more recent advances in this attractive method are in _ large measure due to the labours of Sylvester and J. W. L. _ Glaisher. In a “Constructive Theory of Partitions,” NO. 1213, VOL, 47] published some half-dozen years ago in the American Journal of Mathematics, Sylvester showed some beautiful progressions from arithmetic to algebra, and was followed in the same line by Franklin, Ely, and others, whilst in the pages of the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics and Messenger of Mathematics Glaisher has applied elliptic function formulas to arithmetical theory. The famous theorem which asserts that every number can be com- posed by four or fewer square numbers, was due to an application by H. J. S. Smith of elliptic functions to arithmetic. These interesting matters are not alluded to in this first volume. Chapter I. discusses the divisibility of numbers and the elementary theory of congruencies. Euler’s function ¢(#), which denotes the number of positive integers, unity in- cluded, which are prime to and not greater than 2, is not treated as fully as might be desired. Gauss’s theorem g(@) + o(@) + o(2") +... = where d, d@’, d’,. . . are ail the divisions of ~ (unity and m included) is given, but not some interesting theorems connected with permutations, of which this is a particular case. Sylvester has written much about the same function, which he calls the “‘totient” of ~. M.Ed. Lucas em- ploys the term “indicateur” in the same sense, and believing that there is a great convenience in having a special name for the function, we regret that Mr. Mathews has not taken a course which would have familiarized students with Sylvester’s nomenclature, and have enabled them to feel at home with much that has been written by him and others in this part of the theory of numbers. The author states that this chapter is substantially a paraphrase of the first three sections of the “ Disquisi- tiones Arithmeticz,” the classical work of Gauss ; we are inclined to think that advantage would have been gained if the paraphrase had not been quite so close. The next succeeding chapters are occupied with ‘“ Quadratic Congruencies” and the theory of “ Binary Quadratic Forms.” The account given is fairly complete. There are so many proofs of Legendre’s celebrated “ Law of Quadratic Reciprocity ” that it must have been difficult to make a selection. A wise choice has, we think, been made of Gauss’s third proof as modified by Dirichlet and Eisen- stein ; the latter’s geometrical contribution to the proof taken from the twenty-seventh volume of Crelle is, in par- ticular, of great elegance. Gauss’s first proof is also given, as well as references to several others. In the difficult subject of Binary Quadratic Forms, the author keeps well in view the close analogy with the algebraic theory of forms ; so many additional restrictions present them- selves that alarge number of definitions are requisite at the outset, and this circumstance is apt to repel a student who approaches the theory for the first time. The definitions, in fact, constitute the alphabet of the science which must be mastered before progress can be expected in the appreciation of the wonderful beauties which are inherent in it. In this subject, more almost than in any other, the initial drudgery must not be shirked, and it may be said in favour of the present work that clearness of definition and conciseness of statement help the learner much to get quickly over the wearisome preliminaries. - O 290 NATURE JANUARY 26, 1893 We are glad to see the prominence given to the geo- metrical methods of Klein and Poincaré; that of the former is based on the theory of substitutions, reminding the reader much of the “ Icosaeder” ; that of the latter s the “ Method of Nets,” a most ingenious geometrical See ton throwing light on the hay of “ Reduced Forms.” The “Composition of Forms” given in Chapter VI. is. logically and judiciously developed, by means of the bilinear substitution, uy to the. point of showing the method of tabulating the primitive classes of regular and irregular determinants. The chapter on cyclotomy is’ one of the best written in the book. The discussion of the section of the periods of the roots of unity has engaged the attentions of mathematicians of the first rank since the time of Gauss, so that of necessity much has been written, and while the author states that he has given but an outline of an extensive theory which has not yet been completed, it may be said that the theory as given, with the references to authorities at the end ofthe chapter, will be quite sufficient to conduct the student bent upon research to the frontiers of the unknown country. The determination of the number of properly primitive classes for.a given determinant, applications of the theory of quadratic forms, and the distribution of primes complete the volume. Mr. Mathews may be congratu- lated on his resolve to include Sylvester’s masterly con- traction’ of Tchébicheff’s limits with reference to the distribution of primes; the reader is taken from the “sieve” of ‘Eratosthenes to the’ work of Legendre, Meissel, Rogel, Riemann, and to the latest researches of Sylvester and Poincaré, of which the ink is scarcely dry. English mathematicians will turn with delight to the account given on page 302 of Riemann’s great memoir of 1859, which contains the only satisfactory attempt to obtain an analytical formula for the number of primes not exceeding a given numerical quantity. In conclusion,-though the sequence of the subject matter may be open to criticism, we regard the book as a most valuable contribution to the small library of higher mathematical treatises that, owing chiefly to the energy and enthusiasm of the rising generation of mathematicians, is being brought together. How woefully deficient that library was but a few years since those engaged in research know only too well, and greatly do they rejoice as they see the yawning gaps one by one efficiently filled up. Part II. of the task Mr. Mathews has set himself to accomplish will, we hope, soon appear, and we trust he will be as sdecessful with it as with the present Part I. P. A. M. THE DARWINIAN THEORY. Darwin and After Darwin; an Examination of the Darwinian Theory and a Discussion of Post-Dar- winian Questions. By George John Romanes, M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S. I. The Darwinian Theory. (London: Longmans, 1892.) E had hoped ere now to have received the second instalment of this work, and to have dealt with the two volumes in a single critical notice. Unforeseen causes, one of them deeply to be regretted, have pre- NO. 1213, VOL. 47 ] sumably prevented the appearance of the discussion of Post- Darwinian questions so early as had been anticipated. We therefore propose to give a short expository notice of the present volume, reserving such criticism as we have to offer for a future occasion, when the second volume shall have come to hand. The first section consists of an exposition of the scientific evidences of evolution as a fact independent of the Dar- winian theory of the method by which this evolution has been brought about. It may be regarded as an expanision of the author’s little volume in the “ Nature Series,” on “ The Scientific Evidences of Organic Evolution,” pub- lished ten years ago. Mr. Romanes has spared no pains in the collection and marshalling of his evidence. His object is to convince, by the abundance of facts and by logical inferences based thereon, those who still hold by the tenets of Special Creation. Whether those who still hold by these tenets are likely to be influenced by the facts or the inferences is a question we do not propose to discuss. The author evidently supposes that they are, and has written for them a good many pages in a strain of which we give a couple of examples :—“ It would seem most capricious on the part of the Deity to have made — the eyes of an innumerable number of fish on exactly the same ideal type, and then to have made the eye of the octopus so exactly like these other eyes, in superficial appearance, as to deceive so accomplished a naturalist as Mr. Mivart, and yet to have taken scrupulous care that in no one ideal particular should the one type resemble the other.” Again, “ Although in nearly all the numerous species of snakes there are no vestiges of limbs, in the Python we find very tiny rudiments of hind-limbs, Now, is it a worthy conception of Deity that, while neglecting to maintain his unity of ideal in the case of nearly all the numerous species of snakes, he should have added a tiny rudiment in the case of the Python—and even in that case should have maintained his ideal very inefficiently, inasmuch as only two limbs, instead of four, are represented ? ” The second section of the volume is devoted to the setting forth of the theory of natural selection as it was held by the master. This, as was to be expected, is a well-ordered and lucid exposition, We could wish that Mr. Romanes had been more careful to.avoid all appear- ance of personifying natural selection. He says, for example, ‘‘it is the business of natural selection to secure the highest available degree of adaptation for the time being.” Such language is highly metaphorical, if not misleading. If we can talk of business at all we may say that it is the business of various eliminating agen- cies, in the struggle for existence, to weed out and exclude from any share in perpetuating their race all those indi- viduals who are too weakly to stand the stress of the struggle. The survival of the fit is an incidental result of the stern business of elimination. It is here that the naturalistic hypothesis differs most markedly from the teleological interpretation of nature. In conversation a while since a friend observed to us: Since your school of thought admit that the eye of natural selection is ever on the watch. for the slightest improvement in adaptation, why should they hesitate to say with us that it is the eye of Beneficence that is thus ever watchful ? The misunderstanding of the naturalistic position here January 26, 1893) NATURE 291 . iis; is not surprising. ‘Iti is Eta to the too free use of _ metaphorical language on the part of expounders of the Darwinian hypothesis. In the chapter entitled “ Criticisms of the Theory of _ Natural Selection,” an interesting digest is given of the work of Prof. Ewart and others on the electric organ of the skate, concerning which Mr. Romanes says, ‘‘ I freely confess that the difficulty presented by this case appears to me of a magnitude and importance altogether unequalled by that of any other single case—or any series of cases—which have hitherto been encountered by the theory of natural selection.” And he adds, ‘“So t, if there were many other cases of the like kind to be met with in nature, I should myself at once allow that theory of natural selection would have'to be dis- carded, ,” by which he means, we presume, that the theory would have to be discarded as offering a solution of such cases. The book contains many excellent illustrations, the series which show the variations due to artificial selec- tion being a noteworthy feature. They, and the volume which contains them, will prove of service to those general readers for whom, as the author tells us in his preface, this exposition of the Darwinian theory has been mainly prepared. FERNS OF SOUTH AFRICA. The Ferns of South Africa, containing Descriptions and : Figures of the Ferns and Fern-allies of South Africa. _ By Thomas R. Sim. 275 pp., 159 plates. (Cape Town and Johannesberg: J. C. Juta and Co. London: Wm. _ Wesley and Son, 1892.) B he present work will bea useful and acceptable addi- , tion to ourstock of fern-books. It contains descriptions and plates of all the ferns and fern-allies known to exist in Africa south of the tropic of Capricorn, the same area which is included by Harvey and Sonder in their “ Flora Capensis,” three volumes of which, including the orders _ from Ranunculaceze to Campanulacez, have been pub- lished. The author won the Jubilee gold medal given by the North of Scotland Horticultural Association, and for many years has filled the post of curator of the Botanic Gardens at King William’s Town. Several years ago Mr. Sim published an illustrated handbook of the ferns of Kaffraria, and now he has extended his area so as to include the whole of South Temperate Africa. The fern flora of the Cape does not show the same richness and remarkable individuality which characterises its phanerogamic flora. It is probable that the flowering plants of this area are not less than ten thousand, and the number of large endemic genera and of species is very considerable. In ferns we get in South Africa 179 species, out of which 42 species, or something under 25 per cent, are endemic. There is no genus that is peculiar to the Cape; of Mohria, which comes nearest, the Cape species, /. caffrorum extends to Madagascar and Tropical Africa, and two new species have lately been found in the high regions north of the colony. The section Rhizoglossum of the genus Ophio- glossum, which differs from the true adder’s tongues by having the fertile spike separate from the barren frond, the single species, O. dergianum, is peculiar to the Cape. NO. 1213, VOL. 47| Hymenophyllum is represented by 8 species, Tricho- manes by 5, Adiantum by 6, Cheilanthes by §8, Pellza by 14, Pteris by 7, Lomaria by 5, Asplenium by 25, Nephrodium by 12, Polypodium by 12, Acrostichum. by 8; and Lycopodium by 8 species. Some of the species, ¢.g. Vittaria lineatia, Marattia and the two tree-ferns, are tropical types; some, such as Cystopteris fragilis and Lycopodium clavatum, are com- mon to Britain and the Cape. Zodea barbara is confined to the Cape and Australia, and abundant in both areas. Lomaria alpina is a plant of all the three south-temperate areas. Blechnum australe of the Cape is not, I think, really distinct specifically from 2. Aastatum, and is widely spread in South Temperate America. Lomaria punctulata is remarkable for its polymorphic fructification, which is sometimes like that of a Scolo- pendrium. 2s So ee M exocco has a paradoxical place in the history of __ exploration ; although the only part of Africa fully in sight from the shores of Europe, and dotted with one or two half European coast towns, its interior 1s more firmly closed to the traveller, sportsman, and missionary than the dense forests of the Congo, or even the shores of Lake Chad. The difficulties in the way are not physical, nor are they wholly political. They arise mainly from the deeply-rooted antagonism in. race and creed between the inhabitants of Morocco and all Christendom -—this quaint and semi-fossil phrase is still here a neces- sary and sufficient term. At this moment public atten- 1 Bibliography of the Barbary States.” Part IV. A Bibliography of Morocco from: the earliest times to the end of 1891. - By Lieut.-Col. Sir R- Lambert Playfair and Dr. Robert Brown. aay JANUARY 26, 1893] NATURE 299 tion is turned somewhat intently on the political conditions of the Oriental despotism which. has ‘so anomalously maintained itself to the west of our prime meridian. Hence the politician has a temporary interest in what would otherwise have appealed mainly to the ge apher and man of science, the publication by the oyal Geographical) Society ‘of a “Supplementary Paper,” the “Bibliography of Morocco.” This is a work of splendid thoroughness, almost, if not quite, ex- haustive in its list of 2243 titles, and made convenient for irefererite: by two copious indexes of subjects and authors. But it is much more than a catalogue. Com- Ramee, Jndiciously brief, but in some cases of exceptional ‘interest extending to a couple of pages, give infor- ‘mation as té little-known authors, or record some ‘striking circumstance in or concerning the books referred to. There is a specially-compiled map, and an introduc- tion which is really an essay on the growth of knowledge regarding Morocco in European countries. With regard ‘to the map, it is explained that only the coast-line has been surveyed. - As tothe interior :—~ _ “The best mapped districts are laid down solely from running veconnaisances or sketch-maps. Positions fixed by astronomical observations are few. Many wide areas have never been visited by any Europeans, and most of Atlas is sig hour as little known as it was in the, lays of Leo Africanus, There. are cities within a.few tide of Tangier, which no. person capable of ga correct account of his observations has visited ; and are others not much farther away, to attempt to enter which—Zarhoun, for example—would, were the _ intruder detected, be certain death. There is scarcely a river laid down with even approximate accuracy, and, not to enumerate more distant provinces, the entire Riff country, that bold massif which is familiar to the thou- nds who every year ‘sail‘up and down the Mediter- ranean, is less explored than many regions in the centre ig wr mega at va bas | | _ The present population of Morocco is a puzzle almost as diff cult, although on a smaller scale, as that of China. The authors of the ale gat give 4,000,000 as an estimate, but the guesses of various authorities vary between 14 and 15 millions. The roads shown on the Map are mere mule and camel tracks made by the feet 1e pack-animals, unaided by any engineer. Ferries Page snc of course, bridges are unknown in the interior. The distribution of towns‘and villages is often at variance with the rules holding for civilised countries. The villages are built out of the way of ‘the main tracks, because people never travel in Morocco for the good of the inhabitants, and it is safer to live off the path of the . es ‘tax-collector and the Government official, who demands’ free food and quarters. The great number of place- names on the’ map of so thinly-peopled a country is | due'to the fact that the tombs of saints are such important landmarks that. they must be indicated, even if only a few persons live besidethem, “All the places beginning widh ‘ Sidi’ (Lord,,master) are either actually tombs or the tomb has formed, as in so many of our cathedral cities, the nucleus of the town or village.” “Sok,” another affix of frequent occurrence, means market-place, and many of the established sites for periodical fairs are uninhabited between the gatherings of people from far and near. Many of the place-names on the coast exist in two forms at least—the native word and its Portu- guese or Spanish translation; Casablanca and Dar-el- beida (both meaning White house) for example. We regret that the authors did not see their way to lay down precise rules for the spelling of Moorish place-names, either by giving a standard transliteration of the Arabic,, or a uniform phonetic system. Indeed, even in the introduction a few anomalous spellings are found, e.g. Zarhoun and Zerhun, Moulai and Mowlat. ' The physical geography of Morocco appears to be NO. 1213, VOL. 47] changing, and the natural conditions of the country are less favourable for agriculture than they were a few centuries ago. The forests have been destroyed with such recklessness that the soil has been dried up and swept away in many places ; there is evidence that the rainfall has diminished, lakes have dried, and rivers formerly navigable have become silted up, or alternate as dry tracts of stone and raging torrents. In one respect alone—the enthusiastic Moslemism of its people—does Morocco show no sign of degeneration. Although the Moors can no longer seize and hold the Christian slaves, whose stories bulk so largely in the bibliography, their hatred and contempt towards “ un- believers” is in no sense abated. Into such a land no Europeans could penetrate far, except in the past as slaves, or now as official messengers of European Powers under special protection, jealously watclied and prevented from studying places or people. The last serious attempt at scientific exploration—that of Mr. Joseph Thomson—was again and again almost stopped’ by the fanatical Kaids, and only his remarkable persistence and daring stratagems carried him as far as he reached. Such stratagems would hardly serve again, and for the present the exploration of the Atlas Mountains, with their half-guessed topography, imperfectly-known flora, and unsurveyed mineral wealth is atanend. The futility of disguise as an aid to ex- ploration is fully proved in the records before us, where the ghastly fate of many who tried to pass as Moslems, and the unsatisfactory results obtained’ by others who escaped alive, are briefly told. ‘It seems to us that an attempt might well be made to open communications with fanatical Mohammedan coun- tries either by explorers or diplomatic agents of the same faith, and there must be many amongst the educated Mohammedans of India who are well suited for such work. The religious beliefs of a people with whom belief and conduct are so closely related, must be taken into account in dealing with them, just as much as the phy- sical features of a country. And as Arctic sailors have been proved to be the natural explorers in the Antarctic seas, Swiss mountaineers the safest pioneers on New Zealand glaciers, and Canadian boatmen the most expert in shooting the Nile cataracts, so Mohammedan envoys might be expected to make the most favourable impres- sion on the people of Morocco or of the Mohammedan Sudan. Sir Lambert Playfair and Dr. Brown deserve the heart- iest thanks for completing their Bibliography of the Barbary States in such an admirable way, and we do not doubt that the work will be very widely consulted in the immediate future. THE RATE OF EXPLOSION IN GASES. “FHE following is an abstract of the Bakerian Lecture on “The Rate of Explosion in Gases,” delivered before the Royal Society by. Prof. Harold B. Dixon, on January 19 :— 1. Berthelot’s measurements of the rates of explosion of a number of gaseous mixtures have been confirmed. The rate of the explosion wave for each mixture is con- stant. It is independent of the diameter of the tube above a certain limit. — 2. The rate is not absolutely independent of the initial temperature and pressure of the gases. With rise of temperature the rate falls ; with rise of pressure the rate increases ; but above a certain crucial pressure varia- tions in pressure appear to have no effect. , 3. In the explosion of carbonic oxide and oxygen in a long tube, the presence of steam has a marked effect on the rate. From measurements of the rate of explosion with different quantities of steam, the conclusion is drawn that at the high temperature of the explosion wave, as 300 NATURE [JANUARY 26, 1893 well as in ordinary combustion, the oxidation of the car- bonic oxide is effected by the interaction of the steam. 4. Inert gases are found to retard the explosion wave according to their volume and density. Within wide limits an excess of one of the combustible gases has the same retarding effect as an inert gas (of the same volume and density), which can take no part in the reaction. 5. Measurements of the rate of explosion can be em- ployed for determining the course of some chemical changes. In the explosion of a volatile carbon compound with oxygen, the gaseous carbon appears to burn first to car- bonic oxide, and afterwards, if oxygen is present in excess, the carbonic oxide first formed burns to carbonic acid. 6. The theory proposed by Berthelot—that in the explosion wave the flame travels at the mean velocity of the products of combustion— although in agreement with | the rates observed in a certain number of cases, does not account for the velocities found in other gaseous mix- tures. 7. It seems probable that in the explosion wave— (1) The gases are heated at constant volume, and not | at constant pressure ; (2) Each Jayer of gas is raised in temperature defore being burnt ; (3) The wave is propagated not only by the movements of the burnt molecules, but also by those of the heated but yet unburnt molecules ; (4) When the permanent volume of the gases is changed in the chemical. reaction, an alteration of tem- perature is thereby caused which affects the velocity of the wave. 8. In a gas, of the mean density and temperature cal- culated on these assumptions, a sound wave would travel at a velocity which nearly agrees with the observed rate of explosion in those cases where the products of com- bustion are perfect gases. g. With mixtures in which steam is formed, the rate of explosion falls below the calculated rate of the sound wave. But when such mixtures are largely diluted with an inert gas, the calculated and found velocities coincide. It seems reasonable to suppose that at the higher tem- peratures the lowering of the rate of explosion is brought about by the dissociation of the steam, or by an increase in its specific heat; or by both these causes. 10. The propagation of the explosion wave in gases must be accompanied by a very high pressure lasting for a very short time. The experiments of MM. Mallard and Le Chatelier, as well as the author’s, show the pre- sence of these fugitive pressures. It is possible that data for calculating the pressures produced may be derived from a knowledge of the densities of the unburnt gases and of their rates of explosion. NOTES. THE forty-sixth annual general meeting of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers will be held on Thursday evening and Friday evening, February 2 and 3, at 25, Great George Street, Westminster. The chair will be taken by the president, Dr. William Anderson, F.R.S., at half-past seven on each evening. Theannual report of the council will be presented to the meeting on Thursday, and the annual election of the presi- dent, vice-presidents, and members of council, and the ordinary election of new members will take place on the same evening. The following papers will be read and discussed, as far as time permits :—Description of the Experimental Apparatus and Shaping Machine for Ship Models at the Admiralty Experiment Works, Haslar, by Mr. R, Edmund Froude, of Haslar (Thurs- day); description of the Pumping Engines and Water-Softening NO. 1213, VOL. 47] Machinery at the Southampton Water. Works, by Mr.. William Matthews, Water works Engineer (Friday). Pror. CAYLEY, we are glad to learn, is now convalescent, ; WE greatly regret to have to announce the death of Mr. iH. F, Blanford, F.R.S. He died on Monday at the age of fifty- eight. Pror. MICHAEL Foster, Sec.R.S., has been spats Rede Lecturer at Cambridge for the present term, His Rede lecture will be delivered early in June. Tue Bill for the introduction of a standard time (mean solar time of the fifteenth meridian) was read a second time in the German Imperial Parliament on Monday. The measure was accepted without much discussion. AN excellent report ontechnical education in London. has been submitted to the London County Council by a ‘special committee appointed to investigate the subject, The report was prepared by Mr, Llewellyn Smith, the committee’s secretary, and displays a thorough grasp of the essential conditions of the problem. It is proposed that a Technical Instruction Board shall be appointed, and that it shall consist of some members of the Council, and of representatives of the School Board, the City and Guilds of London Institute, the City Parochial ‘Charities, the Head Masters’ Association, the National Union of Ele- mentary Teachers, and the London Trades Council. The com- mittee think that one-third. of the amount derived from the beer and spirits duties should be handed over to this body for the provision of adequate technical instruction in all pei: of London. fhe THE French Minister of the Interior has established at Mar- seilles, in connection with the university, an institute for botanical and geological research, and a museum. The director is Prof. Heckel, who, as well as a curator and a librarian, Ne his services ‘gratuitously. IN the year 1793 was published Christian Konrad Sreutgat’s ‘Das entdeckte Geheimniss der Natur,im Bau und in der Befruch- tung der Blumen,” the work which first directed the attention of naturalists to the contrivances which, in many flowers, render self-pollination difficult, and promote the visits of insects to assist cross-pollination. The copper-plate illustrations of this work still maintain their character as among the best that have been published in this branch of science. Sprengel was in many respects a forerunner of Darwin, and centenaries have been celebrated on slighter grounds than the publication of this work. THE chief characteristics of the weather during the past week have been its general mildness and dampness; the day tem- peratures have at times exceeded 50° in most parts of the. kingdom, but at night slight frosts occurred towards the end of last week in Scotland and the south-eastern parts of England. The distribution of pressure has been complex, a series of de- pressions have passed over the coast of Norway from the west- ward, while an anticyclone lay over the south-western parts of our islands, the reading of the barometer in the south-west being about an inch higher than in the north of Scotland. The passage of the low-pressure systems in the north was accom- panied. by strong north-westerly winds and gales in Scotland, with hail or sleet in many places. Owing to the disappear- ance of the anticyclone from the continent, north-westerly winds became prevalent over western Europe, and a rapid rise of temperature occurred there, amounting to 30° in Germany between the 20th and 2ist instant. During the last few days fresh depressions have approached our north- western coasts, with increasing winds from the south-west, and «Pn Ada Ay ger lg Bia vn a ri; ee “Jan UARY 26,'1893] NATURE 301 ‘a continuance of mild, unsettled weather appeared probable. The Weekly Weather Report shows that for the week ending ‘the 21st instant there was a large deficiency of rainfall in the ‘west of Scotland, south-west of England, and south of Ireland. The percenta ge of possible duration of sunshine ranged from 28 in the south-west of England ‘to 7 in the south of England ‘and to 3 in the north of Scotland. THE Repertorium fiir Meteorologie, vol. xv. recently issued by the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg, contains a scussion by P,A. Miiller, of the Ekaterinburg Observatory, at the foot of the Ural Mountains, in the Government of Perm, on the question of the evaporation from a snow surface. Several writers, among whom are Drs. Briickner and Woeikof, differ in opinion as to whether the evaporation from a snow surface ds the condensation of the aqueous vapour of the air im- mediately above it. The method generally adopted for the 3 a decision of the question is to find whether the temperature of the snow surface is above or below the dew-point of the sur- re ng air; in one case there would be evaporation, and in the other condensation. The paper occupies forty-seven small folio pages, and the observations were made hourly from December 21, 1890, to February 28, 1891. The result of the tenga ce shows that according to the temperatures of the -point and of the surface of the snow, the evaporation of the snow greatly exceeds the condensation of the aqueous vapour, for the condensation occurred at only 27 per cent. while the = ra on occurred at 73 per cent. of the hourly observations. _ Pror, FLINDERS PETRIE, to whose. introductory lecture at University College, Gower Street, we referred last week, delivered on Saturday the first of his regular course of lectures on the Edwards Foundation. He said »the Egypt of the early monuments was a mere strip of a few miles wide of green, amid boundless deserts, and beneath a sky of the greatest brilliancy ; a land of extreme contrasts of light and shadow, of life and death. These conditions were reflected in the art. On the one hand was the most massive and overwhelming con- struction, and, on the other, the most delicate and detailed reliefs. _On the one hand, the most sublime and stolid statuary ; on the other, the course and accidents of daily life freely treated. On the one hand, masses of smooth buildings that far outdo the native hills on which they stand, gaunt and bare, In consequence of the climate also Egypt is a land of great simplicity of life, and simplicity is especially the characteristic of the oldest Egyptian buildings. Speaking of the early Egyptian statues, Prof. Petrie said that the race represented by them appears as ‘‘one of the noblest that ever existed.” At Leeds, on Monday, Lord Playfair presided at a public dinner, held in support of the Yorkshire College. In pro- posing the principal toast—‘‘The Yorkshire College”—he spoke of the efforts made half a century ago to secure for science the place which rightly belongs to it in the educational system. He was glad, he said, that these efforts had met with a temporary resistance, because if the Universities had at once yielded there would have been.no colleges now in our great provincial towns. The colleges, he thought, were adapting themselves rapidly and well, upon the whole, to the genius of their several localities. Of the Yorkshire College he said that she had fitted herself for the liberal culture and life-work of a great industrial centre. 4 and, on the other, the vivid and rich colouring in the interiors. _ “No doubt her technical coursesare peculiar, Actual laboratories for spinning, for dyeing, for tanning, for engineering, are novel adjuncts to a college. What does it mean? That you are try- ing to strengthen and embellish industrial pursuits, as the Universities acted upon the professions when they were obliged toinclude them. Surely a great town like Leeds is right when NO. 1213, VOL. 47] it imbues its producers with intellectual knowledge, as well as with technical expertness. Such men in future carve out industrial professions for themselves, and illumine them by appropriate culture,” THE interesting address lately delivered by Sir Henry Roscoe on the occasion of the prize distribution at the Birmingham Municipal Technical School has now been issued separately. He describes the report of the first year’s work as ‘‘more than encouraging.” Speaking of the building whichis to be erected for technical training at Birmingham, he says :—‘‘ You in Birmingham have, in my judgment, taken the right course. You are not going to squander your money by using it for a thousand different purposes. You are, I hope, going to do a good thing, and a big thing, in building and equipping a really great institution, worthy of your city and of your well-earned renown as being foremost amongst our towns in educational matters. You will have a place of higher technical instruction to which all the Midlands will look up, It will be the gathering ground for all the youthful talent of the busy millions of the district. It will be here that the future Faradays, and Priestleys, and Watts will get that sound though elementary scientific - training which will enable them to. pursue that training to its highest point at the Mason College here, or in other colleges elsewhere, which may in the end make both them and their country great.” THE new technical schools connected with University College, Nottingham, which were formally opened the other day, promise to be of immense service, not only to Nottingham itself, but to the wide district of which it is the educational centre. A remarkably clear description of the buildings, with plans, is given in a pamphlet prepared for the ceremonial opening. The pamphlet also includes an interesting summary of the facts relating to the history of the Nottingham College and its technical department. Mr. C. F. Juritz, Senior Analyst in the Department of Lands, Mines, and Agriculture, Cape Colony, announces in the Agricultural Journal, issued by the Department, that a compre- hensive series of investigations with reference to the chemical composition of the various soils of the colony is about to be undertaken. The samples of soil are to be collected by one of the officers of the analytical branch of the Department. In the first instance the southern part of the Malmesbury district will be visited, and soils will be taken from several localities repre- sentative (a) of primary and (é) of alluvial soils belonging to the Malmesbury beds of clay slate. Mr. Juritz proposes next to collect soils from the more northerly portion of the same dis- trict, in the vicinity of Hopefield, for instance, after which the Caledon district will be taken in hand. These analyses when completed will afford, he points out, an insight into the general composition of the clay slate soils, lying around the south- western coast of the Colony between Donkin’s and Mossel Bays. The Government. of Cape Colony look upon the pro- posals that have been made as ‘‘a move in the right direction,” and have promised their warmest support. Mr. KEDARNATH Basu, describing in Science some relics of primitive fashions in India, says he does not see the same pro- fusion as he saw ten or twelve years ago, of tattoo-marks and red-ochre or red oxide of lead (simdur) over the forehead and crown among the women of Bengal. The rapid progress of female education and the consequent refinement in esthetic taste are, he says, the causes of the decline of this rude and savage adorn- ment. The people of Behar, the North-western provinces, and other districts, however, still cling to these remnants of savagery. The up-country women, besides tatooing their bodies and paint- ing the head with red paint, bore the lower lobes of their ears, ¢ -by pottery, mostly plain and unpainted. 302 NATURE [January 26, 1893 and insert big and heavy wooden cylindrical plugs, which almost sever the lobes from the ears. Thé plugs are sometimes as big as two inches in length with a diameter of an inch and a half, and as much as two ounces in weight. These heavy plugs pull -down the lobes of the ears as far as the shoulders, and give the - wearers a hideous look. Mr. F. J. Briss contributes to the’ new ‘‘ Quarterly State- ment” of the Palestine Exploration Fund a most interesting report on the excavations at Tell-el-Hesy during the spring season of 1892. Speaking of the now famous tablet discovered in the course of these excavations, he says :—‘‘ On Monday, May 14, ten days before we closed the work, I was in my tent at noon with [brahim Effendi, when my foreman Yusif came in with a small coffee-coloured stone in his hand: ‘It seemed to be curiously notched on both sides and three edges, but was so filled | in with earth that it was not till I carefully brushed it clean that the precious cuneiform letters were apparent. ‘Then I thought of a day, more than a year before, when I sat in Petrie’s tent at the pyramid of Meydiim, with Prof, Sayce. I was.to find cuneiform tablets in the Tell- el- -Hesy, which as yet I had’ never seen ; and gazing across the green valley’ of the ioe: brown N ile, and across the yellow désert beyond, he seemed to pierce to the core, with the eye of faith, the far away Amorite mound, As for me, I saw no tablets, but I seemed to be seeing one who saw them!” Mr. Bliss also notes'that the discovery was a triumphant vindication of Mr. Flinders Petrie’s chronology—established, not by even a single dated object, but lt is announced in the ** Quarterly Statement’’ that the excavations at Tell-el-Hesy are now being vigorously carried on by Mr. Ee | who has recovered from his serious illness. ‘Ir seems that in Yucatan and Central’ America, as in Egypt and other couniries, ancient’ monuments are held in small re- spect by certain classes of travellers. According to Mr. M. H. Saville, assistant in the Peabody Museum, who writes on the subject in Sczence, enormous damage is being done to many of the most interesting antiquities in these regions. The magnifi- cent ‘‘ House of the Governor” in Uxmal, described as pro- bably the grandest building now standing in Yucatan, is almost covered with names on the front and on the cemented walls in- side. These names are painted in black, blue, and red, and among them are the names of men widely known in the scien- tific world. The ‘‘ House of the Dwarfs” in the same city has suffered in like manner, and many of the sculptures which have fallen from the buildings in Uxmal have been wilfully broken, In Copan, when the Peabody Museum. Honduras Expedition compared the condition of the ‘‘ Idols’ to-day with the photo- graphs taken by Mr. A. P. Maudslay seven years ago, it was found that during that time some of the very finest sculptures had been disfigured by blows from machetes and other instru- ments. The Stela given as a frontispiece in Stephens’ ‘‘ Inci- dents of Travel in Central America,’ vol. i., has been much marred by some one who has broken off several ornaments and a beautiful medallion face from the northern side.. One of the faces and several noses have been broken off from the sitting figures on the altar figured by Stephens in the same volume, opposite page 142.; and on some of the idols and altars names have been carved. While excavating in one of the chambers of the Main Structure, members of the Expedition uncovered a beautiful hieroglyphic step, but before they had time to secure a photograph of it, some visitor improved the opportunity while no one was about to break off one of the letters, In Quirigua a small statue, discovered by Mr. Mauds- lay and removed by him to a small house near the rancho of Quirigua, had the head and one of the arms broken from it during the interval between two visits. This statue was of the NO. 1213, VOL. 47] He told me that . highest importance, as it very much resembled the celebrated ‘*Chaac-mol” now in the Mexican Museum, but discovered by Le Plongeon at Chichen Itza. Much mischief is also done by natives, who think nothing of tearing down ancient structures in order to provide themselves with building materials.» The authorities of the Peabody Museum, to whom the care of the antiquities of Honduras has been granted for a ‘period of ten years, deserve much credit for the efforts they make to cope with the evil. They have caused a wall to be built round the principal remains in Copan, and a Keeper has been placed i in charge with strict orders to allow nothing to be Rare iE or carried away. “ -Wuat is the true Shannon? Most. Irishmen. se peshiebly of opinion that they.can answer the question correctly, but un- fortunately they do not all give the same reply. . Mr, Nathaniel Colgan, who has been investigating the subject, collected thirteen specimens from. the following eleven _counties—Derry, Antrim, Armagh, Mayo, Clare, . Cork, Wexford, Wicklow, Carlow, Queen’s County, and Roscommon. Shamrocks were and thus secured from northern, southern, | eastern, western, central Ireland, Mr. Colgan’s correspondents in the ,various counties taking pains to have each sample selected by. a native of experience who professed to know the genuine plant. _ All the specimens ‘were planted and carefully labelled. with their places .of origin, and flowering within some two months later gave the following results : eight of the specimens turned out to be Trifolium. minus of Smith,. and the remaining five Trifolium repens of Linneus. Cork, Derry, Wicklow, Queen’s County, Clare, and Wexford: declared for Trifolium minus ; Mayo, Antrim, and Roscommon for 7rifolium repens ; and — Armagh and Carlow, each of which had sent two specimens, were divided on the question, one district in each county giving Z. repens, while the other gave 7. minus. These results are set forth by Mr. Colgan in an interesting paper in the first volume of the /rish Naturalist, to which we referred last week. Elsewhere in the same volume Mr. R. L. Praeger suggests that authentic specimens of shamrock should be obtained from every county in Ireland, and he adds that he:has no doubt Mr, F. W. Moore would gladly grow them at Glasnevin Gardens, if Mr. Colgan did not care to undertake so large an order. Mr. Praeger notes that in his own district, North Down, 77ifolium minus is. always regarded as the true shamrock, but that a luxuriant specimen, or one in bomew is generally discarded as an impostor. ¥ wale ho THE waters of the Great Salt Lake, Utah, are known to vary in salinity at different times.. Dr. Waller, of Columbia College, gives the results of his recent determination of the dissolved salts in the School of Mines Quarterly.’ A comparison of his results with those obtained by Gale, Allen, Bassett, and others, shows a constant change of salinity, and a closer examination reveals a variation from place to place. This is due to local differences in the amount of evaporation, and to the ‘influx of water, fresh or saline, in many cases from subterranean springs which give no indication of their presence. For some of the constituents the water is nearly at saturation point, and differences of temperature are also apt to cause slight differences of composition, The presence of lithium and bromine strengthens Captain Bonneville’s conclusions with regard to the basin of the ancient lake called after his name, and now re- presented by the Great Salt Lake and its lesser neighbours. The benches of sand and gravel seen high up on the flanks of the Wahsatch mountains and the Oquirrh range indicate the eastern’ and western shores of the old lake, whose waters must lave covered an area équal to that of Lake Huron, or ten times that of the Great Salt Lake. Successive lowerings of level finally cut off its outlet to the gd by which it a! yt flow into the Pacific Ocean. January 26, 1893] NATURE 393 _ A BEAUTIFUL optical phenomenon, which has not yet been satisfactorily explained, is described by M. F. Folie in the Bulletin of the Belgian Academy. It was observed about a mile from Zermatt on August 13 at 8.30a.m. ‘‘ On our right, __ towards the east, on the steep flanks of the mountains which enclose the valley of the Viéze, rose a group of fir trees, the highest of which projected themselves against the azure of the sky, at a height of 500 m. above the road. Whilst I was botanising my son exclaimed: ‘Come and look : the firs are as. if covered with hoar-frost !’ We paid the most scrupulous —-. the phenomenon. To make sure that we were not misled by an” illusion we made various observations, both with the naked | ‘eye and with an excellent opera-glass.” It was observed that not only the distant trees, but those lining the road, glittered i in a silvery light, which seemed to belong to the trees themselves, and that the insects and birds playing round ___ the branches were bathed in the same light, forming an aureole ; round the tops of the trees, somewhat resembling the light effects bserved in the Blue Grotto. It is suggested that the light was reflected from the snow. Since it disappeared as soon as the sav wete: above the hill, and has never been seen except in the presence of snow, this explanation appears plausible, but it is - desirable that further'and more detailed chebivetinns should be made of this spectacle féerique. E Ta Official Record is henceforth to be issued tobmneally instead of annually, and a handbook has been issued to take its place during the intervening years. This hand- < (which is described on the title-page as “‘for the year 2 n9 contains a brief epitome of the historical portion of the | Record, and summarises in a convenient form the more _ important, of the:last volume of the general statistics of the colony. “ASHER AND Co. will publish shortly an English sslati Hed ** Recollections’ of the Life of the late Werner pai mag the well-known electrician, and brother of Sir William Siemens. _ Two editions of the German original, pub- lished = 2 seme “5 were issued in : the course of a few weeks. “Oe A ay THE course of dear winter lett use in. eoinediolk with the n sical Field Class will this year be delivered by g Memorial Hall, Farringdon Street, the subject being ‘‘ The Fossil Reptiles of the Thames Basin.” All particulars may be : Salleh ey Hon, Sec. Mr. J. H. Hodd, 30 and 31, Hatton Gar- ‘Tae bacterial purification which takes place in a river during ; been recently attributed i in part to the process of q utio which the micro- ‘organ isms in the water undergo, but it would seem that yet.another factor must be taken into account. Buchner, in some investigations which he has recently ; published z Ueber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf Bakterien,”’ ; ut fiir Bakteriologie, vol. 11, 1892, also vol. 12, - Pp 217 shows t that this diminution of the numbers present may be also assisted by the deleterious action which light exercises upon certain micro-organisms. A systematic series of experiments was made by introducing typhoid bacilli, 3B. coli communis, ; _ B. pyocyaneus, Koch’s cholera spirilla, also various putrefactive bacteria, into vessels containing sterilized and non-sterilized _ ordinary drinking water. As a‘control, in each experiment-one vessel thus infected was exposed to light, whilst a second was rs kept under precisely similar conditions, with the exception of its _ being covered up with black paper, by means of which every article of light was excluded. The uniform result obtained in _ all these experiments was that light exercised a most powerful bactericidal action upon the bacteria in the water under observa- tion. For example, in one water in which at the commencement a8 ofthe experiment 100,000 germs of B. coli communis were present NO. 1213, VOL. 47] statistical information contained in the detailed tables _ ts HL. G. Seeley, F.R.S., on Tuesday evenings, at the in a c.c., after one hour's exposure to direct sunlight ove were discoverable, whilst in the darkened control flask during the same period a slight increase in the numbers present had taken place. Even the addition of culture fluid to the flasks exposed to sun- light could not impair in the least the bactericidal properties of the sun’s rays. In the flasks exposed to diffused daylight the action was less violent but still a marked diminution was ob- served. In his later experiments Buchner has employed agar- agar, mixing a large quantity of particular organisms, patho- genic and others, with this material in shallow covered dishes and then exposing them to the action of light ani noting its effect upon the development of the colonies. For this purpose strips of black paper cut in any shape (in the particular dish photo- graphed by Buchner letters were used) were attached outside to the bottom of the dish, which was then turned upwards and exposed to direct sunlight for one to one and a half hours and. to diffused daylight for five hours. After this the dish was in- cubated in a dark cupboard. At the end of twenty-four hours the form of the letters fastened to the bottom of the dish was sharply defined, the development of the colonies having éaken place in no part of the dish, except in those portions covered by the black letters. Some interesting experiments on the same subject have also recently been made by Kotljar (Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, December 20, 1892). In the course af these investigations the author found that of the coloured rays of the spectrum the red favoured the growth. of. those bacteria experi- mented: with, whilst the violet rays acted prejudicially, although less so than the white rays. The exceedingly interesting obser- vation was made that the violet rays actually favoured the sporu- lation of the Bac. pseudo anthracis. THE additions to the Zoological: Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Macaque Monkey (AZacacus cynomolgus &) from India, presented by Mr. A. Sandbach ; a Triton Cockatoo (Cacatua triton) from New Guinea, presented by Mr. Arthur Harter ; a Gannet (Suda dassana) British, presented by Mr. F, W. Ward ; two Tuatera Lizards (Sphenodon punctatus) from New Zealand, presented by Mr. W. H. Purvis ; two Wanderoo Monkeys (Macacus silenus) from the Malabar Coast ; a Straw- necked Ibis (Carphibis spinicollis) from Australia ; four Snow Buntings (Plectrophanes nivalis) ; six Wild Diacks (Anas boschas, 3 3) British, purchased ; a Meadow Bunting (Z7- beriza cia) European, received in exchange; two Shaw’s Gerbilles (Gerdillus shaw) born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet Hoitmes.—Zdinburgh Circular, No. 37, announces that Palisa, telegraphing from Vienna, states that Comet Holmes now resembles an 8 m. star with a nebulous envelope 20” of arc in diameter. bor further observation made by Prof. Schur in Gottingen on January 19 showed that the nucleus was of the roth magnitude, and could not be considered at all brighter than that magnitude. For the latter observation the air, as regards clearness, was all that could have been desired. At South Kensington, on January 18, the comet was observed as a hazy star and estimated to be about the 8th magnitude. The following ephemeris is that given by Schulhof :— Date. sy oY app- Decl. app. ° ‘ “ Jan. 26... 1 33 5 3f0 +33 42 3 a7. Bl; 42 51 28 ...: 33 ie- alee 43 44 BO vic ce BO SALE: ace 44 43 30 41 19'8 ... 45 46 Shan Aaa 46 55 Feb. tae RTO... 48 8 . 1 45 46°5 ... 33 49 26 . On January 30 i comet will lie very nearly:between 8 Andro- medz and 8 Trianguli, about one-third of the distance from the latter star. 304, NATURE [JANUARY 26, 1893 Comer Brooks (NOVEMBER 19, 1892).—The following ephemeris of Comet Brooks is due to Ristenpart, and is given in Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3142 :— 1893. eg (app.) Decl. (app.) Log» Log 4. Br. ye Fs, 0 ’ Jan. 26 ... 23 35 8... +40 34°3 ... O'0921 ... O'0471 ... 2°94 27... 3853... 39 34°! 28°... 42 22... 38 36°8 ... 0°0950 ... 0°0688 ... 2°62 20) ss. AS 37 «1-37 42'2 30... 4840... 36 50°2,., 0'0981 .,. 0'0898 .., 2°35 BU: ss St 32.1 1 20,05 Feb, 1 ... 54 If es. BO AS dist OLS bec eC ase tere 2. 23°56 4S 22 44 277 This comet, which will be found to bein the constellation of Andromeda, will lie about 34° to the south of z Andromede on January 27. PHOTOGRAPHIC ABSORPTION OF OUR ATMOSPHERE.—The question of the degree with which our atmosphere absorbs photographic rays has become very important owing to the adop- tion of photography, so that any work enlightening us on this subject is anxiously listened to. Prof. Schaeberle, who has been making investigations in this direction, has just completed a memoir which is being published by the University of California, but in the meanwhile he has issued a table setting forth simply the final results. The absorption.in the following table is ex- pressed in photographic magnitudes, and must be added to the unknown atmospheric absorption at the zenith. z.D Phot. } Z. D, Phot. iM Absorp. |. Absorp. 5 wide ee 355 75101005.1 350 0°44 10 O'Ol }, 55 0°56 15 ; 004 | 60 o’71 20 0'07 | 65 0°89 25 o°1r | 70 be 64 30 O16 | 75 1°45 35 o'21 | 80 1°94 40 0°28 | 85 2°68 45 0°35, |, 9° 500 HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY.—The forty-seventh annual report of this Observatory, by Prof. Pickering, opens with a reference to the death of Mr. George B. Clark, to whose ‘* genius for mechanical devices, indomitable perseverance, and devotion to the interests of the observatory, we are indebted for the success of many of our most useful instruments.” Of the most important matters mentioned in the report are the per- manent establishment of an observing station in South America, where the unsteadiness of the air is for the most part eliminated, the construction of a suitable building for the housing of photo- graphs and the approaching completion of the Bruce photo- graphic telescope. The work done with the various instruments during this period has been considerable. With regard to the Draper telescope, as many as '2777 photographs have been taken, while those taken with the Bache instrument number nearly 2000. The Boyden department, which is ‘situated at Arequipa, in Peru, has been making great progress, the results of which have been frequently inserted in Astronomy and Astro- physics. The eight surfaces of the objective of the Bruce tele- scope have, as Prof. Pickering informs us, been ground and polished, and the results up to the present, according to tests made on a star, are very satisfactory. This instrument, when finished, is destined fo. the Arequipa station. SOLAR OBSERVATIONS AT ROME.—Prof. Tacchini has issued the results of the observations made with regard to the distribu- tion in latitude of the solar phenomena at the Royal Observatory during the third semester in 1892. From the tabulated state- ment which he gives the following facts may be gathered. With regard to the eruptions, these phenomena seem to be quite local to the equatorial regions, the relative frequency being 0°667 and 0°333 for the north and south latitudes re- spectively. The spots, faculze, and eruptions have their maxima nearly at the same distance from the equator both north and south, the zones being (+ 20°, + 30°), but the maxima for the prominences extend further north, about latitudes 60° north and south. Prof. Tacchini remarks that in the equatorial zone (+20°—20°), where the maxima of faculz, spots, and eruptions are observed, a feeble relative frequency in the prominences is noted, which shows us that we must consider a large num- ber of prominences as the result of conditions ‘‘ bien différentes par rapport a celles qui déterminent la production des taches NO. 1213, VOL. 47] | dans la photosphére,’’ whilst the prominences are formed simply in the solar atmosphere. Asa case in point, he men- tions an observation made on August I of last year, of a cloud which, starting at a distance of 264”, rose to 364” without any corresponding alteration at the surface. : THE ToTAL SOLAR EcuipsE, APRIL 15-16, 1893.—Writing to M. Flammarion about the scientific expedition sent by the Brazilian Government to study the region of the central plateau and to select a site for the proposed new capital, Dr. Cruls, the Director of the Observatory at Rio de Janeiro, adds the following note :—‘‘ About the total eclipse of April 16. Will France send any one to observe it? I beg you to make known through the Review (L’ Astronomie) that the Brazilian Govern- ment is willing to send a warship to Ceara, on which foreign astronomers who wished to observe the phenomenon could find’ 9 a passage. ; GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. ' A CHANGE has been made in the arrangements for the ex- pedition to Lake Rudolf referred to on p. 235, vol. xlvii. The expedition is to travel by the Tana river instead of the Juba, although its ultimate destination is the same, and Lieutenant Villiers, instead of accompanying it, has joined Sir Gerald Portal’s mission to Uganda. ‘ me Mr. H. J. MAcKINDER, M.A., Reader in Geography at Oxford, delivered the first of a course of ten educational. lectures, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, on the relation of geography to history, on the 20th inst. The attendance was largely composed of teachers and University Extension students, to whom special terms were offered. The lecturer treated of ‘‘the Theatre of History,” tracing the development of accurate geographical knowledge from the earliest times in a series of brilliant generalisations. He dwelt upon the contrast between the knowledge of early Greek geographers regarding the true shape of the earth, and their habitual representation of the regions known to them in a cir-. cular form. Inthe middle ages, amongst the half-learned, the — map of the known world was elevated to the highest place, the figure of the globe was forgotten, and the doctrine of a flat earth gained currency. At the geographical renaissance the map was adapted once more to the sphere, and the discoveries of Columbus and his contemporaries resulted directly. . THE suggestion of Mr. Joseph Thomson to bestow the name of Livingstonia (vol. xlvii.. p. 160) on the British sphere of influence north of the Zambesi, in spite’ of its singular propriety, has, we fear, failed to convince the authorities in charge of the region, who, it appears, have decided to adopt the cumbrous and scarcely accurate title of British Central Africa. M. Mizon’s second expedition to Adamawa. has been stopped on the Benué by the breakdown of his steamers, and the sudden falling of the water, he being left without means of progress about two-thirds of the way between Lukoja and Yola. THE French flag has been formally hoisted on the little islands of St. Paul and New Amsterdam in the South Indian Ocean, midway between the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. St. Paul is an interesting instance of a volcanic island, the extinct crater of which forms a wide sheltered harbour communicating with the sea by means of a single narrow channel. It was one of the French stations for observing the transit of Venus in 1874. French fishermen from Reunion had practically taken posses- sion of the islands in the early part of the century, but the fishing-grounds have long been abandoned. +a Mr. B. V. DARBISHIRE, M.A. (Oxon.), has been appointed Cartographer to the Royal Geographical Society. He has had the advantage of preliminary training in Germany, and under the Reader in Geography at Oxford. THE APPROACHING ECLIPSE OF THE SUN, APRIL 16, 1893.' HAD the honour, two and a half years ago, of describing to you the total eclipse of the sun of December 22, 1889, which I had been to observe in the Salut Isles, French Guiana. In spite of very unfavourable atmospheric conditions I was then * Address to the Astronomical Society of France, on November 2, 1892, by M. De la Baume Pluvinel, translated by A. Taylor. , JANuaRY 26, 1893] NATURE 305 _ able to take some photographs of the phenomena and to measure the actinic intensity of the corona. Two years previously I had been to Russia to observe the eclipse of August 18, 1887, but the bad weather prevented any observations. If these ex- itions did not succeed as well as I had hoped, they were at least useful in showing me all the difficulties to be met with in such undertakings, and of convincing me that if one wishes to ( avail one’s self of the precious moments during which the eclipse lasts, it is necessary to gain a large experience of these phenomena by omitting no opportunity of observing them, and by making a speciality of these expeditions. Therefore, after the eclipse of 1889 I determined to go to observe the following eclipse, that of the 16th of next April. _ This time the phenomenon is visible under particularly avourable conditions. On the African coast to the south of Bip Nowe the expedition sent by the Bureau des Longitudes will observe, and where I also propose to instal myself, the duration of totality is four minutes thirteen seconds. Moreover, _ @ very important consideration is that we are certain of fine weather. At atime when expeditions are being organised in ged country in view of this astronomical event, I think it will be useful to draw your attention to the chief questions which ‘should be the object of astronomical study during the next __ You are aware that the passing of the moon before the sun has the inestimable advantage of allowing us to see the circumsolar Pa aged which, under ordinary circumstances, because of their nt light are lost in the general illumination of our atmosphere. The re thus revealed consist of a layer in immediate con- tact with the sun, the chromosphere, in which are the rosy flames which form the protuberances ; and a more or Jess exten- sive luminous aureole, the corona. But since the celebrated eclipse of 1868, which marks an epoch in the history of solar physics, we are able, thanks to the great discovery of Messrs. Janssen and Lockyer, to study the protuberances at any time, ‘and consequently it is only to the corona that the attention of astronomers turns during total eclipses. _ An invariable part of the day’s programme is the study of the structure of the corona, and the luminous intensity of its various parts. We need to have recourse to photography for trustworthy evidence as to this, for photography alone can give a faithful tation of the phenomena ; even the best drawings always leave much to be desired. Indeed, it is impossible in the space of a few minutes to exactly represent a nebulous mass as com- plicated as the corona, and without any definite outlines. We can judge of the difficulty presented by the drawing of the corona, by remembering that even the most skilful draughtsmen have ee been able to give us similar drawings of the great Orion nebul: } although this may be studied at leisure. The brilliancy of the corona varies in intensity so much from one to another, that it is difficult to determine beforehand t gth of exposure needed with given apparatus to obtain as satisfactory a representation of the phenomenon as possible. Moreover, the different parts of the corona differ in brilliancy, so that when the photographic action is sufficient to give a good age of the middle part, the lower portions which form the terior corona are over-exposed, while the extreme limits of the aureole are not uced. To satisfy all the conditions it is ‘to take several photographs with different exposures. To advantageously discuss the results obtained it is very im- portant that astronomers should eed upon each plate a uniform scale to measure the intensity of the photographic action upon it. This intensity is equal to the product of three factors ; the effectiveness of the object glass, the length of exposure, and the sensitiveness of the plate. If we indicate the useful diameter of the object glass by a and the focus by / the éffectiveness, defined by the international congress of photography, is j 100 5 If we take plates of gelatinobromide of silver of _ normal sensitiveness as our unit, and let ¢ be the length of __ exposure in seconds, we have the following formula to express a the photographic action :—100%2, In working with wet _ ollodion plates it is necessary to multiply this expression by _ #y, and with plates of dry collodion it must be multiplied by _ by. The first photographs of the corona, taken with wet _ collodion, from 1868 to 1878, were obtained with a photographic _ action not greater than 2. Later, thanks to rapid plates, much _ greater action could be obtained. Thus in 1883 a photograph NO. 1213, VOL. 47] obtained by M. Janssen had received a photographic action equal to 918. On the negative thus obtained, the corona extended to between 30’ and 40’ from the limb of the moon, but on the other hand, details of the parts near the sun were completely wanting. We might ask whether by still further increasing the photo- graphic action we should also extend the limits of the corona? Certainly not! for if the photographic action is too intense, the faint contrast between the extreme parts of the corona and the more or less illuminated sky is no longer ei eae on the negative. We know, indeed, that if we wish to produce the maximum contrast between two half tones we must only use just enough light for the faintest of the half-tones to give a perceptible image. In America, Mr. Burnham has been en- gaged in determining the maximum length of exposure necessary to obtain the best representation of the corona, and he has made experiments on this subject by photographing the moon and white clouds on a faintly lighted sky. In 1889, at the Salut Isles, I used five instruments, giving photographic actions varying from 185 to 13, but, doubtless on account of the peculiarly intense illumination of the atmosphere due to the short duration of totality, and the great abundance of water vapour in the atmosphere, the most satisfactory negative was that corresponding to a photographic action of 30. It is very probable that an equally good result might have been obtained with much less photographic action. Mr. Barnard, to whom we owe the best photographs of the eclipse of January 1, 1889, worked with a photographic action equal to 0'58. This result proves that with the sensitive plates now in use it should be possible to obtain good images of the corona on a large scale by using secondary magnifiers to increase the size of the image given by the object glass. In any case we can em- ploy object glasses of two or three metres focal length, which would ‘give images sufficiently large to show all the details of the corona without having resort to enlargement of the plates. Nevertheless, in spite of the use of a long focus, the instrument must remain luminous enough for the time of exposure to be short. The displacements of the image on the plate, caused by the imperfect adjustment of the equatorial mounting, or by an irregularity in the clockwork movement, or by the movement of the sun in declination are thus rendered inappreciable. The photographs, when obtained, should be examined from the following different points of view, First of all we wish to find if the corona, which will be observed in the month of April, 1893, at a period of great solar activity, and at an epoch when the south pole of the sun is projected on the visible part of its disc, resembles, as we have every reason to think it does, the corona of 1883, which was studied under the same conditions. A great resemblance between the forms of the corona in 1889 and 1878, at the periods of minimum sun-spots, has already been noted, and if it can be established that the corona, seen under similar conditions, presents the same appearance, it will be proved that the diversity of appearance hitherto noticed depends solely upon the state of agitation of the solar surface, and the position of the observer with respect to the solar equator. If the corona should present an axis of symmetry it must be ascertained whether the poles of this axis coincide with the poles of the axis of rotation of the sun ; or if, as is more usually the case, the poles of the corona are inclined at some degrees from the poles of the sun, thus resembling the position of the magnetic poles of the earth with regard to its geographical poles. If the corona shares in the movement of rotation of the sun, it must be the same with its axis of symmetry, and therefore if we once observe the northern pole of the corona to the east of the northern pole of the sun, we ought to find it after an uneven number of half-revolutions, of the sun to the west of the north pole of the sun. To ascertain if this is so or not, it is of the greatest im- portance to know exactly the orientation of the images upon the photographic plates. The most exact and simple method to orient the images is to place the photographic apparatus in the position which it pti at the moment of the phenomena, and, in the night, to photograph the trails which the stars leave in passing across the field of the lens. If the photographs should show the structure of the corona clearly, we shall be able to study the form of those luminous rays which we notice at the poles of the sun, and of those cur- vilinear structures which seem to extend from the middle lati- tudes of the sun. The study of the curvature of these structures will be very useful in verifying the exactness of one of the most favoured theories of the corona, which explains the phenomena 306 NATURE [JANUARY 26, 1893 by supposing that matter is thrown out by the sun normally at its surface, and that its projection is turned on one side by the rotation ofthe sun. Mr. Schaeberle, of the Lick Observatory, has mathematically studied this theory, and on applying it to eclipses already observed, has been able to report that the cur- vature of the structures has always conformed with the theory. We must also examine the photographs taken with the longest exposure, to determine whether the dark parts which sometimes separate the luminous structures, and which we can trace to the base of the corona, are entirely destitute of light. The existence of these 7z/¢s, as the English call them, is difficult toexplain, if we suppose that the coronal atmosphere entirely surrounds the sun, for in that case we should always see, pro- jected on the plane perpendicular to the line of sight, the coronal matter all round the sun. According to Prof. Hastings, the presence of these rifts is a confirmation of his theory which ascribes the corona to diffraction, and not to the existence of a material mass. Is the aspect of the corona quickly modified, or are the _ changes which we notice from one eclipse to another effected slowly? Hitherto we have never proved the difference between the photographs of the same eclipse taken at several hours’ interval, and at stations very distant from each other. The English astronomers thought of testing this question in December, 1889, and the two English expeditions sent, one to the Salut Isles, and the other to the west coast of Africa, were furnished with photographic outfits as identical as possible, in order to obtain, at an interval of two and a half hours, com- parable negatives of the corona. Unfortunately the complete failure of the expedition on the African coast did not permit the carrying out of this programme ; otherwise it is very pro- bable they would have proved no sensible difference between the negatives at the two stations, for photographs show that the corona of December 22, 1889, was almost identical with that of January « of the same year. We may say, then, that during the year 1889, a year of quietude on the solar surface, the appearance of the corona did not appreciably change. However, the experiment attempted by the English expedi- tions needs to be repeated ; if not to study the internal move- ments of the corona, to obtain identical photographs at two different angles, which would enable us, with the aid of the stereoscope, to judge of the velief of the corona. Photographs of atotal eclipse will not only inform us as to the structure of the corona, but will permit us to, measure its actinic brightness. We can estimate the relative intensity of different parts of the corona by superposing several photographs, made on the same scale, but obtained with very different photo- graphic actions. The outlines of each image would give lines of equal actinic intensity of the corona. The absolute intensity may be measured by comparing the opacity of the image on the plate with the opacities produced on the same plate from a source of standard light... For this purpose the plates destined for photography are previously exposed on their borders to a standard light for varying periods of time. When these plates are developed, a scale of tones which allows:a comparison of opacities is obtained at the same time as the image of the phenomena. The spectroscopic examination of the corona confronts us with still more complex and more interesting problems. When we keep the slit of the spectroscope on the crescent of the sun, which narrows more and more ia proportion as the moon ad- vances, the spectrum darkens and the dark lines become less and less apparent ; then all at once the field of sight is covered with an infinite number of bright lines, which seem to be sub- stituted for each dark line of the Fraunhofer spectrum. This phenomenon only lasts two or three seconds. Such is the re- markable observation made by Prof. Young in 1870. In the preceding year he had tried to prove this transformation of dark into bright lines, but failed because he had arranged the slit of his spectroscope as a radius to the sun, which gave the bright lines too little length to be perceptible. With a tan- gential slit, however, the lines were long enough to be easily recognised. Prof. Young’s observations revealed to us the existence round the sun of a layer of incandescent vapours, of relatively low temperature, which, conformably to Kirchoff’s theory, pro- duce by their absorbing power reversal of the. lines of the solar spectrum. It is very probable that the vapours to which the reversal is due are not all situated in the atmosphere which Prof. Young has revealed to us, and which has a thickness of NO. 1213, VOL. 47] only 1000 kilometres. If it were so, absorption must be — infinitely more intense at the edge of the sun than it is at the centre. Nevertheless, the borders of the sun show no trace of this abnormal absorption. The observations of M. Janssen in 1867 showed this, and it is also proved by photographs of the spectrum of the sun which I took at the annular eclipse of 1890 at Cance in the island of Crete. It is probable that the reversal of lines is produced in a series of layers whose total thickness is great enough to make the difference of absorption between the centre and limb of the sun inappreciable. According to Prof. Lockyer the sun should be surrounded by concentric layers of vapours arranged in order of-density, which, according to his own expression, envelope the sun like ‘‘ the leaves of an onion.’”’ Prof. Young’s layer of vapours would comprehend only some of these layers. This hypothesis seems confirmed by the observation made by M. Trépied in 1882: although he saw ‘‘a veritable rain of bright lines in the spectrum,” he proved that the coincidence of the bright and dark lines was not complete. pens ae Prof. Lockyer’s theory involves also, as another consequence, the unequal length and width of these bright lines ; indeed, the layer nearest to the sun should give short lines correspond- ing to the thickness of this layer, and as the temperature here must be very high the lines should be rather wide. The follow- ing layer being seen by projection, and having a thickness equal to the two layers, should give lines twice as long ; moreover, this second layer being cooler than the preceding the lines should be narrower. The same reasoning applies to the suc- ceeding layers, so that we ought to find, soon after the beginning of the total eclipse, short and wide lines, then long and narrow ones. The observations of 1882 confirmed these predictions, and English astronomers wished to repeat the experiment in 1886. Unfortunately the observations of Father Perry and Mr. Turner were made under conditions too unfavourable for us to draw any certain conclusion from them. To fully eluci- date the question it is necessary to obtain instantaneous photo- graphs of these bright lines. The experiment was indeed attempted by English observers in 1883, but they seem to have obtained no eee aeelig Hastings concludes from this experiment that. i spectrum of the corona is richer in green than in seageredistion, since it causes the group 4 to disappear before _‘Inconclusion I must quote a remarkable observation made by Prof. Tacchini in 1883, which, should it be confirmed, would suggest a very fascinating theory of the corona. Upon examining the m of one of the sheaves (panaches) of the corona with a considerable dispersion and a wide slit, Prof. Tacchini ised two or three bright bands characteristic ns, which are always present in the spectra of comets. Father Perry in 1886 proposed to verify the observa- tion of Tacchini, but unfortunately could not re-observe in question. Certainly he used a spectroscope _ with slightly illuminated cross wires, and when the period of activity had already passed, It would be well in BA eclipses to devote some seconds to the search for these _ bands, for, if the presence of carbon were recognised in the coronal atmosphere, it would be a new proof of the analogy Like comets the corona seems formed of matter subject to a repulsive force on the part of the sun, indeed it is probable that solar 5 pine does not act upon the corona, for unless this were so, the ower parts, having to support the weight of the upper, would be much more dense than the latter. It would thus result that the lines of the coronal spectrum, the line 1474 for instance, would be wider at their bases than at their upper extremities ; but nothing of the kind has hitherto been observed. Moreover, so that the corona may be visible at 30’ or 40’ from the sun, the co matter must necessarily not be too rare in these extreme regions ; but even in ascribing an extremely low density to this, we should find upon allowing for solar gravity that the pressure near the sun would have a considerable value, although it is proved that the pressure at the base of the corona does not ex- ceed some millimetres of mercury. __. It is also sought to prove the slight density of the middle _ corona by the fact that it has never offered any resistance to _ comets, which, on several occasions, have passed through it ; but as comets themselves experience no appreciable resistance when they encounter a body it is impossible to tell whether _ the absence of resistance is due to the comets or to the corona. ___. The repulsive force which expels the coronal matter from the sun would act in the same manner as electrical force ; indeed _ Prof. Bigelow has noticed that the arrangement of plumes and NO. 1213, VOL. 47 | sheaves round the solar disc, and the ircurvilinear forms exactly recall the lines of force of an electric field. Let us complete the parallel between comets and the corona by noting that the tails of comets sometimes assume the curvilinear form found in the sheaves of the corona. The dark parts which divide the tails of comets have also their analogues in the rifts of the corona. To push the comparison still further, it would be very interesting to be able to prove that the corona, like cometary masses, is transparent, and that bright stars can be seen through it. Unfortunately it will be impossible to attempt this experiment at the time of the next eclipse. An exact photometric study of the solar. surface would per- haps detect the transparency of the corona, indeed if we suppose that the corona presents a certain opacity the parts of the photosphere on which the large sheaves are projected must be less luminous than the parts covered by the polar rays. If the corona is not subject to solar gravity it is scarcely pro- bable that it shares the movement of rotation of the sun ; how- ever, it would be useful to try in the coming eclipse to. study the question by the spectroscopic method, as M. Trouvelot wished to doin 1883. It would be desirable to conduct all spectroscopic observations: of the corona by means of photo- graphy. ‘The instruments which must be used for this purpose should be very luminous (z.¢. give bright images), for there is little light available, and the exposures are necessarily short. In studying the effectiveness of.a spectroscope in the case of an object presenting a large apparent diameter, like the corona, it is seen that the intensity of the spectrum depends entirely upon the width of the slit,and the effectiveness of the object glass which forms the image of the spectrum, As to the collimator and the condenser their dimensions are of no importance, provided that the collimator can well receive all the light of the condenser. As the object glass which forms the image of the spectrum , must have an image long enough to givesutficient length to the spectrum, one is led, in order to. obtain great effectiveness, to give this object glass a large aperture, and consequently to use a prism of large size. ry The.visibility of the bright lines depending not only on their brightness, but also on their width, a wide slit must be employed to obtain a good image of these lines; on the other hand, a narrow slit will give a spectrum of great purity, and will show the dark lines. The employment of two different spectroscopes is then plainly indicated. It remains for us to speak of the photometric, measuring of the corona by optical photometers. _Bunsen’s photometer has already been used for this purpose, but I think that we must henceforth turn to photography to obtain exact results. The question should not be neglected, for it is certain that the brilliancy of the corona varies considerably from one eclipse to another. Thus Prof. Lockyer estimates that in 1878, at a period of quiescence on the surface of the sun, the corona was ten times less brilliant that in 1871. . Bie Let us end by pointing to the polariscope observations which hitherto have been far from giving concordant results as to the proportion of polarised light in the various parts of the corona, Here also there are new inquiries to be made, . Such, gentlemen, are the different problems suggested by the study of the solar corona. We will hope that the next eclipse will largely contribute to their solution. MEMORIAL OF SIR RICHARD OWEN. A MEETING was held at the rooms of the Royal Society, on Saturday, to make preparations for the provision of a suitable memorial of the late Sir Richard Owen. The Prince of Wales took the chair, and was supported by the Duke of Teck, the President, the Treasurer, and the Secretary of the Royal Society, Lord Kelvin, Sir John Evans, and Professor Michael Foster ; the President of the British Association, Sir A. Geikie ; the President of the Royal College of Physicians, Sir A. Clark ; the President of the Royal College of Surgeons, Mr. T. Bryant ; the President of the Royal Academy, Sir F. Leighton ; the Bishop of Rochester, the Dean of Westminster, Lord Playfair, Prof. Huxley, Sir H. Roscoe, M.P., Sir F, Abel, Sir F. Bramwell, Sir G. Stokes, Sir H. Acland, Sir Joseph Lister, Mr. Ericsen, Dr. Priestley, Dr. Giinther, Dr. H. Woodward, Dr. Maunde Thompson, Sir W. H. Flower, Sir Erasmus Ommanney, Sic James Paget, Sir Henry Thomp- son, Sir Spencer Wells, Sir Edwin Saunders, Sir John Fowler, 308 NATURE [JANUARY 26, 1893 Dr. E. A. Bond, Dr: P. L. Sclater, Mr. Carruthers, and Mr, W. P. Sladen. There were also present, among others, Sir G. M. Humphry, Mr. Holman Hunt, Mr. Ernest Hart, Dr. Michael (President of the Royal Microscopical Society), Prof. R. Meldola, Mr. O. Salvin, and Prof. T. Wiltshire. The Prince of Wales, in opening the proceedings, said,—I have the great privilege conferred upon me of being asked to take the chair to-day, upon this very special occasion. We are assembled together for the purpose of paying a mark and tribute of respect and appreciation to the memory of a great man of science who has lately passed away from us. The name of Sir Richard Owen must always go down to posterity as that of a great man—one who was eminent in the sciences of anatomy, zoology, and paleontology. Perhaps I may be allowed to say a word of my own personal knowledge of him. It is now thirty-five years since I had the advantage of knowing him. When I lived as a boy at the White Lodge, Richmond Park, now occupied by my illustrious relative on my right (the Duke of Teck), I had opportunities of visiting him and knowing him. His geniality and his charm of manner to all those who knew him have, I am sure, left a deep and lasting impression. Whether he.was explaining to you the mysteries of some old fossil bone that had been given him, or whether he was telling one of his vivid ghost stories, one felt that one was under the charm of his presence. His method of teaching, as you all know, was earnest and clear in every respect ; and it even derived a measure of force from a certain hesitation in his manner. His great repute was gained as a zoologist, and in the study, not only of living animals, but of those long extinct, and following the same large range of work as Cuvier, to whom, ‘in the history of science, he may be regarded as a successor. One of the great works and interests of his life was the forma- tion of the Natural History Museum, which is now safely ‘established in South Kensington under the able guidance of our friend Sir William Flower. It may be within your recollection what great difficulties Sir Richard Owen encountered when he was first appointed Superintendent of the Department of Natural History at the British Museum in 1856. - He himself saw in getting that appointment that it was quite impossible that these latge collections could be adequately seen unless they were removed to some other sphere. In 1862 a Bill was brought in by Mr. Gladstone, who took the greatest interest in the matter, while it was vigorously opposed, strange to say, by no less great aman than Mr. Disraeli. The Bill was lost, though it was eventually, ten years later, carried, and now we have that fine building that we all know and deeply appreciate. I may-also mention that he took the greatest interest with regard to the colonies, and in trying to obtain from them specimens that would be worthily represented in the Natural History Museum. In sanitary matters also he was not behindhand, as was shown by his long intimacy with that distinguished man, Sir Edwin Chadwick. There are several resolutions to be proposed, and you will hear far better and more eloquent remarks from the distinguished gentlemen who will move and second them. That is the reason why on this occasion I shall not trouble you with more remarks. Allow me only to repeat the assurance of the deep interest I take in this movement for a suitable memorial to the memory of this great man, and how deeply I appreciate having been asked to take the chair on this interesting and important occasion. Lord Kelvin moved :—‘‘ That it is desirable that the eminent services of the late Sir Richard Owen in the advancement of the knowledge of the sciences of anatomy, zoology, and palz- ontology should be commemorated by some suitable memorial.” He said that, if there was no other reason but the part that Sir R. Owen took in the establishment of the Natural History Museum, and the success that ultimately attended his efforts, he deserved the gratitude of the nation. There was scarcely any branch of the whole of natural history that he had not touched and enriched with the results of his investigations. Three hundred and sixty papers, every one of them valuable, were to be found under his name in the Royal Society catalogue of scientific papers. From these contributions, however, he came back to the Natural History Museum, and he held that every subject of the Queen, in these islands or in the colonies, and every visitor to this country, must feel that he was benefited by the existence of that museum and by the splendid arrangement of its contents. Prof. Huxley, in seconding the resolution, said that, if he mistook not, there were very few men living who had had occasion to follow the work of the remarkable man whose career NO. 1213, VOL. 47] they had met to celebrate with more carefulness and attention than he had done. It was a career remarkable for its length, for the rapid rise to eminence, and the long retention of high position of the person who was the subject of it. It was more than forty years ago since he, asa young man, had occasion to look abroad upon the scientific world of London, in which he was then a complete novice, and to see whether, perhaps, in some small and insignificant corner of it room might be found for him. At that time there were four persons whose names stood out amongst the first in the galaxy of scientific men of this country. ‘They were Sir John Herschel, Mr. Faraday, Sir Charles Lyell, and, last, though by no means least, the famous Hunterian Professor, Owen. If he looked abroad amongst the lights of biological science, with which he was prin- cipally concerned, there were Johannes Miiller in Berlin, Milne Edwards in Paris, Von Baer in St. Petersburg ; but for quantity, general excellence, and variety of work there was no one who could be regarded as the superior of Owen. It was a common impression that Owen was the successor and continuator of Cuvier, and that was largely true. ‘The memoirs on the pearly nautilus, on the marsupials, on the anthropoid apes were fully worthy of the author of the ‘*Memoires sur les Mollusques” or the ‘‘ Lecons d’ Anatomie Comparée,” while the ‘‘ Ossemen fossies” had a full equivalent in the vast series of papers upon fossil remains, contained in the publications of the Royal, the Geological, and the Palzonto- graphical Societies. But it was also to be remembered that, in another field, Owen was the successor and continuator of the school to which Cuvier was most vehemently opposed—that of St. Hilaire and Oken. The remarkable contributions to mor- phology embodied in the works on the archetype of the verte- brate skeleton and on the nature of limbs were able develop- ments of speculative views of another order than Cuvier’s. Readers of Goethe would remember that he thought the news of the controversy between Cuvier and St. Hilaire far more interesting than that of the Revolution of July, which broke out about the same time. Whether that was a just esti- mate of the relative importance of things or not might be left an open question ; but it was the peculiar irony of history to show us in so many quarrels that right and wrong were on both sides. And in this particular controversy it had turnéd out that the right lay neither with Cuvier nor with St. Hilaire, but partly with both and partly with a third party, which at that time ~ hardly existed. Whatever might be the ultimate verdict of science in this particular matter, there could be no doubt that it was a distinct aid to progress to have one view of the case stated and illustrated with the unrivalled wealth of knowledge which Owen brought to bear upon it. If history confirmed, as he believed it would, the estimate of the broad features of Sir — Richard Owen’s work, which he had suggested, then it would justify them in endeavouring to preserve the memory of the great results achieved by his stupendous powers of work, his remarkable sagacity in interpretation, and his untiring striving towards the ideal which he entertained: The resclution was then put and agreed to unanimously, as were also those which followed. The Duke of Teck moved :—‘‘ That the memorial shall con- sist primarily of a marble statue which shall be offered to the Trustees of the British Museum to be placed in the hall of the Natural History Museum.” His Royal Highness said,—There is no doubt, in my mind at least, that this would be the most appropriate place and the most appropriate form in which to erect the likeness of our admired friend. It is, so to say, his second home, the home of his later labours, and no better place could be found. Besides, I think it is a very nice idea that every one who enters the hall should see first of all the man to whom we owe this inheritance. Others have said so much about Sir Richard Owen that it is needless for me to go over the ground again. As all of us know so well, what he has been and what he has done will remain in the minds of all who survive him, and, therefore, I will only say that in my opinion the hall, which is a very fine interior, of the Natural History Museum should be the place where the memorial of this great man should be erected. Sir William Flower, in seconding the resolution, said that» having twice in his life succeeded Sir Richard Owen, he had had special opportunities of judging of his work, and he might, therefore, be expected to say something about the general char- acter and extent of that work on the present occasion, but after what had been said in the introductory remarks of His Royal Highness, and the speech of Prof. Huxley, than whom no one q _ January 26, 1893] NATURE 309 _ was more competent to give an opinion upon the scientific side _ of the question, there was no necessity for doing so. He could not refrain, however, from speaking upon one point. Among the various characteristics of Sir Richard Owen, one of the most _ remarkable was his untiring indastry, which enabled him to pro- _ dace an amount of work which was truly prodigious. It could _ hardly be expected that sucha vast series of memoirs on so _ many diverse subjects, as that which he had given forth to the _ world during his long life, could all be equal in quality, or that _ the merits of some of them should not have been the occasion Retina He would only refer to one instance of this _ kind. As long ago as 1837, Sir R. Owen read a _ paper before the Society in whose rooms they were now bled, which was published in the Philosophical Trans- and in which certain remarkable characteristics ere stated to exist in the brain of marsupial animals, widely — disti1 shing them from other members of the class to which ‘they belong. The conclusions apparently established by this Pp were generally accepted for nearly thirty years, but in _ 1865 another memoir was read before the same society, and also published in the Philosophical Transactions, in which a _ different view was taken. both of the nature of the structural pe ities and of their significance in classification. The _ views of the author of this second paper have generally found favour until within a few months since, when an independent ' of the subject, carried on with all the improved ethods of modern research, by Dr. J. Symington, has resulted ina declaration in favour of the accuracy of Owen’s original description and conclusions. “These observations may still re- oes confirmation by others, but as he (Sir W. Flower) was the author of the second paper, he considered it only fitting that he should, at a meeting assembled to do honour to the yemory of the great anatomist, from whom, on this point, he had differed so long, call attention to them. He thought this the best contribution he could make to the object for which they ad g together. alogue of the late professor’s writings should be issued, with a portrait and biographical memoir. _ Sir James Paget moved that a committee be formed to carry out the preceding resolutions. It would be impossible, he said, to have any better evidence that the resolutions just passed were right than the number and position of those who had offered to serve on the committee, for there was never a more representative list. Headed by the Prince of Wales, the Duke of Teck, the Archbishop of Canterbury, and the Lord Chancellor, it con- __ tained nearly 150 of the most prominent workers in all branches _ of science and many who were the best judges of the influence __ of science on the general well-being of the nation. He was the _ oldest person present who had worked with Sir R. Owen, and _ could remember him on entering St. Bartholomew's Hospital as -astudent in 1834. He could testify to the influence Owen had exercised in promoting the study of science by showing to all - around him how keen his delight was in it, and how in itself alone it might be a sufficient reward. He resisted all tempta- _ tions to leave science, though he might have been a very successful edical practitioner ; and he was one of the first by whom the ‘reform of sanitary matters was begun in this country. Sir J. Evans briefly seconded the motion. ; Sir A. Clark moved—‘‘ That the following list of gentlemen constitute the executive committee: His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales (chairman), His Serene Highness the Duke of Teck, the President of the Royal Society, the President of the _ Royal College of Physicians, the President of the Royal College of Si ns, the President of the Linnzan Society, the Presi- _ dent of the Zoological Society (treasurer), Sir John Evans, Prof. _ Michael Foster, Dr. A. Giinther, Prof. Huxley, Sir F. Leigh- _ ton, Sir James Paget, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. W. Percy Sladen _ (secretary), Lord Walsingham, Mr. A. Waterhouse, R.A., and _ Mr. Henry Woodward.” Sir Andrew remarked that this memorial movement reminded them that nations no more than _ individuals can live by bread alone. Material prosperity did not constitute the true abiding life of a nation ; it was necessary that it should live by ideas: and the nation honoured those who, _ like Owen, communicated new ideas which spurred others to new courses of activity. Mr. T. Bryant, in seconding the motion, said the College of _ Surgeons felt the loss that science had sustained in the death of _ him who unquestionably was the grand expounder of John _ Hunter and who, more than any one else, demonstrated the NO. 1213, VOL. 47 | Bs P. L. Sclater suggested that, in addition, a memorial. value of the materials John Hunter left behind him. He did more than any one else to call the attention of the scientific world to the museum in Lincoln’s Inn, and by additions to it to make it what it is. More than that, at a time when com- parative anatomy and biological studies were little thought of he called attention to the value of them, the necessity for them, and the pleasures they would yield. As a young man he attended Owen’s lectures, and felt the full force of his quiet enthusiasm, which was altogether independent of the materials embodied in the lectures, Lord Playfair, in supporting the motion, said that he was the last surviving member of the Health of Towns Commission of 1844, upon which he was brought into continual intercourse with Sir R. Owen, and therefore he knew how much Sir Richard had at heart the advancement of sanitary science. This interest in it he maintained throughout his whole career. He lived close to Sir Edwin Chadwick, and although no two men could be more unlike, they were most intimate friends, and were con- stantly discussing how to advance the health of the nation. When Sir Richard returned from his interesting expedition to Egypt he told the speaker that he had come back in an unforgiving spirit towards Moses, because though skilled inthe learning of the Egyptians, and having derived his chief commandments from those of that ancient race, he missed one important one, ‘* Thou shalt not pollute rivers.” Owen, like Prof. Huxley, exercised great influence outside the domain of science. Prof. Huxley had benefited the education of the country, and Prof. Owen had considerable influence in improving the sanitary condition of the country. Sir W. Flower read a first list of donations, headed with one of £25 by the Prince of Wales. Sir Henry Acland moved, and Prof. Michael Foster seconded, a vote of thanks to his Royal Highness for consenting to be- come chairman of the committee, and for presiding on the present occasion. The Prince of Wales, in responding, said,—I beg to return my warmest thanks to my kind and valued old friend, Sir Henry Acland, for the way he has proposed, to Mr. Michael Foster for the way in which he seconded, and to you all for the kind manner in which you have received this resolution. It has indeed been a labour of love to me to-day to preside on this very interesting occasion, and I think that it has seldom been my good fortune to listen to more interesting or eloquent addresses than those which have fallen from the lips of those eminent gentlemen who have spoken. Nobody will take a deeper interest in the. carrying out of this memorial of our lamented friend Sir Richard Owen than myself, and most sincerely do I hope that the great work that is to adorn the Natural History Museum will be worthy of a great sculptor and of the great man that it represents. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Bulletin de 1 Académie Royale de Belgique, Nos. 9 and to. Classe des Sciences.—On some new Ca/igidei of the coast of Africa and the Azores Archipelago, by P. J. van Beneden.—On an optical atmospheric phenomenon observed in the Alps, by F. Folie (see Notes).—On a state of matter characterised by the mutual independence of the pressure and the specific volume, by P. de Heen. It is easily shown that the density of saturated vapour at the critical temperature is variable, and depends, at constant pressure, upon the proportion of liquid enclosed in the tube. Experiments were made in order to decide whether this independence of pressure and volume was shown also at other temperatures. The liquid chosen was ether, and the volume of liquid and vapour contained in a sealed tube was read by means of acathetometer. A series of results showed that during con- densation by pressure the density of unsaturated vapour was greater than that of saturated vapour, or that the specific volume increased with the pressure. This is an experimental verification of Prof. James Thomson’s pseudo gaseous state of matter.—On the most complete reduction of invariant functions, by Jacques Deruyts.—Ex-meridian observations made at the Royal Ob- servatory of Belgium from March to October, 1892, by L. Niesten and E. Stuyvaert.—On a new fluorine-derivative of carbon, by Frédéric Swarts. This is a liquid, of the formula CCI,F, boiling at 24°°7, insoluble in water, and unaffected by sulphuric and nitric acids. Its density is 1°4944; an alcoholicsolution of 310 NATURE (JANUARY 26, 1893 potash destroys it gradually, forming potassium chloride, fluoride, and carbonate. It was obtained by treating carbon tetrachloride with a mixture of antimony trifluoride and bromine in equal molecular proportions. It is notable that the bromofluoride produced by the mixture acts not as a bromising but a fluorising agent.— On a simplification of some of Tesla’s experiments, by H. Schoentjes. Like some recent workers in England, Prof. Schoentjes has found that most of the experiments can be pro- duced, although with lesser intensity, without the bobbin immersed in oil, the discharge exciter, and the condenser, simply by the first Rhumkorff coil, whose dimensions need not exceed 7 x 17 cm. —On a process of sterilisation of albumin solutions at 100° C., by Emile Marchal. Albumin can be easily sterilised at 100°C., ’ without coagulation, by first adding 0°05 gr. per litre of borax, or 0°005 of ferrous sulphate in a 2 to 5 per cent. solution, or 4 to 5 gr. nitrate of urea per litre of 10 per cent. solution. The ‘‘incoagulable albumin” thus obtained is per- fectly suitable for cultivations. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, November 24, 1892, —‘*Memoir on the Theory of the Compositions of Numbers,” by P. A. MacMahon, Major R.A., F.R.S. In the theory of the partitions of numbers the order of occurrence of the parts is immaterial. Compositions of num- bers are merely partitions in which the order of the parts is essential. In the nomenclature I have followed H. J. S. Smith and J. W. L. Glaisher. What are called ‘‘ unipartite ” numbers are such as may be taken to enumerate undistinguished objects. ‘‘ Multipartite” numbers enumerate objects which are distinguished from one another to any given extent; and the objects are appropriately enumerated by an ordered assemblage 1 of integers, each integer being a unipartite number which speci- _ fies the number of objects of a particular kind; and such assemblage constitutes a multipartite number. The 1st Section treats of the compositions of unipartite numbers both analyti- cally and graphically. The subject is of great simplicity, and is only given as a suitable introduction to the more difficult theory, connected with multipartite numbers, which is deve- loped in the succeeding sections. i! The investigation arose in an interesting manner. In the theory of the partitions of integers, certain partitions came under view which may be defined as possessing the property of in- volving a partition of every lower integer in a unique manner. These have been termed ‘‘ perfect partitions,” and it was curious that their enumeration proved to be identical with that of certain expressions which were obviously ‘* compositions: ” of. multipartite numbers. The generating function which enumerates the composition has the equivalent forms— hy + hg t+ Ig +. = Il — hy — hy hy me a - a +a, = «. j I —'2(a,; — ay — a3 — ...)' where /,, a, represent respectively the sum, of the homogeneous products of order s and the sum of the products s eee of quantities : : 1, Ay Ag, we-y Arey and the number of compositions of tl of the multipartite Pils ae pn is the coefficient of a,7!a,42 ... anf “ in the development accord- ing to ascending powers. ht It is established that I 2 {I — s,(2a, + a +. “+ an) {I — 59(2a, + 2a, +. i an)} .. ei — Sn(2a, + 2a A het 2an)} ; is also a generating function which enumerates the compositions ; the coefficient of SP sf? ... being the number of compositions pillmea by the multipartite Dion». pn “ sn Pa, Pig f2 , eee aye” ° 4 « Pu The previous generating function may, by the addition of the fraction 4 and the substitution of s,a,, sya, &c., a Gy, May &., 4 be thrown into the form I I — 2(35,0, — Sees 1) 1 be identical. ve (a) #88 5g 40% SyMy, == On) By and hence these two fractions, i in regard to the terms in their expansions which are products of pom ers of Sits Satta seey Sn@n, Must This fact is proved by means of the identity— I au -— $1(20, + Ay +) ou. a»)} {I a So( 2a, + 2a + a a’?)} eee {I pre Sn( 2a, 4 20, eS E + 2an)} ae 4 I o¢ I-2 (35,0, — BS S_%1 Me +... ( se )* T1559 is 571 Aq vr ay) multiplied by e a. s2(Axi + x) ne (Act + ant) — (Any + 20x) «-- (Akt + 2ax2) SkySkoq «++ Skity where Sk = $x (2a, 4+ . + 2aK + OKn+y + joes + On) = Ske(An + 2ax), and the summation is in regard to every selection of ¢ integers from the series 45S) *.:. and ¢ takes all values from 1 to # — 1. nN, This remarkable theorem leads to a crowd of results which are interesting in’ the theory of numbers. The geometrical method of ‘‘trees ” finds a-place, and, lastly, there is the fundamental algebraic identity— I I RY — sy(kay + ag + ... + ant {1 — Soha + kag + ... Gn)} ... {1 — Su(hay + hag + ... + han)} nae I : s k I-— RBs 0, + A(R = 1) 351 59% Aq ages h 5 ‘+ (—)#k(& - 1)*—15,59 eee 59%, Ao eee On multiplied by 1 + 3 Aa + a4)... (Atm + atn) — (Ag + Aan) «(Atm + hain) 5+ 9, Say: (= 4) (r= Sapte = Sa) iu .(1 - Sen) which reduces to that formerly obtained when 2 is given the special value 2. NO. 1213, VOL. 47] melting at 141°5-142°5°. JANUARY 26, 1893] NATURE sit - Chemical Society, December 13.—Mr. W. Crookes, Vice- President, in the chair.—The Stas Memorial Lecture, by J. W. Mallet, was read (see this vol. p:'248). December 15.—Dr. W. J. Russell, Vice-President, in the _chair.—The following papers. were read:—The identity of caffeine and theine and the interactions, of caffeine and auric chloride, by W. R. Dunstan and W. F. J. Shepheard. Various logists have concluded that differences exist between A from tea and caffeine from coffee ; the authors have com- pated the products from the two sources, and consider that their ‘identity is beyond a. The differences in physiological action observed by Mays, Brunton, and Cash can only mean _ that the alkaloids employed wete either impure or administered under non-comparable conditions. On heating an aqueous solution of caffeine aurichloride, a yellow precipitate of auro- s chlorocatfeine C,H,(AuC!,)N,O, separates ; the production of _ this substance is better ve coat by Medicus’ formula for caffeine _ than by that of E. Fischer.—Studies on isomeric change, ii. Orthoxylenesulphonic acids, by G. T. Moody. I: 2: 3- orthoxylenesulphonic acid, when heated at 115-120° in a current __ of dry air, undergoes quantitative conversion into the isomeric I: 2: 4-sulphonicacid. The former acid is prepared by sul- honating dibromorthoxylene and reducing the resulting dibrom- orthoxylenesulphonic acid with zinc dust and sodium hydroxide. A number of derivatives are described.—Studies on isomeric change, iii. Phenetoilsulphonic acids, C;H,(OEt)SO,H, by G. T. Moody. B phenetoilsulphonic acid, prepared by ethylating parabromophenol and sulphonating the bromophenet- oil so obtained, is readily reduced by zinc dust and sodium hydroxide with formation of orthophenetoilsulphonic acid. The _ latter is completely converted into the isomeric parasulphonic acid on heating for several hours at 100°. Lagai’s observations, 7 ontradi the author’s previous results, are shown to be -erroneous.—Formation and nitration of phenyldiazoimide, by _ W. A. Tilden and J. H. Millar. Phenyldiazoimide, N;.Ph, is a «| tea obtained by the interaction of nitrosyl chloride and zine in glacial acetic acid solution ; on nitration it _ yields about two-thirds of its weight of the paranitro-derivative m.p. 74). Nitrophenyldiazoimide is a convenient source from to prepare diazoimide.—The production of naphthalene derivatives from dehydracetic acid, by J. N. Collie. The author concludes that the yellow substance which he has reviously obtained by the condensation of diacetylacetone (see this vol. p. 238) is probably formed in accordance with the following equation :— Dome: CH . C: CH’. C.Me a S| "ed om mrs H H CH,. CO. CH.CO.C.CO. Me OO og = + 3H,0. OH OH This substance gives a diacetyl derivative which on distillation with zine dust yieldsatrimethylnaphthalene. The condensation product closely resembles the acetonaphthols prepared by Wilt and Erdmann.—A new synthesis of hydrindone, by F. S. Kipping- Contrary to the statement of Hughes, hydrindone may be easily prepared in large quantities by the action of aluminium chloride on phenylpropionic chloride; 50-60 per __ cent. of the theoretical yield is obtained, the reaction being repre- _ sented by the following equation: Ph.CH,.CH,. COCI = Ph <0" CH: + HCL CO The ketone prepared in this way is _ identical with that obtained from other sources by several _ chemists; its hydrazone, hydroxime and a_nitro-derivative are described. On _ heating hydrindone with mode- _ rately concentrated sulphuric acid a condensation pro- ‘a duct, C,,H,,O, is obtained; it forms yellowish plates 2 Phosphoric anhydride converts _ hydrindone into a yellow crystalline substance, which is apparently identical with the hydrocarbon of the empirical com- NO. 1213, VOL. 47] position C,H., which the author has previously obtained by the action of phosphoric anhydride on phenylpropionic ch!oride.— The resolution of methoxysuccinic acid into its optically active components, by T. Purdie and W. Marshall. Synthetical methoxy- succinic acid can be resolved into its optically active constituents by crystallisation of the acid cinchonine salts, the salt of the dextro- acid being less soluble in water than that of its levo-isomeride. The separation effected in this way is, however, only partial, the metallic salts obtained after removal of the alkaloid being a mixture of the active and inactive compounds ; by taking advant- age of the fact that the inactive calcium or acid potassium salt is less soluble in water than its active isomeride, the optically active acids may be isolated. The active acids have a specific rotatory power of about 33° in 5-10 per cent. aqueous solutions and melt at 88-90", whilst the inactive acid melts‘at 108°. The rotation of the normal ammonium or potassium salt is of the same sign as that of the parent acid ; the rotation of the calcium or barium salt is of opposite sign to that of the acid, but varies greatly with change of concentration. The rotation of the barium salt changes sign in very dilute solutions.—Optically active ethoxysuccinic acid, by T. Purdie and I. W. Walker. If fed with nutritive mineral salts the spores of Penicil/ium glaucum flourish in a solution of inactive hydrogen ammonium ethoxy- succinate and consume the lzvogyrate acid, leaving the dextro- acid unaltered. On crystallising the cinchonidine salt of the inactive acid, a separation into the lavo- and dextro-modifica- tions may be effected, and the oppositely active acid ammonium salts prepared in this way resemble that obtained by means of Penicillium glaucum. Close parallelism exists between the methoxy- and ethoxy-succinates, with respect to optical activity. —The formation of benzyldihydroxypyridine from benzylglutac- onic acid, by S. Ruhemann. Ethyl benzylglutaconate slowly dissolves at 100° in concentrated aqueous ammonia, yielding a solution, from which acids separate benzyldibydroxypyridine. This substance exhibits both basic and acid properties and melts at 184°.—The action of nitrous acid on 1-a-amido-2-8-naphthol ; a correction, by R. Meldola. The author agrees with the statement of Grandmougin and Michel that §8-naphtha- quinone results from the interaction of nitrous acid and I-a amido-2-8-naphthol.—Note on the action of phenylhydra- zine on mono- and di-carboxylic acids at elevated temperatures, by W. R. Hodgkinson and A. H. Coote. On distilling a mix- ture of phenylhydrazine and phenylacetic acid in equivalent proportion, benzene, aniline and a liquid of the composition C,,H,,0, distil over ; nitrogen and ammonia are also evolved. As has been previously shown, thé hydrazide of the composition Ph. CH,. CO. NH. NH. Phis the first product of the re- action ; on distilling this substance, NH . NH is split off, and reduces the phenylhydrazine present to aniline and benzene, Somewhat similar reactions occur in the cases of orthotoluic, phenylpropionic, and succinic acids, and are now under investi- gation. SYDNEY. Royal Society of New South Wales, September 7, 1892. —Prof. Warren, President, in the chair.—Paper read: The effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon the indigenous vegetation, by A. G. Hamilton [Part I.]. October 5.—Prof. Warren, President, in the chair.—The second part of paper on the effect which settlement in Australia has produced upon indigenous vegetation, by A. G. Hamilton, was read, after which the society’s bronze medal and a cheque for £25 were presented to the author, November 2.—Prof. Warren, President, in the chair.—Dr. William Huggins, F.R.S., was elected an honorary member of the Society. The following papers were read :—Preliminary note on limestone occurring near Sydney, by H. G. Smith.— On a cyclonicstorm near Narrabri, by H. C. Russell, F.R.S. —Some folk-songs and myths from Samoa, translated by the Rev. G. Pratt, with introduction and notes by Dr. John Fraser. Paris. Academy of Sciences, January 16.—M. de Lacaze-Duthiers in the chair.—Swimming movements of the ray-fish, by M. Marey. These were investigated by means of chronophoto- graphy, ten exposures being made per second. The fish was fixed in position by the head and tail, and the views were taken from the front and the side respectively, the fins being left free 312 to move. The photographs show the successive phases of one entire motion of the fins, which consists of a wave-like motion beginning in front. Shortly after the anterior portion has been: lifted it is depressed, the motion being meanwhile propagated to the lateral portions, and growing in amplitude as the fin grows in breadth. Just before the movement dies out near the tail the process recommences in front. The periodic time was 0'8 seconds. The photographs show a striking likeness to those obtained by chronophotography applied to the flight of birds. M. Marey intends to study the mechanical effect of the action of the fins upon the water, also by the aid of photography.— Microscopic researches on the contractility of the blood-vessels, by M. L. Ranvier. The pericesophagian membrane of the frog was placed on the disc of the slide-cell in one or two drops of peritoneal serum. It was kept extended by a platinum ring ; electrodes of tinfoil were placed in connection, and a cover glass was fixed over the whole with paraffin. Thus mounted, the smooth muscular fibres and the internal elastic sheath are well seen. On connecting the induction coil with the electrodes, the muscular fibres contract as soon as the current is strong enough. At the same time, the folds of the internal sheath become more pronounced and finally touch, thus effacing the passage through the small artery. On breaking the current, the artery gradually regains its original diameter. Ifthe current is not sufficiently strong for producing a regular contraction, some of the segments contract, while others are at rest. But the zone of contraction is never displaced, and, ifinterrupted, will reappear at the same place on reestablishing the current. Nothing corresponding to a peristaltic motion can be produced by direct electrical excitement. In none of the experiments, even with the strongest » currents, was it possible to detect any signs of contraction in the capillaries. —On the sum of the logarithms of the first numbers not exceeding x, by M. Cahen.—On differential equations of a higher order, the integral of which only admits of a finite number of determinations, by M. Paul Painlevé.—On linear differential equations with rational coefficients, by M. Helge von Koch.— Electric waves in wires ; depression of the wave propagated in conductors, by M. Birkeland (see Wiedemann’s Annalen, ab- stract).—On the minimum perceptible amount of light, by M. Charles Henry. the light of the full moon. This is about a thousand times too great, as proved by some measurements made with the zinc- sulphide (phosphorescence) photometer previously described. The corrected formula for the rate of loss of luminosity of the sulphide is 2° (¢ — 18°5)=1777°8, which agrees even with the longest observations, and is theoretically justified by M. Henri Becquerel. The minimum perceptible amount of light was determined by noticing the time at which the eye, previously kept in the dark for one hour, could only just distinguish the light emitted by the phosphorescent substance, taking care to test for illusions by the successive interposition of ground-glass screens. The time thus found was four hours, giving an amount of light of 29x 10~® standard candles at 1 m. If the eye is previously kept in the dark during varying periods, the mini- mum varies inversely as the square of the time during which it is kept dark.—On phosphorescent sulphide of zinc, considered as a photometric standard, by the same. Careful tests showed that the light emitted by zinc sulphide at a given instant is independent of the distance of the illuminating magnesium ribbon, of the time of illumination, and of the thickness of the layer, and is also uniform in samples prepared under different conditions, thus exhibiting all the requisites of a secondary photometric standard.—On an acid plato-nitrite of potassium, by M. M. Vézes.—Decomposition of chloroform in presence of iodine, by M. A. Besson.—On some ethers of homopyro- catechine, by M. H Cousin.—On the determination of phos- phorus in iron and steel, by M. Adolphe Carnot. The new method, based like most others on the employment of am- monium molybdate, differs from them in the mode of separation of the silicon, which is effected by sulphuric acid; in the process of destruction of the carbon compounds, brought about by chromic acid; and in the nature of the final compound, which is not magnesium pyrophosphate, but dry phospho- molybdate of ammonia, which only contains 1°628 per cent. of phosphorus, thus ensuring a greater accuracy in the quantita- tive estimation.—Losses of nitrogen in manure, by MM. A Muntz and A. Ch. Girard.—Researches on the localisation of the fatty oils in the germination of seeds, by M. Eugéne Mesnard. It appears that, except in the grasses, the fatty oil NO. 1213, VOL. 47 | NATURE [JANUARY 26, 1893 This was estimated by Aubert at s4;th of | is not specially localised. It is in all cases independent of the starch and the glucose, but it appears superposed upon the albuminoid materials in the reserves of ripe seeds. BERLIN. Physical Society, December 16, 1892.—Prof. Kundt, President, in the chair.—Dr. Lummer spoke on the _prin- ciples involved in the use of half-shade polarimeters. He showed that the difference in brightness of the two halves of the field of the instrument depends first on the angle between the two polarising prisms, the less this is the greater being the difference produced by a minimal rotation of the analyzer, and secondly on the power of perceiving minute differences of brightness. In connection with the latter he had: made some changes in the Lippich instrument which presented some distinct advantages. —Prof. Goldstein gave an account of some experiments made many years ago, but not yet published. He first dealt with the light which appears at the anode, and which, as compared with that of the kathode, has as yet been but little investigated. As is well known, a kathode consisting of two metals emits rays of different brightness from its two parts, thus for instance the aluminium emits brighter rays than does the silver. When this electrode is used as an anode, the reverse holds good, inasmuch as the anodic light of silver is brighter than that of aluminium. The difference is, however, only observed in rarefied oxygen, and does not exist in a hydrogen tube, and is hence due to oxidation of the silver. The second set of experiments dealt with Crookes’ supposed reciprocatory deflection of kathodic rays of similar direction. The speaker had shown, by shielding one of the electrodes, that the deflection is apparent, not real. The change in the path of the kathodic radiation is due entirely to the effect of the second electrode upon the rays emitted by the first. CONTENTS. PAGE Modern Advanced Analysis. By P, A.M. .... 289 The Darwinian Theory’... . 6.5.0 ss 5 see ee Ferns of South Africa, By J. G. Baker, F.R.S. . . 291 Our Book Shelf :— : Vogel: ‘* Newcomb-Engelmann’s Populaire Astro- nomie, Zweite vermehrte Auflage."—A. T. ... 291 Saunders : ‘‘ The Hemiptera Heteroptera of the British Islands,”-=W Li. Dice ok es Bi tee ee Treves : ‘*Physical Education”. ..... s+ + + 292 Letters to the Editor :— : The Geology of the North-West Highlands.—Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ..... +. 292 The Identity of Energy.—Prof. Oliver Lodge, fee a Drege Pe pte or oe rok eS A Proposed Handbook of the British Marine Fauna. : Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S.; W. Gar- stang. 2. 6 a ae £5203 Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate.—Chas, E. De BNCC) oo a ee ee a S| Racial Dwarfs in the Pyrenees. —-R, G. Haliburton ; Wm. McPherson... os eee British Earthworms.—Frank J. Cole . letras Wes eG Dante’s “ Questio de Aquaet Terra.” (With Diagrams.) By Edmund G: Gatdner. oe uc 6 a os ee 295 MOLpCCe oe eg eas ee ee Pee Fran 10). 3 The Rate of Explosionin Gases. Prof. Harold B. DI a ke te ee sarc > Cpe We: ee ae «tgp 209) DOG C eat re : jie cet BOO Our Astronomical Column :— Comet Holmes. . ib. a. 204, ka cet oer 303 Comet Brooks (November 19, 1892) {fis en etd. Photographic Absorption of our Atmosphere . . . . 304 Harvard:College:Observatory =...) i ahtee ae 304. Solar Observations at Rome . 0 2a Sipps og 6 aaa ae RR The Total Solar Eclipse, April 15-16, 1893 . . . . 304. GeographicalNotes....... ey: sity eee ee, The Approaching Eclipse of the Sun, April 16, 1893. M, Dé la Baume Pluvinei. . .°... 4.5. e ee 304 Memorial of Sir Richard Owen . ...... «0.6 she wgen SCiSOtUC OCTINIS, , s,s ee 9 es 309 Societies and Academies .-).. ..:...