Protected Areas Programme Nature Reserves of The Himalaya and the Mountains of Central Asia Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre S The World Conservation Union Balkhash Lake Nature Reserves of The Himalaya and the Mountains of Central Asia Compiled by Michael J. B. Green World Conservation Monitoring Centre in collaboration with IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas IUCN-The World Conservation Union 1993 Published by Oxford University Press, New Delhi, India. Prepared by World Conservation Monitoring Centre. A contribution to GEMS-the Global Environment Monitoring System. © i @ ©1993 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior permission from the copyright holder. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. Citation: IUCN (1993). Nature Reserves of the Himalaya and Mountains of Central Asia. Prepared by the World Conservation Monitoring Centre. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. xxiv + 458 pp. ISBN: 0 19 562922 1 (Pbk.) Compiled by Michael J.B. Green. Cover photograph: Yak grazing, Kargiakh Chu, Zanskar in proposed Lung Nag Sanctuary, Jammu and Kashmir, India, by Michael J.B. Green Cover design by IUCN. Printed by Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi 110020, India. Available from Oxford University Press, New Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. IUCN Publications Services Unit, 219¢ Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 ODL, UK. The designations of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN, WCMC or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations. Contents Foreword Introduction Managing Information on Protected Areas at WCMC Information Sheets: Guidelines to their Contents Acknowledgements Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan China India Myanmar Nepal Pakistan Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Geographical Index Taxanomic Index ili “a oS Any Cm Doar a ook ed a Foreword The great mountains of Central Asia are one of the World’s most massive features and the source of some of the most important rivers which bring life to millions of people. In the last century, man, the great destroyer, has polluted the oceans, poisoned the rivers and lakes, made deserts of good arable land, felled the forests, and severely eroded the mountainsides. And yet there is still great beauty to be found in this world of ours. I remember the sun setting over the pinnacle of Mt. Amadablam in Nepal; the glorious low lighting across the snowy mountain peaks on Ellesmere Island in the Arctic; the shining white sand and clear blue water on the palm fringed islands in the Pacific; and the dramatic return of the sun to the Antarctic after the long dark winter. The nature reserves of the Himalaya and associated mountain ranges seek to protect the best that remains of this superb wilderness. Much damage has already been done—in the wet monsoon season the rivers are dark with topsoil from the bare slopes, and the forests are severely denuded—but efforts are under way to control this misuse of natural resources. The Everest region of Nepal, for example, has experienced ever-mounting pressures from its resident Sherpas and from tourists. Steps are already being taken to reconcile the needs of the residents and visitors with conservation objectives—treafforestation, removal of goats, provision of hydroelectricity, and local educational and medical facilities being amongst recent initiatives, as documented in this directory. Not only do the nature reserves remain as a symbol of what the Himalaya were like in the past, but they also serve as a living example of how to care for one of the earth’s most dramatic and beautiful regions. May they long be preserved and managed for future generations to enjoy. Sir Edmund Hillary ond pyireats spon ety 10 enctitn ay “ gue Se AD + . ids 0 ree suri my 1 +. De qnwst set! voto gery 3 . PY rp a SHhi-3391099.01 oi are any = ig aeaaien tie ; | Lees. ast j —- af can és 2 7 ‘ me stout cs sean mn 4 oo Irtizoern bate ovnlesntl ott me iad snares HouM 2zsmebliw disque tily ie ad mort flozet diiw cheb ne cavity oth ae Venema endian vagy vara pth sail siqmaxs oi oqo ea otla su aqne arise! nferttntae i wnitevrsenos riiw eeiviv baa -_ ul Bi! Sigve & vinta i DSM P Hees. Yo 'Sne ES ee fot beerganyite ‘baw Introduction As recognised by participants at the 3rd World National Parks Congress, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1982, the ready availability of comprehensive good-quality information on the world’s protected areas is essential to a wide range of international organisations, governments, protected area managers, voluntary bodies and individuals. Such information is a prerequisite for assessing the coverage and status of protected areas from regional and global perspectives. Moreover, monitoring protected areas is vital to ensure that those areas allocated to conserve the world’s natural resources meet the needs of society. The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) is expanding its capabilities as an international centre for information on protected areas. Working with the [IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas, the WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit (PADU) is compiling a series of protected areas directories, with priority assigned to tropical countries where much of the world’s biological diversity