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Nature Neighbors

JOHN JAMES AUDUBON EDITION
Limited to Two Thousand and Fifty Sots

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NATURE NEIGHBORS

Embracing

BIRDS, PLANTS, ANIMALS,
MINERALS

In Natural Colors by Color Photography

Containing Articles by Gerard Alan Abbott, Dr. Albert Schneider, William
Kerr Higley, Thomas Crowder Chamberlin, John Merle Coulter,
David Starr Jordan, and Other Eminent Naturalists.

Edited by Nathaniel Moore Banta

Six Hundred Forty-eight Full-page Color Plates

Containing Accurate Photographic Illustrations in Natural Colors
of Over Fifteen Hundred Nature Specimens

VOL. IV—MINERALS AND PLANTS

AMERICAN AUDUBON ASSOCIATION
CHICAGO

Copyright, 1914
By Nathaniel Moore Banta

CONTENTS

MINERALS

CHAPTER
I How tHe Eartu Was Formep
II Granp Canyon, Geysers, Etc. .
III Formation or MINERALS AND GEMS
IV Ores, Marstets, Etc.
V Precious STones .

PLANTS

I FLowers

II Spices, Etc.
III Mepicinat Piants
IV Forests

V_ Fruits, Nuts, Etc.
VI MvsHRooms .

VII MiscELLANEOUS PLANTs .

109
125
141
149
185
199

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Minerals

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The publishers wish to express their acknowledgment and appre-
ciation of the courtesy of the following parties for the use of certain
material in this volume: To Mr. A. W. Mumford for the articles
from Birds and Nature; all unsigned articles from this source are
marked with an asterisk. To Mr. John C. Mountjoy for permission
to use the articles from the writings of Prof. Harold B. Shinn.

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CHAPTER I
HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED

Just how the earth was formed at the outset is not certainly
known. 'The most common view of men of science is that it
was once in the form of a fiery gas. It is supposed that
all the planets and satellites that now revolve around the sun
were once a part of a common mass of gas in the form of
a vast sphere which was very large and very hot. This
gradually lost its heat and shrank as most bodies do when
they cool. If it was not already whirling round at the
outset it must have come to do so as it shrank, and as more
and more of its heat was lost it rotated more and rapidly.
At length it came to whirl so fast that the outer part,
which was moving fastest, could no longer be held down
to the surface, and so it separated in the form of a ring
around the equator of the great sphere.

The main mass kept on cooling and shrinking and
whirling faster and faster, and hence other rings sepa-
rated. Each of these rings also kept on cooling and
shrinking and is supposed to have parted at some point
and gradually gathered together into a globe, but still in
the form of fiery gas, even though it had lost much of its
heat. But at last this globe of gas cooled so much that
the main part of it became liquid. This was that part
which afterwards became the solid part of the earth. It
then had the form of lava. It was still too hot for the

9

MAUKERSITY og aay
LIBRARY

10 MINERALS

water to condense and hence it remained in the form of
steam or vapor, forming a vast envelope all about the
earth. There are supposed to have been many other
vapors in the air at that stage, and it must have been very
dense. But at length the globe of lava cooled so that the
outer part crusted over, and this crust grew thicker and
thicker as time went on. After a while it became cool
enough to permit the water to condense on the surface
and so the ocean began to be formed. The water grew
in depth until nearly all the steam was condensed and
many of the other vapors that had been in the air while
it was so hot were condensed also. And this left the gases
which cannot easily be condensed behind, and they formed
the air much as it is today. And that is the way the
atmosphere is commonly supposed to have come about.

But all this is theory. It cannot now be proved. But
there are several great facts that fit in with it and make
it seem as though it might be true. As wells and mines
are sunk deep in the ground it is found that the earth
grows warmer and warmer. Volcanoes pour out molten
rock and this shows that it is very hot somewhere beneath
them. Many of the mountains on the earth are really
wrinkles in its crust, and it has been thought that these
are caused by the cooling and shrinking of the globe.

It is because these and other things fit in so well
with the theory that most scientific men have come to
accept it as probably true. It is known as the Nebular
theory. But there are other ways of explaining all these
things, and perhaps it may be proven that there are better
ways.

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HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED 11

Some scientists have supposed that the earth was
formed by small masses or particles of matter gathered in
from the heavens. On a clear night shooting stars may be
seen quite often. These are little bits of stone or metallic
matter shooting through space at high rates of speed,
which strike the atmosphere and become hot. The earth
also is moving at great speed—nearly nineteen miles per
second. It is not strange then that when the little stranger
collides with the earth it should “make the fire fly.”
Usually the outside is melted and carried away so fast
that the little mass is entirely used up in a few seconds.
It merely makes a little streak of light. But sometimes
the mass is large enough to stand the waste and still reach
the ground. In such cases it is found to be mainly stony
matter and iron. No substance has ever been found in
any of them which is not found in the earth. Only a
few of these shooting stars or meteorites will be seen in
looking at any one point in the heavens. But the earth
is very large and there are many such points, and when
these are taken all together it is found that the number of
these little bodies which fall in a day is very large. It is
estimated at twenty millions. But still they are small and
do not add very much to the size of the earth. But as
they are being constantly swept up from space and are
growing fewer and fewer, and as this has been going on
for a very long time, it is reasonable to suppose they may
once have been much more abundant and that the earth
then grew much faster by reason of them. It is thought
by some that the earth may have grown up entirely by
gathering them in, the idea being that it was itself once

12 MINERALS

only a little meteorite that succeeded in gathering the
others in. It is commonly supposed, however, by those
who hold this view, that the earth was formed from some
special cluster of these meteorites that gathered together.
It has been thought that perhaps the gas of the rings
mentioned before may have cooled down into little solid
particles before they were collected together and that they
built up the earth. This brings the two theories together
in a measure.

The planet Saturn, you know, has rings of this kind
and they are made up of small solid bodies, and not of gas
or liquid, as was once supposed.

If the earth was built up this way we must account
for the heat in the interior, but this would come naturally
enough. As the little bodies fell upon the surface they
would strike hot. But unless they came fast they would
cool off before others struck the same spot and the earth
would not get very hot. But as they gradually built up
the surface the matter below would be pressed together
harder and harder because of the growing weight upon it,
and this pressing together would make it hot. It is figured
out that it would become very hot indeed, though this
might not seem so at first thought, and that the volcanoes
and mountains may all be explained in this way quite as
well, and perhaps better, than in the other way. This is
called the Accretion theory.

It may be that neither of these theories is right, and
we will do well to hold them only as possible ways in which
the earth may have been formed at the beginning. But,
at any rate, the earth has been shaped over on the surface.

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HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED 13

In a certain sense its outer part has been remade. And
this concerns us more than the question of its far-off origin,
because our soils, ores, marbles, and precious stones, as
well as our lands and seas, are all due to this reshaping.
In the deepest parts of the earth which we can get at for
study, we find that it is made up of rocks of the granite
class; not always granite proper, but rocks like it. What
is below this in the great heart of the earth we do not
know, except that it is very dense and heavy. Rocks of
the granite class are formed under great heat and pres-
sure, or by the cooling of molten rock material. They
may be called the basement rock or great floor, on which
all the other rocks near the surface are laid. ‘They under-
lie all the surface, but at different depths. In some places
they have been crowded up by the pressure that came
from the shrinking of the earth, of which we spoke before,
and so have come to be actually at the surface, except that
soil, clay, sand, or gravel may cover them. Under about
one-fifth of the land these rocks lie just below the clays,
gravels, sands, and soils that occupy the immediate sur-
face. Sometimes they come out to the actual surface, and
may be seen in ledges or bluffs. But usually the soils,
sands, gravels, and clays cover them up more or less
deeply, but even then they are often struck in sinking
wells.

Under the other four-fifths of the land they lie much
deeper, often several thousands of feet, and there are
spread over them sandstones, shales, and limestones. These
are the rocks we usually see in the quarries and cliffs of
the interior states. The materials to form these were

14 MINERALS

taken from the older rocks of the granite class by a process
which is now going on—so we know how it is done. This
is the way in which it takes place: The air, and the rains,
and the water in the ground act upon the rocks, and cause
them to soften and fall to pieces, forming soils, or sand,
or little rock fragments. This material is gradually
washed away by rains and floods. This does not usually
quite keep pace with the softening; so the surface is
covered with soil and other loose material. But it is
little by little washed away, and carried down to sea,
where it settles on the bottom, and forms layers of mud
or of sand. ‘The mud afterwards hardens, and becomes a
kind of rock known as shale. The sands become cemented
by lime or iron, or some other substance, and form a
sandstone. The lime in the rocks that softened and
decayed is chiefly dissolved out by the carbonic acid in the
waters of the ground, and is carried away to the sea in
solution. This lime is then taken up by sea animals to
form their shells, skeletons, teeth, and other hard parts.
Afterwards the animals die, and these hard, limy parts
usually crumble more or less and form a bed of lime
material, and later this hardens into limestone.

Some of the lime is also separated from the waters by
evaporation or by other changes. You have noticed that
on the inside of a tea-kettle there gathers a stony crust.
This is made of the same material as limestone —indeed,
it is limestone. It was dissolved in the water put in the
tea-kettle, but as the water was heated and partly changed
into steam it could no longer hold all the lime, and some
or all of it had to be deposited. So, in a similar way,

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HOW THE EARTH WAS FORMED * 15

sea, water is dried up by the sun and air, and deposits lime,
and so beds of limestone are formed. You will readily see
from what has been said why shales, sandstones, and lime-
stones take the form of beds lying upon each other.

Now, away back towards the beginning, when the ocean
was first formed, and some part of the earth was pushed
up so as to form land, this process began, and has been at
work ever since. The surface of the land has been mois-
tened by the air and moisture, and then has been washed
away to the ocean and laid down in beds. When these
grew thick, and were pressed by the weight of the newer
beds that were laid down on them, they hardened into roqk
again. And this has gone on for a very, very long time,
and the beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone so formed
have come to be many thousand feet thick in some places.
The land would all have been worn away down to the level
of the sea if the earth had not kept shrinking and wrinkling,
or pushing up in places.

At different times, portions of what was once the ocean
bottom have been lifted and have become land. If these
beds are examined, they will be found to contain shells and
corals and other sea animals which were buried in them
when they were forming, and thus it is known that they
were laid down under the sea. It is found also that the
lower beds contain kinds of life different from those above,
and the lower beds were, of course, formed first. So, by
studying the sea-shells and other relics in the beds, from
the lowest ones up to the highest ones, in the order in
which they were formed, the various kinds of life that
have lived in the sea from the beginning are found out.

16 MINERALS

The life at the beginning was simpler than it is now, and
quite different in many respects. There were gradual
changes from time to time, and many strange creatures
appeared that do not live at present.
T. C. CHAMBERLIN,
Head Professor of Geology, U. of C.

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CHAPTER II
GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC.
THE GRAND CANYON OF THE COLORADO

THIs morning we are ready to enter the mysterious canyon,
and start with some anxiety. The old mountaineers tell us
it cannot be run; the Indians say, “ Water heap catch ’em.”
But all are eager for the trial, and off we go.

Entering Flaming Gorge, we quickly run through it
on a swift current, and emerge into a little park. Half a
mile below, the river wheels sharply to the left, and we
turn into another canyon cut into the mountain. We enter
the narrow passage. On either side the walls rapidly
increase in altitude. On the left are overhanging ledges
and cliffs five hundred, a thousand, fifteen hundred feet
high.

On the right the rocks are broken and ragged, and the
water fills the channel from cliff to cliff. Now the river
turns abruptly around a point to the right, and the waters
plunge swiftly down among the great rocks; and here we
have our first experience with canyon rapids. I stand up
on the deck of my boat to seek a way among the wave-
beaten rocks. All untried as we are with such waters, the
moments are filled with intense anxiety. Soon our boats
reach the swift current; a stroke or two, now on this side,
now on that, and we thread the narrow passage with exhila-
rating velocity, mounting the high waves, whose foaming

17

18 MINERALS

crests dash over us, and plunging into the troughs, until
we reach the quiet waters below; and then comes a feeling
of great relief. Our first rapid run! Another mile and
we come into the valley again.

Let me explain this canyon: Where the river turns to
the left above, it takes a course directly into the mountain,
penetrating to its very heart, then wheels back upon itself,
and runs into the valley from which it started, only half a
mile below the point at which it entered; so the canyon is
in the form of an elongated U, with the apex in the center
of the mountain. Wename it Horseshoe Canyon.

Last spring, I had a conversation with an old Indian
named Par-ri-ats, who told me about one of his tribe
attempting to run this canyon. “The rocks,” he said, hold-
ing his hands above his head, his arms vertical, looking
between them to the heavens, “the rocks h-e-a-p, h-e-a-p
high; the water go h-oo-woogh, h-oo-woogh! water-pony
(boat) h-e-a-p buck; water catch ’em; no see ’em Injun
any more! no see em squaw any more! no see ’em papoose
any more!” Magor J. W. PowE Lt.

OLD FAITHFUL GEYSER

This picture of the geyser in action illustrates some of
the work of underground water. In this case, water accu-
mulates some distance below the surface in a cavity which
lies in or near a bed of rock which has only recently come
to the surface and is still very hot. This water becomes
heated until steam is formed. This steam expands and
with explosive violence forces upward and out the water in

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NIAGARA FALLS. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC. 19

the throat of the geyser. The whole operation is repeated
periodically, as often as the proper conditions of tempera-
ture and pressure are met. That Yellowstone Park is a
region of very recent volcanic activity is shown by its
numerous active geysers and hot mud springs. In any ele-
mentary physical geography will be found an interesting
account of volcanic action and the work of underground
water, not only in such cases as those mentioned here, but
also in the formation of caverns. ' H. B. San.

NIAGARA FALLS *

Niagara Falls, the grandest cataract in the world, belong
in part to the State of New York. Here the water of the
Great Lakes, west of Ontario, is poured over a precipitous
cliff about one hundred and sixty feet high, in two immense
sheets, called the American and Horseshoe Falls, separated
by Goat Island. ‘These falls received the name Niagara
from the aborigines, Ni-a-ga-ra meaning “thunder of
waters.” ‘The roar created by the falls can be heard, under
favorable conditions, at a distance of fifteen miles. ‘There
are three distinct falls. 'The Horseshoe Fall, so named
on account of its crescent shape, is the largest, covering a
distance of two thousand feet, and having a fall of one
hundred and fifty-four feet; the American Fall, six hun-
dred and sixty feet, and the Central Fall, two hundred and
forty-three feet in width, each have a fall of one hundred
and sixty-three feet. The volume of water is perpetually
the same, no amount of rain or snow making any apparent
change. This is conceded to be the grandest natural feature

20 MINERALS

in the world, providing a water power the limit of which is
incalculable.

Of late years the extraordinary power of the falls has
been adapted to the production of electricity, which has
been distributed to various cities and towns within a radius
of one hundred miles. Street cars and machinery of every
kind are run by them, and, by new devices and more power-
ful dynamos, it is believed the field for the successful
utilization of this great force is almost without limit.

OIL WELLS *

The Pennsylvania oil region and the Russian oil region
are the two greatest centers of petroleum in the world.
The latter has its center at Baku, on the Caspian Sea.

Oil is found in Pennsylvania in oil-bearing sand-rocks,
which are considered as the reservoirs in which the distilled
product has found a permanent lodgment. The depth of
the oil-sand or sand-rock in this State is from 800 to 1,900
feet. There are often several strata, one above the other,
containing oil.

It is the uniform experience that the lightest oils are
found in the lowest sandstones, while the heaviest oils are
drawn from the shallowest wells; and as we approach the
surface, where it is gathered from the pools dug to the
depth of only a few feet, it becomes sticky, semi-fluid, and
finally a solid asphalt.

Man made no attempt to bore a deep hole through soil
and rock, hundreds of feet down, to reach oil, until the
summer of 1859. The first oil company was formed in

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GRAND CANYON, GEYSERS, ETC. 21

1854, with Mr. George H. Bissel at its head, which bored
the first oil well in the summer of 1859, under the direction
of EK. L. Drake.

The price of oil, when first put on the market, was
about thirty-five cents a gallon at retail, or to the con-
sumer. It has since been sold to the consumer at as low a
price as seven cents a gallon.

The Standard Oil Company owned the first pipe lines
that transported oil from the Pennsylvania oil fields to the
sea coast. The American oil is said to be at least twenty-
five per cent. superior to the Russian article. It is of a
higher grade, and commands, naturally, a higher price.

It is assumed that there must still be great quantities
of oil in the rock formation of the earth.

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CHAPTER III
FORMATION OF MINERALS AND GEMS

EvEN an elementary study of the forms here pictured and
an investigation into their causes and histories would neces-
sitate the compilation of a very elaborate text-book. Such
would be properly called a mineralogy, and it would be
used only in work of a collegiate character.

It is well known that the intensely heated interior of
the earth is subjected to enormous pressure caused by the
weight of the overlying rocks. With cooling comes thé
slow shrinking and contraction of the crust or outer por-
tions. Under such conditions of heat and pressure, many
substances are molten or fluid, but become hard if they
reach the surface or otherwise become cool. An example
of these is lava, which is poured in a more or less fluid con-
dition from the craters of active volcanoes. While in the
fluid condition there is a. strong tendency for the ingredi-
ents of rock to gather together into masses of varying size,
and these, upon cooling, form crystals. If the cooling be
slow, the crystals have ample time for formation, and will,
therefore, be large. By “slow” is meant a very long
period of time—perhaps a thousand years." Examples of
such formations are the diamond and the garnet, the pic-
tures of both of which show both the central crystal and —
the surrounding material, called matrix. The colors of
these gems are due to various ingredients such as iron,

23

24 MINERALS

manganese, cobalt, etc. The white diamond is practically
pure carbon.

It often happens, however, that when rocks solidify,
cavities or pockets are formed, perhaps from gas bubbles,
and into these there later penetrates water which is on its
way upward to the surface from the great depths below.
When under the influence of the intense heat and the enor-
mous pressure of the interior, water will directly dissolve
certain substances which ordinarily it would not, or it may
dissolve certain minor substances, thus forming strong acids
or alkalies, which further dissolve the most refractory mate-
rials. ‘Through cracks, crevices, or sometimes open vents,
this water, with its load of dissolved materials, slowly per-
colates, finally rising toward the surface. As the pressure
and heat diminish the materials which cannot be carried in
solution are deposited along the sides of the passageway
or around the walls, and in cavities into which the water
has penetrated. The crevices become filled and other chan-
nels may be opened at other places. In any event, the
result is the formation of a mineral vein or a nodule, the
characteristic structure of both of which is well illustrated
in a number of the plates. The agate was probably made
during a long period of time and the successive layers,
being composed of unlike substances, formed bands of dis-
similar colors. Such, in a very general way, is the story
of the formation of a vein of gold-bearing quartz, of lead,
of silver, and other materials, and that of the innumerable
agates and carnelians. H. B. Sunn.

OR ES. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

Full Size.

320

Anglesite
Native Copper
Chaleacite

Cholcopyrite
Cerussite coating Galenite
Galenite

wat

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CHAPTER IV
ORES, MARBLES, ETC.
COPPER AND LEAD ORES

NaTIvE Copper scarcely needs a description. Its occur-
rence in its free state provides an interesting subject of
conjecture. Briefly stated, the question of origin is whether
the copper was set free by the decomposition of silicates or
was in the form of a sulphide in the rock. The chief region
of occurrence of native copper is the Lake Superior district.

The ore chalcocite, sometimes called copper glance, has
a metallic luster, often tarnished green or blue. It is com-
monly lead-gray and rather soft. Its streak is a blackish
lead-gray. Chalcopyrite is a sulphide of copper and iron
combined. When copper is much in predominance the color
of the ore is golden yellow. The streak is dark green. The
mineral is harder than chalcocite, but less hard than pyrite,
being easily scratched with a knife. Both chalcocite and
chalcopyrite frequently occur in silver-bearing rocks.

Lead occurs in nature chiefly in the forms of the sul-
phide, galenite or galena; the sulphate, anglesite, and the
carbonate, and cerussite. Galena is lead-gray, quite soft,
and frequently occurs in a coarsely crystalline condition, the
crystals often being cubical. The luster is metallic, hence
a superficial examination of a specimen might result in mis-
taking the mineral for the copper ore, chalcopyrite, already
described. The streak will serve to identify any specimen,

25

26 MINERALS

however, it being a lead-gray of much lighter shade than
that of chalcocite. Anglesite and cerussite are far less
abundant than galena. The former varies from white
through gray to yellow and has a resinous luster. Cerus-
site is white or gray, resembling anglesite, and has a bril-
liant, vitreous luster. Both minerals, like galena, are soft
and easily scratched with a knife.
Tueo. F. BRooxins.

IRON ORES *

The sulphide of iron, Pyrite, occurs in many crystalline
rocks, but, owing to the difficulty of separating the iron and
sulphur, is not used as an ore of iron. The mineral much
resembles in external appearance a yellow ore of copper,
called chalcopyrite, from which it may be distinguished in
that it will strike fire with steel.

The black oxide of iron, Magnetite, occurs widely dis-
tributed. As its name indicates, it sometimes displays the
properties of a magnet.

In a series of ore beds formerly operated by a mining
company of northern New York four distinctions of the
crude ore were made, two varieties of blue, one of black,
and one of gray. The blue coloring is apparently due to
the presence of impurities, the black ore is evidently mag-
netite, and the steel gray mineral, failing in the character-
istic properties of magnetite, finds its class place under
Hematite. Hematite differs from magnetite in represent-
ing a higher degree of oxidation. It is often found, as
indicated above, in beds distributed in close conjunction

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

288 IRON ORES.
Pyrites Pyrites
Limonite Magnetite Limonite
Specular

Hematite

268

Silver Quartz.
Nickel Pyrites
Spathie Tron Ore.

ORES.
Specimens at top of page are gold bearing rock.
Native Copper, Tin Ore. B. H.
Lead Crystals.
Kidney Iron Ore Zine Ore

Blue Carbonate Copper.
Needle Iron Ore.

°

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 27

with those of magnetite. This ore is a valuable source of
iron. Hematite commonly occurs in earthy materials, as
red ochre. Its streak is red. All rocks of a reddish or red
color owe the color to this oxide of iron.

When hematite rusts, the brownish-yellow or yellow iron
oxide, Limonite, results. The streak of limonite is yellow,
thus distinguishing it from hematite. Disseminated through
beds of clay, limonite gives them the characteristic yellow
color. Such clays turn red when heated, since the water of
the limonite is driven off, leaving hematite as a residue.
This is the explanation of the usual coloring of bricks.
Yellow ochre is impure, or earthy, limonite.

ORES *

Nickel is a silver-white, ductile metal discovered by
Cronstedt in 1751. It is closely allied to iron and cobalt,
and is associated with many ores. Nickel, according to
Deville, is more tenacious than iron. It is magnetic at
ordinary temperatures. Many of the copper coins of the
European continent and the United States are alloys con-
taining various proportions of nickel. Nickel-plating has
become an industry of great importance in the United
States. It is used for magnetic needles, for philosophical
and surgical instruments, and in watch movements.

Spatuic Iron OrE.— Carbonate of iron, when found in
a comparatively pure and crystallized state, is known as
spathic or sparry. In its purest form it contains 48 per
cent. of iron. The ore is found near Hudson, N. Y., and
in Tuscarawas County, Ohio.

28 MINERALS

Coprer.— Copper is one of the most anciently known
metals, and its name is derived from the island of Cyprus,
where it was first obtained by the Greeks. In the earlier
times it does not appear to have been employed by itself,
but always in admixture with other metals, principally tin,
forming bronze. Great masses of native copper have been
found both in North and South America.

Trn. — Tin is a beautiful silver white metal with a tinge
of yellow. The pure mineral is colorless, and it is very
scarce; most specimens are brown, owing to the presence of
ferric or manganic oxide. The faces of the crystals exhibit
diamond luster. There is also another form, known as
“wood tin,” occurring in roundish masses with a fibrous
radiating fracture.

Zinc.— A metal of a brilliant white color, with a shade
of blue, and appearing as if composed of plates adhering
together. It is not brittle, but less malleable than copper,
lead, or tin; when heated, however, it is malleable, and may
be rolled into plates.

LEAap.— A metal of a dull white color, with a cast of
blue. It is soft and easily fusible. It is found native in
small masses, but generally mineralized by sulphur and
sometimes by other substances. It is the least elastic and
sonorous of all the metals.

MINERALS CONTAINING CARBON

Among minerals of economic importance, carbon min-
erals hold the unique position of being at the same time of
the most common and the most rare occurrence. As far as

"ROM COL. CHI, ACAD SCIENCES CARBONS COPYRIGHT 1900

| MUMFORD, PUBLISHER, CHICAGO . . .
: P . Bituminous Coal NATURE STUDY PUB, CO,, CHICAGO.
0 Anthracite Coal Graphite

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 29

external appearance indicates, a piece of common coal and
the most brilliant diamond are widely separated; with
regard to chemical composition they are closely related.
Intermediate between the coal of the stoke furnace and
the “brilliant” of the jewelry shop is still another well-
known form of carbon, the graphite of the lead pencil.
These three substances comprise the far greater part of
carbon-containing minerals.

Vegetation is, undoubtedly, the origin of all coal, but
often much more than a cursory examination is necessary to
prove such origin. In the less altered coals the vegetable
origin is readily proved by the actual presence of seeds,
plant fibers, and other equally apparent organic remains.
A microscopic study is necessary for finding the presence
of woody fiber in the more metamorphosed form.

In America, bituminous or soft coal was mined to a
slight extent in the latter half of the eighteenth century.
The form now commonly used in house-heating furnaces,
anthracite, for a long time baffled the colonists in their
efforts to make it burn. The knowledge that an anthracite
fire is most effective if not continually poked is said to
have been acquired generally by accident.

’ Kurope and the United States today produce practi-
cally all the coal of the world.

The purest form of carbon found in nature is the dia-
mond. The rare occurrence of diamonds indicates that the
essential conditions in nature for causing the transformation
of some less pure form of carbon into diamond are seldom

present.
Tueo. EF. Brooxins.

30 MINERALS

MARBLES

At one early period of the geological history of the
North American continent all that portion now occupied
by the Appalachian mountain system was sea bottom, and
on it was being deposited not merely sediments washed
down from the land, but, in favorable localities, deposits of
lime, sand, and mud. This deposit went on, on a gradually
sinking floor, for long ages, until the lowermost beds were
buried under thousands of feet of the later formed mate-
rials. Then began the slow uplifting of the sea bottom in
the form of long, parallel folds to form the mountain
ranges. During this uplifting the lime sediments, which
are the only ones we need consider here, were changed to
marbles, and have since been exposed and made available
to the quarriers through the wearing-down action of rain
and running streams. So, then, a quarry is but an excava-
tion in the hardened mud formed on the bottom of a very
ancient sea.

In the Vermont marble region the beds are highly
inclined and of varying colors. From the same quarry
there may be produced pure white, gray, blue-gray, and
greenish varieties, often variously veined and_ blotched,
owing to the collection of their different impurities along
certain lines. Some of these quarries have been worked a
depth of two hundred feet and more.

Not all marble beds are upturned at this steep angle,
however, nor have they been worked so deeply. In Georgia
the quarries are often in hillsides, extending scarcely at all,

267

Old Tennessee.
Sienna.
Florentine Vermont.

MARBLES.

Alps Green
Mexican Onyx.
African Marble

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 31

if any, below the surface of the ground. Where opened in
the valley bottoms they have the form of huge rectangular
pits with perpendicular walls. In Tennessee many of the
sediments were so slightly changed that the fossil remains
are still easily recognized, and the stone is of a pink or
chocolate red color, owing to the abundance of iron.

The marbles are quarried mainly by channeling ma-
chines, which cut out the stone in blocks of any desired size,
or at least in sizes such as the nature of the beds will allow.
Blasting is never resorted to in a properly managed quarry,
since the shock of the explosion is likely to develop flaws
in so tender a material. When freed from the quarry bed
and brought to the surface the stone is sawn into the desired
shapes by means of “reciprocating” blades of soft iron, the
cutting material being sand washed under the blades by
small jets of water.

The use to which any particular marble is put is gov-
erned largely by its price and color, though texture or grain
often is taken into consideration. The coarsely crystalline
white and white clouded marbles of southern New York,
Maryland, and Georgia are almost wholly for building pur-
poses; the pink and variegated marbles of Tennessee for
interiors and for furniture, while the white and blue-grays
of Vermont find a large market for interiors, cemetery
work, tiling, and, to a much smaller extent, for building.

GerorcE MERRILL.

32 MINERALS

MINERALS *

MatacuitE.— One of the native carbonates of copper.
“It is sometimes crystallized, but more often occurs in con-
cretionary masses of various shades of green, which are
generally banded or arranged in such a manner that the
mineral, which takes a fine polish, is much prized as an
ornamental stone. Great quantities of it are found in the
Siberian mines, and many beautiful objects are manufac-
tured from it.

Quartz.— The most abundant of all minerals, existing
as a constituent of many rocks, composing of itself the rock
known as quartzite or quartz rock and some of the sand-
stones and pure sand, forming the chief portion of most
mineral veins. In composition it is silica, and when uncon-
taminated with any foreign intermixture it appears in clear,
transparent crystals like glass or ice. Pure quartz is
largely employed in the manufacture of glass, and is com-
monly obtained for this purpose in the form of sand.
Quartz veins, with few exceptions, form the gangues in
which gold is found.

ToURMALINE.— A name applied to a group of double
silicates composed of many other minerals. The color of
tourmaline varies with their composition. The red, called
rubellite, are manganese tourmaline containing lithium and
manganese, with little or no iron; the violet, blue, and
green contain iron, and the black are either iron or mag-
nesium-iron tourmalines. Sometimes the crystals are red
at one extremity and green at the other, or green internally

269

Hornblendt.

Crocidolite.

Malacaite

MINERALS.

Rose Quartz
Pink Tourmaline Rube
A cate

ite,

Amethyst

Sulphur

Serpentine

ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 33

and red externally, or vice versa. Pink crystals are found
in the island of Elba. Tourmalines are not often used in
jewelry, although they form beautiful gems and bear a
high price. A magnificent group of pink tourmalines,
nearly a foot square, was given by the King of Burmah to
Colonel Sykes while commissioner to his court. The tour-
maline appears to have been brought to Europe from Cey-
lon by the Dutch about the end of the seventeenth century,
and was exhibited as a curiosity on account of its pyro-
electric properties.

Acatr.— Of the quartz family, and is one of the mod-
ifications in which silica presents itself nearly in a state of
purity. Agates are distinguished from the other varieties
by the veins of different shades of color which traverse the
stone in parallel concentric layers, often so thin as to num-
ber fifty or more to an inch. Externally the agates are
rough and exhibit no appearance of their beautiful veined
structure, which is exposed on breaking them, and still more
perfectly after polishing. ‘Though the varieties of agate
are mostly very common minerals in this country as well
as in the old world, those localities only are of interest
which have long been famous for their production and
which still furnish all the agates required by commerce.

AmETHYsST.— So named because it was supposed by
the ancient Persians that cups made of it would prevent
the liquor they contained from intoxicating. ‘The stone
consists of crystallized quartz of a purple or blue violet
color, probably derived from a compound of iron and soda.
The color is not always diffused through it, and is less
brilliant by candle light.

a

34 MINERALS

SERPENTINE. — Serpentine differs in composition from
the other marbles. It is a soft mineral of different shades
of green, of waxy luster, and susceptible of a high polish.
It is better adapted to ornamental work within doors than
to be exposed to the action of the weather.

SuLPpHuR.— An elementary substance belonging to the
class of metalloids. It has been known from the earliest
times as the product of volcanoes and as a natural mineral
deposit in clay and marl formations. It also exists in prim-
itive rocks, as granite and mica.

HorNBLENDE.— A mineral species placed by Dana in
the augite section of the anhydros silicates. In common
use the name is limited, as it was formerly applied only to
the dark crystalline minerals which are met with in long,
slender prisms, either scattered in quartz, granite, etc., or
generally disseminated throughout their mass. ‘The color
of the mineral is usually black or dark green, owing to the
presence of much iron. It appears to have been produced
under conditions of fusion and cooling which cannot be
imitated in the laboratory, the crystals obtained artificially
being of augite type.

CrocipoLitE.— A mineral occurring in silky fibers of a
lavender blue color. It is related to hornblende and is
essentially a silicate of iron and soda;—called also blue
asbestus. A silicified form, in which the fibers penetrating
quartz are changed to oxide of iron, is the yellow-brown
tiger-eye of the jewelers.

QUARTZ AND SILICATES. CO-YRIGHT 19 Y A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

44 Life-siz Cs

3038

1—Asbestus. 2—Feldspar. 3—Quartz Crystal. 4—Small Garnets in rock. 5—Garict) 6G—Oja 7--Smoky Quartz.

h

% oa cal |
Ve
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a) oat
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7
eta oe b
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;
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Pa
*.

f¢ A
z
‘i
o -~
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’
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.
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ORES, MARBLES, ETC. 35

QUARTZ AND THE SILICATES

Comparatively few persons associate the gem opal, with
its brilliant internal colored reflections, with that material
forming so large a part of the soil, sand. Yet the two are
almost identical in composition. The mineral constituent
of sand and of opal is quartz, though the latter often
contains in addition some water.

Quartz is composed of the two elements oecurring the
most abundantly in the earth’s crust, silicon and oxygen,
both non-metals. As already indicated, the most common
representative of the mineral substance is the sand of the
soil. The sand grains are generally so eroded by the atmos-
phere and surface waters as to show little of the true
quartz structure. As studied by means of the rock crys-
tal, quartz is remarkable for its transparency, its regular
crystal form, and its great degree of hardness. Its trans-
parency is such that printing may be read through the
crystal. Its crystalline form affords an unfailing means to
the mineralogist of recognizing the substance as quartz.

Quartz has an economic value directly in glass sand,
and, of course, as a soil constituent. In the latter capacity
it is taken up by many plants, and is the silica that studs
the saw edges of the blades of sedges and grasses. The
precious stones, agate, amethyst, and jasper, are varieties
of quartz.

The silicon that is so important a constituent of quartz
composes with aluminum a large part of various minerals
comprised under the name feldspar. This substance is

36 MINERALS

slightly less hard than quartz and has many variations in
color, but, unlike quartz, shows regular cleavage faces.
Feldspar is always crystalline, but good crystals are ‘not
common. It is very difficultly soluble, yet readily yields to
the influence of weathering. Tuero. F. Brooxins.

FROM BAUER'S EDELSTEINKUNDE COPYMGHT 1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
y DIAMOND AND CORUNDUM.
Sapphire Crystal. Diamond in Matrix (Brazil). Cut Sapphire.
Ruby Crystal. Cut Ruby.
Diamond in Matrix (South Africa). : f
Bort. Black Diamond, Carbonado (Brazil).
Spinel Crystal, Rubicelle. Spinel Crystal, Balas-ruby.

CHAPTER V
PRECIOUS STONES

By Ouiver Cummincs FarrIncton
THE DIAMOND

THE Diamond is generally conceded to be the most beauti-
ful, as it is the most important, of precious stones. While
other stones at times exceed it in value, weight for weight,
in total importance as an article of commerce other gems
are hardly to be compared with it. Out of thirteen and
one-half millions of dollars’ worth of precious stones im-
ported into the United States in one year, twelve million
dollars’ worth were diamonds. Not all this amount was
employed for jewelry, since there is a large utilization of
the stone for industrial purposes; but even for jewelry the
diamond has a largely preponderating use. Its points of
superiority are its hardness, high refractive powers, and,
hence, play of colors, its transparency, and its luster. In
all these qualities it excels any other known mineral. Hence,
when, in addition to these, it exhibits different body colors,
as is sometimes the case, no other gem can equal it in value.

Usually the diamond is colorless or white, although
shades of yellow are also common. It is also known in
shades of red, green, and blue, and in brown and black.
The two latter are rarely transparent and grade into the
varieties known as bort and carbonado, which have no value
as gems but are highly important for industrial purposes.

37

38 MINERALS

In composition the diamond is pure carbon, thus not
differing chemically from graphite or such forms of carbon
as lamp-black, bone-black, etc. It is crystallized, but this
can be said of graphite as well. Why carbon should assume
the form of diamond in one case and graphite in another,
as well as being amorphous in other occurrences, is not
known. Such behavior of a substance is known as dimor-
phism, and numerous illustrations of it are to be found in
nature.

BIRTH STONES

As to the particular stone which is to be considered
appropriate to each month, usages differ. Such differences .
have doubtless arisen from the desire to introduce gems
which were formerly little known or unattainable on account
of their cost as substitutes for stones formerly prized but
now held of little value. Thus, the precious opal, now much
admired, was hardly known in former times. By some it is
now used as the birth stone of the month of October, while
others retain the beryl. The diamond has been introduced
in modern practice in quite a similar way. The carnelian
and chrysolite, by some still used for the months of August
and September, are stones held of little worth at present,
and, hence, others are usually substituted.