< «:« :eaee ee eee schools in the colony. - Nicholls’s manuscript, and after the publication of the ‘work in Jamaica it was adopted also as a text-book by en te eee a ee methods admirably adapted to the cold, _when too closely followed in the tropics. _ ical rains. NATURE 313 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 2, 1893. TROPICAL AGRICULTURE. A Text-book of Tropical Agriculture. By H. A. Alford Nicholls, M.D., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., with illustrations, PP. igs (London: Macmillan and Co., 1892.) AIS text-book is the English edition of a work that has already received high commendation from the Government of Jamaica. The Government of this now ‘prosperous colony, in pursuance of a policy (which may he well be followed by other colonies) offered a premium of one hundred pounds for the best text-book of Tropical Agr ulture adapted for the use of colleges and higher The award was made to Dr. the Government of other colonies, so that its value has been practically estimated beforehand. The author’s qualifications for the task he has undertaken may be gathered from the following :— “ Twelve years ago, when he had to direct his attention to tropical agriculture, there was no practical book that _he could turn to for help in all the difficulties that were ‘constantly cropping up in-his path. Knowing, therefore, _ the obstacles that usually beset the inexperienced planter who is not content to follow the old grooves of unscien- tific agriculture, the author has so written the second part __ of this book as to afford the information he needed greatly in his own planting novitiate. pater to enter into details, which to the experienced This has rendered it turist may appear superfluous, but the book is intended as a guide to the young and unlearned to bk such details are likely to be of essential service.” As an introduction to tropical agriculture this book supplies a want long felt. There are several works of a _ technical character treating of old and well-established industries such as sugar, tea, coffee, cacao. __ these, however, could be adopted as text-books in schools. Indeed they all presuppose such a close acquaintance with the principles and terminology of tropical agricul- _ ture that they appeal to a very limited class of readers. t Hitherto, tropical agriculture, to a large extent, has None of ‘owed most of its methods from the apiculture Py temperate climates and adapt them, as well as it could, to the very different circumstances of the torrid zone. The result has been by no means satisfactory. In tropical regions effects follow cause so rapidly that sluggish climates of northern countries are most injurious As instances we may cite the serious effects on climate following the extensive cutting down of forests, and the wholesale washing away of surface soil from land under per- manent cultivation by the destructive influences of trop- The merit of Dr. Nicholls’s book lies in the fact that its precepts are directly based on his own experience, and he appeals so effectively to the intelli- gence of his readers that they cannot fail to be instructed. The work is divided into two parts :—Part I. deals with the elementary principles of agricultural science and dis- cusses amongst other subjects the origin and composition of soils, the nature of plant life, the controlling influence NO. 1214, VOL. 47] of climate, the action and constituents of manures, the rotation of crops, the drainage of soils, irrigation, tillage operations, pruning, budding, and grafting. In Part II. there is treated the application of these principles to some of the chief of the various cultivations undertaken in tropi- cal countries. As examples we may mention that there _are detailed accounts given of the methods found most successful in the cultivation of coffee, cacao, tea, sugar- cane, fruits, spices, tobacco, drugs, dyes, tropical cereals, and such food plants as cassava, arrowroot, yams, sweet potato, tania (Colocasia). The book is intended also, according to the preface, to be of service to peasant proprietors, owners of small estates, and to those [European] settlers who from time to time may wish to make their homes in the tropics. It is just these people who are now building up the new prosperity of the West Indies by means of what are called “ minor industries” or /a fetite culture—which the French have found so remunerative in many of their colonies. To guide and instruct the mass of small culti- vators in the West Indies has been the dream of the most enlightened Governors, such as Sir John Peter Grant, Sir Anthony Musgrave, Sir William Robinson, and others that have ruled there for the last thirty years. The intelligent settlers of European origin can very well take care of themselves: but the mass of the small culti- vators are black people. They have, it is true, received some education, and they are not wanting in intelligence in regard to what concerns their own interests, but their methods of cultivation have, hitherto, been of the rudest and most destructive description. They crop the land year after year without any manuring, and when it is thoroughly exhausted they move on, when they can, to fresh land, and treat that in exactly the same way. Thus in the black man’s system of cultivation the rotation is of land, and not of crops, and the future has to take care of itself. This is a relic of the times of slavery, when the negroes were allowed as much land as they cared for—out of reach of sugar cultivation—to grow provisions for their own subsistence. It is now necessary to change the whole character of the black man’s cultural methods, or the rich and fertile lands still left in the West Indies will be absolutely ruined. Generally only the lowest class of negroes have hitherto been attracted to field work. The education given to these people is responsible for something of this result, for it leads them, in too many cases, to regard labour in the field as degrading, and almost a return to a state of slavery. The sharper and more intelligent boys, when they leave school, are drawn away to seek a precarious existence as clerks in stores or as small shopkeepers, where they seldom do more than copy the weaknesses and vices of the whites, while, according to our author, if they took to the land, and had a right understanding of agricultural methods, they “ need never despair of becoming prosperous.” In the more advanced colonies, such as Jamaica, there is a disposi- tion to establish industrial schools and train the younger generation in approved methods of cultivation, and lead them to regard the tillage of the soil as a more honourable and remunerative occupation than petty trading. We may hope that the claims of industrial education will become more widely recognized, not only in the West Indies but in all our tropical colonies where native races have to be dealt P 314 NATURE [FEBRUARY 2, 1893 with. In the meantime colleges and schools must prepare competent instructors for the work, and for both teacher and taught this book is an admirable starting-point. In it the whole field of small industries is well covered, and the language is clearly expressed and well chosen. As an example of the author’s treatment we find under manures (p. 49) :— “The land must be regarded by the planter asa bank in which he has opened an account. If he continually draw cheques on the bank, and make no fresh deposit to meet the drain, he will sooner or later come to the end of his capital, and the same argument applies to the soil. In cacao and coffee cultivation in the West Indies, particu- larly on lands of peasant proprietors, one often sees the planter take away crops year after year, whilst he does next to nothing to make up for the heavy drain on the land ; and then, after a time he finds he gets very small crops, and he thinks the fault lies with the trees, or that the soil is not adapted to the cultivation, whereas the fault is entirely his own, as he has gone on taking away from the soil without putting anything back.” Again, “ the great fault hitherto committed by tropical planters has been the confining of their attention to one kind of cul- tivation on their land. If several different crops were taken off alternately, as in a system of rotation, or grown in different parts of the land, where the soil and climate prove suitable, the planter would be in a much better position than he is now, for he. would not ‘have all his eggs in one basket.’” It is noticed that the valuable services rendered to colonial industries by Kew and by the various botanical in- stitutions in correspondence with Kew are fully recognised. Further, the dedication of this first Text-book of Tropical Agriculture to Sir Joseph Hooker is a compliment not only to his own distinguished services, but also to those of his father, for both in their day took the deepest in- terest in the West Indies. It must be gratifying to the late Director of Kew to learn “in the quiet of his retire- ment that the influence of his work lives on and bears fruit even in the far-away field ” of the West Indies. D. M. CELLS ;:' THEIR: STRUCTURE -AND FUNCTIONS. Die Zelle und Die Gewebe, Grundziige der allgemeinen Anatomie und Physiologie. Von Prof. Dr. Oscar Hertwig. (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1892.) EXT-BOOKS on Histology introduce the structure of the tissues to their readers by a chapter on cells, and the best treatises on Anatomy, either human or com- parative, usually devote some pages to the consideration of these, the most elementary of all the tissues. As so many important advances have been made of late years in our knowledge of the structure of cells and their con- tained nuclei, of the properties of protoplasm, of the division of nuclei and the part played by the nucleus in cell multiplication, and of the influence exercised by cells in the problems of hereditary transmission, the time has obviously arrived for the production of a treatise devoted to the description of the cell in its various aspects, obser- vational as well as speculative. No better expositor of the subject in all its bearings could be found than Prof. Oscar Hertwig, who has himself conducted important investigations on this branch of anatomy. The book now NO. 1214, VOL. 47| before us treats of the general anatomy and physiology of cells, and is to be followed by a second volume, in which the origin and physiological properties of the tissues are to be expounded, as well as their structure. re After a sketch of the history of the cell theory and of the theory of protoplasm, in which, as is too often the case in German text-books, the names of British ob- servers and authors are conspicuous by their absence, he defines a cell to be a little clump of protoplasm which incloses a specially-fotmed constituent, the nucleus ; a definition which accords with those previously made by Leydig and Max Schultze. He then describes at con- siderable length the characters of protoplasm, both ana- tomical and physiological, and the chemico-physical and morphological properties of the nucleus. In a short section he discusses the question, Do elementary or- ganisms exist without nuclei? ze. Can you have little clumps of non-nucleated protoplasm pursuing an inde- pendent life? As is well known, Haeckel described organisms of this simple character, as cytodes, and gave Monera as an example; but Hertwig is disposed to think that such non-nucleated organisms have not been definitely demonstrated in the animal kingdom, and he quotes Biitschli’s observations, which seem to. show that even in such micro-organisms as Bacteria a differentiation of a nucleus from surrounding protoplasm can be distinguished. | Two important chapters are written on the movements of protoplasm, of cilia, of flagella, of spermatozoa, on contractile vesicles, and on the irritability of protoplasm under the stimulus of heat, light, electricity and several kinds of mechanical and chemical irritants. The fifth chapter is devoted to the consideration of the nutritive changes and formative activity in cells, Illustrations are given of the power possessed by certain unicellular organisms of taking into their substance and digesting solid bodies of various kinds, and an account is appended of the important observations of Metschnikoff on phagocytosis. F Chapters six and seven are occupied with a description of the multiplication of cells, their mode of division, and the method of fertilization. The process of karyokinesis is described at some length and in its various phases, in clear and precise language, and with an amount of illustration which enables the reader to follow without difficulty this complicated process. The influence exercised by the nucleus, and the part which it plays in the process of cell multiplication, has now been put by the labours of many investigators on a basisof observation, both as regards plants and animals, such as cannot be controverted, and the accuracy of the generalization made half a century ago, both by Martin Barry and John Goodsir, that young cells originate through division of the nucleus of a parent cell, has been amply established. Dr..Hertwig also recites observations which seem to show that the nucleus does more than act as a repro- ductive centre within the cell, but also takes a part in cell nutrition. This function of the nucleus was also contended for by Goodsir, but during the period when protoplasm was regarded as the essential element in nutrition or secretion, the claim of the nucleus to take any share in this phase of cell activity was summarily put aside. Recent observations have, however, shown that FEBRUARY 2, 1893) NATURE 315 ¢clumps of protoplasm, removed from either a unicellular 4 _ plant or animal, in which no nucleus is present, although _ capable of living, and retaining their irritability and power of movement for some time, yet neither grow, nor form a cell membrane, nor have the same power of digesting bodies introduced into their substance, as is possessed by a clump of protoplasm which has retained the nucleus. The nutritive activity of the protoplasm would appear, therefore, to be under the influence of the nucleus. The volume concludes with a chapter on the cell in its relation to theories of heredity. The author, as is now the prevailing opinion amongst biologists, contends that the nucleus is the conveyer of hereditary properties, and that the offspring is a mixed product of both its parents, derived from the ovum and the sperm cell. In the course of this chapter he discusses the views of Darwin, Spencer, Nageli, Weismann, and De Vries, and suggests the em- ployment of the term “Idioblasts” for the minute elementary particles, which Darwin called “ gemmules” in his hypothesis of pangenesis, and which he conceived to be capable of transmitting hereditary characters to succeeding generations. «THEORETICAL MECHANICS. Elementary Mechanics of Solids and Fluids. By A. L. Selby, M.A. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1893.) -_* a period when we are bound to recognize the 4 influence exerted by the examinations of the various educational institutions and of those controlled by other more or less influential examining bodies, we may be excused, on the arrival of a new work, for stating whether or not, and to what extent, it is adapted to their requirements. The book before us does not appear to have been intentionally written for examination purposes, and perhaps on this account it will be all the more wel- come. Its purpose, however, is very distinct. It is intended for those students who are desirous of reading mechanics as an introduction to a study of physics. So far, therefore, as its suitability for examinations is con- cerned, we can heartily recommend it to those who wish to qualify in this particular branch of science, while at the same time it will be read with great benefit by that class of students who desire a thorough knowledge of the portions generally included under the head of Theoretical Mechanics. In the study of such subjects as the book treats of, the amount of knowledge which the reader may have of - mathematics will, to a considerable extent, be a measure of his success. The author expresses a hope that an acquaintance with the elements of algebra and geometry will suffice ; but, while not wishing to reduce the useful- ness of the book, but rather to direct it into proper hands in which it will be read with greater advantage, we think it would be nearer the mark to say that a thorough know- ledge of elementary algebra and a considerable acquaint- ance with elementary trigonometry are necessary. Certainly the definitions of the trigonometrical ratios will be found in an appendix, but it will be far better if the _ (student has lived with and used these for some time. Possessing these requirements, he will appreciate and even admire the broad, yet concise nature NO. 1214, VOL. 47} of the treatment generally; and with regard to this matter we may say that we are unacquainted with any elementary text-book better calculated to create a desire for precise and full ideas. That this is requisite for a study of physics perhaps more than any other subject, no one will deny. The first chapter of the book is occupied with a con- sideration of Kinematics, and in it will be found a careful exposition of the displacement, velocity, and acceleration to which a body may be subjected, due attention being: drawn to what is necessary for a full representation of them. The appendix following this contains some geometrical theorems and definitions for subsequent use. Then follow the usual chapters on the laws of motion, work, and energy, centre of gravity, moments of inertia, and simple machines. A chapter on gravitation will be read with interest, preceded as it is by an explanation of some of the geometrical properties of the ellipse. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are dealt with, in addition to other relevant matters which do not usually find their way into elementary text-books. The subject of elasticity also receives a somewhat more extensive treatment than is usually given toit. The various kinds of stress and strain which a body may undergo are explained, together with the relation between stress and strain. At the end of the book we find what is included under the second head of the title. The various principles and laws which refer to fluids, and some of the machines and instruments which depend on them for their action, are enumerated and explained, while the interesting sub- ject of capillarity has a separate chapter devoted to it. To an appreciative reader it is a source of satisfaction to observe the care the author has exercised when deal- ing with the important matter of definitions and units— fundamental and derived. A chapter on units and their’ dimensions is furnished at the end. A good selection of examples, bearing on the matter treated therein, will be found at the close of the chapters. Many portions of the book are characterized by a decided freshness of treatment, and we have little doubt that the careful reader will find many little points which are satisfying, in that they tend to widen the somewhat restricted views he may have previously held, and these will be all the more apparent should his mind be of a mathematical turn. G, A. B. OUR BOOK SHELF. Magnetism and Electricity. By R. W. Stewart. (London : W. B. Clive and Co.) THE book forms one of the University Correspondence College Tutorial Series, and is ‘‘ primarily written for the use of candidates for the Matriculation, Intermediate Science, and Preliminary Scientific Examinations of the University of London.” The author is evidently familiar with the difficulties which usually occur to students, and the best portions of the book are those in which efforts are made to elucidate some of the more general errors. The descriptions of apparatus and phenomena are, how- ever, generally rather short and meagre, while the dia- grams are frequently inadequate for a work of this sort. Little is written to help the beginner to perform experi- ments for himself ; in fact, descriptions of many important instruments are omitted—for example, the Wheatstone 316 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 Bridge—and to students having no access to a laboratory little satisfaction will be given when told : “The details of the construction and practical use of the different forms of Wheatstone’s Bridge used in the measurement of resistance are best learnt in the laboratory, and for this reason we shall not give any further description of the arrangement.” In many instances the student is driven through a mass of theory before he has a fair idea of the general phenomena; thus in the introductory chapter on “ Cur- rent Electricity,” after a six-line description of a simple cell and current, over two pages are occupied in proving that the effects produced could be explained by the dis- sociation and procession of the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The work is. generally remarkably free from errors and misprints, but one occurs in the explanation just mentioned. The attraction of zinc for oxygen is said to be much greater than that of the copper, while later the zinc is also considered “to repel hydrogen /ess.” Here, and in many other instances, the words to be em- phasised are printed in italics. Another mistake will be found on pp. 168 and 169, where in comparing, by the method of oscillations, the field due to a magnet with that 2 of the earth, the author starts with the equation pees I n* 2 r pels and reasoning correctly from this false hypothesis, he deduces false results, while the answer to Ex. 8 on this part of the subject appears incor- rect. Fig. 13, p. 201, in illustration of Oerstedt’s experi- ment, is not correctly drawn. The arrangement of “calculations” and examples at the end of each chapter must prove extremely useful to students possessing beforehand an elementary knowledge of the general phenomena, and to such, rather than to the very beginner, the book may be commended. Sa 24 | Manners and Monuments of Prehistoric Peoples. By the Marquis de Nadaillac. Translated by Nancy Bell (N. D’Anvers). (New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1892.) A BOOK summing up in a popular style all that is now known with regard to prehistoric man would probably be welcomed by a tolerably large class of readers. The present work does not quite supply the kind of summary that is wanted. The author does not distinguish with sufficient clearness between the various periods with which he deals ; he indulges too freely in talk of a vaguely moralising tendency ; and some of his statements do not accord with the conclusions of the best authorities. Speak- ing of the Round Towers of Ireland, for instance, he says, “ According to the point of view of different archzologists, they have been called temples of the sun, hermitages, phallic monuments, or signal towers.” The reader is thus left to suppose that the question is still open, whereas all competent students of the subject accept the theory of the late Mr. Petrie, a theory which the Marquis de Nadaillac does not even mention. However, the author has presented a large number of interesting facts in the course of his exposition, and there are occasional passages in which he brings out very well the, attractive elements of some of the more fascinating departments of archzology. instead of LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake zo return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications, | Two Statements. In a letter addressed to the Datly Chronicle, dated January 25, 1893, Prof. Karl Pearson makes two statements respecting my opinions and grounds of action : NO. 1214, VOL. 47] ‘* As in society at large, so in academic matters, his mode of insuring progress is unlimited individual competition,” ~ and again : ‘he is an individualist in all matters.’ Seeing that in an essay ‘‘On Administrative Nihilism,” pub- lished twenty-two years ago; and in another on ‘‘ Government : Anarchy or Regimentation,” published in 1890, Ihave done m best to combat the doctrine Prof. Pearson attributes to me, I shall be glad to know what justification he has to offer for so grave a misrepresentation. The purpose of it is obvious. ae} T, H, Huxwey. Hodeslea, Eastbourne, January 29. A Meteor, THE following is taken from the Pretoria Weekly Press for January 7: ‘‘ A few evenings ago a meteor of unusual size and brilliancy was observed at Bloemfontein shooting right across the eastern sky. It looked like a rocket of a greenish colour, and burst in a shower of sparks in the south-east. The spec- tacle was much admired by those who were fortunate enough to witness it.” This meteor, as seen in South Africa, appears to have had many points in common with a similar one seen in England about the same time, and reported by several observers in the daily Press. W. L. DISTANT. Purley, Surrey, January 31. e3 ‘* Hare-lip” in Earthworms. ATYENTION has recently been drawn by Prof. Andrews (American Naturalist, September, 1892) and myself (Sczence Gossi~, 1892) to some abnormal conditions of life among the terrestrial annelids. I have now to place on record a: totally new appearance, which is, I think, very aptly expressed by the term ‘‘hare-lip.” The worm which I have had under exam- ination presented the peculiarity figured below, and when alive and in motion suggested to my mind most forcibly the appear- ance which we associate with the name I have adopted. _ The specimen in question belongs to the genus Allolobophora, in which genus, so far as my experience goes, almost all the abnormalities are found. The genus Lumbricus, it should be observed, is very seldom, if ever, known to present any of these peculiarities. Hitherto the Long worm (4. /onga, Ude) Diagram of the anterior portion of green-worm (A Jlolobophora chilorotica. Savigny), showing abnormal appearance of lip (47), peristomium ( fer), and three succeeding segments, seen from above, and enlarged. has been most prolific of bifurcated heads and tails, Now we find the Green worm (4. chlorotica, Savigny) yielding new features for study. The peculiarities which have presented themselves in former times have usually taken the form of a second head or a supernumerary tail. In this instance there is no off-growth, however, but merely a malformation of the ~ anterior segments. One might have supposed that the pecu- — liarity was due to accidental causes. It would have been easy to suppose that the head had been split, and then the wound had healed, leaving a seam down the middle. I observed, however, that each of the three specimens of the Green worm - which I received from Cork (Ireland) showed some abnormal — feature, and there were other peculiarities in this particular specimen which indicated that we had to deal with a congenital rather than an accidental condition of things. - me ES, SEY lala at nid et, = id a al . . eed ‘ “e ” 3 capes involved in such appearances. FEBRUARY 2, 1893] NATURE 317 = As this is the first occasion on which such a peculiarity has been recorded or figured, I prefer to leave all speculation as to _ the cause out of the question. We need a good deal more _ research before we can deal satisfactorily with the biological ; As a help towards is, I bring together here a list of all those works which have come under my own and Prof. Andrews’s notice, in which abnormalities in annelids are recorded :— 1. Andrews: ‘‘Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.,” vol. xiv., p. 283, 1991. | (ay E- Andrews: “‘ Amer. Nat.,” vol. xxvi., p. 725, 1892. 3. Bell: ‘‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,” vol. xvi., p. 475, 1885. 4. Bell: ‘‘ Proc. Zool. Soc., Lond.,”’ 1887, p. 3. 5. Bonnet: ‘‘Euvres d’Hist. Nat. et de Phil.,” vol. i., _ 167 seq. 1779. i ] fess: West Kent Nat. Hist. Soc., 1871. _ 7. Broome: “Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc.” Glasgow, 1888, Pp. ( ¥ a m w: “Archiv. f. Naturg,” vol. xlix., 1883. 9. Brunette: ‘‘Travaux de la Sta. Zool. de Cette,” p. 8, at Horst : ‘‘ Tydsch. ned. Dierk. Veren,” 2nd ser., D.I., Af. i., p. xxxii, 1882. 16. L aus: ‘‘ Nov. Act., K.L.C.D. Acad.,” vol. xiii., . 102, 1879. eh Marsh: ‘‘ Amer. Nat.,” vol. xxiv., p. 373, 1890. 18. Macintosh: ‘‘ Challenger Reports,” vol. xii., 1885. ie) | _ Robertson : “Quart. J. Mic. Soc.,” vol. xv., p. 157, Roy. Coll. Surgeois, . Catalogue Terat. Spec. in Mus. mm; tey2. HILDERIC FRIEND. Mon, 1872. Pie The Zero Point of Dr. Joule’s Thermometer. In the course of a discussion on ‘‘ Exact Thermometry ” I described (NATURE, vol. xli. p. 488) the results obtained by heating thermometers for a considerable time to 280° and 356° ; and pointed out by means of a diagram that at 356°, after about ten hours, the rise of the zero point became—at any rate approxi- pia rectilinear function of the logarithm of the time; at 280°, even after more than 300 hours’ heating, the d to be rather more rapid than would correspond to such a simple relation. _ Dr. Joule observed the rise of the zero point of a thermo- meter at the ordinary temperature during a course of no less than thirty-eight years (‘‘ Scientific Papers,’ vol. i. p. §58), and it occurred to me that it would be of interest to ascertain the rela- tion to the logarithm of the time in this case also. The following table contains the dates of Dr. Joule’s observa- tions ; the total number of months from the date when the first reading was taken ; the corresponding logarithms ; the total rise of the zero point in scale divisions (13 divisions to 1° F.) ; the total rise calculated from the formula R = 6°5 log. ¢ — 4°12, where 7 is the time in months; and lastly the differences between the observed and calculated zero points. Total rise of zero pointin scale Dun a Of ze ‘ Months. 08: ¢ Observed. Cnleulated. A April1844 .. O.. — .. O .. — -- ri, 22... Tae. 6. 4’ 3s SO” Jan. 1848 ae cere es si. OO”. 6 April 1348 QO na POOR OG 6B 0... Or Feb. 1853 106 ... 27025 ... 88 ... g'o ... +0°2 April 1856 oy EAA es BISSH Org Org. ... +0°4 Dec. 1860 - 200 ... 2°30% ... IPE ... 103... —0'8 March 1867 B75 >-s- 31990; s:8OR: ie E17. -O'1 Feb. 1870 SB BAOP ee ADT § 6 897L-.... 0 Feb. 1873 346 ... 2°539 ... 12°5 124 ... -O'! an. 1877 908.25; 2 50a. oe Rae 12°74 ... +0°03 ov. 1879 427 —<.. °2°620' ;;, °32°92 12°98 ... +0'06 Dec, 1882 464 ... 2°667 ... 13°26 ... 13°22... —0'04 NO, 1214, VOL. 47 The agreement between the observed and calculated values is certainly remarkable, and the + and — differences are evenly distributed. Ten years have now elapsed since the last reading was taken, and if the thermometer is still in existence it would be of great interest to know what further rise has taken place in its zero point. According to: the equation the reading should now be 13 86. SYDNEY YOUNG University College, Bristol, January 20. 2 ae Zeppelin: “Zeit. f. Wiss. Zool.,” vol, xxxix., p. 615 [ seq, 1883. : THE APPROACHING SOLAR ECLIPSE, APRIL 15-16, 1893. pate total solar eclipse of April 15-16, 1893, is not only one of the longest of the century, but is the last of the century from which we are likely to get any addition to our knowledge of Solar Physics. The longest duration of totality of this eclipse is 4 minutes 46 seconds, and as the path of the moon’s shadow lies to a great extent on land, there is a considerable choice of possible stations with long durations of totality. Commencing in the Southern Pacific the line of totality passes in a north-easterly direction and enters Chili at Charafiah in 29° southern latitude, crosses the South American continent, and issues at Para Cura, a village near Ceara, at the north-east corner of Brazil, in latitude 3° 40’ south. It crosses the Atlantic at its narrowest part and enters Africa at Point Palmerin, near Joal, almost midway between Bathurst and Dakar, and in latitude 14° north ; the shadow finally leaving the earth in the interior of Northern Africa. The eclipse will be observed by several parties of astronomers in Chili, Brazil, and Africa, there being almost absolute certainty of fine weather in Chili. and Africa, and a reasonable probability in Brazil. _ The English arrangements to observe the eclipse have been made by a joint committee of the Royal Society, the Royal Astronomical Society, and the Solar Physics Committee of the Science and Art Department, South Kensington ; Dr. A. A. Common, LL.D., F.R.S., under- taking the duties of Secretary. Two expeditions will be sent from England, one to Africa and the other to Brazil, the expenses being defrayed by a grant of £600 from the Royal Society. z The African expedition will be in charge of Prof. T. E. Thorpe, and will consist of Prof. Thorpe, Mr. A. Fowler, Mr. Gray, and Sergeant J. Kearney, R.E. , The Brazilian expedition will be in charge of Mr. A. Taylors who will have with him Mr. W. Shackleton. Prof. Thorpe and his party will leave Liverpool by the British and African mail steamer on March 18th, arriving at Bathurst on April znd. They will be met at Bathurst by a gunboat kindly placed at the disposal of the expedition by the Admiralty, and will be conveyed at once to Fundium, a station on the Salum River, about sixty miles from Bathurst ; this being the station selected by the Committee from the three which were offered by the French Government. The gunboat will remain with the expedition, and the officers and crew will assist in the preparations for and in the actual observations of the eclipse. After the eclipse the party will be taken to Bathurst on the gunboat, and will return to England, by a British and African mail steamer, if one is available. From the time-tables of the steamers now published it appears, however, that there will not be any mail steamer available until the end of April, and in this case a cruiser will meet the party at Bathurst and bring them to the Canary Islands or to Gibraltar, from either of which places they will be able to return by mail steamer, arriving in England early in May. The members of the expedition to Brazil will leave Southampton by the Royal Mail steamer on February 23 for Pernambuco, arriving at the latter place on March 12. They will take passage by the local mail steamers to Ceara, at which place they will arrive about March 20. 3138 NALURE | FEBRUARY 2, 1893 The Brazilian Government are willing to place a war vessel at the disposal of the foreign expeditions to observe the eclipse, and it is hoped the English observers will be able to avail themselves of the privilege thus gracefully offered. The station selected is at Para Cura, on the coast about forty miles west of Ceara, and the party will rely upon obtaining any necessary help from the Brazilian authorities and from local assistants. The observers will return from Pernambuco by the Royal Mail steamer due to leave there on April 22, and expect to be in England on May 5. The objects of the expeditions are— (1) To obtain visual photometric measures of the light of the corona. (2) To obtain photographs of the corona with the four- inch lenses of a little over sixty inches focus belonging to Captain Abney, which were successfully used in Egypt (1882), Caroline Island (1883), Granada (1836),and Salut Isles (1889), in order to continue the series. (3) To obtain enlarged photographs of the corona with small photographic action, so as to show details of the structure of the brightest parts, ze. those nearest the sun. (4) To measure the photographic intensity of the light of the corona, by direct comparison with standard intensity scales placed on the margins of the plates used for the negatives to be obtained under sections 2 and 3. (5) To obtain photographs of the spectrum of the corona. These spectra will be obtained on three dif- ferent plans :— (2) With integrating spectroscopes, where no colli- mator is used and the prism or prisms are placed directly in front of the object glass of the photographic camera. (4) With ordinary slit spectroscopes, the slit being arranged as a radius of the sun. (c) With ordinary slit spectroscopes, the slit being arranged as a tangent to the sun’s limb. The first of these objects will be attempted only at the African station ; Prof. Thorpe and his assistant, Mr. Gray, making the observations. Their equipment will consist of a six-inch Simms equatorial of seventy-eight inches focus (lent from Greenwich) fitted with special photometric ap- paratus lent by Captain Abney. The observations will be made on essentially the same plan as that pursued by Prof. Thorpe at Hog Island, near Granada, in 1886, separate portions of the corona being compared with a standard glow lamp by means of a Bunsen photometer. An inte- grating box for measuring the total coronal light with as little light from the sky as possible, and an ordinary Bunsen’s bar photometer will also be used, these being entrusted to officers of the gunboat. : As regards objects 2, 3, and 4, duplicate apparatus has been arranged for use at the two stations. photoheliograph mounting from Greenwich has been lent for Brazil, and an exactly similar instrument from South Kensington for Africa. On each of these mountings a specially designed new double tube will be fixed. An Abney lens will be mounted in one compart- ment of each of these tubes, and this, with a focal length of sixty inches, will give pictures on the scale of rather more than half an inch to the moon’s diameter. In the other compartment a four-inch Dallmeyer photohelio- graph lens will be mounted in combination with a specially-constructed two-and-a-half-inch Dallmeyer negative lens of eight inches negative focus ; this arrange- ment giving, with a total length of sixty-eight inches, pictures on the scale of over one-and-a-half inches to the moon’s diameter. This latter arrangement is essentially ’ the same as that of Dallmeyer’s new telephotographic lens. It will be so arranged that the ratio between the photographic effect of the Abney lens and the new com- bination will be as 10: 1. Special plate holders have been made to fit the double tubes, each of these plate holders carrying two plates, “ NO. 1214, VOL. 47] which will be exposed simultaneously to the images formed by the Abney lens and the enlarging combination. The six separate exposures, giving twelve photographs, will be so arranged that the longest exposed pictures with the enlarging combination will have received the same photographic action as the shortest exposed pictures with the Abney lens. The whole of the pictures will thus form a continuous series, all the short exposures in the series having a direct enlargement of three diameters. — In Brazil Mr. Taylor will take charge of this double instrument, and in Africa the similar instrument will be entrusted to Sergeant Kearney. On the night before the eclipse intensity scales for object 4 will be impressed by the use of standard lights and specially-constructed scales. kindly supplied by Captain Abney on all the plates to be exposed to the corona. The plates will be developed at the stations as soon as convenient after the eclipse, experience on previous occasions, both by English and. American observers, having shown that it is impossible to repack undeveloped plates after exposure in the tropics, and bring them home without serious deterioration. ah Similar spectroscopic work is to be carried out at the two stations. For the integrating spectroscope in Africa Mr. Fowler will use a six-inch objective prism with a six- inch photographic lens of about nine-feet focus, mounted on an equatorial stand, belonging to Prof. J. Norman Lockyer, and kindly lent for the expedition. At the Brazilian station Mr. Shackleton will use two three-inch prisms in front of athree-inch photographic lens of about two-feet focus ; the spectroscope, which belongs to South Kensing- ton, being arranged horizontally and used witha ten-inch heliostat, also lent by the Science and Art Department. Very short exposures will be given at each station at the commencement and end of totality, so as to obtain, if . possible, the very numerous bright lines which have been observed in the chromosphere ; and exposures of from 5 to 45 seconds will be given during totality. In Africa the radial and tangential slit spectroscopes will be mounted together on the Corbett equatorial stand lent from Greenwich, the spectroscopes used belonging to the Royal Society. Mr. Fowler and Sergeant Kearney will erect and adjust these instru- ments, but the actual exposure, which will extend through the whole of totality, will be made by an officer of the gunboat who will be placed in charge of the instrument. In Brazil the radial and tangential slit spectroscopes will be mounted horizontally and used with a second ten-inch heliostat lent by the Science and Art Department. The erection and adjustment will be made by the observers, but the actual exposure during totality will be entrusted to a local assistant. Orthochromatic plates will be used for all the spectroscopic work, the spectra obtained extending from above D into the ultra-violet. Briefly summarised, the English programme is as follows :— : In Africa :—Prof. T. E. Thorpe, assisted by Mr, Gray and. local assistance—Photometric measures of the visual intensity of the corona with the equatorial photo- meter, the integrating photometer, and the bar photo- meter; Mr. Fowler—The six-inch integrating spectro- scope; Sergeant Kearney—the Abney and Dallmeyer coronographs ; local assistance—the radial and tangen- tial slit spectroscopes. In Brazil:—Mr. Taylor, the Abney and Dallmeyer | coronographs; Mr. Shackleton, the three-inch two-prism integrating spectroscope ; local assistance, the radial and tangential slit spectroscopes. It isnot yet decided whether one of the 20-inch mirrors of 45-inches focus specially constructed to photograph the faint extensions of the corona during the eclipse of 1889 (December 21-22) will be taken to Africa. If so it will be entrusted to a local assistant. It was originally intended to use one of these in Africa, and it was hoped that one would be used by the Harvard College FEBRUARY 2, 1893 | NATURE 319 “Observatory party, which is to occupy a station in Chili, Prof. W. H. Pickering writes that difficulties of ‘transport will prevent him from taking the 20-inch mirror he has at Arequipa to the Harvard station ; and owing to this and to the already large programme of the English ty in Africa there is some doubt whether they will take one of the mirrors. April being the middle of the _ rainy season in Brazil, it is not deemed advisable to send _ one of the mirrors to that station. _ The duration of totality at Para Cura is four minutes = forty-four seconds, the altitude of the sun being between _ 70 and 80°. At Fundium the totality lasts four minutes t seconds, the altitude of the sun being about 54°. "he Joint Eclipse Committee having arranged the peditions and the general scheme of work, final details © the actual operations have been left to a sub-com- e consisting of the Astronomer Royal, Captain ney, Mr. H. H. Turner, Prof. Thorpe, Mr. A.Taylor, and € secretary, Dr. Common. Prof. Lockyer, previous to Weaving England for Egypt, determined the exposures _ to be given by Messrs. Fowler and Shackleton with the _ integrating spectroscopes. These, with the final instruc- _ tions to observers drafted by the sub-committee, will be ubhi in due course. _ At present very few details are available as to the actual work to be undertaken by foreign observers. The Harvard College Observatory expedition to Chili has already been mentioned. Prof. Schaeberle, of the Lick “Observatory, has already started for Chili, and will use a six-and-a-half-inch equatorial, a five-inch horizontal ‘photoheliograph of forty-feet focus, and a Dallmeyer portrait lens. He will be assisted by Mr. Gale, an amateur, from Paddington, N.S.W. A Chilian party will _ also observe the eclipse in Chili. At Para Cura there will probably be two or three Americar Bory one being announced as probably under -rof. H. S. Pritchett, from Washington University, St. ouis, and another will probably be brought to that tation by Prof. David P. Todd. A Brazilian party will observe. The Bureau des Longitudes, Paris, are jing a complete expedition to Joal, in Africa, under MM. Deslandres and Bigourdan, the latter observer ___ having already started for his station. The work under- taken will be to obtain photographs of the corona and of ___ its spectrum. M. de la Baume Pluvinel will also go to pf oy Fe the corona, At present we have not q ard of any Italian expedition, but it is hoped that Prof. 2 Tacchini will be able to arrange to observe the eclipse. ‘Raps A. TAYLOR. MEASURE OF THE IMAGINATION: Mier first perceptible sensation is seldom due to a _ solitary stimulus. Internal causes of stimulation are in continual activity, whose effects are usually too faint to be perceived by themselves, but they may combine with minute external stimuli,and so produce a sensation which neither of them could have done singly. -I desire now to draw attention to another concurring cause which has hitherto been unduly overlooked, or only partially allowed for under the titles of expectation and attention. I mean the Imagination, believing that it should be frankly recognised as a frequent factor in the oration of a just perceptible sensation. Let us reflect a moment on the frequency with which the im- agination produces effects that actually overpass the threshold of consciousness, and give rise to what is indis- tinguishable from, and mistaken. for a real sensation. Every one has observed instances of it in his own person * Extract from a lecture on “‘ The Just-Perceptible Difference,” delivered before the Royal Institution, on Friday, January 27, by Francis Galton, F.R.S. We hope to give next week an extract on ‘‘ Optical Continuity.” NO. 1214, VOL. 47] and in those of others. Illustrations are almost needless ; I may, however, mention one as a reminder ; it was cur- rent in my boyhood, and the incident probably took place not many yards from where I now stand. Sir Humphrey Davy had recently discovered the metal potassium, and showed specimens of it to the greedy gaze of a philoso- phical friend as it lay immersed in a dish of alcohol to shield it from the air, explaining its chemical claim to be considered a metal. All the known metals at that time were of such high specific gravity that weight was com- monly considered to be a peculiar characteristic of metals ; potassium, however, is lighter than water. The philoso- pher not being aware of this, but convinced as to its metallic nature by the reasoning of Sir Humphrey, fished a piece out of the alcohol, and, weighing it a while be- tween his finger and thumb, said seriously, as in further confirmation, “ How heavy it is !” In childhood the imagination is peculiarly vivid and notoriously leads to mistakes, but the discipline of after life is steadily directed to checking its vagaries and to establishing a clear distinction between fancy and fact. Nevertheless, the force of the imagination may endure with extraordinary power and be cherished by persons of poetic temperament, on which point the experiences of our two latest Poet-Laureats, Wordsworth and Tenny- son, is extremely instructive. Wordsworth’s famous “ Ode to Immortality ” contains three lines which long puzzled his readers. They occur after his grand de- scription of the glorious imagery of childhood, and the “perpetual benediction” of its memories, when he suddenly breaks off into-- ‘* Not for these I raise The song of thanks and praise, But for those obstinate questionings Of sense and outward things, Fallings, from us, vanishings,” &c. Why, it was asked, should any sane person be “ ob- stinately” disposed to question the testimony of his senses, and be peculiarly thankful that he had the power to do so? What was meant by the “ fallings off and vanishings,” for which he raises his “ song of thanks and praise”? The explanation is now to be found in a note by Wordsworth himself, prefixed to the ode in Knight’s edition. Wordsworth there writes— “I was often unable. to think of external things as having external existence, and I communed with all I saw as something not apart from, but inherent in, my own immaterial nature, Many times while going to school have I grasped at a wall or tree to recal myself from this abyss of idealism to the reality. At that time I was afraid of. such processes. In later times I have deplored, as we all have reason to do, a subjugation of an opposite character, and have rejoiced over the remem- brances, as is expressed in the lines ‘ Obstinate question- ings,’ &c.” He then gives those I have just quoted. It isa remarkable coincidence that a closely similar idea is found in the verses of the successor of Words- worth, namely, the great poet whose recent loss is mourned rt all English-speaking nations, and that a closely similar explanation exists with respect to them. For in Lord Tennyson’s “ Holy Grail” the aged Sir Percivale, then a monk, recounts to a brother monk the following words of King Arthur :— ‘* Let visions of the night or of the day Come, as they will ; and many a time they come Until this earth he walks on seems not earth, This light that strikes his eyeball is not light, The air that smites his forehead is not air, But vision,” &c. Sir Percivale concludes just as Wordsworth’s admirers formerly had done: ‘‘I knew not all he meant.” Now, in the Vineteenth Century of the present month * Knight's edition of Wordsworth, vol. iv. p. 47. * 320 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 Mr. Knowles, in his article entitled ‘“ Aspects of Tenny- son,” mentions a- conversational incident curiously parallel to Wordsworth’s own remarks about himself :— “He [Tennyson] said to me one day, ‘ Sometimes as I sit alone in this great room I get carried away, out of sense and body, and rapt into mere existence, till the accidental touch or movement of one of my own. fingers is like a great shock and blow, and brings the body back with a terrible start.” Considering how often the imagination is sufficiently intense to stimulate a real sensation, a vastly greater number of cases must exist in which it excites the physio- logical centres in too feeble a degree for their response to reach to the level of consciousness. So that if the imagina- tion has been anyhow set into motion, it shall as a rule originate what may be termed zzcomp/lete sensations, and whenever one of these concurs with a real sensation of the same kind, it would swell its volume. This supposition admits of being submitted to experi- ment by comparing tthe amount of stimulus required to produce a just perceptible sensation, under the two condi- tions of the imagination being either excited or passive. Several conditions have to be observed in designing ' suitable experiments. The imagined sensation and the real sensation must be of the same quality ; an expected scream and an actual groan could not reinforce one another. Again, the place where the image is localised in the theatre of the imagination must be the same as it is in the real sensation, This condition requires to be more carefully attended to in respect to the visual imagination than to that of the other senses, because the theatre of the visual imagination is described by most persons, though not by all, as internal, whereas the theatre of actual vision is external. The im- portant part played by points of reference in visual illusions is to be explained by the aid they afford in compelling the imaginary figures to externalise them- selves, superimposing them on fragments of a reality. The visualisation and the actual vision fuse together in some parts, and supplement each other elsewhere. The theatre of audition is by no means so purely external as that of sight. Certain persuasive tones of voice sink deeply, as it were, into the mind, and even simulate our own original sentiments. The power of localising external sounds, which is almost absent in those who are deaf with one ear, is very imperfect generally, otherwise the illusions of the ventriloquist would be impossible. There was an account in the newspapers a few weeks ago of an Austrian lady of rank who purchased a parrot at a high price, as being able to repeat the Paternoster in seven different languages. She took the bird home, but it was mute. At last it was discovered that the apparent performances of the parrot had been due to the ventriloquism of the dealer. An analogous trick upon the sight could not be performed by a con- juror. Thus he could never make his audience believe that the floor of the room was the ceiling. As regards the other senses the theatre of the imagination coincides fairly well with that of the sensations. It is so with taste and smell, also with touch, in so far that an imagined impression or pain is always located in some particular part of the body, then if it be localised in the same place as a real pain, it must coalesce with it. Finally,it is of high importance to success in experiments on Imagination that the object and its associated imagery should be so habitually connected that a critical attitude of the mind shall not easily separate them. Suppose an apparatus arranged to associate the waxing and waning of a light with the rising and falling of a sound, holding means in reserve for privately modifying the illumination at the will of the experimenter, in order that the waxing and waning may be lessened, abolished, or even reversed. It is quite possible that a person who had no idea of the purport of the experiment might be deceived, and beled NO. 1214, VOL. 47] : by his imagination to declare that the light still waxed and waned in unison with the sound after its ups and downs had been reduced to zero. But if the subject of the experiment suspected its object he would be thrown. into a critical mood; his mind would stiffen itself, as it were, and he will be difficult to deceive. Having made these preliminary remarks, I will mention one only of some experiments I have made and am making from time to time, to measure the force of my own imagination. It happens that although most persons train themselves from childhood upwards to distinguish imagination from fact, there is at least one instance in which we do the exact reverse, namely, in respect to the auditory presentation of the words that are perused by the eye. It would be otherwise.impossible to realise the sonorous flow of the passages, whether in prose or poetry, that are read only with the eyes. We all of us value and cultivate this form of auditory imagination, and it com- monly grows into a well-developed faculty. I infer that when we are listening to the words of a reader while our eyes are simultaneously perusing a copy of the book from which he is reading, that the effects of the auditory imagination concur with the actual sound, and produce a stronger impression than the latter alone would be able to make. peenieer I have very frequently experimented on myself with success, with the view of analysing this concurrent im- pression into its constituents, being aided thereto by two helpful conditions, the one is a degree of deafness which prevents me when sitting on a seat in the middle. rows from following memoirs that are read in tones suitable to the audience at large; and the other is the accident of belonging to societiés in which unrevised copies of the memoirs, that are about to be read, and usually in monotones, are obtainable, in order to be perused simultaneously by the eye. Now it sometimes happens that portions of these papers, however valuable they may be in themselves, do not interest me, in which case it has been a never-flagging source of diversion to compare my capabilities of follow- ing the reader when I am using my eyes, and when I am not. The result depends somewhat on the quality of the voice ; if it is a familiar tone I can imagine what is coming much more accurately than otherwise. It depends much on the phraseology, familiar words being vividly re-pre- sented. Something also depends on the mood at the time, for imagination is powerfully affected by all forms of emotion. The result isthat I frequently find myself in a position in which I hear every word distinctly so long as they accord with those I am perusing, but whenever a word is changed, although the change is perceived, the new word is not recognised. Then, should I raise my eyes from the copy, nothing whatever of the reading can be understood, the overtones by which words are distinguished being too faint to be heard. As a rule, I estimate that I have to approach the reader by about a quarter of the _ previous distance, before I can distinguish his words by the ear alone. Accepting this rough estimate for the purposes of present calculation, it follows that the potency of my hearing alone is to that of my hearing A/ws imagination, as the loudness of the same overtones heard at 3 and at 4 units of distance respectively ; that is as about 3? to 4’, or asgto16. Consequently the potency of my auditory imagination is to that of a just perceptible sound as 16-9, or as 7 units, to 16. So the effect of the imagination in this case reaches nearly half-way to the level of conscious- ness. If it were a little more than twice as strong it would be able by itself to produce an effect indistinguish- able from a real sound. Two copies of the same newspaper afford easily acces- sible materials for making this experiment, a few words having been altered here and there in the copy to be read from. r _ Fesruary 2, 1893] NATURE 3 2I I will conclude this portion of my remarks by sug- gesting that some of my audience should repeat these experiments on themselves. If they do so, I should be grateful if they would communicate to me their results. a PROTOCERAS, THE NEW ARTIODACTYLE. i [Aes ee the American Museum of Natural History _ 4 established a department of mammalian palzon- tole wr the purpose of securing and exhibiting collec- n all the tertiary horizons of the west. Dr. ‘ortman, well known by his discoveries while ted with Prof. Cope, was put at the head of the and under his direction explorations have n made in the Laramie or Upper Cretaceous, three of the great divisions of the tertiary, namely, fasatch, the Puerco, and the Lower Miocene or fad > River. discovery of the first example of Pa/gonictis found ica was mentioned in NATURE last year. From erco are brought remains of about 400 individuals, ng many new facts to the discoveries of Prof. Cope. the Laramie are 400 of the small isolated teeth of recently described by Prof. Marsh. These are the writer to have a distinctly tertiary rathér character, and while intermediate between bic and Puerco species, they decidedly resemble Meniscoéssus, for example, about which there so much discussion, proves to bea plagiaulacid, Fic. 1.—Side view of skull. _ and also an ancestor of Polymastodon, which is thus vi 1 to be a huge P/agzau/ax, in which the fourth cutting Pai By far the most perfect specimens have, however, been wrought from the Lower Miocene; and here it appears tt practically a new horizon has been developed, for sllection is full of fresh forms. Many of these are ecies intermediate between the true White River motherium fauna, and the Middle Miocene, but are new genera, and represent distinct unrelated In this Lower Miocene collection are included portions _._ Of six skulls and the fore and hind feet of an Artiodactyle, ____ of about the size of a sheep. The most complete skull is here ba ‘nig exactly as found, and is seen at once to depart all known Artiodactyles in many important characters. There are no less than four protuberances upon each side of the skull. Hindmost are two processes the parietals, which are placed upon the superciliary ‘idges as they diverge from the sagittal crest. These processes are close together and oval in section, reminding us of the posterior pair of horns in Uintatherium rather than of the conical or rounded horns found in the giraffes and some other Artiodactyles. Their position upon the parietal bones is also peculiar. The superciliary ridges extend outwards into two widely projecting plates of bone, which curve upwards above the orbits ; these plates are NO. 1214, VOL. 47] | upon the frontals, and the frontals also bear a pair of | small conical processes just behind their junction with the nasals. But even more exceptional than these yoparietal and frontal processes are the great ver- ' tical plates rising from the maxillaries, slightly 'recurved, and reaching the full height of the | parietal protuberances. Seen from above, these plates are found to be not in contact, but to enclose a long deep cleft, representing the anterior narial opening. This is bridged over posteriorly by the nasals, which, as shown in the. second figure, are extremely abbreviated. Correlated with the development of these processes are a number of strong ridges, which form supporting but- tresses for the horns. These extend, as above described, from the sagittal crest outwards, also from the anterior margin of the orbit forwards. This lateral maxillary ridge, as it may be called, terminates in a process just above the infraorbital foramen ; and this process, although small, seems to illustrate the remarkable tendency of this little skull to develop osseous projections at every avail- able point. The character of these projections is different from that found elsewhere among the Artiodactyla ; they are not horn-cores, neither are they similar to the processes upon the parietals of the giraffe. The development of these multiple bony protuberances suggests the skulls of Sivatherium, Tetraceros, and other eastern ruminants ; but the proportions of the skull are wholly different. The olfactory chamber, which is usually so expanded in the Artiodactyla, is here extremely reduced; the nasals barely reach beyond the middle line of the skull. Up to this point the study of the skull appeared to present an entirely new form, but later the other skulls were removed from the matrix, and among them one was found with small canine teeth, entirely lacking all the processes upon the frontals, and giving indications that those upon the maxillaries were either absent or comparatively small. The parietals were unfortu nately missing, but the idea at once suggested itself tha this might be a female skull. Two years ago Prof 29 322 NATURE [February 2, 1893 — Marsh described a small Artiodactyle with a pair of small conical horn-cores upon the parietal bones, which he named Proftoceras celer, expressing the opinion that it re- presented a new family. Upon the supposition that this type might also bea female of the same species to which the heavily-horned type belonged, the second skull was taken to the Yale Museum, and carefully compared point ‘by point. It proved to be identical in every respect. In this way the discovery was made that in Protoceras,as in ‘so many other Artiodactyles, the male and female skulls -differed widely from each other in their cranial armature. The male was as described above; the female exhibits merely a pair of very small conical processes upon the parietals, with perfectly smooth frontals, and maxillaries either of the normal type or with smaller protuberances than in the male. The dentition at first suggests relationship to 7ragulus and Hyomoschus. The premaxillaries are edentulous as in the ruminants ; but in the lower jaw there are four small teeth shaped liked incisors, the outermost of which wepresents the canine. The upper canines are large, Fic. 3.—Front view of Skull. pointed,and recurved. The molar teeth are of the short- crowned, or brachyodont type, with a distinctly crescentic pattern. The structure of the feet also suggests the Tragulines, in the fact that the fore-foot has four well developed toes, while the hind-foot has two toes with the lateral pair very much reduced. As in the 7raguilzde, the fore-foot and probably the fore limb was very much shorter than the hind foot and limb. The hind foot, moreover, shows a tendency to co-ossification both in the metatarsals and in the union of the navicular and cuneiform with the cuboid. ' In many details, however, the feet present marked differ- ences from the older and more recent Tragulines. The oldest of the Tragulines, moreover, is Leftomeryx, a con- temporary of Protoceras, which has an entirely different skull and foot structure. Taking all these facts together, we are led to support Prof. Marsh’s conjecture, based upon the compara- tively hornless female skull, that this Artiodactyle repre- sents a new family, the Protoceratide. We know abso- lutely nothing either of the ancestors or successors of this type; and this is another illustration of the fact which is constantly being impressed upon us, that our fossil-bearing strata still contain a great number of forms which are at present wholly unknown and unsuspected. HENRY F. OSBORN. ATENRY F. BLANFORD, F.R.S. R. H. F. BLANFORD, whose death was noticed in last week’s NATURE, was born in Bouverie Street, Whitefriars, in the City of London, in 1834. He wasone of the students who entered the Royal School of Mines NO. i214, VOL. 47] at its commencement in 1851, and after distinguishing himself by taking the first Duke of Cornwall’s Scholar- ship, he studied for a year at Freiberg in Saxony. In 1855 he and his'brother, Mr. W. T. Blanford, received appointments on the Geological Survey of India, and they landed in Calcutta at the end of September in that year. Mr. H. F. Blanford remained on the Geological Survey till 1862, when he resigned, his health having suffered from the exposure incidental to geological surveying in India. His most important work whilst engaged on the Survey was the examination of the cretaceous beds of the neighbourhood of Trichinopoly, his classification of which, founded to a considerable extent on palzonto- logical data, has been thoroughly confirmed by Dr. F. Stoliczka’s well-known description of the fauna. Mr, Blanford had previously, during his first season’s work in India, by separating the Talchir strata, with their re- markable boulder bed, from the true coal-bearing, or Damuda rocks, taken the first step in what for so long was one of the most difficult tasks set before the Indian Geological Survey—the stratigraphical arrangement of the complex of beds subsequently known as the Gondwana system. On leaving the Geological Survey he was offered a post in the Bengal Educational Department, and from 1862 to 1874 he was one of the professors of the Presi- dency College, Calcutta. Soon after 1862 he began to take a keen interest in meteorological questions, and after being for some time a member of a meteorological committee nominated by the government, he was, in April 1867, appointed Meteorological Reporter to the Govern- ment of Bengal, and placed in charge of an office estab- lished with a twofold purpose, to give storm warnings for the protection of shipping and to collect and record systematic meteorological observations throughout the Bengal presidency. Within a short time one most im- portant result was obtained ; the meteorological condi- tions under which cyclones originated in the Bay of Bengal were definitely ascertained, and it became prac- — ticable to say when a storm was a probable event, and in what part of the Bay it might be expected, and when a cyclone was impossible, although high winds might prevail. Meantime the various observatories of the country were being brought into order, and the observa- — tions rendered systematic. In 1874 the Government of India became convinced of the necessity for placing all the meteorological observa- tories in India in communication with a central office, and Mr. Blanford was finally transferred from the educational staff of Bengal and made chief of the new meteorological department, with the official designation of Meteorological Reporter to the Government of India. The new post in- volved much travelling to visit out-staticns, in order to. ensure the exact comparison of barometers and other instruments. The organisation of the new department, however, progressed rapidly, and in a few years a series of papers from Mr. Blanford’s pen on rainfall, wind direc- tions, and other meteorological phenomena gave evidence to all interested in the science that valuable additions to it were being made by the Indian observations. The peculiar geographical conditions of India render its meteorology unusually simple, and of great scientific and practical importance. An admirable illustration, both of the peculiarity of Indian meteorology and of the practical results yielded by accurate observations, is afforded by the fact that no sooner was the whole system in working order, than it was found practicable some time before the commencement of the monsoon season, and of the rain- fall, upon which in many provinces plenty or scarcity of food depends, to prepare a forecast of the approaching season, and to warn the Government of a possible deficiency of rain in particular parts of the country. The forecasts prepared have been found remarkably accurate. Mr. Blanford retired from the Indian Service in 1888, a eh and has since resided at Folkestone. ___ has gradually given way, and he died on qanuary 23, at FEBRUARY 2, 1893 | NATURE 323 Of late his health the age of fifty-eight. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1880, and was an honorary member of foreign meteorological societies. He was President of the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1884-85. That he was a man of considerable intellectual power is shown by the somewhat unusual range of scientific —- on which he has left works and papers. Besides his geological and meteorological reports, he wrote for the Indian Geological Survey descriptions of the Vautéiideand Belemnitide of the South Indian cretaceous rocks, and he assisted the late Mr. J. W. Salter in describing the Palz- ontology of Niti. He was also author of several papers on, Ld gl mollusca ; and amongst his works are two treatises, one on the “ Physical Geography of India,” AEST, weed as a text-book in Indian schools, and the *An Elementary Geography of India, Burma, and tty ” published as one of Macmillan’s Geographical es. NOTES. ; Wile: from Sydney that steady progress is being made with the Macleay Memorial Volume, and that it will probably e Teady for issue about the end of March, AN announcement comes from Chicago that Mr. Eadweard Maybridge, who, it will be remembered, visited this country ‘some time since on behalf of the University of Pennsylvania, will ive at intervals, from May to October, in the ‘‘ Zoopraxo- Hall of the Exposition,” a series of lectures on the ‘science of animal locomotion, especially i in its relation to design is art, ON ‘Thursday next, February 9, Prof. Patrick Geddes will begin, at the Royal Institution, a course of four lectures on the factors of organic evolution ; and on Saturday week, February 18, Lord Rayleigh will beeth a course of six lectures on sound and vibration. — A TRANSLATION of Prof. Weismann’s new work on ‘“ The Germ-plasm,” receatly noticed in Nature, will appear in the “*Contemporary Science Series” in the course of a few weeks. _ Last week a deputation, representing the New Decimal Association, the Chambers of Commerce and Trades Unions, as well as various scientific institutions, waited upon Sir ‘William Harcourt, Chancellor of the Exchequer, to urge the ‘Government to adopt the decimal and metrical system of weights, measures, and coinage, or to appoint a committee of inquiry into the subject. Mr. S. Montagu, M.P., as president of the New Decimal Association, having fntpodaced the depu- tation, said that forty years ago there was great apathy upon the subject, but since then there had been inquiries by Select Com- mittees and Royal Commissions into the question of the decimal currency, and though the reports of those bodies were satis- factory, no action had followed. The system had been adopted in Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Scandinavia ; and in England there was now a good popular demand, such as Mr, Goschen said six years ago he was waiting for. Men of science like Lord Kelvin, Sir Henry Roscoe, and Sir John Lubbock, and educationists like Sir Philip Magnus and Dr. Gladstone desired the reform in order to economise brain-power ; representatives of commerce desired it to assist them in their competition with rival nations ; and the working classes were awake to the fact that years of labour were wasted by their children being com- pelled to learn that which could be rendered unnecessary. Several members of the deputation, including Sir Philip Magnus, NO. 1214, VOL. 47] having spoken, Sir William Harcourt replied. He said that every one who reflected on the question must see the great advantages which attach to the decimal system. But the practical difficulties in the way of the proposed change seemed to him for the present to be insurmountable, A decimal system was introduced into Europe by the French Revolution. That was a time when the whole of society was cast into the melting pot, and they changed, not only their notation, not only their metrical system, but the names of the months and the days of the week. The change in Germany took place, not in quiet times, but as a result of the unification of Germany. He believed that even in the United States of America the change was made conse- quent upon the establishment of the Federal system. He did not think that the habits of the people could be altered in quiet times. This applied very much to the measures as well as to the coinage. Sir William was ready asan individual to play his part in forwarding the progress of the decimal system and the metrical system ; but the Government could do nothing in the matter. ‘The people would have to be prepared for so great a change, It is worth noting that instruction in the principles of the decimal and metric systems is daily given in public elementary schools, and that this labour—as Mr. J. H. Yoxall, secretary of the National Union of Teachers, has pointed out in a letter to the Times—is imposed upon the children without hope of practical good to the community. Mr. Yoxall contends that if an Act of Parliament were to fix a date of five or ten years hence at which the decimal system should come into legal operation, the work of the schools and the precaution of the mercantile classes would by that time sufficiently prepare the way. A DESTRUCTIVE earthquake occurred on Tuesday morning at the town of Zante. Several houses were totally de- stroyed, many more were partially wrecked, and there is hardly a building in the town which has not sustained damage in one form or another. The roof of the prison col- lapsed during the earthquake, and the guards had to be doubled to prevent the escape of the prisoners. The hospital was also so seriously damaged that it was deemed expedient to remove the patients. The shocks, which were general, were renewed again and again, and the whole population was thrown into a state of panic. DURING the past week the temperature over these islands has been fairly high, the daily maxima often exceeding 50°, notwith- standing a temporary fall, amounting from 12° to 14° in Scotland and the midland counties of England, on Friday, accompanied by much fog in the south and east of England, while the air has been decidedly humid, the readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometers frequently showing little or no difference. These conditions have been due to deep depressions arriving from the - Atlantic and passing in close proximity to our western and northern coasts. In those parts gales have been of almost daily occurrence, and on Sunday they extended as far as the English Channel. Rain has been frequent, but generally the fall has not been heavy, and the sky has generally been overcast and dull, although on Saturday the weather over the south of England was unusually bright and fine. The Weekly Weather Report of January 28 shows that the temperature exceeded the mean in all districts, the greatest excess being 4° in Scotland. Bright sun- shine also exceeded the mean in some parts of Scotland and in the eastern portion of England, but in other parts of these islands. there was a deficiency. A MAP showing lines of equal magnetic declination for January 1, 1893, in England and Wales, has been very carefully prepared by Mr. W. Ellis, and published as a supplement to 324 NATURE [FEBRUARY 2, 1893 the Colliery Guardian of January 6, 1893. The explanatory text states that, as before, the work depends on the magnetic surveys of Profs. Riicker and Thorpe. Mr. Ellis gives a table showing the relation between the diurnal variation of magnetic declination and sun-spots, as determined from the magnetic observations made at the Royal Observatory, Green- wich. The general mean at epochs of minima of sun-spots is 7'4 minutes, and at epochs of maxima 11‘4 minutes of arc, and other magnetic elements show a similar relation. The period between successive epochs of maxima or of minima of sun-spots is well known to be on the average about II years, and the author points out the curious fact that the interval between the minimum and maximum is on the average 44 years, whilst from maximum to minimum it is 7 years. The relation existing between sun-spot maxima and minima and the diurnal magnetic variation has led many meteorologists to seek for some similar connection with meteorological phenomena, but Mr, Ellis states that no such relation has yet been conclusively established. THE report of the administration of the Meteorological De- partment of the Government of India in 1891-92 shows con- tinued activity and efficiency in all departments of the work, and bears testimony to the interest taken both by the public and by the emfloyés. The number of observatories maintained Ly the Government at the end of the year was 165. As regards the actinometric work, an unusual amount has been done, owing to the favourable state of the weather, and the results have been forwarded to the Solar Physics Committee in London. The rainfall data are published month. by month, anda large num- ber of unsatisfactory rain gauges has been replaced by new ones. A larger amount of work under the head of marine meteorology has been done than in any previous year ;-several clerks are continually employed in collecting data from ships entering the various ports, and these observations have been utilised in pre- paring daily weather charts of t he whole Indian area for a portion of the year. The systems of storm and flood warnings have been continued as in previous years, and observations have been taken in certain forests, in order to throw light on the influence of forest growth in modifying the distribution and amount of rainfall ; a report upon this subject will shortly be prepared. Among the other papers being prepared for publica- tion we note one on the relation between sun-spots and weather as shown by meteorological observations taken on board ships in the Bay of Bengal during the years 1855 to 1878. AT the meeting of the Royal Botanic Society of London on Saturday a plant of the Sisal hemp (Agave rigida) was shown from the Society’s gardens. This plant is now extensively grown in the Bahamas and Central America for its fibre. The secretary said that until lately, with the exception of two or three fibre plants, as hemp and cotton, commerce depended upon wild plants for its supplies, but so great was the demand now for fibres for papermaking and other uses that it had been found necessary to grow them specially. THE Slojd Association of Great Britain met on Saturday to receive the annual report, to elect officers, and to appoint an examining body. It was agreed that ‘‘Sloyd’’ should be substituted for ‘‘ Slojd”’ in the name of the Association. The system of handiwork which the society is seeking to introduce into schools has already been pretty extensively adopted in this country, especially in the north of England. Mr. Harris stated at the meeting that it was being received with approval in many different parts of the world. He had received com- munications from Napier, New Zealand, and Lahore, India, as to its adoption in these places, AN American writer who was present at the Galileo Festival in Padua gives a very interesting account of it in the New York NO. 1214, VOL, 47] paper. ‘a sea-voyage does not lose caste. ‘doing his best to overcome it in others, Nation. He refers to the speeches delivered in Italian by Sir Joseph Fayrer and Prof, George Darwin, to which we have already alluded. ‘‘They were,” he says, ‘‘much appre- ciated by the audience: ‘Parla bene!’ ‘Pronunzia bene!’ one heard murmured in tones not devoid of surprise.” The ‘greatest orator of the occasion, according to this writer, was Prof. Schmurlo of Dorpat, in Russia. ‘‘ The type of the lonely and ungainly scholar in appearance, he nevertheless spoke a few phrases so ultra-Italian in the ingenious gracefulness of their turn, that the audience went fairly wild with delight.” THE latest instalment of the Transactions of the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland contains an interesting paper, by Mr. E. G. Carey, on the bridges of the Manchester Ship Canal. The paper is fully illustrated. The author notes that practically the whole of the bridge-work for this canal has pre constructed in Glasgow from Scotch steel. THE Smithsonian Institution has issued as one of its bu letins a full and very useful bibliography of the published writings of George Newbold Lawrence, the well-known ornithologist. The work has been done by Mr. L. S. Foster, who gives also a short sketch of Mr. Lawrence’s career. Mr. Lawrence’s collection of bird-skins is of great scientific value. It includes about 8000 specimens, and contains some three hundred types of new species of birds: The collection was de- posited in the American Museum of Natural History, New York City, in May 1887. Mr. Foster says that the beneficial in- fluence of the labours of Mr, Lawrence, with pen and pencil, on the progress of American ornithology, has been great and undis- puted. It is particularly among the avifauna of the West Indies, Mexico, Central and S outh America, that. his most strenuous efforts have been exerted. IF we may trust a statement made on the authority of the Tokyo News Agency, it is not surprising that Japan is unwilling to be deprived of the privilege of fishing on the Korean coast. The number of Japanese boats” engaged i in the fishery is said to be no less than upwards of four thousand four hundred, of which about eighteen hundred have licenses. Their’ annual’ take averages from a.million and a, half of yen to two million value, and it is estimated that with more diligence and improved ; methods they might easily bring this figure to three or four millions. Ir is rather surprising that tobacco has been so little cultivated in Australia. The Agrécultural Gazette of New South Wales, we are glad to see, has taken up the matter, and in its Novem- ber number devotes to it a comparatively long and interesting The writer of the article thinks that the climate of New South Wales is admirably suited to the growth of tobacco, and hopes that a sufficient quantity of it may hereafter be pro- duced not only to satisfy local demands, but to open up a large and lucrative export trade. ONE of the curious survivals of ancient prejudices in India is ‘the intense dislike with which many high caste Hindus regard It is even disputed whether a Brahmin who takes The Maharaja of Mysore has not only emancipated himself from this strange notion, but is . He lately made a voyage to Calcutta, and took with him a number of orthodox Brahmins, as well.as Brahmin officials of state. sea-voyages. Mr. WALTER Hovucu, of Washington, notes in Scéence that among the collections from Mexico, Central and South America, exhibited in the Columbian Historical’ Exhibition at Madrid, he observed a number of oblong polished blocks of hard stone of unknown use, averaging 3} inches in length, 23 inches in width, and 13 inches in thickness. The broad ‘sut- 4 FEBRUARY 2, 1893] NATURE 325 i - these stones are plane, bearing a number of grooves allel to the length, forming ridges like those seen on Poly- tapa mallets. The implements resemble closely, he thinks, = pscenio by many different peoples in beating out fibrous bark - moisture like a sponge. 2 downwards, and even in dry weatlier disintegration goes on with _of other dimensions gave but minute differences also. : for clothing, paper, &c. Mr. Hough suggests that they may have ___ been used for purposes of this kind in prehistoric times, and that _ they may give some insight into the manufacture of the paper on which the Mexican codices are painted. Mup Gorce, on the Hurnai route to Quetta, has been giving much trouble to the engineers engaged in the construction of the new railway. Landslips are frequent, and an unusually bad one has occurred within the last few weeks. On this occasion the according to the Pioneer Mail, slipped in such a way “‘as lift t he rails bodily up and turn (them over, sleepers upper- st.” The mountain is said to be. a great porous mass of clayey with large boulders imbedded therein, and it sucks in After heavy rain it begins to move disastrous results to the railway.. New fissures are reported to have appeared hundreds of yards up the slopes above the line, and each of these indicates that thousands of tons of earth and boulders will sooner or later find a lower level. A committee ‘of ‘experts has been appointed by the Indian Government to amine the mountain thoroughly, and the Pioneer Mail truly says that **if they succeed in devising a means to conquer it they will achieve a notable feat in engineering.” Dr. Low, President of Columbia College, New York, has & = been stating in the American Educational Review his impres- es sions as to the condition and tendencies of the higher education s in the United States. One of the points on which he strongly sis that a general college training should be considered necessary before students begin their University education 1 in theology, law, and medicine. ‘‘The prophetic eye,” he says, “can even now discern the day when a college education will be a condition precedent for entrance into the professional schools of the American university. This will not mean that only college-trained men will make good practitioners in law or medicine, for example, nor that only college-trained men are entitled to a professional education. It will rather mean, I think, that the university will then have fully realised its own obligation to the country to send forth into professional life, in _ all parts of the land, men of a thorough and wide equipment.” ARCHAOLOGISTs have observed -that in Greek statues the male eye is strongly arched, while the female eye has rather a flattened surface ; and referring to accounts by the older anato- mists who have affirmed such a difference to exist, they have seen -in this a fresh proof of the exact ‘observation of nature by the ancient Greeks. The rule is not without exceptions, for the cornea in the Zeus of Otricoli has quite a flat form. Herr Greef recently set himself (Archiv fiir Anat.) to inquire whether such a sexual difference actually exists, and from individual measurement of the radius of the cornea in the horizontal meri- dian, he gets an average of 7°83 mm. for men, and 7°82 mm, for women (Donders gives 7°858 and 7°799), so the difference is so small as to be imperceptible to the naked eye. Measurement The author concludes that the Greeks (from artistic motives) did not in this case follow nature. THE difference between the aspect of thesky at full moon and ‘the clear and deep azure observed on a moonless night is ex- ‘plained by M. Clémence Royer in his ‘‘ Recherches d’ Optique _Physiologique et Physique” on the basis of some observations made by M. Piltschikoff. In studying the polarising action of ‘the moon on the atmosphere, the latter found that the propor- NO. 1214, VOL. 47] “Botany.” tion of polarised light in the nocturnal sky diminishes continu- ously from the time of the full moon up to that of the new moon, when it becomes. zero, subsequently to increase again until the time of full moon. There appears to be a struggle between the polarised light of the moon and the so-called natural light of the stars, and the proportion of polarised light sometimes reaches 62 per cent. The diffusing power of the atmosphere necessarily varies with the relative proportions of natural and of polarised light, since the latter is not capable of reflection in all directions. Hence we see why very serene but moonless nights may yet be relatively very clear, and the sky of a beautiful sombre blue, whereas the white light of the moon, reflected, diffused, and polarised, tends to give the sky a tint of a paler and somewhat greyish blue. AT the last annual meeting of the American Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, the Proceedings of which have just been issued, Mr. N. T. Lupton referred in his presidential address to the immense phosphate beds in the south-western part of Florida. Last winter a visit was paid to some of the localities where deposits are found, and samples were collected for analysis. . They were of two varieties, which may be called hard and soft. The hard variety consists of boulders of moderately hard rock, some of immense size, cemented together with white clay. A white and friable mass resembling kaolin is occasionally found. This is probably produced by the natural disintegration of the hard rock by rolling, attrition, or con- cussion. The deposits vary in thickness, A depth of 20 or 30 feet is not uncommon, and even a thickness of 50 feet has been found. Assome, especially foreign, manufacturers object to buying phosphates which contain over 3 per cent. of oxides of iron and aluminium, large quautities of these materials have accumulated at the mines. A few manufacturers, aware of the agricultural value of South Carolina floats, have established mills in Florida for pulverising ‘these soft aluminous deposits, which are sold to farmers for use without conversion into soluble phosphates. Experiments are now in progress on the Alabama Experiment Station, under control of the chemist, to determine the chemical composition and agricultural value of these soft phosphates | when used alone with cotton seed and with cotton-seed meal. If decomposing organic matter, as is believed, renders insoluble phosphates available as plant food to any considerable extent, Mr. Lupton thinks that the question of cheap phosphates will be solved, and that the American farmer will be enabled to purchase fertilisers at a much less cost than at present. Messrs. W. H. ALLEN AND Co. have issued the thirty- seventh thousand of Dr. M. C. Cooke’s *‘ Manual of Structural The book is intended for the use of classes, schools, and private students. THE February number of WVatural Science includes, among other things, articles on some problems of the distribution of marine animals, by Otto Maas; on Pasteur’s method of inocu- lation and its hypothetical explanation, by G. W. Bulman; the industries of the Maoris, by J. W. Davis; some recent re- searches on insect anatomy, by G. H. Carpenter ; parasites on alge, by G. Murray; the underground waste of the land, by H. B. Woodward ; Owen (concluded), by A. S. Woodward ; and the restoration of extinct animals. THE following are the arrangements for science lectures at the Royal Victoria Hall during February :—Feb. 7, Mr. J. Scott Keltie, on Africa and its people ; Feb. 14, Mr. E. Wethered, on interesting objects under a microscope; Feb. 21, Mr. J. T. Leon, on breathing and burning; Feb. 28, Dr. H. Forster Morley, on chemistry of life. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include seven Azara’s Opossums (Dide/phys azare) 326 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 from the Argentine Republic, presented by Mr. Hill; a Rough Terrapin (C/emmys punctularia) from Guiana, presented by Mr. J. J. Quelch, C.M.Z.S. ; an American Milk Snake (Coluder eximius) from Tennessee, presented by Miss Winifred M, Middleton ; a Virginian Eagle Ow] (2ubo maximus) from South America, deposited ; two Mouflons (Ordis musimon, 8 2) from Corsica, received in exchange. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE NAUTICAL ALMANAC FOR 1896.—The new superin- tendent of the Maztical Almanac office has introduced a much- needed reform into the first almanac, that for 1896, issued under his direction. The state of the British Nautical Almanac has long been severely criticised as being far from the best possible for navigational purposes both in form and contents, and by no means satisfactory from the astronomical standpoint. A letter addressed by the Shipmasters’ Society to Dr. Hind, the late Superintendent, in November 1891, pointed out the advantage to navigators which would be offered by a work published at a popular price, and without that astronomical information which is of no use to sailors. Many low-priced almanacs are published, indistinctly printed, and having occasional errors in the figures, and an official trustworthy book was very desirable. In conse- quence of this representation the almanac is now published in two forms—as the complete almanac of former years, price 2s. 6d. ; and as Part I, of the Nautical Almanac, specially suited for the use of sailors, price Is. The complete almanac has been revised and added to, many of the recommendations of the Mautical Almanac Committee of the Royal Astronomical Society, which reported. to the Admiralty in 1891, having been adopted. The smal! short period terms of nutation have been tabulated, and, correspond- ing to that, additional day numbers are added so as to enable computers to include those small terms in the star corrections. The catalogue of stars from which the moon culminators and stars occulted by the moon are obtained has been revised and en- larged, and the mean places of the stars of this catalogue, which are used during the year, are also included. The elements of the occultations are given in a revised form similar to that adopted in most of the other astronomical ephemerides, so that the circumstances of an occultation for any position on the earth’s surface can be computed with facility. There has been a general revision of the constants used.: The small almanac has been arranged by Mr. Downing in conference with the Hydrographer. As the guiding principle in publishing this was the minimum of change in the parts of the almanac which were to be extracted and published separately, there is still much in the volume that is not needed by sailors, but the omission of which would have necessitated the setting up of fresh type and much extra work at the Vautical Almanac office. The monthly part is printed unaltered, and consequently contains the sun’s and moon’s latitude and longitude, which are not required by sailors. The noon ephemerides for the brighter planets, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn; the catalogue of mean places of stars, as well as the apparent places of the nine stars used for lunar distances; the eclipse section and the tables’ for navigation are then given. There is no doubt that the issue of this smaller work will confer a real benefit on the shipping community, and that it will soon win its way to popularity. In announcing these changes to the Royal Astronomical Society, Mr. Downing expressed the hope of being able, through the economy of time effected by international co-operation in some of the work of the office, to make considerable future additions to the almanac without increasing the burden of the British taxpayer. The duplicate work done at Berlin; London, Paris, and Washington involves much waste of energy which might be more usefully expended: and as a step towards this, Mr. Downing, last summer, arranged with Prof. Newcomb, of Washington, to co-operate in some of the work of their re- spective almanacs, and. the Admiralty have consented to this. It is to be hoped, in the interests of astronomy and of navigation, that the scheme may be greatly extended. EcLipsE PHOTOGRAPHY.—The results obtained by M. de la Baume Pluvinel at Salut Isles in 1889 (as given in his lecture which appeared in NATURE last week), when he photographed the corona with photographic actions varying from 185 to 13, and found the photographic action of+30 the most satisfactory ; NO. 1214, VOL. 47] do not agree with those of the English expedition obtained at the same time and place. The photographic actions on the plates exposed with the 20-inch mirror of 45-inches focus, by the late Father Perry, varied from 19°75 to 790° as calculated by the formula given by M. de la Baume Pluvinel, and in every case increase of photographic action gave greater extension of the corona. Mr. Rooney’s plates, with the 4-inch lens of 6% inches focus, had been subjected to photographic actions varying from 1I°II to 177°77, and agreed with Father Perry’s in giving greater extension with every increase of photographic action. The English results certainly justify the conclusion that photographic action is necessary to photograph those faint extensions of the corona which have been seen, but have hitherto eluded attempts to photograph them. : ore Mr. Burnham’s experiments, alluded to by M..Pluvinel, do- not assist us in this question. A certain absolute amount of light is necessary to give axy appreciable photographic effect on the plate, and this seems to be the chief difficulty in obtaining. photographs of the external corona. In Mr. Burnham’s experiments he had too much light and had to cut down the exposure in order to get faint contrasts, but there was never any question of not having sufficient light to obtain any photographic. effect. Captain Abney finds (Phil. Trans. vol. clxxx, A, page 314) that an abrupt change of 4 per cent. in the intensity of light can be detected on a photograph, hence we may look upon a negative asa drawing built up of 200 different shades. Over exposure will of course prevent such faint contrasts as 4 per cent. being detected, and under exposure will enable fainter con- trasts to be seen, so long as the limit of minimum exposure necessary to. produce any photographic effect is passed; but the evidence from the English expedition renders it extremely probable that even with the largest photographic action used this limit was not actually reached with the faintest extensions of the corona. ComET HoLmeEs.—Dr, F. Cohn, writing about this comet from the Observatory in Konigsberg on January 17, finds. (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3146), with a 6-inch heliometer and a magnification of 65 times, that the nucleus is exactly as a star of the 8th magnitude. The correction to the ephemeris given below is, as he has deduced, Aa = ~— 0°3s.,, A= —-6" ' Dr. R. Schorr, of the Hamburg Observatory, puts the nucleus down on the same date as a 7‘2 magnitude star with a small nebulosity about it of 5” diameter, but on the 18th he found the comet showed a much larger coma, a measurement giving 87”. The stellar nucleus was also estimated as 7°5 magnitude of. a diameter 2”. La ae The ephemeris of this comet is from Prof. Schulhof’s calcula- tions (Astronomische Nachrichten, No. 3140):— : 1893. R.A. app. Decl. app. he maid: ° ’ u“ Feb. 2 ... 1.45 46°5 ... +33 49 26 3 47 16°6 ... 50 48 4 48 47°3 ... 52 14 5 _50 186... 53 45 Of. ek BO aineks 55 20° be §3°22°8) oe Bee 8 aieceiSg 658 Fixe 58 41 9-3.) §6529'3) 238 ga CoMET Brooks (NOVEMBER 19, 1892).—The following is an ephemeris for Comet Brooks for the ensuing week :— 1893. ee app. Decl. app. Log ~ Log A. Br. . ms. ° Feb, 2... 23 56 48 ... +34 27°7 te vay ay Oe) 33 44°4 ... O'1050 ... 071295 ... 1°90: Auk HON gt 83 ugtgcrs | Brit. 3 42. 32: 24°1-.., O'1087 4.. OF 4820 oles Bisex 5 48 31 46'4 7 ee 748. 31 10°4 . “ag 943°:.. °°" 30 355 9... Of 33... 30 2°9 ... o'5167 i ONSZz RE ao THE ANDROMEDES.—Although Mr. Maclair Boraston was unfortunate in having bad weather on the nights of November 13 and 14 last, thus obscuring the Leonids, yet the magnificent shower of the Andromedes that he describes in Astronomy and Astrophysics for January should have recompensed him some- what for ‘*the great elevation of the radiant point, combined with acloudless tropical sky, the absence of moonlight and the unobstructed view of the complete hemisphere, afforded the we plus ultra of astronomical requirement.” Observing in FEBRUARY 2, 1893] 527 ad sh. 48m. G.M.T., he deduced the radiant point from 70 rt-t meteors, and four coincident stationary ones, giving position as R.A. 28°, decl.+36°. Counts being taken at srvals for areas of 60°, about 18 meteors per minute were re- ed, thus making a total number of 108 for the entire hemi- _ sphere in one minute, or 6480 per hour. _ As this fall went on continuously for six hours without any sign of the numbers diminishing, we have the number of meteors 38,880, which ir. Boraston says must certainly be a minimum, as many faint 7 bn ap ones must have escaped notice. A further observa- tion at 8h. 48 48m. showed that the action was still being kept up, it was remarked that the meteors appeared much brighter when _ distant from the radiant point than in its vicinity. ve ‘New METHOD OF PHOTOGRAPHING THE CORONA.—M. Deslandres, in the Comptes Kendus of January 23, describes 2 of photographing the solar corona without the aid of g media. Sunlight is allowed to fall directly on a f two identical prisms with parallel and inverted faces at a distance apart, such that only a portion of the » band from the first is intercepted by the second. as: through the latter, the rays by recomposition give to a well-defined coloured image of the sun’s disc. On displacing the prisms in a line perpendicular to the line joining them, the image assumes different colours, and on moving them along it, the range of colours intercepted is made to change. The prisms may be replaced by gratings. In a series of experi- _ ments carried out during the autumn, nine successive impressions po Fige bah image were taken, ranging from the C line till far into the ultra-violet. The object was to find the region where e light emitted by the corona showed the greatest photographic : from that of the diffused sunlight in the atmosphere. ter of fact, a halo distinctly separated from the diffused showed itself on some of the negatives, especially in ultra-violet region, which very probably represented the ror . But to confirm this, simultaneous exposures at different,. elevated, stations ought to be made, if possible eclipse. Tue February number of the Geographical Journal, in addi- to twoimp t papers read before the Royal Geographical ; y, and already reported in NATURE, contains a brilliant account by Mr. Conway of the crossing of the Hispar Pass. _ The views of mountain scenery were bewildering in their ex- tent; from the foot of the valley an unbroken glacier was in it, stretching downward from the pass forty miles distant. is unrivalled ice-stream was covered for the lower twenty es with moraines. From the pass a vast snowfield, surrounded ‘magnificent rock aiguilles, was seen to lie below, and from this the Biafo glacier descended. From the end of the Hispar glacier to the end of the Biafo glacier was a distance of eighty _ miles, forming the longest snow-pass in the world outside the ‘Polar regi Mr. Stephen Wheeler communicates a paper on ne ee Mendez Pinto, whose early travels in the East seem to have been unduly discredited. __ Tr is announced that the eminent geographical author M. _ Elisée Reclus has accepted a professorship in the University of Brussels, and will commence his work there by a course of lec- tures on comparative geography. ¢ . ‘Mr. Astor CHANLER’s expedition to Lake Rudolf, by the _ ‘Tana, has reached Hameye, the Ibea Company’s post at the head of navigation on the Tana—a position accessible in five weeks from the coast, to which camels, oxen, donkeys, and horses can be safely taken. Lieutenant Hohnel, who is at- tached to the expedition, finds that Commander Dundas has ___ placed the Tana from 20 to 22 minutes of longitude too far west, __ and he has searched in vain for the mountain ranges reported by a Dr. Peters. = In a recent journey of some duration in the Sakalava plain in the north-west of Madagascar, M. Emile Gautier (according to the Annales Géographigue) found the soil everywhere to consist of astiff red clay, weathered into steep-sided lumps and chasms __ overlying sedimentary rocks, but quite similar in colour and _ character to the red clay which covers the volcanic rocks of the teau. M. Gautier believes that this clay is identical with the erite of the Deccan. NO. 1214, VOL. 47] 4 . NATURE itude 72° west and latitude 17° north, between r1rh. 48m. thus increasing this number to about 60,000. During this display’ Major LEVERSON, the British Commissioner for the delimita- tion of the frontier between the British South Africa Company’s territory and the Portuguese possessions, has returned to this country, after having carried out extensive surveys and made considerable rectifications in the map of a strip of country stretching from the north-east corner of the Transvaal northward to Massikesse. The position of the latter point was fixed as 18° 15’ 33” S., 32°51’ 24” E. Mr. MACKINDER gave the second lecture of his course on History and Geography, under the auspices of the Royal Geographical Society, on Friday evening, when he discussed the road to the Indies, showing how the desert route, which led to the growth of Palmyra, was superseded by the ocean route after the successful rounding of the Cape of Good Hope. The theatre of history in ancient times was the region enclosed between the pine forests of northern Asia and the Indian Ocean, divided into separate worlds by a double’belt of deserts and steppes. THE GROWTH OF ELECTRICAL INDUSTRY. ON Friday last Mr. W. H. Preece, F.R.S., delivered before the Institution of Electrical Engineers his inaugural ad- dress as President. He said he had completed his fortieth year of continuous service in developing the practical applications of electricity for the use and convenience of man, and it appeared to him that he could not better repay the high compliment the Institution had conferred on him by electing him, for the second time, to be its President than by surveying and criticising the growth of the various branches of electrical industry with which he had been more or less associated during that long period. In the course of his address he dealt with telegraphy, submarine telegraphy, lightning protection, railway signalling, telephony, domestic applications, electro-chemical industry, electric light- ing, power transmission, electric traction, and theoretical views of electricity. Speaking of telegraphy, Mr. Preece said :—The instrument that we have principally developed in England is the automatic fast-speed apparatus, based on a principle of preparing messages for transmission by punching, devised by Alexander Bain in 1848, and improved in its mechanical details by Mr. Augustus Stréh in 1866. This has been my special pet, and with the electrical assistance of Mr. J. B. Chapman, and the mechanical skill of Mr. J. W. Willmot, all the ills that telegraphs are heir to have been routed, and the practical speed of working has been multiplied more than six-fold. It has been one long continual contest between patient observation, inventive skill, careful experiment, and technical acquirement on the one hand, and resistance, electrostatic capacity, inertia (electro-magnetic and mechanical), bad insulation, impure materials, imperfect workmanship, &c., on the other. But we have, step by step, won all along the line: 75 words per minute have become 500 ; a possible 130 has become an actual 600. Duplex automatic working over cable lines is possible, and modes of working have been introduced that were thought at one time chimerical and impossible. . . . The results to which I have referred have not been attained without very special attention to questions of construction and maintenance of the wires, both aerial and submarine, and a very complete system of test is now applied both before and after every line is completed. In the early days of telegraphic communication very rough and crude tests were applied, and the condition of the lines caused serious difficulties ; but at the } present day we must ascertain the purity of the metal em- ployed, its mechanical strength, its electrical resistance and capacity, its insulation resistance, and the relationship between the latter and the conductor resistance, as well as its speed value. The employment of copper as the conductor suspended on poles in place of iron, which was inaugurated at my instiga- tion in 1884, by a very costly experiment between London and Newcastle, has had a material influence in increasing the speed of working and improving telegraphy. This is due not only to its reduced resistance, but to the absence of electro- magnetic inertia in a long, single-suspended copper wire. All our long important telegraphic circuits are now built with copper. One of the arguments used against the proposed transfer of the telegraphs to the State was the notion that invention would not be fostered by a Government department. This has been entirely falsified. Telegraphy has been advanced in this country 328 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 more rapidly by the British Post Office than by any private undertaking, and we have certainly shot ahead of our smart cousins on the other side of the Atlantic, from whom, how- ever, I am proud to say, I learnt so much on my visits in 1877 and 1884. ‘Their engineers are looking to us to develop their inventions, and we have done so. ‘They cannot always get them taken up in the States. Diplex, quadruplex, and multi- plex telegraphy are importations from them, but they have been improved in our service by our own developments, and have now become the staple and the standard modes of working. No one has done more to effect this object than Mr, M. Cooper. An accident in the drafting of the Act of Parliament of 1868-69 transferring the telegraphs from the hands of private companies to that of the State, has led to a tremendous develop- ment of newspaper reporting in England. Few people are aware of the immense business done for the press: The growth of press messages is shown in the fact that 21,701,968 words paid for in 1871 have grown in 1891 to 600,409,o00—an ayer- age of nearly 2,000,000 words per day. When Mr. Gladstone spoke at Newcastle, at the National Liberal Federation, in 1891, 390,778 words were signalled to different parts of the country. This kind of business is not, however, confined to the Post Office. The Exchange Telegraph Company, which commenced operations in 1872, working under the license of the Postmaster-General, has in London over 800 instruments at work (120 being in newspaper offices), distri- buting a daily average of 3,381,134 words to various receiving instruments adapted to the requirements of the respective ser- vices. The financial intelligence, for example, being trans- mitted over instruments furnished with type-wheels containing the various fractions most in use in Stock Exchange quotations. The latest- form of this instrument prints at the rate of forty words per minute. General and parliamentary intelligence are distributed to the clubs over column printers, and legal, sport- ing, and Parliamentary news to newspapers on specially fast tape printers, capable of delivering, in the hands of skilled operators forty-five full words per minute to any number of subscribers simultaneously. The news transmitted is chiefly commercial and financial, amounting to 2,775,000 words er day. 4 To return to the purely State telegraphy. Some idea of the growth of the general telegraphic business of the country may be gathered from the following statement, which gives the total number of messages paid for in each year :— 1852 Res i 211,137 1869... ioe ie 6,830,000 Transfer took place in 1870. 1882 : 31,345, 861 1892 70,215,439 In the course of his review of the history of submarine tele- graphy, Mr. Preece said :—By far the greatest cable corporation in the world is the Eastern Telegraph Company, whose system of 25,376 miles stretches from Cornwall to Bombay, connects the northern and southern shores of the Mediterranean with Malta, and joins up the various other islands of the Mediterranean and the Levant. This company, in conjunction with the Eastern Extension and the Eastern and South African Companies, also gains access to Australia and New Zealand on the one hand, and to the Cape of Good Hope on the other, the combined mileage reaching a total of no less than 47,151. This enormous system has all grown up within, practically, the last 23 years. The form of cable has practically remained unaltered since the original Calais cable was laid in 1851. Various sizes of core and armour, and various modes ofprotection from decay, have been used to suit different routes, but the cable of to-day may be said to be typically the same as that used in the English Channel in 1851, and in the Atlantic in 1865. The first cable had gutta-percha as a dielectric, and it is still almost exclusively used for submarine cable core ; but the manu- facture has so improved in the last twenty years that a core having an insulator weighing 150 lbs. per naut, which then had a dielectric resistance of some 250 megohms a naut at 75° F., can now be obtained,giving 2000 megohms at the same tempera- ture. Indiarubber is creeping in, owing to the high price and scarcity of gutta-percha. Next to strong tides, rocky bottoms, anchors, and shallow water, the greatest enemy to submarine cables, more especially NO. 1214, VOL. 47] in the tropics, has proved to be the teredo of various species ; but this depredatory worm has been utterly routed by. covering the gutta-percha core with a lapping of thin brass tape laid on spirally. A remarkable thing about this little insect is that, whereas twenty years ago it was practically unknown in our English waters, it has now gradually spread all round our coasts, with the exception, perhaps, of the North Sea. A new cable about to connect Scotland and Ireland is being served with brass tape. With the cables has grown up a fleet of telegraph ships to lay and maintain them. In 1853 the JJonarch, belonging to the Electric Telegraph Company, was the only ship permanently employed as a repairing telegraph ship ; now, in 1893, the cable fleet of the world numbers no less than 37, of which seven belong to Government administrations and the rest to private companies, the Eastern Telegraph: Company heading the list with five vessels, : Perhaps the most remarkable history of a cable is the follow- ing :—In 1859 the light cables laid in 1853 from Orfordness to Holland were picked up and replaced by a heavier one. ~A few nauts were sold to the Isle of Man Telegraph Company, and had an extra sheath laid on. This cable was submerged between that island and St. Bees, where it remained until 1885, when it was replaced by a three-core cable. It was again put unde water in 1886 as part of the cable between Uist and Harris, in the Hebrides, where it still lies, as good as ever. The dura- bility of submarine cables is remarkable. That laid between Beachy Head and Dieppe in 1861 is still working ; and that laid between Beachy Head and Havre in 1870 has broken within the last month for the /irs¢ time. gu ideas Despite the enormous growth of submarine cables during these forty-two years, there would appear to be plenty of scope for still further extension. The Pacific still remains untouched, and the project is at the present time under consideration to — connect our possessions in North America with those in Australia. The following is the passage relating to telephony :—I had the good fortune in 1877 to bring to England the first pair of practical telephones. They had been given to me in New York by Graham Bell himself. After a series of experiments, I brought them before the British Association meeting, which was held that year at Plymouth. Who at that time could have imagined that the instruments, which were then but toys, would, within sixteen years, have become a necessity of commercial, and almost of domestic, life? Yet to-day the number of telephones in actual use may pretty safely be put down at a million ! i During 1878 Edison devised his carbon transmitter, and Prof. Hughes presented his ‘‘microphone” to the world. These inventions made the telephone a practical instrument of vast commercial importance. It may be said to have sprung into existence well-nigh perfect ; and the fewness of the actual improvements on the Bell receiver and the Hughes microphone is scarcely more astonishing than the immense number of fruit- less attempts at improvement that have been made, Even now the original instruments are not easily beaten. The institution of telephone exchanges has led to a develop- ment of systems of switching that might fairly be considered a special study in themselves, and the demand for communication between distant places has necessitated the application of much special attention to the method of constructing lines and of arranging circuits. It 1s in this latter field that I have been a diligent worker, and the application of the so-called ‘‘ K R” law has proved of material benefit in connection with the problems of long-distance telephony. It is a law which implies that the number of signals that can be transmitted per second through any circuit depends solely on the capacity (K) and the resistance (R) of the circuit. It is very much the fashion to deny the accuracy of the K R law. This is probably the result of ignorance of its meaning or of its interpretation. Some speak of it as empirical, others scoff at it as imaginary, and some sneer at it as an impossible law; but it is a law that has determined the dimensions and speed of working of all our long submarine cables ; it determines the number of arms a circuit can carry on the multiplex system, the speed attainable. with the Wheatstone system, and the distance to which it is possible to work quadruplex ; it is a law that has enabled us to bring London and Paris within clear telephone speech of each other, and which will probably before the year is out enable Dublin and Belfast tospeak to London—a message _ Fepruary 2, 1893]: NATURE 329 ao of peace to Ireland as solid and substantial as any promised political roposal, The New York and Chicago trunk line is 950 miles long, ‘it is built with 435 lbs. (or No. 8 S.W.G.) copper wire. $; wire gives a resistance of 2°06 ohms per mile, which is pe hog ; but it is said by Mr. Wetzler to have a capacity 0’0158 microfarad per mile, which cannot be verified, and : ich is absurdly high. 00158 microfarad was a measurement _ made by me in England on an old line, but I have frequently p ‘out that owing to the use of earth wires the capacity of lish lines is very much greater than that of American Mr. Edison discovered this in 1872 when he came to id to introduce his automatic system. Moreover, I have d out that induction still further diminishes acity. The Paris circuit does not exceed 0°005 Marad per mile. I should estimate the Chicago circuit at 07004 microfarad per mile, and the K R at 7500, _ which gives a result that quite accords with the opinions _ that I have heard expressed by those who have tried the two circuits as to the relative efficiency of the Paris and Chicago _ limes. My American friends would have done better if they had used thicker wire. I should have specified 600 lbs. per mile ; but if it had been in England I should have used 1000 Ibs., _ for we cannot dispense entirely with cables and underground ork as they have done in the States, and the increased capacity _ introduced must be compensated for by reduced resistance. As E a matter of fact, 1 once proposed 1200 lbs. wire for a circuit _ between London and Berlin—a distance of 760 miles, including a cable 55 miles long. ____The beneficial etfect of induction as a negative capacity is _ observed when working a circuit telegraphically with automatic _ high-speed apparatus. Thus, on two copper wires 450 miles _ long, making 900 miles altogether, the speed on each single wire ; _was 120 words per minute, and on metallic circuit— _ Loop vid different routes oie “92 OMsame poles... ‘ah 120 words per minute. 150 5, , ” difficulty in measuring R of a metallic loop. The = bridg it at onee. There is more diffi- culty in | ptainin z K. It cannot be measured directly. But _ with a metallic loop of copper, partly overhead and partly under- _ ground, there are several modihcations required, due to electro- static | on ee induction, which are at present reach of formulz, and render it difficult to determine city roe approximately from the telephonic effects hi ves. Thus the capacity on the London-Paris circuit proved to be only one-half of that obtained by calculation, and y long circuit will require its own K to be determined by ‘comparison with an empirical K R scale. Such a scale I have termin careful experiment on artificial cables. have recently devised a new form of cable which will pro- _ bably quadruple the rate of telegraph working to America ; _ and { may say with all confidence that there is no theoretical _ reason whatever why we should not converse between London gs pi oop tag in Europe, while it is not impossible to speak =f With ree st erie _ With regard to electric lighting, Mr. Preece said that many > efforts are being made to utilise the waste forces of nature in oducing electric currents for the economical supply’ of the America, Scotland, Switzerland, Italy, and, indeed, ere\ aterfalls are available, electric plant is being installed to convert the energy of the fall into the useful form of electricity. At Tivoli, near Rome, a fall of 165 feet is used to work six turbines of 350 horse-power each, giving 2100 horse-power in all. Six high-pressure alternators working in parallel send ical energy at over 5000 volts pressure to Porta Pia, near Rome, 148 miles from Tivoli, through four stranded copper conductors, each having a diameter of 13mm., and bunched into one metallic loop, giving a total resistance of 4ohms. At Porta Pia the 5000 volts are reduced to 2000, and the currents are dis- tributed to several substations spread over the city, where they are again lowered to the safe pressure of 102 volts, at which voltage the current is supplied to the consumer on the three-wire system. There are 600 arcs and 30,000 glow lamps in use in ome, but they are not all supplied from Tivoli. Mr. Preece inspected this installation only a few days ago, and found every- thing working smoothly and efficiently under the able guidance of Prof. Mengarini. __ Water power abolishes the coal bill, but it must be remembered NO. 1214, VOL. 47] a eS. ee 1 ‘So that the improvem vement effected by induction was 25 per cent, There is no 3 that the cost of maintenance of machinery and of the erection and upkeep of conductors limits the distance to which the eneryy of falling water can be economically transmitted. The proposal to light New York by currents generated at Niagara is at pre- sent financially absurd. It is doubtful whether it will be commercially advantageous at Buffalo, 30 miles away, but it is ga that at Tivoli it can be so applied with advantage and proht. There is much water power in this country that might be use- fully employed. At Worcester it is proposed to use the water of the Teme, a tributary of the Severn, to supply electrical energy to the city—an experiment that will be watched with con- siderable interest, for the use of water power will solve the difficulty occasioned by light loads during the small hours and daylight. Keswick and Lynton have already been so served, but on a small scale only. There are many towns whose public streets could be brilliantly illuminated by the streams running past them, but there is much fear and distrust to be removed from the minds of our local magnates, and a considerable amount of education necessary before the public will receive the full value of the gifts that nature so freely places at its disposal, and the engineer so thoroughly converts into a utilitarian form. The following are some extracts from the passage in which theoretical views of electricity are discussed :— In the Presidential address which I delivered to the Society of Telegraph Engineers and Electricians in 1880, I took the opportunity to formulate the theoretical views of electricity that I had acquired at the feet of Faraday. It is not given to evecy boy to have his great ambitions realised. One of my ambitions as an earnest listener to Faraday’s simple and delightful lectures was to be his assistant, and in almost the last investigation he undertook on electric induction in underground wires it was my privilege to see much of him, and to prepare many experiments for him. Early in 1854, at his wish, I carried out for Mr. Latimer Clerk certain experiments on the comparative effect of increments of voltage in increasing the rate of transmission of signals through long telegraph circuits. It was found that variation of voltage nad no effect. Currents from 31 and from 500 cells sent through 768 miles of gutta-percha-covered under- ground wire showed precisely the same velocity. These experi- ments were sent by Faraday to Melloni, who had prompted the wish, and Melloni (‘‘ Faraday’s Researches,” vol. iii. page 577) remarked : ‘* The equal velocity of currents of various tensions offers a fine argument in favour of the opinion of those who sup- pose the electric current to be analogous to the vibrations of air under the action of sonorous bodies.”” This is to be found in the very last contribution inserted in the greatest work ever published on our science, ‘‘ Faraday’s Experimental Researches in Electricity.” Faraday’s views were subsequently expounded and extended by Maxwell, who said: ‘‘ Faraday, in his mind's eye, saw lines of force traversing all space, where the mathematician saw centres of force attracting at a distance; Faraday saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance ; Faraday sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium, they were satisfied that they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on the electric fluids” (Max- well, ‘Electricity,’ vol. i. page 10). Since that period I have never regarded electricity as any- thing else but as a form of energy, and its effects as modes of motion of the molecules of matter and of the ether that fills all space ; and during my long apprenticeship of forty years I have never examined one experiment or considered one fact that was not explicable on this theory... . Electricity is energy which is transmitted by matter and through space by certain disturbances the result and the equivalent of work done, and in certain orderly and_ law regu- lated forms, called ‘‘ electro-magnetic waves.” It is not difficult to conceive the ether carved or the molecules of matter swayed or excited in definite periodic waves. A molecule is subject to all kinds of motion—translation, oscilla- tion, rotation upon its own axis, and revolution about some external axis. Clausius (Pogg. Ann., clvi. p. 618) suggested that the atoms or groups of atoms constituting a molecule revolve around one another similarly to planets, and are sometimes nearer to and sometimes further from each other. The difference between the infinitely great and the infinitely little is only one of degree. The motions of the solar system and that of a molecule of water are similar. These motions are imparted to and transmitted by the ether, and they are taken up again by matter. One kind of wave gives us light, another radiant heat, another magnetism, and another electrification. The rate at which these waves move is the same, viz. 30,000,000,000 centimetres, or 192,000 miles, per second. It is only their form and their frequency that differ. Matter and ether are subject to strains, currents, vortices, and undulations, and every single electro-magnetic phenomenon can be compounded of or reduced to one or other of these mechanical disturbances. Rotation in one direction gives positive electrification : rotation in the opposite direction gives negative electrification. A whirl in one direction gives us north magnetism; in another direction, south magnetism. Hertz, the experimental exponent of Maxwell’s views, has shown the existence of electro-magnetic waves, and has proved their reflection, refraction, andinterference. ‘The rate of their propagation is the same in ether, air, and conducting wires. The most recent discoveries and deductions are all in accord- ance with this mechanical theory. J. J. Thomson’s views that at high temperatures, in the act of dissociation, all gases, and Dewar and Fleming’s conclusion that at low temperatures—in fact, at the absolute zero of temperature—all metals become perfect conductors, might almost have been predicted. Hysteresis and Foucault losses are mere wastes of energy, due to molecular friction or to internal work done on the molecules, assisted by bad design and impure material ; but, being measurable and comprehensible, their reduction to a minimum has become possible and actual, It is a misfortune that a beautiful hypothesis like Maxwell’s electro-magnetic theory of light has been discussed almost solely by mathematicians, Its consideration has been confined to a small and exclusive class. It has not reached the public; and this is to be regretted, for, after all, it is the many, and not the few, that determine the acceptance or refusal of a theory. The existence of the ether is now thoroughly comprehensible. Light is now regarded as an electro-magnetic disturbance. The eye is an extremely sensitive and delicate electro-magnetic instrument. The difference between luminous, thermic, and electro-magnetic waves is one of frequency and form. We thus have to consider the propagation of these waves not only in the conductor and in the dielectric in the direction of the circuit itself, but in the ether at right angles to this direction. The former, produces currents in the conductor, and the latter induction and secondary effects in contiguous conductors. ‘Thus it is easy to see why electric and magnetic lines of force are at right angles to each other, and each of them perpendicular to the line of propagation of the primary electro-magnetic waye, and why the transversal disturbances are secondary waves of..electro-magnetic energy which can be transformed into electric currents of opposite direction whenever contiguous conductors lie in their path so as to be cut by these lines of force in the proper direction. Induc- tion is thus mere transformation of energy whose direction and magnitude are easily calculated. It is by following out this line of thought that I have recently succeeded in sending messages by Morse signals across the Bristol Channel between Lavernock and Flat Holm, a dis- tance of 311 miles. The electro-magnetic disturbances were excited by primary alternating currents in a copper. wire, 1237 yards long, erected on poles along the top of the cliff on the mainland. The radiant electro-magnetic energy was transformed into currents again in a secondary circuit, 610 yards long, laid along the island. The strength of these secondary induced currents complied almost exactly with calcu- lations. The results attained, the apparatus used, the pre- cautions taken to separate effects of induction from effects of conduction ; the elimination of mere earth currents from electro- magnetic disturbances in air, will form the subject of a separate paper, for their proper consideration would be too tedious for an address. I allude to them now only to illustrate the existence of one of the greatest proofs of the truth of a theory, viz. the practical development and verification of a conclusion predicted from mere theoretical considerations. The oscillatory character of the discharge of a Leyden jar, which was discovered by Henry in 1842, is an admirable proof of this molecular theory. If two jars, precisely similar as regards capacity and circuit inertia, be placed near each other with their planes parallel, and one of them is charged and dis- charged, the other responds sympathetically, as do two similarly pitched tuning-forks when one is excited. Professor Oliver Lodge, who has made this field his own, has shown that by varying the capacity of the jars and the inertia of the circuit, NO. 1214, VCL. 47] NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 oscillations can be produced to give any required rate of oscilla- tion from one to 300 millions per second. In a room or theatre, when these discharges are excited, it is a common thing to see sympathetic sparks upon the span walls, and among the metallic objects scattered about. whole place is an electric field, which is violently disturbed at every spark, and everything which is *‘ syntonised,” as Oliver Lodge calls it, to the main discharge, responds in this way. __ It is impossible to account for these effects, which are all cases of transformed kinetic energy, except on the mechanical theory which I have advanced. We have a source of disturbance, we have energy transmitted in waves, we have wave transformed into disturbance again. Energy passes through its various stages by the motion of matter and the action of the ether. Every- thing is accounted for and nothing is lost. means energy in the wrong place. YEZO AND THE AINU. Two papers on recent travels in the Island of Yezo were read to the Royal Geographical Society on Monday evening. Prof. J. Milne, F.R.S., whose paper was read by the Secretary. made a journey to the north-east of the island by sea in 1891, and returned by land, crossing Yezo almost through its centre. He view to studying the volcanic geology of the regions. Lan Kushiro, interesting on account of the relics of pre-Ainu inhabit- ants, and on account of its coal mines, they ascended the Kusuri river to Shibecha, where there isa great convict prison ane sulphur refinery, the raw sulphur being obtained from the vo cano Atosanobori, to which there is a railway twenty miles long. In this locality the violence of the escape of steam from the boil- ing springs exceeds anything seen elsewhere in Japan, New Zealand, or Iceland. A new road, thirty-seven miles long, led from the volcano to Apashiri, on the north-east coast, where a factory for making matches has recently been erected, on account of the abundance of the white-stemmed poplar, the timber of which is much more readily worked in the fresh state than when dried. A boat journey was made ina small dug-out canoe under rugged cliffs from 500 feet to 1000 feet in height, for thirty miles to Shiritoki, where there is a great sulphur mine. From some of the volcanic craters fused sulphur flows like lava, and crystal- was accompanied by Mr. John Revilliod, and travelled with a ingat lises in an almost pure state. A trip from Nemuro to the nearer Kurile Islands was followed by the main feature of the journey, a ride from Yubets, on the north coast, up the Yubets river, across the watershed, and down the Ishikari river, to the west coast. Groups of convicts working on the new roads, which are. being made across the island, were almost the only people met » with. Vast groves of tall bamboo grass everywhere impeded the travellers, and insects of all kinds proved very troublesome. There was little or no sign of larger animal life. Mr. A. H. Savage Landor also read a paper. He had wandered all round Yezo and up several. of the largest rivers quite alone, and with no object save curiosity and the desire to study the Ainu at home. The main part of. his equipment was a great store of painting material, of which he made good use in portraying both the natives and the scenery of the island. The Ainu accessible from Hakodate, who have been frequently visited and often described, are almost all Japanese half-breeds, and much influenced in customs and costume by their southern neighbours. The Ainu of the interior and the more distant parts of the coast were very different. The true Ainu villages are intensely filthy, and the vermin in them make life almost unsupportable to a stranger, minute black flies, which swarm in incredible hosts, being the worst. The people, although good- humoured, are sunk in the most degraded savagery. Their marriage customs seem to be summed up in unqualified promiscuity, the Ainu disclaiming any idea of being better than bears or dogs. The Ainu language is poor in words, and many of them show a curious resemblance to words of Anglo- Saxon origin, e.g. Chip, for ship; Do, day ; Mukku, music ; Pone, bone ; Ru, road ; Zo, two ; Wakka, water. beliefs of the Ainu can hardly be dignified by such a term ; they are merely superstitions. In travelling along the south-west coast there was often considerable danger from the waves washing over the narrow track which wound between the boulders on the beach. Fog prevails along the east coast in summer, probably on account of the Kuro-Siwo encountering a cold current off the island. The upper Tokachi river was the Waste energy only: The religious | FEBRUARY 2, 1893] NATURE 33! ‘most remote part of Yezo visited, a region which had scarcely _ been traversed by the Japanese. Here the Ainu were found to be more hairy than elsewhere, and to present many Aryan features in their general appearance. One peculiar fact brought _ out by many measurements was the remarkable length of theic _ arms. The measurement across the outstretched arms is always ____ from three to five inches more than the height of the individual. _ _ The future ~~ of Hokkaido (the name given to Yezo and the Kurile Islands collectively) is to be erected on the ga ¥ 7 } _ Kamikawa plain, in the very centre of Yezo, and roads are ; elit et forward to connect it with all parts of the coast. e+ Ht when completed, take the place of the present capital, Sapporo. According to Japanese map:, Mr. Landor’s journey extended to 5000 miles, but his own reckoning puts it as 3809 ; almost the whole distance was done on horseback. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. OXFORD. —By the death of Prof. Westwood on January 2 the University lost one of the most learned of its members, and another link with the earlier study of science in Oxford is gone. Prof. Westwood became Hope Professor on the foundation of _ the chair by the Rev. F. W. Hope in 1861, and afterwards ___ devoted his time to the perfecting of the collection which Mr. __ Hope bestowed on the University. The collection, which has ____ received considerable additions from other sources, including the Burchell collection, Wallace's types, &c., has attained some- what unmanageable proportions, and its present quarters are too small for its proper display. Whoever succeeds to the Gait, tt is to be hoped that suitable provision will be afforded . ystore him to make the collection of more use to University st than has hitherto been the case. ___ In November last an examination for a Radclife Travelling __ Fellowship, thrown open, fro hac vice, to all branches of natural , was held, but the result has not yet been announced. erm for a second Radcliffe Fellowship, the subjects being medical. It is believed that the results of the two ex- ations will be published together at the end of this term. There is some dissatisfaction at the delay in announcing the sult of the first examination. _ Prof. Ray Lankester has recovered from the illness which “necessitated his absence from Oxford last term, and has resumed his lectures on the Vertebrata and a senior course on the a _ The Mathematical Scholarships and Exhibitions have been _ awarded as follows :— ; . ! | Cae Mathematical Scholar, R. C. Fowler, B.A., of New _-*Proxime Accessit, S. F. White, B.A., of Wadham College, to whom the iners have awarded Lady Herschell’s book. “__ Junior Mathematical Scholar, C. B,. Underhill, Balliol _ Junior Mathematical Exhibition, J. F. McKean, Hertford College. _ Proxime Accessit, W. C. Childs, Corpus ChristieCollege. | _ The Duchess of Marlborough has bestowed on the Chemical ’ Department the entire collection of chemical and electrical aratus belonging to the late Duke. The collection, which includes two exceptionally fine spectroscopes, delicate balances, &c,, has been brought to the Museum from Blenheim, and forms a valuable addition to the Chemical Laboratory. _ Mr, E. L. Collis, of Keble, is President, and Mr. M. D. Hill, of New College, is Treasurer of the Junior Scientific Club this term, and Messrs. C. H. H. Walker, of University College, and T. H. Butler, of Corpus Christi, are respectively Chemical and Biological Secretaries. The first meeting is held on Wednesday, February 1, when Mr. J. E. Marsh exhibits some products of the electrical furnace, and Messrs. Finn and Fremantle read 1 iP on East Africa and Hermaphroditism. Ata meeting of the Biological Club, on Saturday last, Mr. G, C. Bourne read a paper on the influence of the nucleus on the cell. CAMBRIDGE. —The Senate have resolved to appoint a Demon- -strator in Palzozoology in connection with the Geological Department. He will have no stipend from the University, but will be remunerated from the fees paid by students. NO. 1214, VOL. 47] i ‘now announced that an examination will be held during Dr. Allbutt, Regius Professor of Physic, Dr. A. MacAlister, Professor of Anatomy, and Dr. Donald MacAlister, University Lecturer in Medicine, have been appointed to represent the University at the Eleventh International Medical Congress to be held at Rome in September next. Dr. W. H. Gaskell bas been appointed a member of the Special Board for Medicine, and Mr. C. T. Heycock a member of the Special Board for Physics and Chemistry. Dr: Ransome, F.R.S., Honorary Fellow of Gonville and Caius College ; Dr. Corfield, F.R.S, Professor of Hygiene and Public Health in University College, London; Dr. J. Lane Notter, Professor of Military Hygiene at Netley; and Dr. Thorne Thorne, F.R.S., Medical. Officer to H.M. Local Government Board, have been appointed Examiners in State Medicine for the Diploma in Public Health during the current year. Sir G. G. Stokes and Dr. Hobson have been elected Exam- iners for the Adams Memorial Prize to be awarded in 1895. Mr. E, H. Acton, of St. John’s, and Mr. T. H. Eastertield, of Clare, have been approved as Teachers of Chemistry with reference to the regulations for medical and surgical degrees. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LonpDon, Royal Society, December 15, 1892.—‘‘ Experiments on the Action of Light on Sacillus anthracis.” By Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. It is abundantly evinced by experiments that direct insolation in some way leads to the destruction of spores of Aacillus anthracis, and in so far the results merely confirm what had already been discovered by Downes and Blunt in 1877 and 1878. From the fact that an apparent retardation of the development of the colonies on plates exposed to light was observed several times under circumstances which suggested a direct inhibitory action of even ordinary daylight, the author went further into this particular question with results as startling as they are import- ant, for if the explanation given of the phenomena observed in the following experiments turns out to be the correct one, we stand face to face with the fact that by far the most potent factor in the purification of the air and rivers of bacteria is the sunlight. The fact that direct sunlight is efficacious as a bactericide has been long suspectéd, but put-forward. very- vaguely in most cases. Starting from the observation that a test-tube, or small flask containing a few c.c. of Thames water with many hundreds of thousands of anthrax spores in it may be entirely rid of living spores by continued exposure daily for a few days to the light of the sun, and that even a few weeks of bright summer daylight —not direct insolation—reduces the number of spores capable of development on gelatine, it seemed worth while to try the effect of direct insolation on plate-cultures to seeif the results could be got more quickly and definitely.” Preliminary triais with gelatine plate-cultures at the end of the summer soon showed that precautions of several kinds were necessary. The direct exposure of an ordinary plate-culture to the full light of even a September or October sun, especially in the afternoon, usually leads at once to the running and lique- faction of the gelatine, and although the exposed plates eventually showed fewer anthrax colonies than similar plates not exposed, the matter was too complicated to give satisfactory results. Obviously one objection was that the spores might have begun to germinate, and the young colonies killed by the high tempera- tures. Experiments made in October with gelatine plates wrapped in black paper, in which a figure—a square, cross, or letter—was cut, also led to results too indefinite for satisfaction, although it was clear in some cases that if the plates lay quite flat, the illuminated area was on the whole clear of colonies, while that part of the plate covered by the paper was full of colonies. But another source of vexation arose. After the plates had been exposed to the sunlight for, say, six hours, it was necessary to put them in the incubator (20°-22° C. was the temperature used) for two days or so, to develop the colonies, and in many cases it was observed that by the time the colonies were sufficiently t See p. 237 of “First Report to the Water Research Committee of the Royal Society” (“* Roy. Soc. Proc.”’ col. 51, 1892) for the literature on this subject up to 1891. iy ?'It appears that Buchner (Centr. f. Bakt. vol. xii. 1892) has already done this for typhoid, and finds the direct rays of the summer sun quite effective, 332 NALIURE | FEBRUARY 2, 1893 _ far advanced to show up clearly, liquefaction had extended so far as to render-the figure blurred and doubtful. Stencil plates of zinc were employed with, at first, equally uncertain results.. The stencil plate was fixed to the bottom of the plate culture, outside, and every other part covered with blackened paper : the plate was then placed on,a level surface, the stencil-covered face upward, and exposed to the direct sun- light. As before, the gelatine softened and in many cases ran, and the results were uncertain, though not altogether dis- couraging. ; In November it was found that more definite results could be obtained, and the problem was at last solved. Meanwhile it had already been found possible to obtain sun prints in the following way with agar plates. Ordinary agar was heated and allowed to cool to between 50° and 60° C., and was then richly infected with anthrax spores, and made into plates as usual. _ Such plates were then covered with a stencil plate on the lower face—the stencil plate being therefore separa- ted from the infected agar only by the glass of the plate—and wrapped elsewhere closely in dull black paper, so that, on ex- posure to the sun only the cut-out figure or letter allowed the solar rays to reach the agar. Such plates were then exposed to the direct rays of the Octo- ber sun for from two to six hours; or they were placed on the Fic. 1. ring of a retort-stand, stencil downwards, and the sunlight reflected upwards from a plane mirror below. After the insolation these plates were incubated for at least forty-eight hours at 20° C., and on removing the wrappers the colonies of anthrax were found densely covering all parts of the plate except the area—a letter or cross, &c.—exposed to the sunlight. There, however, the spores were killed, and the agar remained perfectly clear, showing the form of a sharp transparent letter, cross, &c., in a groundwork rendered cloudy and opaque by the innumerable colonies of anthrax. Experiments proved that this was not due to high tempera- ture, for a thermometer with its bulb next the insolated glass rarely rose beyond 14° to 16° C., and never beyond 18°C., and even if the thermometer did not record the temperature inside the plate, this can scarcely have been much highe;. As long as this latter point remained uncertain, however, the experiments could not be regarded as satisfactory ; whence it was necessary to again have recourse to gelatine cultures. The gelatine employed began to run at 29° C., and in November it was found that such plates exposed outside, either to directly incident sunshine, or to directly reflected rays, showed a tem- NO. 1214, VOL. 47] perature of 12° to 13° C. at the insolated glass surface, and even five to six hours exposure caused no running of the gelatine. The following experiment may be selected as a type of the rest :—A (Fig. 1) is the upright of an ordinary retort-stand ; on the ring B rested a gelatine plate culture of anthrax spores, covered with black paper everywhere except the cut-out letter E, seen on its lower face. C was an ordinary plane microscope- mirror with its arm fitted to a cork on A, The whole was placed in the middle of a field at 9.30 a.m. on Wednesday, November 30, and exposed to the clear, but low, sunshine which prevailed that day, the mirror being so arranged (from time to time as necessary) as to reflect the light on the £ the whole period, until 3.30 p.m., when the plate was removed and placed in the dark incubator at 20°C. On the following Friday—z.e. after less than forty- eight hours’ incubation—the letter Estood out sharp and clearly transparent from the faint grey of the rest of the plate of gela- tine. Not a trace of anthrax could be found in the clear area, even with the microscope, while the grey and almost opaque appearance of the rest of the plate was due to innumerable colonies of that organism which had developed in the interval. It was impossible to incubate the plate longer for fear of lique- faction, whence the sceptical may reply that the anthrax to light was only retarded ; the experiments with agar show that such is not the case, however, and that if the insolation is com- say's @ ue plete the spores are rendered incapable of germinating at all, _ as proved by removing pieces of the clear agar or gelatiné and attempting to make tube cultures from them : in all cases where insolation is complete they remain sterile. The chief value of these gelatine plate exposures in November, however, is that they prove conclusively (1) that the rays of a winter sun are capable, even if reflected, of killing the spores, © and (2) that it is really the solar rays which do this directly, and not any effect of a higher temperature, since the gelatine remains solid throughout. dace Experience has shown, however, that some precautions aré necessary in selecting the anthrax cultures employed for these experiments with gelatine. The light certainly retards or kills (according to its intensity or the length of exposure) virulent spores, but if one takes the spores, mixed with vegetative bacilli, direct from a thoroughly liquefied gelatine culture, or from a bouillon culture, the plates are apt to be liquefied too rapidly for the proper development of the light print, evidently because so much of the liquefying enzyme is carried in when inoculating the plates. The same danger is run when active bacilli alone are employed. The best method of avoiding these disadvantages has been / Frpruary 2, 1893] NATURE 2727 VII found to be the following, and it has the additional merit of ya ing us to prove, beyond all doubt, that the ripe spores of us anthracis are really inhibited or killed by sunlight. r A few c.c. of sterile distilled water in a tube are thoroughly saturated with the anthrax spores taken from an old culture which _ has never been exposed to light, and the tube placed for twenty- _ four hours at 56°C.; this kills all immature spores, bacilli, and enzymes, and leaves us with a crop of the most resistant and : pay Bas nat virulent spores. periments with such spores have been made to determine the relative power of the different rays of the spectrum to destroy the anthrax. ~ It is necessary to note first, however, that in experimenting _ the electric light, although but few exposures have been ade as yet, it is evident that its effects are feebler than those of sun. : __At present it has only been possible to observe that the in- ing effects are stronger at the blue end of the spectrum than at the red, and exposures to sunlight passing through coloured ‘las agri this eats but the sey Maier are Lace; pc F ed in t ope of getting a perfectly sharp record of the ; Mile at each tet Of ras. eee aac ___ The following series of experiments are quoted in detail, __ because they teach several details of importance, in addition to roving the main fact. : On ber 7 three gelatine plates and five agar plates were ____ prepared with spores from a very vigorous and virulent agar tube _ Ofanthrax. The spores, which were quite mature, were not ub jectec to heat, but naply shaken in sterile water to wash and ug 2 three gelatine plates were made at 35° C., the agar plates : of which temperatures could injure the ripe hi ec gelatine plates were labelled 1, 7 2, and / 3, and plates f 4 to f 8 in order. gelatin plate with a /arge letter M, was exposed, face down, to the light reflected from a mirror (see Fig. 1) for three hours or ‘December 7, and for four hours on December 8, the inte ppt being passed ina cold room (¢ about 8°-9° C.), and then cubated at 20° in the dark. was treated in exactly the same manner. But this was an ar plate with a /arge W.’ / 2, a gelatine plate with a /arge H, was exposed and heated n the same Way, except that no mirror was used, the latter ywards towards the sun. : A renee plate with a /arge B, was similarly exposed, - up, but a plane mirror arranged to reflect light down it. oo ss aa lt with forge E, was treed excl the ere now remain the three agar plates, 2 4, # 5, and / 6, to | _ 4 was placed forthwith in the dark incubator at 20° C. . 5 and p 6 were kept for eighteen hours in a drawer, the average temperature of which is almost 16° C., and were not } Pots 3 till next day (December 8), when they lay for five hours, face upwards, and with a mirror above them. # 5 had a smad/ B, and 2 6 a broad but small I to let the light in. ex A ? these also were put in the same incubator with the others. | Nothing was visible to the unaided eye on these plates (ex- cept / 4) until the 11th instant, though the microscope showed that germination was proceeding on the roth. The plate / 4, however, had a distinct veil of colonies all over it on the 9th, and this had developed to a dense typical growth by the 11th. On December 11, at 10 a.m., the state of affairs, as regards the exposed plates, was as follows :— _p5 and f6 showed each a sharp transparent letter—E and I re- spectively—of clear agar in a dull grey matrix of strong anthrax colonies, which covered all the unexposed parts of the plate. @ I, p 2, and / 3 showed in each case a perfectly clear central ch, about 14 inches diameter, with anthrax colonies in the gelatine around. These anthrax colonies were the /arger and more vigorous the more distant they were from the clear centre. In other words, the anthrax spores had begun to germinate, NO. 1214, VOL. 47] ro the colonies were growing more vigorously, in centripetal order, On / 7 and £ 8 germination was beginning, but the colonies were as yet too young to enable one to judge of the results. The first point of interest is to account for the pronounced results in the plates 4 5 and / 6, and the want of sharp outlines in fp I, f 2, and f 3, and the explanation seems to be that, owing to the plates § and 6 having laid over night at 16° C., the spores began slowly to germinate out, avd were consequently in their most tender condition when exposed to the sunlight next day. The peculiar centripetal order of development of the colonies on plates f I, f 2, and # 3 gave rise to the following attempt at explanation. After observing that the clear space in the middle was not due to the centre of the plate being raise], and the infected gelatine having run down to the periphery—a possible event with some batches of Petrie’s dishes—it was surmised that the /arge letters employed might give the clue. This was found to be the case. The solar rays on entering the plate were largely reflected from the glass lid of the plates, and so produced feebler insolation effects on parts of the plate around the letter; these effects were naturally feebler and feebler towards the margin, and so the inhibitory action became less pronounced at distances further and further removed from the centre. Those spores, therefore, which were nearest the periphery germinated out first, and those nearer the centre were retarded and more and more in proportion to their proximity to the insolated letter. That this is the correct interpretation of the facts follows clearly from the further behaviour of the above plates. At 10 p.m, on the t1th—z.e. twelve hours after the morning examination—the plates / 1, f 2, and / 3 exhibited their re- spective letters M, HI, and B quite clearly, inthe grey matrix of anthrax which had rapidly developed in the interval, and excepting a slight want of sharpness in the H of / 2, the results could hardly have been more satisfactory. In f 7 and / 8 the very faint outlines of the letters were also showing. On the 12th, at 8.30 a.m., the gelatine plates had begun to run, and although the M of #1 was still intact, and very well marked, # 2 had liquefied completely, so that the H was a clear patch with blurred outlines in the centre. é 3 still showed the outlines of the B, but it was impossible to keep it longer. The main point was definitely established, however, and the treatment of the plates proves conclusively that the spores are not killed by high or low temperatures, dut dy the direct solar rays. “These experiments are being continued in order to answer some other questions in this connection. The gelatine and agar after such exposures as have been described are still capable of supporting a growth of 3. anthracis if fresh spores are sown on them, whence the effects described are not merély due to the sub-strata being spoilt as food material. Royal Meteorological Society, January 18.—Dr. C. Theodore Williams, President, in the chair.—After the report had been read, and the officers and council for the ensuing year had been elected, the President delivered an address on the high altitudes of Colorado and their climates, which was illus- trated by a number of lantern slides. —Dr. Williams first noticed the geography of the plateaux of these regions, culminating step by step in the heights of the rocky mountains, and described the lofty peaks, the great parks, the rugged and grand cajions, and the rolling prairie, dividing them into four classes of elevations between 5000 and. 14,500 feet above sea level. He then dwelt on the meteorology of each of these divisions ; giving the rain- fall and relative humidity, and accounting for its very small per- centage by the moisture being condensed on the mountain ranges of the Sierras lying to the west of the Rockies ; also noticing the amount of sunshine and of cloudless weather, the maxima and minima temperatures, the wind force,and the barometric pressure. Dr. Williams quoted some striking examples of electrical pheno- mena witnessed on Pike’s Peak (14, 147 feet) by the observer of the U.S. Weather Bureau, when during a violent thunderstorm flashes of fire and loud reports, with heavy showers of sleet, sur- rounded the summit in all directions, and brilliant jets of flame of a rose-white colour jumped from point to point on the electric wire, while the cups of the anemometer, which were revolving rapidly, appeared as one solid ring of fire, from which issued a loud rushing and hissing sound. During another storm the 334 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 observer was lifted off his feet by the electric fluid, while the wristband of his woollen shirt, as soon as it became damp, formed a fiery ring around his arm, The climate of the Parks is, however, Dr. Williams considered, of more practical interest, and in these magnificent basins of park- like country interspersed with jines, and backed by gigantic mountains, are resorts replete with interest for the artist, the sportsman, the man of science, and the seeker for health. Most of them lie at heights of from 7000 to 9000 feet, and so good is the shelter that usually snow does not long remain on the ground, while Herefordshire cattle in excellent condition are able to fatten on the good herbage, and to lie out all the winter without shed or stable. Dr. Williams predicted for these parks a great future as high altitude sanitaria for the American continent, especially as several of them have been brought within easy distance of Denver, the queen city of the plains, by various lines of railway. The resorts on the foothills and on the prairie plains, at elevations of 5000 to 7000 feet, include, besides Denver, Colorado Springs, Manitou, Boulder, Golden, and other health stations, which can be inhabited all the year round, and where most of the comforts and luxuries of American civilisation are attainable in a climate where not more than half a day a week in winter is clouded over, where the rainfall is only about 14 inches annually, most of which falls during summer thunderstorms, where the sun shines brightly for 330 days each year, and where the air is so transparent that objects twenty miles off appear close at hand, and high peaks are calculated to be visible at a distance of 120 miles. Dr. Williams summed up thus :—The chief features of the climate of Colorado appear to be (1) Diminished barometric pressure, owing to altitude, which, throughout the greater part of the State, does not fall below 5000 feet. (2) Great atmospheric dryness, especially in winter and autumn, as shown by the small rainfall and low percentage of relative humidity. (3) Clearness of atmosphere and absence of fog orcloud. (4) Abundant sunshine all the year round, but especially in winter and autumn. (5) Marked diathermancy of atmosphere, pro- ducing an increase in the difference of sun and shade temper- atures, varying with the elevation in the proportion of 1° for every rise of 235 feet. (6) Considerable air movement, even in the middle of summer, which promotes evaporation and tempers the solar heat. (7) The presence of a large amount of atmo- spheric electricity. Thus the climate of this state is dry and sunny, with bracing and energising qualities, permitting outdoor exercise all the year round, the favourable results of which may be seen in the large number of former consumptives whom it has rescued from the life of invalidism and converted into healthy active workers ; and its.stimulating and exhilarating influence may also be traced inthe wonderful enterprise and unceasing labour which the Colorado people have shown in developing the riches, agricultural and mineral, of their country. Entomological Society, January 18.—Sixtieth Annual Meeting.—Mr. Frederick DuCane Godman, F.R.S., Presi- dent, in the chair.—An abstract of the treasurer’s accounts having been read by Mr. J. Jenner Weir, one of the auditors, the secretary, Mr. H. Goss, read the report of the Council. After the ballot it was announced that the following gentlemen had been elected as officers and Council for 1893 :—President, Mr. Henry J. Elwes; Treasurer, Mr. R. McLachlan, F.R.S. ; Secretaries, Mr. Herbert Goss and the Rev. Canon Fowler; Librarian, Mr. George C. Champion; and as other mem- bers of the Council, Mr. C. G. Barrett, Mr. Charles J. Gahan, Mr. F. DuCane Godman, F.R.S., Mr. Frederic Merri- field, Mr. Osbert Salvin, F.R.S., Dr. David Sharp, F.R.S., Colonel Charles Swinhoe, and Mr. George H. Verrall. The President then delivered an address which, though containing reference to the Society’s internal affairs and an allusion to the successiul resistance made by naturalists and others to the War Office scheme for establishing a rifle-range in the New Forest, consisted fur the most part o! full obituary notices of Fellows of the Society who had died during the year, special mention being made of Mr. Henry W. Bates, ¥.R.S., Prof. Hermann C. C. Burmeister, Dr. Carl A. Dohrn, Mr. H. Berkeley- james, Mr. J. T. Harris, Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S., | Mr. Henry. T. Stainton, F.R.S., Mr. Howard Vaughan, and Prof. J. O. Westwood, the Hon, Life President. Votes of thanks to the President and other officers of the Society having been proposed by Lord Walsingham, F.R.S., and Dr. D, Sharp, F.R.S., and seconded by Mr. J. H. Leech and Mr. NO. 1214, VOL. 47] W. H. B. Fletcher, Mr. Godman, Mr. McLachlan, Mr. H. . Goss, and Canon Fowler severally replied, and the proceedings terminated. Linnean Society, January 19.—General Meeting, Prof. Charles Stewart, President, in the chair.—After the confirma- tion of the minutes the President referred in suitable terms to the losses sustained by biologic science in the deaths of Sir Richard Owen and Prof. J. O. Westwood, who had been Fel- lows of the Society for 56 and 64 years respectively.—Mr. George Brook showed photographs of corals which he had lately taken and had reproduced by permanent process at a cost below lithography, with the added advantage of permitting am- plification by a hand lens.—The President read a paper on the auditory organ of [the angel fish (RAzna sguatina).—Mr. W. Carruthers, F.R.S., V.P.L.S., then laid before the Society the results of a collection made by Mr. Alexander Whyte in the Malanji country, in the Shiré highlands, in October, 1891, and the plants were determined by the officers of the Botanical De- partment, British Museum, about sixty, or, roughly speaking, one-fifth, proving new to science. Whilst Sir J. D. Hooker defined the flora of Kilimanjaro as Abyssinian in character, the Malanji flora displays a much closer relationship to the Cape.— The last paper was by Mr. G. F. Scott Elliot, and was his re as botanist to the Anglo-French Sierra Leone Boundary Com- mission, in which he gave an account of the economic aspects of the districts traversed. — fe9 Geological Society, January 11.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The following communications were read:—Variolite of the Lleyn, and associated volcanic rocks, by Catherine A. Raisin, B.Sc. Communicated by Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. The district in which these rocks occur is the south-western part of the Lleyn peninsula, marked on the Geological Survey map as ‘‘ metamorphosed Cambrian.” Some of the holocrystalline rocks aré probably later intrusions, The ’ igneous rocks, which are described in detail in the present paper, belong to the class of rather basic’ andesites or not very basic basalts; they show two extreme types, which were probably formed by differentiation from an originally homogeneous magma. Corresponding to the two types of rock are two forms of variolite. These are fully described, and their mode of development is discussed. The variolites occur near Aberdaron, and at places along the coast. Their spherulitic structure often is cid $n towards the exterior of contraction-spheriods, and in this in other particulars they correspond with those of the Fichtelge- birge and of the Durance. The volcanic rocks include lava- flows and fraymental masses, both fine ash’and coarse ag- glomerate. ‘They are associated with limestones, quartzose, and other rocks, which are possibly sedimentary, but which give no trustworthy evidence of the age of the variolites. Prof. Judd complimented the authoress on the evidently great amount of labour and patient research devoted to this investigation. He thought the occurrence of the spherulitic structure round the surfaces of ‘* pillow-like masses,” similar to those described by Prof. Dana, was exceedingly interesting, especially when one considered the probably very great antiquity of these Caernar- vonshire rocks. He thought, also, the suggestion that early crystallised magnetite-grains had formed the nuclei of the spherulites, was a very interesting and probable one.’ Mr. Alfred Harker, Profs. Bonney, Hull, and J. F. Blake also spoke. —On the petrography of the island of Capraja, by Hamilton Emmons. Communicated by Sir Archibald Geikie, For. Sec. R.S. The rocks of Capraja consist generally of andesitic outflows resting on andesitic breccias and conglomerates. The southern end seems to have formed a distinct centre of volcanic activity, whose products are younger in age and more basic in character than the rocks of the rest of the island, and may be termed ‘“‘anamesites.” “The lavas appear to have flowed from a vent at some distance from the cone, which probably occurred here, and gave out highly scoriaceous fragments. In the other parts of the island andesite is almost everywhere formed, with patches of the underlying breccias here and there in the valley bottoms, The chief centre of activity probably lay west of the centre of the island. Petrographical details of the andesites and aname- sites, descriptions of the groundmass and included minerals of each, and chemical analyses are given. As regards the age of the constituents, the author arranges them in the following order, commencing with the oldest :— Magnetité, olivine, augite, mica, felspar, nepheline. After the reading of this paper Dr. Du Riche Preller gave an outline of the leading geological and the x s aad the Maremma hills. ee a Nites Ba “ ¢ " Walker.” twen’ Frsruary 2, 1893] NATURE 535 anal ous petrological features of the several islands of the Tus- rchipelago, of Corsica, Sardinia, the Carrara mountains, The President also spoke. Zoological Society, January 17. —Sir W.H. Flower, F.R.S.. BPretident,: in the chair.—The Secretary read a report on the ad- ditions that had been made to the society’s menagerie during _ the month of December, 1892.—Mr. F. C. Selous exhibited and _ made remarks on the head of a hybrid antelope between the (Bubalis lunata) and Hartebeest (2. caama) ; also a ‘afemale Koodoo (Strepsiceros kudu) with horns, and heads of some other South African antelopes.—Mr. O. Thomas exhibited some examples (from the Baram River, Sarawak, col- by. Mr. Hose) of the monkey that he had lately described mnopithecus cruciger, and stated that, in spite of the con- tic a afforded by these specimens, Mr. Hose thought that pecies might possibly be only an re of S. chrysomelas. communication was read from Mr. E, Y. Watson, entitled, posed classification of the Hesperiidae, with a revision of re This contained a preliminary classification of the eritde, including the numerous modern genera, which were x under three subfamilies according to the sexual dif- s, the resting posture, the antennz, the spurs on the hind _ ae, and the position of vein 5 (relative to veins 4 and 6) of the fore wing. The subfamilies were named Pyrrkopygine, ‘Hesperiinz, and Pamphilinz, and the two last were subdivided into sections without names. In all 234 generic names were , dealt with, of which 49 were treated as synonyms, while 45 new ' a were described. Complete diagnoses were given of all _ the admitted genera.—A communication was read by Mr. E. z Austen, entitled ** Descriptions of New Species of Dipterous Insects of the Family Syrphide, in the Collection of the British Museum, with Notes on Species described by the late Francis This communication contained descriptions of -three new species belonging to the division Bacchini, one. belonging to the Brachyopini (genus Rhingia), An - was made to divide the genus Aaccha, as at present -ando existing, into three groups, based chiefly upon the shape and~ The true position of the remarkable . eo the abdomen. Brac, weastrirhyncha, founded by “Bigot on a species from and afterwards cancelled by its author in favour of Rhi:i was established. It was shown that this genus had nothing to do with RAingia, but was one of the Zristalini, closely allied to Zristalis. It was also shown that the genus Lycastris, fourided by Walker for a species from Tndia, was not identical with Ahéngia (as had been likewise suggested by Bigot), but q _ belonged to the Xy/otinz, and was allied to Criorrhina. A comm tion was read from Mr. Gilbert C. Bourne, contain- _ ing descriptions of two new species of Copepodous Crustaceans from Zanzibar, proposed to be called Canthocamplus finni and ores: africanus.—Mr. Sclater exhibited and made remarks on typical specimen of a rare Argentine bird (Xenopsaris as bach described by the late Dr. Burmeister in 1868. Bpbsepciogical Institute, January 24.—Anniversary : —Dr. Edward B. Tylor, F.R.S., in the chair.—The ‘olowig were elected Ginets and council fer the ensuing year : rof. A. Macalister. Vice-Presidents, J. G. » Chas. a Read, F. W. Rudler. Secretary, C. Peek. .. Lewis. Council: G. M. Atkinson, Henry Bee We Brabrooke, Hyde Clarke, J. F. Collingwood, Prof. D. J. Cunningham, W. L. Distant, J. Edge Partington, A, J. Evans, H. Gosselan, Prof. A.C. Haddon, T. V. Holmes, R. Biddulph Martin, R. Munro, F. G. H. Price, Oldfield Thomas, Arthur Thomson, Coutts ‘aeld M. J. Walhouse, Gen. Sir C. P. Beauchamp Walker. EDINBURGH. Royal Society, January 16.—Prof. Copeland, Vice-Presi- dent, in the chair.—A paper, by Dr. W. Pole, on the present state of knowledge and opinion in regard to colour blindness, was communicated. He discussed alone the red-green form of colour blindness. _ In such a case the solar spectrum presents only two hues se sd gee as by a nearly colourless portion—a mixture of blue and yellow lights giving rise to a gray colour. According to Young the three primary colour sensations corre- spond to red, green, and blue or violet, and Maxwell and _ Helmholtz, reasoning on this theory, conclude that the colours seen in dichromic vision are green and blue. According to Dr. Pole, they are yellow and blue. He asserts that com- parisons between normal and abnormal visions show that in NO. 1214, VOL. 47] general matches of colours made by a normal eye are also matches when regarded by adichromiceye. Heconcludes that the two dichromic colours are colours known in normal vision. He then gives reasons for the conclusion that these colours are normal blue and yellow. In answer to the suggestion that the real subjective impressions may differ from what they are sup- posed to be, he says that the correspondence is proved by a large amount of evidence obtained by comparison with normal phenomena. He thinks that the following conclusions may be drawn from the second edition of Helmholtz’s work on optics : —(1) The original mode of explanation of colour blindness by Young’s theory is essentially withdrawn as no longer consistent with modern knowledge. The universal concurrent testimony, that the ordinary colour dichromic vision generally corresponds with is normal yellow and blue and white, is no longer dis- puted, and although there are variations of sensations in regard to red and green, ‘the old ideas of blindness to red and green as separate and contrasting defects are abandoned ; (2) that Young’ s general theory of three fundamental colour- sensations is still adhered to, but that the colours are now believed to differ considerably in the spectrum; (3) that dichromic vision might exist consistently with the retention of three funda- mentals; (4) that the most prevalent form of dichromatism might be explained by the junction of the red and green funda- mentals forming yellow. In conclusion, he regretted that the colour-vision committee of the Royal Society, in a recent chart dealing with colour blindness, had adhered to the old view held by Clerk Maxwell. Sir George Stokes remarked that the fundamental part of Young’s original theory was that there were three colour sensations; and though he supposed them to be red, green, and violet, that was not essential. Maxwell only chose red, green, and blue, as representative sensations. He was doubtful of the wisdom of publishing the charts alluded to lest it might lead to misconception. The object of publishing them was to give to the public a general idea of the conclusions de- rivable from the trichromic theory. SYDNEY. Royal Society of New South Wales, December 7, 1892,.—Prof. Warren, President, in the chair.—The Chair- -man announced that the Clarke Medal for 1893 had been awarded by the Council to Prof. Ralph Tate, of the Adelaide University.—A letter was read from the Hon. Ralph Aber- cromby, enclosing.a cheque for £100, which he desired to place in the hands of the Council of the Society with the object of bringing about. an exhaustive study of certain features of the Australian weather, the particulars to be furnished in a later letter. The following papers were read :—Observations on shell heaps and shell. beds, the significance and importance’ of the record they afford, by E, J. Statham.—A new mineral from Broken Hill, by C. .W. Marsh (communicated by Prof. Liversidge). —Notes on some Australian stone weapons, by Prof. Liversidge, F.R.S.—Notes on the recent cholera epidemic in Germany, by Dr. Schwarzbach.—Results of observations of Wolf’s comet II., 1891, Swift’s comet I., 1892, and Winnecke’s periodical comet, 1892, at Windsor, New South Wales, by John Tebbutt.—On the comet in the constellation Andromeda, by John Tebbutt.— Languages of Oceania, by Dr. Jolin Fraser. August 17.—Zngineering Section.—C. W. Darley in the chair.—Papers read :—Various systems of tramway traction, by ‘ How. November 16.—Some notes on the economical use ofsteam, by T. H. Houghton.—Recent bridge building in New Zealand, by A. Alabaster. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, January 23.—M. Loewy in the chair.—Note on Nicolas de Kokcharow, by M. Daubrée, —Con- tributions to the study of the function of camphoric acid, by M, A. Haller.—On the pepto-saccharifiant action of the blood and the organs, by M. R. Lépine. _ If blood is poured into several parts of water at 56° C. a considerable quantity of sugar is formed in a few seconds, and the formation goes on for about an hour with decreasing rapidity. In cold or lukewarm water sugar is also produced, but its production is for the most part com- pensated by simultaneous glycolysis, It is also probable that the production of sugar is preceded by that of peptone. If an organ which does not enclose glycogen in any perceptible quantity be macerated for about an hour in three or four parts ' of water, the aqueous extract only contains a very small quantity 536 —— of substances capable of reducing Fehling’s solution, and hardly any sugar. If to this aqueous extract be added a small quantity of peptone, and the whole be kept at 56°C. during an hour, a certain quantity of sugar is formed, as proved by fermentation and the phenylhydrazine test. Hence the aqueous or giycerine extract contains a ferment which may be termed pepto-sacchari- fiant. to the liver, as ordinarily supposed, but that several organs play a part in it.—Observations of the planet Charlois T (December 11, 1892), made at the Toulouse Observatory, by M. B. Baillaud.— Contribution to the investigation of the solar corona apart from total eclipses, by M. H. Deslandres (see Astrono- mical Column).—Observations of the sun made at the Lyon Observatory (Brunner equatorial) during the latter half of 1892, by M. Guillaume.—On the limitation of degree for the general algebraic integral of the differential equation of the first- order, by M. Autonne-—On Van der Waals’s equation and the demonstration of the theorem of the corresponding states, by M. G. Meslin.—Magnetic properties of bodies at different tem- peratures, by M. P, Curie.—The magnetic permeabilities of a series of diamagnetic bodies, including, amongst others, bismuth, antimony, phosphorus, sulphur, and some potassium salts, were determined by enclosing them in an exhausted glass vessel ex- posed to a magnetic field, and subsequently repeating the ex- periment with the glass alone. Most of the substances showed a remarkably constant coefficient. Water and quartz did not show a perceptible variation with temperature, and potassium nitrate had the same coefficient when solid and when fused. That of bismuth, on the other hand, fell steadily up to the point of fusion, and then (at 273° C.) abruptly from 0°957 to 0'038, after which it remained constant. Electrolytic antimony had a much feebler coefficient than the ordinary variety.—Contribution to the study of equalisers of potential acting by flow, by M. G. Gouré de Villemontée.—Luminous phenomena observed at the Lyon Observatory on the evening of January 6, 1893, by M. Gonnessiat.—A method for measuring objectively the spherical aberration of the living eye, by M. C. J. A. Leroy.—On the atomic weight of palladium, by MM. A. Joly and E. Leidié.— Action of the alkaline alcoholates on camphoric and other anhydrides, by M. P. Cazeneuve.—Modification of arterial pressure under the influence of pyocyanic poisons, by MM. Charrin and Teissier.—On some cases of infectious arthrodentary gingivitis observed in animals, by M. V. Galippe.—Primary bedding of platinum in the Ural, by M, A. Inostranzeff. The native platinum occurs embedded in a rocky matrix consisting of the variety of peridotite known as dunite. It is found in Mount Solovieff, which consists of alternate layers of chrome- iron and serpentine.—On the existence of overfolds in the Blida Atlas (Algeria), by M. E. Ficheur. BERLIN. Physical Society, January 6.—Prof. du Bois Reymond, President, in the chair.—Prof. Raoul Pictet gave an account of experiments made by Messrs. Sarasin and De la Rive by which the rate of the electric waves discovered by Hertz had been measured, and their identity with waves of light in the ether determined. By using large metallic surfaces sixteen metres in diameter as reflectors, and by allowing the discharge of the primary spark to take place under oil instead of in the air, it was found possible to obtain stationary electric waves in a long gallery and to determine their nodal points. which ensued Prof. Kundt stated that Dr. Zenker was the first person who had explained the photographing of colours by means of stationary waves; that stationary light-waves were first experimentally determined by Dr. Wiener, and that Seebeck was the first to take photographs of coloured objects. After. Prof. H. W. Vogel, pictures due to the action of lizht were first taken by a doctor named Schulz, in Halle. In 1727 this observer treated a solution of nitrate of silver in a small box with calcium chloride and obtained a greyish precipitate. He then covered the box with a lid in which was a hole the shape of some letter, and on subsequently examining the pre- cipitate he saw a dark image of the letter on it. The experi- ment was found to fail in the dark. Schulz hence concluded that the image of the letter was due to the action of light. Meteorological Society, January 10.—Prof. Schwalbe, President, in the chair.—Dr. Kremser spoke on the imperfec- tion of the means available for the study of atmospheric NO. 1214, VOL. 47] NATURE It is probable that the formation of sugar is not confined . In the discussion . [ FEBRUARY 2, 1893 currents, which, even in the most elevated stations, are pro- foundly modified by the topography of the neighbourhood. The direction and rate of these currents can only be ascertained by observing the motion of a small pilot-balioon of some one cubic metre capacity, a specially constructed theodolite being used for this purpose.—Prof. Hellmann exhibited a series of photographs of snow-crystals taken by Dr. Neuhauss, together with the oldest existing figures of these crystals, due to Olaus Magnus in 1455. The chief points of interest shown by these photographs were the not infrequent asymmetry of the erystals and the occurrence on them of small ice-lumps. Physiological Society, January 13.—Prof. du Bois Rey- mond, President, in the chair, Dr. Behring gave an account of the present state of affairs as regards what may. be called the blood-serum_therapeutists, illustrating his remarks by experiments he had made with serum from an immune horse on mice inoculated with tetanus-bacilli. A number of mice | were inoculated with more or less strong doses of the bacilli. Those which had previously been treated with the horse-serum did not die, and in’ many cases where the serum was injected after the inoculation death did not ensue. Observations on man are in progress, and will be published as soon as sufficient data are to hand on the treatment of tetanus and diphtheria by the use of serum from immune animals.—Dr. Hahn, of St. Petersburg, gave an account of experiments made in conjunc- tion with Profs, Pawlow and Nencki on the action of an Eck’s fistula, and the conducting of blood from the portal vein directly into the inferior vena cava. Among the various results of the . operation he stated that the output of urea was lessened and that of uric acid increased, a result which the experimenters attributed to a cessation in the conversion of carbamic acid into urea due to exclusion of the liver. They further found that carbamic acid produced symptoms similar to those exhibited by the animals on which they had operated.—Prof. Kossel and Dr. Raps ex- hibited an automatic mercurial pump for blood-gas analysis. CONTENTS. Tropical Agriculture. By D. M. PAGE 313 é ® (0 6's Ose eee Cells: Their Structure and Functions ...... 314 Theoretical Mechanics. By G. A, B........ 315 Our Book Shelf :— Stewart: ‘‘ Magnetism and Electricity.” —H. S.J. . 315 Nadaillac : ‘‘Manners and Monuments of Prehistoric _ Peoples”)... uu 2 oe ee ero Letters to the Editor :— Two Statements.—Right Hon. T.H.Huxley,F.R.S. 316 A Meteor. —W. L. Distant’, <4: 90s eee 310 ‘‘Hare-lip” in Earthworms. (With Diagram.)— Rev. Hilderic Friend © i065. ibe) ewe eg ep aes (310 The Zero Point of Dr. Joule’s Thermometer.— Prof, Sydney Yourig® 92") (ea Pee Wie -3a 7 The Approaching Solar Eclipse, April 15-16, 1893. By A. Taylor 200s See ae ee Measure of the Imagination. By Francis Galton, F.R.S aaa er arcane oy Fe Protoceras, the New Artiodactyle. (///ustrated.) By Prof. Henry KF. Osborn... 3). + te ee ae L Henry F..Blanford, F.RiS. . <5. eee bee Notesing: ans. wg SL ROSIE AS wna me Saite Our Astronomical Column:— The Nautical Almanac for 1896 ere hee rw Eclipse Photography . . . ..°\\. Soe ee Comet Holmes. . (° 3. 6 PR eee 326 Comet Brooks (November 19, 1892). . . . «++. 326 The-Andromeédes 20. °°. ae 326 A New Method of Photographing the Corona 327 Geographical Notes... ..... 4. spe 6s wen aay The Growth of Electrical Industry. By W. H. Preece FR. So5. ce coinie. 0 os | pn 327 Yezo andthe Ainu....... artes 330 University and Educational Intelligence ..... 331 Societies and Academies .° S61. (pa ee NATURE 337 THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 9g, 1893. ae THE MILKY WAY. _ The Milky Way from the North Pole to 10° of South _ Declination, drawn at the Earl of Rosse’s Observa- tory at Birr Castle. By Otto Boeddicker. (London: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892.) >yR. OTTO BOEDDICKER devoted the clear moon- 4X less nights for five years, from October 1884 to _ October 1889, to delineating the Milky Way as it ap- _ peared to his unaided eyes at Parsonstown, Ireland. His vings were deposited in the library of the Royal fronomical Society, and a note accompanying them was read at the meeting of the Society in November _ 1889. The work now before us consists of four excellent a lithographic reproductions of these drawings, a brief roductory preface being added by Dr. Boeddicker. _ The working maps for the drawings were taken from Argelander’s “ Uranometria Nova,” the Milky Way being inserted by means of stump and lead pencil. This medium was found very -unsuitable for photographic re- production, and in preparing the lithographic stones for these charts photography was used for the stars, and the _ Milky Way was introduced by hand work. Mr. W. H. __ Wesley, the Assistant Secretary of the Royal Astronomical _ Society, is responsible for this latter portion of the work, and the results are a splendid testimony to his care and _ skill. Dr. Boeddicker is to be congratulated upon having _ secured the services of so excellent an artist. Plate I. is a detailed drawing of the Section Cygnus- Scutum, Plate II. of the Section Cassiopeiz, and Plate III. of the Section Aurigz-Gemini-Monocerotis. In these plates an attempt has been made to represent accurately the appearance of the galaxy, all the differences of _ luminosity being represented as they actually appeared _ to Dr. Boeddicker. In Plate IV. a general view on a _ smaller scale of the whole Milky Way from the North _ Pole to 10° south declination is given, the contrast being _ deliberately exaggerated in order to bring out clearly all _ the details. The area of the Milky Way indicated on these drawings _ isvery much greater than that on any previously published tepresentations, while for delicate details and faithful reproduction of contrast the plates are unapproached. In many respects Dr. Boeddicker’s drawings are a new revelation, branches, wisps, and feelers being shown ex- tending from the main body so as to include stars, clusters and nebulz, and even whole constellations not previously recognized as connected with or forming part of the _ Milky Way. Polaris, y Arietis, Proesepe, the Pleiades, the Hyades, the great nebula in Andromeda, and nearly the whole of the constellation Orion, are thus joined to the galactic circle. Numerous bright patches, channels, rifts, and interlacing lines of luminous matter hitherto unsuspected are revealed by Dr. Boeddicker’s long and patient work, and exponents of disc, spiral, and other theories as to the construction of the Milky Way will find considerable difficulty in accounting for the details shown. It is very difficult to compare drawings of the Milky Way made by different observers without optical aid. NO. 1215, VOL. 47] There are such wide variations in unaided vision, so many peculiarities introduced by long and short sight, by astigmatism, by irradiation in the retina, and by other physical and physiological imperfections, that it may safely be asserted that no two persons get exactly the same naked-eye impression of such a vague object as the Milky Way. As no details are given about Dr. Boeddicker’s eyes we are probably justified in inferring that they are practically normal, but we doubt whether any other observer, even with special training, could check or correct these charts with reasonable prospect of convincing the original artist of error in the representa- tion of the Milky Way as it appeared to him. Individual peculiarities of sight are minimized by the use of slight optical aid, and two equally experienced observers would be more likely to agree in their delineations of the Milky Way if they used similar telescopes, of say 1-inch aper- ture, or even ordinary opera glasses. Dr. Boeddicker’s appeal to other observers to “verify and correct” his work will probably bring him plenty of correspondence, but can scarcely lead te any important correction in his magnificent drawings. Dr. Boeddicker considers that “ the first step necessary towards the knowledge of the sidereal universe is a thorough acquaintance with the Milky Way as it appears to the naked eye,” and hopes that by comparison and the superposition of naked-eye drawings on photographs “some knowledge of the structure of the Milky Way zz the line of sight may be obtained.” This idea is founded on the theory that there is a direct connection. between the magnitudes of stars and their distances. Littrow’s analysis of Argelander’s catalogue of stars certainly seemed to justify belief in this connection, but recent work has entirely disproved the hypothesis. Measure- ments of the parallax of stars indubitadly prove that some faint stars are near, while some of the brightest are at such distances as to have no appreciable parallax. Thus a Orionis, a Virginis, a Leonis, and a Cygni have no parallax, while the 5th magnitude star 61 Cygni has a parallax of between 04 and o”'5. Photographs of the Pleiades show that we have in tlat cluster stars differing by as much as 13 magnitudes at approximately the same distance from us. Russell’s photograph of a Crucis plainly indicates a direct physical connection between that star and many stars of the 14th and 15th magnitudes which should, according to the theory, be nearly 1000 times more distant. Streaks of nebulze connect a Cygni and y Cygni with long lines and stars of about the 16th magnitude in Dr. Max Wolf’s photographs of the Milky Way. From considerations of parallax observa- tions of stars and from examination of photographs we are forced to conclude that there is no real connection between magnitude and distance, and that the differences of magnitude of stars are due to differences of size and physical condition. Stars differ enormously in light- giving power, and the actual light emitted by a Cygni must be nearly a million times greater than that from the faint stars directly connected with it and at practically the same distance from us. There is therefore very little chance of adding to our knowledge of the Milky Way “in the line of sight” by superposition of naked-eye drawings on photographs. In his preface Dr. Boeddicker frequently speaks of R 339 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 9, 1893 “nebulosity,” “nebulous light,” and ‘‘nebulous matter,” | degree. Consider, for example, any rational function when he means luminosity and luminous matter. In | (4%; 2%, ....,2%2) which is not wholly asymmetric: ante-spectroscopic days the terms nebula and cluster were used almost indiscriminately, a nebula being looked upon as simply an irresolvable cluster, and this error still survives in many astronomical text-books and com- pilations, but Dr. Boeddicker should have avoided it. When we consider that the majority of the stars in the cluster which we call the Milky Way are of the Sirian type, we see how misleading is the use of the terms nebulous light and nebulous matter. Ant: THE THEORY OF SUBSTITUTIONS AND ITS APPLICATIONS TO ALGEBRA. The Theory of Substitutions and its Applications to Algebra. : By Dr. Eugen Netto, Translated by F. N. Cole, Ph.D. (Mich.: Ann Arbor, 1892.) HE theory of substitutions abstractly considered is concerned with the enumeration and classification of the permutations of a set of different letters X %qy...++,Xn It is scarcely apparent at first sight that a far-reaching mathematical theory could be built on a basis so simple, still less that there should be any con- nection between this and the complicated question of the solution of algebraical equations by means of radicals. {t may be worth while, in order to excite the interest of mathematical readers in the work before us, to mention one or two points in the Theory of Substitutions which will give an inkling of the nature of its connection with the interesting problem just mentioned. The operation of replacing—say in any function (21, %, X;)—any permutation of the letters, say 2, 7%, %3, by any other, say 2, #3, 2%, is called a substztution, This 41, 4) 43 Vy U3, 4; Thus sp(%, %y %3) = P(%4, Xs, Xo) ; Vy, Xa, V3 V3, X9) 4% ) id th (44) %3) X2) = (4s, X44, X2). We may indicate the suc. cessive application of the two substitutions s and ¢ by multiplying the symbols s¢ in the order of application: thus stp(14, 2a, %3) = P(X, 4, %2) and ¢sP(2x,, %, %3) = (2) %3, %). In particular, the repetition of the same substitution may be represented by powers of the symbol , thus s*p(274, %2, ¥3) = b(%, %, 3). The identical substi- Fy %a V3 The total 1) 2) %3 number of different substitutions of # letters is obviously n/; consequently, if we form the consecutive powers of any substitution we shall ultimately arrive at a power s” which will be the identical substitution, #z being some positive integer not exceeding z/; mm is called the order and z the degree of the substitution. If among the substitutions of any given degree we can select a set which have the property that the product of any two furnishes another substitution belonging to the set, we obtain what is called a group of substitutions. The whole of the z/ substitutions of letters obviously form a group, and the identical substitution by itself forms a group. It is easy, however, to see that in general there are other groups among the substitutions of a given NO. 1215, VOL. 47] operation is denoted explicitly by (2 *), or shortly by a single letter s. and again: If ¢ denote the substitution ( tution ) is represented by unity. there must exist a set of substitutions each of which leaves the value of @ unaltered. A substitution which is the product of any number of these must also leave ¢ unaltered: hence the set in question forms a group. We have here a fundamental point in the theory of substitu- tions, viz., the existence of a group of substitutions and the correlation therewith of rational functions which are unaltered by all the substitutions of the group. The group is said to belong to all the functions which it leaves unaltered ; and these functions are said to form a family which is characterized by the group. Thus the group of a wholly asymmetric function is the identical group con- sisting of the substitution’; the group of the wholly symmetric functions consists of the whole of the z/ sub- stitutions of the th degree ; the group of the alternating functions consists of all those substitutions which are equivalent to an even number of transpositions, and so on. It is obvious that every rational function determines a group of substitutions, and it may be shown that, con- versely, for every group of substitutions we may construct an infinity of rational functions which are unaltered, by the substitutions of the group. The significance of this correlation between a group and a family of functions depends on the following important theorem, which i is due in substance to Lagrange. If w be a rational function which is unaltered by all the substitutions of the group ‘of (in other words, if the group of contain the group of ¢) then y can be expressed as a rational function of ¢, and the z elementary symmetric functions (OF = 2%), Cy = 3%, %,- 5G, 0 es a ia a A particular case of this is the theorem that if the groups of y and ¢ be identical, then each can be expressed as a rational function of the other, and of the elementary symmetric functions. HG+Y, + V3}; % = 3G + oY, + #7, R= HG +077, + oy}. of this theorem and certain elementary prin- ‘theory of substitutions an elegant and simple can be given of Abel’s theorem that the radicals of the general equation of the mth impossible when 7 > 4: see § 217 of the work h the theory of substitutions bears, as we have 1, on some of the oldest and most interesting of ms of algebra, it has been comparatively little li , especially by English speaking mathematicians. Dr. Cole has therefore rendered us a service of great Te by translating one of the standard treatises Of the three that were at his disposal t he has chosen the one most likely to be beginner. While Serret in his “Higher and Jordan in his “ Traité” treat the theory abstract and more general point of view, Dr. constantly associates with the substitution the ich it is supposed to operate. This gives concrete aid to the comprehension of the pro- ‘ions of the abstract theory and also helps the student grasp their application. The great danger in subjects ) is that the stream of theorems is apt to ff the mind of the learner without soaking i in, like the proverbial duck’s back. 7 etto’s book will be found to contain all the ordi- _ nary theorems regarding the classification of substitutions, é.g. the existence of groups, transitive and intransitive, and non-primitive, simple and compound ; the the algebraic relations between the values of -valued functions and between functions belong- ‘included in the same family; and also a con- number of theorems regarding special groups. lic sans. embrace the theory of panerents in to the Be csetainié and Abelian equations, and Reres: roots of which are connected by a 4 The translation has been admirably done, both from _ the linguistic and from the mathematical point of view. We found, it is true, here and there passages which were - somewhat obscure ; but in every case, on comparing with _ the original, we found the rendering to be absolutely faithful. Such obscurities therefore must be charged either to the author, or to the nature of the subject, or to _ the idiosyncrasy of the critic, and not to the translator. We congratulate Mr. Cole on the successful completion _ of his arduous task, and heartily recommend the result _ to every lover of the most ancient and the most beautiful _ of all the sciences. G. CH. NO. 1215, VOL. 47] . Turner. THE BRAIN IN MUDFISHES. Das Centralnervensystem von Protopterus annectens ; eine vergleichend Anatomische Studie. Von Dr. Rudolf Burckhardt. (Berlin: R. Friedlander und Sohn, 1892.) HE Mudfishes, Dipnoi, from many peculiarities in their structure, have attracted the especial attention of anatomists and zoologists. Important monographs on Lepidosiren have been written by Owen and Wieders- heim, whilst Huxley, Giinther, and Beauregard have described the anatomy of Ceratodus. Serres, in 1863, made a contribution to the anatomy of the nervous system of Protopterus, Fulliquet in 1886, and Parker in 1888, have also added to our knowledge of its struc- ture; and now Dr. Burckhardt has published a well- illustrated monograph on the central nervous system of Protopterus annectens. He had obtained an ample supply of this fish from Herr W. Jezler, a merchant whose business engagements had taken him to the neighbourhood of Bathurst, Senegambia. On more than one occasion Dr. Burckhardt had received living fish, so that he was able to study the microscopic anatomy by the use of the most recent technical methods, and has thus added materially to our knowledge of the brain of this animal, The author found, in the anterior horn of grey matter of the spinal cord, remarkably large nerve-cells, which possessed both branching protoplasm processes and an axial-cylinder process. In the lateral and posterior horns “nerve-cells somewhat smaller in size were seen. The medulla oblongata gave origin to nerves which he names hypoglossal, vagus, glosso-pharyngeal, acusticofacialis, and trigeminus. He also describes two slender nerves as abducens and trochlearis, so that the Dipnoi are not, as some have said, destitute of these nerves. The cere- bellum formed the anterior boundary of the 4th ventricle. Large nerve-cells, corresponding to those of Purkinje in the mammalian brain, were not seen. The mid-brain was distinct, and gave origin to a root of the trigeminus, to the optic tract and to the oculo-motor nerve: grey matter containing nerve-cells was grouped around the aqueduct of Sylvius. Whilst Protopterus corresponded closely with the lowest vetebrates in the regions of the mid and hind brains it presented striking peculiarities in the pineal region. The roof of the 3rd ventricle was complicated, and possessed a velum, which represented a middle choroid plexus; a conarium, and a structure like that which Edinger has named “ Zirbelpolster.” The epiphysis (Zirbel) was attached to the skull by the arachnoid membrane. The fore brain was well developed, and divided into two hemispheres, He recognized in it a posterior ventral swelling, which, because it contained cells similar to those found in the dentate gyrus (fascia dentata) of the higher brains, he describes as a lobus hippocampi. He distinguished a fissure which separated the lobus olfac- torius from the pallial part of the hemisphere, so that he harmonizes the fore brain in its fundamental divisions with the mammalian brain as described by Broca and He directs attention to an elevation ventrad of the lobus olfactorius, which he calls the lobus post- olfactorius. This lobe is also found in the brains of 340 Selachia and Amphibia, and apparently corresponds to the lobus olfactorius posterior described by His in the human embryo, which forms the anterior perforated spot in the adult human brain. As regards its structure the hemisphere possessed central. grey matter containing nerve-cells which lay around the hemisphere ventricle ; also a mass of grey matter which he calls corpus striatum ; whilst in the more posterior part of the ventral region of the hemisphere were nerve-cells which represented a cortical layer. In the dorsal region of the hemisphere also cortical nerve-cells were found, which were arranged as an inner and.an outer layer. The cells of the cortex gave origin to nerve fibres. .A definite anterior com- missure was present, the fibres of which passed on each side into the lobus hippocampi. Burckhardt, also, figures, as distinct from the anterior commissure, fibres which he regards as the corpus callosum of Osborn. The most important tract of nerve fibres was the basal bundle, which ascended from the spinal cord into the corpus striatum. One of the most interesting chapters in Burckhardt’s memoir is that in which he gives an account of the saccus endolymphaticus. Wiedersheim had described in 1876, in Phyllodactylus europeus, a sac with many branching diverticula, filled with otolith-sand and lying in relation to the choroid plexus of the 4th ventricle. Hasse had previously seen in Amphibia a similar structure which Coggi had investigated in the frog. Burckhardt has for the first time observed and figured it in Protopterus. The saccus communicated by a narrow neck with the sacculus and utriculus of the auditory vesicle, and with its diver- ticula overlaid the region of the 4th ventricle, and ex- tended as far back as the Ist pair of spinal nerves. The memoir contains a short chapter on the phyletic development of the brain of Protopterus. Selachia, he considers that one line of development has been through Protopterus.to Ichthyophis, and thence to the Urodela and Anura; another through Ceratodus to Reptilia and Mammalia ; whilst a third line is from the Selachia to the Ganoids and Bony Fishes. OUR BOOK SHELF. The Chemical Basis of the Animal Body. An Appendix to Foster’s ‘“‘ Text-Book of Physiology ” (fifth edition), By A. Sheridan Lea, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1892.) LIKE its parent vohinne this well-known appendix has grown in bulk considerably, so'that it now constitutes a treatise (separately paged and indexed) on the chemical substances occurring in the body, It contains numerous references to the text of Foster’s “ Physiology,” and so the two may be most profitably read together. The plan pursued in the present edition is the same as in former editions ; the chemistry of the body is described under the headings of the names of the chemical sub- stances. This plan has its advantages. It for instance gives a completeness to the description of any particular substance, whereas the other plan of describing the facts of animal chemistry, under the headings of the tissues, organs, and functions involves a certain amount of repetition and the facts relating to any one group, such as the proteids and carbohydrates will be. found dis- tributed in different chapters, Dr, Sheridan Lea’s plan NO. 1215, VOL. 47] NATURE [FEBRUARY 9, 1893 Starting with’ has, however, the disadvantage that it destroys con- tinuity. Many of the paragraphs are necessarily short, and one passes from one subject to another with a certain amount of abruptness. The style of the writing is, how- ever, interesting and clear, so that this disadvantage is reduced toa minimum. The parts that treat the subject in a fuller style, such as those in which ferment action, the origin of urea in the economy, or the relation of hemoglobin to bile pigment are discussed, are models of lucid writing. The book opens with a description of the proteids and ferments, the most important of physiological substances, but those of which, from the chemical standpoint, we know least. The simpler materials found in the body or its excreta are treated next. This is the more chemical part of the book, and the author expresses his indebted- | ness to Dr. S. Ruhemann for assistance here. One doubts whether this part of the work will prove attractive to ordinary students. There is no question that all medical students should be educated up to it, but at present organic chemistry and structural formule are subjects they are inclined to fight shy of. The concluding chapters are again devoted to substances of which we have a physiological rather than a chemical knowledge, erty the pigments. The figures of crystals, which form a new feature i in the present edition, have been taken from the works of Krukenberg, Kiihne, and Funke. One cannot conclude this notice without alluding to the extensive references to literature that are given throughout. This will prove a most valuable assistance to all original workers, and to those more earnest students who desire to go deeper into the subject. The references are provided with a separate index. They are chiefly to German literature. The German leanings of the author are seen also in the spelling of sarkosin, kreatin, &c. The final e is always omitted in the names of the amido acids. It would be a good thing in the future if international uniformity in the names of chemical compounds were adopted. In. the meantime it seems a pity that Dr. Lea has not. seen fit to use the spellings reconimended by the Chemical Society ‘of London. © The author is to be congratulated on having brought his labours to a successful conclusion, and we can pay the present volume no better compliment than to say _ that it is well worthy of those that have ray, it. Chamberev Ehiyctopiilile New Edition. Vol. X. (onan and Edinburgh: W. and R. Chambers, 1892.) THE editor and publishers of the present work may be cordially congratulated on the fact that it has now been successfully completed. A better encyclopedia of like scope does not exist in our own or any other language. Nominally it is merely a new edition ; but in reality, as the editor claims in the preface, it must be regarded as to all intents and purposes a new work. One of the chief difficulties in an undertaking of this kind is to secure that each subject shall have the degree of attention which properly belongs to it, no single subject or group of sub- jects being permitted to usurp space which ought to be | otherwise occupied. The editor has grappled with this — difficulty so effectually that few readers will have occasion | to complain of any lack of proportion in the length of the various articles. Another striking merit of the work is that all important subjects have been. entrusted | to specialists, so that students may have full confidence in. the accuracy of the information offered to them about — matters in which they happen to be particularly inte- rested. The space at the disposal of the writers was so limited that what they have to say is not, of course, exhaustive, but it is sound as far as it goes, and is gene- rally presented with most praiseworthy simplicity and -Fesrvary 9, 1893] NATURE 341 _ learness. The present volume falls in no respect below __ the level of those which have preceded it. Among the __ writers of scientific articles are Prof. James Geikie, who _ deals with the triassic system and with volcanoes ; Prof. = who expounds the principles of thermodynamics ; _ Dr. R. W. Philip, who writes of tubercle ; and Sir F. __ Bramwell, who has a paper on water-supply. Arthur Young’s Tour in Ireland (1776-79). Edited, _ with Introduction and Notes, by A. W. Hutton. Two vols. (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1892.) THIS reprint will be of real service to all who study the ‘volution of economic conditions in Ireland, and much ___-0f it ought also to excite and maintain the interest of the _ generalreader. Arthur Young, as every one knows, was _ a remarkably accurate observer of such things as travellers have opportunities of noting, and his book on reland is in its own way hardly less valuable than his nore celebrated work on France. The work was first oublished in 1780, in the course of which two English _ ditions and one Irish edition were issued. Since that _ time it has not until now been reprinted as awhole. Mr. _ Hutton has done his work as editor admirably, and a most useful bibliography has been prepared by Mr. J. P. nderson. is cae ves Sa _—s« LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his co nts, Neither can he undertake aa to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected es, oe Caer AZ, Ties: : . No notice is taken of anonymous communications.) ac. et ee aa » METS St SHS Deir ai Some Lake Basins in France, __A FEw weeks since M. Delabecque, Ingénieur des Ponts et ‘Chaussées at Thonon, kindly presented me with a copy-of a work issued under his superintendence and to a great extent executed by himself,” to which I should be glad to call the attention of ‘students of physiography. M. Delabecque, commissioned by the French ent, has made a series of soundings of ten lakes in France, near the Alpine region, and this Atlas records the results of his work. Contour-lines, in most cases 5 metres part, indicate the forms of the lake-basins ; the use of varying s in blue makes these more distinct, Chief among the lakes i ded is the Léman, in the survey of which, as only one shore _ 4s French territory, the Swiss engineers have cooperated. A : of this on a reduced scale, and without colours, appeared ‘in Prof. Forel’s book, ‘‘ Le Lac Léman ” (see NATURE, Nov. 3, 1892). Next in importance come the lakes of Annecy and of Bourget ; the remainder are situated either in the Hrench Jura or on the in of the outer limestone zone of the Alps, a little ‘south of the e. _ Excluding the Lake of Geneva, which was noticed in the article i mentioned, these lakes are especially interesting for their bear- on the difficult problem of the origin of lake-basins. Except the Lac de Bourget, none of these can be said to lie in a great mountain valley, or on the probable track of a great glacier. If then their basins have been excavated by glaciers, we might fairly expect the Alps and Jura to be “‘ spattered” with lakes, for no appeal can be made to exceptional circumstances : while if the contours of their beds present resemblances to those of the Jarger Alpine lakes, such as the Lake of Geneva, the same explanation ought to apply in the main to both groups. _ Without a reproduction of the charts it is impossible to give more than a rough idea of the evidence which they afford, but the following statements may be helpful. As a general rule the lakes deepen as they broaden, the deepest water being com- monly found in the widest part. If in the course of the lake the shores markedly approach so as to form a kind of ‘‘ narrow,” this corresponds with a submerged neck or ‘‘ col,” which sepa- *™* Atlas des Lacs Francais, Ministtre des Travaux Publics.” No ——: name appears on the sheets, but I am informed by M. elabecque that the Atlas can be obtained at Georg’s Library, Geneva. NO. 1215, VOL. 47] intended for this or any other part of NATURE. - t rates the bed into two basins, rising perhaps 10 metres or more above their general level. Not seldom the bed ofa lake consists of a linear series, three to six in number, of shallow basins, so that a contour line, drawn along the axis of the Jake, undulates up and down with an ‘‘amplitude” of from perhaps 3 to 5 metres. A rather long, blunt-ended oval is the prevalent form of these lakes, but to this there are exceptions. So far as can be ascertained the contours of the land above the water-line are reproduced beneath it. For instance, under the steep slopes of the Mont du Chat the bed of the Lac de Bourget plunges abruptly down to a depth of over 120 m. (its greatest depth being about 145 m.). Of the Jura lakes, the Lac de St. Point (848°95 m. above the sea) is rather more than 6 kilometres long, the general width being rather less than one-tenth of this ; a considerable part of its floor is 30 to 35 metres deep, and its greatest depth is about 42 metres. It contains no less than 6 basins, parted by ‘‘ cols” about half-a-dozen metres above their lowest parts. This lake is on the course of the Doubs, and lies parallel with the general strike of the Jura, z.¢. from N.E. to S.W. The Lac de Brenets on the same river, nearly 100 metres lower down, is a narrow, winding lake, roughly 150 metres wide and perhaps 8 or 9 times as long. At its upper end is a sharply projecting, rather shallow bay, but the channel of the Doubs can be traced clearly through this, deepening gradually from 5 to nearly 27 metres and the whole lake is evidently only an enlargement of the river. The subalpine lakes are no less interesting, and their testimony generally agrees with that summarised above. Want of space forbids us to mention more than the lake of Annecy. This is deepest (about 65 m.) in its northern and widest. part (nearest to the effluent). The sub-aqueous contours on the western side are | interrupted, to within about 10 metres from the bottom of the lake, by a prominence, just like a drowned hilly spur. The shallowest soundings over this, near its northern (outer) part, are only 3°3 metres, and the ground falls rapidly down from 5 to 55 metres. On its northern or ‘‘lee” side (assuming a glacier to have followed the course of the water) is a submerged valley over 40 metres deep. The Lake of Annecy exhibits another very singular feature. Near its northern end the bed deepens very rapidly from 30 to 80 metres ; this funnel-shaped cavity is less than 200 metres in diameter, and is probably a submerged swallow hole. These notes may, it is hoped, suffice to indicate the importance of this work. The gratitude of students is due to M. Delabecque for supplying them with a valuable group of facts, the collection of which must have entailed great labour. These, however, appear to me not to lend themselves very readily to the support of the glacial excavation hypothesis ; but to be more favourable to that which regards the larger Alpine lakes as mainly formed by movements of the earth’s crust after the erosion of the valleys in which they lie. T. G. Bonney. Dust Photographs, In Mr. Croft’s paper on ‘‘ Breath Figures,” printed in NaTuRE for December 22 of last year (pp. 187, 188) he states :— ‘* Two cases have been reported to me. where blinds with em- bossed letters have left a latent image on the window near which they lay.” The statement is not quite clear as I do not understand whether the letters were in contact with the glass or not. Perhaps it may be interesting to place on record an observa- tion of my own, made a few years ago, which struck me at the time as curious, but which I have not been able to verify since. At the stations of the District Railway there is a useful arrangement by which passengers are informed of the destination of the next train. It consists of a shallow box with glass sides into which by a mechanical contrivance boards are let down on which the names of the stations are painted in white letters ona blue ground. Theboard with the words ‘ INNER CIRCLE’ is most frequently exposed. At night the box is (or was) illuminated obliquely on either side by a tolerably powerful lamp. One night I was waiting for the train at the Victoria Station. There was some dislocation in the service ; the destination of the next train was uncertain and the box was empty. On glancing at it somewhat sideways I was however astonished to see the words ‘INNER CIRCLE’ on the glass side of the box in quite clear dark letters on a pale illuminated ground. I drew the attention of one of the platform officials to it. He saw it with perfect distinctness, and seemed to think he had 342 NATURE [FEBRUARY 9, 1893 noticed it before. Of course when the apparatus is in full working order there is little opportunity for doing so. . The only explanation I could think of was :—(1) that the light of the lamp had produced some molecular change in the paint coating the notice board ; (ii) that this had affected differently the blue and the white paint ; (iii) that the same cause had set up some differential electrical condition of the board and the glass ; (iv) that a bombardment of particles of the blue paint had taken place on to the glass to which they had adhered ; and that (v) the particles so adhering, by dispersing the light, pro- duced the effect of the pale illuminated ground while the spaces occupied by the letters being relatively clean stood out dark. Roval Gardens, Kew, W. T. THISELTON-DYER, February 1. Mr. W. B. Crort’s paper on Breath-Figures in your issue of December 22 reminded me of some curious impressions of monumental brasses which are to be seen on the walls of Canterbury Cathedral. When I saw these impressions a few years ago, it occurred to me that they might have been produced by mere contact, the brass plates having possibly been hung for many years against the walls, in secluded corners, at a time when the Reformers would not let them remain in their proper matrices on the church floor. Ihad forgotten the particulars of these figures, but Dr. Sheppard, of Canterbury, has kindly sent me the following notes by favour of Canon Fremantle :—‘‘ A number of impressions of brasses are in the basement (which is open to the air) under Henry IV.’s chantry in the Cathedral. A very good impression is on the western column of tle crypt of Trinity Chapel. On the walls appear the shapes of the effigies, Sometimes the stone is unstained all over the area of the figure, and surrounded by a broad dark smudge: and sometimes the case is reversed, and the figure is the exact nega- tive of the former kind ; that is to say, the area of the figure is indicated by an uniform dark tint, whilst the surrounding stone is unstained.” Dr. Sheppard suggests ‘‘that an exact pattern seems to have been made in paper and then fixed to the wall whilst it was brushed over with linseed oi]. But this does not account for the white effigies ona dark ground.” I would commend these impressions to the notice of those interested in the subject. It may be that, though some were made intentionally, others are the result of simple contact. ‘ Pde AR CLEN, Mason College, Birmingham, February 4. Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate. IN continuation of my recent letter, permit me to call atten- tion to a communication on the bread fruit trees in North America, by Mr. F. H. Knowlton, of the National Museum, Washington, U.S., which appears in your American contem- porary Science for January 13. The forty living species of Artocarpus are all confined to tropical Asia and the Malay Archipelago, A. zzcisa, the true bread fruit tree, and one or two others, are largely cultivated in the tropics. They are small or medium-sized trees with a milky juice, large leathery leaves, and moneecious flowers. The female flowers are long club- shaped spikes, which uniting form one large mass known as the ‘bread fruit,”’ the interior containing a pulp when ripe like new bread. The first fossil bread fruit was discovered in boulder county Colorado in late cretaceous rock, and was named by the late Prof. Le» Lesquereux A/yrica (?) Lessigiana, other fragments he called Aralia pungens. The subsequent researches, or more perfect specimens of Dr. A. S. Nathorst, proved these to belong to one species, Artocarpus Lessigiana. Dry. Nathorst is the discoverer of another species closely allied to 4. zucisa, which he calls A. Dicksoni, which he obtained from the cretaceous flora of Waigatt, West Greenland, which the previous labours of Profs. Heer and Nordenskidld had shown to be of a tropical or sub- tropical character, containing as it does numerous species of ferns of the order Gleichenialez, and several species of cycas. Cuas. E. DE RANCE; H.M. Geological Survey, Alderley Edge, Manchester, — Lunar Rainbow in the Highlands. THIS interesting phenomenon (a very unusual one in this latitude) was observed near here on the morning of the 3rd inst., about six a.m. The moon was two days past full, and was not NO. 1215, VOL. 47] shining particulany brightly, being obscured, except at consider- able intervals, by driving mist and light clouds. The bow, how- ever, was exceedingly well marked, and formed a singularly beautiful object, stretching as it did completely across the north- western end of Loch Oich, glimmering against the dark back- ground of the mountains, and sinking into the water on the southern shore of the loch. The general colour of the bow was yellow deepening into orange, several of the prismatic colours, however, being intermittently visible, especially a tinge of violet on the upper side. : The Abbey, Fort-Augustus, N.B. OPTICAL CONTINUITY.' K EENNESS of sight is measured by the angular dis- tance apart of two dots when they can only just be distinguished as two, and do not become confused together. It is usually reckoned that the normal eye is just able or just unable to distinguish points that lie one minute of a degree asunder. Now, one minute of a degree is the angle subtended by two points, separated by pad da part of an inch, when they are viewed at the ordinary reading distance of one foot, from the eye. If, then, a row of fine dots touching one another, each as small as a bead of one 300th part of an inch in diameter, be arranged on the page of a book, they would appear to the ordinary reader to be an extremely fine and continuous line. Ifthe dots be replaced by short cross strokes, the line would look broader, but its apparent continuity would not be affected. It is impossible to draw any line that shall commend itself to the eye as possessing more regu- larity than the image of a succession of dots or cross strokes, 300 to the inch, when viewed at the distance of a foot. Every design, however delicate, that can be drawn with a line of uniform thickness by the best machine or the most consummate artis ,admits of being mimicked by the coarsest chain, when it is viewed at such a distance that the angular length of each of its links shall not exceed one minute of a degree. One of the apparently smoothest outlines in nature is that of the horizon of the sea during ordinary weather, although it is formed by waves. The slopes of débris down the sides of distant mountains appear to sweep in beautifully smooth curves, but on reaching those mountains and climbing up the dédrzs, the path may be exceedingly rough. ais i The members of an audience sit at such various dis- tances from the lecture table and screen, that it is not possible to illustrate as well as is desirable, the stages through which a row of dots appears to run into a con- tinuous line, as the angular distance between the dots is lessened. 1 have, however, hung up chains and rows of beads of various degrees of coarseness. Some of these will appear as pure lines to all the audience; others, whose coarseness of structure is obvious to those who sit nearest, will seem to be pure lines when viewed from the furthest seats. Bohs Although 300 dots to the inch are required to give the idea of perfect continuity at the distance of one foot, it will shortly be seen that a much smaller number suffices to suggest it. a ee The cyclostyle, which is an instrument used for multiple writing, makes about 140 dots to the inch. The style has a minute spur wheel or roller, instead of a point ; the writing is made on stencil paper, whose surface is covered with a brittle glaze. This is perforated by the teeth of the spur wheel wherever they press against it. The half perforated. sheet is then laid on writing paper, and an inked roller is | worked over the glaze. The ink passes through the per- forations and soaks through them on to the paper below ; consequently the impression consists entirely of short and ~ irregular cross bars or dots. sh - ‘ 1 Extract froma lecture on The Just-Perceptible Difference,’’ delivered ys the Royal Institution ca Friday, January 27, by Francis Galton; a ‘teen stitched dots to each letter. lettering that is ever practically employed is used in Fesruary 9, 1893] _ JT exhibit on the screen a circular letter summoning a Committee, that was written by the cyclostyle. The writing seems beautifully regular when the circular is photographically reduced; when it is enlarged, the dis- ‘continuity of the strokes becomes conspicuous. Thus, I have enlarged the word /he six times; the dots can then be easily seen and counted. There are 42 of them in the long stroke of the letter /. The appearance of the work done by the cyclostyle would be greatly improved if a fault in its mechanism could be removed, which causes it to run with very unequal freedom in different directions. It leaves an wal d mark wherever the direction of a line changes den _ A much coarser representation of continuous lines is - oi by embroidery and tapestry, and coarser still by obsolete school samplers which our ancestresses in their girlhood, with an average of about six- Perhaps the coarsest ene the books of railway coupons so familiar to travellers. Ten or eleven holes are used for each figure. A good test of the degree of approximation with which Bot aad making 140 perforations to the inch is able to simulate continuous lines, is to use it for drawing outline portraits. I asked the clerk who wrote the circular just exhibited to draw me a few profiles of different sizes, anging from the smallest scale on which the cyclostyle pes. sroduce recognisable features, up to the scale at which it acted fairly well. Here are some specimens of the result. The largest isa portrait of 1} inches in height, by which facial characteristics are fairly well conveyed ; some- what better than by the rude prints thatappear occasionally the h 2 s. It is formed by 366 dots. A medium. is. teh high and contains 177 dots, and would be lerable if it were not for the jagged strokes already yoken of. The smallest sizes are } inch high and contain about ninety dots; they are barely passable, on account of the jagged flaws, even for the rudest I made experiments under fairer conditions than those of the cyclostyle, to learn how many dots, discs, or rings per inch were really needed to produce a satisfactory and also to discover how far the centres of the dots or discs might deviate from a strictly smooth curve without ceasing to produce the effect of a flowing line. It __ must be recollected that the eye can perceive nothing finer than a minute blurr of one three-hundredth _ part of an inch in angular diameter. If we repre- ‘sent a succession of such blurs by a chain of discs, it will be easily recognised that a small want of xactitude in the alignments of the successive discs must > hag gabe If one of them is pushed upwards a trifle another downwards, so large a part of their respective areas still remain in line, that when the several discs become of only just perceptible magnitude, the pro- jecting portion will be wholly invisible. When the discs are so large as to be plainly perceptible, the alignment has eee more exact. After a few trials it. | that if the dearing of the centre of each disc from that of its predecessor which touched it, was co given to the nearest of the 16 principal points of the compass, N., NNE., NE., &c., it was fairly sufficient. Consequently a simple record of the succes- sive bearings of each of a series of small equidistant steps is enough to define a curve. The briefest way of writing down these bearings, is to assign a separate letter of the alphabet to each of them, a for north (the top of the paper counting as north), 4 for north-north-east, ¢ for north-east, and so on in order up to . This makes ¢ represent east, z south, and 7 west. To test the efficiency of the plan, I enlarged one of the cyclostyle profiles, and making a small protractor with a piece of tracing paper, rapidly laid down a series NO. 1215, VOL. 47 | NATURE 343 of equidistant points on the above principle, noting at the same time the bearing of each from its predecessor. I thereby obtained a formula for the profile, consisting of 271 letters. Then I put aside the drawing, and set to work to reproduce it solely from the formula. 1 exhibit the result ; it is fairly successful. Emboldened by this first trial, | made a more ambitious attempt, by dealing with the profile of a Greek girl copied from a gem. I was very desirous of learning how far the pure outline of the original admitted of being mimicked in this rough way. The result is here ; a ring has been painted round each dot in order to make its position clearly seen, without obliterating it. The reproduction has been photographic- ally reduced to various different sizes. That which contains only fifty dots to the inch, which is consequently six times as coarse as the theoretical 300 to an inch, is a very creditable production. Many persons to whom this portrait has been shown failed to notice the difference between it and an ordinary woodcut. The medium size, and much more the smallest size, would deceive anybody who viewed them at the distance of one foot. The protractor used in making them was a square card with a piece cut out of its middle, over which transparent tracing paper was pasted. A small hole of about } of an inch in diameter was punched out of the centre of the tracing paper ; sixteen minute holes just large enough to allow the entry of the sharp point of a hard lead-pencil were per- forated through the tracing paper in a circle round the centre of the hole at a radius of } inch. They corre- sponded to the 16 principal points of the compass, and had their appropriate letters written by their sides. The outline to be formulated was fixed to a drawing-board, with a T rule laid across it as a guide to the eye in keep- ing the protractor always parallel to itself. The centre of the small hole was then brought over the beginning of the outline, and a dot was made with the pencil through the perforation nearest to the further course of the out- line, and this became the next point of departure. While moving the protractor from the old point to the new one it was stopped on the way, in order that the letter for the bearing might be written through the central hole. A clear distinction must be made between the proposed plan and that of recording the angle made by each step from the preceding one. In the latter case, any error of 344 NATURE [FEBRUARY 9, 1893 bearing would falsify the direction of all that followed, like a bend in a wire. The difficulties of dealing with detached portions of the drawing, such as the eye, were easily surmounted by em- ploying two of the spare letters, R and S, to indicate brackets, and other spare letters to indicate points of reference. The bearings included between an R and an S were taken to signify directive dots, not to be inked in. The points of reference indicated by other letters are those to which the previous bearing leads, and from which the next bearing departs. Here is the formula whence the eye was drawn. It includes a very small part of the profile of the brow, and the directive dots leading thence to the eye. The letters should be read from the left to the right, across the vertical lines. They are broken into groups of five, merely for avoiding confusion and the con- venience of after reference. The part of the Profile that includes U &e. iiiilU jiihi &e. &e. The Eye. ~~ URKkk [ kkiil | mSVap ponmn moalmm mlmlm lIlmZZ VoTnn mommm | mmmim mmnZZ | Tijjj jjkke cbmmn mnnnn onooZ eg ak Letters used\as Symbols. R....S=G..).. Z=end, U, V, T are points of reference. By succeeding in so severe a test case as this Greek outline, it may be justly inferred that rougher designs can be easily dealt with in the same way. ©. At first sight it may seem to be a silly waste of time and trouble to translate a drawing into a formula, and then, working backwards, to retranslate the formula into a reproduction of the original drawing, but further reflec- tion shows that the process may be of much practical utility. Let us bear two facts in mind, the one is that a very large quantity of telegraphic information is daily published in the papers, anticipating the post by many daysor weeks. The other is that pictorial illustrations of current events, of a rude kind, but acceptable to the reader, appear from time to time in the daily papers. We may be sure that the quantity of telegraphic. intelligence will steadily increase, and that the art of newspaper illustra- tion will improve, and be more resorted to. Important local events frequently occur in far-off regions, of which no description can give an exact idea without. the help of pictorial illustration; some catastrophe, or site of a battle, or an exploration, or it may be some design or even some portrait. There is therefore reason to expect a demand for such drawings as these by telegraph, if their expense does not render it impracticable to have them. Let us then go into details of expense, on the basis of the present tariff from America to this country, of one shilling per word, 5 figures counting as one word, cypher letters not being sent at a corresponding rate. It requires two figures to perform each of the operations described above, which were performed by a single letter. So a formula for 5 dots would require 1o figures, which is the tele- graphically equivalent of 2 words ; therefore the cost for every 5 dots telegraphed from the United States would be 2 shillings, or £2 for every 100 dots or other indica- tions. In the Greek outline there is a total of 400 indications, including those for directive dots, and for points of refe- rence. The transmission of these to us from the United States would cost £8. I exhibit amap of England made with 248 dots, as a specimen of the amount of work in plans, which could be effected at the cost of £5. It is easy to arrange counters into various patterns or parts of patterns, learning thereby the real power of NO. 1215, VOL. 47] the process. The expense of pictorial telegraphs to foreign countries would be large in itself, but not largé relatively to the present great expenditure by newspapers. on telegraphic information, so the process might be ex- pected to be employed whenever it was of obvious utility. The risk is small of errors of importance arising from mistakes in telegraphy. I inquired into the éxperience of the Meteorological Office, whose numerous weather telegrams are wholly conveyed by numerical signals. Of the 20,625 figures that were telegraphed this year to the office from continental stations, only 49 seem to have been erroneous, thatistwo and a third per thousand. At this rate the 800 figures needed to telegraph the Greek profile would have been liable to two mistakes. A mistake in a figure would have exactly the same effect on the outline as a rent in the paper on which a similar outline had been drawn, which had not been pasted together again with perfect precision, The dislocation thereby occa- sioned would never exceed the thickness of the outline. The command of Ioo figures from o to 99, instead of only 26 letters, puts 74 fresh signals at our dis- posal, which would enable us to use all the 32 points of the compass, instead of 16, and to deal with long lines and curves. I cannot enter into this now, nor into the control of the general accuracy of the picture by means of the distances between the points of triangles each formed by any three points of reference. Neither need I speak of better forms of protractor. There is one on the table by which the ghost of a compass card is thrown on the drawing. Itis made ofa doubly refracting image of Iceland spar, which throws the so-cal “extraordinary” image of the compass card on to the ordinary image of the drawing and is easy to manipulate. All that I wish now to explain is that this particular application of the law of the just perceptible difference to- optical continuity gives us a new power that has prac- tical bearings. a ae ee i : i od ORs ATe PostscRipr.—A promising method for practical pu 0s that I have tried, is to use ‘* sectional” paper; that is, paper ruled into very small squares, or else coarse cloth, and either to make the drawing upon it, or else to lay transparent sectional paper, or muslin, over the drawing. Dots are to be made at distances not exceeding 3 spaces apart, along the course of the outline, at those intersections of the ruled lines (or threads) that best accord with the outline. Each dot in succes- sion is to be considered as the central i rire the following schedule, and the couplet of figures corresponding TE 2IncgY “aig (Ge 12 ,, 22 °92>,42> 52 +6292 13 23 33 43.53.63 73 14 24 34 44 54 64 74 15 25 35 45 55 65 75 16 26 36 46 56 66 76 17 27 37 47 57 67 77 to the portion of the next dot, is to be written with a fine pointed pencil in the interval between the two dots. These are subsequently copied, and make the formula. By employing 4 for zero, the signs of + and — are avoided ; 3, standing for —1, 2, for —2; and 1, for —3. The first figure in each couplet defines its horizontal coordinate from zero’; the second figure, its ver- tical one. Thus any one of 49 different points are indicated, corresponding to steps from zero of 0, 1, +2, and +3 inter- vals, in either direction, horizontal or vertical. Half-an-hour’s practice suffices to learn the numbers. The figures 0, 8, and 9 do not enter into any of the couplets in the schedule, the remaining 51 couplets in the complete series of 100 (ranging from 00 to 99), contain 21 cases in which .o, 8, or 9 forms the first figure only ; 21 cases in which one of them forms the Fresruary 9, 1893 | NATURE 345 second figure only, and 9 cases in which both of the figures are formed by one or other of them. These latter are especially distinctive. This method has five merits—medium, short, or very | short steps can be taken according to the character of the linea- | tion at any point; there is no trouble about orientation ; the | bearings are defined without a protractor, the work can be easily revised, and the correctness of the records may be checked by comparing the sums of the small coordinates leading to a point of reference, with their total values as read off directly. visited New Guinea, if we may judge by internal evidence, although his phraseology in many places is not unlikely to lead the reader to suppose that he has had a share in the results presented in its pages. Had the author had some personal acquaintance with the country of which he writes he would have formed opinions, we believe, | different from many of those he has expressed on his own | account throughout the book. A method of signalling is also in use for military purposes, in | which positions are fixed by coordinates, afterwards to be connected by lines. F. G: BRITISH NEW GUINEA. M® THOMSON’S work on British New Guinea has been looked for with some impatience. Now that it The work opens with a sketch “of the historical aspects of the whole of the great Papuan land,” but we miss in it the names of many who deserve honourable | mention for their contributions to the “ making” of New | Guinea. has come it falls short of our expectations. We had hoped | for a comprehensive work marshalling into order and | | We find no mention of the investigations of Dr. Otto Finsch carried on in all three possessions, of those of Mr. O. Stone, of the missionaries in Geelvink Bay, of Mr. Romilly, of the Special Commissioners Sir Peter Scratchley and the Hon. John Douglas, of Mr. Milman, and of Commanders Pullen and Field, who have all contributed to our knowledge of different regions. Fic. 1.—Native suspension bridge across the Vanapa river. summarising the observations and investigations made in | This chapter is prefaced by a quotation from the writings the British part of New Guinea, by so many missionaries, | explorers, navaland government officers and scientific men, for many years. Instead of this we find that the book is made up almost entirely of the explorations during the past four or five years of the administrator, boiled down out of the official reports by Mr. J. Thomson, the secretary of the Queensland branch of the Geographical Society of Australasia. Throughout the volume there is . everywhere evidence that its author is new to literary composition. In consequence, the terse and vigorous English of the original reports suffers severely in the process, so much so that we regret that their important parts have not been presented to us as extracts in the explorer’s own words. 1‘** British New Guinea.” By J. P. Thomson, F.R.S.G.S., &c. don: George Philip and Co., 1892.) NO. 1215, VOL. 47] (Lon- Mr. Thomson has himself never | of Plinius Minor:—‘“ It appears to me a noble employ- ment to rescue from oblivion those who deserve to be eternally remembered, and by extending the reputation of others, to advance at the same time our own.” These words are the true key-note of the book from which our Brisbane Pliny—Plinius Major—has never once deviated throughout histask. It is doubtless no small compliment to any man to have his deeds held up in the light of “eternal remembrance” by one of his fellows, but the task requires the delicate hand of a judicious fellow ; and we fear that our Pliny has marred the compliment in the paying. So inspired with veneration for his patron is he that every act of his appears almost extraordinary, and his name too augustever to be mentioned without the humblest obeisance expressed in the constant recapitulation of his titles, dignities, and office, which must be as nauseous to 346 NATURE [Fesruary 9, 1893 that officer as to every reader of Mr. Thomson’s book. In this “noble employment,” however, we hope that our historiographer for Papua may reap the reward hoped for by his prototype. The next two chapters deal with Sir William Macgregor’s explorations in the Louisiade and D’Entrecasteaux archi- pelagoes. In Chapter IV. is an account of the pursuit and punishment of the natives of Chads and Cloudy bays for the murder of European traders visiting their shores. The noisy with the “joyous shouts” of “ merry children”! It is difficult to comprehend why Australian writers on New Guinea will so persistently—for Mr. Thomson is not the only author who thus sins, nor have we quoted the only specimen of this style of writing in his book— overlaud the capabilities and “the vast naturaland artificial resources” of the country, heedless whether they may induce their too trustful readers to embark in hopeless enterprises in this ‘‘ never, never land.” Fic. 2.—Highlanders of Mount Musgrave. country lying to the south-east and north-west of Port Moresby forms the subject of the following two chapters. Speaking of that portion to the south-east Mr. Thomson says, ‘ It may not be altogether unreasonable to assume that in the future . . . fields once the scene of battle and feudal strife may be beautified by sites of local industry and manufacture, and enlivened by the joyous shouts of merry children and the harmonious peals of village bells.” The seventh chapter, containing an account of Sir William Macgregor’s splendid feat of the ascent of Mount Owen Stanley, is naturally the most interesting portion of the book. During this expedition almost if not t#e only native bridge yet known in New Guinea was met with. It was suspended from trees on each bank, and is very similar in every respect to those built by the Malays of Sumatra-a On the members assembling on Friday evening, the 3rd inst., the president, Dr. Anderson, again occupied the chair, and Mr. Matthews’s paper on the Southampton waterworks was read. This contribution is interesting, as it describes what we under- stand is the largest water-softening plant yet installed. The quantity of water that can be satisfactorily dealt with is from 2} to 2 million gallons per day of 24 hours. Of course the principle of softening hard water by lime is very far from new, but it has made slow progress, in spite of the vast quantities of hard water, otherwise unobjectionable, that there are in the chalky southern half of our island. ‘This limited applica- tion of a means whereby a bad water in one respect can be made a good one in all respects does not appear, to judge by the pro- ceedings of last Friday, to spring from any inherent defect in the system—beyond that which would arise from the disposal of the refuse lime in crowded cities—but rather from the careless- ness of public authorities and water-supplying companies to the wants and comforts of the people at large. ube The meeting terminated with the usual votes of thanks, the President announcing that the summer meeting would be held this year at Middlesborough on Tuesday, August 1, and the following days, THE SEVEN IMAGES OF THE HUMAN EYE. T is well known that in the human eye, besides the refracted image, which serves the purposes of vision, there are formed three reflected images known under the name of ‘‘ Purkinje’s images.” M. Tcherning has discovered three additional ones, so that the total number is brought up to seven.! In its passage into the interior of the eye each ray of light has to pass through the cornea, the aqueous humour, the crystalline lens, and the vitreous humour before finally arriving at the — retina. At the surface of éach of these constituents the ray is liable to be partially reflected, thus giving rise to four reflected images. These were all seen and described by Purkinje at the beginning of the century, but only three were observed by Helmholtz and others. These three can be easily observed by two persons on holding a lighted match between their eyes, and — moving it about so that the reflections seem to come from: pupil. One of them, that reflected by the front of the cornea, is much brighter than the two others, which are formed by the front surfaces of the crystalline and the vitreous humour respec- tively. The fourth image is due to reflection from the posterior — surface of the cornea. It may be discovered by careful observa- tion of the brightest image by means of a magnifying glass. As — 1 See Séances de la Société Frangaise de Physique, Avril-Novembre, 1892. i circumstance. rents cer besa so that they must be much dispersed by the time they reach the retina. To enable the image to be FEBRUARY 9, 1893] NATURE 355 it approaches the border of the pupil, and especially as it passes on to the iris, it is seen to be accompanied by a small, pale, but well-defined image, which always lies between the first image and the centre of the pupil, the distance between them decreas- ing as they move towards the centre, where they finally coincide. By means of the ophthalmophal ter—an instrument consist- ing of three incandescent lamps and a telescope arranged on an arc of 86 cm. radius—it was found possible to measure the radii of curvature of all the reflectinz surfaces. The foci of the two reflecting surfaces of the cornea were found to coincide, a fact which accounts for the coincidence of the two corresponding es at the centre of the pupil, and for Helmholtz’s failure of finding the fainter one. It is evident that since the light reflected from the successive surfaces does not fall upon the retina, it is lost for visual pur- oses. But a comparison of the percentages of loss in the case of the eye, and in that of a simple lens tells greatly in favour of the former as an optical instrument. In the eye the percentage of useful light is 97, ina simple lens 92, and in a compound yptical instrument correspondingly less. But the light reflected by any of the internal surfaces is also liable to be reflected back into the eye or the optical instrument, with the effect of super- imposing a more or less faint patch of light upon the image on the retina. This is termed the noxious light (/umidre nuisibie) by M. Tcherning. Ina simple lens this amounts to } per cent., at in the eye it is as low as 0'002 percent. But faint as it is, it is o oecahgd giving rise to two light impressions. due to double reflection, one at least of which has been actually observed in the human eye. ‘‘ The easiest way of observing it,” says M. Tcherning, ‘‘is to look straight forwards in a dark room, holding a lighted candle in the hand about 20 cm. from ‘the line vision. On moving the candle gently from side to side a pale _image of the flame is seen on the opposite side of the line of vision, distinct enough to show that it is inverted ; it moves aon w to the candle with respect to the line of vision. “he rays which form this image have undergone, besides several crystalline and another at the front surface of the cornea.” other image was expected to be formed by a similar reflec- tion at the anterior surface of the crystalline.. It was found in an artificial eye, but not in the human sense-organ. However, an.edby calcalati yn of the optical system of the eye explains this ircun he focus of the reflected rays is very near the formed on the retina, the object would have to lie between the and the crystalline, but on attempting to form a luminous _ cornea and point at that place by optical means it is found that the ‘‘ useful mvisible. _It is found that different eyes differ in their capacity of seeing he first of the two additional subjective images. Short-sighted people find it very indistinct unless the candle is held close to the eye, or convex glasses are used. As the maker of optical instruments utilises the accessory images for testing the degree of Polish and the accurate centreing of the lenses, so the nysician is enabled to make valuable inferences from them as to the structure and condition of the eye he is examining, and rey pascal images discovered by M. Tcherning appear to F. d’A. ah 2 iv be of considerable physiological importance. EE. E. F. d’A rays coe eye to such an extent as to render everything else A BOTANISTS VACATION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. SOME weeks ago we reprinted from the Botanical Gazette ~ (Indiana) a part of the first instalment of Prof. D. H. Campbell's interesting account of his vacation in the Hawaiian Islands. The following is the chief portion of the second and concluding instalment, published in the January number :— _ Beside visiting the isle of Oahu, I made short trips to the islands of Hawaii and Kauai. The former, the largest of the group, and the only one where volcanic action is still going on, is reached by steamer in about thirty-six hours from Hon- olulu. On the way, the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui are passed. The first, a barren-looking and forbidding spot, is the location of the leper settlement, to which all persons aranagg with leprosy are sent as soon as their condition becomes nown. NO. 1215, VOL. 47] lions, two reflections, one at the posterior surface of the - Maui, the largest of the islands next to Hawaii, consists of two portions connected by a narrow isthmus. The whole eastern half is nothing more nor less than the body of an im- mense extinct volcano, ten thousand feet high, and with a crater nearly ten miles across. The other end of the island is an older formation. This island is said to be very interesting botanically ; but, unfortunately, my time did not permit me to visit it. Very soon after sighting Maui, the three great mountain masses of Hawaii began to loom up. The day was clear, and the whole formation of the island became visible. It consists of three great volcanic cones, of which only one is now active. The highest summit, Mauna Kea, is nearly 14,000 feet above the level of the sea; the next, Mauna Loa, lacks but a few hundred feet of this; yet so great is the breadth of these masses that one fails to realise their immense height. Our first landing was at Mahukona, on the leeward side of the island, a most forlorn expanse of bare lava with scarcely a trace of vegetation, except a few unhappy-looking algaroba sa planted about the straggling buildings that constituted the amlet. We lay all day at this inhospitable station, not getting away until evening. A beautiful sunset and a fine glimpse of the peak of Mauna Kea glowing with the last rays of the sun, form my most pleasant recollections of this desolate place. What a change the next morning! On awakening we found ourselves entering the harbour of Hilo. Here everything is as green as can be imagined, and luxuriant vegetation comes down to the very ocean’s edge. The town is built on a bay fringed with cocoa-nut trees and embowered in a wealth of tropical vegetation. Owing to the great annual rainfall (about 180 inches), as well as to the fact that Hawaii is the most southerly of the islands, the vegetation here is the most luxuriant and tropical found in the whole group. I remained in Hilo for six days and collected some most interesting specimiens. Through the kindness of Mr. Hitchcock of Hilo, I was enabled to spend the night at his camp in the woods near the town, and the greater part of two days collecting in the vicinity. The forest here is most interesting. Mr. Hitchcock was starting a coffee plantation and has cut trails through the woods in several directions, so that collecting was very convenient. There is great danger of vlosing one’s self in these woods where there are no trails, as much of the forest is an almost impassable jungle. In these moist forests ferns and mosses luxuriate, and every trunk and log is closely draped with those beautiful growths. Flowers are almost entirely wanting, a fact repeatedly observed by collectors in tropical forests. I saw here fully developed specimens of tree-ferns. The finest of these were species of Cibotium, Many had trunks from fifteen to twenty feet high, and some must have been fully thirty. The most beautiful were some with trunks ten to fifteen feet high, as these were more symmetrical and had finer fronds than the taller ones. I meas- ured the leaves of one that had fallen over, and roughly esti- mated the length. as eighteen feet. I have no doubt that specimens fully twenty feet long could be found. These giant fronds, arching high over one’s head as one rides on horseback under them, present a sight at once unique and beautiful. Growing upon the trunks of these ferns were many epiphytic species, the most peculiar of which was Ophioglossum pendulum, with long strap-shaped leaves, a foot or two long, and a spike of sporangia sometimes six inches long. Exquisite species of Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes, the most ethereal of all the fern tribes, with almost transparent, filmy leaves, were common, sometimes completely enveloping the trunks of the trees. Of the terrestrial ferns, which abounded everywhere, two were espe- cially notable as;representing groups unknown in the United States. One of these, Gleichenia dichotoma, forms extensive thickets on the borders of the forest, and in the Hilo district extends down almost to the sea-level. The other, MJarattia Douglasii, a very large fern with leaves eight to ten feet long in well-grown specimens, has fleshy dark green leaves, and thick stipules sheathing the base of the leaf-stalks. Several species of Lycopodium and Selaginella were common, and a good variety of mosses and liverworts. In these forests wild bananas are common, and most magnificent plants they are. Sheltered from the wind, the superb great leaves develop to their full size, without being torn in the least, and the whole plant is a study of beautiful form and colour. Coffee is being extensively planted in this region as well as upon the lee side of the island, and as the quality of the berry 356 NATURE | FEBRUARY 9, 1893 is exceptionally fine, this promises soon to be a leading industry in the islands, About Hilo especially, but common also elsewhere, was a very conspicuous black fungus, that covered the leaves com- pletely in many cases, and attacked. indiscriminately a great variety of trees. From Hilo I proceeded to the volcano of Kilauea, some thirty miles distant, and about 4000 feet above the level of the sea. As this volcano has so often been the theme of travellers’ descriptions I will not linger over it. In the vicinity are many interesting plants, among them a species of Vaccinium with sub-acid yellow and red berries something like cranberries, These ‘‘ohelo” berries are much esteemed, and are especially good when cooked. Some two miles from the volcano is a superb grove of koa trees, the largest trees I saw anywhere in the islands. One of these standing alone, and with magnificent spread of branches, must have been ten feet in diameter. The road to the volcano lies for much of the way through a fine forest. In the lower part the ohia trees were loaded with their beautiful crimson fruit, and present a very showy appearance. Of flowers, the species of Ipomzea were the most conspicuous ; but the scarlet flower-bracts of Freycinetia were conspicuous at times, for here this latter plant may often be seen running to the tops of the tallest trees. (s The glory of this road, however, is the tree-ferns, which all along excite one’s admiration. The'carriage road is not yet completed, and about thirteen miles must be done on horseback. Of this more than a mile is over a corduroy road made out of the trunks of ferns! Such a road, if not very durable, is yet very pleasant to horses. As these trunks lay prostrate, in the damp atmosphere, most of them were already sending out new fronds, and in due course of time the road will be fringed with a hedge of great fern-leaves. Indeed, in some of the more open parts of the road farther down, where the ground is completely occupied by a small tree- fern growing in dense thickets, as these are grubbed out to make way for cultivation, their trunks are piled up to form fences, and soon sprout out so that they make a beautiful and close hedge of fern-leaves, On leaving the volcano I went down on the other side of the island. The rain being almost entirely intercepted by the mountains, this leeward side is very dry, and the ride to Punaluu, where we were to take the steamer, was not especially pleasant. Vegetation is very scanty, and nothing particularly interesting was noted in this line. The soil on this side of the island, especially in the district of Kona, is very fertile, and when water can be had, produces magnificent crops of all the tropical staples, pine.apples, cocoa nuts, coffee, sugar, &c., all especially fine ; and we feasted on these cocoa-nuts and pine-apples as we sailed along this picturesque, if somewhat barren, coast. A short, flying trip was made to the Island of Kauai, the richest. botanically_of all-the islands,’ as it-is the oldest geologi- cally. According to Hillebrand, not only is the number of species larger than in the other islands, but the species are more specialised. Here I saw several species of the curious woody Lobeliaceze, of which there are several genera that form either shrubs or small trees. I saw several species of Cyanea, with stems six to eight feet high, with long leaves crowded at the top of the stem and many white or purplish flowers, much like those of Lobelia, but somewhat larger and less open. As in all the islands, there is on Kauai a great difference between the windward and leeward sides. I drove for about thirty miles along the windward side of this island through some of the most beautiful scenery of all the islands, Near the sea were rolling plains and hills, with here’and there groves of Pan- danus and Hau—the latter a. dense spreading small tree with large yellow hibiscus-flowers—and at one point we drove through amagnificent grove of kukui trees, the finest I saw anywhere. As we reached that part of the island which is most fully exposed to the moisture-laden trade-winds, vegetation became extremely luxuriant. Numerous valleys with clear streams flowing down them, their bottoms given up to rice plantations, were to be seen here, with'the rice in all stages, from the young spears just standing above the water to golden-yellow patches of ripe grain. At Hanalei, my destination, I found excellent accommodation and a delightful bathing beach, the latter especially attractive after a thirty-five mile urive over dusty roads. Hanalei is beautifully situated on a picturesque bay, with bold mountains rising directly back. The next morning a native was hired to go with me into the woods, and the day was spent in collecting. NO. 1215, VOL. 47] The variety of trees, as well as other phzenogams, is much greater here than in Hawaii; the ferns, also, were very fine. Here I obtained a prize in a fine lot of the prothallia and young plants of Marattia, as well as some other interesting things. — - Want of space forbids going inté details, but no botanist visiting the islands can afford to miss Kauai. In position, the Hawaiian Islands are unique, being more isolated than any other land of equal area upon the globe. More than 2000 miles separates them from the mainland, and 1860 miles from the nearest high islands. Of purely volcanic origin, thrown up from an immense depth, they have always been thus isolated. As might be expected, the flora is very peculiar, more so than in any other country. According to Hillebrand, of 800 species of spermaphytes and pteridophytes that are strictly indigenous, 653, or 75 per cent., are endemic. Taking out the pteridophytes, the spermaphytes show over 81 per cent. ; and the dicotyledons over 85 per cent. that are found only in this group. us For a thorough study of this very curious flora, a long time would be necessary, as many species are extraordinarily local, and many of the most interesting localities are very difficult of access. The islands differ extremely among themselves, and exhibit in a most interesting manner the correspondence that exists between the variety and differentiation of forms and the ages of the islands.. The formation of the islands has proceeded from north to south ; and Kauai, the northernmost of the large islands of the group, is also the oldest and much the richest botanically, especially as regards spermaphytes ; and, according, to Hillebrand, the genera and species are more differentiated. Hawaii, the southernmost of the islands, is much the poorest in forms, although in the Hilo district the conditions are most favourable for a luxuriant development of forms. : * In the latter island is the last active volcano of the group, Mauna Loa, with its two craters, of which the well-known crater of Kilauea is the great sight of the islands, and visited constantly by tourists from all parts of the world. . A few days after my return to Honolulu from Kauai, and six weeks from my-first arrival there, I boarded the AZonowai, the through Australian steamer bound for San Francisco, which was reached in due season after an uneventful passage. And so ended my first trip to the tropics, be ; INSTRUMENTS FOR THE EARTHQUAKE |. LABORATORYAT THE CHICAGO EXPOSITION. THE first earthquake instrument ever invented, a drawing of which is shown on the wall, is in all probability that of Choké, dating from the year A.D. 132. The first instrument. used for keeping systematic records in Japan was Palmieri’s modification of the contrivance sketched out by the late Robert Mallet. Since this not only have all forms of seismographs and seismoscopes employed in Europe and America been employed, but many special forms have been designed in Japan, with the result that rather than Japan borrowing from Europe and America, these countries are using inventions which had their origin in Japan. A few of these instruments are exhibited in this laboratory. The main feature in their construction is that they all work from ‘‘ steady points,” and for small earthquakes at least, we can say with confidence that the diagrams they yield are absolute measurements of the earth’s motion. From diagrams written on stationary plates we know the extent and the direction of the principal vibrations in a shock, but when the movements are recorded on a moving surface, we know the period or the rapidity with which the movements follow each other. From these latter diagrams the acceleration or suddenness of move- ments may be calculated, and the factors given to engineers enabling them to construct to resist known forces, rather than simply building strongly because an earthquake is strong. INSTRUMENTS EXHIBITED, 1. Seismograph writing on a glass disc.