is to be found. Past work has been focused on the Neotropics and Afrotropics, and more recently on Indomalaya (South Asia) and Oceania, culminating in protected area directories published for each of these regions. The present directory is thematic and covers the high mountains of Central Asia within parts of the Indomalayan and Palaearctic realms. It is the product of material first drafted for the International Workshop on the Management of National Parks and Protected Areas in the Hindu Kush—Himalaya held in Kathmandu, 6-11 May 1985, the proceedings of which were published as People and Protected Areas in the Hindu Kush—Himalaya by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC). Since then, the original material has been extensively revised and updated, and its scope extended beyond the Hindu Kush—Himalaya to include other mountain ranges which encircle the cold deserts of the Tibetan Plateau and Taklimakan. The directory covers the Hindu Kush—Himalaya in the south, as defined by ICIMOD, and extends to the Pamir, Tien Shan, and Qilian Shan in the north. A map and gazetteer of this entire region has been compiled by the Royal Geographic Society and Mount Everest Foundation (The Mountains of Central Asia, 1987). The directory describes the protected areas systems of Afghanistan, Bangladesh (south-east), Bhutan, China (west), India (north), Myanmar (north), Nepal, Pakistan (north) and USSR (south-east). Summary data are presented for all protected areas known to exist within the mountains of Central Asia but only a limited number (over 120 properties) are described in detail. This is largely a reflection of the availability of information, documentation on many of the less significant properties (often the smaller properties) being non-existent or not easily obtainable. Vii Nature Reserves of the Himalaya The directory is organised into chapters for each country. Each chapter comprises a description of the national protected areas system, accompanied by a summary list and map of protected areas, and is followed by descriptions of individual properties in alphabetical order. Geographical and taxonomic indexes enable the reader to refer quickly to individual properties and plant or animal species, respectively. Michael J. B. Green World Conservation Monitoring Centre Vili Managing Information on Protected Areas at WCMC Institutional background The IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas (CNPPA) has been actively involved in the collection and dissemination of information on protected areas ever since it was set up in 1960 to serve as the ‘leading international, scientific and technical body concerned with the selection, establishment and management of national parks and other protected areas’. Over the years CNPPA’s information management role increased to the extent that in 1981 it set up the Protected Areas Data Unit to undertake this service. Support for this initiative was forthcoming from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), as part of its Global Environmental Monitoring Programme. Originally part of the IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, PADU is now an integral part of the World Conservation Monitoring Centre, restructured in July 1988 as a joint venture between the three partners in the World Conservation Strategy, namely IUCN, World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), and UNEP. Objectives WCMC aims to provide accurate up-to-date information on protected area systems of the world for use by its partners (IUCN, WWF, and UNEP) in the support and development of their programmes, other international bodies, governmental and non-governmental organisations, scientists, and the general public. Such information covers the entire spectrum of protected areas, from national parks and sanctuaries established under protected areas legislation or customary regimes to forest reserves created under forestry legislation. It also includes privately-owned reserves in which nature is protected. PADU has an integral relationship with CNPPA. In particular, PADU is responsible to CNPPA for producing the United Nations List of National Parks and Protected Areas (1982, 1985, 1990), which is periodically generated from its protected areas database currently totalling some 26,000 records. This database, together with supporting documentation, includes comprehensive information on natural sites Bee under international conventions and programmes, namely the Convention concerning the’Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention), Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), and Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Thus, PADU co-operates closely with the Division of Ecological Sciences, Unesco, in maintaining information on biosphere reserves and World Heritage sites accorded by the MAB Secretariat and World Heritage Committee, respectively. Likewise, it has strong links with the Ramsar Bureau for managing information on Ramsar wetlands. ix Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Information capture, management and compilation Information is collected from official sources, that is, national agencies responsible for administering protected areas, and other sources through a global network of contacts ranging in profession from policy-makers and administrators to land managers and scientists. It is also obtained from published and