The particular order and kind of stones adopted in the
accompanying plate is given in accordance with a pamphlet
first published by Tiffany & Company, of New York, in
1870:

January, Garnet; February, Amethyst; March, Blood-
stone; April, Diamond; May, Emerald; June, Agate; July,

IS LOANED BY FREDERICK J. ESSIG

Garnet (January.
Diamond (April.

Ruby (July.
Opal (October

BIRTH STONES.

Amethyst (February.)
Emerald (May.)
Sardonyx (August

Topaz

November.)

Bloodstone
A gate

March.
June.

Sapphire (September

Turquoise

December.

<~- se

COPYRIGHT 1906, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

Chlorastrolite, polished (Isle Royale). Variscite, polished (Utah).
Hematite, polished (England). : ; Cat’s-eye, Quartz, polished (Ceylon). Moldavite, cut (Bohemia).
‘Thomsonite, polished (Lake Superior). Thomsonite, rough (Lake Superior).

PRECIOUS STONES 39

Ruby; August, Sardonyx; September, Sapphire; October,
Opal; November, Topaz; December, Turquoise.

MINOR GEMS

The stones represented in the accompanying colored
plate have, for the most part, but limited use, either because
of their local occurrence or their lack of special gem qual-
ities. Three of them are peculiar to the United States, and
deserve on that account, perhaps, to be better known and
more widely used by our people. These are variscite,
chlorastrolite, and thomsonite.

VariscITE.— Variscite resembles turquoise in many
properties, being, like that mineral, a generally opaque,
hydrous phosphate of aluminum not occurring in distinct
erystals. Its color is, however, normally an apple-green to
emerald-green, rather than blue, and its luster is more
nearly vitreous than that of turquoise.

CHLORASTROLITE.— This mineral, the name of which
means “green star stone,” is solely of American occurrence,
and thus far has been found at but a single locality. It
occurs at Isle Royale, an island in Lake Superior, in the
form of peach pebbles.

TuHomsonitTE. — An occurrence of this mineral, which is
used ornamentally to some extent, is obtained, like chloras-
trolite, in the form of water-worn pebbles weathered out
of an amygdaloidal trap. The pebbles are found on the
shores of Lake Superior, near Grand Marais.

Morpavite.— This term is applied to a transparent
green stone found occurring in small pieces in Bohemia, in

40 MINERALS

the region drained by the river Moldau, whence the name
Moldavite. The color of the stone is of the peculiar
character generally designated as bottle green.

HEMATITE. — Hematite is an oxide of iron which takes
on a variety of forms and shades, but is used in jewelry
only when compact and of an iron-black color. In this
form it is used especially for intaglios, but also for carving
into ornaments of various sorts.

TURQUOISE

This mineral differs from nearly all others held in favor
as gems in not being transparent and never occurring in
the form of well-defined crystals. The opal is perhaps the
only other gem of which the same may be said. In com-
position Turquoise is a hydrous phosphate of aluminum,
the percentages being: Of water, 20.6 per centum; of
alumina, 46.8 per centum, and of phosphoric oxide, 32.6
per centum. Thus, in composition as well as opacity tur-
quoise differs from most other gems, they being usually
silicates or some form of silica. Besides the above ingredi-
ents, turquoise always contains a small percentage of copper
oxide and, usually, iron, calcium, and manganese oxides in
small amount. It is the copper compound which undoubt-
edly gives turquoise its inimitable color, that color to which
it owes its chief charm as a gem. The color varies from
sky-blue through bluish-green and apple-green to greenish-
gray.

Of these colors, the pure sky-blue or robin’s-egg blue is
by far the most highly prized, and is, in fact, the only

SPECIMENS LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO,

445

Indian Amulet.

Artificially polished.

Natural.

TURQUOIS.
(New Mexico.)

Waterworn.
Waterworn.

COPYRIGHT 1901, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

Artificially polished.
Artificially polished.
Natural.

a, * i

oy

me,

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO.

Precious Opal in Matrix (Queensland.)
Precious Opal (New south Wales.)

OPAL.
Wood Opal (Idaho.)

Precious Opal (New South Wales.)
Prase Opal (Germany.)

COPYRIGHT 1802, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

Precious Opal (New South Wales.)
Fire Upal in Matrix (Mexico.)

io
i)

4

‘ isd .

PRECIOUS STONES 41

standard color for the gem. Green is, however, the most
common and the most lasting color of the mineral, and it
is one of the faults of the gem that the blue shades often
fade to green after being exposed to the light for a time.
In a stone of first quality, however, especially a Persian
turquoise, such fading of color is exceptional. A good tur-
quoise also maintains its color in artificial light. The hard-
ness of turquoise is 6, in the scale of which quartz is 7. It
is, therefore, somewhat more easily scratched than other
gems. Its specific gravity varies from 2.6 to 2.8, being
about that of quartz. It does not fuse before the blowpipe,
but turns brown and assumes a glossy appearance. By
the copper of the turquoise the blowpipe flame is usually
colored green. When heated in a closed glass tube the
mineral turns brown or black and gives off water.

OPAL

“The Opal, when pure and uncut in its native rock,”
says Ruskin, in his lecture on Color, “presents the most
lovely colors that can be seen in the world except those of
clouds.”

The opal is indeed one of the most fascinating of gems,
yet often elusive and at times disappointing. Of its freaks
and foibles strange stories are told. Gems of brilliant qual-
ity are known suddenly to have lost their hues never to
regain them, while others previously dull and lusterless
~have become radiant as the rainbow.

Chemically, opal is oxide of silicon with varying amounts
of water, the water varying from 8 to 9 per cent. It is,

42 MINERALS

therefore, closely allied to quartz, but differs physically
in being softer and not as heavy. Further, it never crys-
tallizes, and it is soluble in caustic potash, which quartz is
not. It is infusible, but cracks and becomes opaque before
«the blowpipe. In sulphuric acid it turns black, on account,
probably, of the organic matter it contains.

Opal as a mineral is quite common, so that no one need
suppose, because he has specimens labeled “opal” in his
collection, that he has as many precious stones. It occurs
in many varieties, and, especially if it contains foreign mat-
ter, in many colors. Nearly all silica deposited by hot
waters is in the form of opal, so that the geysers of Yellow-
stone Park build up cones of opal and fall into opal basins.
This particular form of opal is known as geyserite, and it
is often differently colored by different ingredients.

Wood is often preserved by silica in the form of opal,
the siliceous waters taking away the wood and replacing it
by opal, grain by grain, with such delicacy and accuracy
that the structure of the wood is perfectly maintained.

4 CHRYSOLITE

This mineral is known among the gems by many names.
It is often called Chrysoberyl by jewelers, while the true
chrysoberyl is called Chrysolite. It is also known by dif-
ferent names, accbrding to its color, it being called peridot
when of a deep olive-green, olivine when of a yellowish-
green, and chrysolite when of a lighter or golden-yellow
color. The name chrysolite means gold stone. One feature
distinguishing chrysolite from most other gems is its rela-

FROM BAUER'S EDELSTEINKUNDE
559
Almandine Garnet (Alaska).

Almandite Garnet, cut.

Epidote (Knappenwand, Austria).
Essonite Garnet, cut. Epidote, cut.
Demantoid Garnet, cut. Essonite Garnet and Diopside (Italy). Chrysolite. cut.
Demantoid Garnet (Ural Mts.). Chrysolite crystal, Pyrope Garnet (Bohemia).

“Cape Ruby,” cut.

PRECIOUS STONES 43

tively low hardness, which is 634. It will thus scratch
feldspar, but is scratched by quartz and most other gems.
Again, it is relatively heavy, its specific gravity being
between 3.3 and 3.4. Its luster, too, while vitreous, has a
slightly oily tinge, which can be detected by a little experi-
ence. Chrysolite is easily dissolved by the common acids.
In composition it is a silicate of magnesium and iron, the
relative percentages of the two latter elements varying.

EPIDOTE

This is a mineral possessing several interesting charac-
ters and having many qualities desired in gems, yet its use
in jewelry is very limited. It is comparatively common as
one of the constituent minerals of metamorphic rocks, but
in its ordinary occurrences it is not suitable for gem pur-
poses. It is only when occurring in large transparent
crystals that pieces suitable for cutting can be obtained.
Its peculiar green color is one of its most striking charac-
teristics, enabling it nearly always to be recognized. This
color is a yellowish-green known as pistachio green and is
hardly possessed by another mineral. It frequently, how-
ever, shades to black, on the one hand, and brown, on the
other, so that it cannot be taken alone as a criterion for
determination. Epidote is quite strongly pleochroic—that
is, it exhibits different colors in different directions, being
often green in one direction, brown in another, and yellow
in another.

44 MINERALS

GARNET

This stone exhibits many varieties of color and of com-
position. The color probably most often thought of in
connection with it is dark red, but it would be a mistake
to suppose this the only color which it may manifest. Green,
red, rose, and brown are other colors which garnet trans-
parent enough to be used as gems exhibits, while among
Opaque garnets may be found black and many varieties of
the shades above mentioned.

These variations of color are more or less connected
with differences of composition which it may be well first
of all to consider. Garnet as a mineral is, like most miner-
als used as precious stones, a silicate. United with the
silica, the element most commonly occurring is aluminum.
If calcium be united with these two, the variety of garnet
known as grossularite, or essonite, or cinnamon stone, is
produced. If magnesium takes the place of calcium, then
pyrope is formed. If iron, we have almandite, and, if
manganese, spessartite. Another variety of garnet, andra-
dite, is composed of calcium and iron in combination with
silica, and still another, uvarovite, of calcium, chromium,
and silica. Though they seem to differ so much in com-
position, all kinds of garnet crystallize in the same system
and are closely allied in all their properties, so that it is
always an easy matter to distinguish garnet of any variety
from other minerals.

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO.

Almandite (Colorado.)
Essonite (Italy.)
Garnet in Matrix (Alaska.}

GARNET.

Garnet in Matrix, polished (Mexico.)

Almandite (Connecticut.)
Garnet (Hungary.)
Uvarovite in Matrix (Canada.)

i?

Golden Beryl (Siberia).

Blue Beryl (Siberia).

BERYL.

Blue Beryl (Albany, Maine).
Aquamarine (Conn.)
Golden Beryl (Conn.)

COPYRIGHT 1901, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGU

Aquamarine (Ural Mountains).

Emerald in the Matrix (Ural Mountains).

PRECIOUS STONES 45

BERYL

This mineral species includes a number of varieties
which are highly valued as gems. These are, besides Beryl
itself, the gems emerald, aquamarine, and golden beryl.
Chrysoberyl, it may be noted, is not a variety of beryl, but
a distinct species.

While these gems all differ in color, they are the same
mineral and are practically identical in composition, hard-
ness, and other properties. In composition they are a sili-
cate of aluminum and glucinum, the percentage being, for
normal beryl, 67 per cent. of silica, 19 per cent. of alumina,
and 14 per cent. of glucina.

The beautiful green color of the emerald is probably
due to a small quantity of chromium which it usually con-
tains, though some authorities believe organic matter to be
the coloring ingredient. To what substance the other
varieties of the species owe their color is not known.

In hardness the varieties of beryl differ little from
quartz, the hardness being 7.5 to 8 in the scale of which
quartz is 7. ‘They are somewhat inferior, therefore, to such
gems as topaz, sapphire, and ruby in wearing qualities,
although hard enough for ordinary purposes.

The specific gravity of beryl is also about like that of
quartz, ranging from 2.63 to 2.80, the specific gravity of
quartz being 2.65. ‘The varieties of beryl are, therefore,
relatively light as compared with other gems.

Beryl] crystallizes in the hexagonal system. It usually
occurs as six-sided prisms, commonly terminated by a

46 MINERALS

single flat plane, but sometimes by numerous small planes,
giving a rounded effect. Occasionally it terminates in
pyramidal planes which cause the prism to taper to a
_sharp point.

The crystals sometimes grow to enormous size, exceed-
ing those of any other known mineral.

Ordinary beryl is a mineral of comparatively common
occurrence, being often found in granitic and metamorphic
rocks.

AGATE

Agate is a form of the common mineral quartz. From
other forms of that mineral it differs in beng made up of
minute layers and in being variegated in color. The colors
may appear in the form of bands or clouds. The banded
agates appear to be made up of parallel layers, sometimes
straight, but more often wavy or curved in outline. These
layers or bands differ in color from one another, exhibiting
shades of white, gray, blue, yellow, red, brown, or black.
To the naked eye they appear to vary in width from the
finest lines to a width of a quarter of an inch or more. In
reality, all the bands visible to the naked eye are made up
of finer ones, to be seen only with the microscope. Thus,
in a single inch of thickness of agate Sir David Brewster,
using the microscope, counted seventeen thousand and fifty
layers. Besides differing in color, the layers differ in trans-
parency and porosity, and these properties add to the
variegated appearance of the agate.

On account of their beauties of color and outline, agates
have been known and prized from the earliest times. They

AGATE. COPYRIGHT 1901, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

422 Banded Agate (Lake Superior).
Moss Agate.
Banded Agate (Brazil). Clouded Agate.

TOURMALINE. COPYRIGHT 1903, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

Green Tourmaline (Brazil). Red Tourmaline or Rubellite (Island of Elba). Black Tourmaline (Finland).
Green ‘Tourmaline (Haddam, Conn.) Brown Tourmaline (Gouverneur, N. Y.)
ross Section of Green Tourmaline (Cal.) Red Tourmaline or Rubellite, in Lepidolite (Cal.)

PRECIOUS STONES 47

are mentioned by many of the ancient Greek writers, and
the name agate is a corruption of the name Achates, a river
in Sicily, whence the first stones of this kind used by the
Greeks were obtained. This and neighboring localities con-
tinued to be the source of supply until the fifteenth century,
when agates were found to occur in large quantities near
Oberstein and Idar, on the banks of the river Nahe, in the
duchy of Oldenburg.

The industry of cutting and polishing the agates on a
large scale was soon established there, and these places are
to this day the center of the agate industry. The agates
used most extensively at the present time are not, however,
those found about Oberstein, but come from a region about
one hundred miles in length extending from the province
of Rio Grande do Sul, of southern Brazil, into northern
Uruguay.

TOURMALINE

Early in the eighteenth century some children of Hol-
land, playing, on a warm summer’s day, in a courtyard
with a few bright-colored stones, noticed that these pos-
sessed a strange power when warmed by the heat of the
sun. They attracted and held (just as a magnet attracts
iron) ashes, straws, and bits of paper. On reporting this
strange discovery to their parents, the latter, it is said,
could give no explanation of the curious property, but a
relic of their knowledge of it is left in the name of “aschen-
treckers,” or “ash-drawers,” which they gave the stones
and by which they were known for a long time.

Such was the method of introduction to the civilized

48 MINERALS

world of the mineral now known as Tourmaline, a mineral
which in variety of color, composition, and properties is
one of the most interesting in nature.

The lapidaries who had given the Dutch children the
stones for playthings did not recognize them as different
from the other gems in which they were accustomed to deal.
So to the present day, although tourmaline is considerably
used in jewelry, it is rarely ever called by that name. The
green varieties are often known as Brazilian emerald, chrys-
olite, or peridot, some varieties of blue as Brazilian sap-
phire, others as indicolite, the colorless as achroite, and the
red as rubellite, siberite, and even as ruby.

It is only somewhat recently that these different stones
have been recognized as being varieties of a single mineral
species which is known by the name tourmaline. This name
comes from a Cingalese word (Turamali) which was
applied to the first tourmaline gems sent from Ceylon to
Holland.

In its opaque form, colored either black or brown, tour-
maline is a comparatively common mineral. It accompanies
many so-called metamorphic rocks, 7.e., rocks which have
been changed by heat and pressure from their original con-
dition, and is also common in granite and other eruptive
rocks.

OBSCURELY CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ

The best Carnelians come from India, but good stones
are also obtained in Siberia, Brazil, and Queensland. Car-
nelians are cut usually in oval and shield-like shapes and
were much employed by the ancients for intaglios. They

469 QUARTZ (obscurely crystalline).

COPYRIGNT 1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

_, Bloodstone polished (India). Chrysoprase (Silesia). Jasper (Germany).
Tiger Eye, polished (South Africa), Agate and Carnelian, polished (Lake Superior). Ribbon Jasper, polished (Siberia).

PRECIOUS STONES 49

believed them to have the power of preventing misfortune
and they were much worn as charms.

Sard of typical brown color is much rarer than carnelian
and possesses a high value. In other respects it is like
carnelian.

Chrysoprase and Prase are terms applied to an apple-
green to bright green chalcedony or compact, jasper-like
form of quartz.

Plasma is a name applied to green chalcedony, or by
some to green jasper.

Bloodstone is a variety of plasma containing spots of
red jasper looking like drops of blood. Another name for
bloodstone, by which it was chiefly known by the ancients,
is heliotrope.

Onyx and Sardonyx are varieties of agate in which the
layers are in even planes of uniform thickness. This struc-
ture permits of the stone being used for engraving
cameos.

The sardonyx was supposed by the ancients to be a
different stone from the onyx. To it was ascribed the
property of conferring eloquence upon its wearer.

Jasper is a name which includes in general nearly all
varieties of impure, opaque colored crypto-crystalline
quartz. In color it may be red, yellow, green, brown,
bluish, and black.

Basanite is also known as Lydian stone or touchstone,
on account of its use for trying the purity of metals. Its
value for this purpose depends on its hardness, peculiar
grain, and black color.

Flint is likewise an opaque quartz of dull color. It

50 MINERALS

differs from jasper in breaking with a deeply conchoidal
fracture and a sharp cutting edge.

LAPIS LAZULI, AMBER AND MALACHITE

The stone known as Lapis Lazuli as it occurs in nature
is not a single mineral, but a mixture of several, among
which are calcite, pyrite, and pyroxene. From these, how-
ever, it is possible to separate a mineral of uniform com-
position sometimes crystallized in dodecahedrons which is
probably the essential ingredient of the stone. This min-
eral is known as Lazulite and in composition is a silicate
of soda and alumina with a small quantity of sodium sul-
phide. |

Amber is a fossil gum of trees of the genus Pinus, and
is thus a vegetable rather than mineral product. In color
it is yellow varying to reddish, brownish, and whitish. Its
hardness is 2 to 2.5, it being slightly harder than gypsum
and softer than calcite. It cannot be scratched by the
finger nail, but easily and deeply with a knife. It is also
brittle.

The specific gravity of amber is scarcely greater than
that of water, the exact specific weight being 1.050-1.096.
It thus almost floats in water, especially sea water. It is
transparent to translucent.

Malachite is a green opaque mineral whose color indi-
cates a salt of copper. It is a carbonate of copper con-
taining water, the percentages being in the typical mineral,
cupric oxide 71.9, carbon dioxide 19.9, and water 8.2. It
is the common form which copper assumes when it or even

AMBER, MALACHITE, LAPIS-LAZULI AND AZURITE. séctbeitsasal eta aaa ie

Lapis-lazuli, polished (Siberia). Amber, rolled pebble (Coast of Baltic Sea).
Amber, polished. showing insects enclosed (Coast of Baltic Sea).
Malachite and Azurite, polished (Arizona Malachite, polished (Ural Mountains).
== Maisuchite, polished (Australia). Malachite (Arizona).

»
on
—

We ans f 4

LOANED BY FOOTE MINERAL CO, FELDSPAR. COPYRIGHT 1202, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

Amazonstone, ervstallized (Colorado). Amazonstone, crystallized (Colorado). Amazonstone (Colorado).
Labradorite, polished (Labrador), Labradorite, polished (Labrador),

Sunstone (Norway). Moonstone, polished (Norway).

i Foe’.

PRECIOUS STONES 51

its ores oxidize in the air. Many of the green stains on
rocks or minerals can be correctly referred to malachite. It
is only valued for ornamental purposes, however, when it
occurs in compact masses, usually exhibiting concentric
layers. Malachite in this form takes a fine polish. Mala-
chite is not a hard mineral, its hardness being between 3.5
and 4. 3

FELDSPAR

Feldspar is the family name of several minerals closely
related, and, indeed, grading into each other, but distin-
guished by mineralogists by separate specific terms. ‘These
minerals are all silicates of aluminum, with some alkali or
alkali earth, having a hardness of about 6 in the scale in
which quartz is 7.

As ornamental stones only certain varieties of feldspar
are valued and their value depends on accidents of color
or structure. The first of the feldspars which may be men-
tioned as being prized as an ornamental stone is amazon-
stone or green feldspar.

It is only to the green variety that the name of amazon-
stone is applied, a name meaning stone from the Amazon
River.

The second species of feldspar which may be mentioned
as of use as an ornamental stone is labradorite. This dif-
fers in composition from amazonstone in containing soda
and lime in place of potash.

The gems known as moonstone and sunstone owe the
play of colors which gives them their respective names to
similar causes. ‘These gems are generally some form of

52 MINERALS

feldspar, although any mineral giving a similar sheen of
color might be included under them.

The Ceylon moonstone is sometimes known as Ceylon
opal, but it is the variety of feldspar known as orthoclase,
which is a potash feldspar.

Sunstone is the term by which those kinds of feldspar
are known which reflect a spangled yellow light.

Both sunstones and moonstones can be accurately imi-
tated in glass and the distinction of the artificial from the
real by ocular examination alone would be almost impos-
sible.

Gems are occasionally cut from other forms of feldspar
than those here described, which are transparent and color-
less and valued for their luster.

ORNAMENTAL STONES

RuHoponiTE. — Rhodonite is a silicate of manganese, of
a pink or flesh-red color. It does not furnish transparent
gems, but, occurring: massive in large pieces, affords mate-
rial for table-tops, vases, jJewel-boxes, paper-weights, and
other large objects in which such a color is desired. The
stone has a slight translucency, which heightens its effect
when polished, and it is also like jade in being quite tough.

TuuitE.—Another rose-red massive stone is furnished
by the variety of zoisite, known as Thulite. This resembles
rhodonite in color somewhat, but is easily distinguished by
its chemical characters, zoisite being a hydrous silicate of
calcium and aluminum. It is somewhat harder than rhodo-
nite.

SPECIMENS LOANED BY F, J. ESSIG. YRIGHT BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

598 ORNAMENTAL STONES. AMERICAN COLORTYPE C04 Chl. & Ne Y

Satin Spar, polished (Italy). Smithsonite, polished (Greece).
Thulite, polished (Norway). Serpentine. polished (Cornwall, England
Serpentine, polished (Cornwali, England), Serpentine, rough (Cornwall, England)

Ii

COPYRIGHT 1901, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CH

Topaz with Mica and Feldspar (Russia)... Topaz (Japan).

Topaz in Rhyolite (Utah).

Topaz (Brazil). Waterworn Topaz (Brazil).

i

PRECIOUS STONES 53

Precious SERPENTINE.— This mineral resembles jade
in appearance and properties and is suited to many of the
ornamental uses to which the former is put. Not a little
so-called jade is doubtless serpentine. The hardness of
serpentine is somewhat below that of jade.

ALABASTER.— The term alabaster is derived from a
kind of ointment vases called alabastra which the Egyptians
and peoples of a later period were accustomed to carve
out of stone. This stone was largely a stalagmitic calcite
obtained at Thebes, but it is probable that gypsum was
also used to some extent. At the present time the
term is used loosely for either of these minerals when em-
ployed for the manufacture of ornamental objects,
although stalagmitic calcite is now more generally desig-
nated as onyx.

SMITHSONITE. — Smithsonite is a carbonate of zinc mined
extensively as an ore of that metal and sometimes possess-
ing sufficient translucency and beauty of color to make it
prized as an ornamental stone.

TOPAZ

Remarkable clearness and transparency, capacity of
taking a high polish, and hardness and weight greater than
that of quartz. These are the qualities in which Topaz
excels as a gem. ‘True topaz is a silicate of alumina, con-
taining hydroxyl and fluorine. Its hardness is 8 in the
scale in which quartz is 7. Hence, it will scratch the latter
mineral and may thus be distinguished from it. It is also
remarkably heavy, considering its composition, it being

54 MINERALS

three and one-half times as heavy as water, while quartz is
only two and one-half times as heavy.

The color typically associated with topaz in its use as
a gem is yellow, yet the mineral species exhibits many other
shades of color, which, when present in crystals of sufficient
clearness and purity, answer equally well for gem pur-
poses. These other shades, most of which are repre-
sented in the accompanying plate, are grayish, greenish,
bluish, and reddish. ‘Topaz may also be quite colorless.
The yellow color of the Brazilian topaz can be changed by
heating to a pale rose pink and the gem is often treated
in this way. The degree of heat employed is not high, and
both heating and cooling must be performed gradually.
Warming in a sand bath at a low red heat is the method
usually employed, or the stone may be wrapped in German
tinder and the latter set on fire. Only stones of a brown-
yellow color yield the pink; the pale yellow stones turn
white when so treated. Once the pink color is obtained it
is permanent.

The natural colors of topaz are, in general, perfectly
durable, although some of the deep wine-yellow topazes
from Russia fade on exposure to daylight.

Topaz is infusible before the blowpipe. It is not affected
by hydrochloric acid, but is partially decomposed by sul-
phurie acid and then yields hydrofluoric acid.

The crystals of topaz belong to the orthorhombic system
of crystallization. They are usually elongated in the direc-
tion of the prism and have sharp, bright faces. They vary
much in size and often are large. One crystal weighing
twenty-five pounds was found in Siberia.

QUARTZ (crystalline). COPYRIGHT 1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

Rutilated Quartz, polished (Brazil). Amethyst (Virginia).
Amethyst (Montana).

Rose Quartz, polished (Black Hills). Smoky Quartz (Switzerland).

461

PRECIOUS STONES 55

CRYSTALLINE QUARTZ

This is the most abundant, most durable, and most inde-
structible of common minerals. There is scarcely a sand
beach, field, or mountain-side upon which this mineral can-
not be found in some form or other. Its abundance is due
not so much to its excess in quantity in the underlying
rocks as to the fact that, being harder and less easily
decomposed than other minerals, it remains after they are
worn away. |

Though so common, it appears in so great a variety of
colors and different kinds of structure that a large collec-
tion of minerals looking very much alike might all be made
up of Quartz. If they were all of quartz they would have
the following characteristics: Hardness, 7 (cannot be
scratched with a knife blade); specific gravity, two and
a half times as heavy as water; no cleavage; fracture con-
choidal (shell-like) ; infusible before the blowpipe; insoluble
in common acids. The numerous varieties of quartz can
be grouped into two classes, the pheno-crystalline (plainly
crystalline) and the crypto-crystalline (obscurely crys-
talline).

This article deals only with the plainly crystalline vari-
eties. These include, among other varieties, rock crystal,
amethyst, rose quartz, smoky quartz, and sagenitic quartz.
These varieties all occur in well-formed crystals, and all
have a vitreous luster, i.e., luster like that of glass. The
differences between them are almost exclusively differences
of color.

56 MINERALS

Rock Crystaut.— This is quartz in its purest form.
Typical rock crystal is perfectly transparent and colorless,
but the mineral is often more or less clouded and opaque.

AmEtTHYST.— This is the name given to the violet or
purple varieties of crystallized quartz.

RosE Quartz.— This form of quartz, the color of
which is indicated by its name, is rarely of sufficient trans-
parency to be prized as a gem.

Smoky Quvuartz.—This variety of quartz is often
known as “smoky topaz,” a misleading term, since the
mineral is not topaz at all.

SAGENITIC QuaRTzZ.— This form of quartz, also known
as “saganite,” “fleche d’amour” (love’s arrow), “ Venus’
hair stone,” and, if the included mineral be rutile, “rutilated
quartz,” is rock crystal containing inclusions of other min-
erals in hair-like or thread-like forms.

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CHAPTER I
FLOWERS

FLowErs are the essential parts of higher plants, as they
are necessary to fruit and seed formation. Some flowers
are beautiful and fragrant, while others are neither; some
are large and showy, but emit a disagreeable odor. The
part of the flower which attracts the eye is usually the
corolla, formed of the separate or united petals, which vary
in size, form, and color. Somewhere near the base of the
corolla are found the nectaries or glands which secrete the
nectar so highly appreciated by insects and from which
nectar the bee makes its honey.

Flowers of different species of plants open or develop
at different periods of the season of active growth. Some
open early in spring, while others do not develop until late
in the fall.

Double flowers (culture products of gardens, etc.) are
generally considered more handsome than the wild, un-
changed, or normal flowers. ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

FLOWERS AND THEIR INVITED GUESTS

When flowers first appeared, it became necessary to
secure the transfer of the pollen-grains to the stigmas.
This was necessary in order that the ovule might be devel-
oped into a seed containing a young plant or embryo. At

59

60 PLANTS

first the currents of air were selected as the agents of this
pollen transfer, and the flowers were adapted to what is
known as wind-pollination. As the wind is an inanimate
agent, and any transfer by it is largely a matter of chance,
in order to increase the chances of successful pollination, it
was necessary for pollen to be developed in enormous quan-
tities, so that it might fall like rain. In this way stigmas
would be reached, but at the same time an enormous amount
of pollen would be wasted. The evergreens are good illus-
trations of wind-pollinated plants, and their showers of
pollen are very familiar to those who live near pine forests.
When these showers come down in unaccustomed regions,
they are often spoken of as “showers of sulphur,” and the
local newspapers are full of accounts of the mysterious
substance.

In wind-pollinated plants not only must the pollen be
excessively abundant, but it must also be very light and
dry. Sometimes the buoyancy is increased by the develop-
ment of wings on the pollen grains, as in the case of pines.
This habit of pollination is found not only among the ever-
greens, but also among many important families of higher
plants, as in the ordinary forest trees, the grasses, ete.

When the higher forms appeared, however, flowers of
a different character gave evidence that a new type of pol-
lination was being devised. Instead of the old wasteful
method, insects were called in to act as agents of the trans-
fer. By securing an animate agent, there is a definiteness
in the pollination and a saving in pollen production which
is quite in contrast with the wind method. It must not be
supposed that all flowers have learned to use insects with

LADY’S SLIPPER. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

346 (Cypripedium hirsutum.)

FLOWERS 61

equal skill, for many of them may be said to be clumsy in
their arrangement. On the other hand, certain families
have reached a high degree of organization in this regard,
and arrange for insect visits with a skill and completeness
of organization which is astonishing.

In order to secure visits from insects, so that pollination
may be effected, flowers have been compelled to do several
things. In the first place, they must provide an attractive
food. This has taken two prominent forms, namely, nectar
and pollen. There are insects, such as butterflies, which
are not only attracted by the nectar, but whose mouth parts
have only been adapted for sucking up a liquid. There are
other insects, however, like the bees, wasps, etc., which are
able to take the more substantial pollen as food. Accord-
ingly, insects which visit flowers may be roughly divided
into the two classes, nectar-feeders and pollen-feeders.

In the second place, the flower must notify the insect in
some way that the food is present. This is done primarily
by the odors which the flowers give off. It must not be
supposed that odors which are sensible to us are the only
ones sensible to insects, for in general their sense of smell
is far keener than ours. It is also probably true that the
display of color, which is so conspicuously associated with
flowers, is an attraction to insects, although this has become
somewhat doubtful lately by the discovery that certain
insects which were thought to be attracted by color have
proved to be color-blind. At present, however, we have no
reason to suppose that color is not associated in some promi-
nent way with the visits of insects.

It should be noticed, also, that two kinds of pollination

62 PLANTS

are possible. The'pollen may be transferred to the stigma
of its own flower, or it may be carried to the stigma of
some other flower, and this other flower may be some dis-
tance away. ‘The former method may be called self-polli-
nation; the latter, cross-pollination. It seems evident that
flowers in general have made every effort to secure cross-
pollination. JoHN MERLE CouLter.

A PATTERN FLOWER

Flowers are of very many patterns, and it must not be
supposed that there is any special pattern for them all.
There are four parts which belong to flowers in general,
and they are repeated in various flowers in numberless
ways, or one or more of the parts may be omitted.

The flower of the common wild lily, chosen for our illus-
tration, is highly organized, with all the parts represented
and well developed. Each part is constructed for some
definite work, which we may or may not fully understand.

The flower of the illustration shows on the outside six
leaf-like bodies, colored a deep orange or reddish, and
bearing dark spots. These six bodies are in two sets of
three—an outer and an inner set. When there are two
sets of these leaf-like bodies, the outer set is called the
calyx, and the inner one the corolla. The three leaves of
the calyx are called sepals, and the three leaves of the
corolla, petals.

In this case, the sepals and the petals look alike, and
then it is usual to speak of the whole set of six as the
perianth. In many flowers, however, the sepals and petals

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rs ,
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q _ ;
al ts Pee
mii a Qe A lAa
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=" Pat,

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338 RED OR WOOD LILY. ie aati 2 >
PYRIGHT 1900, BY
DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY

(Lilium Philadelphicum).

FLOWERS 63

do not look at all alike. In the common wake-robin, or
Trillium, a near relative of the lily, the three sepals are
like ordinary small green leaves, while the petals are much
larger and showy, giving the characteristic color to the
flower.

In the lily, it should be further noticed that the sepals
and petals are all separate, but in many flowers they are
united in various ways to form urns, tubes, funnels, trum-
pets, ete. The common morning glory is an illustration of
a flower in which the petals are united so as to form a beau-
tiful trumpet-shaped or funnel-form corolla.

The general purpose of the perianth—that is, the two
outer parts of the flower —is to protect the far more impor-
tant inner parts in the bud, and when the flower opens the
perianth unfolds and exposes the inner parts, which are then
‘ready for their peculiar work.

The bright color usually shown by the corolla, and some-
times also by the calyx, as in the lily, is probably associ-
ated with the visits of insects, which come to the flower for
nectar or other food. Since it has been found, however,
that some visiting insects are color-blind, it is doubtful
whether the color is so universal an attraction as it was
once thought to be, but it is certainly associated with some
sort of important work.

A summary of these various duties is as follows: The
green, leaf-like calyx is certainly for bud protection; the
brightly colored corolla (and sometimes calyx) adds to the
duty of protection that of attracting necessary insects, or
some other duty that we do not as yet understand.

Just within the corolla, the third part or set appears,

64 PLANTS

consisting of six stamens. These six stamens are also in
two sets of three each, an outer and an inner one. Each
stamen consists of a long, stalk-like part, called the fila-
ment, and at the summit of the filament is borne the anther,
which in the lily consists of two long, narrow pouches lying
side by side. When the anther is ripe, these pouches are
filled with a yellow, powdery dust, called the pollen. Each
particle of this dust-like pollen consists of a minute but
beautifully organized globular body, known as the pollen-
grain. The anther pouches are, therefore, full of pollen-
grains.

In the lily it will be noticed that when the anthers are
ripe and the pollen is ready to be shed, a slit opens length-
wise in each of the two pouches or sacs. This is the com-
mon method for opening the anther sacs, but in some flowers
it is curiously modified. For example, in the heaths, such
as the huckleberry, the sacs open by a hole at one end, and
sometimes the tips of the sacs are drawn out into long, hol-
low tubes through which the pollen is discharged. In other
cases, as in the sassafras, the sacs open by little trap doors,
which swing open as if upon hinges.

Of the two parts of the stamen, the filament and the
anther, the latter is the essential one, so that in some cases
the filament may be lacking entirely, only the anther
appearing to represent the stamen. Furthermore, the essen-
tial thing about the anther is the pollen, to manufacture
which is the sole purpose of the stamen.

The pollen is necessary to enable the flower to produce
seeds, but it must be transferred from the anther which
produces it to the fourth part of the flower, not yet

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described, in which the seeds are formed. This transfer of
pollen is known as pollination, and the transfer is usually
effected in one of two ways— by the wind or by insects.
The fourth or innermost part of the lily flower is an
organ called the pistil. It stands in the center of the flower,
and is composed of three distinct regions. At the base it
is bulbous and hollow, containing the bodies which are to
become seeds. This bulbous region is called the ovary, and

the little bodies it contains, which, through the action of the.

pollen, are to become seeds, are called ovules. Rising from
the top of the ovary is a slender, stalk-like part called the
style; and at the top of the style is a knob-like region called
the stigma.

The most essential region of the pistil is the ovary, for
it contains the ovules. Next in importance is the stigma,
for it must receive the pollen-grains. The style is of least
importance, and therefore is sometimes wanting, the stigma
being directly upon the ovary. The duty of the style, when
it is present, seems to be to put the stigma into a favorable
position to receive the pollen. JoHN M. Courter.