—Here we have hori- zontal pendulums writing the earth’s motion as two rectangular components on the surface of a smoked glass plate. The vertical: motion is given by a vertical spring lever seismograph. . The rate at which the plate revolves is accurately marked by an electrical time ticker. The movements of the latter are governed by a pendulum swinging across and making contacts with a small vessel of mereury.; ‘Fesruary 9, 1893] NATURE 357 The revolving plate is kept in motion by clockwork, which is set in motion by an electric seismoscope. (See No. 8.) 2. Seismograph writing on a drum.—In this instrument the record is written on a band of paper, the diagram being less difficult to interpret because it is written to the right and left of a straight line and not round a circle. 3. Seismograph writing on a band of paper.—In this instru- ment not only is the diagram written along a straight line but it is written with pencil,—the trouble of handling smoked paper being therefore avoided. When the earthquake ceases, the drum ceases to revolve, but if a second or third earthquake should - oceur, it is again set in motion. By this meansa series of qu: may be recorded, the resetting of the instrument utomatic. _ 4 Seismograph without multiplying levers.—This instrument is intended to record large motions, the horizontal levers not being prolonged beyond the steady points to multiply the motion. _ For large earthquakes, when the ground is thrown into wave- like undulations, special instruments which measure tilting are 5. Duplex pendulum seismograph.—In this case a steady point is obtained by controlling the motion of an ordinary pendulum with an inverted pendulum. The record consists of a series of superimposed curves written on a smoked glass plate. 6. Mantelpiece seismometer.—This is intended for the use of those who simply. wish. to know the direction and extent of motion as recorded at their own house. It is a form of duplex pendulum, and it gives absolute measurements for small dis- _ 7. Tromometer.—This is one form of an instrument which is used to record movements which are common to all countries, a earth tremors. Every five minutes, by clockwork contacts nd an induction coil, sparks are discharged from the end of the long pointer to perforate the bands of paper which are slowly moving across the brass table. If the pointer is at rest, then a series of holes are made following each other in a straight line, t if it is moving, the bands of paper are perforated in all directions round what would be the normal line of perforations. _ The earth movements which cause these disturbances are ‘apparently Jong surface undulations of the earth’s crust, in form not unlike the swell upon the ocean. _ A more satisfactory method of recording these motions, which pe pe for the last two years, is by a continuous photo- raph of a ray of light reflected from a small mirror attached to a small but extremely light horizontal pendulum. 8. vical contact maker.—These instruments are delicate Seismoscopes, which on the slightest disturbance close an electric circuit, which, actuating electric magnets, set free the machinery driving the recording surfaces on which diagrams are written, _ 9. Clock.—At the time of an earthquake the dial of this clock Pai gad aca and forth and receives on its surface three dots from the inkpads on its fingers. It thus records hours, _ Minutes, and seconds, without being stopped. 10, Model of an earthquake.—The bent wires represent the ath traced by an earth particle at the time of the earthquake of wary 15, 1887. The numbers indicate successive seconds. this model was made by Prof. S. Sekiya. 11, Safety lamps.—These are lamps which if overturned are at once extinguished. One of these isa European invention and the other Japanese. 12. Pictures.—The pictures on the walls show the effects of the Great Earthquake of October 28, 1891, the devastation following the Eruption of Bandaisan in 1887, and several of the more important yoleanoes in Japan. They were made by Prof. . K. Burto ; Joun Mitnx, F. Omort. Seismological Laboratory, Imperial University of Japan, Tokio. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCA TIONAL : INTELLIGENCE. OXFoRD.—Last Term the Board of Faculty of Natural Science recommended that an honour examination in Natural Science should be instituted, bearing the same relation to the Final School that Moderations bear to the Final School of Literae Humaniores.. The recommendation of the Board was not unanimous, and on the matter coming before the Hebdo- madal Council last week, it was put aside on the ground of want NO. 1215, VOL. 47] of unanimity among the various scientific departments. There was much to be said both for and against the proposed examina- tion. It would probably have raised the standard of the chemical and physical work done by biologists, but would have forced an additional subject on the chemists and physicists, which they were very unwilling to assent to. CAMBRIDGE.—The Adams Prize has been awarded ‘to Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S., late Fellow of Trinity College, for a memoir on the methods of determining the absolute and relative value of gravitation and the mean density of the earth. The Professor of Pathology (Mr. Roy) gives notice that on Thursday, February 9, a lecture and demonstration will be given by Dr. Hafkine, of the Pasteur Institute, on his method of conferring immunity against Asiatic cholera, The lecture will be delivered at the Pathological Laboratory at 4.30, and will be open to members of the University. The office of Esquire Bedell has been rendered vacant by the death of Mr. F. C. Wace, a distinguished mathematician, formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics at St. John’s College, and thrice elected Mayor of the Borough of Cambridge. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. Wiedemann’s Annalen der Physik und Chemie, No. 1.— Essay towards an extension of Maxwell’s Theory, by Hermann Ebert. The author obtains expressions for dispersion and absorption of waves of the order of light-waves analogous to those obtained by Goldhammer, and shows that they may be derived from Maxwell’s fundamental conceptions by applying them to the case of rapidly changing displacements. —A new kind of magnetic and electric measuring apparatus, by G. Quincke. These are made of glass, ebonite, and wood. No screws are used in their construction, and they are claimed to cost a tenth of the price. of ordinary instruments, with equal accuracy. In each of them the needles are suspended at the hollow centre of a vertical circular glass disc.—On a null method for measuring the dielectric constants of conducting liquids, by Friedrich Heerwagen.—On a phenomenon analogous to Newton’s rings observed during the } assage of Hertz electric plane waves through plane-parallel metal plates, by Ludwig Boltzmann. The author removes an apparent contradiction between Maxwell’s. theory and. Hertz’s observation that even excessively thin metal plates do not transmit electric waves a few decimetres long, by showing that this is not due to absorp- tion, but to the limiting conditions at the surfaces of separation deducible from Maxwell’s formule.—On a medium whose mechanical properties lead to the equations propounded by Maxwell for electromagnetism, by L. Boltzmann,—On some questions concerning Maxwell’s theory of electricity, by L. Boltzmann.—The index of refraction of electric rays in alcohol, by H. O. G. Ellinger.—On the electrification of air in glow and brush discharges, by Ad. Heydweiler.—On the calculation of magneto optic phenomena, by P.. Drude.—Spectra of aluminium, indium, and thallium, by H. Kayser and C. Runge. —On the infra-red spectra of the alkalies, by H. Kayser and C. Runge. A criticism of Benjamin Snow’s work on the’same subject.—Investigations concerning interior conduction of heat, by Richard Wachsmuth.—On the absolute value of the thermal conductivity ofair, by A. Winkelmann.—On a modification of the transpiration method suitable for the investigation of very viscous liquids, by C. Brodmann. Thesubstance was made to pass from a funnel-shaped reservoir through a capillary. tube into a. beaker standing on one pan of achemical balance. The time was noted at which the amount of liquid passed into the beaker was large enough to overcome the counterpoise in the other pan, and to. disturb the equilibrium, and further small weights were added and similarly dealt with. The temperature was kept constant by a spiral water-pipe and felt jacket, and local differences and variations of level and buoyancy were corrected for.. The liquid experimented upon was glycerine, and the temperature curves were hyperbolas.—Notes on M. Cantor’s thesis on capillary constants, by Th. Lohnstein.—Note on the purification of mercury, by W. Jaeger. Notes from thé Leyden Museum.—Of volume xiv. numbers 1 and 2 were published in April, and numbers 3 and 4 in July last. Edited by Dr. F. A. Jentink, this volume contains 282 pages and ten plates. The notes on Mammals are ; by the editor on Sennopithecus pyrrhus, Horsfield ; and on Pithecir melan- urus, S. Muller (Pls. 3 and 4).' In volume, xii. Dr. Jentink, NATURE [FEBRUARY 9, 1893 p. 222, gave a note about this latter very rare, nearly forgotten, and often misunderstood little rodent, figured by Alfred Duvaucel in F. Cuvier’s great work, the ‘‘ Histoire Naturelle des Mam- miferes.’? Cuvier could give no indication of its size, nor of its native country, guessing that ‘‘ qu'il est originaire des provinces du Nord de Bengale, si ce n’est des parties occidentales de Su- matra.”. Dr. S. Miiller, in 1834, obtained a specimen in Java, . to the northern side of Mount Gede, and named the species. This, and another specimen from Sumatra (also collected by Miiller) are both in the Leyden Museum as stuffed specimens. The skulls of these two specimens were detected in the Leyden Museum by Oldfield Thomas, and were included by Jentink in his catalogue of 1887, though with a query. But all doubt on the subject was removed at the date of this paper; and now the animal has been taken alive by Mr, J. D. Pasteur on the north- ern slope of the Goenong Gedeh, Java, an account of which capture is given in a very graphic translation of a letter to Dr. Jentink, On birds there are papers by J. Biittikofer on the specimens of the genus Tatare in the Museum, on the specific value of Levaillant’s ‘‘ Traquet Commandeur,” and onthe col- lections of birds sent by the late A. T. Demery from the Suly- mah river, West Africa, pp. 13-30. In this last paper 96 species are recorded, ten of which are new to Liberia; on Aatracho- stomus poliolophus, n. sp. from W. Sumatra, by Ernst Hartert ; on a weaver finch from Sumatra; and on a collection of birds from the islands of Flores, Sumba, and Rotti, by J. Biittikofer ; and on the birds of Sumba, by A. B. Meyer. About fish there is a note by Dr. Th, W. van Lidth de Jeude on Orthragoriscus nasus, Ranzani, which had been washed ashore in November, 1891, at Callantsoog. A figure from a photograph is given.— M. Schepman describes a number of lana and fresh water mol- lusca from Soemba, Timor, and other East Indian islands; several new species are diagnosed.—Dr, J. G. de Man continues his Carcinological studies in the Leyden Museum, and in No. 6 describes several new species which are figurec. A very im- portant contribution to our knowledge of the echinoderms is made by Dr. Clemens Hartlaub’s paper on the species and structure of the hard parts in Culcita ; nine species are carefully described, their geographical distribution is given, Culcita grex, M.T., is figured from a photograph, and a fairly complete bibliography is appended. The rest of the papers are descrip- tions of new forms of insects, No. 1 of vol. xv., dated as January, 1893, but published October 30 last, contains a review of the genus Rhipidura, with an enumeration of the specimens in the Leyden Museum. A key to the 75 species now known is given—five are described for the first time. M. E. Buchner has a note on the occurrence of Mellivora indica, Kerr, in the Trans-Caspian district ; on two supposed new species of Pentadactylus, by M. Schepman. There are also several papers on new forms of insects. from time to time as it formed, the melted metal became bright, and-was then found to be perfectly free from antimony, A quantity of about 350 kilogrammes of bismuth containing 0°80 per cent. of antimony was melted and the temperature observed at which the antimony separated as described. By maintaining a constant temperature of 458°C. the whole of he separated, leaving the bismuth free from any trace of this metal. The temperatures were determined by the pyrometer of M. H. | le Chatelier. ere tt Physical Society, January 13.—Prof. G. F. Fitzgerald, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—Mr. F. W. Sanderson read a paper on science teaching, In ‘this communication the author ~ considers the methods of teaching physical science, and remarks that other sciences may best be treated in some different manner, The method recommended is one found suitable in public schools where boys may remain till about the age of nineteen. In ele- mentary and secondary schools modification would be ni with a view to making it more immediately useful, whilst in university and technical colleges other methods might be prefer- able. The object of his public school method was to make physical science a definite means of education, rather than to produce skilled physicists. Certain mathematical subjects, such as arithmetic, geometry, and algebra, should be taught before physics is begun, and taught in such a way as to aid su physical work. In teaching arithmetic it is deemed desirable to distinguish between the science and the art of it, and to have separate hours for instruction in each. The subjects included in each part are described in some detail in the paper. No exist- ing arithmetic satisfies the author’s requirements. Geometry is considered of the first importance ; practical geometry and the use of instruments forming the best introduction to the subject. It is recommended that the elementary part be taught by the mathematicn] master with a view to formal geometry, ¢.g. Euclid. As most practical geometries consist of isolated ean: structions they are useless for teaching the subject in a scientific manner. A number of problems suitable for a graduated intro- ductory course are given. After elementary geometry, mensura- tion may be taken up with advantage, the facts being verified by drawing to scale, measuring, or by weighing, but no rules being given. Trigonometry of one angle may then be commenced. Here also free use should be made of the drawing board, each pupil finding the sines, cosines, and tangents of angles by draw- ing and measurement, and making tables. Quite independent of the mathematical class the author has’ been in the habit of carrying boys on the engineering side through a course of graphical analytical geometry, in which they draw straight lines and the quadratic curves, &c.,from their equations, solve simul- taneous linear equations, quadratics, cubics, &c. Other geometrical constructions follow. The subject as to what branches of science should be taught in the different departments of a school is then considered, and schemes are given for the SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, January 26.—‘‘On the Three-Bar Motion of Watt.”” By William Brennand. Communicated by C: B. Clarke, F.R.S. ‘Further Researches in Connection with the Metallurgy of Bismuth.” By Edward Matthey, F.S.A., F.C.S., Assoc. ay. a Mines. Communicated ‘by Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., Paper IV.—‘‘ Bismuth, its Separation from Arsenic.”—In melting large quantities of bismuth containing arsenic it was found that the surface of the metal being exposed to the air arsenical fumes appeared, and that as the temperature of the metal was raised the arsenic came off in dense white fumes {As,O;). An alloy of bismuth containing 0°65 per cent. of arsenic was carefully operated upon and freed from the whole of its arsenical contents, the temperatures being noted at which the separation takes place. When raised to a temperature of 513°C, and maintained at this for a short period, the bismuth was found to be absolutely free from arsenic, Paper V. ‘‘ Bismuth, its Separation from Antimony.”— Whilst engaged in fusing some 400 or 500 kilogrammes of bis- muth containing antimony it was noticed that a peculiar oily film formed on the surface of the alloy, which on being removed and tested was found to contain a considerable percentage of antimony. By continuing the operation and removing the film NO. 1215, VOL. 47 | c 1, modern and commercial, science, and engineering sides, Some general principles which have been kept in view in arranging the physical teaching are next described. Inthe first place the fundamental experiments and observations on which each scientific law is based are explained to the pupils, and when possible the experiments are performed by the boys in the laboratory. Secondly, from the experiments the laws are stated as precisely as possible, the form of statement depending on the knowledge possessed by the class.. The problem of expressing a law mathematically from its most fundamental statement is’ then fully considered. Thirdly, mathematical deductions from the laws are followed out, and: the pupils perform experiments to verify the results, and thus confirm the laws. Fourthly, a course of exact physical measurements is: given, which includes mensuration, hydrostatics, mechanics, sound, heat, electricity, and light. A firstand second year’s course is arranged in each subject, and in both years all the boys work the same experiment atthe same time. This necessitates multiplication of apparatus, but being of a simple character in the lower forms where the pupils are numerous it is not prohibitive. It is also stated that boys get better results with comparatively rough apparatus, if large, than with delicate and expensive instruments. About half the time devoted to physics is spent in the laboratory. Mathematics is introduced, as far as can be done ‘without straining the pupils too much, and with voung classes appeal is ~ made to experiment where the strictly logical argument would - be difficult to follow. Instead of teaching the applications of science as done in some technical schools, the author’s method is to teach pure science, and let the applications come in as / FEBRUARY 9, 1893 | NATURE 359 illustrations, At the end of the paper detailed lists of experi- ments for practical courses in electricity and optics are given. Samples of the apparatus used were exhibited at the meeting, those for optics being particularly simple and ingenious.— Prof. A, M. Worthington said his experience led him to a very hearty agreement with Mr. Sanderson on all essential points, and he thought there was now aclose agreement amongst teachers as to the best methods. He therefore wished to ask, Had not the time now come at which the Physical Society might usefully endeavour to exert direct influence on science teach- ing? As the scientific instruction of a person who intends cdloming a scientific calling is generally divided into stages, and c d in different places under different teachers, he it was desirable that those in charge of his training at ch stage should say up to what point his instruction should be carried before he reaches them. Other matters in which the society might do useful work were (1) reporting on text- ks and condemning the bad ones, and (2) furthering the of of the decimal system, At present, he said, an enor- mous extension in the teaching of physical science is taking _ place, and it seemed within the power of the Physical Society to place itself at the bead of the movement. Another point which required to be settled was the relative importance of hysics and chemistry at different stages of a student's education. —Mr, L. Cumming agreed with the general principles laid down by Mr. Sanderson. In attempting to carry out such schemes numerous difficulties presented themselves, especially where the science master had not control over the subdivision of the boys He had tried teaching the science of arith- ” time. metic to boys in the lower forms, but the results were not Srecacaging, ing, for he found very few who could do much in it. They seemed to devote themselves much more readily to con- crete problems and the art of manipulation of rules. Graphical statics was very valuable. Asregards experimental lectures, he believed them to be very important, especially in junior classes. For scholarship boys a different method had been tried with success. Instead of performing lengthy experimentscompletely before the class, the essential parts were gone over, and for the minor points the results obtained in experiments made before or results were to hand. This saved considerable time. He hoped Mr. Sanderson would say something about the slide rule, and wished to learn his opinions on its use. —Dr. Stoney said he was very much struck with the methods of teaching brought forward by Mr. Sanderson, and remarked that his own work would have been considerably lightened if such a scheme had been developed many years ago. Experi- — ntal.methods were very valuable, provided the inaccuracies D t be kept in view. Plotting curves was also very instructive, and might be made a means of furnishing the fundamental notions in the differential and integral calculus. As to the introduction of chemistry, his experience went to show that this should be done at an early age. Dynamics should Iso be begun early.—Mr. W. B. Croft thought that if the ' Society did make rules to regulate the teaching of physical cience, these rules should not be too strict, for the ages and ms of boys might differ widely. At Winchester the science teaching was carried out on the lines recommended by a ittee of the Royal Society appointed to consider the ps ae (Leaflets showing the scheme adopted were here distributed to members.) The object of the scheme was not merely to make science a means of education, but an integral part of the education of the pupils. He also made a point of keeping the lecture experiments. up to date.— Mr. Rentoul said dynamics should not be taught as a mathe- matical subject, but experimentally. He thought it of the first importance that boys should learn how to find out facts for themselves, and for this practical work was essential. —Prof. Ayrton remarked that the conditions under which science was taught differed in different places. He himself taught with the object of enabling the persons under instruc- tion to improve the industry, For this purpose he believed the analytical method more suitable than the synthetical one advo- cated by Mr. Sanderson. It also had the advantage of being more scientific, for it was more natural, being, in fact, that used by children from birth, for they had no other means of learning the nature and properties of their surroundings. In his first year’s technical course the work was synthetical, whilst in the third year the students, having analysed existing apparatus, were taught to devise new or improved forms, and hence the work NO. 1215, VOL. 47] ones lecture were given, so that all the data for reducing’ had became more synthetical—Mr. F. J. Smith said it was important that students be taught to measure by the balance, micrometer, spherometer, and as soon as possible, He also inquired how far Mr. Sanderson’s pupils could help themselves in making the apparatus required for the simple experiments. —Dr, Gladstone agreed with many points in the paper. Lately he had had to do with schemes for improving the teaching in elementary schools. Children were naturally philosophers, but at present their curiosity was considered objectionable and sternly repressed. Efforts were now being made to alter this state of things. Kindergarten classes in infant schools were a step in the right direction. It was very difficult to introduce analogous methods in the higher standards, but natural science had now obtained a footing. Although the methods of teach- ing adopted might be those suitable for pure science, care should be taken to put in practical illustrations, for when suit- ably chosen they are sources of great interest to children.—Mr. Sanderson, in reply, said the slide rule was used throughout the course, Mechanics was taught by actual machines, such as pulley blocks, screw jacks, &c. The boys made some apparatus, but to make all would require too much time.—The President, when proposing a vote of thanks to the author of the paper, said that in Ireland the opinion that boys and girls cannot be taught science greatly predominated. They found considerable difficulty in getting any continuation of the kindergarten teach- ing sanctioned. Possibly drawing might be allowed, but this seemed all they could hope for at present. He wished to emphasise the fact that in such schools the object was education, and practical applications of science were not important except in so far as it created an interest in the subjects. At present scientific teaching was in an experimental stage, and as in other things, progress is made by trial and error. Many different methods were being tried, and it was important to know which were successful and which failures. He thought the Physical Society might be useful in collecting information on the sub- ject by issuing a circular of questions to science teachers, and subsequently drawing up a report on the subject. Royal Microscopical Society, December 21.—Dr. R. Braithwaite, President, in the chair.—After the formal business necessary to be done at the meeting preceding the annual meet- ing, the Society adjourned as a mark of respect to the lately deceased Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., the first president of the Society. January 18.—Dr. R. Braithwaite, President, in the chair.— This being the annual meeting the President gave an address on the development of mosses and sphagnums, illustrating his subject with drawings and slides under microscopes inthe room. —On the Rev. Canon Carr proposing, and Mr. W. T. Suffolk seconding, a hearty vote of thanks was given to the President for his interesting address. —The annual report and the treasurer’s statement of accounts having been read and adopted, the fol- lowing were elected as officers and council for the en-uing year : —President: Mr, A. D. Michael; Vice-Presidents: Dr. R. Braithwaite, Mr. F, Crisp, Mr. James Glaisher, and Prof. Charles Stewart ; Treasurer: Mr. W. T. Suffolk ; Secretaries : Prof. F. Jeffrey Bell, Dr. W. H. Dallinger ; Ordinary Members : Dr. Lionel S. Beale, Mr. A. W. Bennett, Rev. Canon Carr, Mr. E. Dadswell, Mr. C. Haughton Gill, Dr. R: G. Hebb, Mr. G. C. Karop, Mr. E. M, Nelson, Mr. T. H. Powell, Prof. Urban Pritchard, Mr. F. H. Ward, and Mr. T. Charters White. OXFORD. University Junior Scientific Club, February 1.—The Pre- sident in the chair.—At the conclusion of private business Mr. J. E. Marsh gave an exhibit of some products of the electric furnace. He had brought for the inspection of the club some specimens, from M. Moissan’s laboratory, of fused lime and uran- ium reduced from the oxide. He explained the construction of the furnace, and the methods of using it and of obtaining the temperature of the arc. He further commented on M. Berthelot’s views as to the limit of temperature of the furnace, pointing out that the maximum value was that of the temperature of vapor- isation of carbon, and that in all cases this was obtained. After a short discussion Mr. F. Finn, who has just returned from Africa on a worm-hunting expedition, described the incidents of his journey. His remarks were illustrated by a number of lantern slides showing scenes on the coast, chiefly at Mombasa and Zanzibar. His first stay was at Lamu, where he did not get any worms, the natives misunderstanding his signs and bring- ing bones. Hedescribed his impressions of Zanzibar at some 360 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 9, 1893 length, being agreeably surprised at. the place. Near here he obtained several reptiles and birds which are now in the Zoo- logical Gardens. His chief collection was made at Mombasa, however. He speaks very highly of the hospitality of the Europeans on that coast.—Mr. F. G. Fremantle read a paper on Hermaphroditism, confining his attention to human beings. He divided his subject into various classes, ranging from com- plete, or almost complete, neutrality of sex, to those cases where either male or female characteristics preponderated, concluding with some cases of pure deception. The paper was illustrated with diagrams, and-a large number of cases were cited in sup- port of the statements made. He showed that a perfect herma- phrodite both physiologically and anatomically could not exist, either the male or female characters preponderating in every case. After a short discussion the club adjourned until February 17. CAMBRIDGE. Philosophical Society, January 30.—Prof.T. McK. Hughes, President, in the Chair.—Mr. Bateson exhibited a dog’s skull, lent by Mr, J. Harrison of Northampton, in which the upper canines were bigeminous, each having two crowns both in the plane of the arcade.—The following communicitions were made :—On a new fern from the coal measures, by Mr. A. C. Seward. The specimen described as a new species, Rachiop- teris Williamsont, resembles in certain particulars the genus Myeloxylon, but possesses distinctive characters not previously recognised in fossil fern petioles. Rachiopteris Williamsoni may be briefly described as a petiole with scattered vascular bundles ; those near the periphery appear to be rather collateral than concentric in structure, but the larger bundles have a more decided concentric arrangement of the xylem and phloem. Each * group of xylem elements is surrounded by a ring of small secre- tory canals, The hypoderm is like that of AZyeloxylon, and gum (?) canals are abundantly distributed in the ground tissue. On the intestinal mov ts of Daphnia, by Mr. W. B. Hardy. — On Urobilin, by A. Eichholz, Emmanuel College. In this communication a new method of urobilin extraction was described, by which the pigment is preserved in the state of chromogen. The properties of urobilin in normal and febrile urines were recapitulated in order to compare urohilin with the reduction products from bilirubin and hematin. The communi- cation was then devoted to a description of experiments devised to settle the question as to the possibility of artificial production of urobilin from bilirubin and hematin. After pointing out how Maly’s hydrobilirubin differs from true urobilin, and how conse- quently the identity of Hoppe Seyler’s and Neucki and Sieber’s urobilin from hzematin reduction becomes doubtful, it was shown, in spite of statements to the contrary by McMunn and Le Nobel, that it is possible by complete reduction of both bilirubin and hzematin to obtain substances in each case accu- rately resembling urobilin. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, January 30.—M. de Lacaze-Duthiers in the chair.—On some objects made of copper of a very ancient date, discovered in the course of M. Sarzec’s excavations in Chaldzea, by M. Berthelot. M. de Sarzec has unearthed some relics of the most ancient Chaldzean civilisation, which confirm M. Berthelot’s views as to the existence of an age during which pure copper was used instead of bronze, the latter being intro- duced after the rise of the conmerce in tin. A fragment of a small votive figure, found among the foundations of an edifice more ancient than that of the King Our-Nina, was assayed for copper and chlorine by means of nitric acid. It contained neither silver, bismuth, tin, antimony, zinc, nor magnesium ; only traces of lead, arsenic, and sulphur, and 77°7 percent. of copper, the bulk of the rest consisting of alkaline earthy car- bonates and silica, Its composition resembles that of the statuette of the Chaldzan King Goudeah, and also that of the sceptre of the Egyptian King Pepi I., of the sixth dynasty, show- ing that in those early times tin was not known in the two most ancient homes of civili-ation.—On the diurnal variations of gravitation, by M. Mascart. A barometric tube enclosing a column of mercury 4°5m. in length, balanced by the pressure of hydrogen contained in a lateral vessel, has been kept surrounded by earth for several years at the Parc Saint-Maur Observatory, only the short upper end emerging from the ground. study of the daily motions of the column by means of photo- graphic registration has recently, apart from the slow and steady changes due to inevitable differences of temperature, shown sudden variations lasting from 15 to 60 minutes, which can hardly NO. 1215, VOL. 47 | be explained otherwise than as due to corresponding variations in gravitation. They have been as high as 1/20 mm., or 1/g0000. The differences of sea-level from high to low water would only produce 1/5th of this variation. The phenomena, if due to sub- terranean displacements, would be specially interesting in volcanic districts. —On solar statistics for the year 1892, by M. Rod. Wolf.—On the pathogenic properties ofthe soluble sub- stances formed by the microbe of contagious bovine peri- pneumonia, and their value for the diagnosis of the chronic forms of this disease, by M. S. Arloing.—The H and K lines in the spectrum of the solar facule, by Mr. George E, Hale.— On the differential equations of a higher order, the integral of which only admits of a given number of determinations, by M. Paul Painlevé.—On ordinary linear differential equations, by M. Jules Cels.—On the systems of linear differential equations of the first order, by M. Helge von Koch.— On the theory of spherical functions, by M. E. Beltrami. —Decomposition of alkaline aluminates in presence of alu- minium, by M, A. Ditte.—Electrometric study of acid triplatohexanitrite of potassium, by M. M. Vézes.—Action of water vapour upon perchloride of iron, by M. G. Rousseau.— On two combinations of cuprous cyanide with alkaline cyanides, by M. E. Fleurent.—Qn the composition of some hydrated alkaline phenates, by M. de Forcrand.—Researches on the acid salts and the constitution of the colouring matters in the rosani- line group, by M. A. Rosenstiehl.—Analysis of medicinal creosotes ; gavacol, by MM. A. Béhal and E, Choay.—On an apparatus for the quantitative determination of precipitates by an optical method, by M. E. Aglot.—On the pre-existence of gluten in wheat, by M. Balland.—The evolution of the intestinal gregarinas of the marine worms, by M. Louis Léger. igi and multiplication of Ephestia Kuehniella (Zeller) in the mills of France.—On the perithece of Uncinula spiralis in France and the identity of the American and. European Oidium, by M. G. Couderc.—Histological researches on the Uredinei, by MM. P. A. Dangeard: and Sapin-Trouffy.— New geological observations in the French Alps, by M. W. Kilian. : CONTENTS. PAGE The Milky Way. By A. T.... The Theory of Substitutions and its Applications to Algebra... By G. Ch. Uy See The Brain.in Mudfishes (40:50) Mie SA aeee 7, 5°) Our Book Shelf :— ; Lea: ‘‘ The Chemical Basis of the Animal Body.”— » DedHi tee i eae 340 ‘* Chambers’s Encyclopzedia”’'s: 6.4 5)5 G * 340 Hutton: ‘‘Arthur Young’s Tour in Ireland (1776-79)” 341 Letters to the Editor :—. 3 Some Lake Basins in France.—Prof. T. G. Bonney, BH: RoSe ne paces ea meee aa Ite me Dust Photographs —W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, FR Sis: Bik, AOR es 5 Sia er cp ae 84 ‘Fossil: Plauts as Tests of Climate.—Chas, E. De Rance. oe hee ee WE Sec he oe ea 4 Lunar Rainbow in the Highlands. —O. S. B. . . . 342 Optical Continuity. (Witk Diagrams.) By Francis Galton, FIRS. inet a 342 British New Guinea. (J/lustrated.) By Henry O. Forbes ei.0s) SG0 UR ae, Se ee oS Sas Bag Noles gauss eS eM ey eg Our Astronomical Column :— - .Comet Holmes:(1892 III.) . 0.0. 6, RGU i xuge F Comet Brooks (November 19, 1892). . . . .. ss 362 Spectra of Planetary Nebulz and Nova Aurige. . . 352 Sun-spots and Magnetic Perturbations in 1892. . . 352 New. Minor, Planetss<°. 15%. 04, PEP tai Lar V3 ‘bhe dbnnar Surface.) oc ob ue es eee seregee Géographical Notes 4.0.60 04) Se a ee 352 The Institution of Mechanical Engineers eat 353 The Seven Images ot the Human Eye. By E. E BOMBS ii bo. on ee A Botanist’s Vacation in the Hawaiian Islands, By Prof: D..H. Campbell... sc of 1) A Instruments for the Earthquake Laboratory at the Chicago Exposition. By Prof. John Milne, F.R.S.; Fi MO Oties hoe 8 io og ee eth. ah ee University and Educational Intelligence . .. . . 357 Screntific Serials ny. 06). ete ee Reed + 5 /Societiesand Academies . . . Ba ede NATURE 361 LS... °° - —_ sO use of boldly-printed statements of methods. THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 16, 1893. QUALITATIVE CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. Qualitative Analysis Tables and the Reactions of certain Organic Substances. By E. A. Letts, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., &c. (Belfast: Mayne and Boyd, 1892.) HE author in his preface says, “ Every teacher has his own methods—acquired not only from his ex- perience,. but also largely through the researches of others —and this book embodies mine.” Therefore the volume cannot fail to be welcome to those who take an interest in the teaching of analytical chemistry. But it is sur- prising to find that Prof. Letts has until quite recently followed the old method of dictating reactions and methods to his students, and allowing them to work from their own notes. For the last fifteen years there has been no lack of text-books of qualitative analysis, and Prof. Letts has found, what probably all teachers of the subject are aware of, that students rarely take accurate notes. But, however exact they may be, every one knows that manuscript is not so easily deciphered nor so readily referred to as a printed page. The methods of work given are, of course, more or less on the ordinary lines. The final test for bismuth de- pends upon the production of its black suboxide, and this reaction has much to recommend it, though probably many would prefer the oxychloride reaction. The use of am- monium molybdate as a separative reagent in qualitative analysis we do not consider advisable for many reasons, but no ‘complaint can be lodged against it on the score of its accuracy. - There can be no doubt whatever that both Prof. Letts and his students will find considerable advantage in the But the author begins his preface by stating that although the book has been written chiefly for his own students, he will be glad if it prove of service to others also. This _ . lays the volume open to general criticism, and prompts us to complain that itis neither so clear nor so systematic as it mighthave been. As to the want of clearness, there are a few expressions that can easily be altered in a second edition, and these we lay no particular stress upon. For example, at page 27, in the description of Bunsen’s dry tests, we read :—“ The charred end of the match is next moistened with fused carbonate of soda.” At page 40 it states that the solution “i “as mixed with its own volume of chloride of ammonium.” One assumes this to be a solu- tion, but if so the strength of it is not given, and we fear that the bulk of the solution to which it is to be added will be likely to vary enormously according: to the pecu- liarities of the student and the character of the substance he is at work upon. The more important want of clearness may be exempli- fied by taking the case of a student who has Epsom salts given to him as a simple salt. This can hardly be called an out-of-the-way substance, but so far as we can discover, the student in following these tables would examine it by the following series of operations: Heat- ing on platinum wire to see the colour of the flame. NO. 1216, VOL. 47] Heating on a borax bead inthe outer and inner flames. Heating on a carbonate of soda bead. Heating on charcoal (if a white mass resulted, which with cobalt nitrate gave a “faint pink,” the metal might be recog- nised here, but as magnesium sulphate does not readily yield this reaction in most cases the student would pass on). Heating on charcoal with sodium carbonate. Heating in a glass tube closed at one end. Repeat- ing with bisulphate of potash. Repeating with black flux. Repeating with magnesium wire. He would then dissolve the substance in water, and test a part of the solution for ammonia by heating it with caustic alkali. Then heat a part on a platinum wire for the flame colouration, a test that has already been done on the solid, and then pass on to the examination of the solu- tion in the ordinary way for the base, and finally search for the acid if it is not already found. It may be taken for granted that this fiddling about with the substance is not intended, but the volume does not appear to contain directions as to how to go more directly to work. The want of system that we complain of is acknow- ledged by the author himself in picking out certain parts and labelling them as “systematic.” If the whole were systematic this distinction would obviously be meaning- less. As this fault exists in many of the text-books and in much of the teaching that we have had experience of, we are tempted to make a few general remarks upon the matter without special reference to the volume under notice. That qualitative analysis is often regarded as a very unimportant branch of chemistry, may account for its comparative neglect. One constantly meets with students who are able to perform quantitative operations ‘of not too complex a character with commendable accuracy, and that can with a little guidance do many sorts of “research work,” but are wholly unable to _per- form with certainty a qualitative analysis of a compara- tively simple substance. They may happen to find most or all of its constituents, but they have no confidence in their result ; they do not feel sure that they have missed nothing, or indeed that everything they have found is unmistakably present, and generally they have little if any idea of the degree of accuracy of their work. They cannot distinguish between a principal constituent and one that is present in a comparatively small proportion. This incompetency must be ascribed very largely to the fact that students are too often urged on to work that a casual observer might regard as more important. The foundation is neglected for the sake of the superstructure. But having regard only to that amount of practice in qualitative work that still remains possible for the average student, there is too often a lack of method that is surprising if not disastrous. As a rule, it is con- sidered desirable to get first an idea of the general character of the substance given for examination by a few dry tests, but these, as often done, are not only of no use, but serve in a conspicuous manner to train the student in the making of careless and imperfect observa- tions, and in the dodging about from one operation to another withno idea of the proper sequence or inter-depen- dence of the various parts of the work. In the analytical examination of even the simplest of substances, from the Ss 362 time when the student receives it until he has made his last note, every operation ought to be in an order for which very definite reasons can be given, and the com- pleted work ought to be of such a character that any- thing added to it would be superfluous ; anything taken from it would leave it imperfect ; and any change in the order of its various parts would be to its detriment. This character of work is generally sought after in the separa- tion of metals froma solution ; but the rest of a qualita- tive analysis, namely the preliminary examination and the testing for acids, is too often a collection of odd opera- tions, which, if the student is lucky, will lead him sooner or later to the desired result, but if he is unlucky may fail to do so through no fault of his own. CHAPMAN JONES. POPULAR LECTURES ON PAE RACAL SUBJECTS. Gemeinverstindliche Vortrige aus dem Gebeite der Physic. Von Prof. Dr. Leonhard Sohncke. (Jena: Gustav Fischer.) T isa matter of common remark that the books on scientific subjects which reach us from Germany are, as a rule, so special and detailed in character as to be totally devoid of interest, except to those immediately concerned with the subjects of which they treat. This being the case, it is all the more refreshing to meet with such a collection of popular addresses as Prof. Soltncke has gathered together in the volume before us. He has not restricted himself in his choice of subjects to any one branch of physics; on the contrary, the nine lec- tures of which the book is made up represent as many different divisions of natural philosophy, and were delivered quite independently before various audiences in Germany. The first lecture of the series bears the somewhat obscure title, “What then?” and was suggested by a great strike among the coal-miners of Westphalia, which led to a temporary cessation of the German coal supply. The author depicts what would be the consequences if the world’s coal supply were exhausted, in terms almost. as pathetic as those of Prof. Jevons which moved an Eng- lish Parliament to appoint a commission on the subject. But recognizing that, after all, coal is only stored up solar energy, Prof. Sohncke endeavours to look at the brighter side of the question by discussing the possibility of utilis- ing the sun’s energy in other forms, and so enabling man to remain “lord of creation” even in those days when the entire available coal supply of the world reposes on the shelves of some scientific museum. Equally spontaneous is the lecture on “ Migratory Mountains,” in which an account of a holiday visit to the north-east corner of Germany gives an opportunity of de- scribing the formation and movements of the mammoth sand-dunes in that locality. Of the other lectures, that entitled “The revolution in our views concerning the nature of electrical actions” -will probably commend itself to most readers because it treats of a subject now exciting general interest. It con- NO. 1216, VOL. 47] NATURE [ FEBRUARY 16, 1893 tains a short history of the arguments and experiments — which led to the substitution of the ether theory of elec. trical action in the place of the older action-at-a-distance While admitting the existence of a medium — theories. which transmits both optical and electrical disturbances, the author thinks it more probable that gravitation is a true action-at-a-distance, and in so doing he tacitly denies that amedium is a necessity. The notion of an empty space is so foreign to English men of science of this generation, that we certainly consider Prof. Sohncke’s summing-up of the question to be worthy of attention. He says :— “ Even if we could finally succeed in proving that action - at-a-distance is really the result of a transmission through some medium, we must not suppose that all difficulties are then removed. For the process of sucha transmis- — sion is by no means simple, and cannot be explained without further assumptions ; on the contrary, very for- midable difficulties arise even here. Directly we try to. give a concise explanation of the compression of a body and its subsequent expansion when performing elastic vibrations, we find that a choice must be made between. two assumptions equally hard to accept. Either matter is itself capable of compression and expansion, or else it consists of separate vibrating atoms to which we must assign the property of exerting mutual forces on each, other at a distance.” From a purely scientific standpoint, the lecture on “ Newer theories of atmospheric electricity and thunder- storms” is undoubtedly the most valuable of the series, the subject being one on which Prof. Sohncke can speak with some authority. After describing the older theories. of the origin of electrical charges in the atmosphere, he discusses those newer ones which were suggested by the Pa discovery of Hertz that ultra-violet light facilitates the discharge of electricity from a charged body. Of these the best known is that of Arrhenius, who supposes the air,, ordinarily a dielectric, to be rendered feebly-conducting by the action of light. According to this theory, the earth is negatively charged, and when its atmosphere is illumi- nated some of the charge is conducted away to the clouds. The conduction must be electrolytic, otherwise the air would become charged. Prof. Sohncke objects to this theory mainly on the ground that the discharging action of light cannot be considered as due to the air in any way, since it is manifested only when the light vibrations. fall on, and are absorbed by, the negative electrode. — Further, it is not easy to see how elementary gasessuch — as oxygen and nitrogen can be electrolytes. In con- cluding he defends his own theory, according to which atmospheric electricity is produced when a cloud laden with particles of ice meets another charged with water — drops, the electrification being due to the friction of ice — In support of his view the author quotes against water. the fact that hailstones are found to be electrified on reaching the ground. The appearance of a volume like the present one in- variably gives rise to some regrets that the whole earth isno longer of one language and one speech, but we hope - that some friend of popular science may be induced by the contents of the book to furnish a translation for English readers. JaMEs L. HOWARD. a y subject. / FEBRUARY 16, 1893 | NATURE 363 — BRITISH JURASSIC GASTEROPODA. A Catalogue of British Jurassic Gasteropoda, comprising the Genera and Species hitherto described, with refer- ences to their Geological Distribution and to the Local- ities in which they have been found. By W. H. _ Hudleston, M.A., F.R.S., P.G.S., and Edward Wilson, F.G.S. 8vo, pp. xxxiv-+147. (London: Dulau and —Co., 1892. ) EXT in importance to a monograph on any group N of fossils is a catalogue of the species giving their distribution, their synonymy, and references to the figures and descriptions. The value of such a catalogue is enormously increased when, as in the present case, the authors have made a prolonged and careful study of the The late Prof. John Morris was able, with scarcely any help from other workers, to publish a critical catalogue of all British fossils ; the first edition appeared in 1843, the second in 1854. But since that date so much s has been made in palzontology that the accom- plishment of such a task by any one man would now be an impossibility. Prof. Morris always hoped to bring out a third edition of his work, and after his death a committee was formed to carry out this project. But the labour appears to have been too great and the com- mittee soon ceased to exist. This is greatly to be re- ed, for although the work must of necessity have ‘been distributed among various authors, a certain amount of uniformity in treatment would at any rate have been secured and publication hastened. In the preface we are told that Mr. Hudleston is mainly ‘ sible for the Oolites and Mr. Wilson for the Lias. Under the term Jurassic the authors include everything from the Lias to the Portland-stone: the Rhetic beds, although not regarded as strictly Jurassic, are treated in the supplement. The total number of gasteropods re- corded by Samuel Woodward from these formations in e 1830, was only 89, whereas in the present work the number given is 1015. Of these 15 come from the Rheetic, 314 from the Lias, 681 from the Oolites, and 5 from the _ Lias and Oolites. In the Lias the gasteropods are char- acterized by the species belonging to comparatively few genera. Although, as far as genera are concerned, the Lias shows considerable affinity to the Oolites, there is “nevertheless a great break in the continuity of the species, only five being common to the Lias and Oolites. Gastero- pods are most abundant in the calcareous beds, so that the Lower Oolites have yielded by far the larger number of forms, the Inferior Oolite being richer than the Great Oolite. In the Middle and Upper Oolites there is a de- cided decline in the gasteropods, especially of the argill- aceous beds. After the introductory remarks the authors give a valuable bibliography of the British Jurassic Gasterpoda, and then a list of the genera, in which each is placed in its proper family and reference given to the original de- scription. By the use of different type the genera are divided into four classes, (1) those fully accepted by the authors, (2) those accepted with doubt, (3) those given as Jurassic by other authors but not accepted, (4) synonyms. In the catalogue proper the authors have adopted Morris’s plan, each page being divided into two columns ; in the larger are given the name of the species, the NO. 1216, VOL. 47] references, the synonyms, and the cross-references ; in the smaller the geological horizon and the more import- ant localities, the locality first named being that from which the type was obtained or the first place from which the species was recorded in Britain. The dates of pub- lications are often omitted, but since they can be found in the bibliography this is not very inconvenient except in the case of serials. The present /oca/e of types is not given, although this would have been a comparatively easy matter, especially since so many catalogues of types have been recently published. With regard to the orthography the authors have kept to the older and more usual method. For instance, the capital initial is used for species when derived from proper names, and the single 7 for the genitive is not always adopted. Thus we find a considerable variation in the terminations, such as, Cricki (p. 124) Crickiz (p. 77), Waltoni (p. 42) Waltoniz@ (p. 139), Suessea (p. 29) Suessit (p. 138), Wrightti (p. 46) Wrightianus (p. 70). These are, however, purely matters of opinion and do not in any way detract from the great value of the work, which exhibits so much painstaking accuracy and sound criticism. H. Woops. OUR BOOK SHELF. The Year-Book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the Colonies, and India, and Statistical Record of the Resources and Trade of the Colonial and Indian Possessions of the British Empire. Com- piled chiefly from official sources. First issue 1892. Issued under the authority of the Executive Council, and published by John Murray, &c, Large octavo pp. xvi. and 824. THE Imperial Institute has lost no time in issuing a handsome and comprehensive year-book, compiled by the Librarian, Mr. J. R. FitzGerald, who has diligently and successfully gathered together a stack of varied information bearing on the purposes of the Institute. It is a question which time alone can answer whether amongst the many admirable year-books of statistics, commerce, and the colonies which have established themselves as annuals of proved utility, there is room for a new and bigger book overlapping their information, and containing few, if any, novel features. It would be out of place to discuss this question in a notice which ought to be confined to the scientific aspects of the work. The object of the year book, as expressed in the preface, is to deal “ statistically with the physical geography, the natural resources, and the industries and commerce ot the Colonies and India,” and with certain other related facts. It would not be fair to criticise severely the first issue of so large and comprehensive a compilation ; but it would help towards the attainment of the compiler’s aim if the description of the physical geography of the regions touched upon could be made as full as the his- torical introductions, and as statistical as the commercial tables. More notice ought to be taken of the geology and the character of the soil in the colonies where geological surveys are in progress ; and climate certainly deserves better treatment. We do not think space would be wasted in giving the mean monthly temperatures and rainfall for the average year, and for two extreme years, at a few representative stations in the larger colonies. This information cannot indeed be found in any existing books, but must be worked out from original records which exist abundantly, and are rarely made available to practical workers. The treatment of natural resources might also be 364 NATURE [FErBRuary 16, 1893 improved by a firmer grasp of scientific principles. The commercial statistics are, as might be expected, much fuller, better arranged, and more serviceable than those relating to physical geography ; but we imagine that few members of the Imperial Institute, likely to make use of the book, are without the original records relating to their own department. The difficulty of propor- tion and perspective is rather seriously apparent in the treatment of India, which has to be passed over more lightly than the colonies, because equal detail would involve the sacrifice of much space. Thus the great internal trade of India is scarcely touched upon, and the wants and tastes of consumers in the ultimate Indian market, by whom imports are finally absorbed, are not laid before the British merchant. Beneath Helvellyn’s Shade. By Samuel Barber. (London: Elliot Stock, 1892.) THIS book consists of notes and sketches in the Valley of Wythburn, and is brightly and attractively written. Perhaps the best chapters are those on clouds, the various forms of which have been carefully studied by the author, He has also many interesting remarks on various aspects of Cumberland scenery, on the customs of the people, and on antiquities. Occasionally, perhaps, Mr. Barber adopts too much the tone of a preacher, but his impressions and ideas are for the most part fresh and vivid. The book will especially please those who have themselves felt the charm of Words- .worth’s country. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected ‘ manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. Dr, Joule’s Thermometers. RESPECTING the question asked by Mr. Young (NATURE, vol, xlvii. p. 317), I am glad to have an opportunity of stating that shortly after Joule’s death I obtained the sanction of his son to examine the scientific apparatus that were left in his house. I found a number of thermometers, and amongst them the two chiefly used by Joule in his researches. These thermo- meters have been placed in my charge for the present. I have made careful comparisons of them with a standard of the ** Bureau international des Poids et Mesures,” and therefore indirectly with the air or hydrogen thermometer. A standard issued by the Technische Reichsanstalt has also been used as a check. I spent a good part of last winter on the work and am now only waiting for an opportunity to repeat some of the measurements. The results will be published in due course, and I think will prove of interest. As Joule compared his thermometers with one used by Rowland, we shall in this way have an indirect comparison of Rowland’s air thermometer with those by which the Berlin and Paris standards have been in- dependently fixed. One question arises on which I should be glad to have some information, and I should be grateful to any of your readers who could help me. The glass of which Joule’s thermometer is made does not behave like the English glass now in use ; and it would be important to know the probable composition of glass used in England about the year 1840 for thermometric purposes. As my experiments are not concluded I do not wish to speak with too great a certainty; but I believe it will be found that if we could return to the glass of Joule’s thermometer, we should have a substance as well and possibly even better adapted to the manufacture of thermometers than the modern Jena or French thermometer glass. I am sorry I cannot give a very definite answer to Mr. Young’s question. . Joule does not, as far as I know, anywhere give the actual readings of the freezing point, but only its changes. Rowland, in quoting the comparison between Joule’s thermo- NO. 1216, VOL, 47] meter and his own, gives 22°62 as the actual reading of Joule’s zero. I have not at the present moment access to Rowland’s paper, and have no note of the date at which this comparison was made (either 1879 or 1880). SW Such a formula as that given by Mr. Young can, however, only have a limited application. The zero of a thermometer depends on the temperature at which the thermometer has been kept previous to its immersion into. ice, and with properly- annealed thermometers the secular changes are much smaller than the temporary ones. Last winter Joule’s thermometer showed changes in zero from 23°51 to 23°00 on the arbitrary scale, the original temperatures varying from 7° to 30°. ‘s All observations lead to the conclusion that the secular changes of a thermometer gradually vanish, so that the zero corresponding to any temperature approaches a limit. Mr. Young’s formula would make the zero rise indefinitely. ARTHUR SCHUSTER. Dust Photographs and Breath Figures. — Your two correspondents on February 9 add interesting in- stances of these phenomena. Iam sorry that one of my statements was not clear. In saying ‘‘ Two cases have been reported to me where blinds with embossed letters have left a latent image on the window ear which they lay,” I meant to describe them as not in contact. I have questioned my neighbour Dr, Earle again as to his case. The plate-glass window of an hotel in London has on the inside a screen of ground glass lying near but not touching : upon the latter are the words ‘‘ Coffee Room” in clear un- frosted letters. One day as he was at breakfast the screen was taken away, but the words were left plainly visible on the window, and no washing would removethem. The other case is curiously similar, but each narrator was ighemase of the other’s tale. A friend, Mr. Potter, asked me if I knew whether a house in which he was lodging had been an hotel, for on misty days they saw ‘‘ Coffee Room ” on one ofthe windows. I remembered the house had been an hotel two or three years previously, and there had been brown gauze blinds with gilt letters. 4s) Mr, Thiselton-Dyer’s observation appears not so much akin to ‘these two as to the dust picture of a water-colour drawing of which I spoke in my former paper. I look forward to seeing the effects at Canterbury. Winchester College, February 13. W. B. Crort. Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate. Mr. De RAnce’s note relating to the above subject in. NATURE, p. 294, mentions that ‘* Heer has determined a mag- nificent flora of more than 350 species from these northern tertiaries, and that he at once pointed out the absence of tropical and subtropical forms,” My contention, founded on an attentive study of his determinations and of the original specimens in London and Dublin, and to some extent in Copenhagen, is that not fifty, or perhaps not the half of fifty, of these determinations. are entitled to the smallest weight ; and again that though at first he saw nothing subtropical in the flora, he subsequently declared the presence of palms, &c., upon utterly insufficient data. While, however, wishing to rid the ‘‘ magnificent ” flora of 300 or more useless and misleading encumbrances, I am far from wishing to depreciate the extraordinary significance and value of that which remains, and which clearly shows that in early Eocene times the coast of Greenland supported in certain places forests which included the redwood, the plane, and even the magnolia, asso- ciated with many more northern forms, This is consistent with the tropical vegetation existing during a part of the possibly con- temporary lower tertiary period in the south of England. Both facts are sufficiently inexplicable, but there is no occasion to magnify the difficulties they present. As to the Greenland floras they have not been proved to contain any forest trees that might not, and which in fact do not, flourish in their modern repre- sentatives, when planted in certain favourable spots on the west coast of Ireland, and even of Scotland, We are not even obliged to assume that Greenland as a country was characterised by such vegetation, for this might be as erroneous as to i sz Ireland or Scotland as countries generally. characterised by forests of arbutus. . The flora of a country is in fact most likely to be pre- served in its most sheltered spots, in lake bottoms like parts ‘of Killarney, or where small rivers quietly steal into the tidal waters. of deeply recessed bays like those of Bantry and Kenmare, in forest pools like some in the Mount Stewarts’ woods of Bute,and er - SS "et eae a ppt PRE om entry een le cS: RAD NS eae eR RS CES Sa ah ae Ri sabre sea! ee observer p FEeBRuARY 16, 1893 | NATURE 365 in the backwaters and marginal pools of the lower reaches of larger rivers ; we are not only entitled, but we are bound to consider this to have been the case in Greenland, and to base -our estimate of its climate in the lower tertiaries upon this view and no other. Now what geologists and physicists ought to do, and what they resolutely won’t do, is before going farther afield for cause and effect, to take the map of the world on Mercator’s projection, and consider how far, if the Atlantic were a closed ocean to the north, as we know it must have been, the required climatic conditions would be produced. The difference between the arbutus nooks of Ireland on the one side and the desolation of Labrador on the other is brought about solely by ocean currents. pil ae A pe of the Greenland floras the aretic currents were , and consequently the whole Atlantic basin was filled with the circulation of equatorial and temperate waters only. The distribution of plants and animals renders it extremely probable that during much of the tertiary period, the antarctic waters were equally excluded from the Atlantic by land con- necting Africa and South America. What, under these circum- stances, would happen to the climate of the Atlantic littoral? It would, it appears to me, be more philosophical to dispose of this question, which is supported by a weight of evidence, before invoking shifting of the earth’s axis, or other hypothetical causes by none. J. STARKIE GARDNER. February 13. An Optical Phenomenon. In NATURE, vol. xlvii. p. 303, you mention that ‘‘ a beautiful ical phenomenon, which has not yet been satisfactorily ex- i is described by M. F. Folie in the Audlletin of the i y.” From what follows, it is evidently the same as that described in Tyndall’s ‘‘ Glaciers of the Alps” (Murray, 1860), p. 177 e¢ seg. Tyndall gives a description of it in a letter from Prof. Necker to Sir David Brewster, from which I quote the following :—‘‘ You must conceive the é at the foot of a hill between him and the place where the sun is rising, and thus entirely in the shade; the pe ees of the mountain is covered with woods, or de- d trees and shrubs, which are projected as dark objects on a a bright and clear sky, except at the very place where the sun is just going to rise ; for there all the trees and shrubs bor- the n are of a pure and brilliant white, appearing extremely —— and luminous, although projected on a most brilliant and luminous sky. You would fancy you saw these trees made of the purest silver.” Prof. Necker says that he saw it at the Saleve, which is not : so high above the Lake of Geneva as some of our British mountains above the sea, and has no permanent snow near it ; so that M. Folie’s suggestion, that it is due to light reflected from snow, must be wrong. I have seen it from the Kénig-See, near which I believe there is no permanent: snow. This nce is always to be seen under the circumstances descri when the sky is clear and bright enough. I had read of it in Tyndall’s book, and when in the Alps I sought for and found it. I have often seen a distant approach to it pro- hes, quite near, seen against sunlight, and by leaves against moonlight. JosEPH JOHN MurpnHy. P.S.—Ruskin somewhere describes this phenomenon, February 6. Foraminifer or Sponge ? A PAPER by A. Goés ‘‘On a peculiar type of Arenaceous Foraminifer from the American tropical Pacific, VeusinaA gassizi,” has just been published in the ‘‘ Bulletin of the Museum of Comp. Zoology, at Harvard College,” vol. xxiii. No.5, in which the author describes some remarkable forms dredged by the Albatross ex- edition in the Pacific of Central America. They are supposed to foraminifera, are of leaf-like shape, measure up to 190 mm. in breadth, and are marked by concentric lines of growth. Their interior shows a stroma, consisting of fine chitinous threads, enclosing sand and aébris of shells. Without wishing to re- capitulate all the various points of structure, I will only say that there can be no doubt that these forms belong to Heckel’s deep sea keratosa (see Challenger report, vol. xxxii.) from the tropical Pacific, and I should think that Meusina Agassizi is identical with Stannophyllum zonarium, Heckel. I happen to have here a Challenger specimen of this latter species, kindly lent to me by the Manchester Museum, and its microscopic examination convinces me of the identity of the two forms. University College, Liverpool. — NO. 1216, VOL. 47] R. HANITSCH. Unusual Origin of Arteries in the Rabbit, TOwARDs the close of last month Prof. W. N. Parker re- ported in your columns an abnormality in the veins of the rabbit, and although the same interest does not attach to it, it may be worth while recording an unusual arrangement of the vessels arising from the aortic arch, In the case which has just come under my notice, the two carotids arise together from the arch, at the point usually occupied by the innominate artery, while the right subclavian artery arises beside the left subclavian, which occupies the usual position. PHILIP J. WHITE. University College of North Wales, February 7. Holmes’s Comet. ON February II, toh. to 10h. 35m., I re-observed this object with powers of 40and 600n my newly-silvered 10-inch reflector. The comet was in the same field as 8 Trianguli and south pre- ceding that star. Ifound it fairly conspicuous. The nucleus, or brighter portion of the head, presented a distinctly granulated appearance. Applying a power of 145, single lens, I saw that it really consisted of a number of very small knots of nebu- losity, so closely approximating the stellar form that they might readily have been mistaken for one of the very faint, barely resolvable clusters in which the components are only to be caught by glimpses. The multiple nucleus was involved and surrounded with feeble nebulosity, and a faint tapering tail flowed from it in a N.E. direction. I believe that outlying this there was an ex- cessively faint fan-shaped tail, but could not be absolutely certain. The sky was not good, being lighter than usual, with suffused mist. On February 12, at 1oh. 15m., I picked up the comet again, but details were invisible, owing to the veil of thin cloud overspreading the N.W. sky at the time. Bristol, February 13. W. F. DENNING. HELMHOLTZ ON HERING’S THEORY OF COLOUR. "ERS following translation of the critical account given by von Helmholtz of the colour-theory of E. Hering, in the new edition of his Handbuch der Physiologischen Oftik, commencing at page 376, has been made by Prof. Everett for NATURE. The translator aims at clearness rather than literal rendering, and three obvious misprints in the paragraph on the transformation of coordinates have been corrected. ‘“ Lambert’s colour-pyramid ” is another name for the “ cone of colour” described in Max- well’s papers and in § 1074 of Everett’s ‘‘ Deschanel.” This much-talked-of theory is a modification of Young’s theory, which, by the choice of other fundamental sen- sations, endeavours to give better explanations of what it regards as immediate facts of internal observation. It assumes three elementary sensations, related to three different parts of the nerve-apparatus or “visual sub- stance.” Two at least of these physiological processes exhibit the opposition of positive and negative. One of the three “ visual substances” gives in the condition of excitement the sensation of white, and in the condition of rest the sensation of black. The second gives the two sensations of blue and yellow, which are accordingly designated ‘opposed colour-sensations.” The third gives the other pair of ‘‘ opposed colour-sensations,” red and green. But by “red” is denoted not the colour usually so called, but the complementary of green, which is purple. It is possible to specify ‘‘elementary sensations” (in the sense in which we have previously defined the term) which would correspond to Hering’s elementary sensations, and would be capable of giving by their combination all other colour-sensations. If we take three rectangular axes of coordinates, x, y, 7,as the edges of Lambert’s colour-pyramid, x corresponding to red, y to green, and 366. NATURE [FEBRUARY 16, 1893 z to violet, Hering’s coordinates uw, v, w will have the values OG as se Aslan ed * = 2a +te 3 /6 wz denoting the white element, and being measured along the axis of the pyramid; w denoting the red-green ele- ment, and being measured at right angles to the axis of white, in the plane containing the green edge of the pyramid ; v denoting the yellow-blue element, and being measured at right angles to the plane of w, w. Positive values of w correspond to.purple red, and negative values to green. Positive values of v correspond to yellow, and negative values to blue. I give these equations in this definite shape for the purpose of showing, by a definite system of representa- tion, that the arbitrariness which attends the choice of three colours, in terms of which the rest are to be specified, affords sufficient latitude to admit of the em- ployment of three such different specifying elements as are adopted by Hering. If only positive values of x, y, z are to be admissible, the expression for 7 shows that every kind of light must excite the white sensation positively, and consequently that no kind of objective light can produce a pure sensa- tion either of the red-green or of the yellow-blue kind. Hence the pure unmixed ‘‘ opposed colour-sensations ” are such as we never have had or can have, and are separated from all. colour-sensations that we have ever had by a much wider gap than the pure sensations which Young’s theory supposes, although these latter extend somewhat beyond the range of objective colours. By subjecting portions of the retina to special influences (as we shall explain in treating of after-images) we can at least approximate to Young’s elementary sensations; while these same methods, when we attempt to approxi- mate to Hering’s pure sensations, give results opposite to what his theory would lead us to expect. Hering assumes, in accordance with the brief expres- sion of his theory in the above equations, that white light excites only the white-black visual substance and excites it always positively ; that yellow light, besides doing this, excites the blue-yellow visual substance, as does also blue light, but in opposite sense. On the other , v= — -, w= hand, when blue and yellow lights are in exact equili- | brium, they have no action on the blue-yellow visual’ substance.’ Similar remarks apply to the excitements of the red-green visual substance by red and green light. The sensation of luminosity is identified by Hering with the sensation of white. He accordingly maintains that the pure sensation of blue or of yellow involves no sensation of luminosity. I must confess that personally I can form no conception of a colour which has no degree | of less or greater luminosity, and therefore think such an abstraction not tolerable in a system which, on other points, makes its appeal to the immediate testimony of inner consciousness, and claims by this means to establish its superiority to other systems. Differences of intensity must, however, occur in the opposed colour-sensations if they involve no difference of brightness. In comparing saturated blue with equally luminous pale blue, Hering would regard the white sen- sation as equally intense in both, but the blue sensation as stronger in the saturated blue. As the physiological basis of the “opposed colour-sensa- tions ” Hering takes the two opposite processes of organic change, namely, the decomposition of the organic mass by activity, and its restoration under the influence of the circulation of the blood, which carries oxygen stored up in it and feebly united with it. The former process is t This was a point which Hering left doubtful in the earlier statements of his system, so that it was not clear whether he assumed three or six inde- pendent variables. According to his more recent explanations the state- ment given in the text may fairly be said to represent his view. NO. 1216, VOL. 47| called dsstmzlation, and the latter ass¢milation. Which of the two opposed ‘sensations corresponds to dissimila- tion and which to assimilation is left undecided, both in the case of blue-yellow and of red-green, The physio- logical improbabilities of this assumption have in part been pointed out already, and we shall return to the subject in treating of after-images. This assumption of double nerve-working was originally — applied by Hering to the white-black visual substancealso. At the present’ time he adheres to the hitherto-received doctrines of nerve-physiology to the extent of holding that, in the case of this substance, all light excites only dissimilation and the sensation of white; and on the other hand want of light produces only assimilation and restoration of excitability. That during this latter pro- cess a sensation of darkness is experienced, all are agreed. The difference is purely theoretical. According to the older view, which I have defended, we must, in order to perceive that there is luminosity in a particular part of the field of view at a given time, be able to dis- tinguish at another time that this perception is wanting. This perception that a sensation which might be there is. not there contains in itself a testimony as to the condition of the organ at the time, which is different from all sensations of incident light ; and in this sense we call it also a sensation—the sensation of darkness. . Hering, on the contrary, maintains that the sensation of black must have its own special physiological basis of excitation, and seeks it in assimilation, going on in the white-black visual substance. rn From the foregoing account the reader will gather that Hering’s theory, if we overlook its physiologicai views, is able to explain all hitherto established facts of colour mixture as well as, but not better than, Young’s theory. It differs only in its special choice of elementary excita- tions; and this choice, if we admit negative values of them, suffices for expressing the facts, just as any axes of co-ordinates suffice for a problem: of solid geometry. — Hering’s objections to Young’s theory reduce them- selves, in his latest statement, to the following:—- “In the Young-Helmholtz theory, the assumption of the three elementary colour-sensations is @ préor7 repul- sive, because these sensations are not presentable ; and notoriously, according to necessity, now one set and now another set of elementary colour-sensations are assumed.” As to this, I have already remarked that the funda- mental sensations of Young’s theory, in so far as they differ from objective colours, can be approximated to, by the method of partial fatigue of the retina, much more closely than Hering’s pure opposed-colour-sensations. If different upholders of Young’s theory have made different assumptions as to the three primary colours, and have assigned different weights to various facts which bear on the distinction, this affords no justification whatever for the imputation that they have changed ipptlersions 73 according to necessity. It is always better to acknow- ledge existing doubt than to dogmatise. i Hering goes on, “If the excitations Levins gee P. three elements have correspondingly distinct physiolo- gical causes, one would expect that thése sensations would have something special about them.” = This they have, in my opinion, in the prominent. glow of colour-saturation; for which, again, the theory of opposed-colours furnishes no basis of explanation. ; He continues, ‘‘ Yellow gives, for example, much more the impression of a simple or elementary sensation than violet, and yet we are told that the latter is an elementary sensation and the former a mixture of simultaneous sen- sations of red and green, or at least, in some way, the product of the simultaneous existence of the principal excitations corresponding to these two elementary sensations.” —s_ ee What a deceitful test apparent. inner consciousness is in such matters, we can see from the examples of two- nina wt Nels Ai Rou Fepruary 16, 1893 | NATURE 367 such authorities as Goethe and Brewster, both of whom believed that they saw in green the blue and yellow, of which, being misled by experience with pigments, they ‘believed it to be composed. He goes on, “ Helmholtz says, quite correctly, ‘so far as I see, no way has been found of determining one of the elementary colours except the investigation of colour blindness.’ This investigation has notoriously not con- ‘firmed Young’s theory.” This would, even if it were true, be in itself no argu- ment against the admissibility of the theory. The theory of colour-blindness seems, as we shall shortly see, to be a particularly hard crux for Hering’s theory ; while the hitherto well-established facts of red-blindness and green- ‘blindness admit of comparatively easy and _ perfect explanation by Young’s theory. _ He adds, “ And the three sets of fibres, which, how- ever, as Helmholtz remarks, are not essential to the ‘theory, have hitherto been sought for in vain.” _ This objection applies to Hering’s theory as much as to Young’s. _ The reader will easily convince himself that these objections are of no weight whatever. He follows them up by an enumeration of contradictions and inaccuracies which he professes to have found in Grassmann’s and my -own explanation of Newton’s law of colour-mixture, and partly also in that of Kries, errors which, even if they isted, would in no way tell against Young’s theory, but ‘only against its interpreters. Here, however, the obscurity seems to me to lie on the side of our ts : These objections arise out of the fact that, in mixtures -of a saturated colour with white, the tint of the mixture sometimes seems changed (pale red for example approaches more to rose, and pale blue to violet); and t, on the other hand, with increase of intensity, the colours of the spectrum appear sometimes paler, some- times yellower. But if we speak of those elementary excitations which, from the point of view of Newton’s law, are alone entitled with certainty to the name of elements, as being able to coexist without mutual dis- turbance, then the only sensation which can with cer- _ tainty be regarded as corresponding to the coexistence of awhite and a red elementary sensation is that which -comes into existence under the simultaneous influence of the corresponding white and red lights. The term “ ele- mentary sensation” is in this connection to be taken, of _ -course, not in the narrow sense of Young’s hypothesis, but in the wider sense above explained—the sense in which we speak of linear relations between colour- sensations and linear superposition of elementary- sensations. In the domain of colour-mixture we know nothing of any elements but these superposable ones ; ‘and if we would preserve a constant meaning for our -colour-equations we must interpret them in this sense, as I have explained above. This is what H. Grassmann and myself have always done. . Moreover, erroneous estimates of the difference be- ‘tween a pale and a more saturated colour are liable to be ide, and hence those colours which are really most diluted with white do not always appear the palest. If, without sufficient experience of colour-mixture, we only guide our judgments by similarity of sensations,we are liable to make mistakes as to which colour contains white. The ‘question of the power of perceiving differences will there- fore arise. Further, it is found that colours of very strong luminosity do not differ so much from one another in the sensations they produce as colours of moderate luminosity,—a fact which finds its explanation in Young’s theory, of which it is a natural consequence. Colours when highly luminous appear more similar to one another and more similar to white. We express this by calling them pale as compared with colours of feebler luminosity. I have, however, already NO. 1216, VOL. 47] mentioned that the law of superposability ceases to be applicable when the luminosity is excessive. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that simple colours of high luminosity are always as saturated as colours of such luminosity can be, it is not necessary, or rather it is not correct, to designate them as less saturated. The true statement is that differences of tint become more uncertain at high intensity—an uncertainty, which at- taches also to the estimation of the intensity itself, as has long been known. If Hering’s sensation of white and opposed-colour- sensations are truly to deserve the name of elements or constituent parts of sensation (as he plainly intends, since he assigns to them special visual-substances), either he must acknowledge them as the elements deducible from the law of addition, or else they are purely hypo- thetical processes of whose existence and superposability no one knows anything. His polemic against Grassmann and me then amounts to this—that at a time when his hypothesis had not been propounded we did not speak in the sense of it. Hering seems to regard as the chief point of superiority of his own hypothesis its closer conformity with the names which have established themselves in language— names which, as I have explained above, relate rather to the colours of material bodies than to the colours of light. To this circumstance it is, in fact, indebted for a certain amount of popularity and facility of apprehension. He himself assumes that these names have sprung from an immediate perception of the simple elements of sensa- tion by a kind of inner consciousness, and thinks that he has thus very certain and immediate knowledge of the pure red-sensation, the pure white-sensation, and so on. In his publication of 1887 he has discussed the possi- bility of assuming, instead of three or six simple pro- cesses of sensation, a larger and perhaps indefinitely great number, and a corresponding number of “ elemen- tary powers” for the several kinds of objective light. He, however, gives the geometrical representations of such actions in such a manner that practically these powers all depend on three independent variables. On the other hand, as regards these independent variables, which are the most important factors in the problem, he gives as good as no clue to them ; he only seeks to remove them as far as possible. from the sphere of physiology. For my own part I am able to understand this whole series of descriptions only as meaning that an arbitrary number of visual substances can be assumed to exist in the brain, and that their respective strengths of excitation are different functions of the same three independent vari- ables, each visual substance being unaffected by the excitations of the rest, and the excitation of each being susceptible of direct apprehension in consciousness. I do not think it is necessary, in this book, to go further into such hypothetical views. Hering especially claims the credit of opening up the way to understanding colour-blindness. He makes all dichromasy depend upon a single cause, namely want of sensibility in the red-green visual-substance. The differ- ence between red-blindness and _ green-blindness is, according to him, attributable to different colourations of the media of the eye; partly of the yellow spot of the retina, partly of the crystalline lens. These colourations are chiefly met with in the sick or the very old, and, when occurring in otherwise useful eyes, are not of such strength that they could bring out con- spicuous deficiency of brightness in different parts of the spectrum. The colouration of the yellow spot of the retina takes effect in a very limited but very important part of the field of view, and in only a narrow band of the spectrum. The most trustworthy observations on the influence of the wave-length of the incident light upon the strength of the red and green excitations, have been made with 368 NATURE [ Fespruary 16, 1893 kinds of light not liable to be absorbed in notable degree by the yellow pigment. On the whole, it is accordingly found that this pigmentation is subjectively influential only in cases in which the rays inthe neighbourhood of the line F play a prominent part, as, for example, in a certain mixture of this blue with red (mentioned on page 354) which, if it looks white when our eyes are directly fixed upon it, will show blue predominant when we look in a slightly different direction. F As far as hitherto-known facts go, it appears very im- probable that Hering’s theory of dichromasy can be carried through. Nevertheless, further observations in this direction are very desirable, The influence which the colouration of the yellow spot has in individual eyes can be estimated by comparing the appearances of colour- mixtures in the centre of the field of view with their ap- pearances very near the centre. Such comparisons will show with certainty where such influence is present and where it is absent. The following is a summary, by Prof. Everett, of two passages from the new edition of Helmholtz’s “ Physiological Optics,” which are important as supple- menting the foregoing critique of Hering’s theory :— In discussing the results of experiments for determining the exact positions of the three elementary sensations with respect to actual colours, in Newton’s diagram or in Lambert’s pyramid, Helmholtz represents the results by a triangle with the three elementary sensations at its corners, and with the colours of the spectrum plotted along a curve which lies entirely in the central portion of the triangle. He says, p. 457 :— “This curve shows that every simple colour excites simultaneously in the trichromic eye the three nerve- elements which are sensitive to light, and excites them with only moderate differences of intensity. If we then hypothetically refer all these excitations to the presence of three photo-chemically alterable substances in the retina, we must conclude that all three of these must have nearly the same limits of sensibility to light, and must show, in the rates of their photo-chemical actions for the different wave-lengths, only secondary variations of moderate amount. Similar variations, arising from the presence of foreign substances, from substitutions of analogous atom-groups, and so on, occur also. in other photo-chemically alterable substances as used in photo- graphy ; for example, in the different haloid salts of silver.” In a mathematical discussion of colour-blindness, commencing at p. 458, he points out that in dichromic vision there must be a linear relation between the three independent elements of trichromic vision, and in Lam- bert’s colour pyramid there must be a certain line through the vertex, such that any plane drawn through it is a plane of uniform colour. Newton’s diagram of colour may be re- garded as contained in any plane which cuts the axis of the pyramid ; and it is very important to determine the point in which the above-mentioned line cuts such a plane ; for any line in Newton’s diagram that passes through this point is a line of uniform colour to the dichromic vision in question. Experiment shows that it always lies out- side the triangle of actual presentable colours. Addendum. Prof. Everett adds the following remarks of his own on the present position of the problem of colour-vision :— On the one hand, it is established, as a fact of experi- ment, that the excitation of colour-sensation in the normal eye depends upon only three variables, and that their effects are superposable, so as to admit of being expressed by equations of the first degree, otherwise called linear equations. The simplest choice of three variables is that adopted in Young’s theory, because it only requires posi- tive values of the variables. NO. 1216, VOL. 47] depends on only two variables. On the other hand, the various colours regarded as subjective appearances do not naturally class themselves under a threefold heading. Yellow does not look as if it consisted of red and green. Colour-sensations as known to us in consciousness are not threefold but manifold. The two facts taken together seem to imply two succes- sive operations intervening between the incidence of light and the perception of colour. The first operation is threefold, and may consist (as above suggested by Helm- holtz) of the photo-chemical decomposition of three different substances. The second operation consists in the effects of the first operation upon a complex organism, and the distinctions of colours as we see them arise out. of the nature of this organism. ; The number of independent variables required for specifying the condition of a system isa very different thing from the number of well-distinguished states in which the system can exist. For example, the state of a given mass of water-substance is completely determined if its volume and temperature are given, and therefore But the number of its well-distinguished states is three. In like manner colour depends on three variables, but the number of well-dis- tinguished colours, besides white, may be said to be seven, namely the six principal colours of the spectrum and purple. What differences of condition in the organism cor- respond to these eight distinct appearances in the field of view, and how these different conditions are produced by the three primary excitations, are problems awaiting solution. AUTOMATIC MERCURIAL AIR-PUMPS. * late years, and more especially during the last decade, men of science have devoted much thought and ceaseless energy to the invention of an apparatus which should admit of the automatic working of mer- curial air-pumps. Of the numerous inventions brought forward, the ingenious apparatus of Schuller and Stearn are especially deserving of mention. But notwithstanding the present extensive employment of the mercurial air-pump in science as well as in tech- nics these appliances are neither much known, nor have they been used to any great extent, although they are of great importance, and would probably be very advantage- ous. This may be explained by the fact that they are wanting in the necessary simplicity and trustworthiness, without which the advantages of automatically working mercurial air-pumps are somewhat doubtful. We shall describe now an apparatus for the per- fectly trustworthy and automatic working of mercurial air-pumps, as well as the shape of the glass pump used in connection with it, which, while possessing the greatest possible simplicity, admits of the highest rarefactions hitherto known. The figure shows the automatic apparatus in connection with an improved Toepler mercurial air-pump. The glass ball H is connected on the one hand by flexible tubes with the pump Q, on the other hand by the tube L with the accumulator M. The water-pipe K runs into the bottom. of the accumulator, and by means of a specially- constructed three-way cock K can either be connected with the hydrostatic pressure-pipe K, or the discharge- ipe Ko. é if water under pressure is admitted through the tubes k,, K and & into M, the air contained in M is compressed. This air again exerts a pressure through the tube L on the mercury contained in H, and drives it into the pump g. As soonas the mercury has risen sufficiently high and the cock K is reversed, the compressed air forces the water out again through £, K, and 4,, and the mercury ee aa a ifs ahd eb pee ral rT et gy toate Wied eae TR aT ll —————— — ——— = / FEBRUARY 16, 1893] NATURE 369 falls down on account of its own weight out of the pump Q back into the ball H. 7. The reversing of the three-way cock, and _there- with the automatic action of the pump, is effected in the following manner :—The ball H rests on a frame D, revolving about the axis 4, and the motion of which is limited by the ledges candc,. A lever G is attached to the frame not far from the axis, and by means of a peg, when the balance D reverses its position, also turns _ the cock. When the ball H is entirely filled with mercury the balance D rests onthe upper ledge c. If the pump is set in motion the left side of the balance p becomes lighter in proportion to the amount of mercury forced out of the ball H into the pump, until at last the weight c on the right-hand side becomes heavier, and the balance thereby attains the position shown by the figure. three-way cock is also reversed by this motion. _ Thus, as already described, the water current is now cut off, the water Si in M flows out through K,, and the essed goes back from the pump Q into the ball H. During the tipping over of the balance, however, the sliding weight Cc has run down its inclined plane to a ledge, E, so that it now exerts a pressure on the lever arm. Its momentum is so calculated that the mercury in the ak must have fallen to the point Z, and flowed back into the ball H before it again overweighted, and moves back the balance. The weight c then slides back again to the left until it rests against its left ledge, and the play of the pump recommences. It will easily be seen that the height to which the mercury rises in the pump, the mass of the sliding weight being a constant quantity, depends only on its final positions, and that, therefore, NO. 1216, VOL. 47] The | | the adjusting of the height of the mercury can be easily and accurately done up to a centimetre. It goes without saying that every mercurial air-pump not provided with cocks can be worked by the apparatus just described. But the improved construction of the Toepler pump, drawn likewise in projection in the figure, has proved to be especially practical. The following isa description of its automatic working :— If the cock 4 is connected with an hydrostatic air-pump, the ball Q of the pump and the space R, which is to be evacuated through the tube Ss, is pumped out up to the tension of the vapour. The mer- cury then rises in the tube R almost to the height of the barometer above its level in the ball H. If the automatic apparatus is then set in motion, the mercury enters the ball Q and the tube Ss, thus cutting off the connection with R, while any further rising of the mercury in the tube S is prevented by a glass valve v, it passes- through the first Y-tube 7, filling the little vessel 7, and rises through s, into the ball #, driving before it the air which was before shut off in Q. At this moment so much mercury has been forced out of the ball H into the pump Q, that the balance is turned, the mercury flows back out of Q into H, forming vacua in 7 > and Q, as the little mercury-threads remaining in the side- tubes 7, and s, form shut-off valves. As soon as the mercury has fallen below the entrance-point of s into E the pressure in R and Q become equal, the denser air flowing out through s into Q. The time during which Q is connected with R may be determined at will by changing the right ledge of the sliding weight. Thenthe balance again changes its position, the mercury rises in 370 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 16, 1893 ‘V,and so on. When the pump has made a few strokes in this manner, a lever T is let down, so as to rest on the ledge w. The wheel F provided with six pegs is now turned a tooth farther each time the weight C slides from the left to the right, and the ledge- peg f, which when the lever was raised caught each time into a notch of the peg-wheel, rests for the length of five strokes of the pump against the circumference of the wheel, and does not catch into the notch until the sixth stroke. As the rising of the quicksilver in the pump is in the inverse proportion of the momentum of the counter-weight in its left final position, if the ledges’ and peg / are rightly placed, it will when ascending be driven five times into the little hollow space ~, and only at the sixth into the ball z. In consequence of ‘this the little air-bubbles are accumulated in the highly evacuated space 7, in which they ascend owing to the slight counter- pressure, and forming larger bubbles, and having easily overcome the somewhat greater counter-pressure of the mercury column s, they rise into the ball pP. All these manipulations are performed entirely auto- matically by the apparatus. At the same time that the toothed wheel has commenced working (¢.e. when the volume of air pumped out by the pump has sufficiently diminished) the vessel P is entirely cut off from the hydrostatic air-pump by the cock ¢,, thus ceasing to act. The mercury of the pump is entirely shut off on doth stdes from the exterior air, and only in contact with perfectly dry air. After stopping the pump, concentrated sulphuric acid may be sucked up into P, which dries up entirely. The mercury is shut off from M bya caout~ } chouc bag, I. The following experiments were made at the Physical Institute of the University of Berlin : 400 c.cm. (cubic centimetres) were evacuated to 1/1000 m.m. in ten minutes ; 4000 c.cm. = 4 litres, in an hour. The highest rarefaction hitherto obtained has been about from 1/6000,00 — 1/800,000 m.m. = to about £39900000 — 600000000 atmospheres. The pump is supplied by Messrs. E. Leybolds Nach- folger, Cologne (Germany). AUGUST RAPS. CRYSTALLISED CARBON. [X the course of some researches on the properties and modes of formation of the various forms of carbon, M. Henri Moissan has succeeded in reproducing the ‘variety of diamond known as cardonado, or black diamond, and has even obtained some minute crystals of the colour- less gem. An account of his results in the Compies Rendus of February 6 is followed by an article on the reproduction of the diamond, by M. Friedel, and some congratulatory remarks by M. Berthelot. As long ago as 1880 Mr. Hannay? indicated the for- mation of diamond-like crystals on heating under high pressure, in a tube of iron, a mixture of lithium, lamp- black, essence of paraffin, and bone oil. It was then supposed that the nitrogenous compounds of the last substance played the most important part. Moissan’s new process carbon obtained from sugar is dissolved in a mass of iron, and allowed to crystallise out under high pressure. To produce this pressure the ex- pansion of iron during condensation is utilised. The carbon is strongly compressed in an iron cylinder closed with a screw-stopper of the same’ metal, plunged into the molten mass. allowed to cool slowly in air. The metallic mass thus obtained is attacked by boiling 1 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxx, p. 188. NO. 1216, VOL. 47] In M., A quantity of. soft iron, weighing about 150 or 200 gr., is melted in the! electric furnace in a few minutes, and the cylinder is. The crucible is at once taken out of the furnace and splashed over with water.) When the external crust is at a red heat the whole is’ hydrochloric acid until all the iron is removed. There remain three forms of carbon: quantity ; a chestnut-coloured carbon in very small needles, such as has been found in the Cafion Diablo meteorite ; and a small quantity of denser carbon which has to be further isolated. For this purpose the mixture is treated alternately with boiling sulphuric and hys fluoric acids, and the residue decanted in sulphuric acid of density 1°8. It then contains only very little graphite, and various forms of carbon. After six or eight treat- ments with potassium chlorate and fuming nitric acid, the residue is boiled in hydrofluoric acid and decanted in boiling sulphuric acid to destroy the fluorides. It is then washed and dried, and bromoform is employed to separate out some very small fragments denser than that liquid, which scratch the ruby, and, when heated in oxygen at 1000°, disappear. = Some of these fragments are black, others transparent. The former have a rough surface, and a greyish black tint identical with that of certain carbonadoes; they scratch the ruby, and their density ranges from 3 to 3°5. Some pieces have a smooth surface, a darker colour, and curved edges. The transparent fragments, which appear broken up into small pieces, have a fatty lustre, are highly refractive, and exhibit a certain number of parallel striz and triangular impressions. During combustion in a current of oxygen at 1050’, some of the fragments left cinders of an ochreous colour, usually preserving the original form of the small erystal— just as in the combustion of impure diamonds. As indicated already by Mr. Sidney Marsden,’ silver heated to 1500° in presence of sugar carbon is found to contain on cooling some black crystals with curved edges. M.: Moissan has found that high pressure is indispensable. He heated silver till it boiled briskly in contact with car- bon, and found that a certain quantity of the latter was dissolved. By suddenly cooling in water, a portion of liquid silver, cooling inside a solid crust, was subjected to a very high pressure. No diamonds were formed, but rather a large crop of, carbonadoes of densities ranging from 2°5 to 3°5, thus forming a series connecting graphite with diamond. Bromoform separated a carbonado, which scratched the ruby and burned in oxygen at 1000. A quantitative determination of this reaction showed that 0006 parts of this substance gave 0'023 of carbonic acid. M. C. Friedel describes an experiment in which he obtained a black powder capable of scratching corundum by the action of sulphur on molten iron containing 4 per cent. of carbon. But the question of the production of diamond powder by this means is as yet an open one. M. Moissan is continuing his researches on the solu- bility of carbon in iron, silver, and their alloys. It is to be hoped that he will soon be able to exhibit artificial true diamonds of a more imposing size. LINES OF STRUCTURE IN THE WINNEBAGO CO. METEORITES AND IN OTHER METEORITES? ffs HE ground and polished surface of a Winnebago Co, meteorite showed to me some interesting markings. — Subsequent examination revealed like markings in other meteorites. Perhaps these markings have been de- scribed. Ifso I have no recollection of the description, and therefore it seems worth while to call attention to ~ them. 3 _. The polished surface of a small Winnebago stone, three or four square centimetres in area shows several hun- dreds of bright metallic points. The larger iron particles: in this surface have great varieties of shapes—the smaller — t Proc. Roy. Soc: Ed. 1880, vol. ii. p. 20. 2 Reprinted from the February number of the American Journal of | Sczence. graphite in small a 4 ‘ Fesruary 16, 1893] NATURE 37° ones are usually mere points. When seen with a lens, or even ata distance from the eye suited to distinct vision there does not appear to be any regular structure or arrangement of the bright points. But if the surface is so held as to be a little beyond the place of distinct vision, and at the same time, turned around in such a way as to reflect always a strong light to the eye, either skylight or lamplight, there appear lines of points across the polished surface of the stone, which suggest very strongly the Widmanstaetten figures on metallic meteorites. At times, as the stone is turned, no lines can be detected. Again one set of parallel lines or two sets crossing each other become visible. Some of the sets are very sharply mani- fested, and some are so faint as to leave one in doubt whether the lines are real or only fancied. There are on the surface in question six or eight of these sets of lines. A second surface was ground nearly parallel to the first, at about one centimetre distant from it, and like lines appeared on this parallel surface. Some of the lines, but not all of them, corresponded in direction in the two surfaces. Four more surfaces approximately at right angles to the first surface, and corresponding to the faces of a right prism, were then ground, and upon these surfaces the like sets of lines appear with more or less distinctness. _A slab of a Pultusk stone 6 x 7 centimetres shows over its entire surface like markings. Something like a curvature of the lines appears in one instance, but in ( 1 the lines run straight from side to side of the slab. The slab is six millimeters in thickness, and most re the sets of lines have the same directions upon the two es. __ A Hessle stone, a small slice from the Wold Cottage. stone, one from Sierra di Chaco, one from a Sienna stone, a fragment from the Rockwood stone, and a slice from the Rensselaer Co. stone, all show with more or less clearness the like markings. Ofthree microscope slides of the Fayette Co. meteorite one shows them clearly, a second shows traces of them, the third not at we -A considerable number of the ground surfaces of meteoric stones in the Peabody Museum also show these meng 9 For example, a triangular surface of a Weston stone, 8 or 10 centimetres to each side, exhibits them _ These markings are such as we might expect if the forces which determine the crystallisation of the nickel- iron of the iron meteorites also dominated the structure of the rock-like formations of the stony meteorites and the distribution therein of the iron particles. The rela- tion of quartz crystals to the structure of graphic granite is naturally suggested by these meteorite markings. NO le H. A. NEWTON. THE LATE THOMAS DAVIES, F.G.S. R. THOMAS DAVIES, who died on December 21 last, was born on December 29, 1837, in the neigh- bourhood of London, and was the son of Mr. William Davies, F.G,S., of the Geological Department of the British Museum. His early education was of a very elementary character, and the period of his school-life was brief: finding town-life irksome, and yearning for freedom and adventure, he took to the sea at the age of fourteen, and during the next four years led a roving life, visiting China, India, and various parts of South America. He was then prevailed upon by his father to adopt a more settled mode of existence, and on the separation of the Department of Mineralogy from that of Geology was appointed in 1858 a third-class attendant at the British Museum under Prof. Maskelyne, to whom the care of the minerals had been assigned ; in the following year he added to his responsibilities by marriage. During the next nine years, save for a short interval NO. 1216, VOL. 47] | when Dr. Viktor von Lang was an assistant in the Department, Mr. Davies was the sole helper of Mr. Maskelyne in the arrangement and examination of the mineral collections; during this time Mr. Maskelyne effected a thorough change in the classification and arrangement of the minerals, and in labelling with localities the large number of specimens that were with- out any descriptions except what could be traced out in old catalogues. In this work, and in the cleaning and arranging some tons of specimens, of which many were entirely valueless, the patient and intelligent aid of “young Davies” alone rendered it possible to carry out the preliminary operations. As the collection grew into orderly arrangement, the registration and labelling of specimens was entrusted to him by Mr. Maskelyne. It was thus that he gradually acquired an eye-knowledge of minerals which has rarely, if ever, been surpassed. His perception of the peculiarities of a specimen was re- markably quick, while his remembrance of individual specimens was almost marvellous. It was particularly in the habit, the locality, the associations and modes of occurrence of mineral species that he concentrated his interest ; and to his knowledge in this direction his earlier training, under the eye of Mr. Maskelyne, in the labelling of the minerals, accumulated in the cases and drawers of the collection, very largely contributed. In the early years of Mr. Davies’s museum life Mr. Maskelyne was further engaged in the study of thin sections of meteorites, and initiated Mr. Davies into a knowledge of the microscopic characters of rock-forming minerals, a mode of investigation then almost unknown. In this direction his quickness of perception and ex- cellence of memory had full scope for play, and Mr. Davies. soon became extremely skilful in the microscopic deter- mination of minerals in rock-sections; and in the recog- nition of peculiarities of rock-structure. - Few practical petrologists approached him in this faculty. Nor did he neglect to improve his general education. With this end in view he attended the evening classes at the Working Men’s College in Great Ormond Street, and. in the course of time acquired a knowledge of both French and German. He was also familiar with plants and fossils, a knowledge largely derived from his father. His remarkable qualifications attracted the early attention of Mr. Maskelyne, and in 1862 were officially recognised in his promotion by the trustees from the grade of attendant to that of transcriber or junior assistant. In 1880 he was promoted to the grade of first-class assistant. By a remarkable coincidence his father, Mr. William Davies, who had long been renowned for his large practical knowledge of important branches of palzon- tology, and especially of fossil fishes, and had likewise begun museum life as an attendant, obtained the same promotion on the same day. In the same year Mr. Davies was awarded the balance of the proceeds of the Wollaston Fund by the Council of the Geological Society as a testimony of the value of his researches in mineralogy and lithology. Still later, in 1889, the name of Davieszte was given to a new mineral “in honour of Mr. Thomas™ Davies, who has now been associated during upwards of thirty years with the British Museum Mineral Collection, and whose mineralogical experience and Breithauptian eye have ever been willingly placed at the service, not only of his colleagues, but of every one who has been brought into relationship with him.” He became a Fellow of the Geological Society in 1870, and was an early member of the Mineralogical Society of France. His published work was not voluminous ; it relates almost exclusively to the microscopic characters of the pre-Cambrian rocks. He contributed, however, the bulk of the articles on mineralogy and petrology for “ Cassell’s Encyclopedic Dictionary,” and for some years edited the Mineralogical Magazine. 