unpublished literature. Regional CNPPA meetings and other relevant scientific and technical meetings provide valuable opportunities for making new contacts and collecting fresh information. Information, ranging from books, reports, management plans, scientific papers, and maps, is stored as hard copy in manual files. Basic data on individual protected areas are extracted and, after verification, entered in a protected areas database. This computerised database can be used for generating lists of protected areas meeting predefined criteria, together with summary statistics, as well as performing more complex tasks. In addition, boundaries of protected areas are gradually being digitised, using a Geographic Information System, in order to be able to generate computerised mapped output. The raw information is also used for compiling information sheets on national protected areas systems (protected areas systems information sheets) and on individual protected areas (protected areas information sheets). These information sheets are compiled according to standard formats developed over the years by PADU in collaboration with CNPPA, details of which are given elsewhere in this directory. Dissemination of information Compiled information is periodically published in the form of regional or thematic directories, with sections on individual countries comprising a protected areas system information sheet, a protected areas list with accompanying map, and a series of protected areas information sheets covering at least the more important properties. Prior to releasing or publishing documents, draft material is circulated for review by relevant government agencies and experts to help ensure that compiled information is accurate and comprehensive. Regional and thematic directories published to date are as follows: IUCN Directory of Neotropical Protected Areas (1982) IUCN Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas (1987) IUCN Directory of South Asian Protected Areas (1990) IUCN Directory of Protected Areas in Oceania (1991) MAB Information System: Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 4 (1986) Biosphere Reserves: Compilation 5 (1990) Directory of Wetlands of International Importance (1987, 1990) Protected Landscapes: Experience around the World (1987) Information is also made available to a wide range of users, including international organisations, governments, protected area managers, conservation organisations, commercial companies involved in natural resource exploitation, scientists, and the media and general public. It may be consulted by arrangement. Material may be prepared under contract: for example, PADU regularly provides UNEP with summary data on protected areas for its biennial Environmental Data Report. PADU is experimenting with providing outside users with direct access to its protected areas database.’ Trials have been ongoing with the US Managing Information National Park Service since 1986 and it is hoped to be able to extend this service to other users in due course. PADU is also able to disseminate information through the CNPPA Newsletter and Parks magazine. In the case of the latter, PADU is responsible for compiling Clipboard in which world news on protected areas is featured. xi Information Sheets: Guidelines to their Contents Information Sheets on Protected Areas Systems Country! Full name of country or political unit, as used by the United Nations (1982). Area _ Area of country or political unit according to the Times Atlas of the World (Seventh Edition, 1986), unless otherwise stated (with full reference). Terrestrial and marine components are distinguished, if appropriate. Population Population of country or political unit and its rate of natural increase according to the Population Reference Bureau, Washington DC, whose data is based on those of the United Nations Statistical Office. The year of census or estimate is indicated in parentheses. If another source has to be used, it is cited. GNP _ Gross national product in US dollars, with year in parentheses, of country or political unit according to the Population Reference Bureau. Policy and Legislation Information on aspects of the constitution that are relevant to protected areas. Details of national policies that relate to nature conservation, particularly with respect to the protection of ecosystems. Policies relating to environmental impact assessments and national/ regional conservation strategies are outlined. Brief historical account of national legislation and traditions that relate to the establishment of the protected areas system, with dates and numbers of acts, decrees, and ordinances. Legislation covering forestry and other resource sectors is included in so far as it provides for protected areas establishment. Procedures for the notification and declassification of protected areas are summarised. Outline of legal provisions for administering protected areas. ‘In the case of countries with federal systems of government, a single sheet describes the protected areas system at both federal and state levels, except in the case of geographically disjunct regions (e.g. Hawaii). xii Information Sheets National designations of protected areas are cited and their range of provisions outlined. Their legal definitions, together with the names of the authorities legally responsible for their administration, are annexed (see below). Reviews of