THE LILY OF THE VALLEY

The Lily of the Valley is one of the most delicate and
beautiful of the lily family. With the exception of the
orchid family, probably no group of plants furnishes a
larger variety of popular forms noted alike for their beauty
and delicacy.

It has been truly said of the lily family that “the flowers
of most are beautiful, of many brilliant, and some truly

66 PLANTS

splendid.” ‘This family contains about one hundred and
fifty genera and over thirteen hundred species. ‘They are
world-wide in their distribution, excepting the Arctic zone,
though they are more common in the temperate and sub-
tropical regions.

Among the species sought by the lover of cultivated
flowers, none is more noteworthy than the tulip, a native of
Persia. It is claimed that there are more than seven hun-
dred forms of the tulip known to the florist—all varia-
tions of a single species.

The type of the family is the lily. The lily is the Per-
sian personification of night, lil or lilleh being essentially
the words used to designate evening.

To this family also belong the day-lily, the tuberose,
the hyacinth, the yucca, and the star-of-Bethlehem. Here
also is classed the useful though much-abused onion, the
flowers of which, though small, form a most graceful group
at the top of the stem, especially in the wild species.

The lily of the valley is a native of the mountainous
regions of Virginia and southward through Georgia. It is
identical with the cultivated form, which was brought from
Europe.

The pure white of the flowers, as well as their symmet-
rical form, has led writers to speak of them as the symbol
of purity, and no flower, perhaps, is in greater demand for
the decoration of the church and home.

W. K. Hic ey.

584 COMMON CALLA LILY. COPYRIGHT 1903, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
(Richardia africana).

About % Life-size.

FLOWERS 67

CALLA LILY

The so-called Calla Lily is an herbaceous plant belong-
ing to the Aracee, and is closely related to calamus, Jack-
in-the-pulpit, and arum. It is a native of South Africa,
and, like most of the order, it prefers a very moist soil and
warm climate. It has comparatively large sagitate leaves;
is moneecious, the staminate and pistillate flowers being in
close proximity on the same plant.

The plant is also known as Lily of the Nile, African
Lily, and Ethiopian Lily. The word Calla is supposed to
be derived from calyx, the first protective covering of com-
plete flowers. ‘The plant is very extensively cultivated in
all countries, especially the warmer countries and islands.
It is to be found in gardens, hothouses, and conservatories.
The plant has evidently been known for many centuries.

Some very misleading opinions and names exist with
reference to this plant. In the first place, it is not a lily at
all, belonging to an entirely different order. The Lily of
the Nile is wrong, because it is a native of South Africa.
To speak of the handsome flowers is wrong, because the
part mostly admired is not a flower in the botanical sense,
but simply a leafy involucral covering of a pure waxy-
white color. The inflorescence proper is the yellow central
cone-like structure known as spadix, and upon which the
small, non-attractive staminate or pistillate flowers are
closely crowded. Calla, according to the etymology of the
word, is wrong, for reasons already given—that is, it is
not a true calyx, but rather a calyx or corolla-like involucre.

68 PLANTS

It no doubt serves the function of a corolla in that it
attracts insects for the purpose of effecting pollination.
A. SCHNEIDER.

THE EASTER LILY

The Easter Lily is the symbol of a ceremonial which is
older than history. It illustrates a story as old as human-
ity —one which tells of feasts to the Great Spirit in grati-
tude for the return of spring or for a bountiful harvest.
Unlike other primitive observances which have become obso-
lete, or more recent forms of thanksgiving which have no
relation to the past, the Easter festival has been handed
down through the ages, replete with religious significance
to almost every race of mankind.

In 1875 a beautiful form of the lily family was brought
by a woman to Philadelphia, from Bermuda. This lily
(Lilium longiflorum) at once obtained great popularity by
reason of its unusual size, the large number of flowers on
each stem, and their extraordinary beauty and purity. The
imported plants were soon bought by Mr. W. K. Harris,
of Philadelphia, who named it the Liliwm harrisii, but at
the present time it is known as the Lilium longiflorum,
variety eximum.

The great beauty of the flowers, the fact that the plants
mature early in the sason, and their ability to endure a
high temperature, allowing them to be forced to bloom
during the winter, all combined to make this lily the uni-
versal choice for the typical Easter flower, which position
it still worthily maintains, as though conscious of the deep

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FLOWERS 69

significance of the festival of which it is the chosen floral
emblem. C. S. Rappin.

THE WILD YELLOW LILY *

Among our common wild flowers that quickly attract
the attention of the observer is the Yellow Lily. Its home
is in the swamps, the wet meadows and fields of Canada
and the United States, east of the Missouri River. It is
also called the Canada, the Field, and the Meadow Lily.

This plant, with about forty-five sister species, all beau-
tiful, belongs to the genus Lilium. All are natives of the
Northern Hemisphere and are found distributed around
the world. About sixteen species are natives of the United
States. The flowers vary in color. Some are red, others
white or yellow, and some are more or less mottled.

No plants are more frequently mentioned in ancient
myths and by the classical poets.

The slender stalk of the yellow lily arises from a scaly,
bulbous, and thickened underground stem, growing to a
height of from two to five feet. The leaves are narrow
and lance-shaped, from two to six inches in length, and
usually attached in whorls of from three to eight. Each
stalk bears from one to fifteen flowers, the ground color of
which is yellow or reddish with brownish spots toward the
base of each division, which are six in number and are
spreading and gracefully arched. The flowers, appearing
in June, July, and August, are nodding, and vary in length
from two to four inches. The fruit pods are oblong, large,
and bear numerous seeds.

70 PLANTS

Closely related to the plant of our illustration, and at
times closely resembling it, is the beautiful Turk’s Cap
Lily (Liliwm superbum). This species is wonderfully pro-
lific in the production of flowers, sometimes bearing forty
or more on a single stalk. It is one of the tallest of the
lilies, and frequently the marshes of the Eastern States are
transformed by its presence into striking masses of color,
orange, orange-yellow, or red.

THE ROSE

There are a number of rose species. All are shrubby
and vary from small erect to very tall climbing or twining
plants. In the wild state the flower is generally single, its
petals (five in number) forming one circle. Numerous
yellow stamens and pistils; woody stem, branching, with
numerous prickles; leaves alternate, stalked with elongated
pointed stipules and from three to seven oval, oblong, ser-
ratc leaflets; flowers showy, variable in color; fruit (hip)
quite large, red color, bearing numerous hairy, hard seeds.

The rose has been in cultivation for many centuries.

Rose water was first prepared on a large scale in Per-
sia. Not only was rose water used as a cosmetic and a
medicine, but it was also used in cooking.

Rose oil, obtained from the petals, was not known until
about 1570.

The great multitude of cultivated roses are all derived
from a few species of wild growing ancestors.

Varieties are perpetuated by grafting buds or branches
on a hardy stock, as the common dog rose. It is best to

544 LIBERTY ROSES. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W- MUMFORD, CHICAGO

es
ee

CARNATIONS. COPYRIGHT 1902, BY A. W MUMFORD, CHICAGO
(Opp. 485) (Dianthus caryophyllus).

FLOWERS 71

graft on stocks native in the country in which it is desired
to grow the variety. For example, in the United States
any one of the wild growing species may be used as a
stock plant.

The rose is a national emblem flower of England. It
is quite universally recognized as the handsomest of all
flowers. The rose signifies love, joy, and prosperity.

The principal use of the rose is for ornamental culture
purpose. The famous rose oil (otto of rose) is used as a
perfume. It is also employed for scenting snuff, hair oils,
salves, and essences. Rose water is extensively used as an
addition to gargles, eye washes, skin lotions, etc. The
bright red hip is sometimes eaten and also used for deco-
rative purposes. Country school children are in the habit
of eating the petals and hips. The hips of the dog rose are
used for making a confection. The petals are added to
sachet powders. A. SCHNEIDER.

THE CARNATION

The Carnation is a native of central and Southern
Europe. Since its introduction into England it is said to
have escaped cultivation and to have become fixed in sev-
eral localties. In its cultivation three general classes have
been established by English specialists. The selfs are
planted whose flowers have a uniform color. The flakes
possess a pure ground of white or yellow, flaked or striped
with one color, the stripes running longitudinally through
the petals. The bizarres are such as have a pure ground,
marked as in the flakes, but with two or three colors; this

72 PLANTS

form possesses the most fragrance, especially when there is
a frequent recurrence of the stripes. Lastly, there are the
picotees, having a pure ground, each petal being bordered
with a band of color. This last form includes many of the
rarest varieties, and the yellow picotee is famous in several
royal establishments.

It is a peculiar fact that rain will injure the colors of
the more delicate varieties, and the florist must shield the
opening flowers from direct sunlight if he would obtain the
best results.

In the perfect flower, the pod and calyx should be long,
the flower circular, not less than three inches in diameter,
rising gradually towards the center, so as to form a sort of
crown. ‘The outer petals should be large and few in num-
ber, rising slightly above the calyx and spreading horizon-
tally, the other petals being regularly disposed above them,
nearly flat, diminishing in size towards the center. The
ground should be a pure color and the petals wax-like.

The carnation is allied to the pink family, and conse-
quently is related to the modest Indian pink, the Chinese
pink, and the Sweet William. These lowly forms doubt-
less nourish a secret pride in their relationship to the illus-
trious head of the house, concerning which Shakespeare
said, “‘ The fairest flowers of the season are our carnations.”

C. S. Rappin.
GOLDENROD

Goldenrod, the name of numerous plants whose showy
heads of flowers, waving like golden wands, make bright
and gay the sides of roads, hills, and gravelly banks in the

GOLDEN ROD.
+5 Life-size.

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

200

FLOWERS 73

autumn. Although the general appearance of the racemed
or else corymbed heads, which bear the florets, is diverse,
yet the flowers themselves differ only from the asters in
the smaller heads of (except in one species) yellow flowers.
The genus is mostly North American, there being about
eighty species, all of which but three or four belong to this
country. It grows in thickets and woods, and formerly
was much used in medicine. Its principle is astringent
and tonic; the leaves and flowers, however, were thought
aperient.

It occurs in the northern regions of America, but
under very dissimilar forms. Perhaps the most interesting
species is the sweet goldenrod, with a slender stem two to
three feet high, often reclined; the leaves linear-lanceolate,
entire, shining, covered with pellucid dots, which secrete a
delicious anisate oil; the flower heads in racemes spreading
in a one-sided panicle, the flower rays rather large and con-
spicuous. It may be occasionally found in rich, shady
woods. An essence distilled from the leaves has been used
to relieve spasmodic pains.

One of the earliest indications of the approach of
autumn is in the flowers of the white goldenrod, the only
species which has white flowers. Next comes into yellow
bloom the tall Canadian goldenrod, and, following this, the
gigantic goldenrod, and the tall goldenrod, names singularly
misapplied, as the altitude of both is not unusual. After-
ward may be seen Solidago arguta and other species, until
the lingering florets upon the downy goldenrod indicate the
near approach of the cold. The goldenrods generally affect
dry and sterile soils, though some are found in bogs and

74 PLANTS

moist places, and range from alpine heights to the very
margin of the sea. Ave:

THE CINERARIA

The Composite, the family of plants to which the cin-
erarias belong, contains about seven hundred and sixty
genera and over ten thousand species, embracing approxi-
mately one-tenth of all the flowering forms. This is the
largest family of plants, and includes the goldenrod, the
sunflower, the aster, the chrysanthemum, the thistle, the
lettuce, the dandelion, and many others. The species
are widely distributed, though more common in tem-
perate or hot regions, the largest number being found in the
Americas.

Though a family of herbs, there are a few shrubs and
in the tropics a small number of trees. The cultivated
forms are numerous, and some are among our most beau-
tiful fall plants.

The flowers are collected together in heads, and some-
times are of two kinds (composite). Using the sunflower
for an example, we find a disk of tubular flowers in the
center and, growing around it, a row of strap-shaped
flowers, while in the dandelion they are all strap-shaped,
and in some other species all are tubular.

The cineraria is an excellent illustration of the com-
posite form, which bears both kinds of flowers.

The cinerarias form a large genus of practically her-
baceous plants, and are chiefly natives of southern Africa
and southern and eastern Europe. The varieties vary

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COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

FLOWERING ALMOND.
Life-Size.

FLOWERS 75

greatly from white to pinkish-purple and through various
shades to a dark bluish-purple.

They are quite easily cultivated, but. are house plants
in temperate latitudes. They are peculiarly liable to attack
of insects, plant-lice being especially an enemy.

The florists’ varieties are chiefly produced from the spe-
cies Cineraria cruenta. Beautiful hybrids have been devel-
oped from this and other species, and the flower certainly
deserves the popularity it has attained through sterling
merit. Wo. K. Hictey.

THE FLOWERING ALMOND

The Sweet, the Bitter, and the Flowering Almond are
all of a kin, and in this kinship many include also the
peach and the nectarine. The flowering almond or the
dwarf almond is a shrub which early in the spring, in March
or April, sends forth its fair, rosy blossoms before its
leaves are sprouted. The shrub seldom exceeds three feet
in height. The leaves are like those of the willow, only
darker and of a more shining green. It is really a native
of Calmuck Tartary, but now is used extensively in gar-
dens, because it blooms so early and can easily be cultivated
in any dry soil.

The almond tree figures in history, mythology, and
poetry. In this connection it is interesting to note that
Aaron’s famous rod was the shoot of an almond tree.
Virgil, in the Georgics, weleomes the almond, when covered
with blossoms, as the sign of a fruitful season.

In ancient times, everything that was considered of any

716 PLANTS

importance to the Greeks had some connection with the
siege of Troy. Demophon, returning from Troy, suffered
the fate of many another Greek worthy. He was ship-
wrecked on the shores of Thrace. He was befriended by
the king and received as a guest. While at the court he met
the beautiful daughter of his host. Immediately he fell in
love with the charming princess, gained her love in return,
and made arrangements for the marriage. But Demophon
was obliged to return home to settle up his affairs before he
could take upon himself these new ties. So the youth
sailed away, but never to return. The princess, faithful
Phyllis, watched and waited, hoping in vain for the return
of her promised lord. Her constancy was noted even by
the gods, who, when she was gradually pining away, turned
her into an almond tree. Since then this tree has been a
sign of constancy and hope. Emity C. THompson.

THE LADY’S SLIPPER

This interesting plant belongs to that remarkable family
of orchids (Orchidacew) which includes over four hundred
genera and five thousand species. They are especially noted
for the great variety of shapes and colors of their flowers,
many of them resembling beetles and other insects, monkey,
snake, and lizard heads, as well as helmets and slippers, the
latter giving rise to the name of the plant in our illustra-
tion. The variety, singular beauty, and delicate odor, as
well as the peculiar arrangement of the parts of the flower,
make many of the species of great financial value. This is
also enhanced by the extreme care required in their culti-

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LADY’S SLIPPER.

COPYRIGHT 1900

BY

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HYACINTH.

Life: siz

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HYACINTH.
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MUMFORD,

CHICAGO

FLOWERS 77

vation, which must be accomplished in hothouses, for the
majority of the more valuable forms are native only in the
tropical forests. Many, too, are rarely found except as
single individuals, widely separated.

There are many parasitic species, and in the tropics a
larger number attach themselves by their long roots to
trees, but do not obtain their nourishment from them, while
those belonging to temperate regions usually grow on the
ground.

In the last sixty years the cultivation of orchids has
become a passion in Europe and, to a great extent, in
America.

It is said that “‘ Linneus, in the middle of the last cen-
tury, knew but a dozen exotic orchids.” ‘To-day over three
thousand are known to English and American horticul-
turists.

Though admired by all, the orchids are especially inter-
esting to the scientist, for in their peculiar flowers is found
an unusual arrangement to bring about cross-fertilization,
so necessary to the best development of plant life.

W. K. Hic ey.

HYACINTH

Hyacinth, also called Jacinth, is said to be “supreme
amongst the flowers of spring.” It was in cultivation before
1597, and is therefore not a new favorite. Gerard, at the
above date, records the existence of six varieties. Rea, in
1676, mentions several single and double varieties as being
then in English gardens, and Justice, in 1754, describes
upwards of fifty single-flowered varieties, and nearly one

78 PLANTS

hundred double-fiowered ones, as a selection of the best
from the catalogues of two then celebrated Dutch growers.
One of the Dutch sorts, called La Reine de Femmes, is
said to have produced from thirty-four to thirty-eight flow-
ers in a spike, and on its first appearance to have sold for
fifty guilders a bulb. Others sold for even larger sums.
Justice relates that he himself raised several very valuable
double-flowered kinds from seeds, which many of the sorts
he describes are noted for producing freely.

It is said that the original of the cultivated hyacinth
(Hyacinthus orientalis) is by comparison an insignificant
plant, bearing on a spike only a few small, narrow-lobed,
wash-blue flowers. So great has been the improvement
effected by the florists that the modern hyacinth would
hardly be recognized as the descendant of the type above
referred to, the spikes being long and dense, composed of
a large number of flowers; the spikes not infrequently
measure six or seven inches in length and from seven to
nine inches in circumference, with the flowers closely set on
from bottom to top. Of late years much improvement has
been effected in the size of the individual flowers and the
breadth of their recurving lobes, as well as in securing
increased brilliancy and depth of color. The names of
hyacinths are now almost legion, and of all colors—car-
mine red, dark blue, lilac-pink, bluish-white, indigo blue,
silvery-pink, rose, yellow, snow white, azure blue.

C. C. Marsie.

FLOWERS 719

THE SCARLET PAINTED CUP

The Scarlet Painted Cup belongs to a large and inter-
esting group of plants, known as the figwort family. This
family includes about one hundred and sixty-five genera
and over twenty-five hundred species. They are common
all over the world, reaching from the equator into the
regions of constant frosts. It is claimed by some authori-
ties that fully one thirty-fifth of all the flowering plants
of North America are classed in this family.

Besides the painted cup, there are classed in this group
the mullein, the common toad-flax, the foxglove, the gerar-
dias, and the calceolarias.

The scarlet painted cup of our illustration is a native of
the eastern half of the United States and the southern por-
tion of Canada. It prefers the soil of meadows and moist
woods, and has been found growing abundantly at an ele-
vation of from three to four thousand feet.

The flowers are dull yellow in color and are obscured by
the rather large floral leaves or bracts, which are bright
scarlet—rarely bright yellow—in color. These conspicu-
ous leaves are broader toward the apex and usually about
three-cleft. By the novice they are usually mistaken for
the flower, which is hardly noticeable. The stem seldom
exceeds a foot in height, and bears a number of leaves that
are deeply cut in narrow segments. The bright color of
this plant has given it many local common names, more or
less descriptive. Prominent among these is the Indian
paint brush. W. K. Hic ey.

80 PLANTS

SUNFLOWERS AND DAISIES

The Sunflowers are mostly large, erect, perennial herbs,
with the flowers characteristic of the order Composite.
They are natives of tropical America, but have become
widely distributed in cultivation, appreciated on account of
their large yellow flowers. They not only thrive very luxu-
riantly under cultivation, but spread very quickly sponta-
neously. Every one is familiar with the sunflower as it
appears in cultivation; hence no special description shall be
given of it. It is kin to the iron weed, the dandelion, the
goldenrods, the asters, and the daisies.

It would be impracticable to describe or mention all the
species and varieties of sunflowers and their numerous rela-
tives. Helianthus annuus is a commonly cultivated spe-
cies. The seeds of this plant furnish a very useful oil; the
flowers yield honey and a useful dye; the stalks, a textile
fabric, and the leaves, fodder. The seeds of this and other
species are also used as food, and as a surrogate for coffee.
The carefully dried and prepared leaves have long been
used as a substitute for tobacco in cigars. Poultry eat the
seeds very greedily and thrive well upon them, due to the
oil present. It is also maintained that a large number of
sunflowers about a dwelling place will serve as a protection
against malaria. An infusion of the stem is said to be
anti-malarial.

The Daisies, of which the oxeye daisy is a well-known
example, are garden and field favorites. As already indi-
cated, they are kin to the sunflowers. The word daisy is

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FLOWERS 81

a contraction of the old English words “dayes eye,” that
is, the eye of day, meaning the sun, as indicated in the verse
from Chaucer. There are a great many flowers known as
daisies, and again, a given one has a number of popular
names. For instance, Rudbeckia hirta is variously desig-
nated yellow daisy, black-eyed Susan, nigger-head, golden
Jerusalem, and oxeye daisy. ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

THE COLUMBINE

Botanically, the Columbine is called Aquilegia, from
the Latin word Aquila, meaning an eagle, in reference to
a fancied likeness of the spurs of its flowers to the talons
of an eagle. It is one of the crowfoot family.

This pretty and herbaceous perennial is distributed over
most of the north temperate zone and, if not altogether a
child of the mountains, it may be sought in rocky or stony
localities. One is surprised to find the graceful Columbine
defying the storms, with its roots carefully fastened in the
‘deep crevasses of the rocks of rugged mountains and pro-
truding its nodding flowers above some steep ledge where
human foot has never trod. To many a weary wayfarer
this little hermit flower has brought joy and _ pleasure.
Though attractive to the lover of flowers, it is not met with
in folklore nearly as frequently as many other species of
plants that are far less attractive. |

The genus aquilegia includes about twenty species and
an endless number of varieties, produced by the skill and
intelligence of the gardener. The United States can claim
the prettiest of all the species of this widely distributed

82 PLANTS

group. One species is the wild columbine of our illustra-
tion. It is common everywhere. Here it is found cover-
ing rocky hills, softening the harsh gray of the rocks with
its delicate foliage; there it enlivens the woodland borders
with its nodding and pretty scarlet flowers, which are lined
with bright yellow.

Though it has been stated that the columbines prefer
the rocky hillsides, it must not be supposed that they will
not tolerate a home in the border of a garden flower bed.
Like many other plants of a similar nature, they thrive
under cultivation, where a sunny and sheltered position
is more suitable. One of the most beautiful of the garden
varieties, or hybrids, is the double-flowered Skinner’s
columbine.

The columbines have been called “the flowers for the
masses.” Once started in the garden, they will propagate
for years, and, although perennial, they increase rapidly
by self-sown seed. The young plants will acquire sufficient
size and strength before the close of the growing season, to
endure the trying winter weather. JAMES JENSEN.

THE ASTERS

The Aster, in some of its varied forms, is found in all
countries, over two hundred and fifty species being known
to botanists. Although the plant is cosmopolitan, it is
essentially an American form, one hundred and fifty of the
total known species belonging to North America. Of the
balance, Russia claims twenty, Europe ten, and Canada
sixty or seventy.

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It seems as though Nature, after the first blush of
spring, relaxed her efforts for a supreme endeavor towards
the close of the floral season. Then she assumes her festal
robes and the woodlands and fields become gorgeous with
the purple of the asters, the gold of the sunflowers and
goldenrod, with here and there the cardinal and blue of the
lobelias.

Among all this symphony of color, no plant is more
lavish of its charms than the New England Aster. Botan-
ically considered, the asters belong to the Composite, a
family of plants including from ten to twelve thousand
species, and characterized by large numbers of flowers
crowded together into single heads, each of which gives the
impression of a single flower. What appear to be petals
are known as ray flowers, and give the characteristic color,
as the purple, blue, or white of the aster or the yellow of
the sunflower. These rays consist of flowers whose petals
have been joined together and spread out flat, the points
of the petals usually appearing on the end of the ray. In
the case of the asters, the ray flowers, which occur in a
single row, are pistillate or have a pistil and no stamens,
and hence are capable of producing seeds. The center or
disk flowers are tubular, yellow in color and perfect, con-
taining both stamens and pistils. The heads are surrounded
by an involucre, having leaflike tips, and are variously
massed or branched along the stems of the plant.

With few exceptions, the asters are perennial, coming
up each year from the old underground portions and flower-
ing in autumn. They vary in height from a few inches to
eight feet or more, but in the case of the New England

84 PLANTS

Aster, the completed growth is generally from two to seven
or eight feet. CHARLES S. RavpDIN.

THE BLOOD-ROOT

The Blood-root belongs to the poppy family, which
includes about twenty-five genera and over two hundred
species. These, though widely distributed, are chiefly found
in the temperate regions of the North. To this family also
belong the valuable opium-producing plant, the Mexican
or prickly poppy, the Dutchman’s breeches, the bleeding-
heart, and the beautiful mountain fringe. A large number
of the species are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The
poppy is also cultivated for the commercial value of the
opium it produces. All the species produce a milky or
colored juice. Hence, indeed, we may say that behind
beauty there lurks a deadly foe, for the juice of nearly all
the species has active narcotic properties. This property is
a means of protection to the plant under consideration, for
its acrid taste is distasteful to animals.

This interesting plant is a native of eastern North Amer-
ica. It blossoms in April or May. Usually but a single
flower is borne by the naked stalk that rises from the under-
ground stem to the height of about eight inches. The
flowers are white, very rarely pinkish, about one and one-
half of an inch in diameter. The number of petals varies
from eight to twelve, and they fall very soon after expan-
sion. The sepals disappear before the bud opens.

A single leaf is produced from each bud of the under-
ground stem. It is wrapped around the flower-bud as the

BLOODROOT COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. Ws MUMFORD, CHICAGO

(Sanguinaria canadensis),

CHICAGO:
A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER,

FROM MAYFLOWER. BY PER. NARCISSUS.

D8GQ

FLOWERS 85

latter rises from the soil, and does not develop to full size
until after the period of blossoming is over. ‘The necessary
food material for the production of the flower was stored in
the underground stem during the preceding season. Thus
the green leaf is not needed early in the growth of the
plant.

The adult leaf is kidney-shaped, smooth, and five to
nine lobed. When fully grown they are often more than
six inches in diameter. The leaf-stalk, which may be over
one foot in length, and the radiating veins vary in color
from yellowish to orange. Few leaves are more beautiful
and graceful than these, both during their development and
when fully mature. W. K. Hic ey.

THE NARCISSUS

The genus of plants called Narcissus, many of the
species of which are highly esteemed by the floriculturist
and lover of cultivated plants, belongs to the Amaryllis
family.

This family includes about seventy genera and over
eight hundred species that are mostly native in tropical or
semi-tropical countries, though a few are found in temper-
ate climates.

Many of the species are sought for ornamental pur-
poses and, on account of their beauty and remarkable odor,
they are more prized by many than are the species of the
Lily family.

In this group is classed the American Aloe, valued not
only for cultivation, but also by the Mexicans on account

86 PLANTS

of the sweet fluid which is yielded by its central bud. This
liquid, after fermentation, forms an intoxicating liquor
known as pulque. By distillation, this yields a liquid very
similar to rum, called by the Mexicans mescal. The leaves
furnish a strong fiber, known as vegetable silk, from which,
since remote times, paper has been manufactured.

There are about twenty-five species, chiefly natives of
southern Europe, but some of them, either natural or modi-
fied by the gardeners’ art, are world-wide in cultivation.

Blossoming early in the season, they are frequently
referred to as “harbingers of spring.” The flowers are
handsome, large, varying in color from yellow to white and
sometimes marked with crimson. They are usually borne
on a nearly naked stem. Some of the species are very fra-
erant. The leaves are elongated, nearly sword-shaped, and
usually about a foot in length, rising from the bulbous
underground stem.

Among the forms that are familiar are the daffodils, the
jonquils, and the poet’s narcissus. W. K. Hictey.

THE GENISTA

The countries adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea and
the Indian Ocean produce a profusion of forms noted alike
for their beauty and economic value.

In this region, with about forty-five sister species, is
found the plant of our illustration. Carried from its home,
it is now a common decoration of the greenhouse and pri-
vate conservatory. Its sisters are of economic value. Some
are used for garden hedges, some to arrest the ever-drift-

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FLOWERS 87

ing sands of the seashore, and some to furnish a tanning
principle.

These plants belong to the pea or pulse family, which
also includes the clovers, the peanut, the locusts, the vetches,
the acacias, the bean, the lupine, the tamarind, logwood, and
licorice.

It has been estimated that this family contains over four
hundred and sixty genera and about seven thousand spe-
cies. Here are grouped herbs, shrubs, vines, and trees, the
fruit of which is a pod similar in structure to that of the
bean, and usually with irregular flowers. In this family
the beasts of the field, as well as man, find some of their
most valuable foods, and nearly all the species are without
harmful qualities.

The pure yellow flowers are grouped along the branches
in terminal clusters. They are sweet-scented, showy, and
frequently so numerous as to make the plant appear like a
mass of yellow blooms.

The leaves are very small, consisting of three leaflets
similar in form to those of the common clove. The surface
of the leaves and of the young twigs is covered by fine and
soft hairs, causing a hoary appearance.

The plant is a shrub varying in height from a few inches
to that of aman. It bears numerous and crowded branches.

W. K. Hic ey.

THE AZALEA

The Azalea belongs to the tribe of Rhododendrons, and
consists of upright shrubs with large, handsome, fragrant
flowers, often cultivated in gardens. The genus comprises

88 PLANTS

more than a hundred species, most of them natives of China
or North America, having profuse clusters of white, orange,
purple, or variegated flowers, some of which have long been
the pride of the gardens of Europe. The general charac-
teristics of the genus are a five-parted calyx, a five-lobed
funnel-form, slightly irregular corolla, five stamens, a five-
celled pod, alternate, oblong, entire, and ciliated leaves,
furnished with a glandular point. Most of the species differ
from the rhododendrons in having thin, deciduous leaves.
Some botanists unite the genus azalea to rhododendron.
North America abounds in azaleas as well as in rhododen-
drons, and some of the species have long been cultivated,
particularly A. nudiflora and A. viscosa, which have become
the parents of many hybrids. Both species abound from
Canada to the southern parts of the United States. A.
calendulcea,a native of the South, is described as frequently
clothing the mountains with a robe of living scarlet. All
the American species are deciduous. In cultivation, the
azaleas love the shade and a soil of sandy peat or loam.
Works on horticulture give specific and elaborate direction
for the cultivation of the various species.

C. C. MaRste.
IRIS *

In botany, this is the generic name of a number of beau-
tiful plants belonging to the natural order of Iridacee.
The plants have a creeping rootstock, or else a flat tuber,
equitant leaves, irregular flowers, and three stamens. They
are represented equally in the temperate and hotter regions
of the globe. The wild species of iris are generally called

COPYRIGHT_1899, DOUBLEDAY & MC CLURE cO., NEW YORK

IRIS.

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FLOWERS 89

blue-flag, and the cultivated flower-de-luce, from the French
fleur de Louis, it having been the device of Louis VII, of
France. Our commonest blue-flag, Iris versicolor, is a
widely distributed plant, its violet-blue flowers, as may be
seen, upon stems one to three feet high, being conspicuous
in wet places in early summer. The root of this possesses
cathartic and diuretic properties, and is used by some med-
ical practitioners. ‘The slender blue-flag, found in similar
localities near the Atlantic Coast, is smaller in all its parts.
A yellowish or reddish-brown species, resembling the first-
named in appearance, is found in Illinois and southward.
There are three native species which grow only about six
inches high and have blue flowers. They are found in Vir-
ginia and southward, and on the shores of the Great Lakes;
these are sometimes seen as garden plants. The orris root
of commerce is the product of I. Florentina, I. pallida, and
I. Germanica, which grow wild in the South of Europe;
the rhizomes are pared and dried, and exported from
Triest and Leghorn, chiefly for the use of perfumers; they
have the odor of violets. ‘The garden species of iris are
numerous, and by crossing have produced a great many
known only by garden names. The dwarf iris, I. pumila,
from three to six inches high, flowers very early and makes
good edgings to borders; the common flower-de-luce of the
gardens is I. Germanica; the elder-scented flower-de-luce is
I. sambucina.

90 PLANTS

THE OSWEGO TEA *

The Labiate, or family of mints, consists of about one
hundred and sixty genera, including the one to which the
Oswego Tea of our illustration belongs. Under these
genera are classed over three thousand distinct species.
Many of these are well-known plants, such as the mints,
pennyroyal, anise, bergamot, fennel, catnip, sage, thyme,
lavender and rosemary. Representatives of this family are
distributed throughout the world in the temperate and trop-
ical regions. In fact, it is one of the most cosmopolitan of
the plant families.

This genus includes about ten species, all natives of
North America and Mexico.

The Oswego tea is frequently called Bee Balm, and
locally it is often known as Fragrant Balm, Mountain
Mint, and Indian Plume. This plant prefers a moist soil
near the wooded banks of streams and in the hilly and
mountainous regions of Canada and the United States, east
of the Mississippi River. In North Carolina it is found at
an altitude of about five thousand feet.

The leaves are egg-shaped, elongated, taper-pointed,
and more or less saw-toothed on the margins. The floral
leaves are tinged with red of nearly the same shade as that
of the bright red and showy flowers. The flowers, which
appear in July, August, and September, and are about
two inches in length, are massed in a dense solitary and
globular head, which is situated at the end of the flower
stalk.

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The flowers produce an abundant nectar, which attracts
bumblebees, butterflies, and humming-birds; these, by trans-
ferring the pollen from flower to flower, assist in the fer-
tilization of the developing seeds. The ordinary bees are
barred from the sweets of this plant because of their short
tongues, though some forms will cut a hole in the side of
the corolla and obtain the nectar in this manner.

It is said that certain Indian tribes use this bark in pre-
paring a tea that is nearly as palatable as that made from
the ordinary tea of commerce.

THE MULLEIN

Of the one hundred and twenty-five species of Mullein
that are native to the Old World, five have become natu-
ralized in the United States. The Great Mullein, so famil-
iar in dry, open fields, was originally christened by Pliny,
and has since received over forty English names of a less
classical origin and significance.

The great mullein varies in height from two to seven
feet. The stem is stout, very woolly, with branching hairs.
The oblong, pale green, velvety leaves form a rosette on the
ground or alternately clasp the stem. The flowers, which
are about an inch in diameter, are clustered around a thick,
dense spike, and have two long and three short stamens, so
arranged as to materially assist the process of cross-fertili-
zation, which is largely carried on by bees. It is interesting
to note in connection with the thick, woolly covering of the
plant that many vegetable forms are so protected when
exposed to intense heat or cold. This is true of most Alpine

92 PLANTS

and desert forms, and the value of such a protection to the
mullein will be seen when it is remembered that the plants
are always found in open, dry, stony fields, exposed to the
fierce heat of the sun, and afforded no protection for the
rosettes of year-old plants, which must survive the winter
in order to send up the flower stalk the second spring.
The Moth Mullein is a far more attractive and graceful
plant than the form previously described. ‘The specific
name was derived from the idea that the plant would kill
the cockroach (Blatta). It was supposed that moths would
not go near the plant, and it was quite a general custom in
New England to pack these plants or flowers with clothing
or furs in order to keep out moths. The stamens are simi-
lar to those of the great. mullein, except the filaments are
tufted with violet hairs. The flowers are yellow or white,
on long, loose racemes. The erect, slender stem is usually
about two feet in height, and as a rule there are no leaves
present at the flowering time. C. S. Rappin.

THE MALLOWS*

Anumber of interesting plants are found grouped under
the name of the Mallow family. They are the common
mallow, a weed of waysides and cultivated grounds; the
Indian Mallow or Velvet-leaf, with its large, velvety leaves
and yellow flowers, a visitor from India, which has escaped
from cultivation and become a pest in corn and grain fields
and waste places; the Musk Mallow, which has also escaped
from our gardens; the Marsh-Mallow, the root of which
abounds in a mucilage that is extensively used in the manu-

345 SWAMP ROSE-MALLOW. FROM “NATURE'S GARDEN?”

(Hibiscus Moscheutos)

FLOWERS 93

facture of confections; the Hollyhock of our gardens, which
was originally a native of China, and the beautiful Rose-
Mallow of our illustration.

The mallow family includes about eight hundred species
which are widely distributed in the temperate and tropical
countries.

All are herbs. Most of those found in the United States
have been introduced from Europe and Asia. Only a very
few are native, and no one of these is very common.

The flowers and fruits are all similar in structure to that
of the common hollyhock.

The disk-like fruits of the common round-leafed mallow
of our door-yards are often called “cheeses” by the children
and are frequently gathered and eaten by them. The cotton
plant, one of our most important economic plants, is also
closely related to the mallow. The cotton of commerce is
the woolly hair of the seeds of this plant, which is a native
of nearly all tropical countries, and is cultivated in tem-
perate regions.

The beautiful rose-mallow has its home in the brackish
marshes of the Atlantic seacoast. It is also occasionally
found on the marshy borders of lakes and rivers of the
interior.

The plants grow to the height of from three to eight
feet. ‘The leaves are egg-shaped and the lower ones are
three-lobed. The under side of the leaves is covered with
fine and soft whitish hairs.

The flowers, produced in August and September, are
large, varying from four to eight inches in diameter, and
may be solitary or clustered at the top of the stem. The

94 PLANTS

color of the petals is usually a light rose-pink, but occasion-
ally white, with or without crimson at their bases.