372 NATURE (Fepruary 16, 1893 Mr. Maskelyne, for whom he was right-hand man, and almost sole working helper during upwards of twenty years, looks back with fond regret on the uninterrupted happiness of their association. According to my own experience of the last fifteen years, he was an excellent colleague, always cheerful, good-tempered, and kind- hearted, ever ready to help in any direction, however much it might interfere with the particular work he had immediately in hand. At home he was an enthusiastic gardener ; wet or fine, absolutely reckless of weather, he ‘was at work from early sunrise, and could boast the pos- session of one of the best managed gardens in the neigh- bourhood. His love of fresh air and the bustling east wind never left him ; even after recovery from the long illness which two years ago had taken him to the verge of the grave, he did not hesitate to show the greatest contempt for the protection of an umbrella, and notwith- standing the remonstrances of his friends, might still be occasionally seen enjoying the beating of the wind and rain on his unprotected face. ’ He was an Original Member of the’ Mineralogical Society, and Foreign Secretary for several years pre- -ceding his death. Mr. Davies leaves a widow and nine children to mourn his loss. L. FLETCHER. NOTES. AT the last meeting of the Council of the Mineralogical ‘Society, it was resolved to initiate a ‘‘Thomas Davies Memorial Fund ”’ on behalf of the widow and children of the late Mr. Thomas Davies, F.G.S., of the British Museum. The following gentlemen have consented to act as an Executive Committee :—Prof. N. S. Maskelyne, F.R.S. (chairman), Dr. ’ Hugo Miiller, F.R.S. (treasurer), Mr. H. A. Miers, F.G.S, (secretary), Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., Mr. L. Fletcher, F.R.S., Dr. Henry Hicks, F.R.S., W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Mr. F. W. Rudler, F.G.S., Mr, F. ‘Rutley, F.G.S., Rev. Prof. T. Wiltshire, F.G.S., Dr. Henry Woodward, F.R.S. Subscriptions for the fund should be sent to Dr. Hugo Miiller, 13 Park Square East, Regent’s Park, London, N. W. AN extra meeting of the Chemical Society will be held on ‘February 20, at 8 p.m., the anniversary of the death of Herman Kopp, when a lecture will be delivered by Prof. T. E. Thorpe, ' F.R.S. Lord Playfair will be in the chair. AN International Botanical Congress is to be held during the ‘Columbian Exposition at Chicago. Prof. C. E. Bessey will receive communications on the subject. M. P. DUCHARTIE has been elected president, and M. L. ‘Guignard first vice-president, of the Botanical Society of France for the year 1893. THE annual public meeting of the University College Chemical and Physical Society will be held at University ‘College, Gower Street, on Friday, February 24. The chair will be taken at eight o’clock by Prof. F. T. Roberts, and Prof. ‘Watson-Smith will deliver an address on diseases incident to work-people in chemical and other industries. Mr. THOMAS BRYANT, president of the Royal College of Surgeons, delivered the Hunterian oration on Tuesday afternoon in the theatre of the college, in the presence of the Prince of Wales and the Duke of York and a large and distinguished company. Mr. Bryant began by thanking their Royal Highnesses for their presence on the special occasion of the centenary of the death of John Hunter, the great founder of scientific surgery. In the course of his oration Mr. Bryant said that the whole world of vegetable and animal life was Hunter’s subject, but that NO. 1216, VOL. 47] his main objects were the improvement of surgery by the eluci- dation of pathology ; the examination of the causes which de- termine any departure from the normal type, whether of form or function ; and the study of the means which nature adopts for the healing of wounds and the repair of injuries. It was one of his special merits that he raised surgery out of the position of a a poor art, based on empirical knowledge and practised too much as a trade, to establish it firmly as a high and elevating science, at the same time raising its practitioners in the social scale, and doing as much for medicine as for surgery, for he considered them inseparable. He made the profession scientific by basing it upon the widest knowledge of the structure and functions of — all living things, and educed therefrom laws and principles for the guidance of future generations in their study and treatment of disease in any of its forms. This alone should render him worthy of the thanks of civilised mankind. Mr. GEORGE MATHEWs WHIPPLE, whose death we briefly recorded last week, had done much solid and valuable work in various departments of physical science. Among the subjects in which he was especially interested were wind force and wind velocities, and throughout the greater part of his life, as the Times has said in a brief sketch of his career, he was constantly carrying on experiments with a view to determine wind force and to find out what were the best instruments for securing accurate results. He improved the Kew pattern magnetic in- struments ; he designed, among other instruments, the apparatus for testing the dark shades of sextants; and at various periods he was associated with Captain Heaviside, Major Herschel, and General Walker, in carrying on pendulum experiments for the determination of the force of gravity. The magnetic part of the report of the committee appointed by the Royal Society to investigate the Krakatoa eruption and the subsequent phenomena was prepared by Mr. Whipple, and valuable papers were from time to time submitted by him to the Royal Society and the Royal Meteorological Society. He was fifty years of age at the time of his death. He entered the Kew Observa- tory in 1858, became magnetic assistant in 1862, and was appointed superintendent in 1876, This office is one of great and growing importance, and we trust that a capable. successor may be found. The Kew Observatory is the central standardising station of the Meteorological Office, and numerous magnetical observatories in other countries are similarly con- nected with it. New instruments are tested there, and experiments are made, and it has now grown into an institution where the verification of scientific instruments of many kinds, including thermometers, sextants, telescopes, watches, and | recently photographic lenses, is carried on on a large scale, as described in the annual report of the Kew committee to the Royal Society. THE Rev. F. O. Morris died at Nunburnholme, in Yorkshire, on Friday last, at the age of eighty-two. He was well-known as a popular writer on science, and did much to create and foster interest in some branches of natural history, especially in ornithology. Among his many books were ‘‘ A History of British Birds,” issued in six volumes from 1851 to 1857, and his ‘‘ Natural History of the Nests and Eggs of British Birds,” published in three volumes in 1853. In 1854 he was presented to the rectory of Nunburnholme, which he continued to hold until his death. ; A DESTRUCTIVE earthquake has taken place in the island of Samothrace, ll the buildings are said to have been destroyed. Renewed shocks, accompanied by loud subterranean rumblings, have also occurred at Zante. On Sunday a shock of earthquake was experienced in New Zealand. It caused little damage, but was felt in both the North Fesruary 16, 1893] NATURE 373 and South Islands, being most severe at Wellington and at Nelson. THE weather of the past week has been very stormy and damp in most parts of these islands; scarcely a day has passed without gales being reported. On Friday, the roth, the wind force was especially strong, on the north-east coast of Scotland and in the English Channel, and on Tuesday another deep de- pression had reached our northern coasts from off the Atlantic, accompanied by strong gales. The United Kingdom was situa- ted between two areas of high barometer readings, one of which lay over Scandinavia and the other over France and Spain. With this distribution of pressure, the conditions were favour- able to the passage of cyclonic disturbances within our area, and although the storms were not of exceptional violence in the southern districts, they were so relatively, as the winds have _ been peculiarly quiet during the last twelve months. Tempera- ture has been a little above the mean for the season, the daily maxima often exceeding 50°, but on Sunday the highest day readings were below 40° over the north-east of England, while a sharp frost occurred in the north of Scotland, the minimum temperature registering 20°. On the continent the temperature has been much lower than in this country ; at Haparanda, at the north of the Gulf of Bothnia, which lies in the area of the high barometric pressure over Scandinavia, a temperature of minus 37° was recorded on Friday and Saturday. Rainfall has been of daily occurrence at most stations, although the amounts measured have generally been light, while hail and sleet have occurred in many places. With Tuesday’s storm, however, the rainfall ex- ceeded an inch on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland. By- the Weekly Weather Report of the 11th instant it appears that the rainfall for that week was greatly in excess of the mean in the north and west of Scotland, and to a less extent in the east of Scotland, the north of Ireland, and the western parts of England. Bright sunshine exceeded the mean in all districts, the greatest amounts, 32 to 38 per cent., being recorded in most parts of England. ra THE recent numbers of Cie/ et Terre (Nos 21-23) contain interesting articles on ozone. The observation of this element by meteorologists has been almost given up in most countries, _ owing chiefly to the difficulty of obtaining comparable results by the methods at present in use, although its importance for in- valids and others as a purifier of the atmosphere is generally acknowledged. And at a recent meeting of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society, regret was expressed at the discontinuance of these observations. D, A. Van Bastelaer, in conjunction with the Royal Observatory of Brussels, maintained a system of ozone observations at 150 of the stations belonging to the Society of Public Medicine in Belgium during the:years 1886-91, which is probably the most complete investigation into the subject which has been made. The values found for the various stations are given in a tabular form, and M. Van Bastelaer found that there are continual and sudden variations in the records from hour to hour, between morning and evening, and from one day to another, but that the mean values for any locality remain nearly constant, Isolated values are of no use ; a long series of obser- vations is necessary for any results of importance to be arrived at. The air at stations near the sea coast contained, as is usually supposed, the greatest amount of ozone. THE Indiana Academy of Science lately held at Indianopolis its eighth annual meeting, the president being Prof. J. L. Camp- bell, of Wabash College,. Crawfordsville, Ind. There was a large attendance, and no fewer than ninety-two papers had been prepared, most of which were read. The first volume of the Academy’s Proceedings was distributed at the meeting. NO. 1216, VOL. 47 | THE KXew Bulletin continues, in the January number, its series of articles on the food grains of India, one of the subjects being Kangra Buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum, Geertn., var. himalaica, Batalin). The typical plant is cultivated through- out the higher Himalayas, but more especially on the western extremity, and at altitudes from 8000 to 14,000 feet. The yield in India cannot yet be estimated, but the Au//efin says there can be little doubt that the seeds are singularly rich in nutrient constituents. This is confirmed by the conclusions of Prof. Church with regard to a sample he has examined. THE January number of the Kew Bulletin contains also the fourth decade of new orchids, the fourth of ‘‘ Decades Kew- enses,” papers on fruit growing at the Cape and the clove industry of Zanzibar, and miscellaneous notes. Pror. R, SHIMEK is now investigating the flora and the geology of Nicaragua, along the route of the canal, under com- mission from the State University of Iowa. Dr. Terracciano, of Rome, is about to renew his investigation of the flora of Erythrea, the Italian colony on the Red Sea. Dr. K. N. Denkenbach is commissioned by the Natural History Society of St. Petersburg to investigate the flora of the Black Sea. Mr. R. THAXTER proposes in the Botanical Gazette the establishment of a new order of Schizomycetes, the Myxobac- teriaceze, somewhat intermediate in its characters between the typical Schizomycetes and the Myxomycetes. It comprises the genus Chondromyces, placed by Berkeley, in his ‘‘ Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany,’’ under the Stilbacei, and two new genera, Myxobacter and Myxococcus. The order consists of mobile rod-like organisms, multiplying by fission, secreting a gelatinous base, and forming pseudo-plasmode-like aggregations before passing into a more or less highly-developed cyst- producing resting state, in which the rods may become encysted in groups without modification, or may be converted into spore- masses. AT the meeting of the Royal Botanic Society on Saturday, one of the branches of the flowering stalk of Fourcroya selloa was shown from the Society’s conservatory. This is a Mexican plant allied to the aloes, and like them it flowers only once during its life. The plant, which has been in the conservatory for upwards of twenty years, late last autumn threw up a flower spike which in a very short time grew toa height of 30 feet, and, passing through the glass roof, rose for some feet into the open air. It could not, of course, resist the frosts and fogs of winter. The flower-buds dropped unopened, when immediately from each node a number of young plants appeared. This mode of reproduction is found in only a few varieties of plants, and is especially valuable in relation to the cultivation of Fourcroyas as a source of commercial vegetable fibre. THE Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society will have no very pleasant associations with the memory of its hundredth anniversary, which was celebrated on Tuesday of last week. During the following night the society’s premises caught fire and were greatly damaged. Much injury was done to the library, where many most valuable books were destroyed. THE fifth and sixth parts of the fifth volume of the Zzter- nationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie have been issued together in a single number. It includes the second part of Dr. W. Svoboda’s interesting study (in German) of the inhabitants of the Nicobar Islands ; a paper (in French) by Désiré Pector on the volume by Dr. Hyades and Dr. Deniker (noticed some time ago in NATURE) on the ethnography of a part of Tierra del Fuego ; a suggestive essay (in German) by Dr. T. Achelis, on the psychological importance of ethnology ; and the second part of Dr. Schmeltz’s careful contributions (in German) to the 374 NATURE [FEeBRuARY 16, 1893 ethnography of Borneo. The first and last of these papers are admirably illustrated. A valuable paper on the Ainos, by David MacRitchie, of Edinburgh, has been published as a supplement to the fourth volume of the 47chzv. This paper is accompanied by, and contains full descriptions of, a series of coloured repro- ductions of most interesting pictures of Aino life by Japanese artists, who have naturally a keener perception of the character- istics of their savage neighbours than can be attained by Western visitors. Mr. MacRitchie seeks to show that the Ainos display ‘unmistakable traces of a near descent, by at least one line of their ancestry, from the most crude form of humanity.” MEssrs. SAMSON AND WALLIN, Stockholm, are about to issue what promises to be an important and interesting work, by F. R. Martin, on the Siberian Antiquities of the Bronze Age, preserved in the museum of Minousinsk. Nearly 900 objects in copper and bronze will be represented in the plates, which, according to the prospectus, are being prepared with the greatest care. The antiquities of which these objects are selected specimens were collected in 1874 by M. Nicolai Martianow from mounds in the steppes of the Upper Yenisei. They are the finest provincial collection in the Russian Empire, and M. Martin found much to interest him in classifying and photo- graphing them. The present volume will be the first of a series of works on the ethnography and archeology of Western Siberia by the same writer. THE third volume of ‘‘ A Journal of American Ethnology and Archeology,” edited by J. Walter Fewkes, has been issued. It contains an interesting ‘‘ outline of the documentary history of the Zuiii tribe,” by A. F. Bandelier, and ‘‘somatological observations on Indians of the south-west,” by Dr. H. F. C. Ten Kate. Itis worth while to note that in Dr. Ten Kate’s opinion the study of physical anthropology among the North American Indians does not tend to demonstrate that their types are exclusively American. It rather shows, he thinks, that they present only the characteristics of ‘‘the Mongolian or so-called yellow races.” ‘* I do not mean,” he says, ‘‘ that the American aborigines are Mongolians in the strict sense of the word, or that America has been populated from Asia. Where the Indians came from I do not know, but my position is as follows :—The American race is, somatologically speaking, not a-type, but has characteristics which can only be called Mongoloid.”’ PROBABLY no living sportsman has shot more big game in South Africa than Mr. F. C. Selous, who for years was more at home in a waggon ora tent somewhere in the far countries of Africanderland than in the towns and settlements of the Cape Colony or the Transvaal. He has nearly completed an account of eleven years’ sport and travel, which will be shortly published by Messrs. Rowland, Ward and Co., of Piccadilly. It will be fully illustrated, and will include a variety of general informa- tion on subjects of interest in connection with the latest develop- ments of South African exploration. Mr. ELLIOT Stock has published the third volume of ‘‘ The Field Club,” a magazine of general natural history for scien- tific and unscientific readers, edited by the Rev. Theodore Wood. The volume contains many articles which are well fitted to awaken interest in various aspects of natural science. WE referred lately to Dr. D. G. Brinton’s opinion as to the relation between nervous diseases and civilisation. As his view has been called in question by Dr. Rockwell, he returns to the subject in Scdence, supporting his own conclusions by a reference to a paper contributed by Dr. I. C. Rosse, professor of nervous diseases at the Georgia Medical College, to the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease for July, 1891. In this paper Dr Rosse cites many authorities to prove that there is as much nervous disease at low as at higher stages of civilisation, and NO. 1216, VOL. 47] perhaps more. In the district of Columbia, for example, the decedents among the coloured people from nervous diseases often exceed those of the white population by thirty-three per cent. Dr. Rosse is inclined to believe that a sudden change in the social habits and condition of any race, at any stage of ad- vancement, will result in a prompt development of neurotic disease. A high civilisation, which is-stable, excites ser a con- dition less than instability in lower grades. _ AT the meeting of the Field Naturalists’ Club of Victoria in November a paper presenting a list of species of Victorian butterflies was communicated. It had been prepared by Messrs. F. Spry and Ernest Anderson, and embodied the results of work carried on during many years. The Victorian Naturalist says the paper was ‘‘ received with great satisfaction, and will prove of extreme value to the Victorian lepidopterist.” Mr. H. L. CLark records in Science what he calls *‘ a bit of satisfactory evidence” as to the rate of speed in the flight of certain birds. He thinks that this is often greatly exaggerated. He was travelling lately on the Baltimore and Ohio Railway, up the valley of the Potomac, when he saw a great many wild ducks, which are admitted to be among the strongest flyers in America. It so happened that, on rounding a sharp curve, the train flushed a pair of buffle-heads, which started up stream at full speed. On watching them he found that, instead of their leaving the train behind, the train was actually beating them, and he is confident that their rate of speed was not equal to that of the train. ‘‘ We kept alongside of them,” he says, ‘‘ for nearly a minute before they turned back down-stream. Careful calculation showed that the train was running at about thirty-seven miles per hour, so that the rate of speed for those wild ducks would be about thirty-six. I hope that others may have some evidence on this agave of speed in flight which will throw more fit on setd subject.” ' AN interesting illustration of the tendency of inorganic matter to simulate the forms seen in organic is afforded by some speci- mens of hzematite from a mine in Lake Superior district. It is described in the American Geologist as a fibrous red hematite, compact and tough-looking, and the radiating fila- ments or fibres towards their summits are seen to spread out like some frondescent vegetable growths. It would seem that in process of increase these fibres, starting from different but slightly distant points, and having a tendency to expand, soon began to interfere with one another. The line of contact, which became a plane as growth continued, is marked by a more or less distinct plane of separation. This frondescent hematite, in addition, is pierced by a number of peculiar chan- nels which seem to date from the time of development of the crystals. It is noticed that these run, in general, perpendicular to the fibrous structure, and lie in or across the planes of contact of two oppositely spreading frondescent growths. These appear to mark in the first instance the vacancies left by the first con- tacts of overarching growths from opposite directions. These branches then interfered with the free circulation of air, and interrupted and permanently stopped the development of these fibres beneath the overspreading canopy. Ir was shown by Ferraris some time ago (and the fact was of great practical importance) that by means of two simple alter- nating currents acting in fixed spirals, a rotating magnetic field could be produced, which by inductive action set in rotation a copper cylinder or other conducting body brought into the field. Also an iron cyclinder, cut through so that the Foucault induc- tion currents could not be formed, was rotated by virtue of so- called magnetic hysteresis. Further studies in this direction have been made by Signor Arno, using electric instead of magnetic’ forces, and a dielectric body instead of a magnetic. assumed a dark-brown colour. attempted to reproduce the lost valve and hinge, but also partly washed away by the winter rains. _ always consists of clay, adobe or stiff soil, having been chosen, Frpruary 16, 1893] “He thus succeeded in rotating a hollow cylinder of mica, or other insulating substance, hung by a silk fibre, in the space enclosed by four vertical curved copper plates, to which the ‘Tequisite differences of potential were communicated. An atc- count of these interesting experiments (described to the Accademia dei Lincei) will be found in the Naturwissen- schaftliche Rundschau, No. 3, 1893. Pror. R. C. Scutepr has been making some interesting observations on oysters, and at a recent meeting of the Phila- delphia Academy of Natural Sciences Prof. Ryder reported on his behalf that oysters which had the right valve removed and were exposed to the light in this condition, in a living state for _ @ fortnight or so, developed pigment over the whole of the epidermis of the exposed right mantle and on the upper exposed ‘Sides of the gills, so that the whole animal from this cause Animals so exposed not only succeeded in so doing, even re-establishing the insertion of the diminutive pedal muscle upon the inner face of the imperfectly reproduced right valve, which was deformed owing to the Jack -of st of the right mantle, because of the removal of the right valve. Asa consequence the right mantle was rolled up at the edge, and this deformation of the mantle was reflected in the attempted regeneration of the lost right valve. ‘The pigment developed during exposure to light in the mantle and gills in oysters with the right valve removed, which were kept alive in the aquaria at Sea Isle City by Prof. Schiedt, was _ wholly confined to the epidermis as it normally is at the mantle = border in the unmutilated animal in nature. ‘be drawn from these facts is that the development of pigment in the mantle and gills was wholly and directly due to the abnor- mal and general ‘stimulus of light over the exposed surface of The inference to the mantle and gills, due to removal of the right valve, and that the mantle border, the only pigmented portion of the animal, is pigmented because it is the only portion of the animal which ds normally and constantly subjected to the stimulus of light. Mr. D. CLEVELAND, of San Diego, California, contributes to ] _ Science an article in which he states some curious facts regarding _ the trap-door spider (AZygale henzii, Girard), which is widely in California. Behind San Diego there are many hil- f locks about a foot in height and three or four feet in diameter. a “These hillocks are selected by the spiders, Mr. Cleveland sug- ests, because they afford excellent drainage and cannot be A suitable spot, which ler excavates a shaft varying from five to twelve inches in and from one-half to one and a half inches in diameter. ‘This is done by means of the sharp horns at the end of the ‘spider's mandibles, which are its pick and ‘shovel and mining ‘tools. ‘The earth is held between the mandibles and carried to ‘the surface. When the shaft is of the required size, the spider smooths and glazes the wall with a fluid which is secreted by _itself, Then the whole shaft is covered with a silken paper lining, spun from the animal’s spinnarets. The door at the top of the shaft is made of several alternate layers of silk and earth, and is supplied with an elastic and ingenious hinge, and fits closely in a groove around the rim of the tube. This door simulates the surface on which it lies, and is distinguishable from it only by a careful scrutiny. The spider even glues earth and bits of small plants on the upper side of the trap-door, thus making it closely resemble the surrounding surface. The spider generally stations itself at the bottom of the tube. When, by tapping on the door, or by other means, a gentle vibration is caused, the spider runs to the top of its nest, raises the lid, and looks out and reconnoitres. If a small creature is seen, it is seized and devoured. If the invader is more formidable, the NO. 1216, VOL. 47] NATURE | 375 door is quickly closed, seized, and held down by the spider, so that much force is required to open it. Then the spider drops to the bottom of the shaft. When the door of the nest is removed, the spider can renew it five times—never more than that. From forty to fifty cream-coloured spiderlings are hatched from the yellow eggs at the bottom of the nest. When these have attained only a fraction of their full size—before they are half grown—the mother drives them out into the world to shift for themselves. Aftera brief period of uncertainty they begin active life by making nests, each for itself, generally close to ‘‘ the old homestead,” sometimes within a few inches of it. These nests are always shallow and slender, and are soon outgrown. When the spider attains its full size it constructs a larger nest. AN interesting paper concerning the supposed volatility of the element manganese is contributed by Prof. Lorenz and Dr. Heusler, of Gottingen, to the current number of the Zeitschrift fiir Anorganische Chemie. Although the melting point of the metal is known with tolerable certainty to be about 1800° — 1900°, much higher than that of iron, no information has yet been acquired concerning its boiling point. Profs. Lockyer and Chandler Roberts, however, so long ago as 1875 pointed out that the metal was volatile at the temperature of the oxy- hydrogen blowpipe ; and M. Jordan, in a communication to the Comptes Rendus in the year 1878, reported that in the manu- facture of highly manganiferous spiegeleisen near Marseilles, a deposit very rich in manganese was usually found in the cooler portions of the furnace. Moreover, M. Jordan stated that during the casting of ferro-manganese red flames are produced, from which a heavy fume is deposited containing a large percentage of manganese. M. Jordan subsequently heated ferro-manganese to a white heat in a crucible in his laboratory, and ascertained that a diminution in the percentage of manganese actually occurred. These observations were considered somewhat sur- prising, inasmuch as the melting point of manganese is so high, in the neighbourhood of white heat, and it would appear that this volatility must be exhibited even at the melting point itself. Pror. Lorenz and his colleague have therefore conducted a series of experiments with the view of ascertaining whether manganese is really volatile Zev se, or whether the volatility is. due to the intermediate action of carbon monoxide (derived from the carbon usually present) in forming a volatile but dis- sociable compound of a nature similar to nickel- and iron- carbonyl. It was first definitely proved that carbon monoxide does not combine with manganese below the temperature of 350°, a fact which M. Guntz has recently independently pointed out. Experiments were then made at higher temperatures, using a new form of combustion furnace, designed by Prof. Lorenz and fully described in the Zeitschrift, in which each individual burner is supplied with a blast capable of being regulated, the whole apparatus being equivalent to a row of blowpipes which will rapidly raise a thick porcelain tube up to a white heat. In the first series of these high temperature experiments coarsely powdered manganese containing seven per cent. of carbon was heated to whiteness in a glazed porcelain tube in a current of carbon dioxide, in order that nascent carbon monoxide might be produced in contact with. manganese by the reduction of the carbon dioxide by the carbon present. After half-an-hour’s heating the tube was allowed to cool in the stream of carbon dioxide and then broken, when it was found that a large quantity of the manganese had volatilised and condensed again further along the tube, in the form of a thick black deposit somewhat resembling zinc dust. Upon repeating the experiment with a current of carbon monoxide, a similar result was ob- tained. Hence manganese is certainly volatile in carbon monoxide. But it was afterwards found that equally good deposits of manganese dust were obtained when a current of 376 NATURE (FeBruary 16, 1893 either hydrogen or nitrogen, neither of which combine with manganese, were employed. It is therefore evident that manganese does not resemble iron and nickel in forming a volatile compound with carbon monoxide, but that the volatility is a property of the element itself, and is singularly manifested even at the temperature of the melting point. Some of the more interesting captures recently made by the dredging staff of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth are the Actinian Chztonactis coronata; the Nudibranchs Berghia caerulescens (new to Britain), Amphorina cerulea, and Lamellidoris oblonga in considerable numbers ; and the hand- somely marked rare spider-crab, Stenorhynchus egyptius. The alga Halosphera viridis has been present in all townettings since October; and MNoctz/uca, though in small numbers, is now generally present. - The breeding season of a large number of Invertebrata has already commenced, and the sea swarms with Copepod and Cirrhipede Nauplii, and with Polycheete larve. Species of the following genera are breeding :—The Hydroids Halecium, Plumularia, Sertularella, Hydrallmania ; the Actinians Chitonactis and Actinia; the Nemertine ZLineus obscurus (larva of Desor); Phyllodoce maculata and other Annelids ; the Molluscs Cafulus hungaricus, Lamellaria, Buccinum, Purpura, many Nudibranchs; and the Decapod Crustacea Crangon, Pandalus, and Palemon ; Carcinus, Cancer, and Lurynome. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include a Fallow Deer (Dama vulgaris 6) European, presented by Mr. B. L. Rose; a Great Eagle Owl (Bubo maximus) European, presented by Mr. Adolphus Drucker; two GoldPheasants (7haumalea picta? ¢ ) from China, presented by Miss Forster; nine Snow Buntings (P/ectrophanes nivalis) British, presented by Mr, T. E. Gunn; an Egyptian Cobra (Nata haje), two Hoary Snakes (Coronella cana), from Victoria West, Cape Colony, presented by the Rev. G. H.R. Fisk, C.M.Z.S.; three European Pond Tortoises (Zmys europea) European, deposited ; a King Snake (Coluber getulus) from North America, received in exchange. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE ToTAL SoLar EcLipsE oF APRIL 15-16, 1893.— The following particulars of the phenomena of the total solar eclipse of April 15-16, 1893, have been supplied to the Eclipse Com- mittee by Mr. A. M. W. Downing, Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac office, for the use of the English observers at the eclipse stations to be occupied in Brazil and Africa :— Brazil. Longitude 38° 50’ W. Latitude 3° 20’ S. Contact Contact Sun’s ‘om from alti- O.. he TH: 6. N. point. vertical. tude. Eclipse begins April 15 22 18 14... 136° W. ... 19° W. ... 62° Totality begins 15 23 40 51 }o uration 4m. 43°1s. Totality ends 15 23 45 34 Eclipse ends 16 11140... 45°E. ... 84° W. ... 68° Local mean times. Senegambia. Longitude 16° 30’ W. Latitude 14° 15’ N. Contact Contact Sun’s rom rom alti- d. h. m. s. N. point. vertical. _ tude. April161 5 3...130° W.... 156°E. ... 73° 16:2 27.59 Duration 4m. 12°3s. 16 2 32 12 16.345 1... °57°E.".:. 24° ee Local mean times. REMARKABLE COMETS.—Bearing this title, Mr. Lynn has written a small book, in which he gives a short survey of the most interesting facts that have occurred in the history of cometary astronomy. As he remarks in the preface, the scope of the work is almost purely historical; but we are sure there are many who will peruse these few pages with great pleasure, NO. 1216, VOL. 47] Eclipse begins Totality begins Totality ends Eclipse ends for the author has brought together these facts and presented them to the reader in a concise and plain style. We may men- tion that figures relating to elements of orbits, &c., are at a minimum, Mr, Lynn simply restricting himself to bare accounts, The author concludes by giving a list of the dates at which some of the comets may reappear, from which we make the following extract:— Date. Period in years, 1893 Summer ... 64 ... Finlay’s Comet 1894 Winter... 33 Encke’s_ _,, 1896 Spring ... 74 .«.. Faye’s * 3 as . oy Oe BOs Bi 1897... i .. 6%... D?Arrest’s ,, 53 sit 93 ss Sh ite ROWS ‘3 1898 Summer... 53 .... Winnecke’s,, he Autumn ae Wolf's A 1899 ... Spring 334 Comet of 1866 As ... Summer ... 132 Tuttle’s Comet = ah, 4 Holmes’s_ ,, The comet of 1866, as many of our readers well know, is iden - tical with the meteoric stream through which we pass in November, so we hope that we shall be visited by a fine display. ComeET HoimEs (1892, III.).—Comet Holmes seems to have become somewhat dimmed during the past week, but we never- theless give the ephemeris for the benefit of those who wish to follow it a little longer. é 29 99 Ephemeris for 12h. M.T., Paris. R.A. app. Decl. app. 1893. ie: Nr h. SG me Feb. 16 2. ere +34 14 30 5 fame 9 rScssa 16 42 $8: 43 £0 53°32 .cud 18 58 TO% airs 12 31°5 21 16 S20) asec TA, 30 18> ho 23 37 4 he Sa 15 49°5 ... « 200 Te ey ay age 28 26 23, «+. 219 9'2 34 3° 54 CoMET Brooks (NOVEMBER 19, 1892).—This comet lies in the southernmost part of the constellation of Andromeda, just south of e Andromede, and the following is the current ephemeris :— Ephemeris for 12h. M.T., Berlin. RA. app. Decl. app. Log ~. Log A Br. 1893. hm. s. Ratt i x Feb. 16 ... 0 22 44 ...+26 46'9 17 oie ee ws | 26.232 12 -O°RGESS., Oras roy £9) 3b: 425! Ou ee lors 19 sco!) | 26 Oa hiys2h ige.s i 20.0.6. 2B, Of mee eR ok 21... 2023 .4 24 56°97 ... ORAse eee ers 22° S = °g0'39 |, Rea ayes 23°. 8 31 490i ea ee RELATIVE POSITIONS OF STARS IN CLUSTER x PERSEI.— Volume xxx. part iv. of the Transactions of the Royal Irish Society contains the results of the investigations of Sir Robert Ball and Mr. Arthur Rambaut, with respect to the relative positions of 223 stars in the cluster x Persei as determined photographically. The instrument used throughout was a 15- inch silver on glass reflecting telescope, mounted according to Cook’s standard equatorial pattern. For the adjustment of the plate (the size used here being 3} x 3}) and mirror Dr. John- stone Stoney’s collimator was employed, this method ensuring the exact perpendicularity of the photographic plate to the axis of the collimator. The negatives were measured with an instrument made by the same firm, and after the same pattern as that used by Prof. Pritchard, at Oxford, this instrument being supplied with the means of measuring either rectangular or polar co- ordinates, the former of which has been adopted here through- out. figures and formule, the equations for orientating the plate for measurement, for computing the differences in Right Ascension and Declination from the centre of the plate, for correcting the relative apparent positions of the stars for effects of separa- tion, observation, nutation, and procession, &c. The measures here given have been obtained from one photograph taken with an exposure of ten minutes, the images under the microscope being susceptible ‘‘ of very accurate measurement.” That only In this memoir the authors treat in detail, by means of | FEBRUARY 16, 1893 | NATURE 577 one negative has been employed is due, as the authors say, to pressure of other work and to necessary alterations in the in- strument, but they hope to repeat the investigation next autumn. In the table showing the positions, the authors compare their results with those of Vogel and Pihl, and they find that a small difference, depending on the adopted position of the funda- mental star, is apparent between the former’s declinations, while Pihl’s right ascensions differ slightly, though systematically, this discrepancy being due very probably to the different methods of determining the parallels, The memoir concludes with a map showing the relative positions of the stars plotted. direct from the x and y coordinates. L’AsTRONOMIE.—The February number of this journal con- tains many articles of interest. Prof. Stanislas Meunier gives an account of a meteorite that fell in Algeria ; this meteorite has proved to be of iron, containing as much as 91°32 per cent., and a ed surface, when treated with an acid, showed the well- known Widmannstatten figures. M. Flammarion, in addition to an account of ‘‘ Les Pierres Tombées du Ciel,” ,with reference to ‘* Les Anciens Volcans de la Lune,” lately advocated by Prof. in Astronomy and Astrophysics, gives the fourth out of six chapters dealing with the question, ‘‘Comment Arrivera la fin du Monde.” M. J. Fényi, director of the Ob- servatory of Kalocsa, gives an account of the enormous solar eruption (383,000 kilometres high) that occurred on October 3 last, while a short note on some curious appearances undergone by comet Swift includes six drawings by M. Lorenzo Kropp, taken between March 18 and April 25, and the three photographs taken at the Lick Observatory by Mr. Barnard, all of which indicate the results of tremendous actions, whether they be due to the influences of different forces, ‘‘ attraction, repulsion, chaleur, électricité, or changements d’état, qui ajissement sur ses astres gazeux dans leur voisinage du soleil.” M. Weinck of Prague describes the results of his examination of the Lick negatives with reference to the lunar crater Flammarion, and gives a drawing (which, by the way, can be well seen by half closing the eyes) of its surroundings, together with the three new craters, Log aged also includes a general summary of the meteorology of the preceding year, the results being given in diagrammatic form, bringing out clearly the diurnal and monthly Jupirer’s FirtH SATELLITE.—Mr. Barnard, who has been ig his observations with respect to the fifth satellite of Jupiter, communicates the results he has obtained to the Astronomical Fournal (Nos. 285-86). The values of the distances deduced from the measures at elonga- tions are, for eastern elongation, 48’089 (4 0°061), and for western elongation, 47”°621 ((4 0°176), the probable errors of a e determination being + 0’'23 and + 0”'47 respectively. These values are equivalent to the following distances :— E. elongation 112,500 + 143 miles Ww. rm TEI,412 + 412. *;; _ The values for the period he gives as . Mm. Ss. September 10-October 21 P = 1157 23°72 September 10-October 28 P. 11/57 23°30 September 1o-November 20 P = II 57 22°73 the mean, when proportional weights are applied, being— 1th. 57m. 23’06s. Among some other figures which Mr. Barnard gives are :— motion ee aise 30°°111 Velocity in orbit ... ...... 16°4 miles per second a MIS! ys eee: 22° 51’ : from surface of Jupiter 67,000 miles (about). While working at this satellite he has also been led to measure the equatorial and polar diameters of Jupiter himself, and the following numbers show the values he has deduced, the observations being made through smoked glass :— — diameter... ... ... 89,790 + 65 miles ’ chief. 84,300 + 80 miles GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. THE Zimes Berlin correspondent furnishes some interesting notes of Dr. Baumann’s recent journeys in the region of the Nile sources, which confirm Mr. Stanley’s identification of the NO. 1216, VOL. 47] Mountains of the Moon. In Urundi the kings were supposed to be lineal descendants of the moon, and the white traveller was hailed as being the returned ghost of a lately-deceased On September 11 the expedition crossed the Akenyaru, which is not, as supposed, a lake, but a river, though the name ‘*Nyanza” is often applied to it. Dr. Saumann also dis- covered that the so-called Lake Mworengo is in reality a river which flows into the Akenyaru, and came to the conclusion that there was no extensive sheet of water in Ruanda or North Urundi. On September 19 Dr. Baumann arrived at the source of the Kagera (Alexandra Nile), which rises at the foot of the pre- cipitous and wooded hills which form the watershed between the basins of Rufizi and the Kagera. This mountain chain is known to the natives by the name of the ‘‘ Mountains of the Moon,” and is held in peculiar reverence by them. Here Dr. Baumann main- tains the real source of the Nileto be, for if ‘‘it be acknow- ledged that the Kagera is the chief feeder of the Victoria Nyanza, it follows that the headwaters of the Nile can be none’ other than those of the Kagera itself in the Mountains of the nore in Urundi, within the boundaries of German East Africa.” 4 THE often-discussed scheme of an expedition to the North Pole by way of Franz Josef Land has been revived by Mr. F. G. Jackson, who proposes to lead an expedition next summer, if the means for equipping a ship are forthcoming. Mr. Jackson’s plan is to travel with a small party, and establish a chain of depots northward from the most northerly accessible landing-place in Franz Josef Land. He would remain during winter in the most advanced post, and push on each summer with dog-sledges, until the pole is reached. The plan rests on the hypothesis of Franz Josef Land extending to the pole, just as Dr. Nansen’s rests on the hypothesis of a transpolar current, but the evidence of the great extension of the land is not very satisfactory. Mr. Jack- son’s previous Arctic experience is not stated, nor is there any - indication given as to whether he intends to travel at his own expense or to appeal for pecuniary help. THE British South African Company have reserved the Zimbabwe Ruins and the area within a radius of one mile from the top of Zimbabwe Hill for archeological and scientific pur- poses, and no settlements, farms, or mines will be permitted within that radius. A BEAUTIFULLY illustrated report on the regulation of Swiss torrents, by the late M. de Salis, has recently been published by the Swiss Government. The natural erosion and surface change which go on at the present day so rapidly among the steep slopes of a mountainous country as to be frequently cataclysmic in their intensity, have to be avoided or endured in inhabited regions. A frequent source of floods is the damming up of a large river by the mud and stones brought down by a freshet in a small tributary. The method of combating this effect is to build a succession of weirs, and cut a parallel canal so that the sediment is caught and the overflow regulated before the escaping water reaches the main valley. MR. MACKINDER’s fourth Royal Geographical Society’s educational lecture, delivered last week, dealt with Central Asian trade- and travel-routes, under the title of ‘‘ The Gates of . India and China.” TWENTY YEARS IN ZAMBESIA. R. F. C. SELOUS, the famous hunter and explorer of South Central Africa, gave a summary of his travels to the Royal Geographical Society on Monday evening. His address was illustrated by an exhibition of unusual interest in the tea- room, where a large collection of stuffed specimens of the charac- teristic African mammalian fauna was arranged. Photographs and various objects illustrative of the rapid development of Mashonaland since the Chartered Company took possession were also shown. Mr, Selous commenced his African wanderings in 1871, and except for occasional visits to England he has travelled and traded in that continent ever since. In 1872 he and some com- panions penetrated into Matabeleland to hunt elephants, and had an amusing interview with the chief, Lo-Bengula. Although at that time not an explorer in the scientific sense, the accurate memory of his early wanderings over the country enabled Mr. 378 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 16, 1893 Selous to successfully guide the Pioneer Force of the Chartered Company in 1890, when they took possession of Mashonaland. With regard to the health of Zambesia he says :—‘‘ Owing to severe exposure to wet and cold during several days and’ nights, in the early part of 1872, I got an attack of fever and ague in Griqualand so that I was handicapped before starting for the interior. This fever and ague was exactly what I have seen people get on the high plateau of Mashonaland, during the last few years, from similar exposure to rain and cold. It took me some time to shake off, and was still in my system when I reached Matabeleland, but the attacks only came on when I halted anywhere for a few days. During November and December, 1872, hunting down in the low hot country towards the Zambesi, I was again very much exposed to wet, and on several occasions lay out all night long, without any shelter, drenched through with such heavy rain that it put out the largest fire and converted hard ground into a swamp. I naturally again got soaked with fever poison, but as long as I remained hunting the disease did not show itself. Directly I got back to Bulawayo it broke out, and during a month or so I had several sharp attacks. By that time, however, my sound constitution had choked all the fever germs, and from that day untilin 1878, when very severe exposure in Central Africa once more filled me up with malarial poison, I do not remember ever to have had one single hour’s illness, or to have taken one drop of medi- cine. The life I led was, however, if a very hard, at any rate, in many respects, a very healthy one ; for the most part I ate nothing but meat and Mashona rice, and drank nothing but tea, usually without milk and sugar—not because I like it so, but because those adjuncts were unobtainable.” North of the Zambesi Mr. Selous made several journeys among the Batongas, and spent a wretched rainy season, almost with- out equipment, on the Manica table-land. After the rains the country looked charming. The young grass,.thanks to the re- cent heavy rain, had shot up one foot or eighteen inches in height over hill and dale, every tree and shrub was in full leaf, and everything looked green, and fresh, and smiling. Many of the shrubs on the edge of the hills bore sweet-smelling flowers, and, as on all the plateaus of the interior of Africa, small but beauti- ful ground-flowers were very abundant. Interesting observations were made on some of the northern rivers. The curious phenomenon of the steady rise of the waters of the Chobe and Machabi—an outlet of the Okavango— was observed from the first week in June until the last week in Sep- tember, when they commenced to recede. That the Okavango and the Upper Kwando are connected on their upper courses, there can be little doubt, as the waters of the Machabi went on rising suddenly pari fassu with the Chobe, until the end of Sep- tember, when both commenced to recede simultaneously. The explanation of this remarkable phenomenon is difficult, as there are no snow mountains at the sources of the Kwando and Okavango rivers and the Zambesi, which rises in the same latitude, decreases steadily in volume from day to day during the dry season like almost all other rivers in South Central Africa. Besides the channels which still become annually filled with water from the overflow of the Chobe and Okavango river sys- tems, there are many others which are now quite dry, but in which the natives say they once used to travel in canoes. - From 1882 the journeys acquired additional geographical importance, and Mr. Selous proceeded to rectify the maps of Mashonaland laid down by earlier travellers, taking constant compass bearings, sketching the course of rivers, and fixing the position of the junction of tributaries. The value of this work was made manifest in a magnificent large scale map of the country, drawn as well as surveyed by Mr. Selous, which was . used to illustrate the lecture. It would be impossible, without practically reproducing the whole address, to do justice to the immense variety and solid value of the contributions to African geography made by this most energetic of pioneers ; or to the thrilling adventures, the recital of which was listened to with breathless attention and greeted with the heartiest applause. With the exception of a treacherous night attack made upon his camp by the Mashuku-sumbwe, led by a few rebel Marotse, in 1888, he had never had any other serious trouble with the natives. During his twenty years’ wanderings he went amongst many tribes who had never previously seen a white man, and he was always absolutely in their power, as he seldom had more than from five to ten native servants, none of whom were ever armed, NO. 1216, VOL. 47} THE DISTRIBUTION OF POWER BY ELECTRICITY FROM A CENTRAL GENERAT- ING STATION. “ae ON Friday evening, the 3rd inst., Mr. A. Siemens delivered at the Royal Institution an interesting lecture on the waysin which science is applied to practice. In the course of the lecture he made the following remarks on the distribution of power by electricity from a central generating station :— Before entering further into this, let me remind you that th earliest magneto-electric machines were used nearly sixty years ago for the production of power. I will mention only Jacobi’s electric launch of 1835 as an example. It must, there ore, be considered altogether erroneous to ascribe the invention of the transmission of power to an accident at the Vienna Exhibition in 1873, when, it is said, an attendant placed some stray wires into the terminals of a dynamo machine ; it began to turn, and the transmission of power was first demariseentaal As a matter of fact, Sir Wm. Siemens once informed me, that his brother Werner was led to the discovery of the dynamo-electric principle by the consideration that an electro-magnetic machine behaved like a magneto-electric machine, when a current of ele ticity was sent into it, viz, both turn round and give out power. It was, of course, well known that a magneto-electric machine produces a current of electricity, when turned by mechanical power, and Werner concluded that an electro-magnetic machine would behave in the same manner. We all know that he was right, but I relate this circumstance only as a further proof that the generation of power by electric currents has been a well- known fact long previous to the Vienna Exhibition. Another well-known instance of transmission of power to a distance is furnished by the magneto-electric ABC telegraph instruments, where the motion at the sending end supplies the currents necessary to move the indicator at the receiving station. As an illustration of the distribution of power by electricity, I will briefly describe some radical alterations that have been made at the works of Messrs. Siemens Brothers and Co., by the intro- duction of electric motors in the place of steam engines. Coe '[A diagram on the wall showed in outline the various buildings in which work of different kinds is carried on with the help of different machines. ] era Electric motors are supplying the power, sometimes by dri- ving shafting to which a group of tools is connected by belting, and sometimes by being coupled direct to the moving mechanism. Each section of the works has its own meter, measuring the energy that is used there, and all of them are connected by underground cables to a central station, where three sets of engines and dynamos generate the electric current for all purposes. There are two Willans and one Belliss steam engines, each o 300 horse-power, coupled direct to the dynamos, and running at © a speed of 350 revolutions per minute. Room is left for a fourth set, but including some auxiliary pumps and the switch- boards for controlling the dynamos and for distributing the eur- rent, the whole space occupied by 1200 horse-power measures only 32 x 42 feet. Close by are the condensers and three high- pressure boilers, which have replaced some low-pressure ones — formerly used for some steam engines driving the machinery in © the nearest building. \ The advantages that have been secured by the introduction of electric motors may be briefly stated under the following heads :— 1, Various valuable spaces formerly occupied by steam engines | and boilers have been made available for the extension’ of work- , | shops, and these are indicated on the diagram by shading. 2. By abolishing to a great extent the mechanical transmission of power a considerable saving is effected in motive power, — which is especially noticeable at times when part only of the machinery is in use. 3. As the electric motors take only as much current as is actu- ally required for the work they are doing, a further saving is effected, and at the same time the facility with which the speed of the motors can be altered without their interfering with each other presents a feature that is absent from mechanical trans- mission. ; ‘ 4. The big steam engines being compound and condensing, produce a horse-power with a smaller consumption of fuel than the small high-pressure steam engines scattered throughout the works. 4 FEBRUARY 16, 1893} NATURE 379 . The numerous attendants of the old steam engines and boilers have mostly been transferred to other work, only a few ef them are required at the central station, and one or two men can easily look after all the electric motors used in the various parts of the works. Elsewhere equally favourable results have been obtained by the introduction of electrical distribution of power, and in this respect I beg to refer you to a paper read before the German Institution of Civil Engineers by Mr. E. Hartmann in April of last year, and to a paper read by Mr. Castermans before the Society of Engineers in Liége, in August last, in which he es in detail various methods of transmission of power, of wilh: the,tlectrical one was adopted for a new small arms We may therefore take it for granted that the advantages ded to above have not resulted from local circumstances at but that they can be realised anywhere by the adop- tion of the electric current for distributing power from a central _ At first sight this result appears to be of interest only to the manufacturer; but the development of this idea may lead to -reaching consequences, when we consider that cheap power is one of the most important requisites for cheap production. While power was generated by steam engines the cost of ing one-horse-power varied a good deal in the different parts, and the various owners could not have obtained their power on equal terms, those possessing the largest steam gines ing a distinct advantage. This inequality is done away with altogether when the power is distributed by elec- i as the current can be supplied for large or small powers at the same rate per Board of Trade unit. It is therefore clear that the establishment of central stations for the generation of electricity on a large scale will bring about the possibility of small works competing with large works in quite a number of trades where cheap power is the first consideration. Another circumstance favouring small works is the diminution of capital outlay brought about by the employment of electric motors. Not only are the motors cheaper than boilers and steam engines of corresponding power would be, but the outlay for —— shafts is saved, and the structure of the building need not be as substantial as is necessary where belts and shaft- ing have to be supported by it. A commencement has already _been made in this direction by the starting of electric light stations, where the owners do all in their power to encourage the use of the current in motors, in order to keep the machinery ns their central station more uniformly at work. The intro- tion of electricity as motive power will apparently present a SF ramen to the effect steam has had on the development of i ‘ies for reasons already stated ; and in addition there are many cases where the erection of boilers and steam engines, or even of gas engines, would be inadmissible on account of want of space or of the nuisances that are inseparable from them. Motive power will therefore be available in a number of instances where up to the present time no mechanical a be used, but the work had to be done by manual bour or not at all. ‘ You may have noticed that I have confined my remarks ition 1 ower of a turbine at Lauffen was transmitted over a distance of 110 statute scientific point of , but unfortunately in practical life only commercially ordre 58 influence, and in this problem, and for practical purposes difficulty means an increased outlay of money. NO. 1216, VOL. 47] MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OB- SERVATIONS MADE AT THE GOVERNMENT OBSERVATORY, BOMBAY, 1890, WITH AN APPENDIX. THs volume, we are informed, is the thirtieth of the series of ‘* Bombay Magnetical and Meteorological Observa- tions,” extending the previous record from 1845 to 1889, up to 1890. At this well-organized observatory, under the direction of Mr, Charles Chambers, continuous registration of the different magnetical and meteorological elements is maintained by means of automatic recording instruments, of which there are five sets, the magnetographs (three), the barograph, the thermograph, the pluviograph, and the anemograph, all being photographic records excepting that of the anemograph, which is mechanical. In addition eye observations are also made, including the usual meteorological observations of weather and other phenomena. Daily values for 1890 are given of atmospheric pressure, tem- perature of the air, rainfall, wind and cloud, with some further discussion of the anemometric results ; five day means of meteoro- logical elements are also given. In the magnetic section is found observations of absolute horizontal force, magnetic decli- nation and dip, at short intervals throughout the year. And in the appendix is contained a collection of the monthly values of declination and horizontal force from 1868 to 1890, accompanied by a discussion of the secular changes of these elements. In regard to declination the results show the eastern magnetic declination to have increased during the early years of the series, arriving at a maximum at about the middle of the period, and decreasing in the later years. Taking the annual values of declination to be represented by the formula 5==a¢? + 4¢+<, it is found that the maximum easterly declination occurred in 1880, with value 0° 57'17”. This actual observation of the turning- point at this place, in the long cycle of change, is very interest- ing. The horizontal force values are similarly discussed, but in this case the values are generally progressive. There is no dis- cussion of diurnal inequalities, but these were elaborately treated in a previous volume. Magnetic observatories in tropical and southern regions are valuable. Many exist in Europe with others scattered over different parts of the northern hemisphere, generally publishing with regularity their results, but there is a want of similar establishments in southern regions. There are magnetic observatories at Batavia, Mauritius, and Melbourne, but we do not get from them all that might be desired. England possesses no regularly maintained southern establishment of this kind. A magnetic observatory existed many years ago at the Cape of Good Hope, which, long since destroyed, we believe, by fire, was never again reorganized, which wasunfortunate. The attention of the Magnetic Committee of the British Association was several years ago drawn to the question of re-establishing the Cape Mag- netic Observatory, and in the Report of the Committee for the year 1891 it is stated that a representation had been made to the Admiralty as to the desirability of so doing. An efficient mag- netic observatory in such a position, with regular publication of the results, would provide information of great value for the discussion of various questions in magnetic phenomena that now arise. It would be well also if the study of earth currents were taken up at some of the magnetic observatories in different parts of the world by continuous photographic registration thereof, for the better elucidation of the physical relation that may exist between magnetic and earth current variations, in regard to which our knowledge seems at present to be so imperfect. BACTERIA AND BEER. ‘THE examination of water for micro-organisms since the pub- lication by Koch in 1881 of his beautiful process of gelatine- plate cultures has come more and more into general use, as the public has gradually become cognisant of its value for hygienic and practical purposes. But whilst affording much valuable infor- mation on many subjects, Hansen has pointed out, as far back as. 1888, that as applied to the examination of waters for brewing purposes it cennot be considered wholly satisfactory. Working on lines suggested hy Hansen, Holm has recently published a paper, ‘‘ Analyses biologiques et zymotechniques de l’eau des- tinée aux brasseries”’ (Compte-rendu des travaux du laboratoire de Carlsberg, vol. iii., Copenhagen, 1892), in which he describes a large number of investigations on brewing-waters examined by Hansen’s method, and in which the relative merit for brewing 350 NAILIURE [| FEBRUARY 16, 1893 purposes of Koch’s and Hansen’s processes is also discussed. It is obvious that the organisms to be feared in a brewery are those which will flourish in wort or beer, and that the mere knowledge of the number of bacteria in any given water as revealed by gelatine plate cultures is but of little use. Hence Hansen and his pupils reject for such examinations gelatine-peptone, substitut- ing sterilised wort and beer asa culture material. An interesting table is given showing the different bacteriological results obtained in the use of gelatine-peptone, gelatine to which wort had been added, wort alone, and beer. For example, whereas a particu- lar brewing-water yielded by gelatine-peptone about 8000 colonies per c.c., the majority of which were bacteria ; gelatine mixed with wort gaveabout 14, all being moulds ; in wort 5°4 were found, consisting of bacteria and moulds, whilst sterilised beer gave only 0°8 for the c.c.,, and only moulds. Holm points out that to estimate the value of a water for brewing purposes a note should also be made of the rate at which the organisms develop in the wort or beer, for should signs of growth only declare themselves after four or five days in the laboratory under favour- able conditions of temperature and in the absence of competing forms, it is not unnatural to expect that their vitality, under the more rigorous conditions imposed during brewing operations, would be so far impaired that their development, if taking place at all, would only be accomplished with great difficulty. Although instances occurred in which even after the lapse of seven days growths first made their appearance, yet in the majority of cases the incubation of the wort-flasks for one week was sufficient. Holm is of opinion that the use of other culture materials besides wort is unnecessary, as all the organisms which successfully develop in beer can also grow in wort. Moreover, it was found that in the process of sterilisation to which the beer was submitted a considerable proportion of its alcohol was lost, thus diminishing its natural bactericidal properties. A beer containing 5 to 6 per cent. of alcohol, after sterilisation, had this reduced to 2°8 per cent., although it even then proved a very unfavourable medium for the development of ordinary water bacteria, Asa practical outcome of his experiments Holm emphasises the necessity of a careful selection of the site for the erection of the water-reservoir attached to a brewery. The reservoirs of the old brewery at Carlsberg are placed in the immediate vicinity of the storehouses for grain and malt, consequently in this water a far larger number of moulds were met with than in the water ex- amined from differently situated reservoirs supplying the labo- ratory and another brewery. But although moulds usually predominate, yet they are not so much to be feared as the bac- teria, more especially those which are found in the fermentation chamber, for although they are unable to assert themselves to any considerable extent in the beer preserved in the store cellar, yet when it is drawn off and thus aérated, and the temperature raised by its transference to bottles or small casks, these organ- isms can develop with an astonishing rapidity, and produce great mischief. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE, CAMBRIDGE.—Dr. Shore, of St. John’s College, late Ex- aminer in Physiology, has been elected amember ot the.Special Board for Medicine ; Dr. A. Macalister, F.R.S.:, St. John’s, has been appointed an elector to the Professorship of Chemistry ; Dr. Ferrers, F.R.S., Master of Gonville and Caius, an elector to the Plumian Professorship of Astronomy; Prof. Newton, F.R.S., Magdalene, an elector to the Professorship of Anatomy ; Dr, Phear, Master of Emmanuel, an elector to the Professorship of Botany; Dr. R. D. Koberts, Clare, an elector to the Wood- wardian Professorship of Geology; Mr. P. T. Main, St. John’s, an elector to the Jacksonian Professorship of Chemistry, &c. ; Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., Trinity, an elector to the Pro- fessorship of Mineralogy ; Mr. F. Darwin, F.R.S., Reader in Botany, an elector to the Professorship of Zoology and Com- parative Anatomy; Mr. W. D, Niven, F.R.S., Trinity, an elector to the Cavendish Professorship of Physics ; Dr. Phear, an elector to the Professorship of Mechanism ; Prof. Liveing, F.R.S., St. John’s, an elector to the Downing Professorship of Medicine; Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, F.R.S., an elector to the Professorship of Physiology ; and Sir G. M. Humphry, F.R.S., an elector to the Professorship of Pathology. NO. 1216, VOL. 47] SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Journal of Science, February.—Isothermals, iso-» piestics, and isometrics relative to viscosity, by C. Barus. The substance experimented upon was marine glue, and its viscosity at different pressures and temperatures was measured by a trans- piration method, the substance being forced through steel tubes 10 cm. long and 0°5 to I cm. in diameter under pressures as. high as 2000 atmospheres. It was found that in proportion as the viscosity of a body increases with fall of temperature, its isothermal rate of increase with pressure also increases, Speaking approximately, the rate at which viscosity increases with pres- sure at any temperature is proportional to the initial viscosi at that temperature, and, conversely, the rate of decrease wit temperature is proportional to the actual temperature and inde- pendent of the pressure. An interesting result is that in high pressure phenomena at least 200 atmospheres must be allowed per degree Centigrade, in order that there may be no change of viscosity.—‘‘ Potential,” a Bernoullian term, by Geo, F. Becker.—Datolite from Loughboro, Ontario, by L. V. Pirsson. —A new machine for cutting and grinding thin sections of rocks and minerals, by G. H. Williams.—Stannite and some of the alteration products from the Black Hills, S.D., by W. P. Headden.—Occurrence of hematite and martite iron ores in Mexico, by R. T. Hill, with notes on the associated igneous rocks, by W. Cross. —Czsium lead and potassium-lead halides, by N. L. Wells.—Ceratops beds of Converse County, Wyoming, by J. B. Hatcher,— Use of planes and knife-edges in pendulums for gravity measurements, by T. C. Mendenhall. The employment of a pendulum to which the plane is attached instead of the knife-edge presents several advantages. “The plane may be accurately adjusted at right angles to the rod by simple optical methods. A pendulum carrying a plane instead of a knife-edge is vastly less liable to injury, and the knife-edge being no longer an integral part of the vibrating mass can reground or replaced at will. The length of the pendulum is more capable of accurate determination, since the error intro- duced by the yielding of the edge under pressure is eliminated. The disadvantage due to the uncertain position of the axis of oscillation can be mechanically got rid of by a proper construc- tion of the raising and lowering apparatus, and experiment shows that the period in the course of twelve sets of swings of an hour each does not vary by as much as one part in a million. The best angle for the knife-edge was found to be about 130°, the material used being agate.—Preliminary note on the colours of cloudy condensation, by C. Barus. If saturated steam is allowed to pass suddenly from a higher to a lower temperature in uniformly temperatured, uniformly dusty air, a succession of colours is seen by transmitted white light which, taken in in- verse order, are absolutely identical with the colours of Newton’s rings of the first two orders.—Lines of structure in the Winne- bago Co. meteorites and in other meteorites, by H. A. Newton (reprinted in this issue).—Preliminary note of a new meteorite from Japan, by Henry A. Ward.—Restoration of Anchisaurus, by O. C. Marsh (see Note, p. 349). American Journal of Mathematics, vol. xiv. No. 4 (Balti- more, 1892).—The main object of the note on the use of supple- mentary curves in isogonal transformation, by R. A. Harris (pp. 291-300), is to show how the problem ofrepresenting one plane conformably upon another, using any real function of the variable, may be made to depend upon the problem of con- structing supplementary curves from given tracings of the corre- sponding principal curves. It is well illustrated by four carefully drawn figures. In her memoir (pp. 301-325) on the higher singularities of plane curves, Miss C. A. Scott goes over ground ~ to some extent previously occupied by Profs. Cayley and H. J. — 4 S. Smith in writing on the same subject (cf also papers by Brill and Nother in the Wath. Annalen, vols. ix. xvi. xxiii.). Nother’s results are presented in analytical form, ‘‘ involving no dependence on geometrical ideas even when geometrical terms are used.” The author brings out his results moreclearly by | making use of Dr, Hirst’s method of quadric inversion. The text | is accompanied by twenty-seven drawings of curves. Mr. W, H. Metzler, writing on the roots of matrices (pp. 326-377), employs a modification of Dr. Forsyth’s method of proving Cayley’s ‘*identical equation ’’ (‘‘ Messr. of Mathematics,” vol. xiii.) to prove Sylvester’s law of latency and Sylvester’s theorems. He also investigates the existence of roots of matrices for different indices, and in particular the roots of nilpotent matrices. A FEsruary 16, 1893] NATURE 381 careful analysis of the contents is prefixed to the memoir. Dr. F. N. Cole (pp. 378-388) discusses the simple groups from order 201 to order 500, and arrives at the conclusion that ‘‘ the possible orders of simple groups of compound order between 201 and 500 are reduced to 360 and 432.” The volume closes with a note (p. 389) by M. M. D’Ocagne, correcting a slight mistake in a memoir by him in the 1888 volume, entitled ‘‘ Sur certaines courbes,” and the title page and index. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON. Royal Society, February 2.—‘‘ On a Meteoric Stone found at Makariwa, near Invercargill, New Zealand.” By G. H. F. Ulrich, Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Uni- po te Dunedin, N.Z. Communicated by Prof. J. W. Judd, __ The specimen described in this memoir was found in the year 1879 in a bed of clay, which was cut through in making a rail- way at In ill, near the southern end of the Middle Island of New Zealand. Originally, this meteorite appears to have been about the size of a man’s fist, and to have weighed four or five pounds, but it was broken up, and only a few small fragments have been The stone evidently consisted originally of an intimate admixture of metallic matter (nickel-iron) and of material, but much of the metallic portion has undergone _ Microscopic examination of thin sections shows that the stony on, which is beautifully chondritic in structure, contains olivine, enstatite, a glass, and probably also magnetite ; and through these stony materials the nickel-iron and troilite are The specific gravity of portions of the stone was found to vary between 3°31 and 3°54, owing to the unequal distribution of the metallic particles. A partial chemical ex- amination of this meteorite was made by the author and Mr. Riete on but the complete analysis has been undertaken by fr. L. Fletcher, F.R.S., of the British Museum. The analysis, which when finished will be communicated to this Society, has gone so far as to show that the percentage mineral composition of the Makariwa meteorite may be expressed es therpaac’f by the numbers : nickel-iron 1, oxides of nickel and iron 10, troilite 6, enstatite 39, olivine 44. Physical Society, January 27.—Walter Baily, Vice-Presi- dent, in the chair.—Prof. S. P. Thompson, F.R.S., made a mmuni on Japanese ae mirrors, and ee numerous specimens showing the magic properties. Referring to the theory of the patiet, he said the one now generally ted was that proved by Profs. Ayrton and Perry in 1878, who showed that the patterns seen on the screen were due to differences in curvature of the surface. The experiments he now brought forward fully confirmed their views. Brewster had maintained that the effects were due to differences of texture in the surfaces causing differences in absorption or polarisation, but _ the fact that the character of the reflected image depended on the convergency or divergency of the light, and on the position showed this view to be untenable. Another proof of the diffe curvature theory was then given by covering a Japanese mirror with a card having a small hole in it. On moving the card about, the disc of light reflected from the ex- posed portion varied in size, showing that the curvatures of por- tions of the were not the same. The same fact was proved by a small spherometer, and also by reflecting the light passing through a coarse grating from the mirror, the lines being shown distorted. To put the matter to a test demanded by Brewster, he had a cast taken from a mirror by his assistant, Mr. Rousseau ; this had been metallised, silvered, and polished, and now gave unmistakable evidence of the pattern reflected from the original. The true explanation of how the inequalities of curvature were brought about during manufacture had also been given by Profs.. Ayrton and Perry, but there were some | questions of detail on which difference of opinion might exist. The late Prof. Govi had noticed that warming a mirror altered its A thick mirror which gave no pattern whilst cold possibilities. cg one on being heated, was shown to the meeting. Prof. Thompson also showed that a glass mirror having a pattern _ cut on the back developed: magic properties when the mirror was bent. When made convex the reflected pattern was dark 7 on a light ground, and when made concave, light on a dark ground, arming ordinary mirror-glass by a heater whose sur- ace was cut to a pattern gave similar effects. Very thick NO. 1216, VOL. 47] glasses could be affected in this way. On passing a spirit lamp. behind a strip of mirror, a dark band could be caused to pass along the screen illuminated by light reflected from the mirror. By writing on lead foil and pressing the foil against a glass mirror by a heater, the writing was caused to appear on the screen. Prof, Thompson had also found that Japanese mirrors which are not ‘‘ magic” when imported, could be made so by bending them mechanically so as to make them more convex. In conclusion, he showed a large mirror 15’’ x 11”, the reflec- tion from which showed the prominent parts of the pattern on its back with the exception of two conspicuous knobs ; these knobs gave no indication of their existence. Prof. Ayrton said the simple mechanical production of the magic property described by Prof. Thompson led him to think that some experiments on ‘‘seeing by electricity” by the aid of selenium cells which Prof, Perry and himself made some years ago, might lead to some result if repeated with thinner reflectors. Speak- ing of the effect of scratching the back of a Japanese mirror, he pointed out that if metal be removed by pressure a bright image was seen, whilst if removed chemically a dark image resulted. Since the original paper on the subject was. written he had been led to modify his views as to the effect of amalgamation, for some time ago he showed the society how brass bars were bent if one edge be amalgamated, thus proving that enormous forces were developed. He now regarded amalgamation as animportant part of the manufacture. Mr. Trotter inquired if it had been proved that there was no difference in the metal in the thick and thin parts? One would: expect the thin parts to be harder and polished away less. After some remarks by Mr. J. W. Kearton and Major Rawson, Prof. Thompson said the magic effects produced by heating the back of a glass mirror remained fora short time after the heater was removed. The question of whether differences in hardness of the thick and thin parts of a mirror were of consequence in the production of the magic property had been. _ tested by using sheets of brass thickened by pieces soldered to. the back as mirrors, and found to be unimportant. Prof. Ayrton also described an experiment pointing to the same con- clusion.—Mr. W. F. Stanley read a paper on the functions of the retina—(i.) The Perception of Colour. Referring to Young’s three-nerve theory of colour-sensation, the author said Prof. Rutherford had pointed out that there was no necessity to- assume that different nerves conveyed different colour-sensa- tions, for as a telephone wire would transmit almost an infinite variety of sound vibrations, so the nerves of the retina were probably equally capable of conveying all kinds of light vibra- tions. Prof. Rutherford had further pointed out that the image of a star could not possibly cover three nerve-terminals at once, and therefore could not be seen as white if Young’s theory was correct. The author then described Helmholtz’s experiments with a small hole in a screen illuminated by spectrum colours, For red illumination the greatest distance at which the hole could be seen sharply defined was 8 feet, and for violet 14 feet. When the hole was covered with purple glass, or with red and violet glasses superposed, and a bright light placed behind, the eye, when accommodated for red light, saw a red spot with a violet halo round it, and when focussed for violet light, saw a violet spot with circle of red. These experiments the author thinks show that the chromatic sense in distinct vision under critical conditions (z.¢. where a single nerve or a small group of nerves is concerned) depends on the colours being brought to foci at different distances behind the crystalline lens. He also infers that the same focal position in the eye cannot convey simultaneously the compound impression of widely separated colours. Helmholtz’s observations are further examined in the paper, and a series of zoetrope and colour disc experiments de- scribed which tend to show that the eye cannot follow rapid changes of colour. Changes from red to violet could be followed much more quickly than from violet to red. The red im- pressions were, however, more permanent. The observed effects were found to depend on the intensity of the light, and also on the distance of the eye from the coloured surface. Summing up his observations, the author infers that by systems of accommodation of the eye, the colours of the spectrum are brought to focus on special parts or points of the rods or cones of the retina, such focal points being equivalent, by equal depths or distances from the crystalline lens, to a focal plane formed across the whole series of nerve-terminals. That all the rays of light from an object, or part of an object, of very small area and of any spectrum colour, will converge to 382 NATURE [FEBRUARY 16, 1893 a point upon a nerve terminal, and that this terminal will be most excited by the light. At the end of the paper Dr. Stanley Hall’s views of nerve structure are examined. Captain Abney thought the results of the zoetrope experiments were what one would have expected when pigmentary colours were used. To be conclusive, such experiments must be conducted with pure spectrum colours. The statement about the size of star images being less than that of a nerve terminal would pro- bably need revision, Speaking of colour vision, he said the modern view was to regard light as producing chemical action in the retina, which action gave rise to the sensation of colour. On the author’s theory he could not see how colour-blindness could be explained. Mr. Trotter said he understood Helm- holtz to have proved that nerves could distinguish quantity, but not the quality of a stimulus. Since the speed at which stimuli travelled to the brain was about 30 metres a second, the wave length of a light vibration, if transmitted in this way, would be very small. Taking Lord Kelvin’s estimate of the minimum size of molecules of matter, it followed that there must be many wave lengths in the length of a single molecule. This, he thought, hardly seemed possible. Mr. Lovibond pointed out that the observations referred to by the author could be equally well explained on the supposition that six colour sensations existed. The confusion of colours he had mentioned arose from lack of light. Mr. Stanley replied to some of the points raised by Captain Abney. In proposing a vote of thanks to Mr. Stanley, the chairman said it had been shown that light could be resolved into three sensations, but it was not known how this resolution occurred. Prof. S, P. Thompson said the gist of Mr. Stanley’s paper seemed to be that lights of different colours were concentrated at points situated at different depths in the retina, the violet falling on the part nearest the crystalline lens, and the red furthest away. Another. view of the action was that the different sensations might be due to the vibrations of longer wave length having to travel greater distances along the nerve terminals before they were completely absorbed. _ Mathematical Society, January 12.—Mr. A. B. Kempe, F.R.S., President, in the chair.—The President (Prof. Elliott, F,.R.S., Vice-President, in the chair) read a paper on the appli- cation of Clifford’s graphs to ordinary binary quantics (second part). In the first part it was pointed out that by some small modifications and a recognition of the fact that the covariants of f(x, y) are invariants of the two quantics f(X, Y) and (Xy—Y-x), the theory of graphs, which had been left in an un- finished state by the late Prof. Clifford, furnished a complete method of graphically representing the invariants (and therefore the covariants) of binary quantics. The method as modified depends essentially on the fact that any invariant, when multi- plied by a suitable number of polar elements U,U’,V,V’, &c., can be expressed as a ‘‘pure compound form” (or sum of two ‘or more such forms), the product of a number of ‘simple forms.” Each of the latter has a ‘‘ mark,’’ viz. one of the letters a, 4, c, and has also a certain valence, 0, 1, 2, 3, &c. and these being given it is fully defined, ¢.¢., the simple form of mark @ and valence 3 is graphically OX having three radiating bonds, and is algebraically a UVW+a, (U'VW+UV'W+UVW’)+a,(UV'W’ + U’VW’'+ U’V'W) +a, U’V'W’, the pairs of polar elements U,U’; V,V’; and W,W’, corres- ponding to the three bonds of the graphical representation. A pure compound form is graphically represented by a number of simple forms having their bonds connected so that there are no free ends. If in the algebraical expression of a compound form two simple forms both contain the pair of polar elements U,U’, there will be a bond connecting their graphical representations ; if the two simple forms both contain two pairs of such elements, viz, U,U’ and V,V’, there will be two bonds connecting their graphical representations and so on ; if they contain no common pair their graphical representations will have bond connecting them. A pair of polar elements will appear in two simple forms only, so that each bond in the graphical representation of a compound form corresponds to a distinct pair of polar ele- ments. Ifthe algebraical expression corresponding to a graph be multiplied out, it will be found to consist of two distinct factors, viz. :—(1) the product ofall the polar elements, and (2) NO. 1216, VOL. 47] seneee a function of the letters a), a, d»...... 3 boy by, be, 3 &e., &e. ; corresponding to the marks a, 4, ...... &c. of the simple forms contained in the compound form represented by the graph, the latter factor being an invariant of the quantics eee eee (Gp, Gy) Gay -+-+0--.-a)(X, Ve. CAs Say eres bp)(x, v8 &c., &c. where a_is the valence of the simple forms of mark a, which are here supposed to be all of the same valence, and similarly in the case of B, y, &c. In this second part a method of algebraically representing invariants is considered, which is directly derivable from the method of the first part, and was suggested by the graphs; but differs essentially from the earlier method in that it is indepen- dent of the use of polar elements. Itshows, moreover, that the graphs may be regarded as absolutely equivalent to the invari- ants they represent, in lieu of being equivalent to those invari- ants multiplied by a number of polar elements. This second method deals in the first instance with ‘‘ primary” invariants, z.é. invariants of two or more quantics linear in the coefficients of each. If these quantics are (ao, a, Qo, eoeesecse Qa\(x, y)* (Dang: Das. Can renceoe b)(x, y)& ‘ipa ; and we take d d . é fay gee rif + &c. ad infinitum, : : : ; dad d dad ; v joa 195, gp, + gy, tO rr &c., &c. we may express any primary invariant by an rapeentnnene ie sum of two or more expressions, consisting of the product of differences of the operators a, 4,..... operating upon the product of the corresponding leading terms, @, 4), &c. Thus (a-b)a)bHa,b)- 20,5, 4+agbg | is an invariant of the two quantics ee . Belly | aga 20s + ay", He, box? + 2b, xy + by”, + ee arate ty linear in the coefficients of each ; and ies | (a -8)"(a - cabo y= Aghyeg — aby — 2Aghyey + 2m + Aybxlq — Ay boty a a is a similar invariant of the three quantics a £ My + Za, a2y + ZaqKy? + ag? an box? + 2b, x7 + bay” | j Cox teyy. f These two invariants are graphically represented by (a) and (a) ‘ k: respectively, where the relation between the algebraical and graphical expressions is obvious, viz. to every letter / in the algebraical representation there corresponds a nucleus including ~ the mark 4, and to every factor (-¢) in the algebraical fe gana f tation there corresponds a bond connecting the nuclei of marks — p and g. : 4 We can pass to invariants of higher degrees in the coefficients of the various quantics by substituting like coefficients for unlike. Thus, if we make 4)=a), 4,=a@,, 6,=dg, the primary invariant — ee by — 20,6, +p becomes the invariant of degree 2 2(Atg— a”) of the single quantic , Ayx?+ 2a,xy + ayy. This invariant will be graphically represented by substituting the mark @ for the mark 4 in the graph representing the corre- sponding primary invariant. cesta: ( If we proceed to deal in the same way with the invariant, » Ashycy — Aghoey — 2Aghycy + 2aybye, + Ayboey — Aohahrs 3 we get, as the invariant represented by substituting for the marks — 6 and ¢ the mark a, the expression of the third degree, ; Qzhy" — 3oG,a) +. 2a,°. “ieagent to. this similar to the formula for the lateral vibrations of a strai _ of the same material and section and of length ma (for which the _ fundamental tone has the same wave-lengths). given by the equation FEBRUARY 16, 1893] NATURE 333 This is not an invariant of asingle quantic, but of the € Ayr? + 3a,x°y + 3agxy? + agy® Gx” + 2ayxy + av? Ax + ay. It bears, however, a definite relation to the first of these three quantics, viz. : it is a seminvariant of that quantic, being in fact the source of its cubic-covariant J. The paper points out that all seminvariants are thus invariants of two or more ics, and can therefore be represented by graphs; the difference between a graph representing an invariant of a _ quantic and one representing a.seminvariant of the same quantic merely in this, that the simple forms, z.¢. the small 7 circles or nuclei of the graphs in the former case are all of the same “ valence,” z.¢. have the same number of bonds, while in the latter, though of like marks, they differ in valence. The i ion of seminvariants, according to the valences of the ; pass amg composinz them, or, in other words, according to orders of the quantics of the systems of which they are re- ; nsghhabe invariants, obviously throws considerable light upon - The paper also deals with the breaking up-of graphs into simpler ones ; and gives a theorem upon the subject which Jeads to some interesting results. It points out, moreover, how the é representing the sources of covariants can be instan- taneously derived from those representing the covariants them- ves. On the evaluation of a certain surface-integral and its applica- tion to the expansion of the potential of ellipsoids in series, Dr. _ On the vibrations of an elastic circular ring, by Mr. A. E. H. Love.—The ring is supposed to be of small circular section of radius ¢, and the elastic central-line a circle of radius a. There are four ways of displacing the ring. A point on the central-line _ may move along the radius of the circle which is its primitive or icular to the plane of this circle, or along the L The modes of vibra- tion fall into four classes, of which two are physically import- ant :—Class I. Flexural vibrations in plane of ring.—These were investigated by Hoppe in 1871 (Creé/e, bd. Ixxiii.). The motion of a point on the elastic central-line is compounded of a t in and out along theradius and a displacement along the tangent to the circle, so proportioned that the central-line remains unstretched, and the nodes of the former displace- ment are the antinodes of the latter. There must be at least oy = wave-lengths to the circumference, and the frequency ( f/2m) if the mode in which there are wave-lengths to the circumfer- ence is given by the equation pape lee 1? E 2 ae w+1 py at in which E is the Young’s modulus, and p, the density of the ‘material. Except for the numerical coefficient this is precisely ght bar The sequence weponent tones when ~ is very great is ultimately identical th that of the tones of a free-free bar of length a, but the sequence for the low tones is quite different to that for a bar. Class II. Flexural vibrations perpendicular to the plane of the sae pig is found to be impossible to make the ring vibrate freely so that each particle of the elastic central-line moves per- pendicular to the plane of the ring, unless at the same time the sections turn about the central-line through a certain angle. The flexure perpendicular to, the plane of the ring is always accompanied by /orsion. As in Class I. there must be at least two wave-lengths to the circumference, and the frequency of the mode in which there are wave-lengths to the circumference is w(t Bet pr =4 1 s he e as before. (For most hard solids ¢ is about 4.) Since 2 must be at least 2 the sequence of tones is very nearly the same as in the vibrations of Class L, but the pitch is slightly lower, the ratio of the frequencies for the gravest tones being * » which is very little less than acomma. For the higher tones, as we should expect, there NO. 1216, VOL. 47] circle ; and the circular sections may be dis- _ placed by rotation about the central-line. is no sensible difference. These two classes include all that have much physical importance. The remaining types can be classified as :—Class III. Extensional vibrations.—The motion may be purely radial or partly radial and partly tangential. In the second case there will be an integral number of wave- lengths, and when this number is 7 we have the formula for the frequency ° Er PF (1h b= oy Putting 2 = zero we find the frequency of the purely radial vibrations. The pitch of any mode of extensional vibration of the ring is of the same order of magnitude as the pitch’ of the corresponding longitudinal vibration of a bar of length equal to half the circumference, the formula for the latter being in fact derived by writing for 1 + 2°. Class IV. Torsional vibra- tions.—The motion consists of an angular displacement of the sections about the elastic central-line accompanied by a rela- tively very small displacement of the points on this line per- pendicular to the plane of the ring. When there are # wave- lengths to the circumference the frequency is given by the formula P=aarto t+ n)* 0 in which uw is the rigidity of the material. There is one sym- metrical mode for which z is zero, and since 24 (I + ¢) = E, the frequency of this mode is 4 ,/ 2 of that of the radial vibra- tions. The pitch of the torsional vibrations is comparable with that for a straight rod of length equal to half the circumference, the formula for the latter being in fact derived by writing #? in place of 1 + o + ”*. Formule equivalent to those given in connection with Classes II. and IV. have been obtained by Mr. Basset (Proc. Dec. 1891), but he has not interpreted his results. Entomological Society, February 8.—Mr. Henry John Elwes, president, in the chair.—The President announced that he had nominated Mr. F. DuCane Godman, F.R.S., Mr. Frederic Merrifield, and Mr. George H. Verrall as Vice- Presidents during the Session 1893~1894.—Mr. S. Stevens ex- hibited a specimen of Cherocampa celerio, in very fine condi- tion, captured at light, in Hastings, on September 26 last, by Mr. Johnson.—Mr. A. J. Chitty exhibited specimens of Gié- bium scotias and Pentarthrum huttoni, taken by Mr. Rye in a cellar in Shoe Lane. He stated that the Gidsium scotias lived in a mixture of beer and sawdust in the cellar, and that when this was cleaned out the beetles disappeared. The Pentarthrum huttont lived in wood in the cellar.—Mr. McLachlan : exhibited a large Noctuid moth, which had been placed in his hands by Mr. R. H. Scott, F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office. It was stated to have been taken at sea in the South Atlantic, in about lat. 28° S., long. 26° W. Colonel Swinhoe and the President made some remarks on the species, and on the migra- tion of many species of Lepidoptera.—Mr. W. F. H. Blandford exhibited larve and pupz of Rhynchophorus palmarum, L., the Gru-gru Worm of the West Indian Islands, which is eaten as a delicacy by the Negroes and by the French Creoles of Martinique. He stated that the existence of post-thoracic stig- mata in the larva of a species of Rhynchophorus had been mentioned by Candéze, but denied by Leconte and Horn. They were certainly present in the larva of RX. palmarum, but were very minute.—Mr. G. T, Porritt exhibited two varieties of Arctia lubricipeda from York ; an olive-banded specimen of Bombyx quercus from Huddersfield ; and a small melanic specimen. of Me/anippe hastata from Wharncliffe Wood, York- shire.—Mr. H. Goss exhibited species of Lepidoptera, Coleop- tera, and Neuroptera, sent to him by Major G. H. Leathem, who had collected them, last June and July, whilst on a shoot- ing expedition in Kashmi territory, Bengal. Some of the specimens were taken by Major Leathem at an elevation of from 10,000 to 11,000 feet, but the majority were stated to have been collected in the Krishnye Valley, which drains the glaciers on the western slopes of the Nun Kun range. Mr. Elwes re- marked that some of the butterflies were of great interest.— Mr. G. F, Hampson exhibited a curious form of Parnassius, taken by Sir Henry Jenkyns, K.C.B., on June 29 last, in the Gasternthal, Kandersteg.—Mr. J. M. Adye exhibited a long series of remarkable varieties of Aoarmia repandata, taken last July in the New Forest.—Mr. C. O. Waterhouse exhibited a photograph of the middle of the eye of a male 7aéanus, show- ing square and other forms of facets, multiplied twenty-five times.—Mr. R. Trimen, F.R.S., communicated a paper entitled ** On some new, or imperfectly known, species of South African. 354 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 16, 1893 Butterflies,” and the species described in this paper were ex- hibited. —Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell communicated a paper entitled ‘*Two new species of Pu/vinaria from Jamaica,”— Mr. Martin Jacoby communicated a paper entitled “* Descrip- tions of some new genera and new species of Halticide.” Linnean Society, February 2.—Prof. Stewart, President, in the chair.—On behalf of Mr. Thomas Scott, the Secretary read a report on the entomostraca from the Gulf of Guinea, collected by Mr. John Rattray.—Mr. H. Bernard gave an account of two new species of Rax.—An important paper by Mr. Arthur Lister, on the division of nuclei in the mycetozoa, gave rise to an interesting discussion, in which Dr. D. H. Scott, Prof. Howes, and others took part.—This was followed by a paper on the structural differentiation of the Eero body as studied in microscopic sections, by Mr. J. E. Moore. The meeting adjourned to February 16. PARIS. Academy of Sciences, February 6.—M. de Lacaze- Duthiers in the chair.—On the variations in the intensity of terrestrial gravitation, by M. d’Abbadie. Observations begun in 1837 at Olinda (Brazil), on the variations in the direction of gravitational force also made its constancy doubtful. Experi- ments on falling bodies revealed irregularities similar to those described (last number) by M. Mascart. The closed barometer employed by the latter may be termed a drithometer.—On the preparation of carbon under high pressure, by M. Henri Mois- san (see article).—On the pag steps of the diamond, by M. C, Friedel. Remarks by M. Berthelot (see article). —On the pathogeny of diabetes ; part played by the expenditure and the production of glycose in the deviations of the glycemic function, by MM. A. Chauveau and Kaufmann. The same inferiority of venous with respect to arterial blood, as regards the amount of sugar contained init, occurs in all the deviations of the glycemic function produced by a lesion of the central nervous system. This inferiority is equally pronounced in the hyperglycemia re- sulting from the extirpation of the pancreas.—On the progress of the art of surveying with the aid of photography, in Europe and America, by M. A. Lausedat. Since 1888 a zone of twenty miles on each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway, in the neighbour- hood of the Canadian National Park, has been surveyed with the aid of photography under the direction of Messrs. Deville, Drewry, and McArthur, at an average rate of 1040 square km. perannum for four men under great climatic disadvantages. The cost of the undertaking amounts to three dollars per square km. —Determination of the amount of carbonic oxide which can be contained in confined air, by means of a bird employed as physiological reagent, by M. N. Gréhant.—On the properties of faculze ; reply to a note by Mr. G. Hale, by M. H. Deslandres. —The probability of coincidence between ‘solar and terrestrial phenomena, by M. G. E. Hale.—Note on an explicit expression of the algebraic integral of a hyperelliptic system of the most general form, by M. F. de Salvert.—On a generalisation of Ber- trand’s curves, by M.Alphonse Dumoulin.—On the surfaces which admit a system of lines of spherical curvature and which have the same spherical representation for their lines of curvature, by M. Blutel.—On semicircular interference fringes, by M. G. Meslin. Rectilinear interference fringes are sections of hyper- boloids by planes parallel to their axis, the light being propa- gated in a direction at right angles to that axis. If the light proceeds along the axis, a screen perpendicular to it will cut circular sections, and the fringes will have the form of a circumference of which a greater or smaller arc will be seen accordingly as the two pencils overlap more or less. In practice these circular fringes were obtained by separating two of Bellet’s half lenses and placing them one before the other in front of a very small hole illuminated by sunlight, such that the axis of the pencil passes through the optical centre of the two lenses. Under these conditions two pencils are formed from the same source of light, which may be made to show circular fringes by moving the lenses slightly in a direction perpendicular to their optical axes.—Study of the fluorides of chromium, by M. C. Poulenc.—On a new soldering process for aluminium and various other metals, by M Novel. For aluminium the following solders are recommended: (1) Pure tin, fuses at 250°. (2) Pure tin 1000 gr. ; lead 50 gr. (280° to 300"). (3) Pure tin tooo gr.; pu.e zinc 50 gr. (280° 0 320°). These solders do not stain or attack ainetiniorn, A nickel soldering bit is preferable. (4) Pure tin 1000 gr. ; red copper 10 to 15 NO. 1216, VOL. 47] gr. (350° to 450°). (5) Pure tin 1000 gr. ; pure nickel 10 to 15 gr. (350 to 450°). These give a slightly yellowish tint, but are very durable, (6) Puretin 900 gr. ; copper 100gr. ; bismuth 2 to 3gr. This is specially suitable to soldering aluminium bronze.— Action of acetic acid and formic acid upon terebenthine, by MM, Bouchardat and Oliviers.—On the mode of elimination of carbonic oxide, by M. L. de Saint-Martin. Experiment shows that animals partly intoxicated by carbonic oxide, when placed in conditions under which natural elimination is impossible, destroy slowly but regularly a certain quantity of the poisonous gas, this destruction being the more active the less the intoxica- tion. It is probably converted into carbon dioxide. The toxic effect is entirely dependent upon the time during which the organism is exposed to the gas, and a very small quantity can be fatal on prolonged exposure. —In fluence of pilocarpine and florid- zine on the production of sugar in milk, by M. Cornevin.—On the seat of the colouring matter in the green oyster, by M. Joannes Chatin.—On pseudo-fertilisation in the Uvedinei, by MM. P. A. Dangeard and Sapin-Trouffly.—On the substances formed by the nucleole in Spirogyra setiformis, and the directive force which it exerts upon them at the moment of the division of the cellular nucleus, by M. Ch. Decagny.—On a process for measuring the double refraction of crystalline plates, by M. Georges Friedel.—A horizontal section of the French Alps, by M. W. Kilian.—On the arrangement of the cretaceous beds in the interior of the Aquitaine basin, and their relations to — formations, by M. Emmanuel F allot. CONTENTS. PAGE Qualitative Chemical Analysis. By Chapman Jones 361 Popular Lectures on Physical Subjects. - Dr. james. .L. Howard }):.: 6624) ws ie . 362 British Joreeale Gpateropeae. By H. Woods. 363 Our Book Shelf ‘*The Year- Book of the Imperial Institute of the United Kingdom, the Colonies, and India” . 363 Barber: ‘f Beneath Helvellyn’s Shade” ...... 364 Letters to the Editor :— : Dr. Jane s Thermometers.—Prof. Arthur Schuster, FRG. ow) eae) + ela. ots eee ae 364 Dust Photographs and Breath Figures.—W. B. CPOE arise Foes bree see dhiis ot eee i er 364 Fossil Plants as Tests of Climate.—J. Starkie Gardner ok e) ecbine dt Vie eee 364 An Optical Phenomenon, Joseph John Marghy 2 10365 Foraminifer or Sponge?—R. Hanitsch . . .:. . 365 Unusual Origin of Arteries in the Rabbit. — Philip j. White 2.0.0.0 eee 365 Holmes’s Comet.—W. F. Denning ....... 365 Helmholtz on Hering’s Theory of Colour. By Prof. J.-D. Everett :?. ROS. 5 gig 365 Automatic Mercurial Air-Pumps. By Dr, August Raps. (With Diagram.).... ++... ; 369 Crystallised Carbon ».) 6: } <2! 1d wie ee 370 Lines of Structure in the Winnebago County Meteorites and in other Meteorites. By Prof. HA. Newton . ioe, 42s )s te Me tae ohn eee 370 The Late Thomas Davies, F.G. Ss. By L. Fletcher, FUR Sih se Gee ls ee ee steele gas NOteS on) i6 0s Se a ae os eee ie Pea ee 372 Our Astronomical Column :— The Total Solar Eclipse of April 15-16, 1893. . 376 Remarkable Comets’)... 5... 33 i A 376 Comet Holmes (1892, III.) . 376 Comet Brooks (November 19, 1892 pepe Be ee 376 Relative Positions‘of Stars in Cluster x Persei. . 376 L’Astronomie . . oi oo ees Ta ie eam 377 Jupiter’s Fifth Satellite ..... is s10 a) 377 Geographical Notes ....... oie . 377 Twenty Yearsin Zambesia. ........ 377 The Distribution of Power by Electricity from a Central Generating Station. By A. Siemens 378 Magnetical and Meteorological Observations made © at the Government Observatory, Bombay, 1890, withien- Appendix 600°) 6 Se ee + 379 Bactermand Beer 222 oa PT aN tea 4 Urive:sity anu Educational Intelligence ee eee 380 Scientific Serials... ..... . .... « » iets Seen Societies and Academies. .4:. . 2s ccs 6 se GUE 4 Pe. NATURE 385 \ THURSDAY, FEBRUARY 23, 1893. MAN AND EVOLUTION. Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature. By Henry Calder- — wood, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Moral Philosophy, Usitventity of Edinburgh. (London: Macmillan and phos 1893.) “HIS work appears to have been written for the pur- pose of setting forth the author’s views as to the twofold nature and origin of man. He admits, fully and unreservedly, that both the bodily organism and the lower mental nature: of man have alike been developed by a ‘ocess of evolution from a lower animal form; but he urges with much force, and often with both eloquence and dialectic skill, that the rational and moral nature of man _ has not been thus developed. ~The book, however, has many defects ; and one cannot but feel that the writer has undertaken a task somewhat beyond his powers. Most prominent is its extreme diffuse- ness and vagueness, the want of systematic treatment, the frequent reiteration of the same ideas under different forms of words, and the misconceptions arising from want of familiarity with many of the subjects discussed. We are also annoyed by the frequent reference to problems to be discussed or solved, which are yet only hinted at or talked about later on. Thus, in the first chapter, we are told that a “fuller study of human life” is now required, and that the crowning effort of science in the study of Nature must be “the solution of the problem of man’s appearance ” on earth. Yet no attempt is made in the whole volume, either to solve this problem or even to show what progress has been made towards solving it. At p. 154 we are told that—“ We are now ready for con- sideration of Darwin’s argument ”—as to the relation of the mental nature of man and the lower animals. Andon the next page—“ The direction to be followed now becomes more obvious”—after which we have pages of general remarks on the intelligence of the dog and the ant. Then, at p. 162—“ The method to be followed is clear: we “must compare the higher animals with man”—and — careful comparison of the two orders of life is the only course open for scientific inquiry,” and again,—“ The difficulties belonging to such a mode of inquiry are many; but noeasier method is available.” Then, at p. 167, we find that Darwin “has at least suggested the essential conditions of our inquiry.” After this we have another series of vague general remarks, till at p. 171 we find an- other statement of the mode of inquiry, and we are told that “ we must have in full view all that fis common to man, as animal, with the higher mammals, making account of close approximation in organic structure.” Yet we nowhere find any attempt to apply these prin- ciples or methods so laboriously set forth, but are put off with such statements as—“ In proof of exercise of intelli- gence, examples are many and familiar, making it unnecessary to enter upon detailed references.” Then we are interrupted by fifteen pages of remarks on instinct among insects, although it has been repeatedly stated that he relation of man to the higher animals was the prob- em to be discussed; and at p. 193, we are told that— NO. 1217, VOL. 47] “ Now at length, after careful survey of lower levels, we advance towards the height, on which the grand problems of intelligence become visible. Study of comparative intelligence now becomes possible.” Then follow again page after page of what can only be described as “ general remarks” on horses, dogs, monkeys, and other animals. We are told, for example—*“ When the higher animals are com- pared with the lower, it is clear that a power of intelli- gence must be attributed to the higher, which cannot be credited to the lower. Phenomena of domestication come to our aid here, confirming this generalisation.” Anda little further on, as a proof that dogs can interpret signs and act upon them, we have the following concrete illustration, among the very few in the book, and therefore we may presume it is considered a valuable one. “‘Go home’ will send one dog back, but the Gaelic equivalent alone will be effective in the case of a dog reared in the Highlands of Scotland, where the Celtic tongue is in common use.” And then, as if the intelligent reader might doubt this astounding fact, the author adds, “ Observation affords ample testimony for this.” Although the author has evidently read very widely on the subject of evolution, his want of grasp of the subject is continually shown. Thus, when discussing the struggle for existence, he seems to think that this is usually con- sidered to be limited to a struggle for food. Hesays:—‘ A general view of the relations of lifeand environment will guard against interpretation of facts exclusively by reference to struggle for existence consequent on the re- lations of numbers to food-supply.”. . . “ Life is too rich in variety to find adequate explanation of its history in the mere balancing of our numbers with food-supplies.”’ . “In no life is progress to be explained exclusively by reference to amount of food-supply” ... “environment must be read much more largely than could be sug- gested by mere dependence on materials for nutriment ” -—the above passages all occurring in a single paragraph. We have to thank the author, however, for the very clear manner in which he admits, and even enforces the application of evolution to man. He states this conclu- sion in several places. Thus, at page 261, we find the following :—~ “ The novelty of the situation lies in this, that man’s alliance with all animal life has been established with a clearness and fulness of representation never before pos- sible in the history of the world. The long-hidden secrets of nature are disclosed, and, behold! man has his heri- tage among the beasts of the field. The discovery is indeed a large one; the demonstration has been worked out in minute detail till no place is left for doubt.” By far the best portion of the work is that which is its special feature—the discussion of the rational as con- trasted with the mere perceptive and intelligent nature of man and of the lower animals. A few quotations will explain the author’s views, and show him at his best. “ The conditions of action are changed when rational self-direction comes into view. This change is so great as to amount to a complete contrast with all that has appeared in lower forms of life. Passion and appetite have not disappeared : they are present as before; but instead of determining conduct, a new exercise of power has appeared to control them. Life has here a duality within it, which has not been seen at any lower stage. T 386 : NATURE [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 Life’s history becomes in this way a history of conflict, of which no trace has appeared at any earlier point in natural history. The struggle between individuals has not disappeared, but a struggle within the individual life occurs, which has never been visible in the history of any inferior order of life” (p. 55). Another of the rational is thus defined :— “The difference which severs man from the animals lies beyond the craving, and the cunning, and the con- suming of what has been captured. We trace it in his plans for the day, in his preparation of his weapons, in his survey of the heavens, in his taking of reckonings for direction. He deals with the relations of means to ends ; he utilises past experience in his reflections over what has happened ; he reaches general conclusions ” (p. 270). aspect nature Perhaps the finest passage in the book is at p. 287, tracing the moral element in the thought of all kinds of men and all diversities of race, as shown by the sense of wrong and injustice. We can only give here the concluding lines :— “To this appeals the criminal in the heart of our surging crowds, placed under arrest, if he should be condemned on insufficient evidence. To this appeals every buyer in the market, defrauded by the thrusting of adulterated goods into his hands. And to this does every gentle one make appeal, defrauded in ways still worse, by false ex- pressions of love, from whose falseness recoils a blighted life, bearing through long and weary years witness to the cruel wrong that has been done. Where, along the devious paths in which man is found, is justice not honoured, at least by outcry against harsh wrongs? ” There is much in this volume that will attract readers more disposed towards the esthetical and moral than to- wards the scientific aspects of evolution. Agreeing, as the present writer does, with most of the conclusions of the author, he can but. regret that they have not been set forth in a manner more likely to attract scientific readers. A. R. W. POINCARE’S “THEORIE MATHEMATIQUE DE LA LUMIERE.” Théorie Mathématigue de la Lumiere. Par H. Poincaré, Membre de Il’Institut. (Paris: G. Carré, 1889 and 1892.) HIS work consists of two volumes, the first of which comprises a course of lectures delivered by the author in 1887-1888, whilst the second contains a further course delivered in 1891-1892. The first volume commences with a discussion of the constitution of the luminiferous ether, in which the latter is regarded as a system of discret molecules in stable equilibrium under the action of molecular forces, and the author finally deduces equations of motion of the same form as those which are furnished by the ordinary theory of isotropic elastic media. He then adopts the hypo- thesis, originally due to Lord Kelvin, that the velocity of propagation of the longitudinal wave is practically zero. The principle of Huygens is next dealt with, and this is followed by a chapter on diffraction. A com- plete discussion of ‘all the difficulties attending the reso- lution of waves would carry us too far, but the author does not appear to be acquainted with the masterly NO. 1217, VOL. 47] investigation of Sir G. Stokes, or the formula deduced 3 by him, which gives the effect of an element of a plane © wave ata distant point, and which enables the unsatis+ factory reasoning on which the principle of Huygens depends to be dispensed with. The diffraction of light diverging from a focus is next discussed, and the intensity of light diffracted by a circular aperture or disc is ob- tained in the particular case in which the point of observation is the projection of the centre of the aperture or disc upon a screen; but no mention is made of Prof. Lommel’s able investigation in the general case of an excentric point. A few stock problems relating to the diffraction of parallel rays are also discussed, but nothing. is said about the resolving power of optical instruments, — or the theory of gratings, including Prof. Rowland’s in- genious invention of concave gratings. Chapter V. commences with the theories which have been proposed to explain the photogyric properties of quartz and certain organic substances, and concludes with an account of some of the theories of ordinary dispersion. This is followed by along chapter which begins with Fresnel’s theory of double refraction, and then proceeds to discuss the theories of Cauchy, Neumann, Sarrau and ~ Bousinesq. In all these theories the ether is regarded as an zeolotropic elastic medium, and in considering them the author is to be congratulated on having shown no sym- pathy with the small minority who regard the writing down of equations as a foolish process; but although during recent years much time has been spent in elabo- sage rating such theories, it may be questioned whether the ~ majority of them have contributed any very substantial addition to scientific knowledge. The theory of the pro- pagation of waves in an zolotropic elastic medium was rigorously investigated by Green as long ago as 1839; and although a theory of this kind is useful in enabling the mind to form a mental representation of the mechan- ism which is required to produce double refraction, it is well known that Green’s theory, and all others of a similar character, fail to furnish a satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon. vase? inant: select SAM id The principal defects of such — theories are, that although most of them lead to Fresnel’s — wave surface, or to one which is a very close approxima- tion thereto, they require us to suppose that the vibrations of polarized light are parallel instead of perpendicular to the plane of polarization ; and they also fail to give results which explain crystalline reflection and refraction, unless certain additional assumptions of a very questionable character are made. Probably it will not be thought an exaggeration to say, that the only theory of elastic media which satisfactorily explains double refraction is the one which is due to the joint labours of Lord Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, and Mr. Glazebrook. At the commencement of Chapter VII., which deals . with reflection, the following statement is made (see Pp. 320) :— “La réflexion vitreuse a donné lieu 4 trois théories également confirmé par l’expérience, ce sont celle de Fresnel, celle de Neumann et MacCullagh et celle de Cauchy.” The theories of Neumann and MacCullagh depend upon the hypothesis that the demszty of the ether is the same in all media, and that it is the rigidity which — | Fesruary 23, 1893] NATURE 387 varies ; and it is somewhat surprising that M. Poincaré does not appear to be aware of the investigations of Lorenz and Lord Rayleigh, who completely exploded this hypothesis twenty years ago by showing that it leads to two polarizing angles. The weak point in the investiga- tions of most French mathematicians on the subject of reflection and refraction arises from the fact that, in con- sequence of their not having made a careful study of Green’s papers and the subsequent developments by Lord Rayleigh and Lord Kelvin, they are unable to deal satis- factorily with the longitudinal or pressural wave. The difficulties arising from the existence of these waves may be got rid of either by assuming, as Green did, that the ratio of the velocity of propagation of the longitudinal wave to that of the transverse wave is very large, or, by adopting Lord Kelvin’s hypothesis, that the above ratio is very small; but it cannot be too emphatically stated that the existence of such waves must not be disregarded, and that any attempt to ignore them will inevitably end in failure. This chapter concludes with a brief account of metallic reflection, in which the author has adopted the equations of motion given by Voigt. The chief difficulty in trying to explain metallic reflection, by the introduction of a viscous term into the equations of motion, is due to the fact that Eisenlohr has shown that for certain metals the pseudo-refractive index is a complex quantity whose real part is negative. _ Turning now to Volume II., which consists of a further course of lectures delivered in 1891-1892, we find that it commences with the theory of isotropic elastic media in its ordinary form. Next follows a chapter on the electro- magnetic theory, in which the author confines himself to the case of an isotropic medium, and has given no ac- count of the investigations of Glazebrook on crystalline reflection and refraction, in which it is shown that the intensities of the reflected and refracted waves satisfy the same equations as those deduced many years pre- viously by MacCullagh from an erroneous theory, but which nevertheless explain the facts in a fairly satisfac- tory manner. M. Poincaré assumes that the vector potential satisfies the solenoidal condition ; but although the employment of the vector potential is valuable as a mathematical artifice, its use requires extreme care, in- asmuch as it contains an undetermined quantity ; and I believe it can be proved that ‘in certain cases the solenoidal condition is not satisfied. In the electro- magnetic theory of light this difficulty can always be evaded by eliminating the vector potential from the equations, which is the preferable course to pursue. In Chapter V., after discussing ordinary reflection and refraction, the author attempts to construct an electro- magnetic theory of metallic reflection and refraction by taking into account the conductivity. This theory leads to Cauchy’s formule, but requires that the real part of the pseudo-refractive index should be positive, whereas’ Eisenlohr has shown that for certain metals these formulz cannot be reconciled with experiment unless the real part is negative. In the case of steel this quantity is positive throughout the whole range of the visible spectrum ; but as thin films of iron, when magnetized, exhibit anomalous dispersion, it is doubtful whether this hypothesis is satis- _ factory even in the case of steel or iron. 4 u NO. 1217, VOL. 47] The next four chapters are devoted to the principle of Huygens and to diffraction; and in Chapter X. the author has discussed Von Helmholtz’s theory of anomalous dis- persion. The advantage of theories of the class to which that of Von Helmholtz belongs is, that they endeav- our to account for dispersion and absorption by taking into account the mutual reaction between ether and matter, and show that when one or more of the free periods of the vibrations of the matter coincides with one or more of the free periods of the rays of the spectrum, absorption and anomalous dispersion will be produced. By the aid of this theory the absorption produced by so- dium vapour may be accounted for, as well as the anomalous dispersion and selective reflection produced by fuchsine and other aniline dyes. The author has not, however, developed the consequences of this theory as far as might be done. It is not unnatural that M. Poincaré should have given special prominence to the writings of his own country- men ; his treatise would, however, have been much im- proved had he not confined himself so exclusively to the writings of French mathematicians, but had given a fuller account of the work done by mathematicians of other nationalities. A. B. BASSET. THE MOTHS OF INDIA. The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Published under the authority of the Secretary of State for India in Council. Edited by W. F. Blanford. “Moths.” Vol. i. By G. F. Hampson. (London: Taylor and Francis, 1892.) R. HAMPSON is already favourably known to entomologists by his work on the “ Lepidoptera Heterocera of the Nilgiri District,” which forms Part viii, of the series of “ Illustrations of typical specimens of Lepi- doptera Heterocera in the collection of the British Museum,” In the work before us he has undertaken a far more important task; nothing less than a descriptive handbook of the moths of India, which, when complete, will prove as useful to Indian entomologists as the well- known work on the butterflies of India by Marshall and De Nicéville. : Hitherto the available information on the moths of India has been scattered over a great variety of books and periodicals, far too numerous and costly to be easily available out of London or Calcutta, and extremely diffi- cult to use satisfactorily, even if accessible. But Mr. Hampson has been given the fullest facilities for examining all the principal public and private collections of Indian moths, from that of the British Museum downwards, and has also made free use of the libraries of the British Museum at South Kensington, which now contain the finest series of entomological books in the world ; and the result is a work which can hardly fail to give an enormous impetus to the collection and study of Indian moths. Much attention has been paid to the classification of moths, and the introductory pages are occupied with details of structure, illustrated by woodcuts of parts of the head, antenne, legs, and neuration. ‘his is followed by a genetic tree of the families of moths, and by a 388 NATURE [FeBruaky 23, 1893 tabular key based chiefly on neuration and antenne. Mr. Hampson admits thirty-four families of Indian moths, of which the first twenty-three, including 1158 species, ate dealt with in the volume before us. The earlier families of moths are, however, much less numerous in species than the later ones, and it must not be supposed’ that Mr. Hampson has dealt with anything like half the Indian species in his first volume, which comprises the series of families usually classed under Sphinges and Bombyces, extending, according to the author’s classifica’ tion, from Saturniide to Hypside. The important Bombycide families, Arctitde, Agaristide,and Uraniida, are, however, relegated to the second volume, while’ several families of more or less doubtful position find a place in vol. i., such ‘as the Cymatophoride, Thyridide, Sesitde, and Tinegeriide. We observe that Mr. Hampson closes the series of moths with the 77znede, Pterophoride, and Alucitide, and in this adopts the usual classification, though in the main he has struck out an entirely new classification of his own, and the very first innovation which meets the eye is the novelty of commencing the moths with the Saturnitde. ; We hope that Mr. Hampson will take an opportunity of discussing’ the various systems of classification of moths which have been proposed by Guenée, Herrich- Schaffer, Plétz, and other entomologists, not forgetting the strange system proposed by Zebrawski, in his work on the Lepidoptera of Cracow, in which the butterflies are placed in the middle instead of the beginning of the series of Lepidoptera. Such a discussion would be un suitable in the present work, but if published, elsewhere might be very useful. Long descriptions of genera and species in a work of this character would have been out of place, and we are glad to find that they have been avoided. Each family or subfamily is succinctly characterised, and usually illustrated by a figureof the larva. This is followed by a tabular key to the genera, and then by a notice of the genera and species. The notice of each genus con- sists of synonymy, type, range, and a brief indi- cation of the principal characters. That of the species includes synonymy, description, including both sexes, and transformations when necessary, range and expanse. An excellent woodcut is usually given of one represen- tative of each genus, showing the wings and body on one side, and the neuration on the other, extra figures of antennz and legs being sometimes added. No book, however useful or carefully compiled, can be free from errors, but these cannot be detected at a glance, and the only technical mistake of importance which we have noticed in turning over Mr. Hampson’s work is that the broad-bordered Australian Macroglossum kingiz, Macl., is included among the synonyms of the narrow- bordered Cephonodes hylas, Linn. Much, no doubt, remains to be said about Mr. Hamp- son’s classification, his use of generic names, and his placing together insects regarded as distinct by other authors assynonyms, But these are all points admitting of great difference of opinion, and we do not propose to discuss them further in the present notice. We should add that various new families, besides many new genera and species, are described by Mr. Hampson for the first time. 1 AWS iat NO. 1217, VOL. 47] OUR BOOK SHELF. The Year-Book of Science (for 1892).. Edited by Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. (London: Cassell and Co., 1893.) ; ALL interested in scientific progress will welcome the appearance of the second volume of this useful year-book. The staff of contributors includes such names as Dr. Ramsay, Prof. Seeley, Mr. Botting Hemsley, &c., and the accuracy of the summaries of the year’s developments may therefore be thoroughly relied upon. The plan of the volume follows closely on the lines of its predecessor, but it has been extended so as to include geographical and anthropological matters, and zoology has received more complete treatment. If one may judge of the activity in different departments of science by the space required for the account of their progress, electricity and organic chemistry would appear to take-the lead. As in the last volume, no attempt has been made to present a complete catalogue of papers. The object has been simply to select the memoirs of exceptional interest ; and so far as we have been able to judge, the selections have been judicious. An excellent index of subjects, and one of authors, com- plete what will no doubt be found a very useful volume. — Treatise on Thermodynamics. By Peter Alexander, M.A. Pp. xii, 203. (Longmans, Green, and Co., 1892.) THIS is in many respects a singular work. Whole pages, we may almost say whole sheets, are devoted to the multiplication of elaborate proofs of intrinsically simple, theorems for which a few lines would be ample allowance, while some of the real difficulties of the subject are but lightly touched on. The other special characteristics, so far as we have seen, are three in number. First, and’‘most prominent, the extraordinary proportion of formulz to text, which gives the whole the look of a treatise on Partial Differential Coefficients rather than on a branch of Physics. Second, the fearful and wonderful collection of names for special cycles, e.g. Jsothermentropicycle, Lsobarymegacycle, Isenergentropicycle, &c. Finally, the expressions of doubt or hesitancy with which many steps, universally recognised as valid, are introduced. In the first and second of these characteristics the author far transcends the results of the licence willingly allowed to pioneers like Clausius and Rankine. But these have been (at least in great part) long since discarded, and can never be reintroduced. The third characteristic is, to say the least, not precisely one to be desiderated in a text- book, where we naturally expect to find some slight trace of ‘‘ Sir Oracle.” Medieval Lore: an Epitome of the Science, Geography, Animal and Plant Folk-Lore and Myth of the Middle Ages. .Being Classified Gleanings from the Encyclo- pedia of Bartholomew Anglicus on the Properties of Things. Edited by Robert Steele. (London : Elliot Stock, 1893.) ; THE original work of which parts are translated in the present volume, may be said to have a place of its own in the history of European literature. It was written in the thirteenth century, and the Latin text was soon widely. appreciated, while in the course of the fourteenth cen- tury it was translated into French, Spanish, Dutch, and English. The book is full of interest, for it presents a summary of all that was known in the Middle Ages about man and the world. The change which has been gradually effected by the use of modern scientific methods | is, of course, incalculable ; but some readers will pro- — bably be surprised to find to how large an extent Bar- tholomew mingles the results of shrewd and accurate observation with quaint fancies and unverified judgments. The present volume consists of selections from the edition of Berthelet, 1535; and the good style of the translator adds greatly to the charm of the author’s OME Rena eee) 5 & oe Fesruary 23, 1893] NATURE 389 o philosophy and science. Mr. Steele has done his work with much tact and care, and an interesting preface is contributed by Mr. William Morris. _ Astronomy for Every-day Readers. By B. J. Hopkins, _F.R.A.S. (London : George Philip and Son, 1893.) THIS is a little book which aims at explaining in “as accurate and interesting a manner as possible such of the enomena of the heavens as should be known to every telligent person.” It consists of six chapters dealing respectively with day and night, the phases of the moon, the tides, the seasons, eclipses, meteors, shooting stars, and comets. Descriptive astronomy is not touched upon, but there is an introductory chapter giving a general _ survey of the solar system and its dimensions. The book thas been very carefully written, and the scientific ex- planations are much relieved by interesting references to the history of the subject. The author has succeeded in giving very clear and concise accounts of the every-day phenomena with which the book specially deals, and it seems well adapted to awaken a desire for more in the _ class of readers to whom he more particularly appeals. A biography of the author—who is described as “the working-man scientist ’—is also included. * - _ LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents. Neither can he undertake |. ° to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice is taken of anonymous communications.) | nih Blind Animals in Caves. _ In an article in the current number of the Contemporary _ Review Mr. Herbert Spencer discusses the ‘‘ familiar instance” of blind animals in caves as bearing upon the hypothesis of the transmission of acquired characters. Mr. Spencer is not satisfied with the explanation of the blindness of these cave animals offered by Weismann, who endeavours to account for them by two conditions recognised as operating in regard to other cases by Darwin, viz. cessation of selection and parsimony of growth (‘‘ Origin of Species,’ sixth edition, a 118), of which the former author has treated under ) name Panmyxia. Mr. Spencer shows that the saving of ponderable material in the suppression of an eye is but a small economy: he loses sizht of the fact, however, that possibly, or even probably, the saving to the organism in the reduction of an eye to a rudimentary state is not to be measured by mere bulk, but by the non-expenditure of special materials and special activities which are concerned in the production of an organ so peculiar and elaborate as is the vertebrate eye. That, however, tow hich I wish here to draw the attention of Mr. Spencer and his readers is this :—Mr. Spencer appears to think that if he disposes of Weismann’s explanation of the blindness of cave-animals according to ‘‘ Panmyxia’’—there remains only the explanation by ‘‘transmission of acquired characters” in the field. He appears not to be acquainted with the explana- tion which I have offered of the blindness of cave-animals, It is closely similar to that given by Darwin of the occurrence of wingless insects on oceanic islands, My explanation consists in an application to the case in hand of Darwin’s principle of ** natural selection.” I published it some years ago in my article ** Zoology” in the *‘ Encycl. Britannica,” reprinted in 1890 in a like to see what Mr. Spencer has to say to it :—‘‘ This instance (that of the blind cave-animals) can,” I wrote in the article above- ’ named, “‘ be fully explained by natural selection acting on con- a wees fortuitous variations. Many animals are thus born with _ distorted or defective eyes whose parents have not had their _ eyes submitted to any peculiarconditions. Supposing a number of some species of Arthropod or Fish to be swept into a cavern ‘or to be carried from less to greater depths in the sea, those in- dividuals with perfect eyes would follow the glimmer of light and eventually escape to the outer air or the shallower depths, leaving behind those with imperfect eyes to breed in the dark NO. 1217, VOL. 47] volume of essays, bearing the title ‘‘The Advancement of | . Science.” My suggestion was (and is) as follows, and I should | ' thermometers are under investigation by Prof. Schuster. place. A natural selection would thus be effected. In every succeeding generation (bred in the dark place) this would be the case, and even those with weak but still seeing eyes would in the course of time escape, until only a pure race of eyeless or blind animals would be left in the cavern or deep sea.” My own position in regard to the hypothesis of the transmis- sion of acquired characters remains what it was ten years ago, viz. that in the absence of observed instances of this transmission and in the presence of repeated observation that particular acquired characters are #of transmitted, I do not consider it legitimate to assume a transmission of acquired characters as the explanation of any given case, such, for instance, as that of the blind cave-animals. I am confirmed in this attitude by the fact that a little consideration has enabled me and others to explain satisfactorily, by reference to no hypothetical causes, but to the admitted and demonstrable facts of ‘‘congenital variation” and ‘‘natural selection,” instances brought forward as ‘‘ only to be explained on the assumption of the truth of Lamarck’s hypothesis.” On the other hand, I have always considered that there is not sufficient ground for asserting that a transmission of acquired characters caz not take place. The important question is still as it was five years ago, ‘‘ Does it take place?” Oxford, February 14. E. Ray LANKESTER. Glacier Action, I HAVE read with great interest and pleasure the short review in your paper of last week by Prof. Bonney, giving a summary of the results of a survey of the French freshwater lakes, and in- dicating as the most: probable conclusion that they cannot be accounted for on the theory of the late Sir A. Ramsay, by the digging-out power of glaciers. — Living as I do in a highly glaciated country, and in a country also full of lakes, both fresh and salt, I have never believed in that theory. Lakes seem to me to be due to the same causes which have produced. the glens and hollows in which they lie, and these causes cannot be identified with glacier action alone. The theory of Ramsay attributes to glacier action powers and effects which have never been -proved to belong to them. Glaciers do not dig out. They rub down—abrade—and scoop, when they are moving down inclined planes at angles more or less steep. But when they reach level ground they do not dig ; they rest upon the level surfaces, and when pressed from behind they flow over it. But I have never seen any proof that they can act-like a ploughshare, or rather like one of the new digging machines. vi In so far as all existing glens may have been formerly occupie by glaciers, their depths must have been increased by glacier action, on the supposition that they were tilted, or upraised at some angle required for this form of true glacier action. On this supposition, indeed, lake basins may be said to be partly due to glaciers. But then this supposition involves and depends upon the assumption that-earth movements have made the lake basins what they now are—hollows in a comparative level. Like all other general theories in the history of geology, the - ** glacial theory ” seems to me to have been ridden to the death, and I have been long waiting for some signs of that reaction or correction which is still much needed. ‘I hold that in this country there is not only no evidence of ‘‘ ice sheets” overriding all the hills, but the strongest evidence against such sheets. Ourglens had true glaciers in abundance, no doubt, and they have left their tool-marks very distinctly. But those marks are quite ‘ inconsistent with one universal ice-cap or ice-sheet over all the land. ARGYLL. Inveraray, February 16. Dr. Joule’s Thermometers. Every one will, I am sure, be glad to know that Dr. Joule’s It is unfortunate that Joule does not give the actual readings of the freezing point, but if the comparison quoted by Rowland was made in either 1879 or 1890 it may be that he referred to the reading of November, 1879, when the total rise of the zero point was 12°92 scale divisions. In that case the original reading in April, 1844, would be 9°70 ; at any rate this number cannot be very far from the truth. The temporary changes of zero point alluded to by Prof. Schuster certainly complicate the matter, but from the numbers given it would appear that since 1879 or 1880 there has been a 390 NATURE [ FEBRUARY 23, 1893 further secular rise of from 0°38 to 0°89 of a scale division. Nothing is said in Joule’s paper about the temperatures at which the thermometers had been kept before the. readings of the freezing point were taken, but as the later observations—and most of the earlier ones—were made in the winter months, it may perhaps be assumed that the temperatures were nearer ft than 30°, and that the actual reading on the scale last winter should be taken as nearer 23°51 than 23'00. If this is so the total rise of the zero point last winter would be nearer 13°81 than 13°30. Prof. Schuster states that ‘‘with properly annealed ther- mometers the secular changes are much smaller than the temporary ones,” and that is no doubt true for observations extending over a limited time and with such comparatively large variations of temperature as from 7° to 30°. It may be pointed out, however, that the secular rise since 1879 or 1880 is probably greater than the maximum temporary change recorded by Prof. Schuster, and of course the total secular rise is enormously greater. It may be true that the secular changes of a thermometer gradually vanish, but it must, I think, be conceded, that in the case of Dr. Joule’s thermometer it will be a long time before absolute constancy is attained. There can be no doubt that even now, nearly forty-nine years after the first reading was taken, the zero point is still rising, and it does not appear to me to be very improbable that during the next fifty years there may be a further rise of two scale divisions, the amount calculated from the purely empirical formula which I have suggested. SYDNEY YOUNG. University College, Bristol, February 20. Foraminifer or Sponge? . UNDER the above heading in last week’s NATURE Dr. Hanitsch briefly draws our attention to Mr. A. Goés’ report on the deep sea organisms procured by Prof. Agassiz in the American tropical Pacific, which he describes. as Arenaceous Foraminifera, with the name Weusina Agassizi. As it was from me that Dr. Hanitsch received the specimens he describes, which I had after a personal conversation on the matter sent him, for his opinion as to their relation to. true sponges, I venture to send some further observations on these interesting forms. - Dr. Hanitsch is, I believe, quite right in referring Mr. Goés’ Neusina to Prof. Haeckel’s Stannophyllum zonarium, as de- scribed in his report on the Cha/lenger deep-sea Keratosa. But while admitting my admiration of Prof. Haeckel’s wonderful production on the Challenger specimens, I do not agree with him as to their being true Keratose sponges. My conclusion is based upon the examination of nearly the whole Challenger collection, and in not one species could I find the slightest trace of any of the flagellated chambers charac- teristic of sponges, Prof. Haeckel accounts for the absence of this important feature through the bad preservation of the specimens. Yet he describes the most delicate parts of a commensal Hydroid in full, and was able to observe amceboidal cells, and the granulated sarcode bodies peculiar to all bottom living Foraminifera. If, however, the forms described by Prof. Haeckel prove after all to be true Keratose sponges, the present state of our know- ledge does not justify their separation from such recognised genera of Foraminifera, as Masonella, and Syringammina of the late Dr. G. Brady ; Technitella, Haliphysema, and Marsipella of Canon Norman ; or Hyperammina palmiformis, described by myself from the Farde Channel, all which forms have the power of forming siliceous and chitinous skeletons. Without going into further detail here it will be readily under- stood that 1 quite agree with Mr. Goés in placing these organisms among the Foraminifera, although it would have been better had he given us a clearer and more detailed description of his Neusina. I had hoped to have published my personal observations on these most interesting organisms, but circumstances have pre- vented me doing so-up to the present. I for one would be glad if Dr. Hanitsch would give his opinion _ as to their supposed sponge structure, which he has not done in his previous letter. F. G. PEARCEY, Late of the Challenger Expedition and Commission. Owens College’ Museum,. Manchester. NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | Colonial Meteorology. 