protected areas policy and legislation are noted with deficiencies in prevailing provisions highlighted. International Activities Participation in international conventions and programmes (World Heritage and Ramsar conventions, MAB Programme, UNEP Regional Seas Programme) and regional agreements (African, ASEAN, Berne, FAO, Latin American/Caribbean Technical Co-operation Network, South Asian Co-operative Environmental Programme, South Pacific, Western Hemisphere) relevant to habitat protection is summarised, with details of dates of accession or ratification, etc. Outline of any co-operative programmes or transfrontier co-operative agreements relevant to protected areas. Administration and Management All authorities responsible for the administration and management of protected areas are described, including a brief history of their establishment, administrative organisation, staff structure, budget, and any training programmes. Authorities responsible for different types of protected areas are clearly distinguished. Outline of the role of any advisory boards. Co-operative agreements between management authorities and national or foreign universities and institutes, with details of any research underway or completed. Details of non-governmental organisations concerned with protected areas, including reference to any national directories of voluntary conservation bodies. Effectiveness of protected areas management, noting levels of disturbance and threats to the national network. Attention is drawn to any sites registered as threatened under the World Heritage Convention, or by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Systems Reviews Short account of physical features, biological resources, and land use patterns, including the extent and integrity of major ecosystems. (Appropriate sources of information include IUCN’s Plants in Danger, protected areas systems reviews, and wetland and coral reef directories.) Brief historical account of nature conservation, so far as it relates to the establishment and expansion of the national protected areas network. Emphasis is given to any systems reviews or comprehensive surveys of biological resources, with details of major recommendations arising from such studies. Threats to the protected areas system beyond the control of the management agencies are outlined. Other Relevant Information (optional) | Tourism and other economic benefits of the protected areas system, if applicable. xiii Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Other items, as appropriate. Addresses Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and Fax numbers, and cable) of authorities responsible for administering protected areas, including the title of the post of the chief executive). Names and addresses (with telephone, telex and Fax numbers, and cable) of non-governmental organisations, including the title of the post of the chief executive, actively involved in protected areas issues. References Key references (including all cited works) to the protected areas system, in particular, and nature conservation, in general, are listed. Those not seen by the compiler are marked as ‘unseen’. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title (English title): _Name and number of law in the original language or transliterated, with the English translation underneath, as appropriate. Date: Day, month and year of enactment, followed by dates of subsequent major amendments. Brief description: Summary of main provisions (often this is stated at the beginning of the legislation). Administrative authority: Name of authority responsible for administering the law in the original language or transliterated, with the English translation underneath as appropriate. This is followed by the title of the post of the chief executive in brackets. Designations: National designation of protected area in the original language or transliterated, followed in brackets by the English translation as appropriate. —Definition of designation, if given in legislation —Summary details of activities permitted or prohibited —Outline of penalties for offences. —Where relevant, include reference to subsequent legislation relating to the original law. Source: This may be ‘original legislation’, ‘translation of original legislation’, or a referenced secondary source. XV Information Sheets Information Sheets on Protected Areas” Name The name of the property or properties (including any collective name, if applicable), as designated in the original language or transliterated. Where appropriate, the English translation is given underneath. In the case of transliteration, standard systems are used. IUCN Management Category The property is assigned to the most appropriate IUCN management category (see Annex 1) in collaboration with the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Biogeographical Province The biogeographical code, followed by the name of the province in brackets (after Udvardy 1975). Geographical Location The general location of the property within the country, including province and/or administrative district, proximity to major towns and/or topographical features, and means and ease of access. The location of different units is described, if applicable. The boundary of the property is briefly described, its relation to any significant political boundaries noted, and geographical co-ordinates given. Date and History of