THE BLUE GENTIANS

The genus Gentiana includes nearly two hundred spe-
cies, distributed from boreal to tropical regions, although
the majority are found in the north temperate zone. A
large number of species are found in Europe, more than
sixty having been reported from Russia, and there are
nearly one hundred in North America. Several very beau-
tiful forms come from the Swiss Alps, which rarely attain
a height of more than three or four inches. The deep blue
flowers of these diminutive specimens retain their color for
years after being pressed for the herbarium, thus differ-
ing from many of the larger forms whose corollas quickly
fade.

One of the most attractive and familiar of the gentians
is the Fringed or Blue Gentian. It is generally found in low
grounds, along water-courses or ditches, and while quite
generally distributed, it is sparing of its favors, as the long
peduncles that terminate the stems or simple branches sup-
port but a single flower. The plant grows to a height of
from one to two feet, and the leaves, placed opposite to each
other, have rounded or heart-shaped bases attached directly
to the stems, entire edges, and tapering points. The sky-
blue flower is bell-shaped, nearly two inches long, and with
the lobes strongly fringed. ‘This is partially enclosed by a
calyx, which is nearly as long as the corolla.

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FLOWERS 95

woodlands, is the closed gentian. The fanciful name,
Cloistered Heart, has been given to the plant because of
the story that once a fairy queen sought to elude pursuit
by secreting herself in the flower of a fringed gentian.
In order that she might be more effectually shielded, the
plant closed the lobes of its corolla, and in gratitude the
queen decorated the interior of the flower with brilliant
stripes. In order to preserve this fairy painting, the flowers
have remained closed ever since. CHARLES S. RappIN.

THE FIRE-WEED OR GREAT WILLOW-HERB#*

Scattered throughout the world, but more abundant
in the temperate regions of America, there are three hun-
dred and fifty species of plants that are closely related and
grouped by the botanists as the evening primrose family.

This family includes a number of interesting plants.
Here are classed the fuchsias, or ladies’ eardrops, of which
there are many brilliant varieties under cultivation as house
plants. ‘These are natives of the mountain regions from
Mexico southward. Another cultivated plant is the Clarkia,
a native of Oregon and California.

The Fire-weed is a plant of the open country and not
of the forest. It must have a great deal of sunshine. When
its seeds fall in the deep shade of a dense forest, where the
rays of the sun penetrate but a short distance, if at all,
they cannot grow. But let the woodman or a fire lay low
or destroy the noble growth of trees, then there is soon a
transformation, the landscape is enlivened by the bright
flowers of the fire-weed.

96 PLANTS

THE SEA OR MARSH PINK

The Sea or Marsh Pink, or the Rose of Plymouth, as it
is frequently called, is a member of the beautiful gentian
family. The genus Sabbatia, a name adopted in honor of
an Italian botanist, includes about fourteen species, all
natives of eastern North America and Mexico.

Our illustration is taken from Nature’s Garden, and
Neltje Blanchan, its author, writes as follows regarding
those species of the marsh pinks that are confined to the
vicinity of the Atlantic Ocean: “Three exquisite members
of the Sabbatia tribe keep close to the Atlantic Coast in
salt meadows and marshes, along the borders of brackish
rivers, and, very rarely, in the sand at the edges of fresh-.
water ponds a little way inland. From Maine to Florida
they range, and less frequently are met along the shores
of the Gulf of Mexico so far as Louisiana. How bright
and dainty they are! Whole meadows are radiant with
their blushing loveliness.”

THE ARROW HEAD

The Arrow Head is one of our most familiar plants,
quite as well known because of its beautiful arrow-shaped
leaves as for its showy white flowers. It is interesting and
conspicuous among the rushes and sedges that abound in
the sluggish waters that border lakes and streams. It
must have sunshine and well illustrates the words of Tho-
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against the aggressions of the forest, by their annual rise
and fall keeping open a narrow strip where these more deli-
cate plants have light and space in which to grow.”

There are about twenty-five species of the genus Sagit-
taria, to which the plant of our illustration belongs. These
inhabit both temperate and tropical regions. When the
arrow head grows in water leaves are produced under water
that do not have the arrow shape. These are not produced
on those plants that grow on wet, muddy banks.

Two kinds of flowers are produced by this plant—the
male and the female. The male flowers are the large white
ones with a golden center formed by the group of yellow
stamens. The female flowers are lower on the flower stalk
and are dull green and unattractive.

THE BLACK COHOSH

The Black Cohosh, or Black Snakeroot, grows in rich
woods from Canada nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. It is
a conspicuous plant, with its long stem, which sometimes
grows to a height of eight feet, and its large compound
leaves, as well as with its long raceme of numerous small
white flowers. This raceme during the ripening of the
fruit often acquires a length of two to three feet.

This plant is sometimes called bugbane. ‘The black
cohosh is held in high repute by some Indians as a cure
for the bite of poisonous snakes, as well as powerful aid
in driving away insects. Were it not for the strong, dis-
agreeable odor of the flowers, which are only frequented
by those flies which enjoy the odor of carrion, with its “tall

98 PLANTS

white rockets shooting upward from a mass of large, hand-
some leaves,” it would be a striking ornament for the flower
garden.

THE PRIMROSE

Among the many beautiful blossoms to be found in the
field, the forest, or the garden, probably none have served
to inspire the poet more than the Primrose and its near
relative, the English cowslip. Someone has said that “no
flowers typify the beautiful more strongly than those of
the primrose, which, though showy, are delicate and seem
inclined to retire to the shade of the plant’s leaves.”

These plants belong to the primrose family, which
includes twenty-eight genera and over three hundred and
fifty species. Nearly all are natives of the Northern Hemi-
sphere, some being found as far north as Greenland (the
Greenland primrose). Some of the species are Alpine, and
a few are found in the southern portions of South America
and Africa. One of the most interesting wild species of
this family is the shooting star, or American cowslip,
which grows abundantly on the prairies of the eastern por-
tion of the United States.

The family, as a whole, seems to have no economic value
of importance and are of use to man simply to beautify
his surroundings. Many of the species are very interesting
to the scientific observer, for the structure of their flowers is
such that they are peculiarly adapted for cross-fertilization.
This character has made it possible for the floriculturist to
produce many of the beautiful forms that are found in
cultivation.

PRIMROSE COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAG

¢ Life-size.

319

"LYOMUYSAIT “LATIOIA 31duNd NOWWOO

FLOWERS 99

The common or English primrose, by careful culture,
produces a wonderful number of variations. The wild
forms produce only yellow single flowers, while from those
under cultivation are developed numerous varieties, both
single and double, which vary greatly in color—red, pink,
white, purple, and many shades of each.

The cowslip primrose is also a native of England. The
flowers are yellow and nodding, and the plants emit a
strong odor of anise. W. K. Hic ey.

THE VIOLET

With the exception of the rose, no other plant is so
widely distributed and at the same time so universally
admired as the Violet. Not alone is it esteemed because
of its beauty and fragrance, but a wealth of romance, of
historical associations, and mythical lore have clustered
around the purple blossoms, endearing them to the poet
and scientist alike.

The violet was formally baptized with the ancient Latin
name Viola in 1737. Since that time, by some strange
oversight, botanists have allowed the name to remain un-
changed. Two hundred and fifty species of the violet have
been described, although a more careful study of the genus
has reduced the number to one hundred or more species.
Three-fourths of these forms are found in the temperate
Northern Hemisphere and the balance in the southern.
Under these diverse conditions of growth the plants assume
many seemingly unnatural characteristics. Thus, in Bra-
zil, a species of violet is eaten like spinach, while others

100 PLANTS

found in Peru are violent purgatives. Among certain Gaelic
tribes the plants are highly esteemed as a cosmetic, and the
ancients largely used the flowers to flavor wines.

C. S. RappIin.

THE ROUND-LOBED LIVERWORT *

The life of this plant is poetical. During the summer
months a luxuriant growth of leaves is produced. As cold
weather approaches these lie down upon the ground and are
soon covered by the falling leaves which have been nipped
from the trees by bite of the frost king. Soon, too, they
are covered with snow. In this warm cradle they sleep
through the winter, yet, as it were, with open eyes for the
dawn of spring. Had the Hepatica the power of reason,
we would say that it longed for spring, for after the first
few warm days that herald the approach of that season
there is activity in every part of the plant. It does not
wait to produce new leaves, but in an incredibly short time
sends up its flower stalk and spreads its blue, purple, or
white petals to the warm rays of the sun. The hepatica is
truly a harbinger of spring; and in eastern North America,
from southern British America to the Gulf of Mexico, its
appearance introduces the new season.

CLEMATIS

The term Clematis is commonly used in a generic sense,
referring to a number of species. They are perennial herbs
or vines, rather woody, and climbing by the bending or

576
COMMON CLEMATIS. FROM “WILD FLOWERS OF NORTH AMERICA."
+. sara yeae COPYRIGHT 1878, BY S. E. CASSINO, BOSTON.

aie
4

Oe

FLOWERS 101

clasping of leaf-stalks. The leaves are pinnate, variously
cut or lobed, opposite; the flowers are showy, variously col-
ored, and with only one floral covering, namely, the calyx
(sepals), the corolla (petals) being wanting or rudimen-
tary. The various species belong to the Crowfoot family.

The plants are extensively cultivated as ornamental
plants. The common clematis, Traveler’s Joy, or Virgin’s
Bower, is a climbing plant with three smooth leaflets which
are more or less cut or lobed and heart-shaped at the base.
The flowers are white or whitish. It is quite common along
river banks and flowers in July and August.

In the language of flowers clematis signifies artifice and
mental beauty. On the continent of Europe clematis erecta
and clematis flammula are used by beggars to produce arti-
ficial ulcers on their limbs to incite pity. In America,
according to Geyer, the roots of a species of clematis are
used by the Indians as a stimulant to horses which fall down
at the races. The scraped end of the root is held to the
nostrils of the fallen animal, which begins to tremble, and
then, rising, is conducted to water to refresh itself.

As already indicated, there are many species of clematis
in America, Europe, Asia, and India, and in other coun-
tries and islands. Besides the many culture varieties derived
from wild species directly, there are numerous varieties the
result of artificial crossing (cross-pollination), of which the
following are, perhaps, the most handsome: The Jackmann,
John Gould, Lucy Lemoine, Miss Bateman, Prince of
Wales, and Sir Garnet Wolseley.

Clematis makes beautiful arbor plants and may be
trained to almost any sort of support. They require con-

102 PLANTS

siderable sunlight and fairly good soil. They are propa-
gated from cuttings and grafting. A. SCHNEIDER.

SOAPWORT OR BOUNCING BET*

The plant commonly called Soapwort or Bouncing Bet
also bears other popular names, many of which are purely
local. Some of these are hedge pink, bruisewort, sheep-
weed, old maid’s pink, and Fuller’s herb. It bears the
name soapwort because of a substance called saponin which
is a constituent of its roots and causes a foaming that
appears like soap suds when the powdered root is shaken
with water.

Soapwort belongs to a large group of plants called the
Caryophyllacex, or pink family. In this family there are
about fifteen hundred species. These are widely distrib-
uted, but are most abundant in the Northern Hemisphere,
extending to the Arctic regions and to the tops of very
high mountains. The popular and beautiful carnations
and some of the most common plants that grow abundantly
in waste places also belong to the pink family. The soap-
wort comes to us from Europe, where, in some localities, it
is a common wild flower. In this country, when it was
first introduced, it was simply a pretty cultivated garden
plant. However, it lives from year to year and spreads
by means of underground stems. It was not very long
before it had escaped from yards to roadsides, where fre-
quently large patches may be seen. The flowers are large
and quite showy. The color of the petals is usually pinkish-
white.

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FLOWERS 103

TURTLE-HEAD OR SNAKE-HEAD *

The Turtle-head, or Snake-head, is one of three species
that are natives of eastern North America. This plant is
well supplied with common names, as it is also called shell-
flower, cod-head, bitter-herb, and balmony.

Though commonly found in low altitudes, it is found in
moist places in the Adirondacks, éven at a height of three
thousand feet. This plant is not rare, and, with its upright
stem and its rather large and clustered white or slightly rose-
colored flowers, it is a dignified and beautiful feature of any
floral community.

THE TRAILING ARBUTUS*

The Trailing Arbutus belongs to the Heath family and
constitutes the only species of the genus. Like the partridge
berry, which is often associated with it in pine woods and
sandy soils, it is still in a state of transition, although it has
been developing for centuries. As a rule, plants have the
stamens and pistils in the same blossom, or part in one and
part in another. The May-flower, however, does not carry
out this arrangement. Either the antlers or the stigmas are
abortive or partially so, or, in other words, the perfect
stigmas are usually associated with abortive antlers, and
vice versa. In this manner nature has wisely provided for
cross-fertilization, which is accomplished largely by insects,
as the structure of the plant is not adapted to wind fertiliza-
tion. The chosen agents for this process are honey bees and

104 PLANTS

a few early moths and butterflies, to which the nectar is
served by this beautiful Hebe of the spring and who carry
the pollen from one flower to another.

THE MOUNTAIN LAUREL*

The genus Kalmia includes six known species, five of
which are natives of eastern North America and one a native
of Cuba. They are all beautiful shrubs, varying in height
from a few inches to several feet.

The plant of our illustration is a native of the eastern
portion of the United States, where it grows in sandy or
rocky woods and is more abundant in mountainous regions.
This shrub, which grows to a maximum height of twenty
feet, is a superb object early in June, when it is covered
with corymbs of rather large pink or pinkish-white flowers
and numerous evergreen leaves.

Easily cultivated and highly ornamental, it has been
introduced into the greenhouses and gardens of this and
European countries.

In spite of the beauty of this plant, it has a bad reputa-
tion, for its leaves are narcotic and poisonous to some ani-
mals. ‘Even the intelligent grouse, hard pressed with
hunger when deep snow covers much of their chosen food,
are sometimes found dead and their crops distended by these
leaves.”

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FLOWERS 105

THE VERBENAS *

The name Verbena, in the language of flowers, signifies
enchantment.

The genus Verbena includes about one hundred and ten
species, often of a weedy character.

The Blue Vervain is one of the weedy members of the
genus. It is common along our waysides, and, with its erect
form and long spikes of blue flowers, would be quite attract-
ive could the flowers all mature at the same time. It has
frequently been placed under cultivation, but has little value
as a garden flower. But in the waste grounds of roadsides
it is a pleasing sight even if its leaves are gray with dust.

This plant is sometimes called Simpler’s Joy. It was
given this name because in years gone by it was a popular
herb with the “simplers,” or gatherers of medicinal plants.

THE BLUE SPRING DAISY *

The botanist knows this plant of the hills and banks as
one of the species of the genus Erigeron. This name is
indicative of one of its characteristics. It is from two Greek
words meaning spring and old man. Old man in the spring,
or early old, is an appropriate name, for the young plants
are quite hoary and this hoariness remains throughout its
life.

The Blue Spring Daisy is not alone, for it has about
one hundred and thirty sister species widely distributed
throughout the world, but they are more abundant in the

106 PLANTS

Americas, nearly seventy of these occurring in North Amer-
ica.

This unassuming plant frequently grows in large patches,
yet does not crowd its fellows; often it grows in localities
which the more delicate and brilliant of the early flowers are
wont to shun.

Though the species of Erigeron are coarse-growing and
unpretentious plants, they lend themselves readily to garden
cultivation. They are easily propagated and make good
borders, for they are much more beautiful when massed
than when allowed to develop as single plants. The forms
vary greatly in color—orange, creamy white, rose, violet,
purple, and bluish illustrate the range of color. The yellow
centers heighten the color effect.

THE THISTLE

The Thistle group is the most primitive of the Composite
family, and it bears evidence of a vast evolutionary history.
There are one hundred and seventy-five living species, which
are distributed over Europe, Asia, Africa, North and South
America. The plants seem able to adapt themselves to
almost any conditions, and their unpleasant spines are found
bidding defiance to the reindeer near the Arctic circle, as
well as successfully measuring strength with the prickly
cactus and acacias of the tropics. On our own prairies only
plants thus armed stand much show to survive the herds of
eattle that wander over them, and this protection, together
with their great productiveness, have rendered thistles such
a nuisance and menace to agricultural interests as to neces-

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FLOWERS 107

sitate legislative action looking to their extermination. The
Russian and Canadian thistles are the worst offenders, and
where they once obtain a foothold they, as a rule, remain.
The unpleasant qualities of the thistle, however, served to
bring about its adoption as the national emblem of Scotland.
The story relates that during the eighth century the invad-
ing Danes, while stealing up to the Scotch camp under
cover of darkness, passed over a patch of cotton thistle and
the sudden cries of the injured men warned the guards,
and thus the army was saved. Achaius, King of Scotland,
adopted the plant as his emblem in recognition of this serv-
ice, but it was not made a part of the national arms until
the middle of the fifteenth century.

The origin of the Scottish order of the Thistle, or St.
Andrew, is somewhat uncertain. In 1687 it was restored to
favor by James II. of England, and was given much prom-
inence during the reign of Queen Anne. The membership
was limited to from twelve to sixteen peers of the realm, the
insignia being a golden collar composed of sixteen thistles,
from which hung a St. Andrews’ cross. C.S. Rappin.

CHAPTER II
SPICES, ETC.
By Dr. ALBERT SCHNEIDER

Spices of various kinds have been in use since the history
of man. Their purpose has been to give an agreeable flavor
to food, rendering it more palatable, and to stimulate diges-
tion. Most of the spice-yielding plants are tropical or sub-
tropical, and are all extensively cultivated. Any part of
the plants may be used. In the case of the peppers and
allspice, it is the dried fruit which is employed; in the case
of cinnamon, the bark is used. Ginger is an underground
stem or rhizome; nutmeg is a seed; mace is a fruit covering
(arillus) ; clove is a flower; mother-of-clove, a fruit.

A moderate use of spices does, perhaps, no harm, but an
excessive use of these artificial adjuncts to digestion causes
an inflammatory condition of stomach and liver. They also
blunt the taste sense. Persons who never use spices are not
sufferers, as has been proven repeatedly.

The Dutch are the chief promoters of the spice industry
and were the first to cultivate spices on a large scale on the
various tropical islands in their possession.

109

110 PLANTS

CINNAMON

The Cinnamons of the market are the inner barks ob-
tained from trees of tropical countries and islands. ‘The
plants are quite ornamental; twenty to forty feet high;
smooth, enduring, green, simple, and entire leaves. The
flowers are small and very insignificant in appearance.

Cinnamon is an old-time, highly prized spice.

There are several varieties of cinnamon upon the market.
Cassia cinnamon, which is a Chinese variety, is obtained
from Cinnamomum cassia. The bark is quite thick and
contains only a small amount of volatile or ethereal oil. It
is of little value, yet it is exported on a large scale. It
forms the cheap cinnamon of the market. ‘There are other
Chinese cinnamons of good quality which constitute the
principal commercial article. The Saigon cinnamon is by
far the best article. It also is Chinese, obtained from an
undetermined species. It is the strongest and spiciest of
the cinnamons, and it is the only variety official in the
United States Pharmacopeia. The bark is of medium
thickness, deep reddish-brown, and rich in volatile oil. The
Ceylon cinnamon, from India, is noted for the delicacy of
its flavor, but it contains comparatively little volatile oil.
The bark is very thin and of a lighter brown color than that
of the Saigon cinnamon.

Nearly all of the cinnamon of the market is obtained
from cultivated plants. There are large plantations in
southeastern China, Cochin-China, India, Sunda Islands,
Sumatra, Java, and other tropical countries and islands. In

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

CASSIA CINNAMON.

392

237 CLOVE. COPYRIGHT 1900, 8Y A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

A. Flowering branch, 1. Flower bud. 2. Sectional view of same. 3.Stamens. 4. Pollen. 5. Ovary and section of same.
7-9. Ovule and sections of same.

SPICES, ETC. 111

many instances little or nothing is known regarding the
cultivation, collecting, and curing of cinnamons. As a rule,
the trees are pruned for convenience in collecting the bark.
In the better-grade cinnamons the bark from the younger
twigs only (one and one-half to two years old) is collected.

Description of plate: <A, flowering twig; 1, diagram of
flower; 2, 3, flower; 4, stamen; 5, pistil; 6, fruit.

CLOVES

Cloves are among our favorite spices, even more widely
known and more generally used than ginger. They are the
immature fruit and flower-buds of a beautiful, aromatic,
evergreen tree of the tropics. This tree reaches a height
of from thirty to forty feet. The branches are nearly hori-
zontal, quite smooth, of a yellowish-gray coloration, decreas-
ing gradually in length from base to the apex of the tree,
thus forming a pyramid. The leaves are opposite, entire,
smooth, and of a beautiful green color. The flowers are
borne upon short stalks, usually three in number, which
extend from the apex of short branches. The calyx is about
half an inch long, changing from whitish to greenish, and
finally to crimson. The entire calyx is rich in oil glands.
The petals are four in number, pink in color, and drop off
very readily. The stamens are very numerous. All parts
of the plant are aromatic, the immature flowers most of all.

The clove-tree was native in the Moluccas, or Clove
Islands, and the southern Philippines. Now cloves are
extensively cultivated in Sumatra, the Moluccas, West
Indies, Penang, Mauritius, Bourbon, Amboyne, Guiana,

112 PLANTS

Brazil, and Zanzibar—in fact, throughout the tropical
world. Zanzibar is said to supply most of tne cloves of
the market.

The cultivation of cloves in Zanzibar is conducted some-
what as follows: The seeds of the plant are soaked in water
for two or three days, or until germination begins, where-
upon they are planted in shaded beds about six inches apart,
usually two seeds together, to insure against failure. The
young germinating plants are shaded by frameworks of
sticks covered with grass or leaves. This mat is sprinkled
with water every morning and evening. The young plants
are kept in these covered beds for nine months, after which
they are ready for transplanting.

Transplanting must be done carefully, so as not to
injure the roots. The plant is dug up by a special hoe-like
tool, lifted up in the hand with as much soil as possible,
placed upon crossed strips of banana fibers, which are taken
up by the ends and wrapped and tied about the plant. The
plant is now carried to its new locality, placed in a hole in
the soil, the earth filled in about it, and finally the banana
strips are cut and drawn out.

The transplanted clove plants are now carefully tended
and watered for about one year, but they are not shaded, as
during the first year of their existence. Usually many of
the transplanted plants die, which makes replanting neces-
sary. This great mortality, it is believed by some, might
be reduced very materially by shading the recently trans-
planted clove-trees for a time.

The clove-tree may attain an age of from sixty to sev-
enty years, and some have been noted which were ninety

241 NUTMEG. COPYRIGHT 1900+ BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

A. Flowering branch. 1. Pistil surrounded by stamens. 2. Longitudinal section of same. 3. Cross section of same.
4. Pollen. 5. Ovary. 6. Section ofsame. 7-8. Mature fruit. 9. Nutmeg covered with mace. 10.Bare nutmeg. 11. Sectional
view. 12, Embryo; see also 11.

SPICES, ETC. 113

years old and over. The average life of the plantation
clove-trees is, however, perhaps not more than twenty years.
The trees begin to yield in about five years after planting.
The picking of the immature flowers with the red calyx is
begun in August and lasts for about four months. From
two to four crops are harvested each year. ~

Explanation of plate: A, flowering branch, nearly nat-
ural size; 1, floral bud; 2, floral bud in longitudinal section;
3, stamens; 4, pollen grains; 5, ovary in transverse section;
6, fruit about natural size; 7, fruit in transverse section;
8, embryo; 9, part of embryo.

THE NUTMEG

The Nutmeg is the spice obtained from a medium-sized
evergreen tree reaching a height of from twenty-five to
forty feet. This tree is dicecious; that is, the male flowers
and the female flowers are borne upon different plants. The
male flower consists of a column of from six to ten stamens
enclosed by a pale yellow tubular perianth. The female
flowers occur singly, in twos or threes, in the axils of the
leaves; they also have a pale yellow perianth. The ovary
has a single seed, which finally matures into the nutmeg and
mace. The mature seed is about one and one-fourth inches
long and somewhat less in transverse diameter, so that it is
somewhat oval in outline. It is almost entirely enveloped
by a fringed scarlet covering known as arillus or arillode
(mace). The entire fruit, nut, mace, and all, is about the
size of a walnut, and, like that nut, has a thick outer cover-
ing, the pericarp, which is fibrous and attains a thickness

114 PLANTS

of about half an inch. At maturity the pericarp splits in
halves from the top to the base or point of attachment. The
leaves of the nutmeg tree are simple, entire, and compara-
tively large.

The nutmeg is now cultivated in the Philippines, West
Indies, South America, and other tropical islands and coun-
tries. The botanic gardens have been largely instrumental
in extending nutmeg cultivation in the tropical English
possessions.

The trees are produced from seeds. After sprouting,
the plants are transferred to pots, in which they are kept
until ready for the nutmeg plantation. Transferring from
the pots to the soil must be done carefully, as any consider-
able injury to the terminal rootlets kills the plants. A rich,
loamy soil with considerable moisture is required for the
favorable and rapid growth of the plants.

Description of plate: A, branch with staminate flowers;
1, stamens magnified; 2, longitudinal view of stamens; 3,
transverse section of stamens; 4, pollen-grains; 5, pistillate
flower; 6, pistil; 7, fruit; 8, half of pericarp removed; 9,
nut with arillus (mace); 10, nut without mace; 11, nut in
longitudinal section; 12, embryo.

GINGER

The well-known spice, Ginger, is the underground stem
(rhizome) of an herbaceous, reed-like plant known as Zingi-
ber officinale. The rhizome is perennial, but the leaf and
flower-bearing stems are annual. The stems are from three
to six feet high. The leaves of the upper part of the stem

BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

COPYRIGHT 1900,

GINGER.

"

SPICES, ETC. 115

are sword-shaped; the lower leaves are rudimentary and
sheath-like. The flowers occur in the form of conical spikes
borne upon the apex of stems which bear only sheath-like
leaves.

The ginger plant is said to be a native of southern Asia,
although it is now rarely found growing wild. It is very
extensively cultivated in the tropical countries of both hemi-
spheres, particularly in southern China, India, Africa, and
Jamaica. The word ginger is said to have been derived
from the Greek “ Zingiber,’ which again was derived from
the Arabian “ Zindschabil,;’ which means the “root from
India.” It is further stated that the word was derived from
Gingi, a country west of Pondecheri, where the plant is
said to grow wild.

True ginger must not be confounded with “wild ginger,”
which is a small herbaceous plant of the United States.
The long, slender rhizomes of “wild ginger” have a pun-
gent, aromatic taste similar to ginger.

At the present time Jamaica supplies the United States
with nearly all of the ginger, and this island is, therefore,
known as “the land of ginger.” Cochin-China and Africa
also yield much ginger.

Explanation of plate: A, plant, about natural size; 1,
flower bud; 2, flower; 3, outer floral parts separated; 4,
longitudinal section of flower; 5, nectary with the rudimen-
tary and perfect stamens; 7, upper end of style with stigma;
8 and 9, ovary in longitudinal and transverse sections.

116 PLANTS

RED PEPPER

Red Pepper is a spreading, typically herbaceous plant
belonging to the night shade family. Stems are soft and
green in color. Leaves are simple, margin entire, ovate,
pointed, and stalked. The flowers are not especially showy,
white, single, axillary, rarely in twos. The fruit, which is
botanically a berry, is green at first, changing to bright red
on ripening. It varies in size and form.

The fruits are usually collected before they are fully
ripened, while they are still of a green color, and dried,
whereupon they assume a bright red color characteristic of
red pepper. They have a very pungent taste and constitute
one of the most highly prized and most extensively used
spices, being added to soups, sauces, meats, salads, mixed
pickles, etc. It is a very useful, stimulating tonic, especially
indicated in what is known as atonic dyspepsia, or dyspepsia
due to a sluggish action of the secreting glands of the
stomach.

As a spice the powdered dried fruits are used. For
pickling the green fruits are preferred. The small pods
known as chillies are used principally in preparing a sauce
universally known as chili sauce. Red pepper is frequently
used as an adulterant of vinegar and brandy, to produce
the desired pungency. It is stated that an excessive use of
red pepper produces disorders of the stomach, which is
apparently not true from the experience of those of the
tropics, who consume it in enormous quantities. Red pepper
has been employed in the treatment of rheumatism, gout,

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BLACK PEPPER.

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SPICES, ETC. Tie

as a gargle in tonsilitis, sore throat, etc. Its principal use
at the present time is that of a spice and as a remedy for
atonic dyspepsia. Powdered red pepper is added to snuff,
and it is certainly very effective in causing sneezing. 'Those
who work with red pepper find it necessary to protect the
nostrils against the irritating fine powder.

PEPPER

The plants yielding the black and white pepper of the
market are climbing or trailing shrubs. The stem attains a
length of from fifteen to twenty-five feet. The climbing
portions cling to the support (usually large trees) by means
of aerial roots similar to the ivy. The young fruit is grass-
green, then changes to red, and finally to yellowish when
ripe. In southern India the flowers mature in May and
June and the seeds ripen five or six months later.

Pepper is a native of southern India, growing abun-
dantly along the Malabar coast. It thrives best in rich
soil, in the shade of trees to which it clings. It also
grows in Ceylon, Singapore, Penang, Borneo, Luzon, Java,
Sumatra, and the Philippines. It is cultivated in all of
the countries named, especially in southwestern India.
Attempts at its cultivation have been made in the West
Indies.

In India the natives simplify the cultivation of pepper
by tying the wild-growing vines, to a height of six feet, to
neighboring trees and clearing away the underwood, leaving
just enough trees to provide shade. The roots are covered
with heaps of leaves and the shoots are trimmed or clipped

118 PLANTS

twice a year. They begin to yield about the fourth or fifth
year and continue to yield for eight or nine years.

The chief use of pepper is that of a spice, added
principally to meats, but also to other food substances. Ap-
plied externally, it is used as a counter-irritant in skin
diseases. Italian physicians recommend it highly in malarial
diseases.

Description of plate: A, flowering twig; 1, portion of
spike; 2, ovary with stamens; 3, stamens; 4, young fruit;
5, 6, portions of spike; 7, 8, fruit.

VANILLA

Vanilla planifolia belongs to the Orchid family, though
it has many characteristics not common to most members of
the family. It is a fleshy, dark-green, perennial climber,
adhering to trees by its aerial roots, which are produced at
the nodes. The stem attains a length of many feet, reach-
ing to the very tops of the supporting trees. The young
plant roots in the ground, but as the stem grows in length,
winding about its support and clinging to it by the aerial
roots, it loses the subterranean roots and the plant estab-
lishes itself as a saprophyte, or partial parasite, life habits
common to orchids. The leaves are entire, dark green, and
sessile. Inflorescence consists of eight to ten flowers sessile
upon axillary spikes. The flowers are a pale greenish-
yellow, perianth rather fleshy and soon falls away from the
ovary, or young fruit, which is a pod and by the casual
observer would be taken for the flower stalk. The mature
fruit is a brown curved pod six to eight inches long, smooth,

384 VANILLA. COPYRIGHT 1901, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
A. Flowering twig. 1-3. Corolla. 45. Pistil. 6-7.Stamen. 9. Pollen, 10-11. Fruit. 12-13. Seed.

CHICAGO:

EE

COFF

MUMFORD PUBLISHER.

251

eo

SPICES, ETC. 119

splitting lengthwise in two unequal parts, thus liberating
the numerous very small oval or lenticular seeds.

There are a number of commercial varieties of vanilla
named after the countries in which they are grown or after
the centers of export, as Mexican, Vera Cruz, Bourbon,
Mauritius, Java, La Guayra, Honduras, and Brazilian
vanilla. The most highly valued Mexican variety is known
as Vanilla de leg (leg meaning law). The pods are long,
dark brown, very fragrant, and coated with crystals. Since
vanilla is a costly article, adulteration is quite common.
Useless pods are coated with balsam of Peru to give them
a good appearance. Split, empty pods are filled with some
worthless material, glued together, and coated with balsam
of Peru.

Description of plate: A, flowering twig; 1, 2, 3, corolla;
4, 5, pistil; 6, 7, stamen; 9, pollen; 10, 11, fruit; 12, 13, seed.

COFFEE

Coffee is the seed of a small evergreen tree or shrub
ranging from fifteen to twenty-five feet in height. The
branches are spreading or even pendant, with opposite short-
petioled leaves, which are ovate, smooth, leathery, and dark
green. The flowers are perfect, fragrant, occurring in
groups of from three to seven in the axils of the leaves.
The corolla is white, the calyx green and small. The ovary
is green at first, changing to yellowish, and finally to deep
red or purple at maturity. Each ovary has two seeds, the
so-called coffee beans.

The plant thrives best in a loamy soil, in an average

120 PLANTS

annual temperature of about 27 degrees C., with consider-
able moisture and shade. Most plantations are at an eleva-
tion of 1,000 feet to 2,500 feet above the sea level. In order
to insure larger yields and to make gathering easier the
trees of the South American plantations are clipped so as
to keep their height at about 6 feet to 6.5 feet. The yield
begins with the third year and continues increasingly up
to the twentieth year. The fruit matures at all seasons and
is gathered about three times each year. In Arabia, where
the trees are usually not clipped, and, hence, comparatively
large, the fruit is knocked off by means of sticks. In the
West Indies and South America the red, not fully matured
fruit is picked by hand. The outer hard shell (fruit coat,
pericarp) is removed by pressure, rolling, and shaking. The
beans are now ready for the market.

Description of plate: A, twig with flowers and imma-
ture fruit, about natural size; 1, corolla; 2, stamens; 3, style
and stigma (pistil) ; 4, ovary in longitudinal section; 5 and
6, coffee bean in dorsal and ventral view; 7, fruit in longi-
tudinal section; 8, bean in transverse section; 9, bean sec-
tioned to show caulicle; 10, caulicle.

TEA

The highly esteemed drink, Tea, is made from the leaves
and very young terminal branches of a shrub known as
Camellia Thea. 'The shrub is spreading, usually two or
three meters high, though it may attain a height of nine or
ten meters. It has smooth, dark green, alternate, irregu-
larly serrate-dentate, lanceolate to obovate, blunt-pointed,

HACCP LANG. nn OOPYRIGHT 1900, BY A, W. MUMFORD, CHIOAGS
(Thea sineusis).

A. Flowering Branch. 1. Section of Flower. 2, 2. Stamens. 3. Section of Ovary. 4. Pistil and Calyx. 5,6. Fruit.

r

(0 Tea 7. Seed. 8. Section of Seed. 9. Embryo.
pp. Tea

SPICES, ETC. 121

simple leaves. The young leaves and branches are woolly,
owing to the presence of numerous hair-cells. The flowers
are perfect, solitary or in twos and threes in the axils of
the leaves. They are white and rather showy. Some
authors state that they are fragrant, while others state that
they are practically odorless. Stamens are numerous. The
ovary is three-celled, with one seed in each cell, which is
about the size of a cherry seed.

The tea-plant is no doubt a native of India, upper
Assam, from whence it was early introduced into China,
where it is now cultivated on an immense scale. It is, how-
ever, also extensively cultivated in various parts of India,
in Japan, Java, Australia, Sicily, Corea, and other tropical
and subtropical countries and islands. It is also cultivated
to some extent in the southern United States, as in Caro-
lina, Georgia, Mississippi, and California, but apparently
without any great success.

The following are the principal teas of the market and
the manner of their preparation:

1. Green Tea. — After collecting the leaves are allowed
to lie for about two hours in warmed pans and stirred and
then rolled upon small bamboo tables, whereupon they are
further dried upon hurdles and again in heated pans for
about one hour, accompanied by stirring. The leaves now
assume a bluish-green color, which is frequently enhanced
by adding Prussian blue or indigo. Of these green teas, the
most important are Gunpowder, Twankay, Hyson, Young
Hyson, Hyson Skin, Songla, Soulang, and Imperial.

2. Brack TEa.— The leaves are allowed to lie in heaps
for a day, when they are thoroughly shaken and mixed,

122 PLANTS

After another period of rest, two or three days, they are
dried and rolled much as green tea. In the storing process
the leaves undergo a fermentation which develops the aroma
and the dark color. The following are the principal vari-
eties; Campoe, Congou, Linki-sam, Padre Souchon (car-
avan tea), Pecoe, Souchong, and Bohe.

Explanation of plate: A, flowering branch, nearly nat-
ural size; 1, flower in section; 2, stamen; 3, ovary in trans-
verse section; 4, pistil; 5 and 6, fruit, with seed; 7, seed;
8, seed in sections.

SUGAR-CANE

It is very doubtful whether sugar-cane occurs anywhere
in the wild state, at present. Authorities are quite unan-
imous in expressing it as their opinion that its original home
was India. It is a plant that has been under cultivation for
many centuries.