5 ON p. 363 of your last number your reviewer of the ‘*Year-book of the Imperial Institute,” after remarking that ‘‘ climate cer- tainly deserves better treatment,” continues :— ; ‘* We do not think space would be wasted in giving the mean monthly temperatures ard rainfall for the average year and for two extreme years, at a few representative stations in the larger colonies. This information cannot indeed be found in any ex- isting books, but must be worked out from original records, which exist abundantly, and are rarely made available to practical workers.” I am afraid that the reviewer does not always read NATURE, for you, sir, have on several occasions noticed my efforts in this direction, efforts which have gone on uninterruptedly for twenty years. As, now that you have taken the matter up, it is not improbable that some of the funds lavished on the Imperial Institute may be devoted to the subject, and my small organisa- tion be swamped or superseded, I hope that you will, in justice to the directors of the various Colonial observatories who have helped me for so many years, and as some consolation for the entire ignorement of our organisation by your reviewer, allow me to give its history in the fewest words possible. In 1873 I determined to try to publish monthly a table giving the principal climatic data for each synchronous month at widely spread stations over the entire British Empire. The leading ide was identity, so as to ensure comparability. I therefore prepare some blank forms and sent them with a circular letter to about twenty of our leading Colonial meteorologists. Every one with- out exception promised to help, and it says much for colonial climate to add that during the subsequent twenty years not more than five or six of my original correspondents have passed away. During the period occupied in the transit of my request and of the replies thereto, I wrote a series of short articles pointing out the leading features, and as far as practicable the mean values, for the various stations, so that when we began publishing the monthly values, the departures from the mean could be recognised. Thesearticles and the tables themselves from 1874 to 188% appeared in Zhe Colonies (subsequently The Colonies and India), When in 1882 that paper passed into other hands, the proprietors declined to publish the tables, and I began to insert them in the Meteorological Magazine, where they have appeared regularly month by month for the subsequent thirteen years. At the close of each year an extra table is given with a summary of the results for the year, and NATURE has often done me the honour of quoting portions of these summaries. I enclose copy of our last table, and though I know that to reproduce it would be to make a somewhat large demand upon your space, I feel that the work (wholly unpaid, be it re- membered) of my Colonial friends during these past twenty years, claims some consideration and some recognition. You will see by the signatures that the authorities are the highest attainable. G. J. SYMONS. 62, Camden Square, N.W., February 17. Ozone. WituH reference to a paragraph in NATURE, p. 373; on observations of ozone in the atmosphere, and the paucity of observers and records, I may be allowed to state that I have collected sets in the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and Mediterranean. These have been taken by officers of the Royal Navy and mercantile marine at sea, and some of the records have been tabulated, and may be communicated to some society in due course. Moffatt’s papers, made by Negretti and Zambra, have been used throughout, so the observations are all uniform and comparable. “'W. G. BLACK. Edinburgh, February 19. -LION-TIGER AND TIGER-LION HYBRIDS. | THE Council of the Royal Zoological Society of | Ireland entertain some hope that it will be possible to produce in their Gardens examples of hybrids or cross-breeds between the two largest species of cat, namely, the lion and tiger. ‘That such hybrids have been produced is a matter of historical record, and as the writer is particularly inter- ; f 3 ‘ ‘ 2 . t Frsruary 23, 1893] NATURE 391 ested in the success of the experiment now in progress in the Dublin Gardens, where over one hundred lion cubs have been successfully reared, he thinks it desirable to record all the details which he has been able to collect on the subject. So far as can be ascertained the only lion-tiger cubs, as they have been called, which were ever produced be- part | to several distinct litters by different parents, perhaps, but in the same menagerie—that of F. Atkins, of Windsor. | The father of the first litter of these cubs was a lion bred in Atkins’s menagerie, the head-quarters of which were at Windsor. The mother was an imported tigress. From Griffith’s account (“Animal Kingdom,” vol. ii. p-. 448, 1827) it would seem that the lion and tigress were about two years together, in the same cage, before any issue appeared. The first litter, consisting of three cubs, was born at Windsor on October 17, 1824— being the result of a particular intercourse which lasted for ten or twelve days in the beginning of the previous July. The cubs were shortly afterwards exhibited to his Majesty, who, according to the showman’s own handbill —a copy of which has been lent to me by Dr. William Frazer—christened them lion-tigers. The lion died six weeks afterwards, and the cubs, as related by Griffith, were fostered by several bitches and a goat, and it was expected would attain to maturity ; but although there is no clear intimation as to the exact date when this was written, the figures of the cubs accompanying the account are said to represent them at the age of only about three months. It is stated by one writer, however, that they did not attain to maturity (‘‘ English Cyclopedia Nat. Hist.,” vol. ii. p. 763, art. “ Felidae,” 1854). _ The next litter was born at Edinburgh on December 31, 1827, according to Atkins’s showbill and Sir William ine’s works.! There were two cubs, and it would seem that they were exhibited together with, and there- fore probably reared by, the mother, in the same den; but whether she were the same tigress as the mother of the previous litter is not clear. They were seen by Sir William Jardine in September, 1828, and his figures may have been taken from them ; but it has some resemblance in details, though not in general pose, to the figures published by Griffith of the 1824 litter. It would seem that Sir William was under the impression that it was these very cubs which were sub- sequently exhibited together with their parents in the same cage in the autumnof 1829. But there is a difficulty in accepting this conclusion, because the stuffed specimens of these two cubs still exist—one in the British Museum Natural History) and the other in the Science and Art useum, Edinburgh, I have recently had opportunities of examining both, and I should be inclined to think that the cubs were not ore than about nine or ten months old when they died. So that either the cubs seen in 1829 were born subsequently to December 31, 1827, or the stuffed cubs just referred to must have been born previous to that date. That the cub in the British Museum was presented by J. Atkins, of Windsor, is attested by Dr. Gray’s “‘ Old List,” page 40, which, through the courtesy of Dr. Giinther, I have been able to consult. _ That the specimen in Edinburgh was one of those born in 1827, and figured by Sir William Jardine, is, indeed, stated in the “English Cyclopedia,” which adds that the cubs of that litter died young. Hence, it seems most probable that the cubs seen in the autumn of 1829 belonged to a subsequent litter, as has been suggested above. Further, Mr. J. G. Robertson, formerly of Kilkenny, has informed me that he saw a lion, tigress, and their three hybrid cubs in one cage in Kilkenny, where they were brought by a showman about the year 1832. They were the sole stock of the show. 1 “The Menageries, Quadrupeds,”’ Sir William Jardine (2nd edition), vol. i. pp. 19%, 192. 1830. NO. 1217, VOL. 47] Accordingly, it seems that besides the definitely attested births of the years 1824 and 1827, there were also, probably, some others. One of the accounts states that there is no great difficulty in promoting the union of the two species. Besides the cub already referred to as having been pre- sented to the British Museum by J. Atkins, | have also been shown by Dr. Giinther unmounted. skins of two re- puted hybrid lion-tiger cubs, which are saidin Dr. Gray’s list to have been purchased from a dealer named Mathur, in 1842. They cannot, I think, have survived more than two or three days after birth, and their markings are too indistinct to justify any special description, particularly as their parentage is not more definitely attested. But it is of some importance to place on record here what is said as to the markings of the cubs first referred to. The specimens in the British and the Edinburgh Museums are both somewhat faded. In Gray’s list the former is thus described : ‘‘ Hybrid cub between lion and tigress ; yellow ; back slightly waved ; limbs and tail banded with black.” Sir William Jardine merely says the general colour was not so bright as that of the tiger, and the transverse bands were more obscure. Griffith describes the cubs he figured as follows :— “ Our mules, in common with ordinary lions, were born without any traces of a mane, or of atuft at the end of the tail. Their fur in general was rather woolly ; the external ear was pendant towards the extremity; the nails were constantly out, and not cased in the sheath, and in these particulars they agreed with the common cubs of lions. Their colour was dirty yellow or blanket colour : but from the nose over the head, along the back and upper side of the tail the colour was much darker, and on these parts the transverse stripes were stronger, and the forehead was covered with obscure spots, slighter indications of which also appeared on other parts of the body. The shape of the head, as appears by the figures, is assimilated to that of the father’s (the lion) ; the superfineness of the body on the other hand is like that of the tigress ” (p. 449). Prof. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S., keeper of the natural history division of the Edinburgh Museum, has kindly had a photograph taken of the specimen above referred to prepared for me, and the transverse markings are dis- tinctly visible in this picture. I am tempted to conclude this record with an extract from Atkins’s somewhat quaintly-expressed handbill, which does not bear any date, but probably belonged to the year 1828. The greater part of the bill consists of a long poetical description of the family with “a tigress their dam, and. a lion their sire,” and of the numerous distinguished persons who had paid them a visit. The following prose portion will probably be sufficient to extract from what is possibly one of few still existing copies of the handbill. “ATKIN’S IMMENSE MENAGERIE. “WONDERFUL PHENOMENON IN NATURE. “ The singular, and hitherto deemed impossible, occur- rence of Lion and Tigress in one den. “ Cohabiting and producing young, again took place in this menagerie, on the 31st of December, 1827, at the City of Edinburgh, when the royal tigress brought forth two fine cubs!! And they are now to be seen in the same den with their sire and dam. The first litter of these extraordinary animals were presented to our most gracious Sovereign, when he was pleased to express con- siderable gratification, and to call them lion-tigers, than which a more appropriate name could not have been given. The great interest the lion and tigress have excited is unprecedented ; they area source of irresistible attraction, especially as it is the only instance of the kind 392 NATURE [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 ever known of animals so directly opposite in their dis- positions forming an attachment of such singular nature. Their beautiful and interesting progeny are most admir- able productions of nature. The group is truly pleasing and astonishing, and must be witnessed to form an ade- quate idea of them. ‘The remarkable instances of sub- dued temper and association of animals to permit the keeper to enter their den, and to introduce their perfor- mance to the spectators, is the greatest phenomenon in natural history.” V. BALL. OBSERVATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY IN AMERICA. ae meteorological official of the United States known as “ The Chief Signal Officer” has sanctioned the publication of this voluminous report of 320 quarto pages, embodying the result of a widespread photo- graphic record and ‘direct reading’ of atmospheric electro- meters carried out under the auspices of the United States Government during the years 1884 to 1888, with ‘the immediately utilitarian object of ascertaining how far it was possible to use electrical indication in weather pre- diction. As Mr. Mendenhall says, “ No studies or inves- tigations which did not bear upon this question were [considered] proper or allowable.” _ Although thus limited in scope the actual observations made and here recorded can hardly fail to be of service to future investigators into this obscure subject. The report begins with a historical introduction, in which it is admitted that electricity was first purposely drawn from the clouds in France by Buffon and D’Alibard about a month before Franklin tried his already projected experiment ; and that de Saussure was one of the first to obtain fairly quantitative results and to detect a diurnal period. Volta “hit upon the capital device of a burning match ” to replace the previous feeble collecting devices such as a bullet and wire shot up intothe air. But nothing really exact and continuous was done “ until Sir W: Thomson attacked the problem,” He introduced the quadrant elec- trometer and the water-dropper, which have been the universal recording instruments ever since. In fact “the work of Palmieri on Mount Vesuvius constitutes perhaps the only extensive series of observa- tions in which instruments founded on the original design of Sir W. Thomson have not been used.” In the States the first energetic and influential mover in the direction of a serious record appears to have been Prof. Cleveland Abbé, who got himself authorised in 1880 by the Chief Signal officer to consult with Prof. Row- land on the subject, and afterwards with Prof. Trowbridge, and to make arrangements for a series of effective obser- vations. Under the auspices of these gentlemen a staff of observers were trained and suitable instruments obtained, tested, and improved. Various collectors were tested, and in 1883 a photographic registration appara- tus of M. Mascart was put into operation, In 1884 Mr. Mendenhall “ was appointed to assume the direction of the work as. chief of the physical laboratory and in- strument division of the office in Washington.” Stations were established in Washington, Baltimore, Boston, New | Haven, Ithaca, and Ohio. Much work was done in connection with electrometers by McAdie and McRae, but this is incorporated in the article “ Electrometer ” of the “ Ency. Britt.” The instrument ultimately adopted was a quadrant electrometer of the Mascart pattern with special improve- ments, and was constructed by the Société Génevoise. A picture of it is given. 1“ Report of Studies of Atmospheric Electricity.” By T. C. Mendenhall. Extract from Memoirs of, the National Academy of Sciences, 1889. (Wasiington.) NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | The method of connecting the quadrants to the two equal halves of a water battery, so that they might always be at equal opposite potentials, and of attaching the needle to the collector, was after many trials adopted ; partly because higher insulation was thus possible, partly in order to get a straight line law. Deviation from this, due to what is called the ‘‘ electric directing oe is not overlooked, but by a stiff suspension and small range it is minimised. An interesting chapter is that on “collectors.” The water-dropper was mostly used, but its freezing is apt to interrupt the record. ‘Sergeant Morrill experimented on a special flame collector,” supplied with gas at con- stant pressure and arranged so that wind could not ex- tinguish it, and “before the termination of the work obtained very satisfactory results.” But in order to secure uniformity between different stations he also designed a mechanical collector—a clockwork machine with revolv- ‘ing arm and intermittent contacts, which is virtually a gigantic replenisher, utilising the atmospheric potential as an inductor, and thereby feeding the electrometer up to the same potential. It seems to be as quick in response as a water-dropper (an important point, as some of the fluctuations of potential are very rapid), but “as it was only completed towards the end of the period of observa- tion nothing very definite can be said of its performance.” An illustration of the ingenious device is given in detail. Observations. Preliminary records are given showing the curves got at a roof station and a balcony station, also at different observatories in the same town. Some also from the top of the Washington Monument, which naturally show far greater potential and changes than the instrument in the Signal Office. : . There are plotted a number of zigzags obtained from the different stations about the States, and very compli- cated and entangled the record is. None of the stations show any agreement ; and, particularly at Ithaca, the elec- trometers seem usually to have been in a wildly excited state. But during an Aurora on May 20, 1888, they were singu- larly quiet, and the remark is made: “ It will be observed that the indications of the electrometer were positive during the day and night, and that no unusual fluctuations occurred.” & eal The atmospheric potential is usually positive, and it ‘has been often thought that a change to negative signal- ised bad weather. Certainly this does frequently happen ; sufficiently often to make it worth while specially to examine this point ; and several curve charts are given to show that “negative electricity in clear weather was observed at most if not all of the Signal Service Stations on numerous occasions during the progress of the work. ‘In many cases precipitation occurred at points Io to 100 miles distant, but in others clear weather prevailed over almost the entire country. A number of instances of negative potential during clear weather occurred at Ithaca, where careful attention was given to the matter of special observation by Mr. Schultze.” Effect of Dust, Haze, Fog. “The effect of dust, haze, smoke, &c., in producing negative potential has been noticed by more than one observer. [Query whetherx the negative potential can have ever produced or permitted the haze.—O. J. L.] Several instances of the action of clouds of dust were noted by Sergeant Morrill at Boston. On March 7, 1888, in the afternoon the potential was observed to fall rapidly from — go to—270 upon the rising of an especially heavy cloud of dust, and similar phenomena were observed on April 7.” ‘A fall of potential could be certainly predicted when a dust cloud. was seen rising. On other days when high winds and dust clouds prevailed negative potential ghee xe FEBRUARY 23, 1893| NATURE 395 was observed. A figure is given of an observation at Terre Haute, Ind., on a day when a fog formed after sun- set, and the potential then rapidly fell from + 1000 to —200 volts.” “The same phenomenon was frequently observed during the autumn when the formation of a haze or fog just as the sun was setting was a common occurrence.” The observer at Terre Haute (Sergeant McRae) wisely made special observations as to the possible effect of fdssenotives on a railway a quarter of a mile distant ; but, so far as the recods show, the passage of a train, when not happening to coincide with a fog formation, did not seem to disturb the curves. Clouds and Wind. ; direct action of a cloud or group of clouds in prod = fall of potential was often observed.” 3 or instance the following at Boston: —“In_ the ae 6 por “of January 3, 1888, the potential had been am ? att ive. At 11.30 it was + 32 volts, from which a3 “s adily at the approach toward the zenith of a small cumulus cloud, reaching — 21 volts) As the cloud passed away the potential rose to + 6, again falling to — 31 as a large mass of cumulus clouds approached. Later the sky became overcast, and the potential became steadily negative. ~ “On June 7, at 5.30 p.m., the potential fell from + 43 to — 173, and then rose slowly to its former value. The rise and fall occupied fifteen minutes, and coincided with _the appearance over the buildings to the west of a fleecy cirro-stratus cloud and its disappearance over the institute building in which the electrometer was located. “ Again, on June 9 the potential was positive all day up ‘to5p.m. At that hour it fell from +73 to — 113, then rising to +52. The sky was nearly free from clouds, and the fluctuation coincided with the approach and departure of a Cirro-stratus cloud, passing about 15° from the zenith. The inductive action of the cloud was plainly —— in all of these cases.” ; _ High wind also usually causes a drop of potential. Averages. ai Some charts are then given of average monthly eerie showing nearly always positive average values, ‘Ah ny in the winter, lowest in summer. ‘Some smoothed diurnal curves are also given, and “seem to indicate the existence of two principal maxima of potential in the day, and also ina general way that one of these occurs not many hours before noon and the other toward the latter part of the day.” Thunderstorms. ; ihe, jal attention was paid to the observations before, ,and after the occurrence of thunderstorms, but the needle then dashes wildly to either side, and sparks often begin to pass. And the remark is made :—“ Aside om the general characteristics (rapidity and range of uctuation) these potential curves seem to have little in common. The examination of a few cases only might lead to interesting conclusions, which would almost cer- tainly be overthrown by the study of a greater number. Sometimes the potential falls rather steadily until the violent movements begin, but sometimes it rises just as long and steadily. In many cases the fluctuations start from a high positive, while in many others the reverse is the case. The storm is usually accompanied by precipi- tation ; sometimes this begins before the needle starts on its series of swings from side to side, and sometimes these movements precede precipitation, The steady rise of potential for some hours immediately following a thunder- storm may mean that clear and fair weather is to be ex- pected, but Fig. 71 is good evidence that it may also be interpreted to mean that another thunderstorm is just at hand.” NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | ‘tion of relationship between it and precipitation. “‘ Although these records are somewhat unsatisfactory as far as throwing any light upon the nature of thunder- storms, it must not be forgotten that with a single exception [two stations at Washington] none of these storms have influenced more than one station. The complete investigation of a storm would demand a large number of observing stations relatively near to each other, by means of which a full history of the potential changes about and in all parts of the storm could be obtained. ** Such an examination might result in bringing order and system out of what seems at present little less than confusion.” ‘Then follow many specimens of the actual photographic record at BaltinYore on days when lightning occurred, and finally a°aaSs of tables embodying abstracts of results at the different stations, and also some taken at Kew and Greénwich in England; though at both of these institutions the scale used appears to be arbitrary. ~~ General Conclusions. Among the -conclusions: the following may be noted: “Instruments similar in every respect, separated by a ‘distance of a hundred méters may give very dissimilar indications.” (Not merely, it is explained, as regards absolute values only, which may be expected to disagree, but as regards fluctuations also.) “ Observers were in- structed to study the appearance of negative electricity before and after and during precipitations, and at one time the hope was indulged in by the writer, as well as by several of the observers, that this phenomenon might afford great assistance in the prediction of local storms, rains, snows, &c., which offer so much difficulty in forecasting by present methods. “‘ Further observation and investigation, however, did not justify this expectation, serving rather to increase the. meteorological conditions under which negative po- tential might be looked for, and to diminish the fea at negative electricity is tolerablv certain to be observed in connection with precipitation in a majority of cases is doubtless true, but it does not appear in such a way as to be of any value in forecasting.” Near the end of the historical introduction we learn with regret that the observations thus tabulated and discussed are now no longer going on. “In August, 1888, all observations were discontinued. It was thought that a sufficient number had been accu- mulated to decide the question of their use in weather forecasting, and in fact their study up to that date gave little encouragement in that direction.” “ Many ques- tions of great scientific interest . . . had to be set aside for those likely to be of immediate practical value.” The amount of material thus rapidly accumulated, centralised, and well discussed, is typical of what can be done under efficient Government authorisation and by the head of a National Laboratory. The carrying on of the research for immediate utilitarian ends, and stopping it as soon as it was seen that the results aimed at were not forthcoming, is perhaps also typical. It is to be hoped that some day the question will be reopened, and a fresh series of results obtained. So far as I (who am by no means a meteorologist) can judge, I should surmise that a number of fairly concentrated stations over a large plain would be desirable ; and also that the vertical gradient of potential should be attempted by a series of collectors at different attitudes on a tall mast, or possibly up a hill-side. Further, the general aspect of the curves seems to me to suggest that the instruments were almost too sensitive and not sufficiently dead-beat. They should be quick in indication and at the same time thoroughly damped, so that the record shall contain as little as possible of any effect due to instrumental inertia. Some very light 394 NATURE [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 quartz-fibre instrument might be devised, and perhaps it might contain its own recording apparatus in a compact form, so as to make registration a much easier and less cumbrous business than it has been hitherto. When so much is unknown it is a mistake to begin by observing with too great intricacy of detail. The salient features should be first obtained, and then attention directed to the minutize ; but one of the first things to do is to arrange that every swing in the curve shall mean a swing of atmospheric potential, and not a mere excur- sion of a heavy needle. I hope that the energy, skill, and judgment of the various observers in the States, and of Mr. Mendenhall, the author of this valuable report, may be utilised through the resources of the U.S. Government by the inauguration of a fresh series of observations under somewhat different conditions, and without the hamper of any immediately specified practical object. OLIVER J. LODGE. THE PRESERVATION OF THE NATIVE BIRDS OF NEW ZEALAND. N our issue of September 16 last year (vol. xlvi. p. 502) we printed an excellent memorandum drawn up by Lord Onslow, late Governor of New Zea- land, relating to a proposal for the _ preservation of the native birds of that colony by setting apart two islands for this purpose, namely, Little Barrier or Hauturn Island in the north, and Resolution Island in the south. As regards the first of these islands, we have lately received a copy of the report by Mr. Henry Wright (addressed to the Hon. John Ballance, Premier of New Zealand) upon the subject. According to Mr. Wright, Hauturn. Island, in the Gulf of Hauraki, which is almost circular in shape, and contains an area of from 9000 to 10,000 acres, rising in the middle to an elevation of about 2000 feet, is very well adapted for the purpose required. Writing with a thorough knowledge of all the north island, Mr. Wright is able to say that there is no other part of it where the native birds are to be found in anything like such profusion and variety. He gives a list of forty species to be met with within its limits, and mentions as particular varieties the stitch-bird or kotihe (Pogonornzs cincia) and the large dark kiwi (Apteryx dullerz) as both found there. There are slight difficulties in the way of the project, such as the presence of about a dozen Maoris now living on the island, and of a claimant for the tim- ber, which, in the shape of kauri pine (Dammmara aus- tralis), is present in large quantities. There are no Weka Rails (Ocydromus) in the island to destroy the birds’ eggs; and there are no bees, which, for some reasons, are considered to be highly inimical to the native birds in New Zealand. The wild pigs, formerly numerous, have been killed out; and the mutton-bird (@strelata gouldi), the young of which were formerly eaten by the pigs, will consequently be able to breed again undis- turbed. Cats unfortunately are very numerous, but Mr. Wright proposes to offer at once a reward for their de- struction, which is, of course, of great importance. Mr. Wright’s report seems quite convincing as to the suitability of Hauturn Island for the object in view, but we regret to hear that some difficulties have arisen in the Parliament of New Zealand as to the appropriation of the funds required for the purpose. ; Lord Onsiow, however, is not disposed to let the matter drop, and will, we are sure, be strongly supported by Lord Glasgow, the present Governor of New Zealand, in carrying the matter to asuccessful issue. The Council of the Zoological Society of London, whose attention has been called to the subject, have passed in its favour the following resolutions, which were communicated to a general meeting of that body on the 16th inst. (1) The council of the Society have learnt with great NO. 1217, VOL. 47] miles. satisfaction the steps that were proposed to be taken by : the Earl of Onslow, when Governor of New Zealand, and by the Houses of General Assembly for the pre- servation of the native birds of New Zealand, by reserv- ing certain small islands suitable for the purpose, and by affording the birds special protection on these islands. (2) The council much regret to hear that difficulties have been encountered in carrying out this plan as regards one of these islands (Little Barrier Island), and trust that — the Government of New Zealand may be induced to take the necessary steps to overcome these difficulties and to carry out this excellent scheme in its entirety. 5 (3) The council venture to suggest that besides the native birds to be protected in these reserves shelter should also be afforded to the remarkable Saurian, the Tuatera Lizard (Sphenodon punctatus), which is at present restricted to some small islands on the north coast of New Zealand, in the Bay of Plenty. . These resolutions have been communicated to the pre- sent Governor of New Zealand, and will, we trust, be of some assistance to him in inducing his Ministers to carry this excellent scheme into execution. THE EARTHQUAKES IN ZANTE, ~ “FRE following is a list of the shocks of earthquake at Zante, compiled from telegrams published in the Times and Standard :—January 31, at daybreak, the most destructive earthquake, of which, however, some warning must have been given, if we may judge from the comparatively small loss of life. Other slighter shocks followed during the day. February I, 2 a.m., another severe shock, felt also in Cephalonia. February 2, two more violent shocks, one of which caused some fresh damage. February 3, further shocks, but less frequent and violent. February 5, another violent shock. February 6, continued shocks of slight intensity, followed by three more severe ones in the afternoon and evening. February 7, another violent shock in the morning, resulting in but little additional damage. February 8, some slight shocks. February 10, some slight shocks in different districts. February 11, I a.m., a somewhat severe shock, followed by a succession of shocks between 8 andg p.m. February 12, further shocks in the early morning, soon after mid- night, and again at intervals during theday. February 13 or 14, renewed slight shocks, accompanied by loud sub- terranean rumblings. The Athens correspondent of the Times, telegraphing on February 20, says: “ The shocks of earthquake continue at Zante, with varying degrees of violence. No serious damage is reported, but those who are compelled to live in the half-ruined or insecure houses are exposed to frequent alarms.” It is estimated that the total loss of property due to the shocks may exceed £600,000. According to a telegram in the Z#mes for February 6, the tide in Venice on the evening of February 1 “ ebbed so low as to leave several of the canals without water. The gondola traffic was interrupted at different points, and many of those craft were stranded. This phenomenon corresponded with the earthquakes at Zante and Cepha- lonia.” A simple calculation will show, however, that this can hardly have been due to the principal shock. The straight line joining Zante and Venice passes almost directly up the Adriatic, and its length is roughly 720 Taking the time between daybreak on January 31 and the evening of Feb. 1 at 36 hours, this would give for the sea-wave an average velocity of 20 miles an hour, corresponding to an average depth of about 30 feet, which is considerably less than the actual amount, the mean depth of the Adriatic being 110 fathoms. Earthquakes are frequent in Zante, and sometimes very severe. One of the most destructive shocks, which occurred on October 30, 1840, is described by Ansted in ee ee ed _Fesruary 23, 1893] NATURE. 395 his work on the Ionian Islands (pp. 415-419) chiefly from the report of the Lord High Commissioner, Sir Howard Douglas. The prison was in this case also unroofed, and hardly a house in the town of Zante escaped some injury. All of the villages on, or bordering on, the plain suffered more or less, especially Sculikado, which was reduced to a heap of ruins. The total amount of damage done was estimated at not less than £300,000, The great earth- quake was followed by a large number of others, some very severe, ninety-five being counted up to November 4. Ansted notes (pp. 368, 369) the curious fact that each of the Ionian Islands seems for the most part to have its own earthquakes, independently of the others. About the year 1818, he says, all the sensible shocks in Cephalonia and Zante were tabulated, the record extending over two and a quarter years. “During this time thirty distinct and well-marked shocks were recorded in Cephalonia ; but in no case did the shocks in Zante, although nearly con- temporaneous, absolutely coincide with them. In most cases an interval of some days, and almost always more than twenty-four hours, seems to have elapsed between the times of the disturbances in the two, although they are so near that in these days [1863] of long range, a penpenstbot fired from the one might reach to the other. aides : NOTES. _ THE French Academy of Sciences has opened a subscription in support of the movement for the publication of the writings of Jean Servais Stas and the erection of a monument in his memory. } A MEETING of delegates of the Academies of Science at Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig, Munich, and Vienna was held on January 29, under the presidency of Prof. Ribbeck. The object of the meeting was to prepare the way for a sort of federal union of the various German scientific societies, so that they may be able to act together about important matters 6f common interest. A hope was expressed that a great international confederation of _ scientific societies might ultimately be formed. ANNOUNCEMENT has been made of the death, on February 2, 1893, at Hendaye, in the Department of the Basses Pyrénées, in his sixty-eighth year, of M. Victor Aimé Léon Olphe-Gal- liard, author, among other works, of ‘‘ Contributions a la Faune Ornithologique de l'Europe Occidentale,” in forty livraisons (of which the last was published in 1892) giving an elaborate de- scription of the birds not merely of Western but of almost the whole of Europe, to say nothing of allied species belonging to other countries. M. Olphe-Galliard (whose name few writers, even Frenchmen, spell correctly) was remarkable among his countrymen for his knowledge of other languages than his own, and his recognition of the works of foreign ornithologists stands out in great contrast with that accorded to them by most con- tinental authors, He translated into French several valuable papers written in Swedish and other tongues as little known, thus bringing them before readers to whom they would have been otherwise inaccessible, while he still further showed his apprecia- tion of foreign naturalists by introducing into his principal work portraits of Johann Friedrich’ Naumann and William Mac- gillivray as the representative ornithologists of Germany and Great Britain. The earliest performance by which M. Olphe- Galliard will be remembered was his description in the Annales of the National Society of Lyons for 1852 of the interesting Al- gerian bird which he called Zrithacus Moussieri, after a French army-surgeon of that name who had recognised it as a new species in 1846, In the following year specimens of it were procured by the late Mr. Louis Fraser, and placed in the British NO. 1217, VOL. 47] Museum, but they met no kind reception there then, or even later, for the species finds itself in the Catalogue of Birds (vii. p. 20) far removed from what all naturalists who have observed it in life declare to be its nearest relations—the Stonechats or the Redstarts—and shot into the rubbish-hole placarded 77me- litde, where no one would ever think of looking forit. M. Olphe-Galliard’s latest publication consisted of letters addressed to him by the somewhat eccentric Christian Ludwig Brehm, which appeared in the Ornithologisches Fahrbuch for 1892. A MEETING of conchologists is to be held at 67, Chancery Lane, on Monday, February 27, at 8 p.m., for the purpose of founding a “‘ Malacological Society of London.” THE Geologists’ Association has arranged for a visit of the members to the British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, on+March 18, when Mr. W. Carruthers will give a demon- stration on ‘‘Gymnosperms from the Devonian to the present time.” There will be an excursion to Norwich, Cromer, and Lowestoft at Easter. SOME admirable suggestions for the guidance of teachers of evening classes in wood-working under the direction of County Councils have been prepared by the Examination Board and Committee of the City and Guilds of London Institute. The suggestions relate to drawing lessons, object lessons, and bench- work lessons. THE type of weather during the past week has undergone but little change from that of the preceding week. Anticyclonic areas lay over Scandinavia and Spain, and low pressure systems continued to skirt our north and west coasts. The general conditions, however, were much quieter, although a deep de- pression reached the west of Ireland on. Sunday, causing gales on our western coasts. On Tuesday a large and important dis- turbance arrived over the south-west of England from off the Atlantic, and the wind circulation around its central area was complete. The difference of barometric pressure was, however, by no means large in different parts of the kingdom, and con- sequently there was not much wind. The barometer fell as low as 28°7 inches over the centre of the cyclonic area, and later during the day the disturbance continued its passage across England, and was accompanied by heavy rain. Temperature. continued high for the season, the daily maxima ranging gener- ally from 45° to 55°, while on Sunday, the 19th inst., the ther- mometer rose to 60° in the inland parts of England. In London it reached 59°, which was a higher reading than had been recorded so early in the year since 1878. The sky was excep- tionally brilliant in the east and south-east on that day, but on the whole the air has been very damp throughout the week, and rainfall has been of almost daily occurrence. For the week ended the 18th inst. the rainfall exceeded the mean in all dis- tricts, except in the east of England. In the west of Scotland and the south-west of England the excess was considerable. Bright sunshine only exceeded the normal amount in Ireland and the north and east of Scotland. THE Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean for February, 1893, shows that the weather in the North Atlantic during January was not abnormally severe, and that the eastern part of the ocean was unusually free from storms. A map is given illustrating the great size and severity of the hurricane of December 22 last, which had moved rapidly from Hatteras in an east-north-east direction. At the time selected for illustra- tion, when the centre lay in longitude 36° west, the storm area covered the entire Atlantic from Labrador and Nova Scotia to Madeira, Portugal, and Ireland. Some very low barometer readings were recorded, the lowest being 27°75 inches. There was a large amount of ice during January along the coast of 396 NATURE [ FEBRUARY Pa 1893 America, as far south as’ Hatteras; in Chesapeake Bay it was reported to be thicker than for twenty-five years. THE Official report of the International Metebvélogiont € Con- ference at Munich from August 26 to September 2, 1891, has now been issued. It contains protocols of the various meetings, with appendices and supplements, THESSALY was supposed to have got rid of the plague of. field mice, but it appears that the congratulations offered to her were somewhat premature. The Athens correspondent of the Zzmes telegraphs that swarms ofthese troublesome Creatures aré begin- ning to reappear both in Thessaly and in the: neighbouting dis- trict of Phthiotis. ‘‘It was hoped,” he says, ‘‘ that the severe cold and heavy rains of the last few months had exterminated them, but they seem to have,taken refuge i inthe mountains, and are now returning in large numbers, to the plains. The Prefect of Phthiotis has applied to the’ Government for instructions as to the best means of dealing with th this destructive pests.” ACCORDING to a correspondent of the Scotsman, writing from Borthwickbrae, Selkirkshire, the mice pest in Scotland has greatly diminished, if it has not entirely disappeared, during the last two months. “The great abundance of owls,’’ he says, **coupled with the very severe weather, has no doubt given them a check.” During the severe storm of last month the owls, unfortunately, suffered also. - The keeper at Alemoor Loch counted over thirty of the short-eared or heather owl, and eight kestrel hawks—some lying dead, others able to fly a few yards only, while several sat until lifted in the hands. The short-eared owls did not go to the woods to roost, which were close to the loch, but were in the willows and reeds along the edge of the loch. Sir EpwarpD BirKBECK has accepted the presidency of the British Sea-Anglers’ Society, which ‘was founded recently at a meeting held in London. It is proposed that the Society shall have branches in all parts of the United Kingdom, and the members hope that they may be able not only to secure for themselves ‘certain advantages in connection with their favourite sport, but to be of some public service. The .chairman of the preliminary meeting, Mr. C. H. Cook, touched on the question of legislation for the protection of sea-fish. ‘‘I hope,” he said, “*that the anglers will take up the cause of immature sea-fish. Already a movement, to which-we may give a strong impetus, is rolling forward in this direction, but it is checked by the traw- lers’ interests. The harm done by these men is almost incalculable. I have seen their nets within a stone’s throw of the shore, in less than three fathoms of water, where they scoop up and destroy the infant fish by the million. -It may be that the evidence ten- dered by trustworthy members of the Sea-Anglers’ Society may be the means of putting an end to inshore trawling. I hope it will. It often happens that the information given to the Fishery Boards is wilfully misleading, owing toit being given by fisher- men, who fear they will lose their living.’’ THE Council of the Cremation Society of England, in- its Report for 1892, expresses much satisfaction with the progress made by the cause which the Society represents. It seems that within the year no fewer than 104 bodies were cremated, ‘‘ in- cluding a large proportion of individuals well known in society by their connection with art, science, or literature, or by a distinguished position of some other kind, ten having been members of the medical profession.” Mr. A. H. S. Lucas, who has edited the Victorian Naturalist admirably since it was started nearly nine years ago, has tendered his resignation in consequence of his election to the head-mastership of Newington College, Sydney. The Field: Naturalists’ Club, of Victoria, to which the magazine belongs, NO. 1217, VOL. 47] has expressed its. cordial thanks to Mr. Lucas for his services. Mr. F, G. A. Barnard, who has been both secretary and. librarian of the club, will act for the present as Mr. Lincas's successor. : A MOST biateneiticie and suggestive paper on ‘ pottery pines their classification and décorative value in ceramic design” was read by Mr. W. P. Rix at the meeting of the Society of Arts on February 7.' It is printed in the current number of the Society’s Journal. Mr. Rix tries to show that the relative merit of various glazes is based upon certain optical principles, which have’ only been partially examined by men of science, and that these. prin- ciples, underlying the pleasurable sensations to the eye, really govern that which we are pleased to call good taste and ex- cellence, so far as glazes are concerned, and are not mere matters of opinion, The reading of the paper was followed by a lively discussion, in the course of which Mr, Binns quoted a saying attributed to Mr. Gladstone, that a fine piece of glaze ‘* feels like'the touch of a baby’s hand.” Mr. Binns had often been striék with the aptness of the illustration. There was a peculiar soft texture ina fine piece of glaze that only a connoisseur could appreciate. THE Times of Tuesday gives an account of a process by which anthracite coal bricks are now being manufactured. The bricks are made of grains of anthracite dust, which are forced to cohere by means of a special cementing compound and by great pressure. The coal dust is mixed with the binding mat- erial in the proportion of 96 percent. of the former to 4 percent. of the latter. The compound is fed into a mixer, where it meets a jet of steam, a stiff paste being formed, which is delivered successively into a series of moulds under a pressure of 25 cwt. As the mould plate revolves, the charge in each mould is brought between two rams, which exert a pressure of two tons per square inch on each side of the charge, forming a very dense and homo- geneous coal brick. The brick, still in the mould, passes on to the delivery ram, by which it is pushed out on toa table, and is is removed for the market. These coal bricks are said to make an excellent fuel and to possess a very high efficiency for steam- raising purposes. The Zimes thinks that with such a fuel at the disposal of the public there is room to hope for a reduction in the pollution of the atmosphere of towns, as well as a reduction in the coal bills of steamship companies and of steam users generally. It adds that the invention is being worked by the Coal Brick Syndicate, of 2, drailgan bee ge renee land Avenue, London. é | Ir seems that serious naktasious have been committed among the recently-discovered . Phoenician tombs at Gebel Imtarfa, in Malta. The Mediterranean Naturalist says that the manner in which not only these tombs, but many others, have been rifled of their contents by irresponsible curiosity hunters, and the state in which many of the ancient ruins of the islands now are constitute a disgrace to European archeological science. More has been done to obliterate and destroy vestiges of Malta’s ancient history during the last two centuries than was effected in the preceding two thousand years. Orders have been issued from head-quarters, Valletta, to the effect that the District Commanding Royal Engineer is to report immediately any discoveries of ancient tombs, burial places, or pottery that may occur in course of excavations for works, or come to light in any way ; and that such objects are to be carefully preserved __ until they have been inspected by an officer of the Civil Govern- ment, and left untouched z s¢¢w until this inspection has been made. A DISCUSSION on Mr. E. G. Carey’s paper—to which we lately referred—on the bridges of the Manchester Ship Canal i is | i iM . Fepruary 23, 1893] NA TURE 397 -in the new instalment of the Transactions of the Insti- tution of Engineers and Shipbuilders in Scotland. Mr. Carey, in the course of his reply to the various speakers, alluded to the question as to the value of annealing steel. He said that, so far as his experience went, annealing steel certainly removed all stress. At the Forth Bridge they were very curious about this subject, They had a single strip of steel, which they strained up to some 30 times, to about 25 tons on the square inch. After every straining, it was annealed. That went on for days and weeks, the steel seemed to be literally the same as when they start The experiment grew wearisome, and ultimately, when the strain was run up inadvertently to about 30 tons per square inch, and the specimen finally broke, it was almost a , but it proved that the annealing of steel removed all strein, and that, although injured, if annealed, it seemed to recover its former properties. _ A VALUABLE synonymic and bibliographical catalogue of the - New Zealand land and freshwater Mollusca, by H. Suter, was communicated to the Linnean Society of New South Wales at its meeting on December 28. In 1880 Prof. Hutton, in his “*Manual of the New Zealand Mollusca,” enumerated 125 species of land, fresh, and brackish water molluscs. Since then has made such rapid strides that this fauna is raised in Mr. Suter’s catalogue to a total of 178 species, divided by him into 45 genera. The land mollusca embrace 142 species, of which 15 are operculate ; the fluviatile shells are reckoned at 32, 12 being bivalves and 7 operculate univalves, This large addition of one-third to the list of twelve years ago is not the greatest advantage the present catalogue has over its prede- cessor ; numerous species are now removed which, by the negli- gence of collectors or»the errors of European authors, were formerly included among the shells of New Zealand. The attention bestowed during the last decade upon the anatomy of the New Zealand snails has furnished data for a more natural classification, while the increase of colonial libraries has facili- tated the quotation of fuller references than were previously we” Oe Mr. ¥ M. STAHL, Illinois, has much to say in the American Agriculturist about the virtues of wood ashes. Speaking of them as a medicine for farm animals, he says he has found them of great value. He has raised swine rather extensively for more than twenty years without cholera or swine plague, and has not lost one per cent. of his hogs from disease. He keeps wood ashes, and charcoal mixed with salt, constantly before his swine in a large covered box with holes two-by-six inches near the bottom. The hogs will work the mixture out through these holes as fast as they want it. He selects ashes rich in charcoal, and mixes three parts of ashes to one of salt. There is no danger of the swine eating too much of this mixture, or of pure salt, if it is kept constantly before them, and they are provided with water. The beneficial effects of the mixture are quite marked, especially when the hogs are fattened on fresh maize. A little wood ashes, given to horses, is also, he maintains, very beneficial. In thirty-seven years’ experience upon the farm he has lost but one horse, and this was overheated in the horse-power of a thresh- ing-machine during his absence, and the only ‘condition powder” he has ever used has been clean wood ashes. The ashes may be given by putting an even teaspoonful on the oats twice a week, but he prefers to keep the ashes and salt mixture constantly before the horses, and has made for it a little com- partment in one corner of the feed box. His experience is that the best condition powder is a mixture of three parts wood ashes to one of salt ; and that when it is given regularly, and reason- able care and intelligence are used in handling the horse, no other medicines are necessary. Mr. Stahl has also la faith in the efficacy of wood ashes as a fertiliser. NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | _A VALUABLE paper on the industrial . resources of the Caucasus, by an Austrian official, Herr G. Sedlaczek, is sum- marised in the Board of Trade Journal for February. Dealing with the silk industry, the author says that the Russian Govern- ment has spent more money for the furtherance of this depart- ment of trade than for any other industrial purpose in Caucasia, and that the results are in no way commensurate with the trouble and outlay. Although the country possesses innumer- able mulberry trees, in some parts forming veritable forests, and excellently ° suitéd for feeding silkworms, although the climatic conditions are favourable, and the inhabitants have from time immemorial been familiar with the working up of the raw material, the most untiring efforts of the Government have proved little else than a struggle to preserve the mere existence of the silk culture and industry. The estimated production of silk in Transcaucasia at the present ‘day is 36,000 pouds, although in 1855 it was 30,000 pouds. The average value of the produce is said to be about 6,000,000 roubles. Consider- able advance has been made in reeling, spinning, and twisting ; new foreign machinery is everywhere at work, and all that is wanting is a good raw material, the production of which is, however, being constantly prevented, on the one hand by dis- ease in the worms, and on the other by the indolence of the producers. The Russian demand for silk is far from covered by native production, silk being annually imported to the value of about 124 millions of roubles, while the exports amount only to about 3,000,000 roubles in value. In spite of protective duties the imports are increasing while the exports are decreasing. MANY marine animals (radiolaria, ctenophora, &c.) rise and sink slowly in the water, having some means, apparently, of changing their specific gravity. This has been recently studied by Herr Verworn (Pfiiger’s Archiv), in the case of 7halassicolla nucleata, a radiolarian about the size of a pea. It has a central capsule with nucleus, a coarse endoplasm, a vacuole-layer, a gelatinous-layer, and ray-like processes. As a rule, these animals float at the surface. They sink on seizing food heavier than themselves, also when strongly stimulated by shaking, or by chemical agents. It was found that the central capsule and the gelatinous layer are both heavier than sea-water, while the vacuole-layer is lighter. On being stimulated, the pseudopodia (or processes) were drawn into the vacuole-layer, and the pro- toplasm also retired from this, the walls of the vacuoles flatten- ing from without inwards, till at length very little of them was left. Then the animal began to sink. At the bottom the vacuoles were soon regenerated, and the animal rose again. Thus it appears that the vacuole-layer is the hydrostatic appar- atus of these organisms, the vacuole :liquid being that part of the cell which is lighter than sea-water, and keeps the cell at the surface. The same probably holds good with other pelagic animals. That the vacuole-liquid is lighter than the sea-water from which it comes is no difficulty, since it is known that living protoplasm is impermeable for many salts. A VOLUMETRIC method for determining the amount of chromium in a specimen of steel has become a great metallur- . gical desideratum since the good qualities conferred upon steel by its addition have become generally known. Such a method is described by G. Giorgis, of the University of Rome, in the Atti of the Accademia det Lincet. It is founded upon the formation of potassium chromate and hydrated manganese sesquioxide on adding a solution of potassium permanganate to a solution of sesquioxide of chromium in potassium hydrate. Ten grammes of the steel are dissolved ina mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids (3 to 1), the solution is made up to 1 litre with distilled water, and 250 c.c. are made just alkaline with sodium hydrate, and treated with hot permanganate of potash till the solution assumes.a red colour. After cooling the whole is 398 NATURE [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 poured into a flask of 500 c.c. capacity, filling up with water. 400 c.c. are filtered through a dry filter, acidified with sulphuric acid, reduced by SO,, and concentrated to 200 or 100 c.c., according to the quantity of chromium probably present. Donath’s method may then be employed, consisting in the addition of the chromium salt prepared as above described, to a measured quantity of a standard permanganate solution, and watching for the golden yellow colour assumed by the mixture when the permanganate is all dissolved, z.e. when all the chromium exists in the form of a chromate, from which the amount of chromium is easily calculated. It is said that this process is extremely accurate, and requires only a small fraction of the time required by gravimetric methods. THE subject of dew appears to be still involved in some con- troversy. An experimental contribution to it has been recently made by Herr Wollny (Forschungen, .&c.), who used plants in glazed pots with earth of varying moisture, some of these being allowed to radiate freely on favourable nights, while others were screened. The following is a brief outline of Herr Wollny’s views :—Dew depends partly on evaporation from the ground, partly on transpiration. It is at present doubtful whether pre- cipitates from the air share in it or not. A cloudy sky weakens the cooling process without stopping it wholly. : With copious radiation, the temperature minimum is at the surface of the plant- covering (of the ground), and here the aqueous vapour rising from the warm ground is partly. precipitated. With increase of the ground-heat downward there is increase of the water brought up by the plants, which is given up as vapour and condensed. The more moisture there is in the ground, the more water is evaporated from the ground and the plants. Dew formation is usually favoured by the larger number of stomata on the under surface of leaves than on the upper. Ona given surface of ground the dew is more plentiful the stronger the plant organs above ground, and the closer the plant growth. The temper- ature of still air increases from the surface to a certain limit (at about 5 feet over grass it was sometimes 4° or 5°C. warmer than on the ground). In experiments with blotting paper, cotton wool, feathers, and asbestos, the first was much moistened, while the others showed dew in drops. Bodies of organic origin at- tract more moisture than those of mineral (a case of hygroscopic absorption). For vegetation, the author considers the benefit of dew but trifling. Of the whole annual precipitation at Munich dew only gave 3°23 per cent. WITH the present year the weekly Botanische Zeitung enters on the fifty-first year of its existence, and Grafzu Solms-Laubach gives with the first number of the year an interesting sketch of its history, uninterrupted for half a century, even during the stormy period of 1847-1849. The inception of the undertaking was due to the suggestion of a botanist still living, Dr. Carl Miiller, of Halle. The first number of the Botanische Zeitung appeared on January 9, 1843, under the editorship of Von Moh] and Schlechtendal. The editorial chair has been occupied since then by some of the most distinguished German botanists, De Bary, Hallier, Kraus, Jost, and the present editors, Solms- Laubach and Wortmann. Dr. VINEs, the Professor of Botany in the University of Oxford, has for some time past had in preparation a ‘‘ Student’s Text-book of Botany,” which will be more comprehensive than his edition of Prantl’s well-known ‘‘ Elementary Text-book.” It is to be fully illustrated, and is expected to be ready early in the autumn of this year. It will be published by Messrs. Swan Sonnenschein and Co. MEssrs. GAUTHIER-VILLARS ET FILs, Paris, continue to issue the useful series of small volumes called ‘*En- cyclopédie Scientifique des Aide-Mémoire.” The follow- NO. 1217, VOL. 47] ing volumes have lately been added: ‘‘ Corderie,” by M. Alheilig; ‘‘Formation des Gites Métalliféres,” by L. de Launay; ‘‘Le Grisou,” by M. Le Chatelier; ‘* Moteurs 4 Vapeur,” by M. Dudebout ; ‘‘ Détente Variable de la Vapeur,” by A. Madamet ; ‘‘ Canons, vara et Cuirasses,” by A. Croneau ; ‘‘ Textiles Végétaux,” by H. Lecomte ; ‘‘ Essais d’Or et d’Argent,” by H. Gautier; ‘Etat Actuel de la Marine de Guerre,” by L. E. Bertin ; ‘‘ Industrie des Cuirs et des Pedux,” by Ferdinand Jean. THE ‘‘Annuaire,” for 1893, of the Royal ove dale of Belgium, by F. Folie, has been published. This is the sixtieth year of issue. THE Department of Science and Art has issued the volume for 1893 containing its calendar, history, and general summary of regulations. In the course of an elaborate investigation recently published in the Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene, December 9, 1892 (‘ Die Aetio- logie des infectidsen fieberhaften Icterus ” (Weil’sche Krank- heit), Jaeger draws attention to the dangers which may arise from bathing in polluted water. Already in 1888 Pfuhl (Dezdésche militir-aretl, Zeitschrift, 1888, Heft 9 and 10) attributed an outbreak of typhoid fever, accompanied by jaundice, which occurred amongst the garrison stationed at Altona to bathing. in the Elbe, which at the time was described as more than usually. polluted. Hiieber and Globig came to similar conclusions with regard to outbreaks of the above ‘‘ Weil’sche Krankheit,” which. appeared at Ulm on the Danube and Lehe respectively. Jaeger: has made a special study of the cases which arose amongst the soldiers at Ulm, and has endeavoured to trace, if possible, the’ infection to its source. It was found that the military bathing- place was situated below the point where the Danube is joined by the highly-polluted river Blau. This stream is described as being practically an open sewer, and even before it reaches Ulm is stated to be grossly contaminated in its flow through the small village of Séflingen. It was further ascertained that in this village for many years a mysterious disease had been rife amongst the ducks and geese, whilst fowls were also occasionally attacked, and that moreover it was a common custom to throw the dead carcases of these animals into the Blau as the readiest means of getting rid of them. A careful examination of some of the birds which had succumbed to this disease revealed the constant presence of a micro-organism, which Jaeger asserts was identical with that found repeatedly and isolated in the cases of icterus investigated by him at Ulm. It is further stated that by mixing some of the highly-polluted Blau water at Sdflingen with sterile broth, and inoculating it into white mice, they were killed in sixteen hours, and that the organism, which was found abundantly present in various organs of the body, was in every respect identical with that previously isolated in the cases of icterus at Ulm, and from the carcases of the birds at Soflingen. Taking these various results into consideration Jaeger is of opinion that they afford very strong evidence’ of the virus of this disease having been introduced into the highly con-. taminated stream at Soflingen, and conveyed thence to the military bathing-place, which, as already mentioned, is situated below the junction of the Blau with the Danube. In conse- quence of the appearances in cultivations to which this organism gives rise, the author has suggested for its name Bacillus proteus. fluorescens, and claims in it to have discovered the exciting cause of the so-called ‘‘ Weil’sche Krankheit,” the etiology of which is attracting much attention on the continent. Notes from the Marine Biological Station, Plymouth :— Heavy gales have prevailed for many weeks, confining operations to the inshore waters. The week’s.captures include numbers of the Archiannelid Dinophilus teniatus, of the Polycheta Marphysa oe \ FEBRUARY 23, 1893| NATURE 399 Pat sanguinea and Sigalion boa, and of the Nudibranch Ancula cris tata. In addition to the forms mentioned last week, the townettings have contained the Siphonophore Muggiea ailan- tica, the Anthomedusa Margellium (Lizzia) octopunctatum, and several ephyrz of Aurelia, together with numbers of Teleostean ova, Prosobranch and Opisthobranch veligers, larval Lamelli- branchs and Cyfhonautes-larve. The Polychete Cirratulus cirratus and Gastropod Littorina littoralis are also breeding. THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past we k include a Vervet Monkey (Cercopithecus lalandii) from South Africa, presented by Mr. Walter Neall ; two Red and Yellow Macaws (Ara chloroptera) from South America, presented by Mr. Henry Goschen ; a Herring Gull (Larus argentaius) European, presented by Mr. W. R. Galbraith ; a Bar-breasted Finch (A/unia nisoria) from Java, presented by Mr. Sydney D. Birch ; two Whooper Swans (Cyguus musicus) European, purchased ; a Vulpine Phalanger (Phalangista vul- _ pina), three Barbary Mice (4/us darbarus) born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. Comet Brooks (NovEMBER 19, 1892).—The following ephemeris for Comet Brooks is taken from Astronomische Nach- vichten, No. 3142 :— 1893. R.A. (app.) Decl. (app.) hm s. ° / a Feb. 23 © 31 49 ... +24 182 24 33 0 ... 23 59°8 25 34 9 23 42°1 26 35 17 23 25°0 27 36 24 23. 8°5 28 37-30. a > 2252'S March 1 O 38°34 =. 22 36°38 Comet HoLMeEs (1892 III.).—Several communications with ‘respect to the late appearances of this comet are inserted in the Comet Notes of Astronomy and Astrophysics for February, among which will be found one by Prof. E, Barnard. Observing with a 12-inch on the night of January 16, at 8h. 1om., he that an estimation of the comet’s diameter gave 30”, while a setting of the wires indicated 29’°4. While under observation “the comet seemed to be perceptibly brightening,” and further measurements at gh. 45m. gave a diameter of 32”°4. At this _ time he says: ‘‘The nucleus had developed clearly, and was very noticeable as a small, ill-defined star.” With the 36-inch, which he was able to use later, he made the following measures, which we reproduce here, as they are’ quite unique in showing the increase in diameter of a comet due evidently to some external impact :— pemanare Pacific time. Diameter. - m “ 10 29 434 . 10 30 44°9 IO 31 436 IO 42 47'8 10 43 479 10 45 460 II 13 Tis 47°3 II 15 rs 46'I In concluding his remarks he says: ‘‘ This is certainly the most remarkable comet I have ever seen, taking everything into consideration.” The following is the ephemeris for this week :— Greenwich, Midnight. 1893. - = A. (app ) Decl. (app.) - Mm, Ss. ° ‘ Feb. 23 219 4°4 +34 31 7 24 20 44° 33 36 = 25 22 25'5 36 9 26 24 64 38 42 27 25 48'0 41 18 28 27 29°6 43 54 Marchi ... 29 II'9 46 34 2 ++ 2 30 543 34 49 13 SOLAR OBSERVATIONS AT RomE.—In the Memorie Degli Spettroscopisti Italiani for January, Prof. Tacchini communi- | NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | cates the observations made at the Royal College with respect to the various phenomena observed at the solar surface during the third trimestre of 1892. Dealing first with the prominences the total number for each of the months are respectively for north latitudes, 182, 129, 120, total 431 ; and for south latitudes 141, 167, 185, the total number here amounting to 493. The balance here is in favour of the southern hemisphere for greater frequency, but a curious fact may here be remarked, and that is that the maxima for the north and south latitudes occur in the months of July and September respectively, each exceeding con- siderably the number of prominences recorded for the same month in the opposite hemisphere. The greatest frequencies occurred in latitudes (+60° + 70°) and (—50°-—60°). The groups of spots seem to have pre- dominated slightly in the southern latitudes, the record show- ing 49 against 41; at the equator as many as 13 for zone (0°+10°) were seen, the zone (0°—10°) showing only 4; the relative frequency occurred here in the same zones in both hemispheres (+ 10° 20°). With reference to eruptions, the month of July contains the only records, six for the northern, and three for the southern hemisphere, four of these taking place in zone (+10°+ 20°), Prof. Tacchini also has a note on the great prominence of November 16 last, in which he describes in detail the numerous observations which he was fortunate to procure. Although one can gather a good idea of the rapidity of the ascent from the table, the figures which accompany it show in astriking manner the great changes of shape that was such a conspicuous feature in its ascent. At gh. om. on the 16th the height was only 131’°8, but at rh. it had reached 319’’*2, and at th. 35m., 534”°3, this being its maximum height. It is interesting to notice the numbers showing the increase of altitude in ove minute of time. For instance, at 1th. 55m. the increase of altitude per minute was 0°56, at th. 4m. it was 6”°75, decreasing from this value to 4°34 at th. 27m. At rh. 32m. the velocity of ascent was increased, the value amounting to 9”°72, but at rth. 34m. the increase of altitude reached its maximum, 20’’*80, showing the ascent per minute. THE STAR CATALOGUE OF THE ‘‘ ASTRONOMISCHE GESSEL- SCHAFT.”—The Harvard College Observatory has now com- pleted the task of cataloguing the zone of stars undertaken in connection with the great catalogue of the Astronomische Gessel- schaft. The stars included number 8627, and lie between 49° 50’ and 55° 10’ north declination, and the positions are re- duced to the epoch 1875. Most of the observations were made by Prof. Rogers during the years 1870-1884, and the reductions have throughout been in his charge. The publication appears simultaneously as vol. xv. part ii. of the Annads of the Harvard Observatory, and as one of the volumes of the Gesse/schaft. All concerned are to be congratulated on the completion of the zone, which involved over twenty-six thousand observations and an immense amount of calculation. Nova AuriG#&.—Mr. Fowler draws attention to the fact that the nova is still as bright as ninth magnitude, and therefore easily visible in comparatively small telescopes. Its spectrum seems to consist of the two bright nebula lines near wave-lengths 5006 and 4956. The latter is only slightly fainter than that at 5006. PARALLAX OF 8 CyGNi.—Mr. Harold Jacoby, whose work on the reduction of the Rutherford photographic measures of the stars about 8 Cygni we’ have previously referred to, suggests in Astronomical Fournal, No. 287, that the discrepancies in the results can be explained on the hypothesis of a parallax of 8 Cygni amounting nearly to a whole second of arc, To in- vestigate this he has chosen five pairs of comparison stars, from which he has computed the parallax from each pair separately by ‘‘usifg the difference of the distances of the two comparison stars from 8 as the quantity from whose variation the parallax should appear ;”’ in this way he has obtained the weighted mean for the parallax to be + 0’°97, a value which, if endorsed by further observations will show us that of all stars 8 Cygni is one of our nearest neighbours. GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. Mr. G. B. GruNnpy, of Brasenose College, the student in geography appointed jointly by the University of Oxford and the Royal Geographical Society, has made a careful survey of the battlefield and site of the town of Platzea and of Leuctra, 400 NATURE _ [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 in Greece. He is now engaged in preparing a comprehensive memoir on the subject which may be expected to throw new light on some questions of historical geography. Mr. MACKINDER, in his fifth lecture for the Royal Geo- graphical Society’s education scheme, spoke of the chief lines of communication between Asia and Europe and the ways by which successive bands or hordes of Asiatic invaders forced a passage into the heart of Europe. The routes across Asia Minor from the Gate of Cilicia to the northern waters, and the thorough- fare through the Balkan peninsula now traversed by the inter- national railway, were shown to have guided the movements of peoples and the formation or dissolution of nations from the dawn of European history on to the present day. THE United States appears to have entered the field as an aggrandising power, taking up territory beyond the limits of the continent of North America, The annexation of Hawaii seems likely to be effected without remonstrance, and a footing has also been obtained in San Domingo, the eastern part of the island of Haiti. Mr. A. VAUGHAN WILLIAMS has been exploring the region round the mouth of the Sabi River in south-east Africa. He has ascended the stream for thirty miles to the limit of tidal influence. THE orthography of African place names is a perpetual source of confusion. It appears that in place of Zimbabwe or Zim- babye we ought, in order to render the sound of the word used by the people surrounding the ruins, to write ‘‘ Zimbabghi.” The familiar name Mashonaland is in itself a corruption of the native name, but is always pronounced Mashunaland, a pronunciation to which the spelling ought to conform. RAILWAYS seem likely at last to become established in China. The line from Teintsin to Taku has now been ex- tended to the River Lan, a total distance of 130 miles, and is being rapidly pushed northward, a considerable section being already opened for passenger traffic. CAPTAIN BOWERS JOURNEY IN TIBET. At an extra meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, on Monday night, Captain H. Bower described his recent journey with Dr. Thorold across Tibet from west to east. They set out from Leh on June 14, 1891, and were fortunate enough to get well into Tibet before meeting any natives. Travelling due east they crossed a pass of 18,400 feet, on the other side of which lay the Horpa Cho, the highest lake yet met with in Tibet, and probably the highest in the world, its altitude being 17,930 feet. Along the route eastward many other lakes were passed, all salt and without outlet, the want of fresh water being sometimes severely felt ; a kettleful of hailstones was. welcome catch on one occasion. ‘The travellers used ponies and donkeys for carrying their loads, as yaks do not eat grain, and grass was often not met with for many dzys’ journey.. At length, after travelling east and south-east for about 700 miles, they were stopped within 200 miles of Lhasa by the Tibetans, who paid no attention to Chinese passports, and after much parleying in- sisted on a complete change of route. The party had to retrace their steps for several days’ march, turn northward, and then make their way east at a safer distance from the capital. It was now the month of October and the crossing of passes over 18,000 feet, with temperatures of 15° or more below zero, in strong wind was extremely trying. About the end of November, for the first time for four months, the tents were pitched at a less altitude than 15,000 feet, and soon afterwards Chiamdo was reached. Here great difficulty was experienced withthe lamas, who in- sisted that no European should enter the town; but by the intervention of the Chinese Amban, whose power was really but slight, the party was allowed to proceed, passing round the out- side of the town. From Chiamdo to Batang the way was easy, and no difficulties were experienced thereafter. At Ta-Chen-Lu they entered China and reached Shanghai on March 29, 1892. Throughout Central Tibet the authorities disclaimed the sovereignty of China, maintaining that only the grand lama had jurisdiction in that region. Many of the lamas met with were educated and intelligent men, but not inclined to give informa- tion. Much difficulty was experienced in getting the names of lakes and mountains, no two Tibetans giving the same answer. NO. 1217, VOL. 47] The fanaticism and distrust of the people created constant diffi- ; culties, but Captain Bower, under the pretext of being a Budd- hist with a peculiar ritual, succeeded. in making observations for position openly as part of a religious service, previous attempts to do so by stealth having failed. THE CHEMISTRY OF OSMIUM. AN important addition to our knowledge of the chemical nature of this interesting element is contributed by Prof. Moraht and Dr. Wischin, of Munich, to the current number of the Zeitschrift fiir Anorganische Chemie. Two years have scarcely elapsed since the position of osmium in the periodic system was finally decided by the painstaking re-determination of its atomic weight by Prof. Seubert. Previous determinations of the atomic weight of osmium had been made with material which Seubert subsequently showed to be impure, and in con- sequence the erroneous value, 198°6, had been ascribed to it. Indeed previous to the year 1878 the order of precedence as regards atomic weight of the four metals of the platinum group —gold 196°2, iridium 196°7, platinum 196°7, and osmium 198°6 —was entirely at variance with the order demanded by their chemical and physical properties, and a standing contradiction of the periodic law of Newlands and Mendeleef. In that -year, however, Seubert attacked the case of iridium, and as the result of a series of determinations, made with the laborious. care which has characterised all his work, the atomic weight of this metal, when obtained in a pure state, was shown to be 192°5, a number very different to that previously assigned to it, and which was afterwards remarkably confirmed, even to the decimal place, by an independent investigation by Joly. Three years later Seubert made his celebrated re-determination _ of the atomic weight of platinum, which resulted in the number 194°3 being finally derived for the true atomic weight of the perfectly pure metal. This value was likewise subsequently confirmed by Halberstadt. In the year 1887 the position of gold was decided by simultaneous independent re-determinations of its atomic weight by Thorpe and Laurie in this country and Kriiss in Germany, the two values being practically identical, 196°7. Lastly,’ in 1891, Seubert completed his work by re- determining the atomic weight of osmium with a specimen of the metal of practically perfect purity, with the result that the The order of precedence of the metals of the platinum grou is therefore as follows :—Osmium 190°3, iridium 1925, platinum 194°3, and gold 196°7. This order is in full accordance with the relative chemical and physical properties of these metals, and the last outstanding exception to the periodic generalisation has dfsappeared. Although the properties of pure metallicosmium, and particular- ly its atomic weight, are now known with certainty, the nature of its compounds is yet very little understood. Moreover, it is evident from the result of the investigation of Prof. Seubert that previous workers have been dealing with an impure metal of atomic weight, 198°6. It was therefore desirable that not only should the chemistry of this element be extended to compounds hitherto uninvestigated, but that the composition and properties of the compounds already known should be subjected to a re- examination. shakes Neheg Prof. Moraht and Dr. Wischin have therefore taken up’ the study of the compounds of osmium with oxygen, sulphur, and the halogens, employing material of a very high degree of purity, and the results of their investigation are both novel and interesting. pair Work with osmium compounds is endowed with peculiar personal danger to the chemist, owing to the great facility ex- hibited under the most various conditions for the formation of the tetroxide OsO,, a substance which boils at 100° C., and is very volatile at the ordinary temperature, and which attacks the skin, the lungs, and particularly the eyes with most serious con- sequences. ; The material started with was a comparatively pure sample of the best known salt containing osmium, potassium osmate, K,OsO,4.2H,O. This salt was further purified by distillation = ee a warm air O_o FEBRUARY 23, 1893] NATURE 4or uy et showing no trace ofiridium. Previous observers have noticed that an aqueous solution of on of a as been ascribed. The specimens experimented with, however, ndoubtedly contained iridium, and it was therefore of interest to investigate the action of sunlight upon solutions of the pure salt just described. When the crimson octahedrons of ‘pure OsO,.2H,O were dissolved in cold water, and the clear red- Violet-coloured solution was exposed to direct sunshine, no ‘evidence ‘of change was apparent for several days, but the moment the vessel containing the solution was immersed in a bath of boiling water, while in bright sunshine, decomposition . heart and a black precipitate rapidly accumulated, until the expiration of two or three hours the whole of the osmium present was deposited. As there is a marked tendency for the production of the noxious fumes of osmium tetroxide during this decomposition of the hot osmate solution by the waves of light it is best to take the precaution of reducing their amount to a minimum by the addition of a little alcohol, which acts as a rig. aad agent under these circumstances, and by passing a stream of hydrogen through the solution during the whole m. The precipitate is usually so finely divided that con- _ siderable difficulty is experienced in separating it from the solu- tion. The filtration succeeds best when the filter is previously moistened with dilute acetic acid, when a clear colourless filtrate is usually at once obtained. The precipitate cannot be dried in bath, as it is largely converted thereby into the volatile osmium tetroxide. It may safely, however, be dried over phosphoric anhydride in the vacuum of an air-pump. _ The accurate analysis of an insoluble substance of the nature of this precipitate, and containing a metal such as osmium, which so readi a oxidises to the volatile tetroxide, is a task of sxceptional difficulty. The usual method of reduction to metal in a stream of hydrogen is insufficient, for more or less of the tetroxide is always formed during the process, necessitating the use of an absorption apparatus containing a solution of caustic - plac in front of the tube containing calcium chloride to absorb the water formed. The difficulty is, then, how to estimate the small quantity of osmium thus dissolved in the large excess of alkali. It was eventually found that the weak electric current from three Daniell’s cells precipitates the whole of the osmium from such a solution, contained in a nickel dish which forms the negative electrode, in the form of pure osmium dioxide, OsO,, which may conveniently be dried 7” vacuo over phosphoric anhydride and weighed as such. nid this mode of analysis the interesting fact was eventually elicited, that the black insoluble substance formed by the action of light upon a hot solution of potassium osmate is not, as was sreviously supposed, a hydrate of osmium dioxide of the com- psition OsO,.2H.O, but is no other than free osmic acid itself, hydrate of osmium trioxide, OsO;.H,O or H,OsO,. Osmic acid is thus formed by the direct action of water, under the in- fluence of sunlight and slight rise of temperature, upon the jum salt. This remarkable change is expressed by the simple equation: — The liquid, as soon as the change commences, is observed to exhibit a strong alkaline reaction, becoming, as indicated in the equation, a solution of caustic potash. It is singular that the esence of alcohol and the passage of a current of hydrogen uring the reaction do not cause any reduction, serving only to hinder the further oxidation to the state of tetroxide. Indeed, if the crimson octahedral crystals of potassium osmate are covered in sunshine with warm alcohol and a current of hydrogen is allowed to bubble through the liquid, no trace of blackening is observed upon the faces of the crystals. The moment water is added, however, decomposition is immediately brought about. Osmic acid, H,OsO,, is a soot-black powder, which fumes strongly in moist air, owing to its rapid conversion into the NO. 1217, VOL. 47] volatile osmium tetroxide, OsO4, but which is quite permanent at the ordinary temperature when preserved under water con- taining alcohol. It dissolves readily in nitric acid with forma- tion of the hydrate of osmium tetroxide, the so-called per-osmic acid. Cold hydrochloric acid attacks it but very slightly. Upon warming, however, it is entirely soluble, forming an olive-green liquid, which will be subsequently considered, with liberation of a small quantity of chlorine. Sulphuric acid does not attack it. Osmic acid reacts in a most energetic and interesting manner with sulphuretted hydrogen gas. Even in the dry state at the ordinary temperature the reaction proceeds with considerable violence. If the experiment is conducted in a piece of combus- tion tubing, upon which a bulb has been blown for the reception of the osmic acid, the moment that the gas enters the tube the whole of the black powder immediately becomes incandescent, and drops of water and a large quantity of free sulphur are de- posited in the portion of the tube not heated by the reacting substances. The residual product of the reaction is a brown powder, which has been found to be a hydrated oxysulphide of osmium of the composition 20sSO.H,O. The reaction occurs in accordance with the equation— 2H,0s0, + 4H,S = 20sSO.H,O + 5H,O + 2S. This oxysulphide of osmium is soluble in acids with decom- position, even sulphuric acid decomposing it with evolution of sul- phuretted hydrogen, It possesses acid properties, for it liberates carbon dioxide from carbonate of soda and sulphuretted hy- drogen when fused with sulphide of potassium. It would, moreover, appear to contain SH groups, for it yields mercaptan upon treatment with soda and ethyl iodide, the osmium being reduced to the dioxide OsO,. Its probable constitution is there- fore represented by the graphic formula : — When this oxysulphide is warmed in dry sulphuretted hydrogen another violent reaction occurs, the whole mass again becomes incandescent, and the whole of the oxygen is eliminated in the form of water. The product of this second reaction with sulphuretted hydrogen is pure osmium disulphide OsSyo. Os,0,(SH), + 2H,S = 20sS, + 3H,O. Of the Aa/ogen compounds of osmium only the chlorides have been at all investigated, chiefly by Claus, whose observations may be summarised in a few words. When finely-powdered metallic osmiuin is heated in a stream of dry chlorine sublimates are formed. ‘The first chlorine com- pound formed is chromous-green in colour, but is only produced to a very slight extent. There is next deposited a dense black sublimate, and finally a smaller quantity of a sublimate of the colour of red lead. None of these three chlorine compounds are crystalline. Claus subsequently stated that the lowest chloride OsCl, isa bluish-black solid when isolated, and formsa dark bluish-violet solution ; the sesquichloride Os,Cl, is reddish- brown in the solid state, and gives with water a rose-red coloured solution, and the dichloride OsCl, is the compound which ex- hibits the colour of red-lead, and yields a lemon-yellow solution These observations of Claus are completely confirmed by the experiments of Prof. Moraht and Dr. Wischin, who, however, have extended them, and have been able to isolate other and higher chlorides of osmium. They commenced by warming a large quantity of the free osmic acid above described for two days upon a water-bath with concentrated hydrochloric acid, the flask in which the reaction was conducted being connected with an upright condenser. A little alcohol was added in order to prevent the formation of osmium tetroxide. The osmic acid eventually entirely dissolved with formation of the dark olive-green coloured solution pre- viously incidentally mentioned, a little chlorine being evolved at the commencement of the operation. It was found impossible to evaporate the solution upon the water-bath without decom- position, but evaporation 7 vacuo over sulphuric acid and solid caustic potash, the latter to absorb the hydrochloric acid, succeeded admirably. The solid left after complete evaporation consisted of well formed crystals which assumed the habit of six-sided pyramids. ‘Thesecrystals were dark olive-green in colour when moist, but when the last traces of superfluous water were removed, exhibited a bright vermilion colour. They were readily 402 NATURE [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 soluble in water and alcohol, the solutions being coloured dark green, and the salt may be recrystallised from these solvents. Upon analysis they were found to consist of the chloride Os,Cl, crystallised with seven molecules of water. ; This chloride of osmium, Os,Cl,.7H,O, would appear to bea molecular compound of the ¢richloride, OsClz, and the Zetra- chloride, OsCl,. For when potassium chloride solution is added to the solution of the crystals in alcohol, a precipitate of brilliant red octahedrons and cubes of potassium osmichloride, K,OsCl,, is obtained, showing the presence of osmium tetrachloride, OsCl,. Moreover, when the precipitate is separated by filtration, and the filtrate concentrated by evaporation zz vacuo, dark green crystals of the ¢richloride, OsCly, are deposited containing three molecules of water of crystallisation. During the reduction of these crystals of the trichloride in a current of hydrogen for the purposes of analysis, a small quantity of a white sublimate was obtained, which probably consisted of the octo-chloride, OsCl,, corresponding to the tetroxide OsO,. Bromine does not react with osmium with anything like the energy of chlorine. The free elements do not appear to com- bine at all, even at moderately high temperatures. Only a small quantity of a sublimate of adark brown colour is obtained by passing bromine vapour over osmic acid. This sublimate dis- solves to a brown solution in water, which, however, rapidly decomposes with deposition of a black precipitate. When osmic acid, H,OsO,, is treated with hydrobromic acid in the manner just described in the case of hydrochloric acid a similar reaction occurs with formation of a clear reddish-brown solution which yields, upon evaporation zz vacuo over sulphuric acid and solid caustic potash, small crystals of a molecular compound of the ¢rzdromide, OsBrs, and the hexabromide, OsBre, together with six molecules of water of crystallisation. These crystals of Os,Bry.6H,O are dark reddish-brown in colour and exhibit a beautiful metallic lustre. They are quite stable when preserved in a dry atmosphere, but rapidly deliquesce in moist air. Iodine appears to possess even less affinity for osmium than bromine. When, however, osmic acid is treated with hydriodic acid a deep greenish-brown solution is obtained which deposits zn vacuo dark violet rhombohedrons, exhibiting a brilliant metallic lustre, consisting of the anhydrous ¢e¢ra-codide of osmium, OsI,. This iodide, the only one containing osmium yet pre- pared, is permanent in a dry atmosphere at the ordinary temperature, but rapidly deliquesces like the bromide when exposed to moist air, In relative stability the chloride bromide and iodide of osmium above described exhibit a gradation such as would be expected from the relations between the halogen elements themselves. The iodide is readily dissociated by slightly raising the temperature, and upon the addition of water is decomposed with the deposi- tion of a black precipitate containing the metal. A similar decomposition occurs, although much more slowly, in case of the bromide. The chloride, however, is well-nigh permanent under these conditions, only exhibiting traces of decomposition after the lapse of a considerable time. A. E. TUTTON, REDUCTION OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. “THE tidal oscillation of the ocean may be represented as the sum ‘of a number of simple harmonic waves which go through their periods. approximately once, twice, thrice, four times in a mean solar day. But these simple harmonic waves may be regarded as being rigorously diurnal, semi-diurnal, ter- diurnal, and so forth, if the length of the day referred to be adapted to suit the particular wave under consideration, The idea of a series of special scales of time is thus introduced, each time-scale being appropriate to a special tide. For example, the mean interval between successive culminations of the moon is 24h. 50m., and this interval may be described as the mean lunar day. Now there is a series of tides, bearing the initials M,, M., Ms, My, &c., which go through their periods rigorously once, twice, thrice, four times, &c., in a mean lunarday. The solar tides, S, proceed according to mean solar time, but, be- ™ «On an Apparatus for facilitating the Reduction of Tidal Observations.” By G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., Plumian Professor and Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. A paper read before the Royal Society on Decem- ber 15, 1892. NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | sides mean lunar and mean solar times, there are other special time scales appropriate to the other tides. G The process of reduction consists of the determination of the mean height of the water at each of twenty-four special hours, and subsequent harmonic analysis. The means are taken over such periods of time that the influence of all the tides governed by other special times is eliminated. The process by which the special hourly heights have hitherto been obtained is the entry of the heights observed at the mean solar hours in a schedule so arranged that each entry falls into a column appropriate to the nearest special hour. Schedules of this kind were prepared by Mr. Roberts for the Indian Government.! The successive rearrangements for each sort of special time were made by recopying the whole of the observa- tions time after time into a series of appropriate schedules. The mere clerical labour of this work is enormous, and great caresis required to avoid mistakes. sees All this copying might be avoided if the observed heights were written on movable pieces. But a year of observation gives 8760 hourly heights, and the orderly sorting and resorting of nearly 9000 pieces of paper or tablets might prove more laborious and more treacherous than recopying the figures, The marshalling of movable pieces might, however, be reduced to manageable limits if all the twenty-four observations pertaining to a single mean solar day were moved together, for the mov- able pieces would be -at once reduced to 365, and each piece might be of a size convenient to handle. The realization of this plan affords the subject of this paper, and it appears that not only is all desirable accuracy attainable, but that the other requisite of such a scheme is satisfied, namely, that the whole computing apparatus shall serve any number of times and for any number of places. The first idea which naturally occurred was to have narrow sliding tablets which should be thrown into their places by a number of templates. It is unnecessary to recount all the frials and failures, but it will suffice to say that the slides and tem- plates would require the precision of a mathematical instrument if they are to work satisfactorily, and that the manufacture would be so expensive as to make the price of the instrument prohibitive. ek ek The idea of making the tablets or strips to slide into their places was accordingly abandoned, and the strips are made with short pins on their-under sides, so that they can be stuck on to a drawing board in any desired position. The templates, which were also troublesome to make, are replaced by large sheets of paper with numbered marks on them to show how the strips are to be set. The guide sheet is laid on a drawing board, and the pins on the strips pierce the paper and fix them in their proper positions. The strip belonging to each mean solar day is divided by black lines into 24 equal spaces, intended for the entry of the hourly heights of water, The strip is nine inches long by 4 inch wide, and the divisions (3 by 4) are of convenient size for the entries. There was much difficulty in discovering a good material, but after various trials artificial ivory, or xylonite, was found to serve the purpose. Xylonite is white, will take writing with Indian ink or pencil,and can easily be cleaned with a dam cloth. It is just as easy to write with liquid Indian ink as wit ordinary ink, which must not be used, because it stains the surface. The observations are to be treated in groups of two anda half lunations or 74 days. A set of strips, therefore, consists of 74, numbered from o to 73 in small figures on their flat ends. If a set be pinned horizontally on a drawing board in vertical column, we have a form consisting of rows for each mean solar day, and columns for each hour. The observed heights of the water are then written on the strips. When the twenty-four columns are summed and divided by the number of entries we obtain the mean solar hourly mean heights. The harmonic analysis of these means gives the mean solar tides. But for evaluating the other tides the strips must be rearranged, and to this point we turn our attention. Let us consider a special case, that of mean lunar time. A mean lunar hour is about th. 2m. m.s. time ; hence the 12h. of - each m.s. day must lie within 31m. m,s, time of a mean lunar t An edition of these computation forms was reprinted by aid of a grant from the Royal Society. andis sold by, the Cambridge Scientific Insthument Ccmpany, but only abc ut a dozen copies now remain. : FEBRUARY 23, 1893] NATURE 403 hour. The following sample gives the incidence to the nearest lunar hour of the first few days in a year :— Mean solar Mean lunar time. time. d. qo Oia = cs a 182 ox Biot +12 = 2. to 3 12 me B0rg ; 4 12 = 4 8 Site = B48 oe I = ae ge 32 = y Asal &e. &e. _ The successive 12h. of m.s. time will march retrogressively through all the twenty-four hours of m. lunar time. _ Now, if starting from strip 0, we push strip I one division to the left, strip 2 two divisions to the left, and so on, the entries on the strips will be arranged in columns of approximately lunar e _ The rule for this arrangement is given by marks on a sheet of _ paper 18 in. broad ; these marks consist of parallel numbered steps or zigzags showing where the ends of each strip are to be placed so as to bring the hourly values into their proper places. At the end of a lunation mean solar time has gained a whole day over mean lunar time, and the 12h. solar again agrees with the 12h. lunar. On the guide sheet the zigzag which takes its i at the left end of strip o has descended diagonally from ight to left until it has reached the left margin of the paper, and a new zigzag has begun on the right margin. When the strips are pinned out following the zigzags on the sheet marked M, the entries are arranged in 48 columns, but the number of entries in each column is different. The 48 in- complete columns may be regarded as 24 complete ones, apper- taining to the 24 hours. _ Harmonic analysis of the 24 means of the complete columns. onion required tidal constants. It must be remarked, however, as the incidence of the entries is not exact in lunar time, investigation is made in the paper of the corrections arising out of this inexactness. The explanation of the guide sheet for lunar time will serve, mutatis mutandis, for all the others. The zigzags have to be placed so as to bring the columns into exact alignment, and printers’ types provide all the accuracy _ To guard against the risk of the computer accidentally using - sheet, the sheets are printed on coloured paper, the sequence of colours being that of the rainbow. The sheets for days 0 to 73 are all red ; those for days 74 to 74 + 73, or 147, are all yellow ; those for days 148 to 148 + 73, or 221, are ony those for days 222 to 222 + 73, or 295, are blue ; and t for days 296 to 296 + 73, or 369, are violet. _ Thus, when the observations for the first 74 days of the year are written on the strips all the sheets will be red ; the strips will then be cleaned, and the observations for the second 74 days written in, when all the guide sheets will be yellow, and so on. _ The paper also gives another considerable abridgement of the of harmonic analysis, which is independent of the method of arrangement just sketched. In the Indian computation forms the mean solar hourly heights have been found for the whole year, and the observa- tions have been rearranged for the evaluation of certain other tides governed by a time scale which differs but little from the mean solar scale. It is now proposed to break the mean solar heights into sets of 30 days, and to analyse them, and next to Kciscialestly analyse the 12 sets of harmonic constituents for annual and semi-annual inequalities. By this plan the har- monic constants for 11 different tides are obtained by one set of additions. In fact, we now get the annual, semi annual, and solar elliptic tides, which formerly demanded much trouble- some extra computation.’ A great saving is secured by this alone, and the results are in close agreement with those derived from the old method. An abridged method of evaluating the tides of long period MSf, Mf, Mo, is also given. The method is less accurate than that followed hitherto, but it appears to give fairly good results, and reduces the work to very small dimensions. The advantages of the method proposed in the present paper may be best realized by a comparison of the amount of work NO. 1217, VOL. 47] entailed in the reduction of a year’s tides as it has hitherto been carried out by the Indian Survey at Poona, and what it will be under the new method, It has been usual in the Indian reductions to use three digits in expressing the height of water, and there have been fifteen series, or even more. It follows from a simple multiplication that the computer has had to write 394,000 figures in reducing a year of observation. This does not include the evaluation of the annual and semi-annual tides, so that we may say that there have been about 400,000 figures to write. It is now proposed to express the heights by two digits, and they only have to be written once, and the number of figures to phe is 17,500; accordingly the writing of 382,000 figures is saved, In the old method the computer had to add together all the digits written, say, 394,000 additions of digit to digit. It is now proposed to use twenty-four hourly values in three series, viz. S, M, and MS, and twelve two-hourly values in eight others, and the number of additions comes to 123,000. Thus 270,000 additions are saved. We may say that formerly there were about 800,000 opera- tions (writing and addition), and that in the present method there will be about 140,000. This estimate does not include a saving of several thousands of operations in obtaining the tides of long period. It may therefore be claimed that the work formerly bestowed on one year of observation will now reduce at least five years, and that the results are equally trustworthy. The manufacture of the computing strips of xylonite is rather expensive, but as it formerly cost in England rather more than 420 to reduce a year of observation, the cost of the apparatus will be covered by the saving in the reduction of a single year, and it will serve for any length of time. The apparatus, together with computation forms, will be on sale with the Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company at a price of about £8. It is proper to mention that Dr. Borgen has devised and used a method for attaining the same end as that aimed at in this paper. He has prepared sheets of tracing paper with diagonal lines on them, so arranged that when any sheet is laid on the copy of the observations written in daily rows and hourly columns, the numbers to be summed are found written between, a pair of lines. This plan is inexpensive and has considerable advantages, but the chance of error is no doubt increased by the fact that the lines of addition are diagonal, and because figures seen through tracing-paper are comparatively faint. THE HARVARD COLLEGE OBSERVATORY. ‘THE forty-seventh annual report of the director of the astro- nomical observatory of Harvard College, for the year end- ing October 31, 1892, by Prof. E. C. Pickering, has been issued. We reprint the following passages :— The number of photographs taken with the eight-inch Draper telescope is 2777. The number taken in Peru with the Bache telescope is nearly two thousand, of which 601 have been received in Cambridge. The examination of these plates has as usual led to the discovery of a large number of interesting objects. Ten variable stars, U Delphini, S Pegasi, T Aquarii, R Crateris, R Carine, S Canis Minoris, S Car nz, R Ophiuchi, X Ophiuchi, and Espin’s variable star in Auriga in addition to the thirty-seven previously announced have the hydrogen lines bright in their spectra. Seven new variable stars have been discovered this year by means of this property. The number of stars of the fifth type has been increased by eight, making the total number now known of these objects forty-five. The hydrogen line F was shown to be bright in the spectra of six stars in addition to those al- ready known. Photographs have been obtained of the spectra of eight planetary nebulz showing bright lines. The spectrum of the nebula surrounding thirty Doradus is unlike that of other gaseous nebulz. The star A. G. C. 20,937 has a somewhat similar spectrum. Five stars have been shown to have spectra of the fourthtype. All of these peculiarities have been detected by Mrs. Fleming except in the cases of one of the known variables, one of the planetary nebula, and two of the stars of the fourth type, which were found by Mr. A. E. Douglass, in Peru, before the plates were sent to Cambridge. The amount of valuable materia] accumulated with these instruments is continually increasing, and has proved useful in many cases in studying the history of newly-discovered objects. WATURE PiU ae aerator ee oe Pry ame i gpa [FEBRUARY 23, 1893 The brightness for several years past-of stars suspected of vari- ability has been furnished to various astronomers. Plates have been sent to the Lick and Amherst Observatories and to the Smithsonian Institution for special investigations, From one of them a new variable star in Aries was discovered by Prof. Schaeberle. It is hoped that this use of our plates may in- crease inthe future. A large number of photographs were taken of the new starin Auriga. An examination of the older photo- graphs showed that the region containing it had been photo, graphed eighteen times from November 3, 1885, to November 2, 1891, and that it was then apparently fainter than the thirteenth magnitude, It appeared upon five plates taken between Decem- ber 16, 1891, and January 31, 1892. After its disco¥ery it was photographed on sixty-five chart plates and thirty-six spectrum plates, until April 6, when it became too faint to be visible in the encroaching twilight. All of these plates have been care- fully. studied and measured. Twenty-one charts and fifteen spectrum plates of this object have been taken since its reappear- ance in September, 1892. On these last plates, the spectrum is shown to resemble that of a planetary nebula. Many. photographs of the lunar eclipse of November 15, 1891, were taken both at Cambridge and at the Boyden observing station near Arequipa, Peru. ‘The examination of these photo- graphs for the detection of a possible lunar satellite led only to a negative result. else The number of photographs taken with the 11-inch Draper telescope is 996. They include 372. spectra of 8 Aurige to determine the law of periodic doubling of the lines. 