Establishment The date of establishment, together with the act, decree or ordinance number of the original and subsequent legislative articles relating to its establishment. Proposed extensions or upgradings are detailed. A brief chronological history of previous designations, together with details of subsequent additions (including their sizes in ha). If applicable, dates of inscription as World Heritage Site, Biosphere Reserve, Ramsar Wetland or other appropriate international and regional designations are given. Area The best estimate of total area in hectares (ha), together with sizes of individually gazetted units, if applicable. If this differs from the total area as notified, the discrepancy is indicated. The extent of terrestrial and marine components is specified, if appropriate. Contiguous or otherwise associated protected areas are noted and their sizes given in hectares (ha) in parentheses, including any lying across international borders. Land Tenure Land ownership (e.g. state, provincial, freehold, private, customary etc.), including sizes or proportions of respective areas if owned by several authorities. Altutude Maximum and minium altitude in metres (m). Physical Features General description of abiotic features, covering geology, topography, geomorphology, soils, and hydrology. *Sheets contain information on individual protected areas or clusters of such properties that form discrete conservation units. ‘No information’ is entered under any heading for which no data are available. XV Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Climate Seasons, annual precipitation, and maximum and minimum temperatures, with respect to altitude if appropriate. Other outstanding climatic features are noted. Vegetation Main vegetation types are briefly described, including their approximate coverage and state of preservation. Characteristic species are noted. Communities and species of particular interest, including endemic, globally threatened (see Annex 2), economically important and potentially economically important (e.g. crop relatives), and invasive or introduced species. Any nationally threatened species of direct relevance to management are also mentioned. References to vegetation descriptions and species inventories are included in the above. NB Names of genera and families are based on Mabberley (1987). Fauna Mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian, fish, and invertebrate faunas are described jin relation to the different habitats, with emphasis on dominant, endemic, globally threatened (see Annex 2), economically important, and introduced or reintroduced species of particular interest. Where relevant, information is given on the use certain species make of habitats for breeding, stopover, migration, etc. Population sizes are given in the case of key species, with details of trends over specified periods of time. References to species inventories are included in the above. NB Scientific nomenclature of species is based on Honacki et al. (1982) for mammals, Moroney et al. (1975) for birds, Frost (1985), for amphibians, Nelson (1984) for fishes, and Parker (1982) for invertebrates. The preparation of a taxonomic reference for reptiles is being co-ordinated by The Association of Systematics Collections. Cultural Heritage (if relevant) Archaeological features and cultural monuments. Ethnic groups and their traditions. Historical features. Local Human Population (if relevant) Size of the human population resident, transhumant or nomadic within the property, together with details of the number and distribution of settlements. Livelihoods of local populations are briefly described in relation to any zonation of the property, with details of land use (e.g. numbers of livestock and amount of land under permanent or shifting cultivation). Land use is described for the area surrounding the property, particularly as it impinges on the integrity of the property. Visitors and Visitor Facilities (if relevant) Annual number of visitors, together with proportions of nationals and foreigners for the latest year. Total revenue accruing from tourism is also indicated. Significant trends over specified periods of time are noted. XVi Information Sheets Types of accommodation available on site (or nearby), with details of location and amount if it is particularly limited. Availability and location of interpretation programmes, including visitor centres, educational facilities and museums. Any other recreational facilities of particular interest. Scientific Research and Facilities A brief historical account of research undertaken, together with details of ongoing studies. Bibliographies, if compiled, are cited. Laboratories and other facilities, including accommodation, available to scientists. Conservation Value Geological, scenic, biological, cultural, and socio-economic values of the property, and justification for its conservation. In the case of World Heritage sites, all natural and cultural criteria are outlined, based on the IUCN evaluation of the nomination submitted to the World Heritage Committee. Conservation Management A brief history of the conservation of the property, including any reasons for its original establishment where these differ from its present conservation value. Any legal provisions specific to the protection of the property are mentioned, together with details of activities (e.g. hunting, fishing, grazing) specifically