There are many varieties recognized by cultivators, dif-
fering in color, texture, and other minor characteristics.

Since cane does not ripen fruit, it is propagated by trans-
planting the rhizomes and top portions of stem. The ripe
cane is cut close to the ground, the leaves stripped off, and
tassel cut off. It is then carted to the cane mill and passed
between large rollers, which express the juice, which is then
clarified by means of lime, animal charcoal, and blood. The
juice is boiled until it acquires a proper tenacity, when it
is passed into a cooler and allowed to crystallize. This sugar
is then placed in large perforated casks and allowed to drain
for two or three weeks, when it is packed into hogsheads
and exported under the name of raw sugar or muscovado

SUGAR CANE.

SPICES, ETC. 123

sugar. The drainings form molasses. Raw sugar is taken
to the sugar refinery and purified.

Sugar has innumerable uses. As an article of food it is
not surpassed, though it cannot support life alone, because
it contains no nitrogen. It is the important ingredient
in candies, pastries, sweetened drinks, ete. Molasses and
treacle are much used and must not be confounded with the
sorghum molasses made from the sugar cane of the Central
States. Molasses and treacle sometimes have a very pecul-
iar and, to many, a very objectionable flavor, due to impuri-
ties present.

Molasses, as well as treacle, when fermented, gives rise
to rum. The popular notion that sugar is injurious to
teeth is without foundation.

In medicine sugar is employed to disguise the taste of
disagreeable remedies and to coat pills. It has no direct
curative properties in disease.

Description of plate: A, plant, much reduced; B, stem
portion with leaf; C, inflorescence; 1-6, parts of flower.

CHAPTER III
MEDICINAL PLANTS
By Dr. AtBert SCHNEIDER

Mepicina Pants are used in the treatment of diseases.
The active principle is usually extracted in some man-
ner, then given internally or applied externally. In some
instances the dried plant or plant part is reduced to a pow-
der and taken internally. Some medicinal plants are found
in the wild state only, but most of them are also cultivated.

Medicinal plants have been in use since time immemo-
rial, and at some time nearly every known plant has been
tested and used medicinally, whether it possesses any healing
powers or not. The tendency at the present time is to
reduce the number of drugs, and, hence, drug-yielding
plants. Not so many years ago the physician prescribed
hundreds of different species of plants, while the modern
physician rarely uses more than twenty-five or thirty. Many
plants still retained in the official list might as well be
excluded, as they have practically no medicinal virtue.

Our most valuable medicinal plants are also poisonous,
a fact well worth remembering. There are, however, many
poisonous plants which are not used medicinally.

125

126 PLANTS

FOXGLOVE

The Foxglove is a biennial herb from two to seven feet
in height, with a solitary, sparingly branched stem. The
basal leaves are very large and broad, gradually becoming
narrower and smaller toward the apex of the stem and its
branches, dark green in color, pubescent, margin dentate,
venation very prominent. The inflorescence is very charac-
teristic. "The large, numerous flowers are closely crowded
and pendulous from one side of the arched stalk. The
corolla is purple and spotted on the inside. It is a very
handsome plant, widely distributed, preferring a sandy or
gravelly soil in open woods. When abundant and in full
bloom it makes a beautiful exhibit. It is a garden favorite
in many lands.

Modern physicians consider digitalis one of the most
important medicinal plants. It is a very powerful, hence
very poisonous drug, its action being due to an active prin-
ciple known as digitalin. Its principal use is in the treat-
ment of deficient heart action.

For medicinal use the leaves from the wild-growing
plants are preferred, because they contain more of the
active principle. The leaves are collected when about half
of the flowers are expanded, and, since it is a biennial, that
would be during the second year. The first year leaves are,
however, often used or added. Like all valuable drugs, it
is often adulterated. ‘The odor of the bruised green leaves
is heavy or nauseous, while that of the dried leaves is
fragrant, resembling the odor of tea. The taste is quite

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A. W. MUMFORD

SWEET FLAG.
(Acorus calamus.)

FROM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN,

488

MEDICINAL PLANTS 127

bitter. Formerly the roots, flowers, and seeds were also
used medicinally.

Description of plate: A, B, plant somewhat reduced;
1, flower; 2, 3, 4, stamens; 5, pollen; 6, 7, style and stigma;
8, 9, ovary; 10, fruit; 11, 12, 13, seed.

CALAMUS

Acorus calamus, commonly known as Calamus, Sweet
Flag, and Cinnamon Sedge, is a reed-like plant common in
Europe and North United States. It grows in swamps,
marshes, and very moist places. It is a herbaceous peren-
nial growing from spreading, fleshy rhizomes. The long,
sword-like, deep green pointed leaves grow up from the
rhizomes.

Calamus has ever been a favorite popular remedy. Its
principal use seems to have been that of a tonic and blood
purifier, for which purpose bits of the dried rhizomes are
masticated and the saliva swallowed. It undoubtedly is a
tonic, and it also has a beneficial stimulating and antiseptic
effect upon gums and teeth. Chewing the rhizomes is also
said to clear the voice. Calamus is, or has been, used in
flavoring beer and gin. Country people add it to whisky,
wine, and brandy to make a tonic bitters for the weak and
dyspeptic. It is said that the Turks employ it as a pre-
ventive against contagious diseases. In India it is used to
destroy vermin, especially fleas. In England it is employed
in the treatment of malaria.

At the present time calamus is no longer extensively
employed in medicine. It is considered as a stimulating, aro-

128 PLANTS

matic, and bitter tonic. It is perhaps true that its value as
a tonic is at present somewhat underestimated by the med-
ical profession. It is also serviceable in flatulent colic, and
in what is designated as atonic dyspepsia. It is added to
other medicine, either as a corrective, or adjuvant.

Description of plate: A, rhizome and basal portion of
leaves; B, upper end of leaf with inflorescence (spike) ; 1,
2, 3, 5, flowers; 4, stigma; 6, section of fruit; 7, stamens;
8, pollen grains.

THYME

The field or wild Thyme is a small, much-branched shrub,
about one foot high, with rather slender, quadrangular, pur-
plish, pubescent stems. Leaves small, opposite, sessile.
Flowers numerous, in clusters in the axils of the upper
leaves. Corolla purplish, irregular; calyx green and per-
sistent. The plant is propagated by means of underground
stems. It is far from being a showy plant.

This plant is closely related to the garden thyme, and
grows profusely in meadows, fields, and gardens. Both spe-
cies are very fragrant, and it is to this characteristic that
they owe their popularity. The ancient Greeks and Romans
valued thyme very highly and made use of it as a cosmetic,
in medicine, and in veterinary practice, much as it is used
at the present time. Thyme yields the oil of thyme, which
is a valuable antiseptic, used as a gargle and mouth wash,
for toothache, in dressing wounds and ulcers, also for sprains
and bruises, in chronic rheumatism, etc. It finds extensive
use in the preparation of perfumes and scented soaps; but
its principal value is in veterinary practice. The herb is

CHICAGO
A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER

THYME.

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A.W. MUMFORD PUBLISHER.
576

MEDICINAL PLANTS 129

much used as a flavoring agent in soups and sauces, in
fomentations, in baths, and in the preparation of scented
pillows.

Two kinds of oil of thyme appear upon the market, the
red oil and the white oil. The latter is less aromatic, being
the product of redistillation. The oil is also known as oil of
origanum.

Although thyme is an insignificant plant, as far as
appearances are concerned, yet it has been sung by many
poets.

Description of plate: A, plant somewhat reduced; 1, 2,
leaves; 3, flower bud; 4, 5, flower; 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, different
views of flower; 9, flower without stamens; 10, stamens;
11, pollen grains; 12, 13, pistil; 14, developing fruit; 15,
transverse section of fruit; 16, ripening fruit; 17, 18, 19,
seed.

MAY-APPLE

The May-apple is a small perennial herb with long root-
stalks or underground stems, a native of the United States
and Canada, growing in rather moist woodlands. The entire
plant attains a height of about twelve inches. The leaves
are large, peltate (from pelta, small shield), margin deeply
cleft, from five to nine lobed, lobes pendant, thus giving the
leaf a semblance to an umbrella. It is remarkable that the
flowerless plants have only one leaf, while the flowering
specimens always have two, which are opposite upon the
stem apex, carrying the flower in the bifurcation as shown
in the illustration.

Each plant bears a single flower upon a drooping stalk.

130 PLANTS

The calyx consists of six greenish sepals, which, however,
drop off as soon as the flower begins to unfold. The corolla
consists of six or nine petals, which are quite large, thick,
and pulpy, and of a creamy-white color. Authorities seem
to differ as to the odor of the flower. Some speak of it as
very fragrant; others designate it as nauseous, and others
express no opinion. It is an undoubted fact that the rhi-
zomes, stems, and leaves have a very heavy, nauseous odor,
and it is not unreasonable to assume that this odor is trace-
able in flower and unripe fruit.

The flowers expand in May and the fruit ripens in
August. The fruit is a berry about the size of a plum. At
first green, it changes to a soft yellow at maturity. It is not
unlike a tomato in general appearance. When fully ripe it
has a fragrant odor and tastes somewhat like the paw-paw.

The principal use of the American mandrake is medici-
nal. It is a very efficient cathartic.

Description of plate: A, B, parts of the plant, about
natural size; 1, flower bud; 2, flower; 3, stamens; 4, ovary;
. 5, fruit; 6, seed coat; 7, seed.

TOBACCO

The Tobacco plant is a tall herbaceous annual with large
simple leaves and terminal inflorescence, belonging to the
nightshade family, the members of which resemble each other
in that they are more or less poisonous and in that they
have a disagreeable, nauseous, heavy odor.

There are several species of tobacco, of which the above
is the most highly valued, and they are all natives of warm

A. W. MUMFORD. PUBLISHER, CHICAGO

TOBACCO.

(Nicotiana tabacum).

504

CHICAGO:
A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER,

FROM KCEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. CUBEBS

408

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MEDICINAL PLANTS 131

countries, as southern Asia, India, South America, and the
West Indies. Tobacco is very extensively cultivated in
nearly all warm countries, especially in the southern United
States and the West Indies.

Tobacco requires rich soil and careful cultivation. The
seed is sown in a hotbed or in a sheltered place in the open.
The plants are set from April to June. The ground is care-
fully tilled, freed from weeds, and the plants watched
for cutworms and the big green tobacco worm, which are
very destructive. Worms and eggs must be removed and
destroyed. ‘To increase the size of the leaves and hasten
maturity, the flowering tops are broken off. When the
leaves are matured, which is indicated by a yellowish mot-
tling, the plants are cut off close to the ground, fastened in
groups of six to eight, and dried.

All unprejudiced authorities are agreed that the habitual
use of tobacco acts injuriously upon the system, no matter
in what form or manner it is used.

Medicinally, tobacco is but rarely used now. With non-
smokers it is useful to relieve asthma. Formerly it was
quite extensively employed in spasmodic affections and in
parasitic skin diseases.

Description of plate: A, flowering stem; 1, floral parts;
2, stamen; 3, pollen; 4-8, ovary and pistil; 9, 10, seed.

CUBEBS

The Cubeb-yielding plant is not unlike the pepper plant,
and belongs to the same family. The two resemble each
other in general habits in the form of inflorescence and in

132 PLANTS

the fruiting. Cubebs were known to Arabian physicians as
early as the ninth century, who employed them as a diuretic
in kidney troubles. It was also known at that time that
Java was the home of the plant. During the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries it was employed medicinally in Spain.
Originally it was doubtless employed as a spice, similar to
pepper. At the beginning of the nineteenth century cubeb
disappeared almost entirely from medical practice. About
1820 English physicians of Java again began to employ it
quite extensively.

As in the case of black pepper, the fruit is collected
before maturity and dried. The fruit is about the size of
the pepper, but has a stalk-like prolongation which distin-
guishes it. The pericarp becomes much shriveled and wrin-
kled on drying.

Cubebs are cultivated in special plantations or with cof-
fee, for which they provide shade by spreading from the
trees which serve as their support. Their cultivation is said
to be easy.

Cubebs have a pungent, bitter taste and a characteristic
aromatic odor. It cannot readily be confounded with any
of the other more common spices. Its use as a spice is
almost wholly discontinued. ‘The use of cubebs in medicine
is also waning, since it evidently has only slight medicinal
properties. It is used in nasal and other catarrhal
affections.

Cubeb cigarettes are used in the treatment of nasal
catarrh. It has a marked influence upon the kidneys, caus-
ing irritation and increased activity, and, as already in-
dicated, it is, therefore, a diuretic. It is, however, harmful

CHICAGO:
FROM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN, HOPS. A. W. MUMFORD PUBLISHER.
416

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MEDICINAL PLANTS 133

rather than beneficial in acute inflammatory conditions of
these organs.

Description of plate: A, twig with staminate flowers;
B, fruit-bearmg twig; 1, upper portion of staminate inflo-
rescence; 2, staminate flower; 3, fruit; 4, 5, 6, 7, ovary;
8, 9, seed.

HOPS

The Hop has been called the Northern vine. It is found
in a wild state throughout Europe, excepting the extreme
North, and extends east to the Caucasus and through Cen-
tral Asia. It is a handsome plant and not infrequently used
as an arbor plant. The lower or basal leaves are very large,
gradually decreasing in size toward the apex.

Hops is also cultivated in Brazil and other South Amer-
ican countries, Australia, and India.

The principal use of hops is in the manufacture of beer,
to which it imparts the peculiarly bitter taste, and its repute
as a tonic. For this purpose enormous quantities are con-
sumed in Germany and England. The exhausted hops
from the breweries form an excellent fertilizer for light soils.
The leaves have been used as fodder for cows. Leaves,
stems, and roots possess astringent properties and have been
used in tanning. In Sweden the fiber of the stem is used in
manufacturing a very durable white cloth, not unlike the
cloth made from hemp and flax.

Hops is used medicinally. It at first causes a very
slight excitation of brain and heart, followed by a rather
pronounced disposition to sleep. Pillows stuffed with hops
form a very popular domestic remedy for wakefulness.

134 PLANTS

Hop bags dipped in hot water form a very soothing exter-
nal application in painful inflammatory conditions, espe-
cially of the abdominal organs. It has undoubted value as
a bitter tonic in dyspepsia and in undue cerebral excitation.

Description of plate: A, staminate (male) inflorescence;
B, pistillate (female) inflorescence; C, fruiting branch; 1,
staminate flower; 2, perigone; 3, stamen; 4, open anther;
5, pollen; 6, pistillate catkin; 7, 8, 9, pistillate flowers; 10,
scales; 11, 12, 13, scales and flowers; 14, 15, fruit; 16, 17,
19, seed; 20, resin gland (lupulin).

DANDELION

Dandelion is a perennial herb thoroughly familiar to
every one, as it is found almost everywhere throughout all
temperate and north temperate countries.

The poor of nearly all countries collect the young, crisp
leaves in the early spring and prepare therefrom a salad,
resembling lettuce salad.

The leaves are also cooked, usually with leaves of other
plants, forming “greens,” highly relished by many people.

The principal use of this plant has thus far been medici-
nal, but its value as a curative agent certainly has been over-
rated. It has been used in dropsy, pulmonary diseases, in
stomach derangements, in hepatic or liver disorders, in icte-
rus, blotchy skin, and other skin diseases, for biliary calculi,
in hypochondriasis, ete. It has no marked curative proper-
ties in any disorder. Beyond mildly laxative and tonic
properties, it has no effect whatever. Using taraxacum
preparations for a considerable length of time causes diges-

1902, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

COPYRIGHT

DANDELION

536

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A» W- MUMFORD, CHICAGO

COCOA.

290

it

MEDICINAL PLANTS 135

tive disorders, mental excitement, vertigo, coated tongue,
and nausea.

In lawns, the plant proves a great nuisance, as it dis-
places the grass, and it is difficult to exterminate. The
plants must be dug up, roots and all, carted away, and
burned. This should be done early, before the seeds are
sufficiently mature to germinate. For medicinal use the
roots are gathered in March, July, and November, cleaned,
the larger roots cut longitudinally, dried, and packed, to be
shipped to points of consumption. The juice expressed from
the fresh roots is also used.

COCA

Coca and Cuca are South American words of Spanish
origin, and apply to the plant itself as well as to the leaves.
The plant is a native of Brazil, Peru, and Bolivia. It is a
shrub varying in height from three to ten feet. The leaves
resemble the leaves of tea in general outline. The margin,
however, is smooth and entire, the leaf-stalk (petiole) short;
upper and lower surfaces smooth; they are rather thin,
leathery, and somewhat bluish-green in color. The charac-
teristic feature of the leaf is two lines or ridges which extend
from the base of the blade, curving out on either side of the
midrib and again uniting at the apex of the leaf. The
flowers are short-pedicled, small, perfect, white or greenish-
yellow, and occur singly or in clusters in the axil of the
leaves or bracts. The shrub is rather straggling and not at
all showy.

The plants are grown from seeds sown in pots or boxes,

136 PLANTS

in which they are kept until they are from eight to ten inches
high, after which they are transplanted during the rainy
season. Coca thrives best in a warm, well-drained soil, with
considerable atmospheric moisture. In the Andes region an
elevation of 2,000 feet to 5,000 feet is most suitable. The
young growing plants must be protected against the heat of
the sun. The maximum growth is attained in about five
years.

The leaves are the only parts used, although the active
principle, cocaine, is present in small quantities in all parts
of the plant. As soon as the shrubs are several years old the
leaves are picked, usually several times each year.

Coca leaves have been used for many centuries by the
natives of South America, who employed them principally
as a stimulant, rarely medicinally.

Description of plate: A, flowering branch; 1, bracts,
enlarged; 2, flowering bud; 3, flower; 4 and 5, petal with
ligula; 6, pistil with stamens; 7, stamen; 8, pistil; 9, ovary,
transverse section; 10 and 11, corolla; 12 and 13, fruit.

LES POPPY

The opium-yielding plant or Poppy is an herb about
three feet in height; stem of a pale green color, covered with
a bloom. Branches are spreading, with large, simple, lobed,
or incised leaves. The flowers are solitary, few in number,
quite large and showy. The four large petals are white or
a pale pink color in the wild growing plants. The fruit
is a large capsule, one to three inches in diameter, of a
depressed globular form. The seeds are small and very

CHICAGO

RY A. W. MUMFORD,

COPYRIGHT 1900,

(Papaver.)

1. Pisti] and Stamens.

4, Pistil.

8. Grain of Pollen.

tamens (magnified).

aS

2

B. Carnation Poppy.

A. White Poppy.

, 8 and 9. Seed.

5
‘

6. Ripe Capsule.

5. Cross section of Pistil.

MEDICINAL PLANTS 137

numerous, filling the compartments of the capsule. In spite
of the general attractiveness of the plant, the size of the
flowers, and the delicate coloring of its petals, it is not a
favorite at close range, because of a heavy nauseating odor
which emanates from all parts of the plant, the flowers in
particular. The petals, furthermore, have only a very tem-
porary existence, dropping off at the slightest touch.

The wild ancestor of our familiar garden poppy is sup-
. posed to be a native of Corsica, Cyprus, and the Pelopon-
nesian Islands. At the present time it is extensively
cultivated everywhere, both as an ornamental plant and for
its seeds, pods, and the yield of opium. It has proven a
great nuisance as a weed in the grain fields of England,
India, and other countries — something like mustard in the
oat fields of the Central States. There are a number of
forms or varieties of the cultivated poppy. The red poppy,
corn poppy; or rose poppy is very abundant in southern and
central Europe and in western Asia. It has deep red or
scarlet petals and is a very showy plant. The long-headed
poppy has smaller flowers of a lighter red color and elon-
gated capsules, hence the name. The Oriental poppy has
very large, deep red flowers on a tall flower-stalk.

Description of plate: A, flowering plant, white variety;
B, flower of red variety; 1, pistil and stamens; 2, stamen;
3, pollen grains; 4 and 5, pistil; 6, ripe capsule; 7, 8, 9, seed.

138 PLANTS

LICORICE

The licorice-yielding plant is a perennial herb with a
thick rootstock, having a number of long, sparingly
branched roots and very long runners or rhizomes. It
belongs to the same family as the peas and beans. It has
purplish flowers with the irregular corolla characteristic of
the family. The pods are rather small, much compressed,
each with from two to five seeds.

The plant is in all probability a native of the warm parts
of the Mediterranean region. There are several varieties, all
of which are more or less extensively cultivated and placed
upon the market.

Licorice is extensively cultivated in Greece, Italy,
France, Russia, Germany, the Danubian Provinces, south-
ern China, northern Africa, and to some extent in England.
In the Italian province of Calabria, licorice is planted with
peas and corn. In the course of three years the roots are
collected, the juice expressed, and the root evaporated to
the proper consistency for shipping. New crops are grown
from cuttings of the rhizomes. There is an excellent quality
of licorice grown in the vicinity of Smyrna. The principal
commercial varieties are grown in Spain, southern Russia,
Turkey, and Italy. Spanish and Russian licorice root is
dried and shipped in bales or bundles. Spanish licorice root
is unpeeled and occurs in pieces several feet in length. Rus-
sian licorice is usually peeled. Most of the licorice used in
the United States is obtained from Italy, Russia, and
Germany.

LICORICE.

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CHICAGO:
A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER.

IRISH MOSS.

OM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN,

4

Gigartina mamillosa,

Chondrus crispus.

MEDICINAL PLANTS 139

Some of the licorice found upon the market is quite
fragmentary and very dirty. The licorice raised in England
is intended for home consumption and is placed upon the
market in both the fresh and dried state. The fresh roots
have an earthy and somewhat nauseous odor.

Description of plate: A, flowering portion of plant; 1,
flower; 2, 3, 4, parts of the flower; 5, stamens; 6, stigma;
7, ovary; 8, fruit; 9, one valve of pod with seeds; 10, 11, 12,
different views of seed.

IRISH MOSS

Chondrus crispus, the plant of our sketch, is a sea weed
of the Atlantic. It is quite plentiful along the shore lines of
the Atlantic States, Ireland, and England. It is commonly
known as Irish Moss, though it is not a moss at all. It is
also known as Carrageen Moss or Carrageen. It is a peren-
nial plant, three to ten inches high, consisting of a flat,
much-branched thallus, as shown in the illustration. It is
variable in its coloring, greenish-purple, purplish-brown,
grayish-purplish-brown, etc., somewhat waxy or translucent
in appearance. It is also very variable in form, no two
specimens being exactly alike. It attaches itself to rocks,
pebbles, and boulders by means of a basal disk which serves
merely as a mechanical support, the frond or thallus absorb-
ing its nourishment from the sea water. In consistency the
plant is cartilaginous, mucilaginous, and is entirely dissolved
on boiling. When dry it becomes very hard, brittle, and
elastic and assumes a light-yellowish, translucent appear-
ance. Chondrus crispus is closely similar to Gigartina

140 PLANTS

mamillosa, another sea weed, with which it is usually
associated.

Irish moss is extensively collected along the coast of
Massachusetts, the plants being spread high up on the beach
to dry and bleach in the sun. Its principal use is in medi-
cine, although it has, perhaps, no curative properties in
itself. It is a demulcent and emollient, that is, the mucilage
present tends to allay irritation of inflamed mucous mem-
branes, as in sore throat, pulmonary complaints, ete. It has
been extensively employed as a popular remedy in dysen-
tery, kidney troubles, and pneumonia. Its principal use at
the present time is as an article of diet, in the preparation
of soup, blane mange, and jellies. Sometimes it is combined
with chocolate or cocoa, sugar, lemon juice, etc., to improve
the flavor.

Description of plate: A, B, C, D, different forms of
Irish moss; EK, F, forms of Gigartina mamillosa; 1, section
of thallus of G. mamillosa; 2, 3, 4, sections of Chondrus
cris pus.

CHAPTER IV
FORESTS

Joun M. Counter, Pu. D.

Head Professor of Botany, University of Chicago

Forests have always been admired, and in ancient times
they were often considered sacred, the special dwelling-
places of gods and various strange beings. We can easily
understand how forests thus affected men. There is a solem-
nity about them, a quiet grandeur, which is very impressive,
and the rustling of their branches and leaves has that mys-
terious sound which caused the ancients to people them with
spirits. We still recognize the feeling of awe that comes in
the presence of forests, although we have long since ceased
to explain it by peopling them with spirits.

Once forests covered all parts of the earth where plants
could grow well, and no country had greater forests than
North America. When America was discovered, there was
a huge, unbroken forest from the Atlantic west to the prai-
ries. Now much of this has been cut away, and we see only
small patches of it. Men must use the forest, and still they
must save it, and they are now trying to find out how they
may do both.

Forests are sometimes almost entirely made up of one
kind of tree, and then they are called “pure forests.” Pine
and beech forests are examples of this kind. More common
with us, however, are the “mixed forests,” made up of many

141

142 PLANTS

kinds of trees, and nowhere in the world are there such
mixed forests as in our Middle States, where beech, oak,
hickory, maple, elm, poplar, gum, walnut, sycamore, and
many others all grow together.

Probably the densest forests in the world are those in the
Amazon region of South America. So dense are they that
hardly a ray of light ever sifts through the dense foliage,
and even at noon there is only a dim twilight beneath the
trees. The tallest forests are the eucalyptus forests of Aus-
tralia, where the trees rise with slender trunks to the height
of four or five hundred feet. But the largest trees in the
world, when we consider both height and diameter, are the
giant “redwoods” (Sequoias) of the Pacific coast. All con-
cede, however, that the most extensive, the most varied, and
the most beautiful forests of the world are those of the
Atlantic and Middle States.

Perhaps it is well to understand how a tree lives, that we
may know better what a forest means. The great roots
spread through the soil, sometimes not far from the surface,
at other times penetrating deeply. The young root tips are
very sensitive to the presence of moisture, and turn towards
it, no matter in what direction it may carry them. In pene-
trating the soil, the sensitive root tips are turned in every
direction by various influences of this kind, and as a result,
when the root system becomes old, it looks like an inextri-
cable tangle. All this tangle, however, but represents the
many paths that the root tips followed in their search for the
things which the soil contains.

Roots are doing two things for the tree: They anchor it
firmly in the soil, and also absorb material that is to help in

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FORESTS 143

the manufacture of food. It is the older roots that have
long since stopped absorbing that are the chief anchors.
How firm this anchorage must be, we can, perhaps, imagine
when we think of the strain produced by a great crown of
leaves swaying back and forth in the wind. It is only a
cyclone that seems to be able to overthrow a sound tree, and
then it more commonly breaks its trunk than uproots it.

The very important work of absorbing is given over to
the very young roots— in fact, chiefly to those of this year,
for new rootlets must be put out each year. These roots can
only absorb water, so that if they are to get anything from
the soil, it must be something that water will dissolve. In
this way the water is used as the carrier of soil-material into
the root. Just how this water carrying soil-material gets
into the root, is not easy to explain, for the root has no holes
to let it in, and it must pass through living walls. That it
does enter, however, every one knows. It is evident, there-
fore, that the root is supplying to the tree two kinds of raw
material for food manufacture, obtained from the soil—
namely, water and soil-material dissolved in it.

But the tree does not obtain all its raw material from the
soil. A very important material is taken from the air, the
material commonly called “carbonic acid gas,” the same
material that we breathe out so abundantly from our lungs
as one of our body wastes. This important material is taken
out of the air into the plant chiefly by means of the leaves.
Spread out as they are in the air, the leaves are in the most
favorable position for doing this work.

But where and how are these three kinds of raw material
manufactured into plant food? The leaves are specially

144 PLANTS

constructed to be the chief seat of this food manufacture.
The carbon gas is received directly into these manufactories
from the air, but the water and the soil-material are down
in the roots, and it is necessary for them to be carried to the
leaves. As a consequence, a “current” of water containing
soil-material ascends from the roots, through the stem, and
is distributed through the branches to the leaves. This
movement is generally known as the “ascent of sap.” The
path of this movement in the stem is through what is known
as the “sap wood,” and it is this very fact which gives to
this region of the wood its peculiar character. Just how the
sap ascends through the stem and reaches the leaves, no one
knows. All of our explanations have proved unsatisfac-
tory, and only those who are not fully acquainted with the
facts claim to be able to explain it.

When the sap reaches the leaves, the water is no longer
needed as a carrier of soil-material. Some of it is needed
in the manufacture of food, but by far the greater part of
it escapes from the leaves into the air by a process which
may be called “plant evaporation.” ‘The amount of water
thus brought from the soil and poured out into the air by
active plants is very great; and when we consider a forest at
work, we can hardly compute the vast amount of moisture
which it is constantly contributing to the air during the
growing season.

The three kinds of raw material thus brought together
chiefly in the leaves are there manufactured into plant food.
On account of this work the leaves have often been spoken
of as the “stomachs” of the plant. This is a very incorrect
and misleading illustration, for the work referred to is not

POLISHED WOODS. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

Hungarian Ash. White Walnut.
Cherry. Bird’s-eve Maple.
Mahogany. Oak.

(Opp. 1644)

FORESTS 145

digestion such as a stomach is concerned with, and, in fact,
it is a process entirely unknown to animals, and found only
in green plants. It is a wonderful process, which we do not
at all understand, but it consists in taking this dead raw
material from soil and air and manufacturing out of it living
material. Not only does the food of the plant, and hence
its life, depend upon this process, but all the life of the
world, as we understand it, depends upon it. We know at
least two prominent conditions of this process, for it seems
evident that it cannot take place without light and the pecul-
iar green substance which gives the characteristic color to
leaves. With the help of light and this green coloring sub-
stance, known as “chlorophyll,” the living substance in the
leaves is able to do this marvelous work.

The food thus manufactured is distributed throughout
the tree, either to be used wherever growth is going on, or
to be stored up. While we may say that there is an “ascend-
ing current” of sap through the sap wood, it is an error to
say that there is a “descending current.” The movement of
prepared food has no definite channel, but it is drawn in
every direction, wherever needed.

If we now consider the parts of a tree altogether, we
may be able to get some notion of the meaning of their posi-
tions. The roots must be related to the soil to secure
anchorage and raw material for food manufacture. The
leaves must be related to the air and light to secure more
raw material and help in doing their important work of
food manufacture. The stem is simply to carry the leaves
well up into the air and sunshine, and has no meaning except
as it is related to the work of the leaves. In thus widely

146 PLANTS

separating the roots and the leaves, the stem must act as a
channel of communication between them. |

In the tree trunks with which we are familiar, every one
has observed the concentric rings of wood that appear in
a cross-section. ‘These are usually spoken of as “annual
rings,” with the idea that one ring is made each year. In
consequence of this it is the habit to estimate the age of a
tree by counting these rings. Not infrequently it happens,
however, that more than one ring may be made in a year,
as a ring represents a single season of growth, and there
may be more than one season of growth during a single
year. It is much better to call them “growth rings,” and to
recognize the fact that by counting them we may be over-
estimating the age of a tree.

One of the most noticeable things about the principal
trees of our temperate climate is that they “shed” their
leaves every year, being covered with foliage during the
growing season and bare during the winter. This is known
as the “deciduous” habit, and such trees are called decidu-
ous trees, in distinction from “evergreen” trees. This is
really a habit brought about by the conditions in which trees
of temperate climates must live. The leaves of such trees
are broad and thin, fitted for very active work. When the
winter comes, they would be entirely unable to endure it.
The tree might protect them by giving them narrow forms
and thick walls (as in pines), but it would be at the expense
of activity during the growing season. It is more eco-
nomical for the tree to make an entirely new set of leaves
each year than to protect the old ones.

Perhaps the most noticeable feature in connection with

FORESTS 147

the fall of the leaves is that so many of them take on a rich
coloration. Our mixed American forest is the most bril-
liantly colored autumnal forest in the world, and there can
be no landscapes richer in color than those which include
such a forest. While all this should appeal to our sense of
the beautiful, it should raise the question as to what it means
in the life of the trees. We are not at all sure that we know,
for we cannot as yet explain the conditions which cause the
colors to be produced. We observe that they occur towards
the end of the activity of the leaf, but that they are necessa-
rily associated with cold, or drought, or certain outside con-
ditions, is not at all clear. The colors are various shades of
red and yellow, sometimes pure, sometimes mixed. It has
been suggested recently that the red color is to serve as a
protection. It is known that before the fall of the leaf the
living substances are gradually withdrawn into the perma-
nent parts of the tree, and that when these living parts cease
to work they are peculiarly helpless. At this unprotected
period the red appears, and this color absorbs enough heat
from the light to raise the temperature, and so the needed
protection against chill is afforded. This seems reasonable;
but the whole subject of the meaning of plant colors is very
obscure.

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CHAPTER V
FRUITS, NUTS, ETC.

Broaviy speaking, Fruits are as multitudinous in variety as
are the species of flowering plants upon which they grow.
When the term fruit is used in ordinary language, we gen-
erally have in mind those fruits which are edible for man,
and it is in this restricted sense that the term is here applied.
Edible fruits are found in all countries and grow upon
a great variety of flowering plants. ‘They resemble each
other in that they contain a high percentage of water, hold-
ing in solution acids, sugar, and other substances in variable
quantity. Sub-tropical and tropical countries are usually
considered the chief fruit countries. It would be more cor-
rect to state that all countries yield fruits in abundance,
though each zone has fruit plants peculiar to it.
Botanically considered, a fruit consists of the matured
or fully developed ovary enclosing the ripened seeds. <Ac-
cording to this definition, apples, pears, quince, pomegran-
ate, strawberry, and others are not true fruits. Apples,
pears, etc., consist largely of the modified fleshy calyx, and
the strawberry is a much-thickened torus, or receptacle. In
some cases only a part of the fruit is edible. There is an
outer thin covering, commonly known as the peel, which is
often eaten, but which would better be removed by peeling,
as it is indigestible and may cause trouble. In some cases
(banana, orange, lemon) the peel is very thick and wholly
149

150 PLANTS

inedible. In the case of peach, cherry, and plum, the hard
endocarp (shell) is inedible. In case of nuts, so called, the
seed is the edible portion, while that part of the fruit belong-
ing to the ovary (as hull and shell) is wholly inedible. These
nut seeds resemble each other in being very rich in oil and
comparatively dry. ‘They are, therefore, difficult to digest
and should be eaten only in small quantities at a time.
Most of the stone fruits are not especially palatable,
hence they are generally rejected, except such as the sweet
almond. ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

THE APPLE

The ancients better appreciated the importance of the
Apple than do the moderns, who treat it chiefly as “the
embryonic condition of cider or as something to be metamor-
phosed into pies.” It is said to be indigenous to every part
of the inhabited globe except South America and the islands
of the Pacific. It is equally at home in the fierce heat of
the equator and among the frosts of Siberia. In olden
times the fig was the index of a native civilization. Later
on, the vine was king, but at the present time there are
many who maintain that the apple is the only genuine index
of civilized man, and claim that it flourishes best in those
regions where man’s moral and intellectual supremacy is
most marked.

The Athenians made frequent mention of the cultivation
of the apple, and Pliny enumerates twenty varieties that
were known in his day. It is generally supposed that the
Goths and Vandals introduced the manufacture and use of

176 APPLE BLOSSOMS. COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A» Ws MUMFORD, CHiCAGO
(Pyrus Malus).
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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 151

cider into the Mediterranean provinces, and references to it
_ are made by Tertullian and the African Fathers. The use of
cider can be traced from Africa into the Biscayan provinces
of Spain, and thence to Normandy. It is supposed to have
come into England at the time of the conquest, but the word
“eyder” is said to be Anglo-Saxon, and there is reason to
believe that it was known in the island as early as the time
of Hengist. As the mistletoe grew chiefly on the apple
and the oak, the former was regarded with great respect
by the ancient Druids of Britain, and even to this day, in
some parts of England, the antique custom of saluting the
apple trees in the orchards, in the hope of obtaining a good
crop the next year, still lingers among the farmers of
Devonshire and Herefordshire. During the Middle Ages
the fruit was made the pretext for massacring the oppressed
tribes of Israel, as it was supposed that the Hebrews used
apples to entice children into their homes to furnish their
cannibal banquets.

The different varieties of apples have all descended from
a species of crab found wild in most parts of Europe.
Although there are two or three species of wild crab belong-
ing to this country, yet none of our cultivated varieties have
been raised from them, but rather from seeds of the species
brought here by the colonists from EKurope— over two hun-
dred varieties of apples are known at the present time. As
a rule, the apple is a hardy, slow-growing tree, with an
irregular head, rigid branches, roughish bark, and a close-
grained wood. It thrives best in limestone soils and deep
loams. It will not flourish in wet soils or on those of a
peaty or sandy character. As a rule, the trees live to be

152 PLANTS

fifty or eighty years of age, but there are specimens now
bearing fruit in this country that are known to be over two
hundred years old.

The wood is often stained black and used as ebony. It is
also made into shoe lasts, cog-wheels, and small articles of
furniture, and is greatly prized in Italy for wood carving
and statuary.