244 of these images show the lines double so that the separation can be measured. In like manner 208 spectra of ¢ Urse Majoris have been photographed, and in 49 of them the lines are separated widely enough to be measured, A similar study has been made of the new star in Auriga, of 8 Lyre, of 11 Monocerotis, and of some other stars having peculiar spectra. Photographic charts have also been obtained of numer- ous variable stars, stars having large proper motion, clusters and stars having peculiar spectra to determine their parallax: if it is perceptible. : eae way | BOYDEN DEPARTMENT. In establishing the fund that bears his name, Mr. Boyden desired to secure an astronomical station where the effects due to the atmosphere would be greatly diminished. This has now been successfully accomplished in the Harvard Station at Are- quipa, Peru, where the effect of the air is no longer as hereto- fore the principal obstacle to progress in astronomy. | Instead of this the limit is now the size and excellence of our instru- ments. A great advance would probably be made in our knowledge of the planets, and perhaps of the: fixed: stars, if a telescope of the largest size could be mounted under such favour- able conditions. ute “ This station has continued in charge of Prof. W. H. Pickering. The ‘instruments: chiefly employed have been the 13-inch telescope, the ‘8-inch Bache’ telescope, and a photographic catnera having an aperture of 24 inches. The first of these instruments has been largely devoted -to visual work, for which unusual advantages are afforded by the transparency and steadiness of the air at this station. Many interesting results have been derived from the observations made of the-moon and various planets. The observations of the moon relate to Plato and other regions, which have been -carefully examined, and also to the systems of bright streaks visible at full moon. The markings of Mercury have been studied, and this investigation appears to confirm Schiaparelli’s view that the rotation of Mercury on its axis occupies the same time as its revolutioninitsorbit. Although this planet appears to have no atmosphere, the markings upon it are very faint com- pared with those upon the moon. Venus was micrometrically studied near its inferior conjunction with regard to its diameter, polar compression, and the refractive effect of its atmosphere, No permanent markings could be detected. An extensive series of observations was made upon Mars, The relative positions of 92 points upon its surface were determined by the micro- meter. More than forty minute black points were discovered, provisionally designated as lakes. ‘The polar compression of the planet was measured, and appeared to be greater than that indicated by theory, which may be due to an excess of cloud in the equatorial regions. The presence of the dark and narrow streaks called canals by Schiaparelli has been confirmed and various measurements of them have been made, The clouds projecting beyond the limb, and terminator, discovered at NO. 1217, VOL. 47] , night. the Lick Observatory, have been studied, and their height has been found to be at least twenty miles, The relative colours of different portions of the planet have been minutely observed. Two large dark blue areas have been detected, and other por- | tions have been noticed to be subject to gradual changes of colour. Many new double stars were found in a survey of the heavens south of 30°, between 12h. and 18h. The August occultation of Jupiter was observed both visually and photo- graphically, as was also the new star in Auriga and Swift’s comet, the photographs of which showed detail not noticeable in the visual observations. With the camera, having the aperture 23 inches, very satis- factory photographs have been obtained of the Magellanic clouds, showing their composition to be partly of stars and partly of nebulous matter ; also the spiral structure of the larger of the two clouds. ; _ Meteorological observations are regularly carried on. Stations have been established at Mollendo, 100 feet above sea level, at La Joya, the elevation of which is 4,150 feet, at the observing station, 8,060 feet high, at the Chachani Ravine 16,650 feet high, where numerous miscellaneous observations have been made. Notwithstanding the great height of thé last-named station, it can be reached by a mule path, and a hut has been erected where the observers can pass the night. A survey of the Arequipa valley and neighbouring mountains has been made, depending on two separate base lines. The heights of the mountains have been measured, and in some cases the result has been checked by a mercurial barometer, , THE BRUCE PHOTOGRAPHIC TELESCOPE. This instrument, which if successful will be in many respects the most powerful in the world, is now rapidly approaching completion. .The eight surfaces of its objective have been ground and polished so that it could be tested onastar. The results were satisfactory, although, of course, no definite opinion can be formed until the final corrections are applied. The focal length proved to be that desired within half of one per cent. Plans have been made and the foundations laid for a one-story brick building with a sliding roof, in which it will erected during its trial in Cambridge. After this it is proposed to send it to the Arequipa station in Peru. saint. .. Photographs have been taken with the transit photometer on 192 evenings, and when clear, throughout the entire night, With this instrument images are obtained of all stars brighter than the sixth magnitude which cross the meridian during the The value of this work was illustrated when the new star in Auriga was discovered in February, 1892. It then ap- peared that this object had been photographed on twelve nights since December 10, 1891, while no trace of it was visible on ~ thirteen plates covering this region and taken before December 2, 1891. The only knowledge that exists of its changes of light during the six weeks in which it remained undiscovered is: fur- nished by these photographs and those taken with the 8-inch. telescopes. It was also photographed with the transit photo- meter on twelve nights after its discovery. Of the forty thou- sand standard stars of the tenth magnitude about eight thousand have been selected by Miss E. F, Leland during the past year, making eleven thousand in all. - Pa Pe soe saelingen , UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE. -OxrForD.—In the Chemical Department Prof. Odling is lecturing on the glucoses, Mr, Fisher on inorganic chemistry, Dr, Watts on organic chemistry, and Mr, Veley on physical chemistry. There are about sixty students working in the laboratories, and a few of the senior men are engaged in re- search, ; Vins Among the apparatus belonging to the late Duke of Marl- borough, presented by the Duchess, are three large spectro- scopes by Hilger, one having five prisms, another being a direct vision spectroscope 5 feet 6 inches in length, two balances by Deleuil; a mercury pump by Alvergniat, Dumas’ vapour density apparatus, Thomson’s electrometer gramme machine, large Rhumkorf coil and a quantity of valuable glass apparatus. There are besides a number of specimens of compounds of rare earths. ae The Regius Professor of Medicine has placed his pathological , ey we FEBRUARY 23, 1893 | NATURE 405 laboratory under the direction of the lecturer in Pharmacology. Dr. Ritchie of Edinburgh is carrying out in it some researches in Bacteriology. The Cliemical Club started last term by some of the senior men continues to hold meetings weekly for the dis- ion of recent chemical investigations. Mr. Ingham of erton is secretary. The meetings are well attended and useful. Mr. R. T. Giinther, B.A., Demy of Magdalen College, has been elected to the Naples Biological Scholarship for the ensuing * ‘CAMBRIDGE.—Mr. H. Bury, Fellow of Trinity College, has been appointed by the Board for Biology and Geology to the x) ‘a table at the Naples Zoological Station for March and bis oA for Biology and Geology, and for Physics and Chemistry, have reported in favour of extending to Part I. of Natural Sciences Tripos the plan already adopted for Part II., nely, the substitution of distinct papers in each scientific ect, instead of papers each of which contains questions in e subjects. They propose that the change come into ion in 18¢ 1894. «SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. ae Lonpon. . . Chemical Society, January 19.—Prof. A. Crum-Brown, -resident, in the chair.—The following papers were read :— $lucinum, Part I. The preparation of glucina from beryl, by Gibson. The methods at present in use for preparing pure slucina from beryl are tedious and difficult to apply on the ze scale, as the mineral, which contains but a small quantity ate me rocess which greatly facilitates the preparation of glucina, If the coarsely-ground beryl! is heated in’ an iron vessel with six parts of ammonium hydrogen fluoride, complete decomposition s below a red heat. The product contains the aluminium ‘most of the iron as insoluble fluoride and oxide respectively, , »g -with glucinum fluoride, which dissolves on extraction’ iter. In order to remove the last traces of iron from’ e glucina, advantage is taken of the fact that the precipitation ad or mercuric salt by ammonium sulphide effects by mass 1 the complete separation of small quantities of iron which may y be present in the solution. —The determination of the thermal expansion of liquids, by T. E. Thorpe. The author ribes various improvements in the ordinary dilatometrical ethod of determining the thermal expansion of liquids. st these the most important is the application of a device ly employed in the construction of standard thermo- meters, and consisting in enlarging the bore of the dilatometer stem at some point. Onsuch an instrument the positions of the o° and 100° points may be determined irrespectively of its range, and the thermometer, and the column of liquid in the. eter stem may be totally immersed in a bath of moderate Size, thus doing away with corrections for the emergent columns, of the two instruments. The methods of constructing, cali- brating, and using the dilatometers are described, together with the baths employed in heating them.—The determination of, the thermal expansion and specific volume of certain paraffins: and | derivatives, by T. E. Thorpe and L. M. Jones.’ The authors give the data relating to a number of hydrocarbons, | alcohols, ketones, and other derivatives of the paraffins. The results show a fairly satisfactory agreement, in most cases, with: ‘the values calculated by Lossen’s formula, but all the observed: specific volumes, with the exception of that of propionic. ahy , differ considerably from those calculated by means: px ate values.—The hydrocarbons derived from dipentene, dihydrochloride, by W. A. Tilden and S. Williamson. The dih loride, C,)H,g2HCl melting at 50°, prepared by the action of moist hydrogen chloride on optically active turpentine, is known to be identical with that obtained from the active citrenes (limonenes) or from inactive ‘‘dipentene.’’ On heating - it with aniline, an oil is obtained which has hitherto been sup- posed to consist essentially of dipentene ; on oxidising it, how- ever, a certain proportion of aromatic acids is obtained. These acids are not formed on oxidising the active limonenes or pure dipentene with nitric acid; their formation in the previous case NO. 1217, VOL. 47] is, however, satisfactorily explained by the authors, who find that the dipentene obtained from the dihydrochloride con- tains large proportions of cymene, terpinene, terpinolene, and a small quantity of a saturated paraffinoid hydrocarbon boiling at about 155°.—Sulphonic derivatives of camphor, by F, S. Kipping and W. J. Pope. The authors have succeeded in preparing camphorsulphonicacid,C,,H,;0.SO,H,a compound hitherto unknown, by the direct action of anhydrosulphuric acid or chlorosulphonic acid on camphor. The acid is purified by the conversion of its sodium salt into camphorsulphonic chloride, C,)H,;0.SO,Cl1; the latter substance is apparently obtained in optically different modifications which are separated only with considerable difficulty. The sulphonic chloride is readily hydrolysed on boiling with water, yielding the sulphonic acid from which a series of well-defined salts has been obtained. The action of anhydrosulphuric acid on bromocamphor results in the forma- tion of bromocamphorsulphonic acid ; this on suitable treatment yields a sulphonic chloride, C,9H,sBrO.SO,Cl, which crystal- lises in magnificent colourless octahedra, melting at 136-137. A bromocamphorsulphonic chloride of similar composition has been previously described by Marsh and Cousins as a “ black, semi-crystalline tar ;” a repetition of their work shows this to be merely an impure form of the substance now described. The corresponding chlorocamphorsulphonic chloride described by’ Marsh and Cousins as a ‘‘ microcrystalline, black solid,”’ crystal- lises in massive colourless octahedra when pure; it melts at 123--124°, and has a specific rotatory power [a], = + 110°. The authors describe a number of salts and derivatives of these sulphonic acids.—The preparation of dinitro-a-naphthylamine [NH, : NO,: NO, = 1:2: 4] from its acetyl and valeryl de- rivatives, by R. Meldola and M. O. Forster. Meldola’s process of preparing dinitro-a-naphthylamine from a-acetnaphthalide having been questioned, the authors have re-investigated the method and confirm it in all respects ; they give full working details of the process, and show that thé same product is obtained by the nitration and subsequent hydrolysis of valeronaphthalide. ' —Thionyl bromide, by J. Hartog and W. E. Sims. Thionyl bromide is obtained as a heavy, crimson liquid by the action of sodium ‘bromide on thionyl ‘chloride ; its colour is possibly due to impurity. At 150° the bromide decomposes, yielding bromine and sulphur bromides.—Desulphurisation of the substituted thioureas, by A. E. Dixon. The monosubstituted thioureas are all de-ulphurised on boiling with an alkaline solution of'a lead salt; the same is true of disubstituted thioureas containing benzenoid groups, but not if such groups be absent. The tri- and probably also the tetra-substituted thioureas are not de- sulphurised under similar conditions. A number of new thioureas are described.—Salts of active and inactive glyceric acid: the influence of metals on the specific rotatory power of active acids, by P. F. Frankland and J. R. Appleyard. The authors have prepared and analysed a number of salts both of inactive and dextro-glyceric acid ; the solubilities and specific rotatory powers are also given. Certain remarkable numerical rela- tions‘apparently exist between the rotations of many of the salts ; these should have considerable bearing on the vexed question of multiple rotation, and will be discussed after they have been submitted to a more detailed investigation.—Dibromo-8-lapa- chone, by S. C. Hooker and A. D, Gray. Monobromo-A- lapachone cannot be.converted into dibromo-8-lapachone by the action of bromine alone ; the formation of the latter derivative in the preparation of monobromo-f-lapachone from lapachol, is due to the production and subsequent decomposition of an additive compound of monobromo-derivative and hydrogen bromide.—The conversion of para- into ‘ortho-quinone deriva- tives, by S. C. Hooker. Both in the lapachol and other groups, compounds derived from a-naphthaquinone, of the type repre- sented by formula I., are far more readily converted, by the action of acids, into anhydrides derived from 8-naphthaquinone (II.) than into anhydrides of the a-quinone type (III.). co i aaa co ! RB se: ore k core x lon lc O V6 VV WZ I IL. IIL. —The nitro-derivatives of phenolphthalein, by J. A. Hall The author has prepared dinitro- and tetranitro-phenolphthalein, 406 and describes their properties. —A method for the preparation of acetylene, by M. W. Travers. Calcium carbide may be pre- pared by heating a mixture of sodium, gas carbon, and calcium chloride for half an hour at bright redness in an iron bottle. The carbide thus obtained yields acetylene on treatment’ with water. 240¢c.c., half the theoretical quantity, of acetylene is obtained for every gram of sodium used in the preparation of the carbide. Mathematical Society, February 9.—Mr. A. B. Kempe, F.R.S , President, in the chair.—The following communications were made :—The Harmonics of a Ring, by Mr. W. D. Niven, F.R.S. This paper treats of the potential functions of an anchor ring, and explains how problems to which those functions are applicable may be solved for two coaxal rings. The proposition on which the method depends establishes that the ring har- monics of any degree may be derived from their predecessors of lower degree by simple differentiations with regard to the radius of the dipolar circle of the ring and the distance of a fixed point from the plane of this circle. Ulti:nately the harmonics depend upon the potential at any point due toa distribution on the circle either uniform or varying as a circular function of the arc. Now the potential due to such distribution on a circle B may readily be expressed in terms of the harmonics pertaining to a coaxal circle A, and hence any harmonic pertaining to B, and therefore any series of such harmonics, may be expressed in a series per- taining to A. In the latter form they are suitable for the application of surface conditions at any ring whose dipolar circle is A. The application worked out in the paper is the problem of the influence of two electrically charged coaxal rings upon one another. It is also shown how the same problem may be solved for a ring and sphere, symmetrically situated as regards the axis.—The group of thirty cubes composed by six differently coloured squares, by Major. MacMahon, R.A., F.R.S. Selecting any one of the thirty cubes at pleasure it is possible to select eight of the remaining twenty-nine which in reference to the cube selected have a very peculiar and interesting Selected Cune (transformed) diagonal 16 vertica property. of the sedected cube in regard to the colouring of its faces. each cube of the thirty belong in this way eight other cubes, the selection of the eight cubes being unique. For the examination of this property the selected cube is transformed into an octahedron by j ‘ining the middle point of each face to the middle points of the adjacent faces; a regular octahedron with six differently coloured summits is thus obtained. Each tri- angular face is determined by three differently coloured summits, and exactly eight other octahedra are obtained by circular sub- stitutions performed on the three colours which determine a face ; in regard to the eight faces there are eight clock-wi-e and eight counter clock-wise substitutions, but only eight different octahedra can be obtained. These give the eight cubes NO. 1217, VOL. 47] It is possible to form the eight cubes into a single | cube in such wise that contiguous faces of the cubes are similarly | coloured, and also so that the resulting cube has the appearance | To | NATURE [ FEBRUARY 23, 1893 associated with the selected cube. The eight cubes having been determined, the problem of forming them admits of just two One solution is— solutions. Lower Four Cubes. Upper Four Cuves. The other solution is obtained by interchanging clock-wise and counter clock-wise rotations of octahedral faces. Other interesting properties of these cubes are examined in the paper. -Frsrvary 23, 1893] NATURE 407 . Geological Society, January 25.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., President, in the chair:—The following communications were read: On inclusions of tertiary granite in the Gabbro of the Cuilin Hills, Skye; and on the products resulting from the partial fusion of the acid by the basic rock, by Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S.—Anthracite and, bituminous coal-beds ; an attempt to throw some light upon the manner in which anthracite was formed ; or contributions towards the controversy regarding the formation of anthracite, by W. S. Gresley. “February 8.—W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., President, in the \ir.—The following communnications were read: Notes on some coast-sections at the Lizard. By Howard Fox and J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S. In the first part of the paper the authors describe a small portion of the west coast near Ogo Dour, where rnblende-schist and serpentine are exposed. As a result of detailed mapping of the sloping face of the cliff, coupled with a microscopic examination of the rocks, they have arrived at the conclusion that the serpentine is part and parcel of the series to which the hornblende-schists belong, and that eet evidences of intrusion of serpentine into schist in AT. “ district are consequences of the folding and faulting to which the rocks have been subjected since the banding was produced. The interlamination of serpentine and schist is described, and also the effects of folding and faulting. Basic dykes, cutting both serpentine and schists, are clearly represented in the portion of the coast which has been mapped, and these locally pass into hornblende-schists, which can, however, be clearly distinguished from the schists of the country. The origin of the foliation in the dykes is discussed. The second part of the paper deals with a small portion of the coast east of the Lion Rock, Kynance. Here a small portion of the ‘‘granulitic series” is seen in juxta- peice with serpentine. The phenomena appear to indicate t the granulitic complex was intruded into -the serpentine ; but they may possibly be due to the fact that the two sets. of rocks have been folded together while the granulitic complex was in a plastic condition, or to the intrusion of the’ serpentine into the complex while the latter was plastic.—On a radiolarian chert from Mullion Island, by Howard Fox and J. J. H. Teall. The main mass of Mullion Island is composed of a fine-grained ‘* greenstone,” which shows a peculiar globular or ellipsoidal structure, due to the presence of numerous curvilinear joints. Flat surfaces-of this rock, such as are exposed in many, places a lava of the “‘ pahoehoe ” type. The stratified rocks, which form only a very small portion of the island, consist of cherts, shales, and limestone. They occur as thin strips or sheets, and ometimes as detached lenticles within the igneous mass. ‘The gag i hai varying from a quarter of an inch to several aches in thickness, and is of radiolarian origin. The radiolaria flee base of the cliff, remind one somewhat of the appearance are often clearly recognisable on the weathered surfaces of some beads, and the reticulated nature of the test may be 3) by simply placing a‘ portion of the weathered surface under the microscope. The authors describe the relations between the sedimentary and igneous rocks, and suggest that the peculiar phenomena may be due either to the injection of ig ‘material between the layers of the stratified series near the surface of the sea-bed while deposition was going on, or possibly to the flow of a submarine lava. The form of the radiolaria observed in the deposit, and also their mode of pre- servation, are described in an appendix by Dr. G. J. Hinde.— The reading of these papers was followed by a discussion, in which the President, Rev. Edwin Hill, Prof. Bonney, Dr. Hicks, Dr. Hind, and the authors took part.—Note on a radio- larian rock from Fanny Bay, Port Darwin, Australia, by G. J. Hinde. A specimen brought from Fanny Bay by Captain Moore, of H.M.S. Penguin, is of a dull white or yellowish tint, in places stained red. It has an earthy aspect, and is some- what harder than chalk, but gives no. action with hydrochloric acid. Microscopic sections show a fairly transparent groundwass, apparently amorphous silica, containing granules and subangular fragments up to ‘075 millim. in,diameter, some of which appear to be quartz. Besides this, the rock contains numerous radiovlaria, and it is really a radiolarian earth intermediate in character between the Barbados earth and such cherts as those of the Ordovician strata of Southern Scotland. The details of the extent of the deposit and its relationship to other rocks of the area are not yet obtainable, though it is possible that a con- siderable thickness of rock mentioned by Mr. Tenison Woods as occurring in this area may also be of radiolarian origin. The author describes a species of Cenellipsis, two of Astrophacus, NO. 1217, VOL. 47] NAL 4 one of Lithocyclia(new), one of Amphibrachium, three of Spongo- discus (one new), four of Spongolena (all new), two of Dictyo- mitra (both new), one of Lithocampe (new), and two of Stichocapsa (both new). From these it is not practicable at present to determine the geological horizon of the rock ; with one exception, all the genera represented occur from Palzeozoic times to the present.—Notes on the geology of the district west of Caermarthen. Compiled from the notes of the late T. Roberts (communicated by Prof. T. McKenny Hughes, F.R.S.). To the east of the district around Haverfordwest, formerly described by the author and another, ananticlinal is found extending towards Caermarthen, The lowest beds discovered in this anticline are the Zetragraptus-beds of Arenig age, which have not hitherto been detected south of the St. David’sarea. They have yielded eight forms of graptolite, which have been determined by Prof. Lapworth. The higher beds correspond with those previously noticed in the district to the west ; they are, in ascending order : (1) Beds with ‘‘tuning-fork ” Didymograpti, (2) Llandeilo lime- stone, (3) Dicranograptus-shales, (4) Kobeston Wathen and Sholeshook limestones. Details of the geographical distribution of these and of their lithological and palzeontological characters are given in the paper. After the reading of this paper Dr. Hicks said he felt sure he was expressing the feelings of the Fellows in referring to the serious loss which the Society had suffered by the death of Mr. T. Roberts, who certainly was one of the most promising palzeontologists in this country. The important researches which he carried on, in conjunction with Mr. Marr, had made is now comparatively easy to understand some intricate and extensive districts in Pembrokeshire and Caermarthenshire, which previously were little more than blanks on the geological map. February 17. — Anniversary Meeting.— The medals and funds were awarded as follows:—The Wollaston medal to Prof. N. S. Maskelyne, F.R.S.; Murchison medal to the Rev. O. Fisher; Lyell medal to Mr. E, T. Newton; and the Bigsby medal to Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; the balance of the proceeds of the Wollaston fund to Mr. J. G. Good- child ; that of the Murchison fund to Mr. G. J. Williams ; and that of the Lyell fund to Miss C. A. Raisin and Mr. A, N. Leeds. .The following is the list of officers and council elected at the meeting :—President : W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S. Vice- Presidents: Sir A. Geikie, F.R.S., G. J.: Hinde, Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., H. Woodward, F.R.S. Secretaries: J. E. Marr, F.R.S., J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S.. Foreign Secretary: J. W. Hulke, F.R.S.: Treasurer: Prof. T. Wiltshire. Prof. J. F. Blake, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., .R. Etheridge, F.R.S., Sir A.. Geikie, F.R.S., Prof. A. H. Green, F:R.S., Alfred Harker, H. Hicks, F.R.S., G. J. Hinde,’ T. V. Holmes, W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S., J. W. Hulke, F.R.S., Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., R. Lydekker, Lieut.-General C..A. McMahon, J. E. Marr, F.R.S., H. W..Monckton, Clement Reid, F. Rut- ley, J. J. H.. Teall, F.R.S., Prof. T.. Wiltshire, Rev. H. H. Winwood, H. Woodward, F.R.S., H. B.: Woodward. The presidential address, dealt with some recent work of the Geolo- gical Society, the subjects ranging over a period of six or seven years. These embraced Pleistocene geology, theories in connec- tion with Glaciation, Tertiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, and Permo- Triassic geology. It further mentions that the number of papers on Pleistocene geology has been very considerable, and many of them relate to the south-east and the south of England ; those relating to Central England and South Wales were fewer in number, whilst the north had furnished but few papers. The great memoir on the Westleton Beds had provided much mat- erial for consideration ; that portion relating to the Southern Drift being especially interesting. Reference was made to a paper on Pleistocene succession in the Trent basin as forming a fitting introduction to the fascinating problems connected with the North Wales border on the one side and with Flamborough Head on the other. From Scotland notice was taken of some supplementary remarks on the paralled roads of Glen Roy. Speculation as to the evidence of a palzozoic ice age, the date and duration of the Pleistocene glacial period, and a notice on misconceptions regarding the evidence of former glacial periods were also discussed. The Tertiary Geology of the London and Hampshire basins was considered, more especially in relation to the Upper Eocene, or Bartons, and their probable equivalents in West Surrey. Under this heading, also, comes the Geology of Barbados, since the oceanic deposits in that island were held to be of late Tertiary age, These interesting discoveries were reviewed 408 NALIURE | FEBRUARY 23, 1893 _ at some length, and the results compared with tables in the recently issued ‘‘ Challenger Reports.” In Upper Cretaceous Geology the phosphatic deposits at Ciply and Taplow were noticed, and also the important correlations of the basement- beds in Norfolk, Lincolnshire, and East Yorkshire. The Lower Cretaceous beds at Speeton next passed under review, more especially in connection with their somewhat difficult spalzeon- tology and possible equivalents in Eastern Europe. It then went on to state that our knowledge of the Upper Jurassics of the East of England had of late years received considerable addi- tions and important correlations between our Upper Jurassics generally, and their equivalent on the Jura had been effected, that the inferior Oolite and the Lias boundary had come in for their share of attention, whilst a determined attempt had been made to refer a portion of the red rocks of South Devon to the Permian. ParIS, Academy of Sciences, February 13.—M. de Lacaze-Duthiers in the chair.—On an invariant number in the theory of algebraic surfaces, by M. Emile Picard.—Study of the Cafion Diablo meteorite, by M. Henri Moissan. The composition of the meteorite is very variable from ‘point to point. In the fragments examined the percentage of iron varied from 91‘09 to 95°06, and that of nickel from 1°08 to 7°05. Diamonds were also found, both transparent and black, and a brown form of carbon of feeble density. The largest diamond measured 0°7'mm. by o'3mm. It had a yellow tint and a rough ‘surface, and was transparent to light.—On the meteoric iron of Cation Diablo, by M. C. Friedel. A small quantity of a silver-white fragile compound occurring in the meteorite in the form of plates dis- seminated through the nickeliferous iron and accompanied by schreibersite, was isolated, and its composition found to corre- spond to the probable formula Fe;S. The mixtures of ordinary carbon, graphite, and diamond were found chiefly associated with nodules of yellow troilite.—On the presence of graphite, carbonado, and microscopic diamonds in the blue earth of the Cape, by M. Henri Moissan, After repeated and lengthy treat- ment with boiling sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids, 250 gr. of blue earth left a residue weighing only 0’094 mgr. In this residue brilliant hexagonal crystals of graphite were found, giving rise, when treated with potassium chlorate, to a graphitic oxide of a colour passing from green to yellow. Another species of graphite was also isolated which, when treated with H,SO, at 200° C., swelled up considerably and dissolved. Its artificial preparation will be described in a subsequent paper. The por- _ tions of the residue unaffected by potassium chlorate and heavier than methylene iodide (density 3°4) comprised an amber- coloured mass, black diamonds, microscopic true diamonds, and small transparent crystals in form of elongated prisms, which did not burn in oxygen and were not fluorescent in violet light. The first, which contains a large proportion of iron, and the last, which contains silica, can be de- stroyed by treatment with fused potassium bisulphate and then with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. The blue earth, which was taken from the Old de Beers Mine, thus contained all the carbon compounds found 'in the iron matrix employed for their artificial production.—The clasmatocytes, the fixed cellules ofthe connective tissue, and the pus globules, by M. L. Ranvier. In an inflamed tissue the clasmatocytes and leucocytes are the only ones which give rise to purulent globules, the latter being, in fact, mortified lymphatic cellules.—Glycosic expenditure attendant upon nutritive movement in hyperglycemia and hypo- glycemia brought about experimentally ; consequences bearing upon the immediate cause of diabetes and other deviations of glycemic function, by MM. A. Chauveau and Kaufmann:— Observations of Holmes’s comet made with the eguatorial coudé (0°32 m.) of the Lyon Observatory, by M. G. Le Cadet.— On an explicit form of the addition formulz of the most general hyperelliptic functions, by M. F. de Salvert.—On the laws of reciprocity and the sub-groups of the arithmetical group, by M. X. Stouff.—Experiments on overflowed weirs, by M. H. Bazin.—On the fringes of caustics, by M. J. Macé de Lépinay. —On a phenomenon of apparent reflection at the surface of the clouds, by M. C. Maltézos.—On the electric figures produced at the surface of crystallised bodies, by M. Paul Jannetaz. If the face of a crystal be covered with matter consisting of light and small grains, such as lycopodium seed or talc powder, and an electric discharge passed into the face through a point out- side it, certain figures are formed, many of which were investi- NO. 1217, VOL. 47 | gated by Wiedemann and Senarmont.. Very regular ellipses were obtained by M. Jannetaz by passing a series of discharges from an electrostatic machine or an induction coil. The orien- tation of the major axes of the ellipses was observed for a large number of minerals. In most cases this axis was perpendicular to the direction of maximum conductivity for heat. In the case of a well-defined single cleavage, such as that of mica, tale, a block of wood, the cut edge of a book, or a schistose rock, the major axis was perpendicular to the plane of cleavage, The point need not touch the plate. Figures were obtained on a plate of gypsum strewn with lycopodium powder, and charged from beneath. Positive and negative sparks show the same effect.—Action of temperature on the rotatory power of gery by M. Albert Colson.—Density of nitrogen dioxide, by M. A. Leduc.—Considerations on the genesis of the diamond, by M. J. Werth.—On the chlorine derivatives of the propylamines, the benzylamines, aniline and paratoluidine, by M. A. Berg.— On dipropylcyanamide and dipropylcarbodiimide, by M. F. Chancel.—Survival after section of the two vagi nerves, by M. C. Vanlair.—On the internal pericycle, by M. Léon Flot.—On a modification to be applied to the construction of bottles designed to collect specimens of deep waters, by M. J. Thoulet. The compressibility of water is such that ore litre, collected at a depth of 8000 m. below sea-level, would expand by 35 cc. when the bottle was opened at the surface. Such bottles may therefore be constructed of thin sheet copper or other metal allowing an expansion of thirty-five parts in 10,000,—Lines of structure in the Winnebago County meteorite and some others, by Mr. H. A. Newton.—On a meteorite observed at Newhaven (Connecticut), by Mr. H. A. Newton. CONTENTS. PAGE Man and Evolution. By A. R. W.... see Poincaré’s ‘‘ Théorie Mathématique de la Lumiére. By A. B. Basset, F.R.S + ee ee The Moths of India. 387 Our Book Shelf :— By Wik e Kec. apo Bonney: ‘‘ The Year-Book of Science (for 1892)” . 388 Alexander: ‘‘ Treatise on Thermodynamics” meee ns: Steele : ‘* Medieval Lore : an Epitome of the Science, Geography, Animal, and Plant Folk-Lore and Myth of the Middle Ages” ........ Perr eS Hopkins: ‘‘ Astronomy for Every-day Readers” . . 389 Letters to the Editor :— Blind Animals in Caves. —Prof. E. Ray Lankester, — FOR S, og n.. 5. eicel Wels arate ee Glacier Action.—The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. . 389 Dr. Joule’s Thermometers.—Prof. Sydney Young . 389 Foraminifer or Sponge ?—F. G, Pearcey ..... 390 Colonial Meteorology.—G. J. Symons, F.R.S. . . 390 Ozone. —W. G. Black. ..... etc a Se 390 Lion-Tiger and Tiger-Lion Hybrids. By Dr. V. Ball, FLR.S.. 0. 6 sles ers ele ee iin ASO Observations of Atmospheric Electricity in America, By Prof. Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. 3°) pee ee $3Q8 The Preservation of the Native Birds of New Zealand | oP ae es + 394 The Earthquakes: in Zante :.°.-. 0 3.9.9.5.) eee 394 NOtC Birr iy ath acto tase sake ae Pee 395 Our Astronomical Column :— Comet Brooks (November 19, 1892). ..... < 399 Comet: Holmesi(r892° TN.) 655 2." ee Peg eretyn eee 12 (3) Solar Observations at Rome .......... + 399 The Star Catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft 399 Nova Arig 5 i os Pa eee | Parallax of @:Cygni. 3... Sa 399 Geographical Notes... ..5 0.05.0). ee +. 399 Captain Bower’s Journey in Tibet ....... . 400 The Chemistry of Osmium, By A. E. Tutton. . . 400 Reduction of Tidal Observations. By Prof. G. H. Derwin, FBS... Le se eee + 402 The Harvard College Observatory. By Prof, E. C, PPICKETIN Gt ie NE Se se 403 University and Educational Intelligence ..... 404, Societies and Academies ........ 54 2m 0s @OS connoisseur. eee NATURE 409 THURSDAY, MARCH 2, 1893. MODERN OPTICS AND THE MICROSCOPE. The Microscope: its Construction and Management. n- cluding Technique, Photomicrography, and the past and future of the Microscope. By Dr. Henri van -Heurck, &c. English edition re-edited and augmented by the author from the fourth French edition, and trans- lated by Wynne E. Baxter, F.R.M.S., F.G.S. (London: Crosby Lockwood and Son, 1893.) THIS is a handsome, even a luxurious, book. It is beautifully printed on highly-finished paper, and with a margin ample enough to satisfy the most exacting The illustrations are clearly produced, the binding is admirable, and after a careful comparison with the last French edition, we dc not hesitate to say that the translation is as felicitous as it is accurate. Its author has aimed apparently at an elementary treatise on the microscope, which is nevertheless intended to cover almost the entire field involved in its history, production, and use. The difficulties of such a task are not afew. To be elementary and thoroughly popular up to a limit, very sharply defined, and then to lead on those who choose to follow into the deeper aspects of this many- sided subject, is at once practicaland natural. The optics of the modern microscope are the possession of the specialist. Abbe himself has failed to make them ac- cessible to and understanded by any but those education- ally equipped. Hence the constant misunderstanding of the fundamental principles of the Diffraction Theory and its related applications so frequently manifest even where the subject is supposed to be more or less familiar. As might have been readily supposed, the author of this treatise has given evidence of skill in the presentation of the main points of elementary optics; it is, however, clearness and conciseness, not originality, that is to be noticed. The illustrations are those familiar to English text-books for the last quarter of a century, and the diffraction theory has in no way been simplified to the reader of an elementary treatise by that most efficient of all elementary modes of imparting ideas on more or less abstruse subjects, viz. carefully devised and well- explained diagrams. Considering the object of this treatise, viz. the imparta- tion of knowledge to those not mathematically prepared to follow it in that direction, by giving a concise, clear, and comprehensive view of the meaning and application of the diffraction theory of microscopic vision, the transitiofh from the first to the second chapter will be so abrupt and unlinked as to leave the elementary reader practically in ‘the dark. The chapter on “ The Theory of Microscopic Vision” is unexceptional so far as it goes. It cannot be other, it is Prof. Abbe’s ; but in a treatise claiming to maintain its elementary character more completely than any other similar work which covers so wide a range this is surely not enough. The diffraction theory of vision is introduced to the tyro with no explanation of what diffraction is, and with no illustration of its action until he is plunged 7” medias res in Abbe’s application of it to the profoundly important NO. 1218, VOL. 47] and inestimably valuable theory itself. The “ elementary ” character of this is at least questionable. Beyond this that most important factor in the diffraction theory in its practical application, Numerical Aperture, is wholly with- out explanation, save such as arises from its technical introduction and employment; but there are few points on which it is more important that an elementary student should be more clearly instructed, and there are few that lend themselves more to efficient diagrammatic presenta- tion. In the same relation it may be noted that the very essential formula 7 sin «—expressing the general relation discovered by Abbe between the pencil of light admitted into the front of the objective, and that emerging from the back lens of the same, which is such that the ratio of the semi-diameter of the emergent pencil to the focal length of the objective could be expressed by the sine of half the angle of aperture («) multiplied by the refractive index of the medium (7) in front of the objective or # sin. w—but this is a German mathematical formula ; and its English equivalent is » sin. ¢, and although the German form of symbol is employed in England, and thoroughly under- stood by mathematicians, those who are entering for the first time upon a study of this difficult subject, and there- fore unaccustomed to the mathematical formule em- ployed, might readily fall into confusion, seeing that the “elementary” source of their information leaves them without a hint on the subject. Another serious defect, as we believe, in this “ ele- mentary” presentation of the diffraction theory of microscopic vision is the absence of an easy explanation of the photometrical equivalent of different apertures. Certainly it is not of the essence of the problem, but it is just one of those points which in a very marked and in- structive manner illustrate the meaning and value of numerical aperture as such; and for elementary exposition this must be of importance. Thus, if two circles be taken to represent the backs of two objectives of the same power but of different apertures, and the radius of one be twice that of the other, then each radius will represent the angle z sin. z. But because the areas of these circles are to each other in the proportion of the squares of their radii, it follows that if each radius be designated by z sin. #, the area of the lesser circle will be to the area of the greater circle as the square of the radius of the former is to the square of the radius of the latter. Hence the area of the greater circle will be four times as great as that of the lesser, which teaches that since the numerical aperture of one objective is twice as great as that of another its illuminating power will be four times as great—a most important incidental and explanatory raison a’étre for great N. A. In this connection we notice what is certainly not easily explicable as an exposition of the details of Abbe’s great theory. On page 56 of “The Microscope” Dr. Van Heurck almost incidentally states the very important fact that “‘ Prof. Abbe has satisfactorily established the fact that a certain relation must exist between magni- fication and angular (?) aperture.” This is undoubtedly one of the most important demonstrations of the theory. Great numerical apertures have proved of untold value to the competent student of minute details, by opening up structures that mere amplification must have left for ever impenetrable. But that does not annul the import- U 410 NATURE [Marcu 2, 1893 ance of small apertures. Low amplifications are as useful in their own department as high ones; and to put great apertures to lower magnifying powers than such magnifying power warrants is to sin against the elemen- tary principles of the Abbe theory of vision. And on the other hand, wide apertures can never be utilised unless there is a concurrent and suitable linear amplification of the image which is competent to exhibit to the eye the smallest dimensions which are by optical law within the reach of such apertures. Thus it follows that great amplification will be useless with small apertures. If the power be deficient the aperture will not avail; if the aperture be wanting nothing is gained by high power. The law is, “ Employ the full aperture suitable to the power used.” In Abbe’s words, “A proper economy of aperture is of equal im- portance with economy of power.” 3 Taking these facts, then, which are apparently recog- nised by Dr. Van Heurck, it is very remarkable to find on page 49, ina discussion of the “screw threads” orgaugesem- ployed by the makers of microscopes,that the general value of the English gauge is admitted, but it is added, “ The English thread is not, however, all that we have to say on this matter. In America the American thread is also employed, which is considerably greater, and admits the use of lenses witha much larger diameter, and thus offers certain advantages. In the first place, the larger the lens the easier it is to make, and consequently the real curvatures approach closer to the calculated curvatures ; then the larger the lens the more luminous rays it admits, and this in photography is not to be despised.” To our judgment this statement is a contradiction of the admission made on page 49, quoted above. The enlargement of the screw for the purpose of putting in larger back lenses to objective combinations was first mooted in America in 1879,” when “ Mr. Bullock urged the desirability of adopting a uniform objective screw of larger size than the Society screw now in use (1879), as being essential to the efficacy of low power lenses of high angle.” This “ American gauge” was subsequently introduced and known as the “ Butterfield gauge of screw for objectives.” Now, we must remember the date of the introduction of this large gauge for objectives, and its relation to the introduction of the apochromatic: system of lenses. We must further remember that the purpose of its adoption was to permit the introduction of larger back lenses than the Society gauge would suffer into an objective com- bination. This meant giving relatively great apertures to lower powers. But this, carried beyond a certain limit, violated a fundamental law of Abbe’s theory.* Now it is said that these larger lenses are easier to make (!) and approach more nearly to the calculated curves. But in truth objectives with wide apertures which are low powers, and must therefore have large backs, are most difficult lenses to produce. It was, in fact, to escape the difficulty of giving lower powers larger angles that opticians of the first rank always designated their objectives as of lower magnifying power than they 1jJ. R.M.S., ser. ii, vol. ii. p. 304. 5 ere Naturalist, vol. xiii. p. 60. 3 J.R. M.S., ser. ii. vol i. p. 30%. 4 Tbid., vol.-ii. p. 204. NO. 1218, VOL. 47] really were. They in fact made a §rdsa};a4a oths; qfoths a}; a} at; and soon. Since Butterfield’s gauge was introduced, long before the days of apochromatism, that is when our ignorance allowed us to over-aperture our low magnifying powers, it was tolerable, because it was evidence of experi- mental effort to improve the capacity of our lenses. But to-day wth the society screw we are easily provided with a series beginning with a 1 inch objective of -3, and a4inch objective of ‘65 N.A., and we may venture to think that these are the highest ratios of aperture to power that will be accomplished for many a day; and therefore the highest ratios allowable by the Abbe theory of vision, which we now know, at least in this point, to be an enunciation of the established laws of optics. Moreover, ¢hese lenses are really difficult to make, with their back lenses easily placed within the diameter ‘The vessel ining the main apentity of the liquid is then transferred to | awater| bath warmed to 50°, when a rapid evolution of gas at _ once commences. The issuing gas may rapidly be shown to sit : , and almost immediately silver nitrate solution should be added to the liquid, when the beautiful bright yellow silver salt of hyponitrous acid is precipitated. Notes from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.— ye kage week’s captures include the Polychaeta Yyalinacta tubicola and Amblyosyllis (Gattiola) spectabilis ; ; the Mollusca Ovela - patula and Zoligo media (136 mm. in length of mantle!) ; the _ Decapod Crustacea Nika edulis, Ebalia Pennantii and Cran- chit; and the Tunicata Clavelina lepadiformis, Archidistoma a -— aggregatum and Ferophora Listeri. The ‘‘ gelatinous alga” - has now entirely replaced Halosphera viridis, and both spherical __ and elongated forms. are being taken in the townets in great "profusion. A single specimen of the Cladoceran Podon, carry- __ ing embryos, has been taken for the first time this year. Among _ the many animals now breeding, the following have not previ- ‘ ously been noticed: the Cephalopod oligo media; the Lep- _ tostracan © Nebalia bipes; the Schizopod Macromysts flexuosa de chameleon) ; ; the Macrura Pandalus brevirostris and Hippo- byte Cranchii, and the Brachyuran Porcellana longicornis. The | Shaman hoestage of Pagurus has also been taken. _ THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the week include a Black-bellied Weaver Bird (Zuplectes afer), 4 Pin-tailed Whydah Bird (Vidua principalis), an Orange- Waxbill (Zstrelda melpoda), two Common Waxbills Vise cinerea) from West Africa, two Amaduvade Finches ce Estrelda amandava), two Indian Silver- bills (A/unia malabarica) from India, presented by Miss Herring; a Greater Sulphur- crested Cockatoo (Cacatua galerita) from Australia, presented by Mr. H. H. Forsayth; four Red-backed Buzzards (Autezo -erythronotus) from the Falkland Islands, two presented by Dr. ‘Dale, and two presented by Mr. Vere Packe; three Upland Geese (Bernicla magellanica) from Patagonia, presented by Sir Roger T. Goldsworthy ; a Herring Gull (Larus argentatus) British, presented by Mr. Thomas Owen; an Alexandrine NO. 1225, VOL. 47] _ answer to the properties of nitrous oxide by inserting a glowing _ Parrakeet (Pa/zornis alexandri) from India, presented by Mr. S. Hulme; a Banded-tailed Tree Snake (Ahetulla liocercus), a — Snake (Difsas cenchoa) from Trinidad, presented by Messrs. Mole and Urich ; six Green Tree-frogs (y/a arborea) European, presented by the Rev. Clifford D. Fothergill ; a Moorish Toad (Bufo mauritanica) from Tunis, a Banded-tailed Tree Snake (Ahelulla liocercus) from Trinidad, deposited ; two Red Oven Birds (Furnarius rufus), a Melancholy Tyrant (Zyranus melan- cholicus) from the Argentine Republic, a white-eyebrowed Wood Swallow (Artamus superciliosus) from New South Wales, six Edible Frogs (Rana esculenta) European, purchased ; a Gayal (Bibos frontalis, 8) born in the Gardens. OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN. THE PHOTOGRAPHIC CHART OF THE HEAVENS.—M. Leewy in Comples Rendus (No. 13) for March 27 adds a few more words with regard to the scheme which he has suggested for determining the coordinates of the centres of the clichés. With- out such a method as his, or at any rate one that has for its object the same end (that is, of shortening the work), it seems that the work of determining the positions of the chief stars will extend over some period. With 22,054 plates covering 169 cm. and corresponding to a portion of the sky 4°'7 square, the average number of :tars up to the eleventh magnitude is estimated as 250. Now it is not necessarily certain that on on all of these plates there will be stars who-e positions are accurately known, and further, even if accurate places had once been obtained, our knowledge of their proper motions is not considered advanced enough to apply them in such an instance as this. Only the two following ways, then, seem to be left:—(1) To observe afresh with our meridian circles as many (say six) stars as will appear on each cliché and deduce their positions (thus eliminating proper motion), or (2) to adopt a system of triangulation, assuming we know the places of some of the more important position stars. M. Loe wy’s method is based on the latter, in which he groups the clichés together ; for instance, the first grouping would contain as many as sixteen square dearer’ but the second, third, &c ,would cover just twice this number. - With regard to “le probléme du rattachement” he says, * Malgré tous les soins pris pour exécuter les photographies dans des conditions toujours sembla- bles, il est impossible que les coordonnées mesurées sur deux clichés voisins soient immediatement et rigoureusement com- parable. Chacun d’eux, en effet, représente la projection d’une portion de la sphére céleste sur un plan déterminé, et les plans de projection relatifs 4 deux plaques voisines sont inclinés l’un sur r autre d’un certain angle. Les poses ont pu étre effectuées 4 des époques tiés différentes ; on ne saurait donc s’attendre a ce que la situation des plaques par rapport a l’axe de la lunette, orientation |’échelle des mesures soient identiques dans les deux cas, Par suite. il est nécessaire de faire subir aux grandeurs mesurées certaines corrections, si l’on veut qu ‘elles constituent un systéme unique et homogéne de coordonnées.” In his first memoir M. Loewy ha already given the formule, &c., for re- duction, and in the one to which we refer below ke gives us an application of his method. In Comptes Rendus for April 4 (No. 14) M. Loewy states the resulis that he has obtained in applying his method of deter- mining the coordinates of the stars on the clichés for the Photographic Chart. Asit would be impossible to give an idea of this computation without entering into the subject at some length, it seems best that we should leave it quite alone and refer our readers to the journal itself, from which he will get full information. Suffice it for us to say that in the different methods of ‘‘raccordement” based on twenty-six well deter- mined positions, the probable error of the equatorial coordinates amounts nearly to +0%"1, but ‘comme il faut encore admettre les erreurs réelles plus fortes qui les valeurs théoriques calculées, il devient evident que le degré (exactitude obtenu, bien que suffisant, est loin d’étre exagéié.” CATALOGUE OF SOUTHERN STAR MAGNITUDES.—In vol. xii. no. 1 of the Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences will be found the results in catalogue form of Mr. Edwin Sawyer’ s determinations of the magnitudes of southern stars from 0 to - 30° Declination tothe 7th magnitude inclusive. 590 NATURE [APRIL 20, 1393 The general plan was to observe every star three times, and out of the total number of stars in the catalogue (3415) 289 stars were observed less than this number of times, while 1048, 491, and 194 stars were observed four, five, ard six times respectively, and the rest seven times or more. ‘lhe various differences of brightness were estimated by Argelander’s method of step- estimations, each sequence comprising ten, five, or twenty stars according to the number of stars in the vicinity observed. Commencing in the year 1882, Mr. Sawyer says that nearly half of the whole work was done in that time, an opera glass being extensively used fur fainter sequences, such as those in which the ‘stars were of the 6th or fainter magnitudea field glass was em- ployed. During the years 1883 and 1885 the observations, as he tells us, were wholly discontinued, ‘‘o« ing to the injury to the eyes from the trying nature of the work.” Inthe method of reduction the magnitudes were deduced by plotting out the sequences, graphically using the Uranometria Argentina magnitudes as ordinates, and the observed differences ot brightness, expressed in steps, as abscissas. The arrangement of the catalogue itself is as follows:—The columns give successively the catalogue clirrent number ofthestar, U. A. catalozue number, constellation, Right Ascensions and Declinations for mean equinox 1875.0, number of observations, mean magnitude deduced, U.a. magnitude, and the three last the separate dates of the obser- vations and magnitudes. Comparing the average differences between the magnitudes here assigned and those given by Gould, it is found that + 0'088m, about represents it, while the average error of a single determination, assuring equal degree of precision and including besides accidental errors, the effect of systematic difference is given as + 0°'059m. While the work was in hand eight variables were discovered, which were as follows :—U Ophiuchi (1881), U Ceti (1885), U Aquilz and Y Sagittarii (1886), R Canis Majoris (1887), Y Ophiuchi and W Hydre (1888), and (?) Leporis (1891), and in addition several large discordanc?s were noticed in many values cbtained (the catalogue number of these are here given), render- ing these stars worthy of special attention. The volume con- cludes with notes, in which several suspicious cases of variables, &c., are recorded. A NEw TABLE OF STANDARD WAVE-LENGTHS.— Under this litle Prof. H. A. Rowland contributes to Astronomy and Astro- physics for April (No. 114) the new measurements of several metallic lines to be used as standards. The actual measures were made by Mr. L. E. Jewell, the probable error of one setting amounting to I pait of 5,c00,009 of the wave-length, and. the reductions of the reading by Prof. Rowland himself. The measurements were obtained with a new machine, supplied with a screw specially made after Prof. Kowland’s process. The standard wave-length of D used was the mean of the determina- tions of Angstrém, Miiller and Kempf, Kurlbaum, Pierce, and Bell, and was 5896156, different weights being given to these separate values. This value was utilised in six different ways, and the resulting table of wave-lengths from 2100 to 7700 was obtained, the accuracy of which might, as he says, be ‘estimated as follows :—‘‘ Distribute less than ;35 division of Angstrém properly throughout the table as a correction, and it will be per- fect within the limits 2400 and 7000,” METEOR SHOWERS.—Among the principal meteor shoa ers for the current year, a list of which is given in the Companion _ 0 the Observatory, the following two occur this week, the former of which is described by Denning as ‘‘ one of the most briliant showers.” The radiant points are :— Date Radiant Meteors a ) April 20 270° + 33° Swift pase 272° + 21° Swift ; short WOLSINGHAM OBSERVATORY, CIRCULAR No. 35.—A plate taken with the Compton 8-inch photo-telescope, April 11, com- pared with a photo by Max Wolf, 1891, shows that the two stars ns 501 18h. 394m. = 36 the photo differences being approximately 9*r, 11°4; Es-Birm 545 18h. 28°9m. + 36° 55’ (1900) ° 52’ are var., 8°8, 10°2. NO. 1225, VOL. 47] for developing a vector analysis devoid of the quaternion are GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES. LETTERS dated March 9 have been received from the arctic whaling vessels confirming and extending the brief graphic information already published. The ships did proceed farther south than 67° latitude, and discovered no of the existence of the Greenland whale, although wha several other sjecies were common, and there were great | bers of grampuses. In default of whaling, the energy of tb crews was devoted to sealing, and the four vessels secured between them about 16,000 skins and a full cargo of oil. The seals were of several varieties, but until the return of aoa their species cannot be determined, nor their commercia value — known. The weather throughout the whole stay in Antarctic — waters was severe, and the formation of ice compelled the — vessels to return at an earlier date than was at first intended Flat icebergs of enormous size were seen, one being reported as — fifty milesin length. The facilities afforded for scientific work — were disappointing, f iP . THE Delcommune expedition (p. 474) has returned to ~ Europe, and M. Delcommune was received with great enthusiasm in Brussels. The expedition, together with the others sent — out by the Katanga Company, has to a large extent completed — the work of Livingstone and his successors in the Congo Basin, — and in the main confirms the accepted geography of the region, — One point of some interest which has been established is the . the Lake Lanji, marked from Arab reports at the junction of — the Lukuga and the Lualaba, has no existence. © THE new number of Petermann’s Mitteilungen contains a ~ short paper by Prof. Kiiimmel on recent Russian oceanographical — work in the north Pacific. This is accompanied by a map of — the salirity of the surface water, which extends, and in a general way confirms, Mr. Buchanan’s map founded on the Challenge work. The centre of maximum salinity lies between 20° and 30° N., and has its centre about 170° W. A tongue of con- — siderably fresher water stretches nearly across the ocean, about 10° N.and sweeps round the coasts of America and As diminution of salinity northward is very interesting, the ¢ of equal salinity sweeping through Bering Sea without regan to the line of Aleutian Islands, thus showing that so far < regards surface water, Bering Sea is simply part of the Pacific 2. ocean, standing in very marked contrast to the Sea of Okhotsk, a fact of some interest during the present international con- ‘ troversy. Eerie oes Mr. T. H. Hatron-Ricuarps read a paper on British New Guinea at the last meeting of the Royal Colonial Institute. While giving an account of the climate discouraging 1o would- — | be white settlers, Mr. Richards describes the native Papuans 2 from personal experience as a fine race, possessing a keen sense of justice, and most laborious and successful as rr turists. eh el eh ee ee RECENT INNOVATIONS IN VECTOR | THEORY) Ect. OF late years there has arisen a clique of vector analysts who refuse to aamit the quaternion to the glorious company of ~ vectors. Their high priest is Prof. Willard Gibbs. His reasons — given with tolerable fullness in NATURE, vol. xliii, p. 511. His own vector analysis is presented in a pam;hlet, ‘‘ Elements of Vector Analysis, arranged for the Use of Students in Physics, q not Published”’ (1881-84). Mr. Oliver: Heaviside, in a series _ of papers published recently in the Zlectrician and in an © elaborate memoir in the Philosophical Transactions, ad ad \ some of Gibbs’s contentions and cannot say hard enough things — about the quaternion as a quantity which no physicist wants. — Prof. Macfarlane, of Texas University, has added to the ~ literature of the subject, and without altogether agre: ing with Gibbs takes umbrage at a most fundamental principle of quaternions and developes a pseudo-quaternionic system of vector algebra which is non-associative in its products! Between the years 1846-52, just at the time when Hamilton was developing the quaternion calculus, a series of papers was — published by the Rev. M. O’Brien, Professo: in King’s College, London. The system developed by O’Brien is essentially that 1 Abstract of a paper by Prof. C. G. Knott, read before the Royal Society x of Edinburgh, on Monday, December 19, 1292. 7. Aprit 20, 1893] NATURE 591 advocated by Gibbs and Heaviside. Two products of vectors are defined, which correspond to Hamilton’s Va8 and —SaB; and applications are given of the linear and vector function and of the operator ad, + 80, + yO; which somewhat resembles the quaternion v. _ The broad argument advanced by Gibbs in his letter to Nature is that, in comparison with the quantities Va@ and SyVa8, which symbolise an area and a volume which ‘‘ are the _very foundations of geometry,” anything that can be urged in _ favour cf the quaternion product or quotient as a ‘‘ fundamental notion in vector analysis” is ‘‘ trivial or artificial.” These are _ brave words. Let us examine them by considering what is the _ purpose of a vector analysis. Clearly such a calculus is intended _ to show forth the properties of vectors in a form suitable for i Having formed the conception of a vector, we have next to find relations exist between any two vectors. We have to _ compare one with another, and this we may do by taking either _ their difference or their ratio. The geometry of displacements and velocities suggests the well-known addition theorem— fe Nepet: é a+s=8 3 in ch by adding the vector 5 we pass from the vector a to the __ But this method is not more fundamental geometrically than _ the other method which gives us the quaternion. When we wish _ to compare two lengths a and 4, we divide the one by the other. We form the quotient 2/4, and this quotient is defined as the _ factor which changes 4 into a. ; Now a vector is a directed length. By an obvious generalisation, therefore, we compare bounding vectors may have an infinity of values. Or >more general case of a body strained homogeneously. elative vector of any two of its points passes into its new _ position by a process which is a combination of stretching and _ turning. A simpler and more complete description cannot be _ imagined. It is perfectly symbolised by the quaternion with its _ tensor and versor factors. And /Ais is trivial and artificial—as _ trivial, say, as the versor operation which every one performs when stimating the time that must be allowed to catch a train. . . . _ Another argument advanced by Willard Gibbs is in the para- raph beginning: ‘‘ How much more deeply rooted in the nature of are the functions Sa8 and Va§ than any which depend on the definition of a quaternion, will appear in a strong light if we try to extend our formule to space of four or more dimen- ons.” To elucidate the ‘‘nature of things” by an appeal to the fourth dimension—to solve the Irish question by a discussion of social life in Mars—it is a grand conception, worthy of the __ scorner of the trivial and artificial quaternion of three dimen- _ sions. Further on we are told that there ‘‘ must be vectors in if th Os ngs ; that is, space of four or more dimensions. True, ere be vectors, must there not be operations for wee vector into another? .... ____ Vectors must be treated vectorially” is a high-sounding _ phrase uttered by Prof. Henrici and Mr. Heaviside. What _ does it mean? On the same sapient principle, I suppose, _ scalars must be treated scalarially, rotors rotorially, algebra _ algebraically, geometry geometrically. That is to say the _ temark is a very loose statement of a truism, or it is profound _ fonsense. Sirictly speaking, to treat vectorially is to treat after the manner of vectors, or to treat as vectors do. Now what does a vector do? Prof. Gibbs, the prince of ___ Vector purists, says on page 6 of his pamphlet that ‘‘the effect __ of the skew [or vector] multiplication by a [any unit vector] a — vectors in a plane perpendicular to a is simply to rotate x all 90° in that plane.’’ Hence a vector 7s a versor. To _ which Mr. Heaviside in fierce denunciation: ‘‘In a given _ €quation [in quaternion-vector analysis] one vector may be a vector and another a quaternion. Or the same vector in one _ and the same equation may be a vector in one place anda _ qwaternion (versor or turner) in another. This amalgamation _ of the vectorial and quaternionic functions is very puzzling. You never know how things may turn out.” Puzzling? Then must Heaviside find his own system as puzzling as any. NO. 1225. VOL. 47] priv ‘vector through a right angle. For when he writes the vector product 77=4, he is simply acting on 7 by Z or oni by, and turning it through a right angle. It is impossible to get rid of this versorial effect of a vector. It stares you in the face from the very beginning. A very sore grievance with Heaviside and Macfarlane— although Gibbs cautiously steers clear of the whole question—is that Hamilton puts 2*, 7*, 2°, each equal to negative unity, with the consequence that Sa8 is equal to — ad cos @, where a and 4 are the lengths of a and 8, and @ the angle between them. This putting the square of a vector equal to minus the square of its length vexes their souls mightily. It isso ‘‘ unnatural,”’ so trouble- some. Now Prof. Kelland, in Kelland and.Tait’s ‘‘ Introduction to Quaternions,” chap. iii., shows that if we assume, as do Heavi- side and Macfarlane, the cyclic relations = 0= —jt 7 ee —hj M=j= — tk, and if in addition we desire an associative algebra, then of neces- sily we must have 7?=7?=47=—1. If then, following these O’Brienites, we put what they consider to be so much simpler and more natural, namely, “= /7?=4"=+1, we get a non- associative algebra of appalling complexity, which in the long run gives us no more than the associative quaternion algebra. Heaviside apparently is unaware of the non-associative beauties of his system, which he believes ‘‘to represent what the physicist wants ;” for he says, much to the credit of the Philosophical Transactions, that his system (which is demonstrably zof quaternions) is ‘‘simply the elements of quaternions without the quaternions, with the notation simplified to the uttermost, and with the very inconvenient minus sign before scalar products done away with” (P%i/. Trans., vol. clxxxiii. 1892, p. 428). We have seen how perfectly natural is the geometric concep- tion of a quaternion as the quotient of two vectors ; and the quaternion product is as simply conceived of as the operator (a8) which turns the vector B~’ into a Space considerations quickly lead us to consider quaternions which rotate a given If we take two such right or quadrantal quaternions I I’ and operate severally on the vector — is perpendicular to the axes of both, it is easy to show that Ie+Te=([+I')a gives a right quaternion ([+I’) bearing to I and I’ the same relation which would exist were I and I’ vectors. Taatis, right or quadrantal quaternions are added and subtracted according to the recognised rules for vector addition and subtraction, which so far, be it noted; are all we know about vectors. Hence in combinations other than addition and subtraction we may treat vectors as quadrantal quaternions, exactly as Gibbs, Heaviside, and Macfarlane do, although in a half-hearted fashion. It remains now to consider wherein the systems advocated by these vector analysts improve upon Hamilton’s. Do they give us anything of value not contained in quaternions ? Prof, Gibbs, having objected zz ¢ofo to the quaternion pro- duct a8, is for consistency’s sake bound to object to Hamilton’s selective principle of notation. His own notation is very similar in appearance to O'’Brien’s of old. -He defines two products, the direct product (a. 8) and the skew product (a x B). The direct product is Grassmann’s inner product or Hamilton’s —SaB; and the skew product is Va, so called probably because it has a value only when a and 8 are skew, or inclined to one another. Now there is a serious objection at the very outset to such a form as @ x B for the vector product ofaand 8. There corresponds to it no quotient amenable to symbolic treatment. The reason is, of course, that a x Bis not a complete product. Given the quaternion equation af = g, any one quantity is uniquely determined if the other two are given. Butit is impossible, in spite of the suggestiveness of the form, to throw Prof. Gibbs’s a x 8 = y into any such shape as a=y-+ 8. The point is that Hamilton’s notation does not even suggest the possibility of such a transformation. _It is certainly inexpedient, to say the least, to use a notation strongly Tesem- bling that for multiplication of ordinary algebraic quantities, but having no corresponding process by which either factor can be carried over as a generalised divisor to the other side of the equation. : 3 é One peculiar perspicuity of Hamilton’s notation arises from the fact that S and V are thrown out in bold relief from amongst the small Greek letters used for vectors and the small 593 NATURE [APRIL 20, 1893 Roanan letters used for quaternions an1 scalars, A glance tells us what kind of quantity we have to deal with before we are cilled upon to inquire into its comp sition. There is no such eye-catching virtue in Gibbs’s notation ; and Heaviside largely destroys the contrast between the quantities and selective symbols by using capital letters for all. In print the vectors are made heavy and stand out prominently enough. But a vector analysis is a thing ¢o be wsed; and with pencil or pen or chalk ona blackboard it is hopeless to prevent confusion between A and A. In suggesting a suffix notation for manuscript, Heaviside un- consciously condemns his own system. ‘Two conditions for a good notation are (1) an ummistakeable difference between easily written symbols for scalar and vector quantities ; (2) the scalar and vector parts of products and quotients thrown out in clear relief. This second is quite as important as the first con- dition. So far, Hamilton’s notation easily holds its own, A very important symbol of operation is the Nabla, vy, which may be defined in the form a0, + 80, + y03 where 0,00, are space- differentiations along the mutually rectangular directions of the unit vectors aBy. Since Heaviside and Maclarlane make a B*y” each equal to + 1, they find that v2, where z is any scalar, is d?uldx® + d*u/dy? + d*u/d2*. The real v2« is minus this quantity. When Vv? acts on a vector, Heaviside boldly defines v’w as having the same significance ; but Macfarlane, rejoicing in his non associative algebra, finds that v(vw) is quite a different quantity from (vv)w. The net result attained by this tinkering of the signs is to get a pseudo-nabla‘non-associative with itself! Gibbs moves more cannily. He defines separately the quantities vw, yxw. V.w, and yv.vw, which mean the same things as the quaternion quantities yu, Vyw, -—Svw, and -V*w. [In quaternions there’is one definition of vy, and every- thing else follows.] But even with these four definitions (all of which are properties somewhat distorted of the real Nabla) Gibbs finds his system lacking in flexibility. He has, so to speak, to lubricate its joints by pouring in the definitions of four other functions with as many new symbols, One of these is the Potential ; the others are called the Newtonian. Laplacian, and Maxwellian. They are symbolised thus—Pot, New, Lap, Max. Their meanings will be evident when they are exhibited in quaternion form. Thus, as is well known, Og Oe Ox 022 + oy” ‘from which at once ) Pot «= — 4ru, v? Pot w= + 47u or Pot 2 = ary ~ "0. Similarly, if @ is a vector quantity, Dot w = 47V ~2a. Then we have New «=v Pot a = anv 1% Lap w = Vv Pot w = 47VV-)w — Max w = Sv Pot w = 4nSv—!w. Now, Prof. Gibbs gives a good many equations connecting these functions and their various derivatives, equations which in quaternions are zdentities involving the very simplest trans- formations. But there is no such simplicity and flexibility in Gibbs’s analysis. For example, he takes eight distinct steps to prove two equations, which are special cases of V Vie 6! Another of his ¢heorems, namely, 47 Pot w = Lap Lapw — New Maxw is simply the quaternion zdentity 47V ~°0 = 47rV 71" = 47V1Vv—lo + 4rv—!Sv—e. Similarly the equation 4m Put w= — Max New wz is a travesty of 4nv-?u = 4ry-1Vv— u! These extremely simple quaternion transformations cannot be obtained with the operator used by Gibbs. Hence the necessity - he is under to introduce his Pot, New, Lap, Max, which are merely inverse quateruion operators. . . . NO 1225, VOL. 47] { ' Gibbs’s system of dyadics, which Heaviside regards with such. j high admiration, differs from Hamilton’s treatment of the linear and vector function simply by virtue of its notation. letter to NATURE he gives reasons why this notation is prefer- able to the recognised quaternion notation. As developed in the pamphlet, the theory of the dyadic goes over much the same ground as is traversed in the last chapter of Kelland and Tait’s - ** Introduction to Quaternions.” those lexicon products, for which Prof. Gibbs has such an affec- tion,’ there is nothing of real value added to our knowledge of the linear and vector function. As usual, the path is littered with definition after definition. ‘ihus the direct product? of two dyads (indicated by a dot) is defined by the equation {a8}. {yd} =B.yad. . Quaternions gives at once i gvp = aSBlySdp) + &c. = aSdpSPy + Ke. Then there follow the: definitions of the shew products of » a and p, thus— pXp=arax p+ Bux pt+yw* p PX P=pXart_+p X But p xX yw. These are not quantities but operators. let them operate on some vector ¢. Then we find ox p.g=aSaApo + ... = OVpr px ~.a=VpaSro + ... = Vega. , The first is simply @w, the old thing! The second is a well- known and important quantity in the theory of the linear and vector function. It isinteresting to note, as bearing upon the intelligibility ot the notation, that Heaviside, who dotes so on the dyadic, writes @ x p in the form Vp, so that he makes oVpa = — Voogp!! As one example of our gazz in following Gibbs’s notation, take his dyadic identity — v- pxgh= Wx po on whichthe comment is that ‘‘ the braces cannot be omitted without ambiguity.” where there is no chance of ambiguity, where everything is perfectly straightforward, and where there is much greater com- pactness in form. It seems to me that this last equation given by Gibbs condemns his whole principle of notation. It shows that one use of connecting symbols is to obscure the significance of a transformation. . . A beautiful example of virtually giving back with the left hand In his © With the exception of a few of To see what they mean j The quaternion expression is WVpoo, | what he has taken away with the right is furnished on p. 42 of — Gibbs’s pamphlet. He writes: ‘*On this account we may regard the dyad as the most general form of product of two vectors. We shall call it the indeterminate product.” And then he shows how to obtain a vector and a scalar ‘* froma dyadic by insertion of the sign of skew or direct multiplication.” This is exquisite. From the oferator ad + Bu + yy, he forms —heedless of his high toned scorn for the quaternion product— the conception of the sum of three similar though more general products, but quiets his conscience by calling them zwdelermin- ate! This sum of products then becomes by simple insertion of dots and crosses the vector ox =aXAt+BxXwut+yxy, and the scalar ds=a.AXt+B. pty... Why, we naturally ask, is this ¢7determinate product welcomed where the gzuzaternion product is spurned ? eas The truth is the quaternion, or something like it, has to come in; and in it most assuredly does come when Gibbs proceeds to treat the versor in dyadic form. The expression {2BB - I}. {2aa —I} represents in Gibbs’s notation quaternion operator Ba( a8, or more simply ¢( ae The I is called an zdem/factor and is simply unity. . . . There is something almost naive in the way in which Heavi- side introduces the dyadic as if nothing like it was to be found 1 We are surprised that s> much etymological erudition should accept such ~ a monstrosity as parallelOpiped, : 2 Gibbs calls the quantity ¢.o (which is simply Hamilton’s ¢¢) the direct product of the dyadic gand the vector co. The direct product of two vectors is a.8, and this Heaviside calls the scalar product. Similarly translating the Gibbsian dialect, he speaks of go as being the ‘‘scalar product of the dyadic and the vector’’—and gets a scalar product equal to a vector! This ‘‘is most tolerable and not to b2 endured.” the | aN APRIL 20, 1893] NATURE 393 - in either Hamilton or Tait. The truth is it is all there. Hamilton showed long ago that if op = aSap + BSup + ySvp, Wey —'p = ASayp + SBip + Srp, Faas a,SaBy = VBy, &c., A,SAwv = Vuy, &c. Now Heaviside fusses greatly over this method of inverting 9, _ and any reader of § 172 (‘‘ Electromagnetic Theory,” in the _ Electrician), would infer that the invention of the name por oat suggestion this demonstration which Hamilton and ‘ait had somehow missed in their development of ‘‘ the very ____ clumsy way” of expressing @~!p in terms of p, gp, and ¢’p. But _ the whole thing is given in Hamilton’s ‘“‘ Elements” (p. 438, a > ripley and in Tait’s ‘‘Quaternions” (p. 89, second 4 dition ; p. 123, third edition). I would also refer to § 174 of Tait’s third edition (§ 162 of the second), a comparison of which ae .Heaviside’s tall talk in the Zvectrician of November 18, ; 1892 (§ 171), will show that, on the most lenient hypothesis available, our self-appointed critic of Tait’s methods has never a read Tait’s Ouaternions.” eae through his system Prof. Gibbs has refused to consider __ the complete product of two vectors. He has used the form a8 _ to mean a ‘‘ dyad” or operator of the form aS8 or BSa. What, then, can he mean us to understand by the equations— ot . fJet= | [ [ave ( (2) of § 164), oad [eve = [ [ae > ve ( (2) of § 165). In quaternion notation the last would be written | | ou i} | V(dov)w. 3 ‘ tions are quite correct if and only if dow, dpw, and en in their quaternion meaning of quantities. But _____ Gibbs has wilfully cut himself adrift from this interpretation. _-_~_—«How, then, does he interpret these equations ? q Op chief arguments of the paper may be briefly summarised E> Both e Vo are ‘ (1) It is maintai that the quaternion is as fundamental a ___ geometrical conception as any that Prof. Gibbs has named. __ (2) In every vector analysis so far developed, the versorial as character of ae in product combinations is implied if not ___ (3) This being so, it follows as a atura/ consequence that the ____- square of a unit vector is equal to negative unity. _ (4) The assumption that the square of a unit vector is positive unity leads to an algebra whose characteristic quantities are non-associative, and whose v is not the real efficient Vad/a of ion (5) The invention of new names and new notations has added practically nothing of importance to what we have already learned from quaternions. 2 EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE} @ THIS volume is the fourth number of this remarkable pub- _ ~*~ lication, and will prove of surpassing interest to the bac- _ teriologist, physiologist, and physician, chiefly on account of ___ the first paper which it contains.” In 1877 Dr. N. V. Eck invented an operation by which it __Wwas possible to alter the circulation in such a manner that the bl flowed from the portal vein into the inferior vena cava without passing through the liver. He succeeded in establish- ing an artilicial opening between these veins in several dogs, ___ and then tied the portal vein near the liver; unfortunately, eis 5 — one dog lived for any length of time (two and a half months), ___ and, owing to an accident, Dr. Eck was unable to control the ____ result by post-mortem examination. The operation has now 2 been repeated at the St. Petersburg Institute, and it has been ps t “Archives des Sciences biolo:iques publicés par l’institut impérial de ine experimentale 4 St. Pétersbourg,”’ vol. i. no. 4. 2 “La fistule d’Eck de la _veine cave inférieure et de la veine porte, et ses conséquences pour l’organisme, par MM. les Drs. M. Hahn, V. Massen, M > Nencki, et J. Pawlow.” ‘NO. 1225, vou. 471 found that in successful cases the blood passed entirely from the portal vein into the inferior vena cava. The animals which successfully resisted this severe operation showed no alteration in the appetite, though after a period of ten days or so their temper underwent marked changes. Although perfectly docile before the operation, they now became bad- tempered, bit everything that came in their way, and showed undue excitement on trifling provocation. The animals became weak, and their gait ataxic, whilst the sensory apparatus was also greatly disturbed, as they often became blind, and appeared to lose all sensation of pain. In a further stage convulsions and coma supervened ; though the animals occasionally re- covered perfectly after a time, many of them died when the first attack of excitement and convulsions occurred, or suc- cumbed to subsequent attacks, although, on the whole, the latter rarely proved fatal. The temperature showed no changes attributable to the veinous fistula, but the weight generally diminished until death supervened, although, in animals which recovered it reached, or even exceeded, the original weight. The appetite wax good, though capricious ; but a distinct rela- tion was found to exist between the state of the alimentary canal and the attacks of excitement before mentioned. The animals which absolutely refused to eat meat remained free from the attacks, while the ‘‘ crises” invariably occurred in the . dogs that ate meat voraciously. It is a remarkable fact that many of them learnt by experience that meat was bad for them, and declined to take it. Some dogs recovered perfectly, and at the postmortem it was found that a collateral circulation had been set up, so that the portal blood again circulated through the liver. It would appear from further observations that these symptoms are due to the toxic action of the products of the transformation of nitrogenous food, the liver being unable to convert them into urea and uric acid. Carbamic acid was found in the urine of these animals, and carbamate of sodium or calcium, when intro- duced into a healthy animal’s. stomach, produced exactly the same symptoms as the fistula above described. On the other hand, it was found impossible to poison healthy dogs with the same salt, provided the setting free of carbamic acid was pre- vented by the simultaneous introduction of carbonate of soda into the stomach, while the introduction of both salts gave rise to all the symptoms of carbamic acid poisoning, when the circu- lation through the liver had been interrupted. The authors conclude, therefore, that the carbamates formed during digestion in passing through the liver are transformed into a harmless substance, and that this substance is most probably urea. In some cases the experimenters removed the entire liver ; but the animals never lived more than six hours, and fell at once into a comatose state, followed by convulsions, tetanus, and death through arrest of the respiration. Similar results were obtained by establishing a veinous fistula in the first place and tying the hepatic artery afterwards. According to Messrs. Hahn and Nencki, who performed the chemical part of these observations, the reaction of the urine remained normal until one of the attacks of excitement set in, when it became alkaline. If the hepatic artery were tied at the same time, the urine contained a little albumin and hama- globin, together with small quantities of urobilin and biliary pigment, provided the gall-bladder had not been emptied before the operation. The quantity of urea was always greatly lessened if the hepatic artery were also tied, or the greater part of the liver removed. The relation of the nitrogen in urea to the total quantity of nitrogen excreted was much smaller than normal, being only 77 per cent. instead of 89 per cent. On the other hand, the uric acid in the urine ultimately increased in quantity, even when the hepatic artery was not tied, although the total quantity of nitrogen excreted was not greater than normal, the increase in the uric acid corresponding to the setting in of the convulsions. With regard to the ammonia contained in urine, the authors have come to the following con- clusions :—(1) Eck’s operation, combined with the ligature of the hepatic artery, causes in dogs an increase in the excretion of ammonia. In some cases this increase is relative only with regard to the nitrogen of urea or the total nitrogen, whereas in other cases it is absolute, and this absolute increase takes place when the animals survive the operation for twenty bours at least ; (2) the secretion of ammonia increases rapidly in animals which have been subjected to Eck’s operation as soon as the first symptoms set in, In a further-series of researches the authors showed that car- NATURE [APRIL 20, 1893 bamic acid is present in the urine of a normal animal, and increases after Eck’s operation. It would be interesting there- fore to compare these facts with what we know of the increase of ammonia in pathological states of the liver in man. The liver, however, is not the only place where urea is formed, for the urea never completely disappeared in any of these experi- ments ; and it is well known that in sharks which live seventy hours after the removal of the liver, the urea in the muscles does not diminish after the operation. Such are the chief new facts we have met with in this in- teresting memoir, and it is certain that these investigations open up a new field for further researches. The other papers ! con- tained in this volume call for little comment ; they relate chiefly to the digestive and putrefactive processes taking place in the human intestinal tract. It will be seen, however, that this fourth number sustains the well-earned reputation of the three first ones, and that’ the archives deserve to take their place among the chief scien- tific journals which made their first appearance in the year 1892. STEAM ENGINE TRIALS. A PAPER on the last series of steam-engine trials undertaken by the late Mr. P. W. Willans was read at the meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers on April 11. The paper dealt with an extensive series of condensing trials made with a 40 I.H.P. Willans Central-Valve Engine. These were intended to form a sequel to the investigations described in the author’s papers, entitled ‘‘ Economy Trials of a Non-condensing Steam Engine, Simple, Compound, and Triple,” read before the Institution in 1888 and 1889. The principal objects in undertaking these trials were—(1) To ascertain the initial condensation in the first cylinder, and to trace the behaviour of the steam in the succeeding cylinders, when working as a compound or triple-expansion engine ; (2) To observe the effect of speed of rotation, atea of exposed sur- face, and range of temperature, upon the initial condensation, and upon economy generally ; (3) To ascertain the percentage of the theoretical mean pressure actually obtained ; (4) To ascertain the ratio of the work done by each pound of steam to the theoretical work due from it; (5) To determine the con- sumption of steam at all loads, and under various conditions. The consumption of steam was determined by discharging the condensed water from the exhaust into a tank carried by a weigh- bridge, and observing the intervals of time required for fixed weights of water torun in. By this method, a continual watch was kept on the performance of the engine during the whole trial, and any disturbing cause was immediately detected ; leaky steam-pipe joints did not affect the result, and the length of the trial might be much reduced. Special experiments, made to ascertain whether any addition was necessary to cover leakage in the engine and exhaust-pipe, showed that this leakage was slight. The method of determining the theoretical work due from one pound of saturated steam when discharging into a condenser was next considered, and it was shown that the thermal efficiency of a condensing engine must of necessity be less than that of a non-condensing engine, owing to the greater pro- portionate size of the ‘‘toe”’ of the diagram cut off for practical reasons. In the non-condensing trials the best number of expansions was computed from the approximate formula p® v? = constant ; but for the condensing trials the error in this could not be neglected. The best ratio of expansion and mean pressure were therefore calculated for adiabatic expansion, by Mr. Macfarlane Gray’s @ » diagram, combined with a volume curve. Altogether sixty-two trials were made under various conditions of speed, steam-pressure, load, and ratio of ex- pansion, as well as with the engine working simple, compound, and triple, and the results were embodied in the tables accom- panying the paper. One of the principal deductions from these experiments was the ‘straight-line’ law of steam-consumption ; and it was shown by diagrams that the /o/a/ water for the horse-power t On the Putrefactive Processes in the Large Intestine of Man and on the Microbes Causing Them,’’ by M. Lumft. ‘On the Micro-organisms in the Organs of Choleraic Patients,” by M. L. de Rekowski. ‘* Contri- butions to the Study of Chemical Processes in the Intestines of Man,” by M.. Jakowski. NO. 1225, VOL. 47] ag corresponding to any mean pressure P, was W + KP., where W was the water which would be used by the engine a6 7 zero mean pressure (through initial condensation, radiation and conduction), supposing it were frictionless, and K was the water per hour required to produce each pound of mean pressure. These factors were shown to vary with the conditions under which the engine was working. : Eighteen of the trials were planned to assist in determini the law connecting initial condensation with revolutions ; and it was found that in the high-pressure cylinder at high mean pressures the total condensation per unit of time was directly proportional to the square root of the number of revolutions per unit of time. As the mean pressure was diminished, the condensation became more and more nearly constant at all speeds ; and finally, at low mean pressures, the law appeared to be reversed. For the low-pressure cylinder, the law was modified. ae The important question of the changing proportions of steam and water present during the expansive part of the stroke was — investigated by the @ @ diagram. The matter was first examined _ theoretically by considering the effect of a thin liner of infinitely conducting matter, and a curve was drawn on the @ @ diagram showing the rate at which the steam initially condensed in warming up the liner from the exhaust to the initia ature was re-evaporated as the expansion proceeded. The actual re-evaporation, as obtained by measurement of the indicator cards was compared with this theoretical re-evapora- tion, the difference measuring the delay in the return of the heat from the liner to the steam, The losses due to con- duction and radiation, to passage through ports, and to incomplete expansion, could also be shown on the @ @ dia- gram. i : The question of the economical advantage of reducing the power by automatic cut-off versus throttling was discussed. Broadley, the result was that the gain by varying the expansion was large for a simple engine, moderate for a compound engine, and, for a triple engine, almost inappreciable. It further appeared that the gain at high speeds was greater than at low speeds. A few trials made with the cylinders ‘steam- jacketed showed | a slight gain, but further experiments were required to show — whether the gain was likely to be worth the extra trouble and expense involved. ; aye The missing steam at cut-off varied in the trials to even a greater extent than it did in the non-condensing trials—the amount being much affected by the range of temperature, .the - density of the steam, and by other conditions. It appeared that, under all circumstances, the triple-condens- ; ing engine showed an advantage over the compound in regard to steam-consumption ; but that, except for very large engines, the compound-transfer engine was probably the best for pres- sures below 150 lbs. (absolute) pressure per square inch. ETHNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS IN AUSTRALIA. GOME time ago Mr. R. Etheridge, jan., carried on a series of geological and ethnological investigations in the valley of the Wollondilly River, at its junction with the Nattai River, New South Wales ; and in the latest number of the ‘* Records of the Australian Museum” (vol. ii. No. 4) he gives an inte- resting account of the various facts he had occasion to study. The following is the greater part of the passage in which he. records his ethnological observations :— The aborigines of the Wollondilly and Nattai Valleys, must, from local accounts, have existed in considerable numbers, and are now only represented by interments, carved trees, wizards’ hands, and charcoal drawings in rock shelters along the precipitous escarpments. Bey The first objects investigated under this head were the ‘* Hands-on-the-Rock.” The ‘‘rock” consists of a huge mass of Hawkesbury Sandstone, about seventeen feet in breadth and length, hollowed out on the side overlooking the river to the extent of six feet. from the Wollondilly, having rolled from the higher ground above, and alongside the track from the Nattai function to Cox’s River, in the immediate south-west corner of the Parish Werriberri. It is perched on the side of a gentle rise ~ The cavernous front of the rock is fifteen feet Buz eaae Sp Tew AS eek a | pets 20, 1893] NATURE fsa 95 Dried: and twelve feet high. On the back wall are depicted a ber of red hands, both right and left. Under the principal ands are four white curved bands, resembling boomerangs or ibs pte whole of the hands being relieved, as is usually the with these representations, by light splash. work, The hand- n this shelter differ, however, from any I have seen before BG asccstionsbi previous preparation of the rock surface reception by incising the surface to the shape of each , thus leaving a slightly raised margin around each, I have tly given (Records Geol. Survey, N.S. Wales, 1892, 34) an epitome of our knowledge of these hand r method of preparation, and supposed significance full to render any further reference unnecessary at : colour red, amongst black races, was the symbol sr, Journ. R. Soc., N.S. Wales for 1882 [1883], ‘Mr. Maurice Hayes, of Queahgong, informed me that he has ‘the rock for the past fifty years, and that the imprints . altered in the least. He found it difficult to obtain hy information from the aborigines regarding them ; they ignorance, but ultimately ‘gave him to understand hands wee the imprints of those of their Deity when calla flats in this neighbourhood, along the » were, T was informed, great a grounds for n and Shoalhaven participating. ur overlooking one of these green expanses, known orman’s Flat, immediately at the junction of the Wollon- ind Nattai Rivers, we investigated an interment, thirty d, indicated by a single carved tree, but the device has, yy. been wantonly eatin This grave is known of ‘Jimmy Aremoy,” or ‘‘ Blackman’s Billy,” of the tribe, and called in the vane ten dialect Ah-re-moy, and ered by a small mound at the foot of a small tree, forty- ‘th of the carved tree, and had been surrounded by » fence. After removing the mound and superin- sil, we found the grave had been filled with boulders s of rock to the depth of four feet six under this was a layer of split timber and removing this we found the skeleton well bad once been an old coat, a blanket, and an ‘The skeleton was doubled up in the usual : arms drawn up to the breast, and the legs against the don the right side, and facing the south-east. . interesting fact was the variety of articles placed ed, according to aboriginal custom. «Loose in bent earth we found an ingenious conversion of a iron into a probable spear-head, a pointed stick, pose pieces of timber. Underneath the skeleton in ‘ions there occurred an old comb in two pieces, a Ph 8 iron spoon, the blade of another spoon, a small ; and portion of the tin-plate work of an old pot ” or ‘ billy- -can,”’ fragment of a clay tobacco pipe- ofan old metal powder or shot case, containing shot id y shirt buttons, and last, but by no means the least ous pebenator: -oil bottle, still containing what seems to be a e below the junction of the rivers we viewed the burial » of a ‘* Chief” of the late local tribe, the interment having on nt oad fifteen years ago. It lies contiguous to one of a marked trees placed in a triangle, the longe-t side or base the latter being half a chain in length, and bearing north- west 1 south-east. The trees are still erect, although the carvings / more or less obliterated by bush fires, but they seem to have m chiefly in zig-zag lines, and of course cut. with an iron The heavy rain prevailing at the time deterred us investigating this burial. ‘his concluded our investigations in Burragorang proper, but turning to Thirlmere, we diverted our course near Vander- , across the Werriberri Creek to ‘‘ The Hermitage,” the . of Mr. W. G. Hayes, parish of Burragorang, county of . Through the kindness of Mr. Hayes we were allowed _ to examine a much more extensive burial ground than either of the preceding. Here, on a small plateau above and to the east of the Waterfall C:eek, a branch of the Werriberri, and behind, ortothe south of the homestead, are four graves of various sizes distinguished by four carved trees, more or less in a state of dilapidation. There does not appear to have been any geo- _ metrical form of arrangement assumed in the placing of these VO. 1225, VOL 47] graves, unless it be a roughly rhomboidal one. We expected, from current report, to find five graves here, but four only re- warded our efforts. Three of the graves and three carved trees are more or less ina north-west and south-east line, Starting at the north-west corner, the figures on a She-oak (Casvarina) have been partially obliterated, ten feet from this is the first grave, and fourteen feet from the latter is another carved She- oak, now lying on the ground and much decayed. Fifty-one feet still further on occurs the largest grave, and at another fifty-one feet the third ornamented tree, a dead gum still standing but much burnt by bush fires, and bearing an extraordinary figure. Between the last grave and thistree, and deviating somewhat from the straight line in the third interment, at right-anglés to the original starting point ; and fifty-four feet from it at right angles, is the fourth carved tree, also a dead gum, bearing figures. At right angles to this again, and distant sixty-four feet, is the fourth grave, apparently without any indicating tree near it. We did not investigate the contents of these graves owing to want of time. I am not acquainted with any systematic account of Australian carved trees; in fact little seems to have been collectively written about them, and very few representations figured. Probably some of the earliest illustrations are those by Oxlry, Sturt, and ‘‘ W. R. G.” presumed to be from the context of his writings, Mr. Surveyor W. R. Govett, of Govett’s Leap fame. Oxley discovered a grave on the Lachlan, consisting of a sewi- circular mound, with two trees overlooking it, harked and carved in a simple manner. (Journ. Two Expeds. Interior N.S. Wales, 1820, p. 139, plate). These carvings consisted of herring-bone on the one tree, and well-marked curved although simple lines on the other. The explorer Sturt noticed an oblong grave beyond Taylor’s Rivulet, Macquarie River, around which the trees were ‘‘ fancifully carved on the inner side,” one with a figure of a heart (Two Expeds. Interior S. Austr., 1834, i., p- 14). Theanonymous author (W.R.G.) describes an occurrence of this kind at Mount Wayo, County Argyle, in the following words :—‘‘ The trees all round the tomb were marked in various peculiar Ways, some with zig-zags and stripes, and pieces of bark otherwise cut”’ (Saturday May. 1836, ix., No. 279, p. 184). A Mr. Macdonald states that the aborigines of the Page and Isis, tributaries of the Hunter River, carve serpentine lines on two trees to the north-west of each grave (Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. and Ireland, 1878, vii., p. 256) The figures are either composed of right lines or curves, more commonly the former, but a few instances have been recorded of natural objects, such as the outline of an Emu’s foot, seen by Leichhardt on a gum tree in the Gulf Country (Journ. Overland Exped. Moreton Bay to Port Essington, 1847, p. 356): One thing is self-evident, such carvings possessed a dual if nota triple significance. We have already seen the employment of them to indicate an interment, presumably acting the part of a tombstone, for it is believed by some that the figures on a tree in each case correspond to those on the i inner side of deceased's *possum rug, the mombarai, or ‘‘ drawing,” which Fraser thinks was distinctive in each family, or x peculiar modification of the tribal mombarai (Journ. R. Soc. N.S. Wales for 1892 [1893], xvi., p. 201). So far as I can gather, such devices invariably indicated the last resting-place of a male. Mr. E..M. Curr states (** The Australian Race, 1886,” ii., p. 433) that the Breeaba Tribe, at the head-waters of the Burdekin River, North Queensland, employed marked trees to commemorate a battle. He figures a tree from the banks of the Diamantina, barked and marked by a series of close, irregularly super-imnposed notches, like those made by a black whenclimbing a tree. These, how- ever, can hardly be compared to carvings, According to Mr. J. Henderson, Dr. John Fraser, Mr. A. W. Howitt, and Mr. Macdonald previously mentioned, Bora Grounds are also embellished with carved trees. The first-named de- -seribes (‘* Obs. Colonies of N.S. Wales and V.D. Land,” 1832, p. 145, pl. 3) the approach to one of these initiation places at Wellington as through ‘‘ along, straight avenue of trees, extend- ing for about a mile, and these were carved on each side with various devices . . . At the lower extremity of this, a narrow pathway turned off towards the left, and soon terminated in a circle.”’ Mr. Henderson further remarks that the fact of the use of this place for Bora purposes was communicated to him by the then headman of the tribe. Dr. Fraser says (Journ. R. Soc. N.S. Wales for 1882 [1883] xvi., p. 205) that the Gringai Tribe, one of the northern N.S. Welsh tribes, clear two circular en- closures, one within the other, for their Bora, and that the trees 596 NATURE [APRIL 20, 1893 growing around the smaller circle are carved ‘‘ with curious emblematical devices and figures”; whilst Mr. Maclonald in- forms us that on the Bora ground of the Page and Isis River Natives, as many as a hundred and twenty marked trees occur round about (Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. Ireland, 1878, vii., i. 256). Confirmation is further afforded by Mr. W. O. Hodgkinson, who saw a Bora ground on the Macleay River with ‘‘trees mirtutely tatooed, and carved to sich a considerable altitude that he could not help feeling astonished at the labour bestowed onthe work ” (Smyth, ‘‘ Aborigines of Victoria, 1878,” i.5° ps 292). If, as previously stated, according to current report, the designs on the trees be the same as those on the "possum rugs, the transfer of them to the trees surrounding a grave must have had some important and lasting meaning to the survivors. The figures on the rug may have indicated some degree of ownership, a crest, coat of arms, or monogram, as it were, and in such a case the reproduction on the trees surrounding a grave may be looked upon as an identification of the deceased. Henderson speaks of the tree carvings as symbols. ‘* A symbol is after- wa ds carved upon the nearest tree, which seems to indicate the particular tribe to which the individual may have belonged ”’ (‘*Obs. Colonies of N.S. Wales and V.D. Land, 1832,” p. 149). Or had they a deeper esoteric meaning, one only known to the learned men of the tribe? Smyth states (‘‘ Aborigines of Vic- toria, 1878,” i., p. 288) that the figures on the inner sides of the "possum rugs ‘‘ were the same as those on their weapons, namely, the herring-bone, chevron, and saltier.”’ - How easily these same devices can be traced, in a general way, both on the carved trees and some of the wooden weapons, is amply shown by many of the excellent figures given in Smyth’s work. This painstaking author, in briefly dealing—too briefly, in fact—with this interest- ing subject, says (Jéid. p. 286. The italics are mine): ‘‘ The natives of the Murray and the Darling, and those in other parts adjacent, carved on the trees near the tombs of deceased warriors strange figures having meanings no doubt intelligible to all the tribes in the vast area watered by these rivers.”’ By the Kamilarai (T. Honery, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Gt. Brit. and Ireland, 1878, vii., p. 254) they were regarded as ‘‘ memorials of the dead. It is much to be regretted that before the last remnant of this fast-disappearing race has passed away, a translation, or at any rate an explanation of these matters, cannot be obtained. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS. American Fournal of Science, April.—Distance of the stars by Doppler’s principle, by G. W. Colles, Jun. This principle may be applied to the calculation of the distances of stars in the manner suggested by Fox Talbot and discussed by Prof. Rambaut. If the velocity of a component of a binary star be measured spectroscopically when it is moving in the line of sight, and its orbit be studied by means of the micrometer, the velocity at any point of the orbit, and hence also the size of the orbit, may be determined. This, divided by its angular magni- tude, gives the distance of the system. From theoretical con- siderations the author calculates the ratio of the mean. velocity across the line of sight of a large number of stars distributed equally over the celestial sphere to their mean velocity along the line of sight, and finds this ratio to be > He then shows that the mean distance of all these stars will be approximately arrived at by multiplying this ratio by the sum of the observed velocities in the line of sight, and dividing by the sum of the observed corresponding angular velocities. Calculating from observations of ninety-five stars in the northern hemisphere, a mean distance of 150’9 light years is obtained, or, taking Vogel’s observations only, 80°5 light years. —The radiation and absorp- tion of heat by leaves, by Alfred Goldsborough Mayer. Two leaves of the same species of plant were each glued upon one of the polished tin sides of a Leslie cube. One of the leaves was then painted over with dead-black, and the cube was filled with water kept at 40°C. The radiation from the two leaves was measured by means of a thermopile. It was found that almost all the leaves radiated as well as lampblack. The effect of a thin film of dew was to reduce the radiation to 78 per cent, and to 66 per cent. if the dew stood out in beads upon the sur- face. The absorption of dark heat rays by leaves interposed as a diaphragm was found to be highly selective. A single elm leaf transmitted 20 per cent. of the radiant heat. A second leaf NO. 1225, VOL. 47] transmitted 78 per cent. of this, and a third over 83 per cent, _ Wild cherry leaves trans-— of that transmitted by the second. mitted 9 per cent., and chicory 4 per cent. more heat when their chlorophyll was abstracted by ether or alcohol.—Also papers by — L. Wheeler, W. P. Headden, W. H. Melville, J. — F. Kemp, E. A. Smith, R. T. Hill, M. I. Pupin, F, A. Gooch, ~ Messrs. H. and P, E. Browning. THE most important article in the Botanical Gazette for De- — cember, 1892, is the oneto which we have already alluded, in which Mr. k. Thaxter proposes the establishment of a new — order of Schizomycetes with the name Myxobacteriacege. In that and the following numbers (January— March, 1893) Prof. D. H. Campbell gives his account, most of which we have reprinted, of his visit to the Hawaiian Islands ; Mr. G. W. Martin completes his description of the development of the flower and embryo-sac in Aster and Solidago ; Mr. F. B. Maxwell gives a comparative study of the roots of Ranunculaceze, in which he makes three types of structure on the basis of the changes which take place | through secondary growth. Mr. A. Schneider has a note on the influence of anesthetics on the transpiration of plants ; he finds that both this function and the vitality of protoplasm are both retarded by the action of ether, the protoplasm being 4 finally killed. Prof. J. E. Humphrey gives a full account of the life-history of Monilia fructigena, a parasitic fungus which causes great destruction of pears and stone-fruit in America, In an article on non-parasitic bacteria in vegetable tissue Mr. H. L. Russell sums up his conclusion that vegetable, like animal — tissues, are normally free from micro-organisms, but that in healthy vegetable tissues many species of bacteria are able to exist for a not inconsiderable length of time. We have also articles describing new species of flowering plants discovered on the American continent, and a résumé of the botanical papers read at the New Orleans meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. IN the numbers of the Journal of Botany from January to April the articles of most general interest, in addition to the continuation of others already noticed, are :—A list of the Mycetozoa of South Beds and North Herts, by Mr. Jas. Saunders; Dr. M. T. Masters, on some cases of inversion, in which he gives illustrations of the reversal of the normal relative position of organs or of elements of tissues; a provi- sional list of the marine alge of the Cape of Good Hope, by Mis; E. 3. Barton; a list of the mosses of Guernsey, by Mr. E D. Marquand ; notes on Sc.tch freshwater alge, by Mr. W. West, in which two new species are described; notes on the British species of Campylopus, a genus of Musci, by Mr. H. N. Dixon. — Under the head ot ‘‘ Laboratory Notes,” Mr. S. Le M. Moore describes the best way of making Millon’s reagent ; anew way of demonstrating continuity of protoplasm (Millon’s fluid); and the action of cold Millon’s fluid on iron-greening tannins, and on cell walls giving proteid reactions. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES. LONDON, Royal Society, February 2.—‘‘A New Portable Miner’s Safety-lamp, with Hydrogen attachment for delicate Gas- testing ; with exact Measurements of Flame-cap_ indications furnished by this and by other Testing-lamps.” By Prof. Frank Clowes, D.Sc. (Lond.), University College, Nottingham. — The author, availing himself of his ‘*test-chamber,” already described in the Proc. Roy. Soc. vols. 1. li. has examined the indications of fire-damp furnished by the different safety- lamps at present in use for testing purposes. Ashworth benzoline lamp, and the hydrogen-oil lamp, recently devised by the author. The introduction of a standard hydrogen gas-testing flame into’an ordinary oil safety-lamp was first effected by the author, and was described by him in the papers referred toabove, But it has now been brought into a far more convenient and portable form ; the most recent development of the lamp is described and explained by illustrations in the present paper. The hydrogen gas is stored in a little pocket steel cylinder, under — about 100 atmospheres pressure: this can be immediately attached to the safety-lamp when required, and can be made to furnish a standard 10 millimetre hydrogen flame which will burn continuously for forty minutes from the cylinder-supply. The hydiogen is kindled from the oil-flame, without opening the These lamps. include the ordinary oil-lamp, the Pieler alcohol lamp, the | <> Teted it: Apri 20, 1893] NATURE 597 mp: and proves to be equal in delicacy and accuracy of test- to Liveing’s indicator and other forms of apparatus of precision at present in use. The lamp presents the great antage of serving at once for lighting, for ordinary gas- testing by the oil-flame, and for most accurate and delicate testing by means of the hydrogen flame. The paper gives full statements of the results of the flame-cap ‘measurements of the new lamp, and of the lamps mentioned The gen conclusions to be drawn from these measure- ments, and from experience derived from working with the ifferent lamps, are the following :— _ (1) The indications of the Pieler lamp begin at the lowest : De cent., but quickly become too great to be ’ The thread-like tip extending above the flame for nehes in pure air must not be mistaken for a cap, but it is istinguishable from the cap given by 0°25 per cent. s lamp suffers under the disadvantage that much of the light of the caps is lost by the obstruction of the gauze: ze also frequently presents a bright reflecting surface the flame, and this renders the observation of the cap ible. All the other lamps in use are free from these rences due to the gauze, and if their glasses are blackened ad internally by smoking them with a taper they become suited for the observation of caps. he Ashworth benzoline lamp begins its indications doubt- 0°5 per cent., the cap thus produced being more distinct, but i ag in height, than the mantle of the flame seen in __ But starting with certainty with an indication of 1 per cent., t gives strikingly regular indications up to 6 per cent., and even higher percentages may be read off ia a lamp with a long The standard 10 mm. hydrogen flame gives distinct ations from 0°25 to 3 per cent.; the cap then becomes gh for measurement in the lamp; but by reducing the 5 mm., cap readings may be taken up to 6 per cent. : lower indications may similarly be increased by raising eto 15 mm. The oil (lame produced by unmixed colza oil gives no in- ons with percentages below 2. With 1 per cent. of gas ne from colza mixed with an equal volume of petroleum white) produces an apparent cap, which, though some- ut more intense than the natural mantle seen in gas-free air, ily equal to this mantle in dimensions, and might easily be istaken for it. The oil flame, when it is reduced until it just loses its luminous tip, however, gives distinct indications from 3 to 6 _ The largest indications are produced by drawing down the mae a ie, presence of the gas, until a cap of maximum size is —- is) wu _ A carefully regulated oil flame may, therefore, conveniently slement the hydrogen flame for the indication of gas varying rom 3 to 6 per cent., and in the new hydrogen lamp this will be found to be a convenient method to adopt. _ The use of colza alone in the oil-lamp is very inconvenient -gas-testing : the wick quickly chars and hardens on the top, and cannot then be reduced without danger of extinc- tion; it can never be obtained satisfactorily in a non-luminous condition. The admixture with petroleum obviates these difficulties. _ The use of the hydrogen flame for gas-testing has been pro- posed, but has never been hitherto carried into practice in an ordinary safety lamp. Careful comparison proves this flame to be superior to the alcohol flame and to all other flames at __ present sugyested. Its indications have never been carefully _ observed and measured before ; they are carefully summarised in the present paper. ____ It will be readily understood that the main advantages result- ing from the use of the hydrogen flame are the following :— io 45) The flame is non-luminous, whatever its dimensions may fin and therefore does not interfere with the perception of the ‘cap. (2) Che flame can always be adjusted at once to standard _ height and maintained at that height sufficiently long for the NO. 1225, VOL. 47] completion of the test; whereas other testing flames are con- stansly varying in dimensions, and most of them cannot be set to standard size at all with any certainty. Thus a colza-petroleum flame exposed in air containing alow percentage of gas when twice adjusted gave caps of 8 and of 20mm. The reduced oil flame often fell so quickly that cap- readings with low percentages of gas could not be taken at all. (3) The caps produced over the hydrogen flame are larger than those produced by any flame of corresponding size, (4) The size of the hydrogen flame can therefore be so far re- duced as to enable it to be used in an ordinary safety-lamp. The size of the flame may further be suitably varied so as to increase or decrease the height of the cap and thus either in- crease the delicacy of the test or extend its range. (5) The hydrogen flame shows no trace of mantle or cap in air free from gas ; it resembles the Pieler flame in showing only a slender thread above its apex. The colza-petroleum and the benzoline flames show pale mantles in gas-free air, which may be easily mistaken for a small percentage of gas. (6) The standard hydrogen flame burns vigorously, it is of fair size, and cannot be extinguished by accident ; whereas the reduced flames ordinarily used in testing burn feebly and are readily lost. (7) Hydrogen is supplied pure and of practically invariable composition ; whereas oil and alcohol are apt to vary much in composition, and therefore to give flames whose indications vary with the sample of liquid which is being burnt. Itshould be noted that the hydrogen flame is set to standard size in the presence of the gas, and therefore yields accurate indi- cations in any atmosphere in which the test is made. The paper gives full descriptions of the method pursued for obtaining accurate flame-cap measurements in this research. The indications furnished by the new lamp in air coitaining coal-gas and water-gas are also tabulated ; and it is shown that these gases are readily detected when present in small proportions in the air, and their amount is accurately determined. The lamp shows equal delicacy and accuracy in the detection and estima- tion of petroleum vapour in the air. When used for the detection of fire-damp the amount of fine coal-dust ordinarily present in the air of the mine caused no in- terference with the test. The lamp had been proved by use in the coal-mine to be thoroughly practical and easy in its applica- tion to gas-testing. February 16.—‘‘Further Experiments on the Action of Light on Bacillus anthracis.” IV. By 1. Marshall Ward, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Botany, Royal Indian Engineering College, Coopers Hill. The author has continued his experiments, proving that the light of a winter sun and that of the electric arc rapidly destroy the life of the spores of the anthrax bacillus, and showing that the bactericidal action is really direct, and not due to elevation of temperature, or to any indirect poisoning or starving process incident on changes in the food materials. The evidence goes to prove that the effect is chiefly if not entirely due to the rays of higher refrangibility in the blue-violet of the spectrum. The experiments have been continued with special reference to these latter points, and confirm the general conclusions in every detail. Not only so, but the further results prove that the inhibitory and deadly effects of direct insolation are not confined to Bacillus anthracis, but also extend to other bacteria and even to the Fungi; and throw some light on several pro- blems which have presented themselves during previous in- vestigations. Experiments with Coloured Screens of Various Kinds. The author described experiments made during December to February with coloured screens of various kinds ; premising that the methods employed in preparing and exposing the plates, &c., have been the same as those referred to in the previous com- munication. The results show that when plates are exposed for equal periods behind screens transmitting blue and violet rays, and behind screens which cut off those rays, the spores on the former are killed, whereas no bactericidal action occurs on the latter. Experiments with Spores and Food Material on Separate Plates. In order to test still further the accuracy of previous con- clusions, that the bactericidal action of the sunlight is direct, wy 59 NATURE [APRIL 20, 1893 and not due to secondary effects, owing to changes in the food material, the following modifications of the experiments were carried out, and yielded inost important and conclusive proofs that the action of the rays of light ts direct on the spores, and not due to secondary actions owing to changes in the food materials. Two plates, for instance, of dried spores only are made, and two of agar only, all as before. Then one plate of each kind is exposed to the light,.and the others are kept in the dark. After exposure, the stiff and moist film of o72-exposed agar is removed from its own plate, and saferposed on the exposed film of dried spores tn situ. Reciprocally, the film of exposed agar is removed, and superposed on the now-exposed film of dried spores. This prevents any wash or displacement, and ensures at the same time that the agar shall present in contact with the spores that face which was next the source of light. So far no appreciable effect on the agar has been observed, though the dried spores exposed for an equal period are killed in abundance, as shown by the figure which comes out on culture. Preliminary Results with the Spores of Fungi. Results substantially the same as the above are obtainable with other Schézomycetes, but it was interesting to see whether anything of kind occurs with the spores of true Fungi. The time of year has, for many reasons, been unfavourable for very numerous experiments, but the results so far are extremely encouraging, and should give a stimulus to close inquiry into the whole subject. The following species have been examined :—/enictlliam crustaceum, Aspergillus glaucus, Botrytis cinerea, Chalara mycoderma, Oidium lactis, Nectria cinnabarina, Mucor race- mosus, Saccharomyces pyriformis, and a ‘* Stysanus” conidial form met with some months ago as a saprophyte on Pandanus. On making agar and gelatine plates of thesé as before, positive results were obtained with Ova@ium (5 cases), Chalara (1 case), Saccharomyces (4 cases), Stysanus (2 cases), and negative results with Aspergillus (5 cases), Penicillium (2 cases), Mucor (2 cases), Nectria (4 cases), and Botrytis (2 cases). . It seems worth noting that, in all the forms which have given positive result right off, the spores, as seen in masses, are either hyaline and colourless, or, in the case of the Stysanus, with a faint tinge of buff; whereas those which gave negative results are either of some very pronounced colour, as Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Nictria, or (Mucor and Botrytis) of a dull, yellow-brown hue. After some theoretical considerations, some practical bearings of the results are thus referred to :— The establishment of the fact of the bactericidal and fungicidal action of light, dating from Downes and Blunt to now, enables us to see much more clearly into the causes of several pheno- mena known to practical agriculturists, foresters, hygienists, &c. It helps to explain, for example, why the soil of a forest should not be exposed to the sun, a dogma long taught in schools ; it will also effect our way of regarding bare fallows. It has already been shown how important is its bearing on the purifica- tion of rivers, and the reasoning obviously applies to dwellings, _towns, &c. The author regards it as probably explaining many discrepancies in the cultures of Schizomycetes and Fungi in our laboratories, and as having a very important bearing indeed on the spreading of plant epidemics in dull weather in the sum- mer, and no doubt this applies to other cases. That sunshine has something to do with the rarity of bacterial diseases in plants now seems quite as probable as the currently accepted view that the acid nature of the latter accounts for the fact. If that part of the chlorophyll which absorbs the blue-violet is a screen to prevent the destruction of easily oxidisable bodies, as they are formed in the chloroplasts, we may reconcile several old experimental discrepancies—e.g. the behaviour of plants under bichromate and cupric oxide screens. The author concludes from his experiments, and from numer- ous other considerations given in the paper, that the colours of spores, pollen grains, &c., are of the nature of colour-screens, and is led to put forward the following hypothesis :— No plant exposes a reserve store of fatty food materials to the danger of prolonged or intense insolations without a protective colour-screen, calculated to cut out at least the blue violet rays, as these rays would otherwise destroy the reserve substance by pro- moting tts rapid oxidation. NO 1225, VOL. 47] Preliminary Statement on the Equisetacee and Psilotaces,” IJ. By F. O. Bower, D.Sc., F.R.S., Regius Professor of Botany in the University of Glasgow. mea Still maintaining the same general views as were put forward — in my preliminary statement on the Lycopodine and Oyjhioglossaceze (Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. |. p. 265), | have now investigated other types from among the Vascular Cryptogams as regards the development of their spore-producing members. Taking first the Equisetaceze, the development of 1 sporangia has been closely followed by Goebel ; I find it ever, difficult to accept his conclusions as to the hy origin of the archesporium. On following the early phases development in Zy. arvense, the sporangium is found to 1 eusporangia’e, but the essential parts of the sporangium may be traced in origin to a single superficial cell, the cells adjoining, this laterally contributing only to form the lateral port the wall. ‘The first division of this cell is periclinal: 4 resulting cell forms only a part of the sporogenous ti. outer cell undergoes further segmentation, first b then by periclinal, walls, and the taner cells thus 7 added to the sporogenous tissue, and take partin spore-fo: The archesporium of Zy. arvense is thus shown to be n hypodermal origin in the strict sense ; the same appt ; the case in Zy. /imosum. Sinilar additions to the sporogen tissue by early periclinal division of superficial cells is common to be seen in Jsoe¢es, and occasional cases, which are diff explain in any other way, have been observed in some speci Lycopodium, It would thus appear that Goebel’s generali that in all the Vascular Cryptogams which he investi hypodermal archesporium exists, cannot be retained in tt sense, The tapetum is derived from the series of cells immec surrounding the sporogenons mass ; it is, however, to be ca distinguished from certain cells of the sporogenous mass also undergo an early disorganisation ; for about one- the cells of the sporogenous mass do not form spores, b physiologically as a diffused tapetum, yielding up th stance to nourish the other young developing spores. Sie ie ‘f The synangia of the Psilotaceze have given ree ee discussions. 