permitted or prohibited. Administrative structure and management, including location of main facilities (e.g. headquarters). Management objectives, as drawn up in the management plan, and their degree of implementation. (The existence or absence of a management plan or ’statement of objectives’ is noted and, if appropriate, the authority responsible for its implementation.) Major management activities (e.g. controlled burning, culling). Any system of zonation, including function and size of zones. Significant training, interpretative, and extension programmes. Recommendations, particularly those made in the management plan, for future conservation and management of the property. Management Constraints Past and current problems are briefly described, such as invasive species, poaching, fire, pollution, disease, agricultural encroachment, impact of tourism, relationship between management authorities and local people, lack of trained manpower or equipment, and proposed developments (e.g. roads, dams), with emphasis on the main types of threat and their extent. Threats from within and outside the property are distinguished. If a property is registered as threatened by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and ProtectedAreas or under any national or international convention (e.g. World Heritage), details are provided. XVii Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Staff Numbers of staff allocated to each position and, if applicable, details of voluntary staff for the latest year, with trends if significant. Budget Annual budget for the latest year (in parentheses) in local currency, and in US dollars for ease of comparison. Capital (e.g. construction of facilities) and recurrent (e.g. salaries) costs are distinguished. Significant trends are noted. Financial support from outside sources. Local Addresses Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, Fax numbers, and cable) of the local authorities responsible for the day-to-day administration and management of the property, including the title of the post of the chief executive (i.e. park warden or equivalent). Names and addresses (with telephone, telex, Fax numbers, and cable) of any local non-governmental organisations directly involved in the protection and management of the property, including the title of the post of the chief executive. References Key references, including management plans, reports, scientific monographs, bibliographies, and handbooks, in addition to other scientific papers or popular articles and books specifically about the property. Particularly relevant references not available for consultation are also listed and cited as ’unseen’. References Frost, D.R. (Ed.) (1985). Amphibian species of the world: a taxonomic and geographical reference. Allen Press and The Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 735 pp. Honacki, J.H., Kinman, K.E., and Koeppl, J.W. (1982). Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Allen Press and The Association of Systematics Collections, Lawrence, Kansas, USA. 694 pp. IUCN (1984). Categories and criteria for protected areas. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K.R. (Eds.), National parks, conservation, and development. The role of protected areas in sustaining society. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Pp. 47-53. IUCN (1990). 1990 IUCN Red List of threatened animals. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 192 pp. Mabberley, D.J. (1987). The plant-book. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 706 pp. Morony, J.J. Jr., Bock W.J., and Farrand Jr. (1975). Reference list of the birds of the world. American Museum of Natural History, New York. 207 pp. Nelson, J.S. (1984). Fishes of the world. John Wiley, New York. Parker, S.P. (1982). Synopsis and classification of living organisms. 2 vols. McGraw Hill, New York. Udvardy, M.D.F. (1975). A classification of the biogeographical provinces of the world. JUCN Occasional Paper no. 18, Morges, Switzerland. 48 pp. United Nations (1982). Names of countries and adjectives of nationality. Terminology Bulletin no. 327. XVlil Information Sheets ANNEX 1 Categories and management objectives of protected areas I II Iil IV Scientific Reserve/Strict Nature Reserve: to protect nature and maintain natural processes in an undisturbed state in order to have ecologically representative examples of the natural environment available for scientific study, environmental monitoring, education, and for the maintenance of genetic resources in a dynamic and evolutionary state. National Park: to protect natural and scenic areas of national or international significance for scientific, educational and recreational use. Natural Monument/Natural Landmark: to protect and preserve nationally significant natural features because of their special interest or unique characteristics. Managed Nature Reserve/Wildlife Sanctuary: to assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, groups of species, biotic communities, or physical features of the environment where these require specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Protected Landscape or Seascape: to maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic of the harmonious interaction of man and land while providing opportunities for public enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal life style and economic activity of these