New and choice varieties of apples are derived from
seeds planted to produce stocks. One stock in ten thousand
may prove better than the original, and its virtues are per-
petuated by layers, cuttings, graftings, and budding. ‘The
tree is not subject to disease. Insects, notably the borer, the
woolly aphis, the caterpillar, the apple moth, and the bark
louse, have to be guarded against, and several blights occa-
sionally attack the foliage, but as a rule small loss is experi-
enced from these sources. Cuares S. Rapin.

THE PEACH

The Peach is one of the most important and best-known
fruits.

It is not found in the wild state in its present form,
though in some localities it propagates itself, having escaped
from cultivation.

It is probably a native of China, where it has been culti-
vated for centuries and where it is said to reach its greatest
perfection.

The number of varieties seems to be unlimited. Over
four hundred have been catalogued, though less than one
hundred of these are constant. ‘The nectarine is considered

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 153

a variety and closely related to the peach and the plum, the
apricot, and the cherry.

The tree itself, when bearing its beautiful rose-colored,
five-petaled flowers, is highly ornamental. It seldom grows
higher than twenty feet and its branches form a symmetrical
top. One very ornamental variety produces double flowers
and bright, shining leaves, but no fruit.

This valuable plant is generally placed in the family
Rosacee, which includes many species of economic and orna-
mental importance. Besides those already mentioned, here
belong the rose, the strawberry, the raspberry, the black-
berry, the apple, the pear, and the quince, as well as many
beautiful wild forms.

The thousand or more species usually classed in this
family may be readily separated into distinct groups, to
which are given distinct family names by some authorities.
Thus, the peach, the cherry, the plum, and the almond,
which resemble each other in regard to the structure of their
fruits and in their chemical constituents, may be placed in
a family by themselves. WituiaM Kerr HiIc.ey.

THE PEAR

The Pear, like the apple and many other forms of fruit,
is an inheritance from remote times and crude beginnings.
In a special degree it is a triumph of the horticulturists’
skill. The thorns which covered the trees that originally
flourished in Syria, in Egypt, and in Greece, have long
since disappeared, and the one-time acrid fruit has become
metamorphosed into the luscious forms which, under many

154 PLANTS

varietal names, hold the place of the favorite fruit of modern
times.

More than to any other source are we indebted to the
French Huguenots for the introduction and cultivation of
the pear into this country. Many examples of this early
cultivation may still be seen in the old trees in Long Island
and New Rochelle, in Michigan and Illinois. The intro-
duction by these people of the French method of propaga-
tion upon the quince stock gave an immense impetus to the
cultivation of the fruit, as by this process the period of
fruiting was reduced from twenty to thirty years to three
or four years.

The pear, like the apple, peach, plum, cherry, and many
other forms, is referred to the Rosacee, or Rose family. It
belongs to the genus Pyrus, which also includes the apple,
the crab apple, the mountain ash, and the historical rowan
tree. For the most part, the American forms have been
derived from the European Pyrus communis and the
oriental Pyrus sinensis. The trees differ in general aspects
from the apple tree in possessing a more pyramidal form,
in being considerably longer as a seedling plant, and, while
less hardy, being longer lived. It is propagated by seeds,
cuttings, layers, budding, and grafting, but its sensitiveness
to climatic conditions has materially lessened its distribution
in the United States. C. S. Rappin.

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

BANANA.
352 3 Natural size.

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 155

THE BANANA

The Banana Plant is herbaceous and dies down to the
ground after fruiting. The true stem is underground and
perennial, sending up new shoots each season, which grow
_ rapidly and in a few months bear ripened fruit.

The stalk that bears the flowers grows to a height of
from fifteen to twenty feet and is surrounded by the sheath-
ing bases of the leaves. The flower cluster or spike is
terminal and from two to four feet in length and nodding.
The oblong leaves are dark green in color, from five to ten
feet in length, and from one to two feet in width. ‘The
beautifully arching leaves and the pendulous cluster of
flowers or fruits form an attractive foliage and make the
plant a noted ornament for the garden.

The many varieties of both the banana and plantain,
which vary in taste, color, form, and size, are very widely
distributed throughout the world, being usually found in a
zone bounded by 38 degrees north and 388 degrees south
latitude. It is said that a single plant will produce, on
the average, in one year three bunches of fruit weighing
fifty or more pounds. The amount of labor required in
its cultivation is very small, especially in the older planta-
tions.

The number of bananas on a single stalk of the ordinary
variety varies from about one hundred to two hundred, with
~ an average of about one hundred and thirty. When a plan-
tation is fully developed growth is so rapid and so constant
that ripe bunches of fruit may be gathered each week.

156 PLANTS

For the best results a good, fertile soil is required. It is
interesting to note that but little moisture is needed, for the
plants attract water, either from the air or the waters deep
under ground, and the surface of the ground is always moist
even in a time of unusual drought.

The stalk that bears the heavy bunch of fruit, occasion-
ally weighing as much as eighty pounds, may be easily cut
down by a single stroke of a scythe or a machete.

W. K. Hictey.
THE ORANGE*

The tree which produces the well-known Orange of com-
merce is closely related to the lemon, the citron, and the
lime, and with them belongs to the genus Citrus.

The Arabian physicians were familiar with the medicinal
virtues of the orange and have spoken of it in their writings.

In more recent years the cultivation of the various vari-
eties has spread throughout the world wherever the climate
and the conditions of the soil will permit the ripening of
the fruit.

Risso, in his valuable history of the Orange family, enu-
merates one hundred and sixty-nine varieties with distinct
characteristics. Of these, he classes forty-three under the
Citrus aurantium.

Besides the sweet and bitter varieties, the more common
ones are the mandarin orange of China, a flat and spheroidal
fruit the rind of which easily separates from the pulp; the
tangerine, which is very fragrant and originally derived
from the mandarin, and the Maltese, or blood orange, com-
monly grown in southern Italy and notable for its deep red

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 157

pulp. There are many other varieties that bear geograph-
ical or local names.

Few forms of plant life present to the beholder more
beautiful characteristics than an orange tree in full bearing.
Such a tree, in addition to the unripe and ripe yellow fruit,
has also numerous white flowers, which give off their won-
derful perfume, and its symmetrically arranged branches
are covered with rich dark green leaves. It is a tree that
appeals not alone to the sense of taste, but to the esthetic
nature as well.

THE LEMON

The Lemon is the fruit of a small tree from ten to fifteen
feet high. It is not particularly beautiful, being rather
shrubby in its appearance. It is an evergreen, bearing
leaves, flowers, and fruit all the year round. The flowers
occur singly in the axils of the leaves. The calyx is persis-
tent, that is, it does not drop off like the corolla, and may
be found attached to the base of the fruit. The corolla
consists of five spreading petals of a purplish-pink color.

The lemons of the market are from cultivated plants, of
which there are a large number of varieties. These cultivated
varieties or forms took their origin from the wild lemon
trees native in northern India, in the mountain forests of
the southern Himalayas, in Kumoan, and Sikkim.

As the result of cultivation there are now about fifty
varieties of lemons in existence. Some of these are com-
paratively sweet, or rather insipid, and are therefore, known
as sweet lemons. The sour varieties are, however, more
generally cultivated.

158 PLANTS

As above stated, the lemon tree bears fruit all the year
round, so that a number of crops are gathered annually.
There are, however, three principal crops collected, as fol-
lows: The first, from July to the middle of September; the
second, in November, and the third, in January. Frequently
there are also collections in April and in May. The tree is
rather delicate; not as hardy as the orange, for example.
In upper Italy it even becomes necessary to cover the trees
during the winter months. Lemons intended for shipment
are picked before they are fully ripe and packed in barrels
or boxes holding from four to seven hundred. When
exposed the fruit shrinks and loses in weight very rapidly,
due to the evaporation of moisture from the pulpy interior.

The following is a description of the excellently colored
plate: A is a flowering and fruit-bearing twig, nearly nat-
ural size; 1 is a single flower, somewhat magnified; 2,
stamens and pistil; 3, ovary in longitudinal sections; 8a,
ovary in cross-section; 4, antlers; 4a, pollen-grains; 5, fruit,
nearly natural size; 6, cross-section of fruit showing rind,
large-celled pulp, and seeds; 7, 8, and 9, seeds.

A. SCHNEIDER.

Originally a native of Asia, the Lemon has become
widely distributed in Europe, Africa, and America, and,
although far more susceptible to injury from frosts than
the orange, the trees are successfully cultivated under many
conditions. Doubtless the best results in this country have
been obtained in California. ‘Thousands of acres around
San Diego are planted with lemon trees, while large districts
in the Ojai Valley, Ventura, Santa Barbara, Pomona, and

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 159

Los Angeles counties are devoted to its cultivation. The
tree is remarkable for beauty, and, while it seldom attains
large proportions, its pale green leaves, loosely hanging
branches, showy and fragrant flowers, together with the
fruit that is found in all stages of development, produce a
pleasing and highly ornamental effect. While the best crop
of lemons is generally gathered between December and
April, the fruit should be picked every month for ten
months of the year, in order to retain the best results. As
a rule, the trees yield from one hundred and twenty-five to
one hundred and forty boxes of the fruit to the acre, about
the sixth year, but this number is increased to four hundred
boxes when the groves reach an age of ten years.

The varieties of lemons are distinguished chiefly by their
size and form, and may be roughly classified as egg-shaped
with blunt nipples and oblong lemons with large nipples.
The sweet lemon and thin-rind Poncine and Naples belong
to the first class, while the second includes such forms as the
imperial, the Geta, and the wax. The principal varieties
grown in California are the Lisbon, Eureka, and the Villa-
Franca. Of these, the Eureka originated in California,
while the Villa-Franca was imported from Europe. Besides
the grateful quality of the juice, the expressed oil of the
rind is used in the arts and has an intense odor of lemon.

C. S. Rappin.
THE LIME

The Lime belongs to the same genus of plants as the
orange, lemon, grape fruit, and citron. The lime, lemon,
and citron are closely related and are now considered vari-

160 PLANTS

eties of the same species, the Latin name of which is medica,
named by the Romans for the country Media. This species
is very valuable, having been greatly modified by cultiva-
tion.

The lime is the fruit of a bush or low tree which seldom
grows higher than twenty feet. The tree will thrive in
quite poor and rocky soil. It is more tender than most of
the citrus fruits, and can withstand less cold than the lemon.
Its cultivation has, for this reason, been abandoned in many
localities where the sweet orange seems to thrive.

Several varieties of the lime are cultivated in the United
States. The more important of these are the Mexican,
which has a small and rather oblong fruit; the Persian,
introduced from Persia, which bears a larger fruit; the
Rangpur, introduced from India, which bears a fruit resem-
bling the mandarine orange in that the rind is easily sep-
arable from the pulp and the carpels may be separated as in
the orange. The most highly prized variety is the Tahiti,
the fruit of which is quite large and nearly seedless.

In tropical countries limes are more highly prized than
lemons for making cooling drinks. They are also used
extensively for the manufacture of lime juice and citric acid.
The lime is used as a flavor at soda fountains, and is also
used to make a drink called limeade.

The juice of the lime is quite extensively used as a pre-
ventive of and as a remedy for scurvy. British sailors are
sometimes called “lime-juicers,” from the fact that “the
law requires that the crews be furnished with a weekly
allowance of the extract of limes or lemons, as a preventive
of scurvy.”

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 161

GRAPE FRUIT

The Grape Fruit is a species of the genus Citrus, which
also includes the orange, lemon, lime, and citron. Accounts
vary regarding its origin, but it is generally supposed to be
a native of the islands on the southern coast of Asia.

The grape fruit is really a monstrous orange. The fruit
is from four to eight inches in diameter, and, while in China
and Japan its sweet taste has given it the name of sweet
ball, as a rule the pulp and juice are sub-acid, or bitter,
but withal quite refreshing.

The grape fruit, like all forms of extra development, is
more showy than useful. It flourishes in tropical and in
sub-tropical countries which are not liable to frost, being
far more sensitive to cold than is the orange. Florida seems
peculiarly well adapted to the cultivation of this fruit, as
well as the varieties used for ornamental purposes only.
The tree is a beautiful evergreen with dark shining leaves,
against which the clusters of greenish-yellow fruit, which
are found on the tree in various stages of development at
all seasons of the year, produce a most pleasing and orna-
mental effect.

The grape fruit trees attain a height of from fifteen to
twenty-five feet. ‘The heads of the trees are spreading and
the branches armed with prickles. The leaves are somewhat
downy underneath and the winged petiols are nearly as
broad as the leaves. The white flowers have five petals and
five sepals, and the fruit, which is a berry, may attain a
weight of fourteen pounds.

162 PLANTS

The term grape fruit is derived from the fact that the
fruit grows in clusters of from three to fifteen, thereby
suggesting clusters of grapes.

The trees of the grape fruit are not as liable to disease
as are the orange trees. Insects and scales do not attack
them to any material extent, and this immunity, together
with the advantage of being able to raise the trees from
seeds, has tended to the development of many varieties,
some of which are of great commercial value.

C. S. Rapp.
THE KUMQUAT

The Kumquat, which is esteemed by many persons a
great delicacy, is the fruit of a low bush. It is a native of
Cochin-China or China and is extensively cultivated in
Japan, California, and Florida. The smooth, angular
branches bear a dense foliage of dark green leaves. It
is a dwarf member of the citrus group, rarely growing
to a height of over eight feet, and is closely related to the
orange, the lemon, and the lime. The tree or bush varies
greatly in size, but, whether large or small, it will produce
a plentiful supply of fruits. As an ornamental pot plant
for house decoration it is a beautiful evergreen, blooming
freely during the spring and early summer. The flowers,
which are like those of the orange tree, are small, sweet-
scented, white, and either clustered or solitary in the axils of
the leaves. The fruits are orange colored and in form either
ovate, oblong, or spherical. The transverse section of the
fruit very closely resembles that of the orange and shows
either five or six cells and quite large seeds. The pulp is

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 163

sour and slightly bitter, while the rind is sweet and some-
what aromatic. Both rind and pulp are eaten and the
combination of flavor and taste are greatly admired by
many persons.

Two varieties of kumquats are grown in the United
States; the Marumi, or round kumquats, and the Nagami,
or the oval or oblong forms. The trees that bear the round
variety are slightly thorny and the fruits vary from about
three-fourths to one and one-quarter inches in diameter.
The oval or oblong forms are borne by trees without thorns
and have a diameter of from three-fourths to one inch and
a length varying from one and one-fourth to two inches.
These are more highly esteemed than are the round fruits.

_ Though eaten while fresh, this fruit is extensively used
in making a preserve and marmalade. It is also candied,
and is used as a flavor in confectionery.

THE: QUINCE

The Quince is the pear-like fruit of a bush or small tree
resembling the pear tree. The branches are spreading and
of a grayish-green or brownish-green color. ‘The leaves are
simple, entire, ovate, with short petioles and distinct stip-
ules. The lower surface of leaves and stipules, as well as
the young twigs and the sepals, are densely covered with
hair cells, producing a woolly appearance. The flowers
develop in May and June and are usually solitary upon
terminal branches. Calyx green, with five foliaceous, ser-
rate, reflexed lobes. Corolla of five separate ovate, rather
large pink petals. Stamens yellow, numerous (twenty) ;

164 PLANTS

five styles and a five-celled ovary. The matured fruit is a
pome; that is, the greater bulk consists of the thickened
calyx enclosing the ovary. The form, size, and color of
the ripe fruit are shown in the illustration. Each cell of
the ovary bears from six to fifteen seeds, which resemble
apple seeds very closely as to form and color.

On account of its astringency it has been used in dysen-
tery, hemorrhage, and other conditions requiring an astrin-
gent substance. At present it is little used, the seeds
excepted.

The pulp is fibrous and tough; it is not edible in the
raw state on account of its acrid, astringent taste. As a
whole, it is a discouraging and disagreeable fruit, in spite
of its beautiful yellow color and pleasantly aromatic odor.
Mixed with apples, it makes excellent pies and tarts. A
marmalade is made from the pulp; also a delicious jelly.

The seeds are extensively used, on account of the muci-
lage of the outer surface. A decoction commonly known as
mucilage of quince seed is much used as a demulcent in
certain diseases—in erysipelas, inflammatory conditions of
the eyes, and in other affections where mucilaginous appli-
cations are found useful. Most of the quince seed of the
market comes from southern Russia, southern France, and
the Cape of Good Hope. It is cultivated in various tem-
perate and sub-tropical countries.

Description of plate: A, flowering twig; B, fruit; 1,
stipules; 2, flower in section; 3, stamen; 4, pollen; 5, style;
6, stigma; 7 and 8, fruit in sections; 9 and 10, seeds of one
cell of the ovary; 11, seeds; 12, seed in sections.

ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 165

STRAWBERRY

Strawberries are small, herbaceous plants belonging to
the Rose family. They are perennial, propagating by means
of runners. The white flowers have the general character-
istics of the apple blossom and the rose; that is, five
(double) sepals and five petals, with numerous stamens
and pistils.

The word strawberry is both perplexing and scien-
tifically incorrect. The edible part is not a “berry,” but
the much-enlarged fleshy torus, or receptacle, to which the
numerous very small, rather hard fruits (seeds) are attached.
It is botanically a “false fruit,” and not a berry at all.
The green, ten-parted, star-shaped, leafy structure found
attached to the base of the so-called berry is the permanent
calyx, which is removed before the fruit is eaten.

About six or seven species are natives of the United
States, where they grow wild in prairie lands, as well as in
the wooded areas.

The numerous culture varieties are derived from a com-
paratively few of the fifteen wild stock species. The desir-
able qualities are sweetness, delicacy of flavor, good size,
small seeds, and pulpiness.

Strawberries, for successful cultivation, require rich soil
in a protected place. They do not yield a full crop until
the second summer after transplanting.

Growers must keep in mind the fact that certain plants
produce essentially pistillate flowers and others essentially
staminate flowers. Staminate plants are not productive, but

* 166 PLANTS

are essential in pollination. The yield of berries varies
greatly with soil, climate, cultivation, and variety. Under
favorable conditions the yield may be over two hundred
bushels per acre. A, SCHNEIDER.

THE CHERRY

The Cherry-trees belong to the Rose family and are
thus botanically related to the apple, rose, pear, and straw-
berry.

Cherry trees are cultivated throughout all civilized coun-
tries. As with most other long-cultivated fruits, the various
varieties are the product of crossing (cross-pollination),
artificial selection, and cultivation, and desirable plants are
perpetuated by grafting. There are various wild-growing
species of cherry, which must not be confused with the
cultivated varieties. The wild black cherry is very common
in our woods.

The fruit of the cultivated domestic cherry is the most
desirable and is usually had in mind when cherries are
mentioned.

Cherry wine is made from the fleshy pulp, which has an
excellent quality and flavor. Cherry syrup is the product
of fermentation and filtration, with the addition of sugar,
and is used as a flavor for cold drinks and added to medi-
cines to improve their efficiency and disguise taste. By
crushing and distilling the seeds cherry water is obtained.
The flowers and fruit stems are employed in kidney and
catarrhal troubles. Cherries may be preserved by drying
or pickling. The fruits are also macerated in whisky and

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 167

brandy, adding to these drinks an agreeable flavor and
acidity. For this purpose the fruit of the wild black cherry
is very extensively used. The bark, particularly of the wild
black cherry, is extensively employed in medicine. It is a
very popular household remedy for the treatment of coughs
and colds in children. The gum which exudes from the
incised or otherwise injured bark is also used medicinally.
Cherry wood is hard and takes a good polish. It is
used in cabinet making, interior finish, and for inlaid work.
Cherries are also employed by the confectioner and by
the baker in making pies. The seeds (kernels, pits) are
first removed. The habit of swallowing the pits is a danger-
ous one, as serious and even fatal troubles are caused by
them. A. SCHNEIDER.

THE GRAPE

The name Grape is from the French grappe, a bunch of
grapes; from the same root as gripe or grab, to grasp. It
is one of the most valuable fruits, not only because of its
use in the manufacture of wine, and is the source also from
which brandy, vinegar, and tartaric acid are obtained, but
because, both in a fresh and dried state, it forms not a mere
article of luxury, but a great part of the food of the inhab-
itants of some countries.

The cultivation of the vine was introduced into England
by the Romans, and of late years its cultivation has much
increased in gardens, on the walls of suburban villas and of
cottages, but chiefly for the sake of the fresh fruit, although
wine is also made in small quantities for domestic use.

168 PLANTS

The cultivation of the vine varies much in different coun-
tries. In the vineries of Britain the vines are carefully
trained in various ways so as most completely to cover the
walls and trellises and to turn the whole available space to
the utmost account. The luxuriant growth of the plant
renders the frequent application of the pruning-knife neces-
sary during the summer. The bunches of grapes are gener-
ally thinned out with great care, in order that finer fruit
may be produced. By such means, and the aid of artificial
heat, grapes are produced equal to those of the most favored
climates, and the vine attains to a large size and a great
age. ‘The famous vine at Hampton Court has a stem more
than a foot in circumference, one branch measuring one
hundred and fourteen feet in length, and has produced in
one season two thousand two hundred bunches of grapes,
weighing on an average one pound each, or in all about a
ton. C. C. Marie.

THE TOMATO

The Tomato is an herbaceous plant, belonging to the
Nightshade family, the same family to which the potato
and tobacco belong. It is a native of South America, but
is very extensively cultivated in nearly all countries, except-
ing the cold northern regions.

Botanically, the fruit is a berry, and before ripening is
of a bright green color, changing to red in the red variety
and to yellow in the yellow variety. The same plant bears
flowers and ripe fruits, so that fruits may be gathered for
a considerable period.

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Tomatoes have a peculiar flavor and somewhat acid
taste when ripe. The pulp contains many seeds. As with
other garden plants, there are numerous culture varieties.
Some are no larger than cherries. Some are pear-shaped;
others large and flattened at the ends. Some are nearly
spherical; others quite irregular. The ripe fruits must be
gathered promptly, as they decay very readily and quickly.

At the present time the tomato is very little used medic-
inally, but is very extensively used as an article of diet.
Picked green, they are pickled either alone or mixed with
other vegetables. The ripened fruit is prepared in a multi-
tude of ways. Peeled and sliced raw, adding salt, pepper,
vinegar and sugar. Boiled in soups, mixed with sauces,
baked or fried entire, fried or baked, mashed, mixed with
stale bread and seasoned, etc. There is a popular super-
stition that eating tomatoes to excess cauces cancer. Tomato
preserves are highly relished by some. Likewise tomato pies.

The general opinion prevails among scientists, as well as
laymen, that the tomato is nourishing and wholesome. It is
certainly harmless when ripe, but the green pickled prep-
arations are not nourishing, nor particularly wholesome.
The notion that pickles aid digestion is a mistaken one.
The spices added may stimulate, but the green-fruit parti-
cles are not digestible. A. SCHNEIDER.

EGG PLANT

The Egg Plant, also known as Bringal, Aubergine,
Egg-apple, and Mad-apple, is an herbaceous plant belong-
ing to the Night-shade family, therefore kin to the potato

170 PLANTS

and tomato. It is a tender annual, readily killed by the
early frosts. It has rather large, simple, somewhat incised
leaves. The fruits are large, egg-shaped, tomato-like in
structure, hence berries.

It is quite extensively cultivated in gardens. The seeds
are sown in hot beds early in April, but transplanting is
not done until about the first of June, when all danger of
frost is past. The soil should be very rich and the plants
set about three feet apart. Like most transplanted plants,
they require shading and watering for a few days. Careful
cultivation is required during the entire season. Propping
may be necessary to keep the large, heavy fruits from the
ground. The Colorado beetle is a very annoying enemy of
the growing plants and must be effectually fought to insure
a crop.

There are several varieties of egg plant. The purple
variety is by long odds the greatest favorite. There are also
white and yellow varieties.

Most people consider the properly prepared fruit of the
ego plant a delicacy. In some tropical countries it forms
an important article of diet. The ripe fruit is prepared for
the table by peeling and boiling. After boiling the fruit is
sliced, seasoned, and fried until well browned in rolled
crackers or bread crusts and a liberal supply of butter.
When well prepared it is a very palatable article of diet,
but when insufficiently cooked or fried it is indigestible. It
does not seem to be prepared in other ways, nor does it
seem to have any noteworthy medicinal properties.

A. SCHNEIDER.

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PINE-APPLE.

ls Life-size.

COPYRIGHT 1300,

BY A» W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 171

THE PINEAPPLE

This tropical fruit is so called from its resemblance in
form and appearance to the cones of some species of pine.
The Bromeliacee, to which it belongs, are a small family
of endogenous plants, quite closely related to the canna,
ginger, and banana families, and differing from them in
having nearly regular flowers and six stamens, all perfect.
As the Pineapple has become naturalized in parts of Asia
and Africa, its American origin has been disputed, but
there is little doubt that it is a native of Brazil, and perhaps
some of the Antilles, now a part of the domain of the
United States. This fruit is a biennial, with the habit of
the aloe, but with much thinner leaves. In cultivation it
early produces seeds, but in ripening the whole flower clus-
ter undergoes a remarkable change; all parts become enor-
mously enlarged and, when quite ripe, fleshy and very
succulent, being pervaded by a saccharine and highly fla-
vored juice. Instead of being a fruit, in the strict botanical
sense of the term, it is an aggregation of accessory parts, of
which the fruit proper forms but a very small portion.

The first pineapples known in England were sent as a
present to Oliver Cromwell; the first cultivated in that coun-
try were raised in about 1715, though they were grown in
Holland in the preceding century. The successful cultiva-
tion of the fruit was early considered one of the highest
achievements in horticulture, and the works of a few years
ago are tediously elaborate in their instructions; but the
matter has been so much simplified that anyone who can

172 PLANTS

command the proper temperature and moisture may expect
success. C. C. MARBLE.

THE POMEGRANATE*

The Pomegranate is tree-like, growing to a height of
about fifteen feet and in favorable soil even as high as
twenty feet. It is probably native in Persia, though it is
found in a wild state in all the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean Sea. It is also found in China and Japan,
and has been brought by man to all of the civilized parts
of the globe, where the climate is of a sufficiently high
degree of warmth to permit the ripening of its fruit.

This little tree is frequently cultivated not alone for the
beauty of its form, but for the beauty of its flowers, which,
under cultivation, become doubled and show an increased
and striking splendor in the richness of their color.

The pomegranate belongs to the family of plants called
Lythracee. This family has about three hundred and fifty
species, which are widely distributed, but are most abundant
in tropical regions, especially in America.

The color of the flowers, which develop on the ends of
the younger branches, is a deep and rich scarlet or crimson.
Many variations have been produced by growing the plants
from seeds, and one of these bears white flowers. The
petals are rounded and usually crumpled.

The fruit, which is a berry about the size of an ordinary
orange, is, when fresh, usually of a reddish-yellow color,
becoming brownish in drying. ‘The rind is thick and
leathery and encloses a quantity of pulp which is filled

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 173

with a refreshing juice that is acid. It is of a pinkish
or reddish color, and encloses the numerous angular seeds.
Probably the chief value of the plant lies in the use of the
fruit as a relish, though the rind of the fruit and the bark
of the root are used in medicine.

The bark contains a large amount of tannin, and from
it there is also obtained a bright yellow dye, which is used
to produce the yellow Levant morocco. In regions without
frost the tree is often grown for ornamental purposes.

THE PERSIMMON *

The Persimmon, or Virginian Date Plum, is a North
American tree, growing wild in nearly all of the southern
United States, and will thrive and ripen its fruits as far
north as the state of Connecticut and the Great Lakes. It
is one of about one hundred and eighty species belonging to
the genus Diospyros. These are all hardy trees or shrubs.
Representatives of the genus are found in nearly all regions
that have a tropical or a temperate climate.

Only a few of the species are cultivated. These are
highly ornamental trees with a beautiful foliage, which is
rarely attacked by insects. The common persimmon of
America is the only species that is at all hardy in the north.
This and the Japanese species are the only trees that pro-
duce the edible fruit commonly found in the market. The
wood of nearly all the species of Diospyros is hard and
close-grained. The trees that yield the beautiful ebony of
commerce belong to this genus, and the species that is said to
yield the best quality of this wood is a native of the East

174" PLANTS
Indies and Ceylon. It is also cultivated to some extent in
hothouses and in tropical climates.

The common persimmon of the United States is a tree
usually growing to a height of about fifty or sixty feet and
rarely reaching one hundred feet. This is a beautiful round-
topped tree with more or less spreading branches. The name
persimmon is of Indian origin and of unknown meaning.
The fruit of this species is but lightly appreciated, except
by those who visit the forest regions in which it is native,
for it is only cultivated to a very limited extent. The fruit
is globular in form and quite plum-like. It varies both in
size, color and flavor. When green the fruit is astringent
and has a very disagreeable taste. ‘This, however, disap-
pears when the fruit becomes fully matured.

THE WATERMELON

The Watermelon is a native of Africa. In fact, Liv-
ingston states that in Africa large areas are covered by the
plants growing in a wild state, and in New Jersey and
Long Island, where large fields are devoted to its cultiva-
tion, the plants show a marked tendency to spread spon-
taneously.

The watermelon belongs to an eminently respectable but
not a particularly aristocratic family. Its near relations
are the gourd, the cucumber, the pumpkin, and the squash.
There is probably no country in which this fruit is so largely
cultivated as in the United States, its habitat being limited,
however, to the southern and middle portions of North
America to the fourth degree of latitude. ‘The short sea-

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 175

sons of the more northern states are unfitted for the com-
plete development of the fruit. It is peculiar in the fact that
it yields no important by-products, with the exception that
its saccharine matter may be converted into sugar. The
juices of the fruit cannot be converted into wine or vinegar,
and, unlike the cantaloupe, it does not produce a good
brandy when distilled.

The plants are annual, trailing, slender vines extending
from eight to fifteen feet. The leaves are five-lobed, from
three to six inches in length, and in dry countries the plants
often supply vegetation when all others are dried up. The
leaves are possessed of an unusual perspiratory power, hence
they require a greater amount of moisture than the majority
of plants, the roots often extending a considerable distance
to reach water. C. S. Rappin.

NUTS *

1. The English Walnut has a thin shell. This nut is
much esteemed and is an important article of commerce. It
yields by expression a bland fixed oil, which, under the
names of “walnut oil” and “nut oil,” is much used by
painters and is a common article of food.

2. The Peanut is also called Ground Nut and Earth
Nut. It is cultivated in all warm regions of the globe, and
its usefulness is such that it is likely to extend.

3. The Brazil Nut is a popular nutritious nut grown
in Brazil. The large outer shell is filled with nuts, making
a most peculiar fruit. The shell is very hard and contains
a rich, oily meat in one piece like an almond.

176 PLANTS

4. The Hickory Nut abounds near the Great Lakes
and in some parts of New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The
nuts are in considerable demand and are sometimes exported.
The shell is thin but hard and the kernel sweet.

5. The Filbert is the fruit of the hazel. The kernel
has a mild, farinaceous, oily taste agreeable to the palate.
In England filberts are usually large hazel nuts. The
American hazel nuts are of two other species.

6. The Chestnut is eaten raw, boiled, or roasted, or is
ground into meal, and puddings, cakes, and bread are made
from it. The tree is common to Europe and America.

7% The Pecan, sometimes called the Illinois Nut, a
species of hickory nut. The shell is thin and the meat
well flavored. The tree grows in North America, chiefly
in the Mississippi Valley, and in Texas, where it is one of
the largest of forest trees.

8. The Almond grows on a tree about twenty or thirty
feet high, a native of the East and of Africa, but has now
become completely wild in the whole south of Europe.

THE ENGLISH WALNUT AND RELATED TREES

The English Walnut, Butternut, Black Walnut, Shag-
bark or Shellbark Hickory, Mockernut or Whiteheart Hick-
ory, Bitternut Hickory, and Pignut Hickory are closely
related, belonging to the Butternut family. They are
large, handsome trees with spreading branches and clean-cut
leaves. They are of comparatively slow growth, but hardy
and enduring. The English walnut is a tall, large, hand-
some tree which undoubtedly came from India.

IM KCEHLER’S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN. ENGLISH WALNUT. CHICAGO:

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FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 177

All the other members of the Butternut family are com-
mon throughout the United States, either growing wild or
under cultivation. The wood of the butternut or white
walnut and that of the black walnut is extensively used in
cabinet making, furniture making, and interior finish, par-
ticularly the wood of the black walnut. The earlier craze
for black walnut furniture threatened to exterminate the
plant, but, fortunately (for the walnut tree), the fashion
is waning. The wood is heavy, dark brown in color, of
medium hardness, easily worked, and readily polished,
though it does not take the glossy polish of the harder
woods, as ebony. Hickory wood is very hard, tough, and
durable, but it is not suitable for cabinet making, etc.,
because it warps too much. It is an excellent wood for
making handles for tools of all descriptions, oxen yokes,
hoops, walking-sticks, whiffletrees, wagon stocks, etc. Its
tensile strength is enormous, being said to be equal to that
of wrought iron.

The seeds (kernels) of the English walnut, butternut,
black walnut, and shagbark hickory are edible and greatly
relished, while those of the bitter and pignut hickories are
not edible. Eating too many of the kernels causes distress-
ing dyspeptic symptoms because of the large amount of
oil which they contain. Salting the kernels before eating
or taking a little salt with them is said to lessen these
disturbances.

Description of plate: A, twig with staminate and pistil-
late flowers; B, twig with pistillate flowers; C, fruit; 1-6,
flowers and floral parts; 7-10, fruit and seed (nut)

A. SCHNEIDER.

178 PLANTS

THE ALMOND

The Almond is ie fruit of a small tree belonging to the
Rose family. The plant is believed to be a native of north-
ern Africa, Persia, and Turkestan. It occurs wild in Sicily
and Greece and is cultivated throughout temperate Europe,
including England.

The leaves of the almon. tree are simple, broadly lance-
olate, margins serrate, brigh green, and stalked. The flow-
ers are nearly sessile, mostly solitary, petals bright pink;
otherwise similar to the flowers of the rose family as seen
in the apple blossom, cherry blossom, and the wild rose.
The fruit is a drupe or store fruit, resembling the peach
in its general structural characters. It is, however, much
smaller, measuring about one and one-half inch in length.
As in the peach, the outer portion of the fruit coat is fleshy,
the inner portion is hard and encloses the kernel or seed to
which the term almond usually is applied. The plant is very
ornamental, producing its beautiful flowers in March, before
the leaves are developed.

Two natural varieties of almonds are quite universally
recognized — the sweet and the bitter. They resemble each
other so closely in general appearance that it is practically
impossible to distinguish between them. The principal dif-
ference lies in the chemistry of the kernels or seeds them-
selves. In the bitter variety amygdalin is found, which is
practically wanting in the sweet variety.

At the present time the sweet almond is extensively cul-
tivated in northern Africa, southern Europe, and in the

CRICAGO:
FROM KCEHLER'S MEDICINAL-PFLANZEN, ALMOND. a W. MUMFORD PUBLISHER
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Edible Pine. Butter-nut in husk.

Cross section Black Walnut. Cocoa Nut. Black Walnut.
(Opp. 2007)

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 179

warmer parts of the United States, particularly in Cali-
fornia. Climatic conditions and cultivation has a great influ-
ence upon the quality of the almonds, and we have as a
result quite a number of commercial varieties, just as we
have commercial varieties of coffee, tea, oranges, etc. The
more important commercial varieties are the Jordan, Valen-
cia, Barbary, and California almonds.

Description of plate: A, B, branch with flowers and
fruit; 1, 1a, flowers from different trees; 2, 2a, petals; 3,
stamens; 4, pollen; 5, stamen; 6, 7, ovary; 8, 9, seed with
shell; 10, seed without shell; 11, 12, sections of seed.

A. SCHNEIDER.

THE COCOANUT*

The fruit of the Cocoanut Palm, which is the most use-
ful tree of all its tribe to the natives of the regions in which
it grows, is one of the most valuable and important of com-
mercial products. On the Malabar and Corvomandel coasts
of India the trees grow in vast numbers; and in Ceylon,
which is peculiarly well situated for their cultivation, it is
estimated that twenty millions of the trees flourish. The
wealth of a native of Ceylon is estimated by his property in
cocoanut trees, and Sir Emerson Tennent notes a law case
in a district court in which the subject in dispute was a
claim of the twenty-fifth twentieth part of an acre of palms.
The tree is very beautiful and lofty, growing to a height of
from sixty to one hundred feet, with a cylindrical stem which
attains a thickness of two feet. It terminates in a crown of
graceful leaves. ‘The leaf sometimes attains a length of

180 PLANTS

twenty feet, consists of a strong midrib, whence numerous
long, acute leafllets spring, giving the whole, as one tray-
eler described it, the appearance of a gigantic feather. The
fruit consists of a thick external husk or rind of a fibrous
structure, within which is the ordinary cocoanut of com-
merce. The nut has a very hard, woody shell, inclosing the
kernel, within which again is a milky substance of a rather
agreeable taste.