7 mesipteris being the genus with the simp’ rstruc- ture, it may be described first. In their earliest stages of develop- ment, as lateral outgrowths from the axis, the sporangiophores are not readily distinguishable from the foliage leaves in form or structure, while they occupy a similar position upon the axis. The first appearance of asynangium is as an upgr of super- ficial cells of the adaxial face of the sporangiophore, imme- diately below its apex ; meanwhile the cells of the abaxial side al of ts t = also grow strongly, while the apex itself does not grow so rapidly ; so that the organic apex is soon sunk in a groove between these stronger growths. The superficial cells which are to form the synangium undergo periclinal and anticlinal divisions, to form about four layers of cells. ; this tissue are.at first very similar to one another, but later two- sporogenous masses become differentiated ; they are not, how- ever, clearly defined while young from the sterile issue whic forms the partition of the synangium, or from the wall. From. the arrangement of the cells of these sporogenous masses it seems not improbable that each mass may be referable in origin. to a single cell, but this has not been proved to be constantly the case. All the cells of the spo-ogenous tissue do not arrive at maturity, but here, as in Agudzsetum, a considerable number, serving as a diffused tapetum, become disorganised without forming spores. There is no clearly-defined tapetum in 7 mesip- teris. The leaf lobes begin to be formed almost simultaneously with the synangium, and appear as lateral growths immediately — below the apex of the sporangiophore ; their further develop- ment presents no characters of special note. - one ** Studies in the Morphology of Spore-producing Members. ~ | 7 % , % \ i All the cells of — V9 : y The synangium of Psi/ofum originates in essentially asimilar = manner, being formed from the upper surface of the sporan- giophore, immediately below its apex. On the ground of the observations of internal development, of which the above are the essential features, I agree with the. conclusion of Solms that the whole sporangiophore of the Psilotaceze is of foliar nature, and that the synangium is a ~ growth from its upper surface. vx In Lepidodendron the sporangium is very large ; it is narrow and elongated in a radial direction, extending a considerable distance. along the upper surface of the leaf, I have already communi-~ cated to the Society the fact that trabeculz extend in Lepidoden- dron from the base of the sporangium far up into the mass of 4 , Apri 20, 1893]. NATURE 599 Spores, a and have compared these with the trabecule in the ; rangium of /soetes. Neither of these sporangia are, however, letely partitioned. I now suggest that comparatively slight Saandification of the condition in Lepidodendron would produce ee the state of things seen in Zmesipteris : if the sterile trabeculze Of Lepidodendron were consolidated into a transverse septum, any apical growth of the sporophyll farrested and taken up two lateral lobes, the result would be such as is seen in esipteris. This is not a mere imaginative suggestion : it pro- e m the observed fact that the septum in 7mesipterts is hable at first from the sporogenous masses. It may noted, in connection with the above comparison dron and Tmesipleris, that the vascular tissues Can? of the. former appear to correspond more closely to those 2 fone ‘Pteris than to any other living plant. Looking at the whole plants of the Psilotaceze from the point view above indicated, they are to he regarded as lax strobili, srangiophores (sporophylls) of rather complex struc- ture. ing, which is rare in 7mesifteris, is common in poo an is to be compared with the branching of the _strobilus in many species of Lycopodium. In both there are regularly alternating sterile and fertile zones, not unlike those of so some species of Lycopodium ; at the limits of these arrested = Sporangi are frequently found. It is not difficult to imagine ___ how such plants as the Psilotaceze may have originated from ES Cork strobiloid type, not unlike that of the genus Lycopodium. 23.— ‘The Absolute Thermal Conductivities of per and Iron.” By R. Wallace Stewart, B.Sc. (London), Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics, University . Communicated by Lord Kelvin, ne riments described in the paper were undertaken 7 he temper of x Ameiminiog the thermal conductivity at ren iron, and, in particular, of pure, elec- iy deponted copper. dopted was that due to Forbes, but the thermo- i conta o Sadtesining temperature was employed, and > bar ‘was protected from currents of airand external radiation by sur ng it by a trough of sheet zinc. __ The iron bar used was a square 3-inch bar of ordinary wrought 7, the copper bar was around 4-inch bar of pure electrolytic shy: ‘Variation of the specific heat of iron with the tempera- ede oon determined by Bunsen's calorimeter ; for the specific heat of copper the result given by Béde was taken. _ The range of temperature over which the observations ex- tended was from 15° C. to about 220°C. | Were final results obtained are indicated by the formule given below, and tend to show that for both copper and iron the con- if Senate decreases with rise of temperature. Results jor fron in C.G.S. Units. ot Diffusivity, k, at 2° C, is given by— , _ ¢=0'208 (1 — 0°091757), 2 andie absolute thermal conductivity, 2, by— ; i Ae=O°172 (1 - O'091I2). r «Results for Copper i in C.G.S. Units. + ivy, «, at 2° C. is given by— I, «=1°370 (1 -—0°00125/). eYeis Il. «;=1°391 (1 — 0°00120/). _ The mean of these results is taken as— a ke=1°38 (1 - 0'00122), tei the value of the absolute conductivity, 4, is then given by— 3 y= 1°10 (I — 0000537). ¥ A table is given at the end of the paper showing the emissive _ power of the surface of each bar at peepperntunes between 20°C, —_ 200° C, ‘ Linnean Society, April 6.—Prof. Siowart, President, in the chair.—The President took occasion to refer to the great loss which botanical science, had sustained by the death, on _ April 4, of Prof. Alphonse de Candolle of Geneva, an announce- pied ‘ment which was received with profound regret. Prof. de Candolle was the senior foreign member of this Society, having been Selected | in May 1850, and was the recipient of the Society’s Gold _ Medal in 1889.—Mr. Clement Reid exhibited and made some ~ remarks upon the fruit of a South European Maple (Acer monspessulanum) {rom an interglacial deposit on the Hampshire coast.—Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, who was present as a visitor, NO. 1225, VOL. 47] exhibited some rare British plants from the co. Armagh, and gave an account of their local distribution.-A paper was then read by Mr. W. B. Hemsley on a collection of plants from the region of Lhassa, made by Surgeon-Captain Thorold in 1891, and a further collection from the Kuenlun plains made hy Captain Picot in-1892. Some of the more interesting plants were exhibited, and critical remarks were offered by Messrs. C. B. Clarke, J. G. Baker, and Dr. Stapf.—Dr. H. C. Sorby gave a demonstration with the oxyhydrogen lantern and exhibited a number of slides which he had prepared of small marine organisms, many of them extremely beautiful, mounted transparently so as to show the internal structure. Entomological Society, April 12.—Mr. Frederic Merrifield, Vice-President, in the chair.—Sir John T. Dillwyn Llewelyn, Bart., exhibited a number of specimens of Lepidoptera, Coleop- tera, and Hymenoptera, all caught in Glamorganshire. The Lepidoptera included two remarkable varieties of Vanessa io, both obtained from the same brood of larve from which the usual eye-like spots in the hind wings were absent ; varieties of Avrctia menthastri; a long series of melanic and other forms of Boarmia repandata and Tephrosia crepus cularia; and bleached forms of Geometra papilionaria, The Coleoptera included specimens of Prionus coriarius, Pyrochroa coccinea, Otiorhynchus sulcatus, and Astynomus edilis, a large species of Longicornia, which Sir John Llewelyn stated had been handed to him by colliers, who obtained them from the wooden props used in the coal mines, made out of timber im- ported from the Baltic. Mr. Merrifield, Dr. Sharp, F.R.S., and Mr. Stevens made some remarks on the specimens. —Sir John T. D. Llewelyn inquired whether the name of the moth which had a sufficiently long proboscis to fertilise the large Madagascan species of Orchis, Amgrecum sesquipedale, was known. Mr. C. O. Waterhouse stated that the collections received at the British Museum from Madagascar had been ex- amined with the view to the discovery of the species, but up to the present it had not been identified.—Mr. H. Goss exhibited, for Mr. Frank W. P. Dennis, of Bahia, Brazil, several nests of Trap-door Spiders, containing living specimens of the spider, and read a communication from Mr. Dennis on the subject. Several photographs of the nests and the spiders were also ex- hibited. It was stated that Mr. Dennis had found these nests at Bahia in one spot only in a cocoa-nut grove close by the sea. —Mr. McLachlan, F.R.S., read a paper entitled ‘‘ On species of Chrysopa observed in the Eastern Pyrenees ; together with descriptions of, and | notes on, new: or little- known Palzarctic forms of the genus.” The author stated that the species referred to in this paper had been observed by him in the Eastern Pyrenees, in July, 1886, when staying with Mons. René Oberthiir. After describing the nature of the district, and its capabilities from an entomological point of view, the - - paper concluded with descriptions of certain new palzearctic species of the genus. Dr. Sharp, who said that he was acquainted with the district, and Mr. Merrifield made some remarks on the paper. PARISs, Academy of Sciences, April 10.—M. Leewy in the chair. —The deaths were announced of Vice-Amiral Paris and M. Alphonse de Candolle.—On the extinction of torrents and the replanting of the highlands, by M. P. Demontzey. A report on the work done since 1883 towards securing the south of France from its periodical inundation by mountain torrents.— On the loss of electric charge in diffused light and in darkness, by M. Edouard Branly.—Dynamo-electric machinery with com- pound excitation, by M. Paul Hoho. If a curve be con- structed showing how the magnetic excitation of a dynamo- electric machine ought to vary in order that the E.M.F. may remain constant, or may vary according to a given law, it is possible to contrive an excitation such that, if it be also ex- pressed by a curve, the latter will cut the former in any num- ber of points required, Between these points of intersection the two curves nearly coincide. Hence it is possible to pro- duce currents which, between certain limits, do not vary with the speed of the engine. This has been practically realised by means of two separate exciter circuits—On anomalous , dispersion, by M. Salvator Bloch.—General conditions to be fulfilled by registering instruments or indicators ; problem of integral synchronisation, by M. A. Blondel. All the instru- ments in question consist essentially of a movable piece (needle, pencil, membrane, or mirror) susceptible of rectilinear or circular displacement under the simultaneous influence of a 600 NATURE [APRIL 20, 1893 force proportional to the physical quantity to be measured, an opposing force sensibly proportional to the displacement, the inertia of the moving parts, and the damping force, usually proportional to the velocity. The desideratum is that the periodic motion of the moving piece should follow a law as closely approaching that of the phenomenon as possible, so that the deflection may at any instant depart as little as possible from a value equal to the ratio of the force to be measured and the opposing force. This the inventor of the ‘‘ oscillograph” calls the problem of integral synchronisation, from its analogy to that of simple synchronisation investigated by M. Cornu. —An expression is given for the value below which the damping effect, though made assmall as possible, should not be allowed to fall. — On the volatility of manganese, by M. S. Jordan.—Determina- tion of atomic weights by the limit method, by M. G. Hinrichs.—On nitrogenised copper, by MM. Paul Sahatier and J. B. Senderens. Several metals, when newly prepared by means of reduction of their oxides by hydrogen, are able to fix a large quantity of nitrogen peroxide in the cold. The resulting compounds have been termed nitrogenised metals (mctaux nitrés). In the case of copper, a quantitative analysis of the compound has led to the formula Cu,gNO,, which cor- responds to the fixation upon the metallic surface of the copper of about 1000 times its volume of peroxide at 30° C.—On the isomerism of the amido-benzoic acids, by M. Oechsner de Coninek.—On_ phtalocyanacetic ether, by P. Th. Muller.— On transpiration in herbaceous grafts, by M. Lucien Daniel.— Exploration of the higher atmosphere; experiment of March 21, 1893, hy M. Gustave Hermite. The balloon carrying the registering instruments was constructed of triple gold- beater’s skin varnished, its volume being 113 cubic metres. The total weight of the apparatus carried was 17 kgr., includ- ing an automatic distributor of inquiry cards, working by a fuse. The ascensional force was 65 kegr., giving a vertical velocity of 8 or 9m. per second. The average velocity of descent was 2°4m., so that the instruments did not suffer. The balloon ascended at 12h. 25m. from Paris-Vaugirard, and landed at Chanvres (Yonne) at7h. 11m. p.m. The lowest pressure registered was 103 mm., or less than one-seventh of an atmosphere, which corresponds toa height of about 16,090 m. The lowest temperature recorded was —51°C. at 12,500 m., after which the curves of temperature and pressure were inter- rupted by the freezing of the recording ink. Subsequently, however, the intense solar radiation seems to have thawed the ink, so that the barometric record was taken up again at 16,000 m. and the thermometric curve at —21°C. The fuse ceased to burn after some time, probably owing to the lack of oxygen. The balloon could be followed with the naked eye for three-quarters of an hour, within which it attained its highest altitude. It was white, and brightly illuminated by the sun.— Odoriferous power of chloroform, bromoform, and iodoform, by M. Jacques Passy.—Observations on a series of new forms of snow, collected at very low temperatures, by M. Gustave Nordenskiold. BERLIN. Physiological Society, March 17.—Prof. du Bois Rey- mond, President, in the chair.—In the discussion which ensued on the communication made at the last meeting of the society, Prof. Zuntz gave the data as to the daily consumption of pro- teid and fat by the fasting man Cetti, as also the heat produced by their oxidation, from which it appeared that the heat pro- duction during his fast was constant.—Prof. Behring gave an account of his further experiments with preventive serum. A portion was mixed with a slight excess of tetanus virus ; mice died after inoculation with the mixture. When heated to 65°C. the virus became inert, but not so the serum, thus proving that the respective substances had not exerted any chemical action each on the other. A further new and important fact observed was that tetanus virus—that is, the products of metabolism of tetanus bacilli—made inert by heating to 65° acts preventively towards tetanus infection. Hence the facts known to hold good as to the action of tuberculin in tuberculosis now appear to hold good with regard to tetanus, and should be further in- vestigated in the case of other acute diseases, such as diphtheria, typhus, and cholera.—Dr. Lewy-Dorn gave a full description of his experiments on the question of whether the formation of sweat is the result of a filtrational process. By calculating the capacity of the sweat-glands, and the volume of the sweat-drops secreted, he came to the conclusion that a true new formation of sweat could only be assumed with certainty after a fourfold NO. 1225, VOL. 47] and copious secretion had taken place. the blood, secretion of sweat was observed on stimulation of the sciatic nerve. On the other hand, when the foot was subjacted to a considerably reduced (negative) air-pressure, no formation of sweat was observed. Both these facts are opposed to the filtrational theory of sweat-secretion. Varnishing the skin did not prevent the secretion of sweat resulting from stimulation of nerves or administration of pilocarpine. : eee: BOOKS, PAMPHLETS, and SERIALS RECEIVED. Booxs.—Sun, Moon, and Stars. 2zoth Thousand: A. Giberne sae The Field Naturalist’s Handbook: Revs. J. G. Wood andl. Wood (Cassell). —A Manual of Dyeing, 3 vols.: E. Knecht. C. Rawson, and R. Loewenthal (Griffin).—A Dictionary of Applied Chemistry, vol. 3: Prof. T. E. Thorpe (Longmans).—The Tron res of Great Britain and Ireland: J. D. Kendall (C. Lockwood).—The Glacial Nightmareandth2 Flood, 2 vols. : Sir H. H. Howorth (S. Low).—Seventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1885-86: J. W. Powell (Washington).—C ontributions to North American Echnology, vol. 7 (Washington). a PaMmPHLETS.—Bibliography of the Athapascan Languages: J. C. Pilling (Washington).—A List of some of the Rotifera of Ireland: Miss Glascott ublin). i ‘ SERIALS.—Bulletin of the New York Mathematical Society, vol. 2, No. 6 (New York).—Mineralogical Magazine, March (Simpkia). — Natural Science, April (Macmillan and Co.).—Journal of Geology, vol. 1, No. 1 (Chicago).—Mind, April (Williams and Norgate).—Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, vol. 4, Part 1 (Murray). —Records of the Australian Museum, vol. 2, No. 4 (Sydney). —Congrés Internationaux d’ Anthropol ogie et d’Archéologie Préhistorique et de Zoologie 4 Moscou, 1892; Matériaux, premiére partie (Mosc»u).—Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, Band 6, Heft 1 (K. Paul!.—IlLlustrations of the Zoology of H.M. Indian Marine Surveying Steamer/uvestigator—Part 1, Crustaceans: J. Wood-Mason; Ditto, Part 1, Fishes: A. Allcock (Calcutta).—Proceedings of the American Philosophical ociety, December (Phiiadelphia). —Journal of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, No. 104. vol. xxii. (Spon).—Engineering Magazine, April (New York).—Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. xii. No. 1 (Cambridge, Wilson).—Jouraal of the Royal Statistical Society, March (Stanford).—Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, April (Griffin).—Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, vol. 2, No. 2. Part x (Williams and Norzate).—Astron»my and Astro-Physics, am (Northfield, Minn.).—Annals of Scottish Natural History, April (Edin- burgh, Douglas).—International Congress of Experimental Psychology, and Session, London, 1892 (Williams and Norgate).—Bulletin de la Société Astronomique de France, sixiéme année (Paris).—A Manual of Orchidazeous Plants, Part 9 (Veitch).—Encyklopzdie -der Naturwissenschaften, Dritte Abthg., 13 Liefg., Zweite Abthg., 74 and 75 Liefg. (Breslau, Trewendt). — CONTENTS. The New University for London. ........ 577 Comparative Geology: ... . < 2:3 42) eee ee The Baltic Ship-Canal: ... (ic+:) 1) eee Our Book Shelf :— 5 pat Glazebrook: ‘* Laws and Properties of Matter.”— i WAR ae. ie re Keltie: ‘* The Partition of Africa” . . 580 ‘©A Son of the Marshes’: ‘* Forest Tithes, and other Studies from Nature” .°<) 55) 2 a gO Letters to the Editor :— - Locusts at Great Elevations. —Sir J. D. Hooker, _ FLR.8. 6 0 a The Sandgate Landslip.—Rev. Dr. Irving, F.R.S. 581 ‘*Roche’s Limit.” —Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S. 581 The Afterglows and Bishop’s Ring.—T. W. Back- hoyse (20.0. 2 a a Thunderstorms and Auroral Phenomena.—J. Ewen Davidson). 02 0. os is Fossil Floras and Climate.—J. Starkie Gardner. . 582 Wild Spain. (/Hustrated.):.).0 0 a ge Notes)... 00h bobs ok #6 Our Astronomical Column :— The Photographic Chart of the Heavens . Jia yee BRO Catalogue of Southern Star Magnitudes .... . 589° A New Table of Standard Wave-lengths 590 Meteor Showers 2... 20). Se Wolsingham Observatory, Circular No. 35. . . . . 590 Geographical Notes MM Recent Innovations in Vector Theory. By Prof. C. G. Knott ee ee Experimental Medicine . . 2s). 2 ss. 0) # jen ee Steam-Engine Trials: fo See ee Ethnological Observations in Australia. By R. Etheridge, Jun.: 2... (5 aie a Scientific Serials .{.. 255.6. hiss ee 596 Societies and Academies. cae yee 596 Books, Pamphlets, and Serials Received .... . 600 é When he now sub- | jected the foot of a cat to an air-pressure far exceeding that of them to learn Hebrew. NATURE 601 THURSDAY, APRIL 27, 1893. DYNAMICS IN NUBIBUS. Waterdale Researches; Fresh Light on Dynamics. By “ Waterdale.” (London: Chapman and Hall, 1892.) HEN St. Paul tried to convince the Athenians that they were mistaken in their philosophy, he probably spoke to them in Greek instead of expecting “ Waterdale” is trying to con- vince nineteenth century philosophers that it is possible to invent mechanism by which he can attain “the un- doubted theoretical possibility of Aerfetual motion,” and he does not take the trouble of learning the language of those whom he desires to convince, but insists that they must learn his language, simply because he frofesses to have invented a possible explanation of gravity. He acknowledges that his work would require at least a month’s hard work to comprehend, and taunts the scien- tific world for not gladly spending this time in refuting what most of them have already spent weeks on— namely, refuting the very ingenious inventions of cranks, who think to cheat nature in the dark by some round- about way of doing what simple considerations show to be impossible. A good month’s work to teach him! Let him pay somebody with a reputation whose time is probably worth twelve hundred a year, say a month’s time, one hundred pounds, to explain and convince him of the impossibility of his mechanical arrangement. It would take more than a month, however. If human experience is worth much it proves that there is very little use in trying to convince people with missions whether they are right or whether they are wrong. And fortunately so ; for, if they are right they will ultimately prevail, and if they are wrong after all they generally do more good than harm by interesting the world in some- thing outside and better than the selfish interests of individuals. “Waterdale” attributes a good deal of importance to this mechanism. He says in his preface: “Let the scientific reader, I would ask, take the trouble first to go through these calculations, and he will then have some idea as to whether the rest of the book is worthy or not of careful perusal.” Inthe body of the work he invents a very complicated hydrodynamic machine to effect his purpose. He there refers to the very much simpler _ arrangement described in the appendix, and says: “Unless the possibility” (of perpetual motion) “is ad- missible, then I must confess that the theory of equal real ponderosity to all matter can never be accepted.” He acknowledzes at the same time “ that with full know- ledge of the liability to error when dealing with the action of forces,” all he can reasonably do is to ask “that . .. pure mathematics be once more applied to the subject.” All the same, he asserts that “no disproof can be, or has up to the present been given.” “There is no speculation about this, but simple fact, if calculation by figures can be accepted to be true.” There are so _ many things touched on in the work that do not seem in any way necessarily connected with the question of “equal real ponderosity,” that it is desirable to show how much interest “ Waterdale” feels in this part of his NO. 1226, VoL. 47| theory in order to justify the paying of any serious attention to what can, on general principles, be so easily disproved. It would certainly not be worth while in- vestigating the question in a scientific journal in order to convince the author of the paradox. He could only be convinced by very painstaking and judicious personal in- terviews of his error and of the unimportance of this question of equal real ponderosities. It would hardly be worth while investigating the question merely because “ Waterdale ” attributes importance to it, but it is worth while doing so because others may attribute importance to it, and still more so because “‘ Waterdale’s ” mechanism is interesting and involves a principle that is intimately connected with the second law of thermodynamics, Boltz- mann’s hypothesis, and a lot of recondite questions which are puzzling the scientific world, so that it is not much wonder that even a clever and ingenious person should get involved in its meshes, especially when that person is involved in a “ mission.” The general idea involved in “ Waterdale’s” me- chanism is as follows:—Suppose a large body (he objects to the word “mass”) M and a small one m, and a spring or other means by which kinetic energy can be given to the bodies. If the spring exert a con- stant force F through a space s,, it would communicate a velocity V; to (M + m), given by the equation— Fs, = 4(M + m)V,?. If now it work through a distance sy, it will increase - this velocity to V., when Fs, = 4(M + m)(V,? - V,?). So far all is plain sailing. But we may proceed in another way. We may let the spring work against alone, and then by suitable mechanism use m’s kinetic energy to make the combined system M + # move. In this way we might expect to give m a velocity v,, such that Fs, = 4mv,*, and when this energy was spent on the two bodies M + m, they would acquire a velocity V, the same as before, given by 4mv,? = 4(M + m)V,2. Now comes an important assumption, that if the ve/ative velo- city of # and M be equal to 7, then by proper mechanism it must always be possible to zacrease M’s velocity by V,, while m’s velocity is being reduced to V}. Suppose now 7z,, moving with velocity V,, we act upon m by means of the force F, again through the distance S$, we have for its final velocity v.— 4m(7.? — V,?). Hence the relative velocity of Mand m is v, — Vj. By choosing s, = 35,, we can arrange that V, = 2Vj, as it simplifies the further argument. In this case vq — Vy" = 3%" or 2? = 32,7 + V,°; . U = n/30,7 + V1?, and the relative velocity %— V, = Fs = 30)? + Vi? — Vi, which may be much greater than 7, if v; be much greater than V,, z.e. if # be much smaller than M. This shows that the ve/ative velocity after the second blow may be much greater than after the first, even though the two blows were so chosen as that if applied directly to the combined body they would produce equal increments of velocity in that body. As- suming then that a given ve/ative velocity can always EE 602 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 produce a given zzcrease of velocity in the combined system, it appears by our assumption that, as the ve/atzve velocity is much greater after the second blow given to m than after the first, the zzcrease of velocity of the system produced by this indirect method of applying the second blow will be much greater than by the first, and consequently much greater than the velocity that could be given to the system by applying the blow directly. By reducing the system to its otherwise pro- duced velocity V., we could obtain a certain amount of energy, and then repeat the process ad infinitum, thus obtaining a continual supply of energy. An investigator without a mission would be led by this curious result to assume that there must be some mistake in his arguments, and “ Waterdale” evidently has some lurking doubts. He sees that it is impossible in the simple case of bodies having only one direction of velocity. Impact can never reduce two bodies of a system to move with the same velocity amd conserve energy. We cannot have momentum and energy both conserved. Unless M = o we cannot have mv, = (M + m)V, jmv,? = 4(M + m)V,. In order to divide the energy 4v,? between the two bodies and reduce them both to a common velocity, we require a third body, and then what becomes of the principle that seemed so plausible, that the increased velocity that 7 could impart to M depended on their relative velocity only? “ Waterdale” sees the hitch all right in the simple case, and consequently, in order to cheat nature by inventing a complicated case in which he hopes that she will get as muddled as himself, he interposes bent channels, a third and fourth body to re- ceive the blows, springy arms to absorb energy, and smooth surfaces to divert the motion. He evidently has some doubts about all this, for, notwithstanding his assertion that “ Appendix II. is a mechanical demon- stration to prove that by the principle of veoczty of force, a saving in mechanical work, . . . can be effected,” and that “‘there is no speculation about this, but simple fact,” yet he gives only a series of suggestions and vague estimates as uuspeculative proofs, that the energy spent in bending his springs, in jumping his bodies about, and so forth, is negligible, while in reality it is an important part of his system. That it is so necessarily is proved conclusively by the impossible result he obtains by neglecting it. This is the really interesting principle in the whole matter, that it is not possible to give energy to a system of bodies by giving a series of impulses to . some particles of it, to be transmitted to the rest of the system by actions within the system without some part of the energy being spent on internal motions in the system. It is here that the example touches upon the second law of thermodynamics, Boltzmann’s hypothesis, and so forth. In order to minimize the effects of these internal vibrations, &c., ‘‘Waterdale” argues thus : “ Loss No. 2” (giving rise to internal vibrations of his system) “if it arises” (he himself shows that it would, though he overlooks a more important loss), “ would be of the nature of internally asserted work.” . . . “ This loss of work could not be great, for we see by the diagram that the span of work already done when the ball arrives at NO. 1226, VOL. 47] o is small compared with what it has to do.” Notwith- standing his profession of calculating everything he — does not calculate here, nor does he calculate with what velocity the ball would rebound after it hit the body B, which ultimately stops it ; in fact he omits this important question altogether, and goes to the “third factor, the — bending of the arm of the system,” which he goes on to say, without calculation, “‘can be almost neglected if we take the tension of elasticity of the arm to be small.” “T should say that one-eighth internal loss of work would certainly more than cover everything.” This. blessed ‘I should say!” Is it thus that “ Waterdale” gives “a mechanical demonstration to prove ....a saving in mechanical work”? “ There is no speculation about this”! It is “simple fact, if calculation by figures can be accepted as true.” Most people would agree that. “if calculation by figures can be accepted as true” the velocity that could be given by amy mechanism to the system indirectly could not be greater than what would give it kinetic energy corresponding to the work supplied. If “Waterdale” will apply a system of levers, springs, &c., acting on the fixed bodies of his system, so as to reduce all the bodies to relative rest, and thereby gives — up as hopeless the task of inventing some method ~ by which he can by internal actions alone transfer kinetic energy from one body of a system to the whole of the system without wasting any of it in internal kinetic or potential energy, then he will see how he has to give up the apparently legitimate assumption that the velocity one body of a system can give to the whole system by being itself reduced to relative rest depends omly | on the relative velocity of the body and the rest of the system. He will see that it depends also on the velocity of his system relative to those supposed fixed bodies he will require as fulcrums for the mechanism re- quired to transfer the energy of the one body to the rest of the system. He sees that something is required to keep his wedge moving forward. He arranges “ that the wedge is supported by a following force ... during this part.” The amount of work required he without calculation assumes to be small, and he is probably right here ; but it is only one of several losses that he does not calculate, and there are others, such as the conditions of impact at the end of the flight of m, that he does not even notice, though this is the very first that should strike a person investigating the subject after he had clearly seen, as “ Waterdale” appears to do, that it is here, in the laws of impacts, that the simple case of velocity in one direction and direct impacts fails. It is interesting how cases of this kind illustrate the warming of a gas by compression, the vibrations produced in a bell when struck, and other such cases where energy is givento one part of a dynamical system for this part to distribute \ amongst the whole, and also how it illustrates the way in which the amount of this internal energy depends on the mobility of the part originally moved. Of course it is all plain enough when the subject is attacked by means of general principles of conservation of energy and momen- tum, but when the interactions of the different parts of - the system are individually considered and the mind dis- tracted by the complexity of the problem, there is real danger that what is important may be overlooked as trivial, as has been done by “ Waterdale.” He is not to APRIL 27, 1893] NATURE 603 4 be blamed for this, but he isjto be blamed for putting ¥ forward as a proof in which “there is no speculation,” asa “ simple fact, if calculation by figures can be accepted _ as true,” an investigation in which he acknowledges that he estimates this, that, and the other without calculation. And after all, what does he require all this elaborate attempt to cheat nature by complex mechanisms for? _ Simply because he does not understand fully the position _of scientific men in respect of the word “mass,” and ; because he has some @ Zrzorz difficulties in his own mind 5 as to how atoms of different masses can require equal quantities. of heat to warm them through equal ranges _ of temperature. He says that scientific men say that because a cube of gold weighs seven times as much asa cube of aluminium, “it is therefore taken to comprise _ seven times the quantity of matter ; exgo it possesses seven times the attractive force, and falls with equal _ acceleration ; evgo also it requires seven times the force a work to moveit.” Now this is a gross libel on scien- g men. Thatit requires seven times the force to move ~acube of gold that is required in the same time to generate the same velocity in an equal cube of aluminium is a _ matter of experience, and is the only reason why it is said that the mass of the gold is seven times as great as the _ mass of the aluminium, and this is said because the state- d t is only using the word mass in accordance with the - definition of the word. That there is therefore seven _ times the quantity of matter is really no question of _ therefore, for the statement is again merely a definition of the teraa “quantity of matter,” which is, in its scientific __use, only another name for mass. Now come questions - about gravity, and as no satisfactory explanation of _ gravity (pace Le Sage, Tolver Preston, Osborne Reynolds, q _ “ Waterdale,” and a host of other theorisers upon this p aaperesting subject) has yet been propounded, no scientific _ person can rightly say that a body attracts seven times as much as another decause it has seven times the mass or quantity of matter, for until we know the cause of the attraction we have no right to say that it is because of this or that. Hence there is no therefore at all put forward by ‘scientific men between “seven times the quantity of _ matter,” “ or mass,” and “seven times as heavy,” or “ seven times the attractive force.” That a body with seven times _ the mass of another does as a matter of fact weigh seven _ times as much is a matter of experience, but that it does _ so decause it has seven times the mass is a mere con- _ jecture, and that it is so held by scientific men is proved _ by attempts having been made to prove by experiment that weight is proportional to mass, and even to find _ whether weight varies with the direction of the axis of a q peal, &c. “ Waterdale” objects to supposing the ele- _ mentary atoms bulk for bulk to be of equal density, _ because “we should have to place the atoms in a light substance too far apart,” a fairly good reason for investi- _ gating the question though not for deciding it. On the other hand he objects to supposing “each atom to be more or less porous—a very incredible hypothesis ”— _ for reasons depending on specific heats to which he evidently attaches some weight, as he harps upon it more than once. Why he should think it so incredible that the atoms may be porous does not clearly appear, for his _ Own atoms,as described in the book,are eminently porous, NO. 1226, VOL. 47] and it is upon their porosity that his whole explanation of their behaviour to force, and his application of his prin- ciple of “ velocity of force,” and his theories of light and electricity and chemical action and adhesion all depend. He would probably reply that he does not want them so porous as all that, though this hardly justifies the epithet “incredible” in respect of a hypothesis he himself holds. Anyway, his serious reason for disbelieving in the unequal masses, or, as he calls it, ponderosities, of atoms is the difficulty he has in seeing how equal quantities of heat can raise unequal masses through equal ranges of temperature. His difficulty rests upon his imagination that he understands fully what the wisest men would probably say they did not understand at all fully, namely, ‘on what property of the atoms of a body temperature depends. He discusses the matter pretty carefully. He says: ‘‘ How are we to account for the apparent fact that the work of a quantity of heat which is equal to raising weight, 1 of water 1° of temperature—or, in other words, to accelerate, itis to be inferred, the vibrative motion of the whole of its parts in the degree corresponding to one more degree of heat—will be also equal to giving equal ‘acceleration to the entire parts of 8°784 and 30°816, respectively, more matter in the cases of iron and gold?” He here assumes that equal increments of temperature correspond to equal increments of “ accelera- tion” of the atoms. This, if it means anything, is not true, and it is not @ fréoré at all likely. Take another place, where he says, “.... The fact that a given ‘quantity of imparted heat raised a veal/y heavy atom to the same temperature as it would a read/y lighter atom, would indicate that equal temperatures were marked by a slow motion of heavy wedges in respect of a heavy atom, and by a quick motion of light wedges in respect to light atoms.” “ Although the same quantity of heat might thus be im- parted to the two atoms, it is reasonable toinfer that the intensity of the heat, as made apparent to our senses, would not in the two cases be identical.” “... It is reason- able to infer,” on the other hand, that there is some hitch in an argument that depends to any important degree upon such a form of expression as “it is reasonable to infer.” Is it not, on the other hand, most reasonable to infer that the blow given by a light body moving quickly would be very much the same as by a heavy body moving more slowly, and that, consequently, the “ intensity of heat,” as he calls it, would feel the same? In any case a very cursory study of the kinetic theory of gases would point out how there is certainly no incongruity or incredibility, but quite the reverse, in the notion that equal quantities of heat do make light atoms move rapidly and heavy ones slowly; and that, notwithstanding their different atomic velocities, the temperatures of two bodies may be the same. There is no real difficulty in sup- posing that it requires thirty times as much heat to raise the temperature of water as is required to raise an equal mass of gold through the same range of tempera- ture, if we bear clearly in mind the very complex struc- ture of both water and gold, and all that has to be done by the heat in each case, and at the same time recollect how very little we know of the conditions that determine when two bodies are at the same temperature, ze. that 604 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 determine that on the whole no energy shall flow from one tothe other when placed in contact or radiating to one another. There are many other matters treated of in the book, but if one were to take “ Waterdale” at his word and judge “whether the rest of the book is worthy or not of careful perusal” by one’s experience of Appendix II. and its supposed proof, nobody would read another word, and unless one had a great deal of leisure to devote to specu- lative conjectures, or were well paid for it, there does not seem much inducement to wade very carefully through it. ‘“ Waterdale” professes to explain gravitation by a sort of hotch-potch of Bjerknes’ sound wave attractions and Osborne Reynolds’s theory founded on dilatancy. He seems to think that any attempt to explain gravi- tation is very remarkable. “The author would have thought that when the unusual occurrence of the publi- cation of a work announcing the discovery of gravity and other original theories as important arises, that the scientific world would display sufficient interest in the subject as to read and examine the arguments, although the work might be by an unknown pen.” " “ Waterdale” seems ignorant of the fact that the scientific world has been inundated with theories of gravity and other original theories. To mention only a few of the better known ones, there are Le Sage’s corpuscular theory, worked out very carefully by Mr. Tolver Preston and Mr. George Forbes, Others founded on wave motion and fluid flow, such as Bjerknes has popularized, and which Mr. Karl Pearson has devoted so much ingenuity to, though he takes refuge in nondynamical suggestions, such as a fourth dimension, which might just as well be introduced as a region in which a convenient series of strings existed to hold atoms together without any action at all going on in our stupid tridimensional space. What the difference is between sucha theory and the good old hypothesis of inherent qualities seems difficult to discover. Then there is the suggestion that every atom is connected to every other by means of vortex filaments, though how the poor things work when they get tangled is rather a difficulty aere. Finally, there is Osborne Reynolds’s interesting theory founded on dilatancy, which very possibly has a future before it, especially if we consider that the ether is probably full of vortices, and that vortices cannot cut one another. These theories almost all suffer from the apparently incurable defect to which “Waterdale’s” is also liable, that they give a rate of propagation of gravity comparable with that of light. Parents are proverbially partial to their children, and “‘ Waterdale” probably will cherish his suggestions as very valuable, notwithstanding this and other serious objections. The confident way in which, after pages of suggestions as to what might happen, he states that a current from right to left will produce one effect, while one from left to right will not neutralise it is quite refreshing, but is not an attractive investigation to those who are accustomed to cal] nothing a proof that is not founded upon something better than suggestions, That ‘gravity is propagated with such amazing rapidity as it is seems to show that it must be an action of the medium to whose structure the electromagnetic properties of the ether are due. Such actions are known to exist in a perfect liquid, and it is natural to attribute gravity to suchactions. Thereasons for attributing great NO. 1226, VOL. 47] velocity of propagation to gravity are not apparel very well known. The difficulty is owing to the com- : ponent of the force at right angles to the radius vector © that would come in, owing to the aberration of the force, and which would cause an acceleration of areas of planets. This might be partly neutralized by a resisting medium, but hardly completely, especially in the case of comets, because the resisting force would be tangential to the path, while the aberration component would be at right angles to the radius vector. It is possible, by assuming an increase of force due to velocity of approach and a decrease due to recession, to get over this latter difficulty ; but even then it is hard to explain the persistent rotation of the earth when the surface is not moving freely as a projectile, and when consequently the supposed exact balance between gravitational acceleration and resistance of medium does not hold. Even then there is the pos- sible suggestion that cohesional and other forces, being similarly propagated in time, would prevent any possible effect being produced by the resisting medium, and so matters return to much as they were at. first, and no final answer be given to the questions, “Is gravity pro- pagated in time?” ‘‘ Does the ether offer resistance to. motion?” It remains much in the same position as the question of the motion of the ether at the surface of the earth. ‘““Waterdale” and others seem to think that fluidity necessarily implies that a medium is divisible into hard or soft particles. No ordinary mind is forced to this conclusion, Most minds look upon water, for instance, as a perfectly continuous medium, any part of which can flow past any other part with perfect freedom. Hard- ness, softness, and so forth may require structure, but mere fluidity does not. Again, ‘‘ Waterdale” and others — seem to imagine that elasticity essentially involves the compressibility of the elastic body: z.2. that it must consist. of atoms that are themselves compressible. “ Waterdale” himself invents a structure for an atom that resists deformation without its constituents being themselves compressible, and the existence of vortex rings shows howa perfect liquid can have a real elas- ticity to deformation given to a part of it by giving it motion without any part being composed of particles, or any part of it being at all compressible. The rest of “ Waterdale’s Researches” concern sug- gestions as to how cohesion, chemical action, light, electricity, &c., may at some future time be explicable by the structure he proposes for the ether, which is to all intents and purposes the same as Osborne Reynolds already has suggested, a whole collection of absolutely hard bodies of different sizes, or, as “ Waterdale” sug- gests, spheres of two different sizes. There is consider- able cleverness displayed in the way he has reasoned out for himself such a well-known theorem as that a body moving in a perfect liquid will behave as if its mass were increased, but the labour bestowed upon such a well-known theorem does: not entice the reader to try and follow the vague suggestions that follow, and that are much the same as have been over and over again given to show how every theory as to the nature of the ~ ether explains a lot of things which can on the face‘of — them be explained by amy ether through which bodies — can move, and upon which they exert pressures. Mixed _ coherent knowledge.” _ ance of actual observation is insisted upon. es a ee a ee ee noes ey APRIL 27,1893] NATURE 605 a up with these plausible suggestions are such things as hypothetical whirls of ether within the solar system _ that seem, to say the least of them, to require some _ elucidation as to how comets go through them in every _ sort of direction without any sensible action of the _ whirl on the comet. - Aperson who has brought forth, after enormous labour _ of thought, a series of theorems concerning the universe, _ and who is not very familiar with the equally carefully _ thought-out suggestions of others naturally looks with more favour upon his own children than upon those of _ others; but, if he is reasonable, and in a reasonable _ mood, he’will not be surprised nor even distressed, be- _ cause those who look at all these children with critical eyes see very serious defects in all of them, and feel _ very confident that without great changes no one of them can possibly grow into a second Newton. VERTEBRATE BIOLOGY. Text-book of Biology. By H. G. Wells, B.Sc. Lond., F.Z.S. With an Introduction by G. B. Howes, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Assistant Professor of Zoology, Royal College of Science, London. Part I. Vertebrata. (London: W. B. Clive and Co., University Correspondence College Press.) R. WELLS’S book is avowedly written mainly for the purpose of helping solitary workers to pass the _ Intermediate Science examination of the University of London, and it would therefore be unfair to criticise it . from a wider point of view. The scope for originality in _ such a work is naturally somewhat limited, but it is a _ pleasant surprise to come across one which is far above the average as regards soundness of treatment and method. The author not only possesses a practical knowledge of the greater part of the subject he deals with, but also _ evidently takes pleasure in it for its own sake, and has a healthy dislike of “that chaotic and breathless cramming of terms misunderstood, tabulated statements, formu- lated ‘tips,’ and lists of names, in which so many students, in spite of advice, waste their youth.” He states that “the marked proclivity of the average schoolmaster for mere book-work has put such a stamp on study that, in nine cases out of ten, a student, unless he is expressly instructed to the contrary, will go to the tortuous, and _ possibly inexact, description of a book for a knowledge of things that lie at his very finger-tips” (p. 31) ; and again, on p. 125, that “it is seeing and thinking much more than reading, which will enable” the student “to clothe the bare terms and phrases of embryology with Throughout the book the import- The present part deals with the Rabbit, Frog, Dog-fish, and Amphioxus, and includes an account of the develop- ment of these animals and of the theory of evolution, as __ well as a number of questions, most of which have been set at the examinations of the London University. The morphological portions are, on the whole good and clearly written, and a fair amount of physiology is also introduced. A syllabus of practical work is given at the end: this would in many respects bear amplifying. The student is not warned that his time will be wasted if he wanders off the direct path of the examination syllabus ; NO. 1226, VOL. 47] and on the contrary, points of general biological interest are referred to here and there, and these go far to show what a good many of our elementary text-books do not —viz. that the London University syllabus, “as at present constituted,” affords “considerable scope for efficient biological study.” The student, moreover, is told that this “little book is the merest beginning in zoology,” and the last paragraph, on p. 131, indicates the aspect of mind with which the author regards his subject. Twenty-four folding sheets of sketches are inserted in the text, but the figures are, on the whole, exceedingly rough ; and though many of them may be found useful as guides, we feel that the student would do better to postpone drawing until his dissections are made, or even copy some of the numerous good figures to be found elsewhere, than to “copy and recopy” these sketches first, as advised by the author. Numerous inaccuracies and awkward expressions occur, only a few of which can be here mentioned. The terms superior and inferior, as applied to the great veins, are likely to confuse a beginner after reading the defini- tion of the regions of the body given on p. 3. “ Meta- bolism” ‘and “metaboly” occur even in consecutive sentences on p. 23. Peristaltic movement is said to move the food “ forward” (p. 41). It is stated that the thyroid is similar in structure to the thymus and to “ botryoidal tissue” in general (p. 26), and that the epithelium of the villi, with its striated border, “is usually spoken of as leading towards “ ciliated” epithelium (p. 22). It is mis- leading to say that “ a tarsus (tarsalia) egua/s the’carpus,” and that the vomer of the dog is paired (pp. 38 and 76). As the term “Chordata” is adopted on p. 96, it is un- fortunate that the student is told on p. 60 that vertebrata occur in which cartilage is absent, and that Amphioxus possesses the “ essential vertebrate features,” is “ ¢wésted, as it were,” and that its “vertebral column is de- void of vertebre:” it is, moreover, inadvisable to use the term ‘‘hyoidean” with regard to this animal. On p. 61 “classes” and “orders” are used in a correct and an incorrect sense in the same sentence. The expression, ‘‘carotid gland” requires a better explanation on p. 67. The morphology of the cardinals, azygos, and post-caval is incompletely explained (pp. 87, 120, and 124). Several serious mis- takes are made with regard to the homologies of the urinogenital apparatus (cf, eg. pp. 92 and 114). Mis- prints are also fairly abundant throughout, Most of these faults are, however, such as can be remedied in a future edition, and the book will, we think, serve the purpose for which it was written very satisfactorily. W. NP. OUR BOOK SHELF. Pflanzenleben. Von Anton Kerner von Marilaun. Band II. Geschichte der Pflanzen. (Leipzig und Wien: Bib- liographisches Institut.) THE first volume of this excellent book was reviewed in NATURE, vol, xxxix. p. 507. The present volume, which completes the work, treats of the “ history of plants,” by which is meant their development, in the widest sense, including both ontogeny and phylogeny. The former subject (“origin of descendants”) occupies the first 480 pages, while the remainder is devoted to the “ history of species.” 606 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 It is not proposed to enter into any detailed criticism of this volume. Some idea of the scope of the work was given in the former notice ; we are glad to hear that an English translation is in preparation, and when this ap- pears a further opportunity will be given for a general account of the whole. In point of interest the second volume is fully equal to the first; there is, however, perhaps more room for adverse criticism of certain parts. Speaking quite generally it may be said that while the “biology,” or natural history of the subject is admirable, the morphology is on the whole rather weak. The former, however, is the more important for the general reader, for whom the book is intended. The account of reproduction begins with the asexual organs of propagation, including spores, buds, and gemmez. This is succeeded by the much more extensive section on reproduction by fruits, including all sexual processes. The great value of this part lies in the ex- tremely full, and in many respects original, treatment of the fascinating subject of the pollination of flowering plants, to which nearly 300 pages are devoted. Special stress is laid here on the phenomena of gezfonogamy, or the crossing of different flowers on the same inflorescence, and of autogamy, or self-fertilisation of hermaphrodite flowers. The whole account is of the greatest possible interest, and familiar as the subject has now become, in- numerable fresh points of view are opened up. The second part of the volume is on the history of species, including the whole subject of variation. Changes produced by external agencies, such as parasitic fungi, and gall-forming insects, form the subjects of special. sections. As regards the origin of new species, the author, like Prof. Weismann, attributes the greatest importance to sexual reproduction, and especially to cross-fertilisation. He occupies a peculiar position in so far as he believes that hybridisation has played an important part in nature as a source of new forms. This second part of vol. ii. includes classification, and a fairly full account is given of all the important groups of plants, each cohort, or ‘‘ Stamm,” receiving separate treatment. Sections on the distribution of species, and on their extinction, conclude the book. a A really good index is added, which will be a great boon to all who wish to make use of the vast store of facts which the book contains. The illustrations, con- sisting of twenty coloured plates and 1547 figures in the text, reach the same high standard as those of the previous volume. To the book as a whole the highest praise must be given. No such popular account of the natural history of plants has appeared before. The publication of an English version will be anticipated with great interest. Deas Bibliografia Medica Italiana. By P. Giacosa, Prof. straord. di Materia Medica e Chimica fisiologica all’ aes di Torino. (Torino-Roma: L. Roux e C., 1893. THIS work is a collection of abstracts of the chief papers bearing on the medical sciences published by various Italian authors during the year 1892. Prof. Giacosa has been aided in his work by several experts, whose names are a sufficient guarantee for the accuracy of the ab- stracts, such as Profs. Marcassi of Palermo, Maggiora of Modena, and Sperino of Torino. The medical reading public is familiar with the excellent /akréerichte and Centralblatter published in Germany, which deals chiefly, though not exclusively, with scientific papers by German authors. There has been a great want of similar publi- cations of Italian work, and Prof. Giacosa’s “ Bibliografia” is a welcome addition to medical literature. In it will be found abstracts of all the chief Italian papers published NO. 1226, VOL. 47] in 1892 on parasites and helminthology (zoology), physi- ology, biological chemistry, pharmacology, histology human and pathological anatomy, bacteriology and hygiene. The abstracts are done by experts in the particular subject, are short but clear and intelligible, and have the advantage of not being critical. -t The Evolution of Decorative Art. By Henry Balfour, M.A., F.Z.S. (London: Percival and Co., 1893.) IT is remarkable that in these days, when the question of “origins” holds a place of commanding importance in almost every department of investigation, comparatively little should have been done to trace the evolution of art back to what Mr. Balfour calls “its very simplest begin- ning.” Mr. Balfour does not, of course, undertake to. present in this small book anything like a complete view of the subject. His aim is merely to indicate some of the main conclusions to which he has been led by his own researches. He finds in early art three distinct stages—(I) adaptive; the appreciation of curious or decorative effects occurring in nature or as accidents in manufacture, and the slight increasing of the same by artificial means in order to augment their peculiar character or enhance their value as ornaments; (2) creative ; the artificial production of similar effects where these do not occur (imitation or copying) ; (3) variative ; gradual metamorphosis of designs by unconscious and conscious variation. Mr, Balfour brings out admirably the significance of these stages, and it is scarcely neces- sary to say that the Pitt Rivers collection, of which he is curator, provides him with ample means for the clear and effective exposition and illustration of his ideas. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR. The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions ex- pressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts intended for this or any other part of NATURE. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | Paleontological Discovery in Australia. Many readers of NATURE will learn with interest that I have this day received a telegram from Prof. Stirling, of the Uni- versity of Adelaide, as follows :— . ‘*Made discovery immense deposit fossil remains excavated several nearly complete skeletons Diprotodon besides two thousand bones also large Struthious bird giant Wombat par- ticulars letter.” I need scarcely add that I shall await with impatience the promised particulars of this discovery, which may prove to be one of great importance. ALFRED NEWTON. Magdalene College, Cambridge, April 21. An International Zoological Record. Ir is much to be regretted that the praiseworthy agitation of this subject, opened by Mr. Minchin(NATURE, vol. xlvi. p. 367), has not been continued. There cannot be the slightest doubt of the desirability of such a reform. Possibly the reason why the letters of Mr. Minchin and Mr. Bathers (zd. p. 416) have not aroused more interest lies in the fact that they both wrote as recorders. They showed the absurd burdens that the actual system imposes upon the recorders ; but they left somewhat in Peareyt ee een the background the advantages which the great world of _ zoologists could receive. However this may be, it is certain that the rank and file of investigators of the present day are supporting an utterly un- necessary burden, and one from which they ardently desire to be freed. Any one who desires to test the sentiment has only to make inquiries among those of his acquaintance. Having my-. self agitated in this quiet way a method of reform that had ~ occurred to me nearly two years ago, I can hardly doubt that the concourse of opinion is strong enough to effect a radical change, if only concerted action can be taken. a Mr. Minchin and Mr. Bathers have pointed out that the ear ee | a / Re wim Fo lS ) ApRIL 27, 1893 | NATURE 607 recorders at present do the same work many times over, and suggest a plan by which it can be avoided. The salient feature lies in separating the duties of recorder and bibliographer, and . in having the entire mechanical work done once for all concerned in the preparation of the record. The plan is an admirable one, but why thus restrict the blessings of a competent biblio- grapher? The scheme to which I have alluded in the preceding agraph simply substitutes a dibiographical bureau for the Saterepber, a feature necessitated by the additional duties imposed upon it. The business of recording a publication according to the latter plan may be referred to ¢hree stages. Let me suppose the bureau constituted at a centre such as the British Museum, and show its working. The first stage of recording is conducted wholly by the central bureau, with such aids from outside as might be found expedient. [I refer to assistants in other countries. In the case of Russia it would be at first probably , although in general to be avoided as far as possible. ] In the first place the bureau would make complete lists of all zoological papers as theyare published. At intervals of a week, or of two weeks, these lists would be given to the press and printed successively in two forms. One would constitute a pamphlet similar to the bibliographical part of the Zoolog. Anzeig., but would give allthe titles promptly. The other form in which the list would be printed would have the titles widely spaced, would be printed on strong, stout paper, and would in sheets, leaving one side blank. These sheets could n be cut up at will into slips of uniform size and shape to serve further bibliographical elaboration. During the printing of the slips it would have been the duty of the bibliographer to have sorted the titles carefully, and, in the case of larger works and works with ill-characterised contents, it would further have been his duty to have ascertained the ¢ofics dealt with, so that at the end of the period he would be able to sort and classify the 150 titles, which appear at present weekly. Thereupon the second stage of recording would be begun. Each reviewer would receive at once slips indicating the papers concerning him, together with a page-number in the case in which his topic is only incidentally dealt with. Thus the mechanical labour of the reviewer would be reduced to a minimum. Not merely, however, the reviewers could be thus informed, but a/so any specialist whose field of work sufficiently coincided with one of the divisions of the Record to induce him to subscribe to the series. Thus, for example, a worker on the development of the vertebrate nervous system would find his wants admirably met. The second stage of recording would be carried on wholly by the reviewers, who, however, in addition to writing reviews as at present, would also index the topics of the paper in a more detailed way than would be possible for the bibliographer in his first hasty survey ; or this work might be left to the bibliographer, who, in:what I have called the third stage, _ collates the reviews which have been returned tohim. The reviewer should also note any incidental observations of interest to other reviewers which the bibliographer may have over- n stage 3 the bibliographical bureau becomes a bureau of ication, and it is believed that with such an organisation the ord for the year could be very promptly issued. At the same time, however, the bureau would be able, by the use of the slips at its disposal, to embody the indexes furnished by the reviewers (or, possibly better, made out by the bibliographer from their abstracts) ina permanent slip index, which would ow with the years and become a record of inestimable value. This part of the plan alone, I see, has been independently advocated by Mr. Cockerell (NATURE, vol. xlvi. p. 442) ; but, in- asmuch as he overlooked the indefinite multiplication made possible by the use of printed slips, he failed to note the highest use which the bureau can serve. Tomy mind this consists in informing the individual investigator of every work which con- cerns his speciality by sending him the proper slips. The value of such a service,can hardly be exaggerated. It relieves the individual of endless labour : it gives a completeness to his knowledge of the literature that no individual endeavour could attain ; and finally, it saves him the annoyance which indefinite ‘titles occasion him in using the ordinary means of seeking for papers relating to his subject. So long as a fundamental ob- servation on the development of the Wolffian Duct can be aaa under the title, ‘‘ Observations on the Lymph,” so ng as the bulletins announce ‘‘ Contributions to the Develop- ment of the Vertebrates,’”’ we have no right to expect authors to NO. 1226, VOL. 47] have a full mastery of their subject, unless they can receive aid from a central bureau such as I have described. The expense of maintaining at several points a complete index, such as that in the bibli- graphical bureau, is not such as to make it infeasible, and I fancy it would be done in several zoological centres. The labour of the bureau would probably assume considerable proportions; but, inasmuch as it would in each case save much more of the scattered and oft-repeated labour of individuals, it would be quite self-supporting. For the perfect working of the scheme it is important that authors should send ‘‘extras” to the bibliographer. Mr. Bathers sug- gests that they would gladly do this if there were only one asking for them instead of a number, as is now the case. Here Mr. Bathers again writes asa recorder. I was unaware that papers were desired, and would not know even where to send a copy. With the scheme I have proposed, also those who now unin- tentionally withhold their papers would contribute them ; for the organisation would at least be well known. Respecting further details, there is no occasion of bringing these forward now. I may simply add that I have had oppor- tunity of seeing paper slip catalogues in use in a very large scale in the Government service in Kussia, and learned that they gave excellent satisfaction. It may be also ofinterest to any who may further concern themselves with this subject that the present volume of zoological publication is not far from 2000 pages weekly. ‘I have made inquiries among many of my friends in different countries in respect to their interest in such a plan as I here propose, and it has received such endorsement that I cannot doubt that it affords a remedy for a real evil. I am well aware that such a plan needs to be much modified ; but I submit it in this form. I have already a long list of persons and institutions who have promised to subscribe to the slips, could they be obtained at a reasonable price; among others of librarians, who would use them to save copying in making out the ‘‘ card catalogues ” in vogue in America. This support was obtained when the scheme was but little elaborated, and when there was almost no prospect of success. I am confident that were the undertaking once begun the support would be very great. It needs organised action such as the various scientific bodies can give it. Let the British Association appoint a committee and invite others ta join them in forming an International Commission, or let them re- spond should the callcome tothem. Let all considerations of national pride be set aside. Surely England, with her enormous library and museum facilities, will receive her share. Leipzig, Germany, April 16. HERBERT H. FIELD. Lion-tiger and Tiger-lion Hybrids. SINCE the date of my previous communication on the above subject (see NATURE, p. 390) I have had some correspond- ence with Mr. John Atkins, son of Mr. Thomas Atkins, the result of which has been not only to clear up several discrepancies which I pointed out as occurring in the pre- viously published accounts by Sir Wm. Jardine and Mr. Griffiths, but moreover it enables me to present for the first time a detailed account of what, so far as I can ascertain, are the only authenticated cases of the interbreeding of a lion and tigress. I am aware of the classical references to the reputed breeding of the leopard and lioness ; but that part of the subject I do not propose to discuss now. In the first place I should state that the proprietor of the menagerie, when the first hybrids were seen, was Mr. Thomas Atkins, not ‘‘F.” or ‘‘J. Atkins” as quoted previously. Mr. Jobn Atkins came into possession lateron. The parents of the hybrids were the same all through for ten years, from 1824 to 1833, during which period six litters were born. The lion was bred in Mr. Atkins’s menagerie from a Barbary lion and a Senegal lioness. The tigress was born in the Marquis of Hastings’s collection in Cal- cutta, and was purchased when about eighteen months old by Mr. T. Atkins from a captain, to whom she had been given by the Marquis. Being of the same age as the lion, she was placed together with him in the same cage, and two years afterwards she proved to be in cub, The following statement regarding the successive litters has been revised by Mr. John Atkins, and as he has preserved notes of the facts which are recorded, they may be accepted as authentic. I need hardly add that but for his ready and full response to my queries this account could not have been written. First Litter.—Born October 24, 1824, at Windsor, two males 608 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 and one female. Reared by terrier bitch, all died within a year. They were exhibited to King George IV. at the Royal Cottage, Windsor, on November I, 1824. Second Litter.—Born April 22, 1825, at Clapham Common ; there were three cubs, sexes not recorded. Reared by the mother, as also were all the subsequent litters. They only lived ‘a short time. Third Litter.—Born December 31, 1826 or ’27, at Edinburgh, one male and two females, As stated in the previous paper, the year is given as 1827 in the handbill of the menagerie from which I quoted, and the other references seem to sup- port that date ; but Mr. John Atkins says it is given as 1826 in a printed catalogue in his possession. Fourth Litter.—Born October 2, 1828, at Windsor, one male and two females. Fifth Litter.—Born May, 1831, at Kensington, three cubs, sexes not recorded. They were shown to the Queen, then Prin- cess Victoria, and to the Duchess of Kent. The whole group per- formed in a specially constructed cage at Astley’s Amphitheatre, and in 1832 were taken by Mr. Atkins for atourin Ireland. To a separate account of this tour reference has been made in my previous paper. Sixth Litter.—Born July 19, 1833, at the Zo slogical Gardens, Liverpool, one male and two females. One, the male, lived for ten years inthe gardens. The young male lion-tigers when about three years old had a short mane something like that of an Asiatic lion ; the stripes became very indistinct at that age. Mr. Atkins informs me that there is a badly stuffed specimen of one cub which was about a year old in the Museum at Salis- bury, and from Mr. Harmer’s letter (see NATURE, p. 413) there is one also in Cambridge. From the account quoted by him it would seem improbable that that particular specimen, had it survived, could have bred. Asa matter of fact I learn from Mr. Atkins that none of them ever did breed, though he does not know of any reason why they should not have done so. Mr. Atkins thinks that the cubs of the earlier litters died from over-feeding ; when he adopted a different treatment he had no difficulty in rearing them. In my previous paper, in the quotation from Griffiths, the word ‘‘superfineness” should read ‘‘ superficies.” This record, it may be noted, while correcting some errors in the previously published accounts, also extends over a period subsequent to all of them. V. BALL,” Science and Art Museum, Dublin, April 15. Soot-figures on Ceilings. As the subject of dust-images was recently considered in some interesting letters in NATURE, I wish to record an example of a soot-image which was far more detailed and remarkable than any I have yet seen. The example is to be found on the ceiling of the billiard-room in the Golf Club House at Felixstowe. Abundant soot has been deposited above the lamps by which the table is lighted, and this is distributed so as to map out on the ceiling not only the outline of the joists, but that of the laths and even of the nails by which the ends of the latter are secured. The mark corresponding to the nail-head is certainly much larger than the latter. I made rom memory a rough sketch of the appearance, which is reproduced in the accompanying woodcut. I may be mistaken in the position of some of the light and dark shades. If the example is as new to others as it was to me it would be interesting to have a photograph of the ceiling before it is again whitewashed. E. B. POULTON. Oxford, April 17. gti THIS phenomenon is often observed, though not often so clearly as in the case noticed by Mr. Poulton. It is due to the same cause as produces the dust-free space seen rising from hot bodies in illuminated smoky air, viz. a peculiar Crookesian (or rather Osborne Reynoldsian) bombardment of sufficiently NO. 1226, VOL. 47 | small dust-particles, in the direction of decreasing temperature, _ by the extra energy of the gas-molecules on one side See papers by myself and the late Mr. Clark in NATURE (especially July 26, 1883, April 24, 1884, vol. xxix. p. 417, and January 22, 1885), andin Phil. Mag., 1884, Proc. R.I., &c. ; also by Mr. Aitken, Trans. R.S. Edin., 1884. And see the remarkable theoretical paper by Prof. Osborne Reynolds on ‘‘ Dimensional Properties of Gases,’”’ Phil. Trans,, 1879. Dust gets bombarded out of hot air on to all colder surfaces. The details of this effect are specially given by Mr. Aitken in NATURE, vol. xxix. p. 322. The badly-conducting plaster of a ceiling is no doubt fully heated by contact with the air below except in places where the conducting power of wood or iron keeps it comparatively cool ; hence the picking-out of the pat- tern. Solid deposit from warm air onto cool surfaces can occur without any actual smoke; ¢.g. it can be noticed above incand- escent lamps. OLIVER LODGE. The Use of Ants to Aphides and Coccide. I HAVE just had an opportunity of seeing Dr. R>manes’ in- teresting work, ‘‘ Darwin, and after Darwin,” and find therein (p. 292) the production of honey-dew by Aphides adduced as a difficulty in the way of the Darwinian theory. I have not paid any particular attention t» Aphides, but have lately been much interested in the allied Coccide, which, since they produce a similar fluid attracting ants, may be considered to offer a parallel instance. Both Coccidz and Aphides suffer from many predaceous and parasitic enemies, and there seems to be no doubt that the presence of numerous ants serves to ward these off, and is consequently beneficial. There is an interesting Coccid, /cerya rosé, which I find oa Prosopis here, and on more than one occasion I have been unable to collect specimens without being stung by the ants. At the present moment some of these Iceryze are enjoying life, which would certainly have perished at my hands, but for the inconvenience presented by the numbers of stinging ants. : Belt and Forel have also written on the protection of Coccidze by ants (‘* Naturalist in Nicaragua ;” and Bull, Soc. Vaud., 1876). Maskell has given an account of the honey-dew organ of Coccide, from which it appears that it is something more than a mere organ for the excretion of waste products, This author also figures some of the fungi which grow on honey -dew, and it may well be that these also serve to prevent the attacks of enemies. When, as we sometimes see in Jamaica, the leaves appear tobe coated with soot (Antennaria robbinsit is the fungus), it cannot be so convenient for coccinellid larvee, Chrysopa larve, &c., to crawl about on them in search of Coccidze. f Jamaica, April 3. T. D. A. COCKERELL. . Blind Animals in Caves. IN his last letter (p. 537) Mr. J. T. Cunninghan states that the ‘‘early stages’’ of the European Proteus have not yet been obtained. This assertion is incorrect. In 1888 and 1889 the oviposition and development have been described by E. Zeller (Zool. Anz., 1888, No. 290, and Fakresh. Ver. Naturk. Wiirtt., xlv., 1889, p. 131, plate iii.), who gives a coloured figure of the larva, and particularly refers to the development of the eyes. As early as 1831 (Oken’s ‘* Isis,” 1831, p. 501) Michahelles remarked that the eyes in young specimens are more distinct and somewhat larger than in the adult. G, A. BOULENGER. OBSERVATIONS IN THE WEST INDIES. H ERE we are back at Nassau for the third time, and thinking you might be interested to hear of my cruises, I send you a short sketch of our trip. The first time we left Nassau we entered the Bahama Bank at Douglass Channel and crossed the bank to North Eleu- thera, where we examined the “ Glass Window ” and the northern extremity of Eleuthera, we then sailed along the west shore of the island close enough to get a good view of its characteristics as far as Rock Harbour at the 1 A letter from Alexander Agassizto J. D. Dana; dated Steam Yacht Wild Duck, Nassau, March, 1893. Printed in the American Journal of Science for April, and communicated to NaTuRE by the author. 4 southern end. Apri 27, 1893| 4 We steamed out into Exuma Sound through the Powell Channel and round the southern end _ of Eleuthera to little San Salvador, and the north-west _ end of Cat Island, where are the highest hills of the We then skirted Cat Island along its western eu rounded the southern extremity and made for Riding _ Rocks on the Western sideof Watling’s Island. Wecir- _ cumnavigated Watling, passed over to Rum Cay, then to _ northern part of Long Island, visiting Clarence Harbour ; _ next we crossed to Fortune Island, and passed to the _ east side near the northern end of the island on the Crooked Island Bank. From there we crossed to Caicos Bank, crossing that bank from French Cay to Long Island, passed by Cockburn Harbour and ended our eastern route at Turks Island ; from there we shaped our course to Santiago de Cuba to coal and provision the _ yacht. We were fortunate enough to strike Cape Maysi a short time after daylight, and I thus hada capital chance to observe the magnificent elevated terraces (coral reefs) which skirt the whole of the southern shore of Cuba from Cape Maysi to Cape Cruz and make so prominent a part of the landscape as seen from the sea. We were never more than three miles from shore and had ample opportunity to trace the course of some of the terraces as far as Santiago, and to note the great changes in the aspect of the shores as we passed westward due to _ the greater denudation and erosion of the limestone hills and terraces to the west of Cape Maysi, which seems to be the only point where five terraces are distinctly to be seen. The height of the hills east of Pt. Caleta, where the terraces are most clearly defined, I should estimate at _ goo to 1000 feet ; though the hills behind the terraces, _ which judging from their faces are also limestone, reach _ a somewhat greater height, perhaps 1100 to 1200 feet. After coaling at Santiago de Cuba we visited Inagua, and next steamed to Hogstey Reef, a regular horseshoe- shaped atoll with two small cays at the western entrance. _ There we passed three days studying the atoll. This to __ me was an entirely novel experience ; to be at anchor in thoms of water 45 miles from any land with water 900 _ fathoms within three miles outside, surrounded by a wall _ of heavy breakers pounding upon the narrow annular reef which sheltered us. I made some soundings in the lagoon and on the slope of reef outside. From there we returned to Crooked Island Bank to the westward of which I also made some soundings to determine the slope of the Bank. We next again visited Long Island, taking in the southern and northern ends which I had notexamined. From there we passed to Great Exuma, stopping at Great Exuma Harbour and sounding into deep water on our way out to Conch Cut when we sailed west crossing the Bank to Green Cay. From there we made the southward face of New Providence, and before going into Nassau Harbour made some trials in deep water in the Tongue of the Ocean with the Zammer deep- _ sea townet in Ioo and 300 fathoms, depth being 700 _ fathoms—after which we returned to Nassau. I had on _ board a Tanner sounding machine kindly loaned me for this trip by Colonel McDonald of the Fish Commission, and some deep-sea thermometers were also kindly sup- plied by him and by Prof. Mendenhall, the superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey. I supplied myself with a _ number of Tanner deep-sea townets and with a supply of dredge and of townets and carried on board a Yale _ and Towne patent winch for winding the wire rope which _ Tused in my dredging and towing in deep water. The __ yacht was provided with a steam capstan and by increas- _ ing its diameter with lagging we found no difficulty in hauling in our wire rope at the rate of 8 min. to 100 fathoms. I carried 600 fathoms of steel wire dredging _ rope with me of the same dimensions which I had used on the B/ake and which has also been adopted on the _ Albatross. During our second cruise we steamed _ from Nassau for Harvey Cay crossing the Bank NO. 1226, VOL. 47] NATURE 609 from north to south to Flamingo Cay, and then to Great Ragged Cay, from which we took our depar- ture for Baracoa. At Baracoa I hoped to be able to ascend the Yunque ; unfortunately I had to give up my trip owing to the desperate condition of the roads. From Baracoa we steamed close to the shores to the westward, touching at Port Banes, Port Padre, Cay Confites, Sagua, Cape Frances, Cardenas, Matanzas, and finally ending at Havana. Thistrip was a continuation of the observa- tions we made on the south coast of Cuba and enabled me to trace the gradual disappearance of the terraces from Baracoa to Nuevitas, and their reappearance from Matanzas to Havana, from the same causes which evi- dently influenced their state of preservation from Cape Maysi west. I also got a pretty clear idea of the mode of formation of the fine harbours found on the northern coast of Cuba to the eastward of Nuevitas, and of the mode of formation of the extensive systems of cays reach- ing from Nuevitas to Cardenas and which find their parallel on the south coast of Cuba from Cape Cruz to Cape Corrientes. After refitting at Havana we left for Nassau. Both on going into Havana and on leaving we spent the greater part of a day in towing with the Tanner net. I thought I could not select a better spot for finally settling the vertical distribution of pelagic life than off Havana which is in deep water—goo fathoms —close to land, on the track of a great oceanic current, the Gulf Stream, noted for the mass of pelagic life it carries along its course. We towed in 100, 150, 250, and 300 fathoms and on the surface at or near the same locality, and I have found nothing to cause me to change the views which I expressed in my preliminary reports of the Adbatross expedition of 1891. Nowhere did I find anything which was not at some time found also at the surface. At 100 fathoms the amount of animal life was much less than in the belt from 100 fathoms to the sur- face. At 150 fathoms there was still less and at 250° fathoms and 300 fathoms the closed part of the Tanner contained mothing. At each one of these depths we towed fully as long as was required to bring the net to the surface again. Thus we insured before the messenger was sent to close the lower part of the bar as long a pull through water as the open part of the net would have to travel till it reached the surface, giving the fauna of a horizontal column of water at 100, 150, 250, and 300 fathoms of the same or greater length than the vertical column to the surface for comparison of their respective richness. From Havana we steamed to Cay Sal Bank, visited Cay Sal, Double-headed Shot Cays, Anguila Islands, and then crossed over to the Great Bank to the west of Andros Island. The bottom of this bank is of a most uni- form level, 3 and 34 fathoms for miles and then very gradu- ally sloping to the west shore of Andros, so that we had to anchor nearly six miles from the “ Wide Opening” of the central part of Andros which we visited. The bottom consists of a white marl, resembling when brought up in the dredge newly mixed plaster of Paris, and having about its consistency just as it begins to set. This same bottom extends to the shore; and the land itself, which is low where we went on shore not more than 10 to I5 inches above high-water mark, is made up of the same material, which feels under foot as if one were treading upon a sheet of soft india rubber ; of course on shore the mar] is drier and has the consistency of very thick dough. It appears to be made up of the same material as the zolian rocks of the rest of the Bahamas, only that it has become thoroughly saturated with salt water, and in that condition it crumbles readily and is then triturated into a fine impalpable powder almost like deep sea ooze which covers the bottom of the immense bank to the west of Andros. After leaving Andros we crossed the bank again to Orange Cay and followed the eastern edge of the Gulf Stream to see Riding Rocks, Gun Cay, and the Beminis. We then passed to Great Isaac, where we saw some huge 610 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 masses of xolian rocks which had been thrown up along the slope of the cay about 80 feet from high-water mark toa height of 20 feet. One of these masses was 15’ 6"x 11”x6.. We then kept on to Great Stirrup Cay coasting along the Berry Cays, crossed over to Morgan’s Bluff, on eastward of Andros down to Mastic Point on the same Sound, and then returned to Nassau. The islands of the Bahamas (as far as Turks Island) are all of zxolian origin. They were formed at a time when the Banks up to the 10-fathom line must have been practically one huge irregularly-shaped mass of low land, from the beaches of which successive ranges of low hills, such as we still find in New Providence, must have originated. After the islands were thus raised there was an extensive gradual subsidence which can be estimated at about 300 feet, and during this subsidence the sea has little by little eaten away the zolian lands, leaving only here and there narrow strips of land in the shape of the present islands. Inagua and Little Inagua are still in the original condition in which I imagine such banks as the Crooked Island Banks, Caicos Banks, and other parts of the Bahamas to have been; while the process of disintegration going on at the western side of Andros shows still a broad island which will in time leave only the narrow eastern strip of higher land (zolian hills) on the western edge of the tongue of the ocean. Such is the structure also of Salt Cay Bank which owes its pre- sent shape to the same conditions as those which have given the Bahamas their present configuration. My reason for assigning a subsidence of 300 feet is the depth of some of the deep holes which have been surveyed on the bank and which I take to be submarine blow-holes or caverns formed in the zolian limestone of the Bahama hills when they were at a greater elevation than now. This subsidence explains satisfactorily the cause of the .present configuration of the Bahamas, but teaches us nothing in regard to the substratum upon which the Bahamas were built. The present reefs form indeed but an insignificant part of the topography of the islands and have taken only a secondary part in filling here and there a bight or a cove with more modern reef rock, thrown up against the shores so as to forma coral reef beach such as we find in the Florida Reef. I have steamed now nearly 3300 miles among the Bahamas, visiting all the more important points and have made an extensive collection of the rocks of the group. I hoped to have made also a larger number of deep soundings than I have been able to take; unfortunately the trades were unusually heavy during the greater part of my visit to the Bahamas, greatly interfering with such work on a vessel no larger than the W2z/d Duck—127 feet on the water line. For the same reason the number of deep-water pelagic hauls was also much smaller than I hoped to make, as in a heavy sea the apparatus would have been greatly endangered. It is a very different thing to work at sea in a small yacht like the Wild Duck or in such vessels as the Blake and the Albatross of large size and fitted up with every possible requirement for deep sea work. The Wz/d Duck, on the other hand, was admirably adapted for cruising on the Bahama Banks, her light draught enabling her to go to every point of interest and to cross and recross the banks where a larger vessel could not follow. I am under the greatest obliga- tions to my friend Mr. John M. Forbes for having so kindly placed his yacht at my disposal for this explora- tion, and I hope soon after my return to Cambridge to publish more in detail the results of this examination of the structure of the Bahamas. ARTIONYX—A CLAWED ARTIODACTYLE. : he any further evidence were needed to disprove Cuvier’s famous generalisation, it is found in the recently discovered hind foot of Artionyx. In this foot NO. 1226, VOL. 47] not the median but the outer toe. } ankle joint of a modified perissodactyle type, that is, the each of the digits with all the phalanges are modified very - much as in the primitive bears, and combined with — metatarsals and an ankle joint almost identical with those © of the pigs. The termination of thelimb in claws would — have led Cuvier to predict that the whole skeleton and — the dentition was of a clawed or carnivorous type, whereas in this animal we find the foot alone belongs to two types as widely separated as can be, and they babilities are that the skeleton and teeth are also in character. The foot of Artionyx was found last summer by the — American Museum party under Dr. Wortman, in the same beds with the remarkable Protoceras recently described in NATURE. the size of a peccary. The terminal claws were first exposed, and although found uncleft, they at once sug- gested a reference to Chalicotherium, for which the — party was keeping a sharp look-out; but a further re- moval of the matrix showed a pes of an entirely distinct character. In the foot of Chalcotherium magnum of the mixed — It belonged to an animal about — a a Upper Miocene of France we find three toes, thus odd 2 in number, but not strictly perissodactyle, for thelargestis — c. External. Right hind foot of Artionyx gaudryi. Above the toes is an astragalus is grooved upon its tibial side, and flattened where it rests upon the navicular. The navicular and cuneiforms are also flattened, so that the foot must have been placed somewhat at an angle with the leg, as it is in the Sloths. In Artionyx, on the other hand, there are five digits; the first, or thumb, was a dew-claw, very much shorter than the rest ; the remaining four, as shown in 4 of the figure, are nearly symmetrically placed in pairs on either side of the median line, precisely as in the Artiodactyla. This has suggested the name of the animal, its even-numbered toes terminating in claws. — Above these elements we have a coalescence of the outer — and middle cuneiforms as in many Artiodactyla. The cuboid, navicular, astragalus, and calcaneum, are also modified precisely as in the artiodactyles. The fibula comes down upon the heel bone, and there is the charac- teristic double hinge. The tibia is strongly interlocked on the outer side of the astragalus. The three accom-_ panying cuts exhibit the peculiar features of this foot ; the side views showing that the animal was digitigrade — like the cats, and not plantigrade like the bears, although © the claws were more of the bear than the cat type. F Aprit 27, 1893] NATURE 611 . The discovery of this foot is one of those complete surprises which render palzontological research so fas- _ inating. The existence of such a type was not even _ suspected, for nothing at all similar has ever been found ' before. We were daily expecting to find remains of _ Chalicotherium in the Lower Miocene of America, but no one could have anticipated the complete counterpart in _ foot structure which this animal exhibits. Of course it _ will remain an open question whether Artionyx is actually _ related to the other type until we procure more of its skeleton, and especially of its teeth. This discovery seems to support Cope’s opinion that Chalicotherium represents a distinct order—the Ancylopoda, including inimals of an ungulate type of skeleton, with unguicu- late anges. The writer has recently suggested that this order may have been given off from the most primi- tive hoofed mammals, the Condylarthra, at a period when _ they still exhibited many of the characters of their _ clawed ancestors. If this supposition is correct, and Artionyx proves to be .a member of the Ancylopoda, it will very possibly present a unique double parallelism with the subdivisions of the Ungulata, Chalicotherium ‘epri ting an odd-clawed division—the Perissonychia, and Artionyx an even-clawed division—the Artionychia —these divisions being parallel with the perissodactyle _ and artiodactyle ungulates. This is advanced as a pro- - visional hypothesis, pending the discovery of additional remains. HENRY F. OSBORN. ‘THE HODGKINS FUND PRIZES. i ap October, 1891, Thomas George Hodgkins, Esq., of + Setauket, New York, made a donation to the Smith- sonian Institution, the income from a part of which was _ to be devoted “to the increase and diffusion of more _ exact knowledge in regard to the nature and properties of atmospheric air in connection with the welfare of _ With the intent of furthering the donor’s wishes, the gag ge satitation ay announces the following prizes to awar on or after July 1, 1894, should satisfactory papers be offered in competition ;— ; 1. A prize of 10,000 dollars for a treatise embodying some new and important discovery in regard to the nature or properties of atmospheric air, These properties may be considered in their bearing upon any or all of the sciences—e.g. not only in regard to meteorology, but in connection with hygiene, or with any department what- ever of biological or | a aa knowledge. : Be 4 rize of 2000 dollars for the most satisfactory essay _ upon (A) the known properties of atmospheric air con- sidered in their relationships to research in every depart- _ ment of natural science, and the importance of a study _ of the atmosphere considered in view of these relation- _ ships; (8) the proper direction of future research in _ connection with the imperfections of our knowledge of _ atmospheric air, and of the connections of that knowledge bigs other sciences. The essay, as a whole, should tend _ to indicate the path best calculated to lead to worthy _ results in connection with the future administration of the _ Hodgkins foundation. _ 3. A prize of 1000 dollars for the best popular treatise a Goch atmospheric air, its properties and relationships _ (including those to hygiene, physical and mental). This _ essay need not exceed 20,000 Words in length ; it should _ be written in simple language, and be suitable for publi- _ ¢€ation for popular instruction. __ 4. A medal will be established, under the name of “ The ee Medal of the Smithsonian Institution,” which will awarded annually or biennially, for important contributions to our knowledge of the nature and pro- _perties of atmospheric air, or for practical applications of our existing knowledge of them to the welfare of mankind. NO. 1226, VOL. 47] This medal will be of gold, and will be accompanied by a duplicate impression in silver or bronze. The treatises may be written in English, French, German, or Italian, and should be sent to the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, before July 1, 1894, except those in competition for the first prize, the as of which may be delayed until December 31, 1094. The papers will be examined and prizes awarded by a committee to be appointed as follows :—One member by the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, one member by the President of the National Academy of Sciences, one by the President ro tempore of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, and the com- mittee will act together with the Secretary of the Smith- sonian Institution as member ex officio. The right is reserved to award no prize if, in the judgment of the committee, no contribution is offered of sufficient merit to warrant an award. An advisory committee of not more than three European men of science may be added at the discretion of the Committee of Award. If no disposition be made of the first prize at the time now announced, the Institution may continue it until a later date, should it be made evident that important in- vestigations relative to its object are in progress, the results of which it is intended to offer in competition for the prize. The Smithsonian Institution reserves the right to limit or modify the conditions for this prize after December I, 1894, should it be found necessary. Should any of the minor prizes not be awarded to papers sent in before July 1, 1894, the said prizes will be withdrawn from competition. A principal motive for offering these prizes is to call attention to the Hodgkins Fund and the purposes for which it exists, and accordingly this circular is sent to the principal universities and to all learned societies known to the Institution, as well as to representative men of science in every nation. Suggestions and recommenda- tions in regard to the most effective application of this fund are invited. It is probable that special grants of money may be made to specialists engaged in original investigation upon atmospheric air and its properties. Applications for grants of this nature should have the indorsement of some recognised academy of sciences or other institution of learning, and should be accompanied by evidences of the capacity of the applicant in the form of at least one memoir already published by him based upon original investigation. To prevent misapprehension of the founder’s wishes it is repeated that the discoveries or applications proper to. be brought to the consideration of the Committee of Award may be in-the field of any science or any art without restriction, provided only that they have to do with “ the nature and properties of atmospheric air in connection with the welfare of man.” Information of any kind desired by persons intending to become competitors will be furnished on application. All communications in regard to the Hodgkins Fund, the Hodgkins Prizes, the Hodgkins Medals, and the Hodgkins Fund Publications, or applications for grants of money, should be addressed to S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, U.S.A. S. P. LANGLEY, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Washington, March 31, 1893. THE SOLAR ECLIPSE. sp Re telegrams relating to the total solar eclipse of April 16 indicate that the observations at the various centres were carried on under very favourable conditions. The Senegal party—which will be home next week—was 612 NATURE evidently remarkably. successful. Prof. Thorpe, who was in charge of this expedition, sent to Lord Kelvin the following telegram:—“‘ April 19, 1893. Thorpe to President Royal Society, Burlington House, London. Eclipse suc- cessfully observed at Fundium. Position good,weather fine, very slight haze. Slit spectroscope good, but mainly pro- minence lines ; calcium and hydrogen seen projected on moon. Thirty prismatic camera photographs, eighteen excellent ; mainly prominence lines ; corona lines doubt- ful. Ten coronograph pictures, six very good. Photo- metric work successful ; twenty comparisons with equa- torial, eleven with integrating apparatus. Deslandres and Colculesco also observed at Fundium, with good results. No word from Bigourdan at Joal, Health of expedition good. Blonde leaves for Teneriffe to-morrow.— Thorpe.” With regard to the work of the same expedition, a correspondent of the Zzves telegraphed from Bathurst on April 19:—‘“ The solar eclipse was successfully ob- served at Fundium, Senegal. The weather was fine, with only a very slight haze. The results of the slit spec- troscope were good. Thirty prismatic camera photo- graphs were taken, eighteen of which are excellent, while of ten coronograph pictures six are very good. The photometric work was successful, and twenty compari- sons were taken with the equatorial and eleven with the integrating apparatus. The French astronomers, MM. Deslandres and Colculesco also made observations at Fundium with good results. The health of the expedi- tion is excellent.” Last week we gave the substance of a telegram regard- ing Prof. Pickering’s observations at Minasaris. The New York Herald has published atelegram from Valpar- aiso, containing the following supplementary information asto Prof. Pickering’s work:—“The sunlight changed during the period of totality and presented a pale yellowhue. A faint chill was perceptible in the air. The photographic results with the differential spectroscope give twenty lines in the solar atmosphere at a time of 34 seconds previous to totality. Two rays of light were seen issuing from the cusps, their terminal points corresponding to the horns of the new moon. The cusps were in violent motion. The corona showed a conical structure with a network of fine filaments visible to the naked eye. Four light streamers from the corona were noticeable, and seven prominences were observed, which latter were estimated to attain a height of 80,000 miles. The integrating spectroscope showed one red, one yellow, and one blue line and two green linesin the corona. The prominences were well photographed.” The following is a Reuter’s telegram from San Fran- cisco, relating to the work of the American expedition to Chili :—“ Prof. Holden, the director of the Lick Obser- vatory, has received a telegram from Prof. Schaebele, the’ leader of the American expedition to Chili, stating that his observation of the sun’s total eclipse was successful. The drawings of the corona made a year ago by Prof. Schaebele were found to bea true representation of the corona actually visible in the present eclipse. Fifty photo- graphs were secured by means of the three telescopes used by the observers. One of these gave an image of the sun 4 in. in diameter, and the corona covereda plate 18 by 22 in.” NOTES. ALL the most essential arrangements have now been made for the Nottingham meeting of the British Association. The first general meeting will be held on Wednesday, September 13, at 8 p.m., when Sir Archibald Geikie will resign the chair, and Dr. J. S. Burdon Sanderson will assume the presidency and deliver an address. On Thursday evening, September 14, there will bea soirée; on Friday evening a discourse will be delivered by Prot. Arthur Smithells on ‘‘flame” ; on Monday evening NO. 1226. VOL. 47] [AprRIL 27, 1893 Prof. Victor Horsley will deliver a discourse ‘‘ on the discovery of the physiology of the nervous system” ; on Tuesday evening there will be another soirée; and on Wednesday afternoon, : September 20, the concluding general meeting will be held. Excursions to places of interest in the neighbourhood of Nottingham will be made on the afternoon of Saturday, September 16, and on Thursday, September 21. The following will be the presidents of sections:—A (Mathematical and Physical Science), Prof. R. B. Clifton, F.R.S.; B (Chemistry and Mineralogy), Prof. J. E. Reynolds, F.R.S. ; C (Geology), Mr. J. J. H. Teall, F.R.S. ; D (Biology), Rev. H. B. Tristram, F.R.S. ; E (Geography), Mr. H. Seebohm; F (Economic Science and Statistics), Prof. J. S. Nicholson ; G (Mechanical Science), Mr. Jeremiah Head ; H (Anthropology), Dr. Robert Munro. THE Chemical Society will hold on Friday, May 5, a Hofmann Memorial Meeting. Addresses will be delivered by Lord Playfair, Sir F. A. Abel, and Dr. W. H. Perkin. THE annual dinner of the Royal Geographical Society will take place on Saturday, May 13, at the Whitehall Rooms, Hotel Métropole, Sir Mountstuart E. Grant Duff in the chair. ee Av the recent Graduation Ceremony of the University of | St. Andrews the honorary degree of LL.D. was conferred on Prof. Henry E. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.R.S.,.in recognition of his eminent services to organic chemistry. On Thursday, May 4, the forty-first anniversary of the elec- tion of the Secretary of the Institution of Civil Engineers as an Associate, the first ‘‘ James Forrest” lecture will be delivered by Dr. W. Anderson, F.R.S., the subject being ‘* The Inter- dependence of Abstract Science and Engineering.” - THE City and Guilds of London Institute has forwarded to county councils throughout the kingdom, and to the secretaries of technical schools in connection with the Institute, a circular letter indicating various ways in which it has improved and — enlarged the scope of its technological examinations. Among the alterations may be mentioned the addition of practical tests in photography, boot and shoe manufacture, goldsmiths’ work, mechanical engineering, and other subjects ; the subdivision of many subjects into sections to suit the requirements of different branches of the same trade; and the addition of examinations in such subjects as manual training and dressmaking. After careful consideration of the difficult questions involved in the organisation, for the first time, of a system of inspection of technical classes, the Committee of the Institute have adopted a scheme, and are prepared to receive applications from county councils or school committees for the inspection of classes in technical (other than agricultural) subjects, and also for special reports on the results of the examination of the students of separate classes registered under the Institute. Ir has been resolved by the Council of the Zoological Society - of London to award the Society’s Silver Medal to Donald Cameron, of Lochiel, and John Peter Grant, of Rothiemurchus, in recognition of the efforts they have made to protect the Osprey _ (Pandion halidtus) in Scotland. Theosprey, formerly common in many parts of the British Islands, has become so rare of late — years that it is stated that only three pairs of this bird have been known to breed in this country for some years past. THE hon. secretaries of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science are sending out invitations to the leading scientific societies in Europe drawing attention to the 3 meeting of the Association, which will be held in Adelaide, commencing on September 25 next. Sydney, Melbourne, Christchurch, and Hobart are the places in which the-previous meetings of the Association have been held. The meeting in — — nieiaiiaiilaaas “ APRIL 27, 1893] NATURE 613 © Adelaide will be presided over by Prof. Ralph Tate, of the! University in that city. THe late Admiral Marquis Ricci of Genoa, formerly Minister __ of Marine of the Kingdom of Italy, has left a large sum, estim- _ ated to amount to about three million lire (£120,000) to the _ authorities of his native city, for the purpose of founding a _ Scientific Institution. It is believed that this is likely to be devoted to a new site and building for the Museo Civico of Genoa, an Institution which, under the directorship of the Marquis G. Doria, has, as is well known to all naturalists, _ arried on splendid work in zoology for many years. We are _ sure that no better object could be selectcd for the appropria- tion of this munificent donation. Mr. G. W. LicHTENTHALER, who died lately at San Francisco, bequeathed to the Illinois Wesleyan University at Bloomington—where he had lived during most of his life—his very valuable natural history collection. It includes from 6000 to 8000 species of shells, 1000 species of marine algze, and 500 ‘species of ferns, besides thousands of duplicates. Mr. Lichtenthaler also bequeathed 500 dollars to put the collection in suitable shape for preservation. IN connexion with the International Congress of Medicine and Hygiene, to be held in Rome next September, there will be an exhibition opened (from September 15 to October 15) for ‘apparatus, plans, materials, models, &c., relating to the following: Research in biology, therapeutics and hygiene, medical practice, improvement of the soil, sanitation and hygienic service of towns, hygiene of the interior of public and private buildings, individual hygiene, the health of workpeople, hydrology and balneo-therapeutics, &c. Diplomas and medals will be awarded. For information on the subject application is to be made to the President, Prof. L. Pagliani, Minister of the Interior, Rome. A NEw scientific society has been organised in [Washington, called ‘‘ The Geological Society of Washington.” There are already more than a hundred members. The object of the society i is the presentation of short notes on work in progress rather than the reading of elaborate papers. At the first meet- ‘ing Major J. W. Powell, director of the U.S. Geological Survey, presided, and papers were read by Mr. H. W. Turner, on the structure of the gold belt of the Sierra Nevada, and by Mr. S. F. Emmons on the geological distribution of ore vere in the United States. _ THE disturbed weather conditions referred to in our last issue ‘resulted in a few thunder showers only, more particularly in the southern districts, accompanied by slight rain at some stations, With these exceptions and some local fogs, brilliant weather has been experienced throughout the whole of the United Kingdom. The temperature in the southern and midland districts has been much above the average ; a considerable increase set in on the 17th inst., the maximum in London reaching 70°, and since that time some remarkably high readings have been recorded. On _ the 2oth the thermometer over the inland counties ranged from - 80° to 84°, while at Yarmouth it read 30° lower, and for several days the difference between these neighbouring districts __ has been very considerable. In the night of the 22nd a sharp thunderstorm occurred over South Devonshire, accompanied by a local rainfall amounting to nearly three-quarters of an inch, and another storm, with slight rain, occurred at Holyhead _ in the night of Monday, 24th; but in the early part of the present week the conditions were anti-cyclonic _ over a great part of the country, and the weather was _ wery dry. The Weekly Weather Report of the 22nd instant States that rainfall was upon the whole less than the mean in all the wheat-producing districts and in the south-west of England, while in Ireland and the west of Scotland there was a slight NO. 1226, VOU. 47! excess. Bright sunshine was less prevalent than for some weeks past ; the percentage of possible duration ranged from 24 in the east of Scotland to 58 in the south of England. THE meteorological authorities in the United States are doing their utmost to utilise weather forecasts by adopting various means for their wide and rapid dissemination. The American Meteorological Fournal for April contains accounts of two methods recently inaugurated in New England. From September 12 to October 1, 1892, an electric search light placed on Mount Washington was used for flashing forecast signals over the surrounding country. Reports received from persons in the vicinity show that the plan was quite successful, and the flashes were reported to have been seen at a distance of eighty miles, It is intended to resume this novel method next summer. The local forecast official at Boston sends out three hundred printed copies of forecasts daily by rail. The bulletins are distributed from the trains, and posted immediately on receipt in the various railway stations in neat frames provided for the {purpose by the Weather Bureau. In this way the fore- casts are brought before the public in as short a time as possible. ProF. J. MARK BALDWIN, of the University of Toronto, has accepted the Stuart Professorship of Psychology in the Princeton University, and will begin work there in September. Science says that a suite of rooms has been set apart in North College for experimental psychology, and that a liberal appropriation has been made for its equipment. Mr. W. DE MoRGAN, in accordance with the request of the Egyptian Ministry of Public Instruction, has been making ex- periments at Cairo with Egyptian clays with a view to determine whether it would be possible to use them for the production of glazed earthenware. A correspondent of the Zimes at Cairo says that after about eight weeks’ work Mr. de Morgan con- siders that, whilst the production of porcelain and white earthenware is quite out of the question, there exist abundant materials for other descriptions of pottery, especially white ma- jolica, similar to delft or della Robbia ware. But the cost of fuel is a stumbling-block. Mr. de Morgan, says the corre- spondent, considers that nothing can exceed the skill of the native throwers, who, with the most simple contrivances, pro- duce far better results than the European workmen with elaborate apparatus. IN his report for 1892 Dr. Trimen, the director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Ceylon refers to the fact that of every 100 Ibs. of tea consumed in England during the year 84 Ibs. were of British growth, viz. 53 in India and 31 in Ceylon, only 16 lbs. being the produce of China. There was an increase of nearly 2,000,000: Ibs. in the direct export of Ceylon tea to Australia, viz. 5,166,154 lbs. against 3,210,598 lbs. in 1891 ; and Dr. Trimen thinks that the costly advertisement at the forthcoming Exhibi- tion in Chicago may reasonably be expected to lead to a large sale in the future in America, Ceylon, he says, urgently needs this ; for while there is no reason to fear any drawback to con- tinued success as far as cultivation and manufacture are concerned, there is a real danger of over-production ; and its consideration as a possibility, by no means remote, induces him earnestly to recommend those concerned to devote some portions of their land to other cultivations. In the low-country especially much caution should be exercised in opening further land in tea estates. One result of the enormous development of the tea industry in the island is unfortunate. The industry so over- shadows all other cultivations that there is now little room for trial or experiment with smaller products on estates, and not much stimulus to investigate them in the Botanic Gardens. A COMMITTEE called the School Gradation Committee is at present being formed, the object of which, according to the 614 NATURE [APRIL 27, 1893 Times, is to promote the systematic and consecutive gradation of schools and universities, and to supplement the valuable work of recent years in respect of technical instruction by an effort to bring all effective schools and colleges, whether special- ised or not, within a comprehensive national scheme. It is thought that this ‘‘may be most economically done, with the minimum of interference, centralisation, and narrowing uni- formity, by the recognition and .encouragement of existing effective schools, and by using available resources under local control mainly to facilitate the ascent of pupils from lower to higher grades.” Among the members of the committee are Sir H. Roscoe, Sir P. Magnus, Prof. R. C. Jebb, Prof. Max Miiller, and Prof. H. Sidgwick. To determine the light refraction of liquid oxygen, Herren Olszewski, and Witkowski (Cracow Academy) have lately made use of total reflection. The liquid was held in a metallic case having windows, and a number of protective envelopes. Into it dipped a double plate formed of two plane-glass plates, with an air layer of 0'006 mm. between, which could be turned from without through a given angle. Monochromatic light was introduced, and the refraction of the liquid determined by means of the bright interference-fringes observed with the netting of the telescope at the borders of the field of totalreflection. The relative index of refraction was found to be 1°2232, and the absolute coefficient 1°2235 (Dewar and Liveing, with the prism method, obtained 1°2236).. The same authors sought also to determine light-absorption, using for the liquid a pro- tected tube closed below with a glass plate, while another tube with terminal glass plates, dipped in the liquid above, and could be screwed up or down. A rayof light was sent through from below, and passing. through various thicknesses of liquid (according to the position of the inner tube) was reflected in a spectral photometer, and compared with a direct ray. For the spectral region of most intense absorptionof the green yellow (between A = 577 and A = 570), values between 84 and 89 per cent, were obtained for the light passing through 1 mm. thick- ness of oxygen; for the redabsorption band 88. THE question of the purity of ice consumed for alimentary purposes in Paris has been lately before the Conseil de Salubrité de la Seine (ev. Scz.). This ice is of two sorts, manu- factured and collected. The production of artificial ice is about 27,000 tons a year, and of the ‘‘crop”’ of natural ice, the lac Daumesnil at Vincennes yields about one-half (12,000 to 15,000 tons a year). The price of the manufactured ice is eighteen to twenty francs a ton ; that of the collectedice three to four francs. Thedemand in Parisis not wholly met from those two sources ; and there is someice imported from Sweden and Norway, which is, naturally, dearer than the ice from lakes, &c., jn France. Now the lake Daumesnil just referred to is polluted on the one hand by the entrance of a sewer, and on the other by an artificial stream from the plateau of Gravelle ; this stream traverses the Bois de Vincennes, and in the fine season receives all sorts of impurities from its banks. It is a question, therefore, of interdicting the collection of ice from thislake. The sewer it appears, might be suppressed, but the Administration cannot touch the stream. It is proposed to limit the use of ice from sources like this lake to applications in which the ice is not brought into direct contact with the liquids or solids to be cooled, and that when such contact takes place (as in cooling drinks) artificial ice alone should be used, got exclusively from spring water, or river water sterilised by heat. THE Agricultural Department of New South Wales has been making a series of interesting and useful inquiries as to the plants most visited by bees in the various districts of the colony. Some of the results are set forth in the February number of the Depart- NO. 1226, VOL. 47] ment’s Gazette. a high standard of excellence ; the honey produced by bees in the near neighbourhood of the forest being of the finest quality, and having few (if any) faults. wing its way to the borders of the bush ; but, on the other hand, a field of maize in tassel is a source of the greatest pleasure to the busy little workers, who swarm in countless numbers, collect- _ ing the pollen so necessary for their wants. The plants which next seem to have the greatest attraction are the fruit-trees, familiarly called summer fruits. Clover (both white and red). yields a large quantity of first-rate honey, and bees kept at places where clover grows never fail to visit the modest flowers of the plant ; dandelion, also, is a valuable honey-yielding flower, and is noted in all districts from Albury to Tenterfield. As tothe — size and colour of the flowers most affected by the bees, much diversity of opinion exists among apiarists, and in the face of the very conflicting replies, the Gaze¢te thinks it would be vain to try to determine what coloured flowers are most attractive. —_- Ir is not, perhaps, generally known that the largest wine- growing district in Germany is Alsace-Lorraine. According to a report forwarded to his Government by the French consular agent at Frankfort, while the Wiesbaden regency has. only 7,300 acres planted with vines which in 1890 yielded I 644,040 gallons, the Coblenz regency 18,950 acres, giving 3,755,220 gallons, that of Tréves 8,980 acres, giving 1,832,400 gallons, Alsace-Lorraine alone contains 75,640 acres, the production of which in 1890 was 16,999,000 gallons (6,429,740 gallons in 1891), a production which is chiefly consumed in the country itself. According to the same authority (whose report is sum- marised in the current number of the Board of Trade Journal) the average annual production of wine in the whole world during the five years from 1886 to 1890 is estimated at 2,811,600,000 gallons. for 606,562,000 gallons; that is to say these three countries. supply two-thirds of the total quantity produced. Germany, with an average annual production of 51,705,610 gallons, only occupies the tent h place among wine-growing countries. The value of some of her wines partly compensates her, however, aq for the relatively small quantity of her annual crop. THE Imperia Forest School at Dehra Dun seems to be exer- cising a remarkably wholesome influence on the native students. who attend its classes. Addressing the students at the recent annual distribution of certificates and prizes, Sir E. C. Buck, secretary to the Government of India in the Revenue and Agricultural Department, said that the school had been a signal success in the widest sense. The student who passed through a technical school was usually fitted only for the technical profession which _ he was taught at the technical school. But the Dehra Schoob teaching was of such a broad and useful character that he believed its students, that is, the students who passed out of it success- fully, would be more fit for any kind of work requiring originality — and practical treatment than the students of any school or college _ in India. It was the only important educational institution in India in which the student was taught more in the field and in ~ the museum than in the lecture room ; in fact in which he was taught how to observe, and how to draw conclusions from obser- vation. The consequence had been that the only signal instances. which had, to his knowledge, occurred of original research leading to position and useful results being accomplished by natives of India, had been those in which such results had been produced by ex-students of the Dehra School. Only recently the Government of India had been obliged to close apprenticeships. — attached to the Geological Department, because natives of India a It has been clearly proved that the flora of Australia includes honey-producing trees, shrubs, and plants of ‘ While a gum-tree is in bloom the bee will pass over the most tempting plant in a garden and — In this production Italy figures for’ 690,008,000 gallons, Spain for 657,250, 000 gallons, and France yee ~ ApRIL 27, 1893] NATURE 615 could not be found qualified for original research. It was not that natives of India had not in them the necessary qualifica- tions ; it was that the power lay undeveloped in them, and had not been brought out by a training in habits of observation. Messrs. SWAN SONNENSCHEIN and Co. have in the press and will’ shortly publish a work by Dr. Edward Berdoe, entitled “The Healing Art,” a popular history of the origin and growth of medicine in all ages and countries. AT a recent meeting of the Société Francaise de Physique M. Janet gave an account of his experiments on electric oscil- tations of medium frequency (about 10,000 per sec.). The arrangement he employs is as follows :—A battery of accumu- lators furnishes a current which passes through a high resistance 4 cD and a low resistance AB placed in series. The ends of AB __ are joined to the plates of a condenser and also to the extrem- ities of a circuit AHB, The latter consists of a coil of self-in- ; duction L and resistance zi joined in series with an equal non- inductive resistance. The quantities RL and the capacity of the condenser are so chosen that when the circuit is broken at ‘oscillations are set up in the condenser circuit. By means . am Masson).—Journal of the Royal Microscopical pena ‘illiams and Norgate).—The Asclepiad, No. 37, vol. x. (Lo Records of the Geological Survey of India, vol. xxvi. Part x (Calcutta). CONTENTS. PAGE Dynamicsin Nubibus .. . ea a: aoe OO! Vertebrate Biology. By W. N. P. oc, Semaine Our Book Shelf :— Marilaun: ‘‘ Pflanzenleben.”—D. H. S.. . . . . . 605 Giacosa :. ‘* Bibliografia Medica Italiana”... . 606 Balfour : ‘The Evolution of Decorative Art” . . . 606 Letters to the Editor :— Palzontological Discovery in Australia. —Prof, Alfred Newton, .S. 606 An International Zoological ‘Record. —_Dr, Herbert H, Field 606 Lion-tiger and “Tiger- -lion “Hybrids—Dr. Vv. Ball, F.R.S. 607 Soot- -figures on Ceilings. : Mlustrated. ee B. Poul- ton, F.R.S.; Prof. Oliver Lodge, F.R 608 The Use of ‘Ants to Aphides and Coccidze.—T. D. ‘A. Cockerell .°. 6 “Sug Sos ' 608 Blind Animals in Caves. —G. A. Boulenger . : 608 | Observations in the West Indies. By Prof. A. ; Agassiz . 608 Artionyx—a Clawed ‘Artiodactyle. (With Diagrams.) By Prof. Henry S. Osborn 610 The Hodgkins Fund Prizes. By Prof, S. " Langley 611 The Solar Eclipse ..... < eine . . OLN Notes... Mie nthe Our Astronomical Column :— Large Telescopes...» «+ +s, 9.4 * 8 5 meme: OlGm Spectrum of B Lyre . oy