The cocoanut palm is so widely disseminated through-
out tropical countries that it is impossible to distinguish its
original habitat. It flourishes with equal vigor on the coast
of the East Indies, throughout the tropical islands of the
Pacific, and in the West Indies and tropical America. It
is most at home, however, in the numerous small islands of
the Pacific Ocean.

COCOA

The Cocoa-yielding plant is a tree varying from fifteen
to forty feet in height. The main stem or trunk is much
twisted and knotty, from which the branches stand out
almost horizontally. The bark is thick, rough, and of a
cinnamon-brown color.

The chocolate tree is a native of Mexico, Central Amer-
ica, Brazil, and other South American countries. It is now
extensively cultivated in most tropical countries of both
hemispheres. The West Indian islands have numerous large
plantations. It is also found in botanic gardens and green-
houses. There are several cultivated varieties.

The cocoa or cacao-yielding plant must not be con-
founded with the cocoanut palm or the coca-yielding plant.

A. W. MUMFORD, PUBLISHER, CHICAGO

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424

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 181

There is perhaps no food substance which is more univer-
sally liked than chocolate. Mothers have no small amount
of trouble in hiding the household chocolate from the chil-
dren. With the omnipresent penny-in-the-slot machine,
more pennies are credited to it than to the chewing gum.
The housewife and baker use it very extensively with choco-
late cake. The confectioner uses it very freely, to the great
delight of the children.

The principal use to which cocoa is put is in the prepa-
ration of a beverage. For this purpose, enormous quantities
of chocolate, cocoa broma, and hulls are consumed annually.
The drink is prepared by thoroughly triturating the desired
amount of chocolate, cocoa, or broma with a small quantity
of water, then stirring this into the necessary quantity of
boiling milk or water, and boiling for a few minutes, with
constant stirring. The oil present gives the drink great
nutritive value.

Cocoa butter, which resembles tallow in consistency and
appearance, is used in medical and pharmaceutical practice
as a salve or pomade for external application in eruptive
diseases, as scarlet fever, etc. Cocoa also finds extensive
use in medical practice, though it has no marked curative
properties.

Description of plate: Fruit and seeds: B, pericarp; 11,
showing how seeds are contained in pericarp; 12, cross sec-
tion of pericarp; 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, seeds.

ALBERT SCHNEIDER.

182 PLANTS

CORN

Maize, or Indian Corn, alsc known as Corn, is a plant
belonging to the grass family. It usually attains a height
of about seven feet, the single unbranched stem being
jointed, only slightly tapering, with a central pith and an
outer hard tissue to give necessary resistance to heavy winds.
Each node (joint) has a single long, sword-like leaf, the
lower portion of which encloses the stem (internode) like a
sheath. The fruit, known as the “ ear,” is collective, several
hundred individual fruits, usually designated as “ kernels,”
being fastened to the spike, commonly known as the “cob.”

At the present time, corn is extensively cultivated in
various countries, but nowhere on such an enormous scale
as in the Mississippi Valley. The Mississippi corn region,
with Springfield, Illinois, as its center, produces annually
from 10,000 to 15,000 millions of bushels, or about three-
fourths of the total crop of the United States. In the Cen-
tral States corn is cultivated on a large and simple scale,
made possible by the rich soil. One man with four horses
cultivates from eighty to one hundred acres, besides oats
and other farm products. Corn requires rich, black, loose
soil, with good surface drainage, and special climatic condi-
tions. .The season must be warm and nights must not be
cool.

With perhaps the one exception of rice, maize is the most
extensively used grain in the world. In fact, all parts of
the plant are used. The leaves form an excellent fodder for
horses and cattle. The stalks also are used in paper making

FRUITS, NUTS, ETC. 183

and in fertilizing the soil. The husk is used in mattresses.
The most valuable part of the corn is the fruit, generally
spoken of as the grain, or kernel. Green corn is highly rel-
ished as an article of diet, although its food value is cer-
tainly overestimated, as it is hard to digest. For this pur-
pose sweet corn is preferred. A. SCHNEIDER.

WHEAT

The classification of the different varieties of cultivated
Wheat has occupied the attention of many botanists and
agriculturists. A good selection of seed, according to the
nature of the soil, demands intelligence and accurate know]l-
edge on the part of the farmer. If a good variety be grown
in poor soil, the result will be unprofitable, while if bad
wheat is grown on good soil, the result may be nil. In
botanical collections there exist, it is stated, herbarium speci-
mens or other evidences of plants grown in Norway as far
north as latitude 65 degrees, in Switzerland at an elevation
of 1,200 feet above the Valley of Zermatt (or 6,500 feet
above the sea), near the Straits of Magellan, as well as in
Teneriffe, the Cape of Good Hope, Abyssinia, Rodriguez,
the Philippine Islands, and the Malay Archipelago. ‘These
widely separated localities show the great area over which
the culture is possible, and illustrate the powers of adapta-
tion of the plant. The requirements of the consumer also
have to be considered; for some purposes the soft wheats,
with their relatively large proportion of starch, are the best;
for others, the hard wheats, with their larger quantity of
gluten. With the modern processes of milling, the hard

184 PLANTS

wheats are preferred, for they make the best flour; and in
North America the spring wheats are harder than the win-
ter wheats. The soft wheats are those which are most gen-
eral in European cultivation, and, as a rule, the beardless
varieties, though more tender, are preferred. The bearded
varieties are supposed to be hardier; at any rate, they defy
the ravages of predatory birds more completely than the
unarmed varieties, and they are preferable in countries liable
to storms of wind, as less likely to have their seeds detached.
Hard wheats are specially employed in Italy for the fabrica-
tion of macaroni. Polish wheat is used for similar purposes.
Spelt wheats are grown in the colder mountainous districts
of Europe; their flour is very fine, and is used especially for
pastry making, but, owing to the construction of the grain,
it requires special machinery for grinding.

The numerous varieties of wheat now in cultivation have
been obtained either by selection or by cross-breeding. In
any wheat field there may be observed, on close inspection,
plants differing in character from the majority. If seeds of
these “sporting” plants be taken and grown in another sea-
son, they may (or may not) reproduce the particular varia-
tion. If they do, and the same process of selection be
continued, the variation becomes in time “ fixed,” though it is
always more or less liable to revert to its original condition.

The production of wheat, with the use of wheat bread,
has increased enormously since the extension of railways has
made possible the transportation of grain for great dis-
tances by land. Of late years the increase of production has
been most notable in southern Russia, Australia, India, and
North America. A. B. E.

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CHAPTER VI
MUSHROOMS

THERE are few more useful, more easily recognized, or more
delicious members of the vegetable kingdom than the com-
mon Mushroom. It grows in short grass in the temperate
regions of all parts of the world. Many edible fungi depend
upon minute and often obscure botanical characteristics for
their determination, and may readily be confounded with
worthless or poisonous species, but that is not the case with
the common mushroom, for, although several other species
of Agaricus somewhat closely approach it in form and color,
yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly gathered, may
be distinguished from all other fungi with great ease. It
almost invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in
places where the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses,
herds, and flocks. Although this plant is popularly termed
the “meadow mushroom,” it never, as a rule, grows in
meadows. It never grows in wet, boggy places, never in
woods or on or about stumps of trees. An exceptional spec-
imen or an uncommon variety sometimes may be seen in the
above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best, the true, and
common variety of our tables is the product of short,
upland, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never
large in size; its cap very seldom exceeds four, at most five,
inches in diameter. The large examples, measuring from
six to nine or more inches across the cap, belong to Agaricus
185

186 PLANTS

arvensis, called, from its large size and coarse texture, the
Horse Mushroom, which grows in meadows and damp,
shady places, and, though generally wholesome, is coarse
and sometimes indigestible.

The mushroom usually grown in gardens or hotbeds,
in cellars, sheds, etc., is a distinct variety, known as
Agaricus hortensis. This is a compact and inferior form
of the true mushroom, or it may indeed be a hybrid or even
a distinct species.

The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and
cap; the stem is furnished with a clothy ring around its
middle, and the cap is furnished underneath with numerous
radiating colored gills. When a mushroom is perfectly ripe
and the gills are brown-black in color, they throw down a
thick, dusty deposit of fine brown-black or purple spores;
it is essential to note the color. The spores, on germination,
make a white felted mat, more or less dense, of mycelium;
this, when compacted with dry, half-decomposed dung,
is the mushroom spawn of gardeners. ‘The stem is firm,
slightly pithy up the middle, but never hollow; it is fur-
nished with a floccose ring near its middle; this ring origi-
nates by the rupture of the thin general wrapper of the
infant plant. On being cut or broken, the flesh of the true
mushroom remains white or nearly so, the flesh of the
coarser horse mushroom changes to buff or sometimes to
dark brown. 'To summarize the characteristics of a true
mushroom: It grows only in pastures; it is small in size,
dry, and with unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the
gills are free from the stem; the spores brown-black or
deep purple-black in color, and the stem solid or slightly

COPYRIGHT 1903, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

CHANTARELLE (Edible).
(Cantharellus cibarlius).

MUSHROOMS 187

pithy. When all these characteristics are taken together, no
other mushroom-like fungus can be confounded with it.

A. B. E.
THE CHANTARELLE

The Chantarelle is a well-known and rather common
mushroom which grows quite abundantly in woods of spruce
and fir, and in wet seasons also in the forests of deciduous
trees. Here it may be found growing either in clusters or
singly, from June to November. The cap is usually about
two to three inches in diameter, but may reach an extreme of
five inches; when young, it is rounded or flat on top, but as
it grows older it becomes more or less concave and occasion-
ally folded on itself. The plant as a whole has a uniform
yellow color, “suggesting the yolk of an egg,” and is smooth.
The gills are more like veins than are the parallel knife-like
projections hanging like “thin laminated curtains” from
the undersides of the caps of many of our more familiar
mushrooms. In chantarelles they appear like “turgid veins”’
rather than gills, for they are irregularly branched and
extend downward on the stem in an uneven manner. The
stem is solid. The flesh is white and firm and has often
afforded an agreeable addition to a camp menu of those
who enjoy outings in the coniferous woods of Maine, where
it grows in great profusion.

The taste of this mushroom when raw is “pungent and
peppery,” an unpleasant characteristic which disappears
when it is cooked. By many, the chantarelle is considered
the most delicate and appetizing of all edible fungi.

ELIzABETH W. WoopwortH,

188 PLANTS

THE GLISTENING COPRINUS

From April to November, though more commonly in
spring and autumn, the Coprinus appear, and it is not an
uncommon occurrence when a single stump will yield sev-
eral crops in a season. Sometimes the group of mushrooms
seems to grow directly from the earth and are apparently
far from decaying wood. However, there is probably a
piece of wood hidden beneath the surface of the ground,
upon which this dependent plant is being nourished.

The clusters of the Glistening Coprinus are frequently
very large, and contain a number of individual plants.
Thus, though the plant itself is small, the whole cluster will
furnish quite a harvest. In Europe this mushroom is not
included among the edible forms. Dr. Peck suggests that
this may be due to its small size, but the abundance and
ease with which it may be procured compensate for its lack
of size. By those who have eaten it repeatedly without harm
it is considered a delicacy, and not inferior to many other
species. When raw it has a flavor of nuts.

The genus Coprinus, to which the mushroom of our illus-
tration belongs, includes a number of species which are
commonly called Ink Caps. All are easily identified, for
soon after the spores have matured the plates that bear them
are resolved into an inky fluid, especially in damp or wet
weather. Their life histories are nearly completed while
still beneath the surface of the ground. It is only when
their spores are quite mature that they seek the air above
the surface, pushing themselves out in the night time, only

GLISTENING COPRINUS. COPYRIGHT 1903, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
616 (Coprinus mico-eus).
5

FROM COL. CHI. ACAD. SCIENCES. MASKED TRICHOLOMA. COPYRIGHT 1903, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
08 (Tricholoma personatum).

MUSHROOMS 189

to melt away in inky drops during the day. Sometimes
when the weather is not damp all the parts may dry and
the mushroom remain well preserved.

It is only when young that the glistening coprinus
should be gathered for food, and the specimens should be
cooked immediately, for they are far from attractive when
they have turned black. ExizaserH W. WoopwortTH.

THE MASKED TRICHOLOMA

The Tricholoma of our illustration is one of the well-
known edible mushrooms. Many authors of writings on the
food mushrooms speak highly of its esculent qualities. Its
taste is pleasant and its flavor may be likened to that of
veal. The Masked Tricholoma is generally found in rather
open woods or on open, grassy places in the woods. It is
a fall species, seldom appearing before the first of Septem-
ber, and it is then common, in favorable places, until the
time of heavy frosts.

In England the masked tricholoma is often called Blew-
its, and Dr. Peck telis us that it is called Blue Stem in
France, although in our own country the plant has a more
violet or lilac than a blue color. Its solid stem is short and
stout and not infrequently bulbous at the base. In color the
stem is whitish, tinged with lilac or violet, and when young
there are fibrils on its surface which quite disappear as the
mushroom grows older. Usually the masked tricholoma is
solitary in its growth, but it is also found in groups or even
in clusters of several individuals. When young the cap is
convex and quite firm, but as it grows older it becomes flat

190 PLANTS

and flabby, and the margins may become wavy. The mar-
gin of the caps of miniature plants is incurved and not
infrequently covered with whitish particles or with a fine
bloom. The cap varies in color, but is generally some shade
of tan, gradually changing into a pale lilac near the edge.
ELizABETH W. WoopwortH.

THE GREEN RUSSULA MUSHROOM

Mushrooms are plants. They occupy a unique position,
however, in the vegetable kingdom. It might be said of
these “children of earth” that they toil not, neither do they
spin, inasmuch as they take no part in the busy life of the
plant world. They must depend for their sustenance on
the efforts of other plants. They develop no flowers or
seeds, but reproduce by means of spores, which germinate
if the peculiar conditions essential to their growth are
present.

Our illustration shows an edible form of mushroom
whose beautiful colors contradict a prevailing idea that the
highly colored forms are poisonous. ‘The plant is known
as the Greenish Russula. It can hardly be called green;
greenish-gray better describes it. The top is dry and has
upon it small warts or patches of the characteristic color.
It is at first rounded, then flat, and later may become cen-
trally depressed. It is usually thin and smooth at the edge,
marked there with short lines following the direction of the
gills. Old specimens will occasionally split at intervals
along the edge. The gills are white or nearly so, and are
very fragile, being shattered by a slight blow. They are

COPYRIGHT 1803, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO.

FROM PAINTING BY As WOODWORTH. '
1 GREEN RUSSULA (Edible).
(Russula virescens).

MUSHROOMS 191

narrow near the stem, hardly reaching it. The flesh is firm
and of a creamy-white, the spores being white. The stem is
_ thick, solid, and rather short.

It is not surprising that forms exhibiting such a variety
of color and form and mystery of development should have
become a subject for myth and story.

Mushrooms are responsible for the fairy rings so often
noticed in pastures. They were thought to be formed by the
dancing feet of the fairies, but science comes along and
replaces the fancy by cold facts.

A mushroom soon exhausts from the soil the food neces-
sary for its growth. Hence its spores must fall beyond this
depleted area in order to germinate, and by so doing a ring
of toadstools is formed. When they decay the ground
becomes fertilized, causing the grass to spring up along the
line of the ring with greater luxuriance than elsewhere.

C. S. Rapp1in.

THE FLY MUSHROOM OR FLY AMANITA

The Fly Mushroom is one of the most dangerous. It
grows very abundantly in July, August, and early Septem-
ber. It is attractive in appearance and gorgeous in coloring,
but its fair exterior is a snare and delusion. To it and its
blood relatives probably may be attributed most, if not all,
of the deaths from mushroom poisoning. It is commonly
conceded that its family is the only one which is fatally
poisonous, although there are others which produce unpleas-
ant illness. This particular member of the family is men-
tioned because it is very common.

192 PLANTS

In examining this mushroom, one should not pull it; dig
it up carefully and be sure to lift all of it. When matured it
will weigh perhaps balf a pound. It is usually of an orange-
yellow, fading to a pale color at the edge. Sometimes it may
be pale yellow, again almost white. You will notice a num-
ber of raised, irregular whitish or yellowish spots or patches
on the surface at the top. These are characteristic. The
top is nearly flat in mature specimens, and sometimes meas-
ures eight or ten inches in diameter. If the baby growth is
examined it will be noticed that it is almost globular. The
gills are white and very regular, and are sometimes slightly
tinged with yellow. On the stem there is a sort of ring or
collar which is whitish or yellowish in color and of a thin
texture. The lower part of the hollow or stuffed stem swells
out and is distinctly bulbous at the bottom, and about the
base there is a sort of cup or socket from which the stem
rises. Above it, the stem is clothed with whitish or yellow-
ish fragments of like texture to the ring. Sometimes these
fragments are almost woolly and extend upwards for some
distance.

The flesh of this mushroom is white, firm, and very invit-
ing. The gills are rounded at the edge and at the stem.
The odor is pleasant and the spores are snowy-white. Alto-
gether, there is nothing to warn the rash experimenter that
it is not as good as it looks. You will find these decorative
mushrooms in field as well as in woods; long ranks of them
file away through the thin grass. Also one may see them
standing in all their glowing color in evergreen woods, the
fatal poison cup hidden by the deep green moss.

EizaBETH W. WoopwortH.

POLYSTICTUS. PYRIGH BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGC

“a (Polystictus cinnabarinus).
= ? Life-size

j

MUSHROOMS 193

THE CINNABAR FUNGUS*

The fungus which we illustrate is not uncommon on
decaying portions of oak, basswood, cherry, and other trees
of the woods of many localities. It was given its specific
name because of its brilliant cmnabar color, by which it may
be recognized at quite a distance. Dr. W. S. Moffatt says
that over one hundred specimens were found growing on a
log in the woods not far from Chicago.

This species belongs to a large and interesting group of
the fungi family. Polyporacee include fleshy, leathery, or
woody forms. Dr. Charles McIlvaine says: ‘ Within this
large family are found edible species. In the woody species
the razor-strop man finds material for his strops; the sur-
geon, styptics; the peasant, punk to catch sparks from his
flint, and the Fourth of July urchin, a fire-holder to light
his pyrotechnics. The Chinese have placed some species in
their fathomless materia medica, while the polyporus of the
locust tree is used in America as’a medicine for horses. No
fungoid growth is more universal. They are the ever-active
preservers of our trees and converters of forest debris.” ‘The
species illustrated is leathery, and no edible species of its
genus have been reported.

THE BRACKET FUNGI

The plants known as Bracket or Shelf Fungi are famil-
iar objects to every lover of nature who frequents our groves
and forests. Beginning as small, slightly elevated protu-

194 PLANTS

berances, or flat, orbicular patches on the bark of a dead tree
trunk, log, or stump, they gradually increase in size and
assume more or less definite shapes. Some never attain a
breadth of more than a third of an inch, while others may
ultimately obtain a width of nearly a foot and one-half, and
project fully one-half that distance from the surface of the
matrix. The most common form, perhaps, is that of a semi-
circle, the fungus being more or less flattened and attached
by its straight edge to the log or stump.

Sometimes the edges are upraised so as to form cup-
shaped growths. Several kinds are so thickened that they
nearly resemble a horse’s hoof in form, while a few others,
although classed as “ brackets,’ are merely amorphous
masses appearing in a knot hole or wounded place in a log
or stump.

The fungus which we illustrate occurs on the trunks of
various trees in Canada, the United States, and in Mexico.
The plants grow in tufts or clumps. The pilei or recep-
tacles are leathery and thin. At first they are plain; later
they are often recurved at the edges. They are villous, with
brown, shining zones, and the bases are narrowed and sub-
stipitate. The hymenium or fruit-bearing surface of each
plant has a pallid brick color, sometimes with reddish or
lilac tints. The specimens figured are proliferous; that is,
new pilei arise from the edges of those of the preceding
season. Wit Sayer Morratt.

SULPHURY POLYPORUS, COPYRIGHT 1904, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

(Polyporus sulphureus).
624 1% Life-size

.
.

COPYRIGHT 1904, BY A

US.

3
(Sterium fasciatum).

A BRACKET FUNC

FROM GOL. DR. W. S. MOFFATT

640

“

MUSHROOMS 195

THE SULPHURY POLYPORUS *

This attractive mushroom may be easily known by its
bright colors and its clustered mode of growth. Our illus-
tration is a faithful reproduction of beautiful specimens of
the Sulphury Polyporus which grew on a living black oak
tree about fifteen feet from the ground. Though the habit
of this mushroom is to grow only on dead wood, the host of
the two illustrated was seemingly sound throughout.

When young, if cut or broken in warm weather, a yel-
lowish juice will exude. ‘The caps overlap each other and
are frequently five inches or more in width. ‘The flesh is
white and usually not more than one-half an inch in
thickness.

The young cap has a yellowish-red or light orange
color which fades, as growth continues, to a beautiful yellow
color, especially on the margins. A large cluster of the caps
of this mushroom with the bright colors and wavy margins
form a beautiful picture on the dark background of a stump,
a log, or a tree. It is not particular about the kind of wood
on which it grows. The dead wood of almost any species
of trees may serve as its host, and not infrequently it will
grow upon those in an orchard.

The sulphury polyporus is an excellent illustration of the
fallacy of the belief that the highly colored mushrooms are
all poisonous. It is not only edible, but palatable as well.
However, only the young caps should be used as food, for
mature specimens are not only tough, but very indigestible,
and unpleasant to the taste. Thinly slicing the young caps

196 PLANTS

and frying them in butter is perhaps the most satisfactory
method of preparing this mushroom for the table, though it
may be prepared in other ways. This species has a wide dis-
tribution. It may be found in the forests or in the orchards;
on the dead wood of trees, on the lawn, or anywhere where
conditions are favorable for its growth. ‘Though it may be
found from May to November, it is more common and
grows more luxuriantly in wet weather.

WOODY FUNGI

Among the common fungi which attract a pedestrian
during his rambles through a forest, there is one group
which has been given the name Polystictus by the scientist.
This is a genus of bracket-like species which are leathery,
woody, or membranous from the very beginning of their
growth. They are pore-fungi; that is, the fruiting spores
are borne on the inner faces of tubes or pores which form
a single layer on the underside of the bracket. These tubes
usually appear first near the center of the bracket and grad-
ually develop toward its circumference.

A shell-shaped form occurs on dead twigs and small
branches, both of standing and fallen trees of various kinds,
especially of walnut and elm. The plants are small, thin,
smooth, white, and of a spongy-leathery texture. At the
first, they resemble very small shallow cups seated on the
surface of the bark. As they increase in size, their shape
becomes more or less spiral, the color pallid, and the surface
marked by several consecutive furrows. ‘The under surface
is yellowish, afterward changing to gray. It is a pretty and

FROM COL. DR. W. S. MOFFATT. WOODY FUNGI COPYRIGHT 1904, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO
Common Zoned Polystictus. Lower side.
(Polystictus versicolor). Under side.
Bristly Polystictus.
648 (Polystictus hirsutus.

Upper side.
Lower side.

MUSHROOMS 197

delicate little species, which is less than an inch in diameter
when fully grown.

A parchment-like species is common on tree trunks of all
kinds, particularly those of oaks, hickories, and poplars.
The plants are thin, leathery, membranous, rigid, hairy,
concentrically grooved, and white in color. The ‘fruiting
pores are at first a rich violet or purple color, but this color
fades with age or upon exposure to sunlight, so that in old
specimens the under surface has a dirty brown color. At
first, the plants often grow as a layer, covering the tree
trunk for a yard or more. From the surface of this layer
the bracket-like growths arise, usually at short intervals
from each other, and when fully grown may project an inch
or more. W. S. Morratt.

CHAPTER VII
MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS
PLANT PROTECTION

It 1s supposed by many that plants are helpless beings,
which must submit to all sorts of unfavorable conditions
which come upon them. This is far from true, for while
plants as a rule are fixed and unable to escape from dan-
ger by flight, still they have very many ways of helping
themselves.

Prominent among the dangers which come to active
green plants are those which arise from too intense light,
which may destroy the delicate working substances. Since
the leaves are the great working organs in the manufacture
of food, they are especially equipped for protection. Those
leaves which must work in exposed places have many details
of structure which are evidently for guarding them against
the ill effects of too intense light. The most striking adap-
tations, however are those which have to do with protective
positions. Under ordinary circumstances, leaves are placed
so that their flat faces are exposed to the most intense light.
In some cases this is so great a danger that the leaves are
set edgewise, the edges being directed upwards and down-
wards. When a plant assumes this habit, the leaves are said
to be in a profile position, and the plants are sometimes
called “compass plants.” The latter name has come from
the fact that such leaves usually point north or south, and

199

200 PLANTS

once it was assumed that this position was in response to
some mysterious magnetic influence. It is found, however,
that it is merely an effort on the part of the plant to protect
its leaves from the intense light of mid-day, and at the same
time to expose them to the morning and evening rays of
much less intensity.

Some leaves, however, have the power of shifting their
position according to their needs, directing their flat surfaces
toward the light, or more or less inclining them, accord-
ing to the danger. Perhaps the most completely adapted
leaves of this kind are those of the “ sensitive plants,” whose
leaves respond to various external influences by changing
their positions. The sensitive plants abound in dry and hot
regions, and one of the best known is represented in our
illustration. It will be noticed that the leaves of this Mimosa
are divided into very numerous small leaflets, which stretch
in pairs along the leaf branches. When the time of intense
light and dryness approaches, some of the pairs of leaflets
fold together, slightly reducing the surface exposure. As the
unfavorable condition continues, more leaflets fold together,
then still others, until finally all the leaflets may be folded
together, and the leaves themselves may bend against the
stem. It is like a sailing vessel gradually taking in sail as
a storm approaches, until finally nothing is exposed, and the
vessel weathers the storm by presenting only bare poles.
These are but a few illustrations of the very numerous
devices for escaping too intense light and the dangers which
accompany it.

One common danger in temperate regions comes from
the lowering of the temperature each night, which sometimes

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MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS 201

may chill the living substances to the danger point. This is
particularly dangerous to seedlings, whose tender structures
have not yet developed the ordinary protective coats. In
the spring the seed leaves of numerous seedlings may be
seen at the approach of night to rise upward and come
together, just as the palms of the hand may be placed
together over one’s head. This reduces the surface of expo-
sure and the danger of chill at least one-half.

Many plants are also observed to protect themselves
against rain, as it is necessary for leaves to avoid becoming
wet. If the water is allowed to soak in, the work of the
leaves is at once interfered with. Hence it will be noticed
that most leaves are able to shed water, partly by their posi-
tion, partly by their structure.

Perhaps the most general preparation for protection in
our region is that which is made for the coming of the win-
ter’s,cold. In many cases plants do not attempt to protect
their delicate structures from the severity of winter, but dis-
appear entirely, leaving only well-protected seeds to carry
them over into the next growing season. This results in the
so-called “annual habit,” which has been learned by many
plants in order to escape a season of danger. Other plants
do not disappear so completely, but everything above the
surface of the ground dies, while the plant continues in the
form of underground bulbs, tubers, or various thickened
structures.

This habit of seeking a subterranean retreat at the ap-
proach of some dangerous season is a very good one, and is
found in many of our early spring plants. This subter-
ranean habit has a great advantage over the annual habit,

202 PLANTS

since a seed is very slow in bringing the plant back again,
while a bulb can produce its plant very rapidly.

Still other plants preserve more of their structures than
either the annuals or the ground-loving plants. For exam-
ple, most of our trees have cultivated what is known as the
deciduous habit, that is, they merely drop their leaves, which
are the endangered structures, at the approach of the unfa-
vorable season, and renew them again when the favorable
conditions return. It should be remarked that these leaves
do not fall because they are broken off, but that in a certain
sense it is a process of growing off, which is carefully pre-
pared for.

It is instructive to notice how differently the so-called
evergreens, as pines, spruces, etc., have answered the prob-
lem of protection against the cold of winter. The ever-
greens, instead of dropping their leaves, have undertaken to
protect them, giving them a small surface and very heavy
walls. In this way protection has been secured at the
expense of working power during the season of work.
Reduced surface and thick walls are both obstacles to leaf
work.

To obtain the most striking instances of protection, how-
ever, one must examine plants which belong to permanently
dry regions, such as may be found in the United States
along the Mexican border, or in the regions of tropical des-
erts. In the first place, it will be noticed that the plants in
general produce smaller leaves than in other regions. That
this holds a direct relation to the dry conditions is evident
from the fact that the same plant often produces smaller
leaves in dry conditions than in moist. One of the most

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MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS 203

striking features of an arid country is the absence of large
leaves. ‘These reduced leaves are of various forms, such as
the needle leaves of pines, or the thread-like leaves of cer-
tain sedges and grasses, or the narrow leaves with inrolled
margins, such as are common in many heath plants. The
extreme of leaf reduction has been reached by the cactus
plants, whose leaves, so far as foliage is concerned, have dis-
appeared entirely, and the leaf work is done by the surface
of the globular, cylindrical, or flattened stems. A covering
of hairs is an effective sun screen, and it is very common to
find plants of dry regions characteristically hairy. In such
regions it is to be observed also that dwarf growths prevail,
so that the plant, as a whole, does not present such an expo-
sure to the drouth as in regions of greater moisture. One of
the most prominent measures of protection in dry regions is
the organization of what are known as water reservoirs.
Nearly all plants of such regions have leaves which are
known as fleshy, that is, they are thick and juicy, being
reservoirs of stored-up moisture which is doled out cau-
tiously according to the needs of the plant, without any
wastefulness. J. M. Courter.

THE MISTLETOE

Among the plants sacred and closely allied to the mystic
life of a portion of the human race there is none more inter-
esting and rich in legend than the mistletoe. This was asso-
ciated with religious observances before the time of Christ,
and is mentioned by our earliest historians.

There are over seventy species of this peculiar plant.

204 PLANTS

Both the American variety (Phoradendron flavescens) and
the European, or true mistletoe (Viscum album), belong to
a family of parasites, so called because they derive their
nourishment entirely or in part from some other plant,
instead of taking it directly from the soil. Owing to the
presence of the green coloring matter (Chlorophyll) in the
stems and leaves, the mistletoe is not entirely parasitic, but
is to a certain extent self-supporting, drawing but a portion
of its nourishment from the tree on which it grows.

It is found both on deciduous and on evergreen trees.
In some locations in Europe it is especially abundant on the
apple tree, and, if in the right climate, there are few tree
species which are exempt from serving as its host.

The mistletoe is an evergreen, shrubby plant of slow
growth, attaining a length of about four feet, and its dura-
tion of life is practically that of the tree on which it grows.
The leathery leaves and rugged stems are yellowish-green in
color, and, in the axils of the leaves, are the small and
insignificant flowers, which ripen about Christmas-tide into
pearly white translucent berries.

At Christmas-tide the mistletoe is largely used for deco-
rative purposes, especially in England, where the custom is
ancient, and also in our own land, where each holiday season
finds more and more of this unique plant gracing chandelier
and window, until we, too, may some day find our maids all
kissed — “‘ Under the mistletoe bough.”

Witiiam K. Hic ey.

MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS 205

PITCHER PLANT

Prominent among the carnivorous plants are the Pitcher
Plants, whose leaves form tubes, or urns, or pitchers of vari-
ous forms, which contain water, and to which insects are
attracted and drowned. There is a very common pitcher
plant in our northern bogs in whose urn-like leaves insects
are found drowned, but which does not have such elaborate
arrangements for their capture as other forms. Perhaps
the most famous of the pitcher plants is one which is com-
mon throughout the Southern States. The leaves are shaped
like slender hollow cones and rise in a tuft from the swampy
ground. The mouth of this conical urn is over-arched and
shaded by a hood in which are translucent spots like small
windows. Around the mouth of the urn are glands which
secrete a sweet liquid, and drops of this nectar form a trail
down the outside of the urn. Inside, just below the rim of
the urn, is a glazed zone so smooth that insects cannot walk
upon it. Below the glazed zone is another zone thickly set
with stiff downward-pointing hairs, and below this is the
liquid in the bottom of the urn. If a fly is attracted by the
nectar drops on this curious leaf, it naturally follows the
trail up to the rim of the urn, where the nectar is abundant.
If it attempts to descend into the urn it slips on the glazed
zone and falls into the water, and if it attempts to escape
by crawling up the side of the urn the thick-set downward-
pointing hairs prevent. If it seeks to fly away from the
rim it flies towards the translucent spots in the hood, which
look like the way of escape, as the direction of entrance is

206 PLANTS

in the shadow of the hood. Pounding against the hood, the
fly falls into the water. This southern pitcher plant is
known as a great fly-catcher, and is frequently used for this
purpose in the South. ,

The very largest of the pitcher plants is one which
grows in the swamps of California, whose leaves sometimes
become as much as two or three feet high, the huge pitchers
forming the most capacious receptacle for insects of all
kinds and sizes. Its general plan is like that of the southern
pitcher plant described above, in that it has an overarching
hood with translucent spots and a trail of nectar which leads
to the dangerous rim. It has become further elaborated,
however, in that the hood extends into a gaudy fish-like
appendage, whose colors and flapping serve to attract the
flying as well as the creeping insects. The pitcher, also,
instead of being straight, is spirally twisted, and has a wing-
like expansion which serves as a guide in the spiral ascent
to the rim, and leads the victim with definiteness and cer-
tainty to the region of danger. ‘The fish-tail appendage
is also smeared with the nectar secretion, so that any flying
insect lighting upon it is enticed under the overshadowing
arch and is almost sure of capture.

The most common pitcher plants of the tropics are the
Nepenthes, one of which is shown in our illustration. It
will be noticed that each leaf when fully formed consists of
three distinct regions, namely, the leaf-like blade, which is
continued into a tendril which coils around a support, and
the tendril in turn ends in a curiously formed pitcher, which
has a more or less complete lid. These pitchers are often
mottled with bright colors, and as they swing at the ends

ZOPYRIGHT 19

CACTI.

4, Life-size.

==
N

MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS 207

of the tendrils they seem to attract the attention of roving
insects. Around the rim of the pitcher a very definite row
of glands may be observed, which secrete the nectar to which
the insects are attracted. The arrangements within the
pitcher are such as have been described for the ordinary
pitcher plant. These pitchers of Nepenthes are usually
found containing insects, and often very many of them,
whose bodies are being slowly digested and the products
absorbed by the plant. J. M. CourTer.

THE CACTUS

Because the Greeks in olden times applied the word Cac-
tus to a prickly plant, Linneus, often called the Father of
Botany, gave the same name to our wonderful American
growth, and since his time these strange and varied plants
have borne this nomenclature.

We can hardly imagine any group of plants more inter-
esting. There are over eight hundred varieties of curious
and unexpected forms, bearing tubular or rotate flowers
most varied in size and color —white, pink, purple, yellow,
crimson, deep red—all beautiful and fascinating, and in
our northern country protected in the conservatories. The
Night-blooming Cereus is most renowned, most admired
of all.

The cacti are commonly found in the United States, in
Mexico, and in South America, and some species are culti-
vated on the borders of the Mediterranean Sea, where the
fruit is eaten.

They vary in size from an inch or two in height to enor-

208 PLANTS

mous growths of fifty or sixty feet (Cereus giganteus),
which stand like telegraph poles, sometimes nearly bare,
sometimes with many vertical branches, reminding one of
a huge candelabra. Then, again, some forms are nearly
spherical, while others are long, jointed, and square; one
species (Echinocactus visnaga) grows about nine feet in
height, with a diameter of three feet or more, and a single
plant of this species will sometimes weigh a ton. One of
our most common forms is flat and broad. This, the Prickly
Pear or Indian Fig (Opentia Vulgario ), is the only species
found as far north as Wisconsin and New York.

As many of the cacti require but little care, they are
quite extensively cultivated, not only for the rare beauty
of their flowers, but for economic purposes. However,
nearly all are worthy of culture because of their peculiar
forms. W. K. Hictey.

COTTON

Cotton is an important annual plant from which the
vegetable fiber of commerce is grown. The different varie-
ties are natives of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and
America, but are now grown far into temperate zones. The
fruit is a three to five celled capsule, springing open when
ripe, and containing many seeds wrapped in cotton fiber, one
to three inches long, which constitute the cotton of com-
merce. The best is the long staple silk cotton known as
Sea Island cotton, which is grown principally on the islands
and coast of Georgia, South Carolina, and Florida. The
finest kinds of cloth are spun from Sea Island and Egyptian

(Opp. 688)

1. Flower,

2. Anther.

3. Pollen grain (enlarged).

4. Longitudinal section of ovary

SEA ISLAND COTTON

(Gossypium barbadense).

5. Cross section of ovary.

6. Seed pod opening at the top.
7

. Seed and fibers.

COPYRIGHT 1900, BY A. W. MUMFORD, CHICAGO

a
-_

. Seed without fibers.
. Cross section of seed.

Seed (enlarged).

. Embryo.

MISCELLANEOUS PLANTS 209

cotton. Cotton is also combined with silk, wool, linen, or
alpaca in the manufacture of certain kinds of goods. The
most perfect system of cultivation is now used in the United
States, where most of the cotton of the world is raised. The
seed is usually planted in March in furrows. Blooming
occurs early in June, and picking usually begins in August
and lasts until the frost stops further growth of plants. It
is dried and ginned, or separated from the seeds, and packed
ready for shipment. The process of separating seed from
fiber was formerly done by hand, but the invention of the
cotton gin by Eli Whitney in 1793 revolutionized the cotton
industry. Formerly the manufacture of cotton in the
United States was confined almost exclusively to the New
England States, but of recent years thriving factories for
the coarser grade varieties have sprung up in the South, and
this industry is rapidly growing in importance.

Besides cotton fiber, other by-products of the cotton
industry are of great importance. Cotton seed is rich in
oil, which is now extensively used in making lard and in
other ways. Cottonseed cake is also used as a cattle food
and the cottonseed meal is also becoming an important arti-
cle of food. Pulp is now also successfully made from the
cotton stalks, from which is made the finest of writing
paper, ete.

INDEX VOLUME IV

PAGH PAGE

SPEEA TREES COUN Gravel syaloalclevaieievs es ele s)eece i), R@OMISSITES Gexeis cps. sc01 eee cris averate Fick, pa
CATERGGNE, 1 ETT 0 ee Gi .Ceylony Moonstone) < .\c s.s.c\c:cie = setereree 52
PE RESMME eT Al ola el evekevcic/ 6 isis: @ svete 6)s\e é ECHAalCOCHES | iene ieic a.cicie aisle avewigieinna maar 25
BEM TOFS cre oferty cs cychcvere\ el sls aia) e.e)e/erale Bestrr CNalcOpyrite vacicc is sieacereloieteret at eiaa erate 25
ENUUSYSGE*, Sb OE CHEE adie teres sacs ees ed he ce ee 166
JADTCO 25 SOS Std U8 OBO oo OObe SVCUD crests aiei all clevene, svatelevat eereiererevnns 166
PG ERAN ee leur cle ctainiaiescts cceye shale oss SWAG co. di eiaievese looeyoceayehstohav ars tanerep aes 166
PRR SESE ete Tae b et cyerer oval oy ccclicioralioveiiele, eievsvere eve WWODGL Uh creche. icc uleveversretevertrm btauaiete nee 167
PRUUAIEEATE TE EVM cre ears falcrelc vole Giaveveve(s elevereesace GHESENUE Fis, <.5:s stele 10 lee clave eran 176
POHISPOP Motel cic icrhtalctacseis lena jclsieverevesccevaie we "avele 50 Chinese: SBinks vaio ce cisvere ctesateveracon eer T2
JTL CUR QQ @ pia SIGE ICE orate CHIOrASTrOLIEG) < <vcinic cielelsielere sien atarcie tale 39
PATIPICHIEG@ lc cveyeierstcicicistoja.ciciejaielsiels sieves DEA REONOCOLALE) ovatctatoiacereieltieelaisietea cia seen 180
PRTCUNE ERM cravat crece-cyeteielcicisrerc(eiere; evel she eisy se GChondrus) Chrispusy ooo css ae ote 139
Apple secs. Bioiiesere: Atcterapele ero onetevehcie! ais Mhrysoberyl) occ xc.cc be cies Gran cee 42
RETUR DMM ateiers evevsts vetalerele ce cieielac ete eretcins CHEYSOMLEG? \o5)c\ crc overe vc srocherecnre aide 42
PNWBEIDLO ASR oer ei cieho ty ola csveveve 6 auessveieuele's’e CRTYSOPLASE) «6:55 cc0s-sce oreven esos 49
PAU CESEEe. eev er ater e lone alene! Waieveie\crerat egy iejerers Cine rariay s/6.-csisi« «isicleveteh a) eer ereeianiere 74
Arbutus, Trailing .. @ineraria) Cruentay sccaes cet 3)
Arrow Head ..... (ubbheinhy Baagossoeduaneddacdc 109, 110
Ash, Mountain Sed GO ios ccc enc wieraici cut inalcw casein 127
Asters ...... Bheveuatcvarevcistateletersancrevele sere Citrus Aurantinm 322.0. «ce season 156
PAD LGH a arneicieherccabcial iam tevereieie ereteuertisce, ot CIGMAEIS Vin coo ciesiawrerc ere. clelatelecertelctetere 100
REET HUCLTI COR) 9 ceri, calcio ayekevenecetereccicrate Miss) Bateman. 6.2.5 <:s,cicasgeudasliaee 101
MMELERAMNORSL) crac crcl sYoust gio oteteeie, sieves stale HUT ECT! Se cicroie ele iersreielare a aietaterstetetaes 10
PMIRGCO Sova re aversy aie ncreievale siecle sieve aisiare HilamMiniay Se cae ciccre Sia/siaselsiexersvereters 101
ES UIETREIESEO reteray <.cper coi stale: cats icjeveversaictevert WIS CHINN si cveraiclaie!stareiard mralateretoletera ere 101
MAILE TRGncvaicrsioreve ores syereve cvevere cleietere DONNY GOUTE ve ocr cicevelaisiel cre eiererieia ais 101
ES AMBION IEW ela. ciovrc creter oveictelaiorenen farce olan Waey, Ueno ne) ss\<c1s:c1eeiere svaxeleleier viele 101
LTE Mae, GS eC CR OIG TRG Or ete Ceo Prince) of (Wales «.\ccwcecciticlesiccere 101
PES NMNISEC tone a Saree, cet cheveie er's:oie'e siete < Sir Garnet Wolseley............. 101
SEPA ee Gh tevolaiie tees (e\a..ose-ele ofeisvares austere Cloistered: Hearty jcc cictcvers + eielclelcieiels 95
ESET MME tarevetralclere Gres erels cave sicreveiate he eietets GOW Oe oratelavere) crane love Geierere ciaceererelotd sieve 109
SPUD MEM EOIION( acre choi o.ciccraieielieis severe ease Mother of wetaislinler catehainr a cveievereerakate 109
ERABECICEVEMD bl cy cvave cl stelcueiiers\eecevere shoueceie MOS GIOVE SETCO) feiccic.o cveicrelc cscs slereleleielsiels 111
Bituminous Coal Bieheiplerevesaietere te sual aterate DOM OIOV OSI sis. cicychc sien shalace’ ove vileve-eeratevoce evens 111
SAUER COONOSED st ie)aicve'e 'ereievorsie eels. sieeve 97 Coal, Soft or Bituminous: = ....0..-. 29
POAC RE CDDOE co ccrtieyeielalc's ele scrote rec biere-s PGW OMORA PR as eee ard ba bdo ota 135
PACE A NTNAKECLUOL §s,5)<\ 0's) <leieisis eseveie-s esse See RO CON ce cin eres cieicisinlcleteierclateresnse’ niatevolacd 180
EPID E-E OO bi cic cise, aia esac aisvera's S.cieistere ave Re eh yh apr a 2 Ad God ecapu ce SOE OOnOe 181
EWACHOELS RADINES Biv ney o'fal's} ats|s/ci's/s, oie) e)siersla).s SS re ORC OCODNUE! ca cieicrers choice eletejsle=) sien wis clele 179
PEMEE I PEINGIS TIS cc's ha cidis cievelo.e siectowis ove OAT RCOO-FICAOL Fs caareiete sins) cies eles ec ekeje ctayelets 103
Blue Springs, Daisy sci. cicicslcc ewes ORC OMEG I eina oie vate ciclolavcleicrersicvess)aielale'erale 119
SATICEMPDMISEL Sinve sveleysraie Sieislela ejeyele. alee TODS COnOSHs BIRCK Ce iciercicye-c 0 acl <inieletelels/eiwie 97
(EST UANMOINUA Grieve ralayeleccessielsie nie cia oo sueiwis gene COLUM DINO. clateia were erers: eiaieles acta evelmraina 81
PREECE OOO alal ticle ic sie.clelcicielo cleveveinie 181 COMPOST UH i oo are; cic oc kascletateia’s eteials alapale 74
STIR PEORUM roe elute lelevsle ciate a aicke om clencielsis AG oh RS OD DOI velei ato orators) ois) sterol eiale ia s'alsieie) sale 28
G@RCRUIA eleva terete ines's tone oiakoiel aletitoer aa ionels 207 Sci TENG) COTES c.cteleisratee cle mvarstere tere 25
CURAAATIS Miatetavale tele eal clclelerelnicie.ci<ic cere ats 127 INGEIWO? oo caicreuyslers cetera slaleia s'eceatatera 25
MEMIEGS ee roisvera crerwrstaralevoiccereseieveue! svete Fe ACORN See o oh.c S:w:ci niet ercieke o)dyajes a. nlelelwiaynieyece 182
MUSUNESEOANED Si etel olla cece’ dave ioievorG,cceie GO -s.ays,o 0.6 os Aa OOM! sora cies .cic cacye cl clera wie a arevarwtetele 62
NGS ULE PETAL eriorc a sicko a) eigiovere aiokereraiaiw lois Teer COLTON. cava ce scicverers ormralolerernieetelelemiels 208
MU GUVAAN Rleisinveloielcicvereleisleicislcisisvcvere-e see's G2 a Cotton -PiDeR eiccrs\sie,cle)ecmataisia.s) eicrareia's 209
Camellia UGH A Ge ORCI ee TOO UCOGLONBGEU (aicic dics cio <i ore sreletsiolelale isis 209
PEPTIC SESE UA ret otete cicliatcyare)c)e.s)s/0 a0, 0 wis) 6° 69 Cowslip, English ......0ccsccesceee 98
RTC aU abs oieicie cycle lsiecsile oiclsieie,0.erehe 122 #8 Crocidolite Dis eluisvehatel sie) stele jeVeneeen - 34
MOAN VOM ORANG Wc eye rere ielie sicliere)s iayei'a\ejeles 18 Cross-Pollination S Spahth ol areLU are reerel wiatetwita 62
PAUEREAMOE Ol aiatsyotayaialersiofete ietersie e.o.s,e\6 18 Crystalline Quartz ..............--. 55
Carbon, Minerals Containing........ 98 Crystal, Rock ...-ccccccsssccsccce 56
Carnation Rererers ict A GN CT OLn Oe 71 Cubebs...... PROC Ee Onan oor 131
GANTIGNI TIS re eich ever cin eo) cis: bugie! ale'e ole lereieve AR OGRA ia civccleveserb Otelola n.erbielelS cua lswa/aleerers 135
MONTH PRP TENe icvarss ralaieCeue cre oa ieie faralin tal cue 139 Cup, Scarlet Painted s. ccs vo dene. 79
GCarvonhy laces sisi ccigiele see so. os TOS) © Pamoullsy cau cane on cee ate elec aires 86

211

212 INDEX.
PAGE PAGH
Daisy; Blue Spring jo: . occ Beis LOS Hematite 3 eid ciisnicwie ties Sco bles cea geen
DRISTES Ul ieee ais wie wisi lew io aievennienctoterstotsre 80 Herb, Great Willow... sc <:cleimalemione
Wan Geli Vac cassie se erate loelcuat eta ltetobetene 134 Hickory, Bitternut\....<. sesame oe eee te
Date Plum, Virginian.............. 173 MOoCKerntit 5,5 c\sic «.01cicic ese 176
WLAMONG iss wcjes nie eis exe Actors 29, 37, 38 NUS SF A882 FSS oie cccce lots vier eee 176
DIZitalin wa ceieclenies he ceicee ne Kev5. ALE Piggy, 275, 6%. 8i)0,.:0)00.0 0 one 176
WOE PROSE We evshe cleo!) 4 ssc isle lelekerorek-pereaete 70 SHALDALE) .\2\0\<10 0.» «10:< 010 oldbeesl alae 176
Double Wiowers ois cscs eveesapate slotelaterete 59 SHEUDALE) ¢o)s. 050.610 wie.0 05 cele ere een 176
MIASECE PALY io cic icietn cic syeia ein atoiereenete 68 Wri bGhHe art) <.c././<1sis1ois.oalorcnenena Phau vats rt
BPS -AM Pleo arescus sie oe rare euaie siete ee tavebane AGS) OP ROMY HOCK 2.7 ios cic slo re in fain = oie vie. oe
[aD eA Aare Gigi eC Dum ee SOmck. EGO: SEEDDS) aaial ctalsicis store iets: ole tetsle io etch mene 133
BIMESrA IG: ioc siedicc wo slices Aeiesstelad eae oo Bbornplende. .....3\-..%s selec cme cere 34
Hogan Cowslip -2.ci5000 cie4i. leptons 98 Horseshoe Canyon. = \<.c.-i- s.siele ere 18
ETT ee yatta eee em Cree EI re rs er 175 How the Earth Was Formed........ 9
Walnut and Related Trees........ SUG *4REVACINEN:. 7. ,<.055:v, «co ofeie pic lors oreo ee "6
LOLs “otet ae loss ieteiiousls misivletetcveletene = aieed 43 MHyacinthus Orientalis .............
Wriveron, Genus: 2... .'sccleelel ete Maye FOS B® PBINGIS TINUE) c1-1.ccicsiesl eres icicieete Soa 176
Ethiopian Lily ..........+.--+e+- + @i kndidyw’ Mallow ........ 00252 jai 92
Malis) Nig@ara 06.2 he. cece ccAand Molen 19 PARK) os 6.20 onieiciee oie sie Come ee Pn je
Wamily. Heath) oc .cccdstsn cet ae ape 103 PHC: 'F. sc'nccc s/s bic eRe «s 90
ive GE enn pA Oar ric obs suk. OF AEE: A RPIS Rie con sra susie ose la iene oie eee eee toe &8
BCMA Waly) oie. <\s.cinicerstociatersiausiae arte 69 Fildrentina «5.6 o<cisc.0bes ade
BGA ISUINON G cis a jars loves. 06s) soja clcler stots Pare: . | Gerinidiiica 2.04.05. Se Meee eee 89
WORIDONE ce, oc to js\oe biere-cio.o.24s ohare tetotetehe © 176 PaVGa, ois i< 2,02 6 isis ateies wee eee . 89
Bare: WEE oo. c:cic ccc iors sleiwrcie aniclotalere sve 9D Lg riiivil: We EAI rice 89
iy teh Go Ss Sgacueeccoggas sooncane 127 Sambucina . c..cisisis sideline eee 89
MleUr: Ge) OUWIS 5. 1s nje,suclaxcieyoi scale lala eta ee 89 WEYSICOIGE .is.6 Sisvexe ona) o:0 cic shoneli naan _89
BLING 2 dois, oie iwc iein © wile tele te tale erates Statana ie 49 wish’ MOSS 2). <,c.ctolets se cleo) nto ie nee 139
Flowering Almond ............... >. *5 tion Ore, Spathic......0): 2s. aden 24
Blower-de-luce: oo... ois:s cysisieciewteletvts ote 89) 2 RGN OTES sole ole.c/01s.010: 010 chore tomeerete nena 26
Biower, Pattern .20 65.04.00) ste eer G2 Daciwthl «ws acl s Sheet ns ee i §
WEIOW OVS o aisle cola Hagsus eiere Berea oh CMe ets EO IAMASDER w oloveiciveiei clolercierete te peiatotere Seilbicics 49
and Their Invited Guests......... 5D) NUS, 5/5 isis faye: odie eels opt ele area
POUDIG A aie chaicis's siviskelevepecvere APR 59 Sc MUM GUAE <c.0 <cie,0 be crete ets aie elcherenetanea 162
OTOSES) ofacic, 0b, erscbiapd, s orevets Bterete tae tel Fe TAT | | RAADIATA 0.25 ie) < iass ore elejone char dicate ciereneneen
Formation of Minerals and Gems.... 23 lLady’s Slipper .............. 4 vee 40
ROR TIO VEN a ojo. c were cievovaisi cle sme ota oleloraie F26 © BapIs LAZO (es iia ace icici crn o Seen ee
Rracrant Balm ....\...0wied. tes ce ee 90> benrely Mountain |. s. 3)... ccisictelow este 1
Rringed Gentian ...5. foci. desccwes 94 Lazuli, 1h) CON Beac Orion crt >
Merit, Grape. . sts cwnawis dese on Pewee GE Peal fase) ise ials.cle (a evovchors svelape erecta 25, ,28
WYGN ES sooo. oy oveye al's'a\ousiskelexdceicietareisteta ots ERD SB MION 62 2) coo st) cis, 5) cia! ovale, oyayerduenecal neal 157
Pomel, bracket, -...5..05 .cis Pee ewec FOS W RACOEICE | oars 6: 074 oo, 01) nym elem oie oo is
SHELL a civ orci cic, cvsverecoinvanctalazece Moers 493 BAuun) Harrisif 5).)./0c\0:. «cic o arate
DV OOUY ane lovepicicis\arayeseisicce ve aeons Sistas 196 Bon eiflordimy fs, < s1sicie.s's he. deen ae 3
Fungus, a oiianas dha ain DC aa Sahel Bale 193 Supeebamy, 2.6. ./2,cie ceca t ae eee
RORY gic a's ava iol waa lenoun 4 ie temp teretereinia terete 2 ee, 7.1 AO RIE COC E ice i, - . .68
WATIGE )c)./5 wlevc/nia crate eid e ahaa ata) ators 38, 44 PREP ICH I (5)<, a acer ciato aveotediepereleveea ea 67
UP STR aR Aa Se Ohatancatedon cet teeSee Be MTT ce (areicrs wie -oi0 ole stams te erate a
MINOR) eioicicis casaslcteiaicne ate sea ee ems 39 CARBAR 26 a iisicios sic ofsieietoarmete eee 69
rT Fn ee a, REN ANE Cte oe 86 TORREEE no ia)e c dieleals asia sc aoe a
GeAtigngd. 1s \.\iieisic'one ee rarcicie rowie wees 94 eae 6 jee oinkal etolelte atatal SreReneee Jace
ntian, Fringed .........+..s.-- « 94 VON se Sere: bchu(ahe/ars isye eNes ek ee
MPIANA, BUS aicichscielcke selenite 94 BIGHGOW) 2 i-.c civic docs ne cb ye eee 69
Geyser, Old Faithful............... 18 Of thie s Nile’. c/s..j5.0.c soe 7
Gigartina Mamillosa ............:+. 139 ¥ the VAMeY « sy..<cicis5.;sieisters alee 5
Qing era iss cic Seiad watts awe 109, 114 pr CAD Gi sleisis,siucory ce eee -
GPOIGEM TOG «isio55 core bicte Risisbeisuereivdeverspe aa i Wild, WeLOW «6/006... 5.0.0 b sis.n srmclarereeee 69
PANaAGi an 2 >.. cscic/cieserepeiale wiaaicialomen es Ay | RANNIO au oue eiesajevet oie toxers rola cere aera 159
GIGANTIC 5 cccicccissciercios we istoleeious a steed PE PRAMMONATE fo orn cic ae alec orettt ose cr at eheeaeenen 7
Bolldago: ALSuts «cicis wicycielote aeinlalel die 73 Liverwort, Round-Lobed ............ 1
Leis, 3,6 b's eSavqiorsvetohote’ sheer ah ie die os (3S penraeee Sick shatnincinite eile rath ict el state 172
WU MILE) ct caviolcloiaycceleye or eiwteleteia else eae Mh | (HAERCE) oS ieie selola micvaicyo je lelerae min Gval acetate 109
Grand |Canyon.s.2.0.615.0). se hah nateaaas 17 Mad. TIGIO) 5 \oi(6se 5 .0jec eros teisse oe 169
GYAN oils ices Sie wialeles > as ee ee ae 167 Magnetite ............ seer sence 26
BY G oct cen, npsieyois a0 eae e eee ee 161 BOSIZO §5ic)c.tis'o wis ele. nleveye eve: a) oraiphel etal Riera 1
Greenland Primrose .........--++.-- OS” PREM IMCHICE ae cits cleversvele to areysisintesaete 32, 50
Brazel’ NUTS ieee ic:sic no selene Rae eae 176 Peall6w, Wnidiay .c4\.5)< wesc wlnsinciemeee 92
PRCAS PATTOW, 2.6 lacie oucieielors choke e9 96 MASA 2 occ se bok ue $2
Hieard, Cloistered, 0500 ccis secs ccc 95 MUSED J2.cic stu cidle cra ccelace cuarecaterobateeanane 92
Heath Bamily .....o..s2s0idearteeade 103 ROR S ite; ovbcchai siesevoke sere otc ccmeeh bia aenenan 93
WMelianthus ANNUUS. = shite cteiwsicies > SO)! READIO WB isicic cpa ca eicle sielctorsdntelane <i 92
PRGHIOEPODE! baie ctatalbitieietore toler esis ere te terete’ 49° | “Marble Beds) 4.0. ioc cicaseicislcioujnitoteras 30
{
{
.

INDEX 213

PAGH PAGH
MES VCYMIGHG oo oi. 5's cele o:eveletele-ei'c SO) HREDDETI rs cicicicre oie siete ciate ache een 109
I ETE TN AE or i ow ee ee 30 PCPIATIEN! \. oi 5.5)c'chel gictecauier ee wether 63
MEIN TONU ITIVE) och ancl o2 «gc ek ors cc cate bie 92 Persimmon | ihhip)stiels a vciss ac Oe eee 173
isVELA CT Enis) 05 SS Ba ae ea ae 96 POCAT ioe S wo; cle ele) alataterwie’s ore dle atioeiciale 176
he TaNSO TON TEE Sh a FIGtF OR GRAI SA aiciiec cre a staten carne OM eee 62
PE TUNT WEES oe fos claicie oie aida Qiteteee ROS) Pb tren ple rai\n were crite larsieietetaore 171
MRRP OVTUPL Viren. c(cjnhcleve ecleysis sic elasis siete 69 PIMK; Chinese: .ic.ie'siss ccraaele sok ae q2
Medicinal Piants MPN aiers Mav eiciaieie wetee 125 F amily suahallon scakeheharasoie tote erento rceele teks q2
SRE RT TINCT Noleyeic siccle's's is vee eaten 86 NAV CRUATANY (so ors eaters nieiel oy erekat here cee 72
To SoG ey 6 aS Ae ee re 32 INT arn iis, <:.nyavreintel sv ehore oiere'al metoeea ere ave 96
and Gems, Formation of......... 23 BSCR! s/n wie at hetnys. sievee «law Oinateeinieeite 96
BOMEATMAE CATDOMN. 2150.6 se.0s.0 siecle De. PICA yc Coerne te Javnds ein asthe eee ee 65
AO EEO EMIS Gare tra ois c's of e's 0.6 6 cowie e drove $9 Jp Plant. Wee o.oo eee 169
PEPE PTPOUTICIENY |.) afore ici vie cree eie'siccee we 90 WIGEHEE \<)' 45.655 wy aiohio ek pat ee 205
(Re ey 203 Protection's, o\c.c cele cais cae tsecce 199
i ALES) SAS SE BRASS Sn et ar a 228 Plante) Medicinal 2 22/0 )1- este 2 toe 125
GL tole erosieio'e sie rs ce eowe 39 Miscellaneous 9s s)s\c.-1-1e «saa eletaletots 199
Moonstone, Ceylon ......2...0..00. 52 Wind-pollinated ........66 004.00 60
PERE ARTT COP Ui orev cele) aves ‘aceve\ersia'e o'etye i GS) 5 PIRSA se levecciv. s ererecerereisicne SOR Renee 49
POSE CHLTAECEM beiciccc cc scacecee ce « 139 . Phim; Virginia Date......... 0600.8 173
LES Ses J6R bes Boe GOS e pee 139 Prime; Indian. ..0.0..0.0cs cece nse ewe 90
TENET WIEOTOVE socio ciciciecc cle c cle delice 409 Ve POLMERY vers Varies Sees ee Sse see ore 64
MPRETITE RET UU ED. ciclorc ei cie Ce viele ic See 104 Grab? i6550'5% Sass Fatae Seon
Hite ¢ Gey h QE AE SS eee See ee 96. PéHination .i6502 625.8060. cees ess
1 Tn eee as 2 ee ee ae 91 POmeLranate: are cicijeecccisie'ce oe wien 172
PRRUS DE tacts vale iaverave ciaeicrs selec stele s bisleie OD Ew EOD DY: orci ore cietoterclelerct> otelursetetia siotere 136
RPE aero cia okais eval Shas tw wle oo eS 92 IPBQSGi 5% ais cielsleteraiatate aiatoteratorelsi emits 49
Mushroom, Chantarelle .11.2..22222 187 ~+=~Precious Serpentine . eieeleis ease ee 53
POLS See catai ccs Mer ohate aioe Gis’ w orate cas 191 LONE. 3% 0i<,01c Sus a ae eterereiels eee eee 37
Fly ‘Amanita OSE eee ee 191 FF PEM FOSO}5) 5 cise; c oieverate ee wi atetaretalrneanaee 98
Glistening Coprinus ............. 188 Greenland’ ois esis ack ees ww ee 98
G@réen BRussuls oc... ccc ccccece . 190 Pulque sla aieraleroverorels elev wretetet ale Fae Cate 86
Masked Tricholoma.............;. 489 «= Pyfite cecccctrsctrtcescarsccces 26, 50
Sulphury Polyporus ............. HD «- P¥BORCHO) 660, sis cece olsle civlels VE He ose 50
LL TRISH 8 A@G6H6 Gonnu se oun sede 185 Pyrus Communis .............5.5.. 154
METINO MATION osc cacicuctsewcceccesc 92 BBIENSIS cc ccc cece sccvce ce shbssia 154
PROTSSUIS as Sats Hel aa rele sale ataveie's Os 85 Quarts ..........cereveveeecs soses 32
TAT ape aes Some om Ga boemae asic 86 and the Silicates ...........0.««4 35
MILIVE COPPEL 2.6 5c cbse cs Shoes = iD Erystalline 52 cic sec ce ccc eda de 55
Pawar WALI oo. cece occa te 6 sees s 29 Obscurely Crystalline ......+4.... 48
TARO CORRASEE SHodonsuc otc 2 ooaoes 27 Rose ....+00. Siotaleleictel setae sits seess 56
DAR ES EMAL Ge sic icieie cre dered dam tcdece us 175 DALCRHAE® deci cicte visicinicicsa ve an aens 56
IPP Coes faces edie oaese ss 176 BinGhy: J< 600 2. Sdey Jas ese dh POSE 56
PRIN edocs oo uh ee Ae 176 Quince .......... sale oe nce dp TOR Te be 163
Sn SO er 109, 118 Red Pepper ..........--e sees ee ees - 116
NTSeice cis oS coc ece caer eses 175, 149 Keine de Femmes ...........00ss0 78
TEC) SA ees a a ele REAPAGHENATONE . oie)d.c.c. coe. o he so pee eee 87
Obscurely Crystalline Quartz........ AS RNOGORT UC Ieee o)ore!olvielalctslcpeleyeteiclotals Mets 52
Oil, oe SE ae POLS Be OO Ine eae 70 OGKsCrVUStANe. cccietereicicisia: o evctele aeiemrets 56
Wel Ae EEE Se eg ead er 20 RONG oie, aia aie o ovoloisléus © @ ctadeue/aionetetp patanions 70
Old Faithful GySeRiem ie icie Sook iave . 728 DOS .ccccccsecessccrcsccescevces 70
Un e2 A aS Sa lee 49 IMSITOWetosclacc: cco aresc-cre ee ici pete tone 93
Miya ete n Son aig oo clase Ske. deeer es 39, 41 of Plymouth ........-++.-++se+eee 96
Omit eee BS Bere ee ene GF eee 137 Oil on ccccccssscccccvevseccosece 70
AOrEN Peg eid Ahir arceho wewilds os 156 QUATEZ 2... cece cece eee e eens 56
WOTCHIG HERES. | Kiara ciciers crore a kleicic els olels 76 ala SYe ois So: ero) eile wien teeta eS ale Ie 70
CORY CLE (So ea a ee ie ee EE 5 0 Me IR UNAS el sae} ous) ais 5.6 eso ereisie ins Stwiw leant 39
MITCH MOE MEINERS GLO eoisis) cielcrere vfs clsisrele ee 25 Rudbeckia Hirta iosccs esi aietiatet 81
PUTCRON PCLGS fois) cvetstate wieisie'crs.c 6s cicie ae 27 Sanbatia TLibe!) ssiwiclecre ves e te eee 96
Ornamental Stones .............-.. 52 Sapittaria jo s\- <iclo es elem ee sate eh ere
RINWESOM DCS dc alee Sala ckevel avwie)ciovehe- ove evs 90 SAP MITC oie cis nie. wraeyvic el taes 6 keene ee 39
MICEOROEWERONE fF olele oc clovec clei ave.cub vcs rales y fi | Ranenitic Quartesc cose sees 56
MOR USLIWaratele a alsin crevetaete! o cies ce cis elele eic'e 65 SATO! sd ci aicrcisic bie, dis ww eis einre een phere 49
MN GAUIC Rh ee tela cieerecorn wie chiara aye'e Shave oiavene Gide NALGONYE. \scicscssceewee wees emus 39, 49
PPSPULOEYI GH OWGE Gertie or hero cre: scl eitinreie's ere 62 Scarlet. Painted. Cup ecckiessicue ree 79
ERRsees Tn oyeteeey ater eels cura orrenalie’.s e010 le wiiaeve 152 SeacPink: 6s.Seacis wcicrettaceatale paheeate 96
EH arr etertoratcreretev sis chevcvcicinr ce ates sieleais s 153 Sedge, (Cinnamon Vag) sre cide wists leisislare 127
PPCNATEE rere rotors: aie a.e S aceein stetereke 175 Self-Pollination® 225 <a sicgse enacts 62
PERE Re ee etter cfs Wejevovere! sia eis aia wel DT Sepals: s.5 a cie co's win wie leteeieteialatel sieve aiatetevun Ger
SESeCRC ON Stic leyessiclisials Wie vie cca le ebvsietoters ala ire Serpentine taba Wash Gale eta baate ere wate 34
BEM recat oto le aim: is) oe! sinha! afew lev'e 116 Serpentine, Precious ..........+.+e. 53

WTR ie i ocho eid-o araseretd wlelate, wi a/ste 127 1 Shell-Wlower: cons hele srw ates vista ieee 1038

214 INDEX
PAGH PAGH
SITICALOS Tiana creole sie miciaters yAGdedoat SOG | MLUATELIEE ave b cleldisiciersvers a 16)s aie eiateiteta elesateee
Simpler's(JOy.7 55, Seicisie wee cia heels oats 105; “Thyme, Wield | iss.... scc.ccs ccle.c see 128
Slipper; Hadyisiencc oes ce sinewe cue 76 OU SOLS oe) ccciesevs je. 0:sy0 1a ec ahaa 129
SMITLHSONLEC oie lave. che cteiete ciorare orerauetoherete Be WAT. ie oioks wii Sorpincie.cve » cya eae eee 128
Smoky. Quarts. = ce wiieateue as teye ss 5 WAIN hs a.'5 rei eratex eve! sh avoteye over sieveroie ete 28
Snake-Head 6 see cic sic icte ee ane 1038 TODSECO. 52.c% Binvcleia-s od eve octets tote einen 130
BUAKELOOt BLACK acces sisistorels aiete clad ere 97 SEOWMIAEOS |.) ale vsyelerelejelste.c (ois «efx iota 168
SORDPWORE Toon wiccatere aie eerale: eietonenetawis 102 IPOD AZ: sieickotehaia siete aie. o's o)uteleteletereme «Do; oe
Siam Soar se comb osroso bans + 20° ©) Honrm Aline Mejor <ere » wicts ie) 1s sveielotene 47, 32
Spatwie Irons Ores 3. oacsse eer ae sss 27 Trailing VATHUEUS ss... 0. « «1a oenerstoee 103
Splcedian cio sieks isvelcbaleietereis Sebetesosenionotes LOD) = Wnaveler’s Oy cr... <1-.ci o)<1>lniol> eee 101
Sle 27. eratavaroncte! aie Meseteie eo tayeave 99) “treacle Sse ss -e'e'sle wiers ble. n) eee 123
SUAMCMS ee arsote sie clelchers eiererersiorerareaereters 64 Tree, AlMOUG osc iciccrsss cern coe 178
SECM Ay acre clatcictelareleiatorsiete ae utereisbelrie 65 Chocolate. éicic0is eat adie ee eee 180
Stones; ‘Ornamentals oo scree a claeiere ote 52 WROWAM ocraiciecvs <:sore asta eee catches 154
SIDUM rasta iate lelsiatataterersisvonierackeresneta ok 38 Tribe, Sabbateas ...,.:..0. 2. enneeweee 96
HEPEGIGUS acre rerereteir erate chelekaiels; e/mieier erate 37 UP PU a ved Wises 'eie oles Ae voter = ee) Ae 63
BITS WEED siceicuroiaicic cornet aaioteiotare ts 165,. ‘LarkigiCap Waly): ccm. eee 70
iy BREE cadoncosbone aa pobeonleT Go), TEUTQUOISEN. oic s! elo <tole s)=) oe oe eee 40, 39
DUPAE-Came rs Wersiale cle siete or ctordlass iene eine 122 Tnrtle-Head) Sci (ciclcicls/ejoie > eters 103
Sop hitecor. LEO ss ciete sieioteicsicta ciere ere 26 Weald) i. 5 oc:0 0.070 ia 0 ave ova,o 0 viata erererenana 118
Sipe Poke Achemcn on dca toooricoos 34 GE LCP io cid Si sjuteye nec eters lelete are ieee 119
Sunflowers and Daisies............. 80 WAPISCIER) Cclcce cs oleic oliev nies eels Gee enema 39
Sweet sg ee ciicictain craisiclelereiste serene 127 Welvet-Beat. icc s sie sc lcce sie) stniohed hone 92
William Werb@las <.-.cicce kis .c:< cvevcyeteis in ataials orem 105
Re Boot Wervain; Bluey c.c.< sje) oe iets 105
Black .... 6.0) (3 PA ria cid eran Ser oc 99
ESN ro ayoy cia cis tar tateta,oteiotetate eiore te tarelale Virginian’ Date ‘Plum... .¢. 022. esses 173
Campoe Wirgin’s ‘BOWer: cic cies acisic: 0 clerclats eae 101
Congon Wiake-BRobini iss. oc5 5) o\e1s crete n)acn tol oi eicreteene 63
Green ... Walnut, WACK se iciers ci visein'n to ro aiaiere 176
Glanpowaer veces seiistcocecielegcs 121 Win glishy) <../cre cic osictevars oterss eee 175
ER VHOW a terveterccoisioiaiaisieieieieratertteterateiere 121 Water. ROSG Sicic eter co cteisiele cs cteleeleteiatane 70
ELV ROM MSM velclateiueletetetelateteceietelelerete 121 Watermelon) siecc:c0iselatcte mle) oialelal et aietete 174
EERO Go tetelwio oieis aictaialoretaierarsierers e. 121 WiGed! TIO 6S sicicicse cl eleiele olerernotatenenenene 95
MinkicSam ecco sciecoet cae ee « 122 WHOLIS. (OUD Sesoistel c/s ove) oste ni 5 1eiata aioli 20
PAGE ySOUCHON) oc on cicleciels niniaeieieine 122 WHRCRE arate ew ere eieia exele cvclete aint) ote eter 183
IRECOR Merci otaisios nels Seciceloentinatan 122 White Pepper) cive.s . o.0ccc Pete nie ccteterereee 117
DOM inistel cielo (aie oisiv che ers [erelevciciatereunte 121 Wild “Yellows Villyic. sc. aariienee S-ofs') BOD
UG70 tt) Ta ae Glee oor bnicnodnde 122 Willow-Herb, ‘Great. <<<) <<): wletere 95
RIEL Tosa tae aleve tcinieteheleveleterelo arctote 121 Wind-Pollinated Plants ............ 60
ERGusi th AV. Si tctats ave ake clarsiou a citeneieterer 121 Woods) CHEETY) fe eicjc cielcisitiaselcve ekerererenete 167
Waited § kash) OA AR AAA om a adinoa dist 121 VICK OF Giicarcls)aleve's) tacin=\ el d.n' 0s eiele aietenene 177
SHER SV OCAIMNCLIA! alalstelsis(olels.eislesele\piota/ ols 120 Wellow /PAaly ve arc c'e. 010: 0 ofa. a\oy aie ee 69
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