areas. VI Resource Reserve: to protect the natural resources of the area for future use and prevent vil Vill IX or contain development activities that could affect the resource pending the establishment of objectives which are based upon appropriate knowledge and planning. Natural Biotic Area/Anthropological Reserve: to allow the way of life of societies living in harmony with the environment to continue undisturbed by modern technology. Multiple-Use Management Area/Managed Resource Area: _ to provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture, and outdoor recreation, with the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of economic activities (although specific zones may also be designed within these areas to achieve specific conservation objectives). Biosphere Reserve: to conserve for present and future use the diversity and integrity of representative biotic communities of plants and animals within natural ecosystems, and to safeguard the genetic diversity of species on which their continuing evolution depends. World Heritage Site: to protect the natural features for which the area was considered to be of World Heritage quality, and to provide information for world-wide public enlightenment. Abridged from IUCN (1984). xix Nature Reserves of the Himalaya ANNEX 2 IUCN threatened species categories Species identified as threatened by IUCN are assigned a category indicating the degree of threat. Definitions are as follows: (Ex) Extinct: species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years. (E) Endangered: taxa in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if causal factors continue operating. (V) Vulnerable: taxa believed likely to move into the ‘Endangered’ category in the near future if causal factors continue operating. (R) Rare: taxa with small world populations that are not at present ‘Endangered’ or ‘Vulnerable’ but are at risk. (I) Indeterminate: taxa known to be ‘Endangered’, ‘Vulnerable’ or ‘Rare’ but where there is insufficient information to say which of these categories is appropriate. (K) Insufficiently known: taxa that are suspected, but not definitely known, to belong to any of the above categories because of lack of information. (T) Threatened: threatened is a general term to denote species which are ‘Endangered’, ‘Vulnerable’, ‘Rare’, ‘Indeterminate’, or ‘Insufficiently known’. It is used to identify taxa comprised of several sub-taxa which have differing status categories. (C) Commercially Threatened: taxa not cyrrently threatened with extinction but most or all of whose populations are threatened as a sustainable resource, or will become so unless their exploitation is regulated. Adapted from IUCN (1990). XX Acknowledgements Preparation of this directory has been achieved largely due to a tremendous amount of - co-operation from within the South-Central Asian region. Many people have contributed to the preparation of the directory through reviewing or compiling material and providing new information. Their assistance is greatly appreciated. Those who come to mind in the last stages of its preparation are listed below under respective country chapters (some individuals have helped with a number of countries but they are listed only once). To others, whose contributions may have been overlooked inadvertently in the course of time, sincere apologies are due. Afghanistan Dr Tahir Enayat (Afghan National MAB Committee), J. A. Sayer (IUCN). Bangladesh Abdul Wahab Akonda (Department of Forests-Wildlife, Government of Bangladesh), Dr Monowar Hossain (Multidisciplinary Action Research Centre, Bangladesh), Dr Zakir Hussain (Department of Forests, Government of Bangladesh), Dr Md Ali Reza Khan (Al Ain Zoo and Aquarium, Abu Dhabi), Dr M. Salar Khan (Bangladesh National Herbarium), M. Nazneen Mansur-Azim (IUCN, Bangladesh), S. A. Rahman (Department of Forests-Wildlife, Government of Bangladesh), Dr Sultan H. Rahman (Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies), Mr Haroun Er Rashid (Polli Unnayan Sangstha, Bangladesh), Mr S. M. Saheed (Soil Resources Development Institute, Bangladesh). Bhutan John Blower (formerly FAO), G. S. Child (Forestry Department, Wildlife and Protected Areas Management, FAO), Dr C .W. Holloway (World Bank), Peter Jackson (WWF-International), T. B. Mongar (Wildlife Division, Royal Government of Bhutan), Dr Caroline Sargent (International Institute for Environmental Development), M. N. Sherpa (WWF-USA), Dr Hartmut Wollenhaupt (formerly Forest Management and Conservation Project, Royal Government of Bhutan). China Dr W. A. Laurie (University of Cambridge, UK), Dr John MacKinnon (WWF-Inter- national), Han Qunli (Unesco/MAB Secretariat, Dr D. Taylor-Ide (Woodlands Mountain Institute, USA). India J. S. Asthana (Nanda Devi National Park), M. S. Bacha (Department of Wildlife Protection, Jammu & Kashmir), Sultana Bashir (Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration), H. Adams Carter (American Alpine Journal), Dr Kalyan Chakrabarti (Wildife Preservation, Eastern Region, Government of India), Alok Chandola (Abercrombie & Kent, India), Andrew Clark (formerly University of East Anglia, UK), J. E. David (WWF-India Data Centre for Natural Resources), Dr J. L. Fox (University of Trg nso, Xxi Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Norway), Dr P. J. Garson (University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne), Dr A. J. Gaston (Canadian Wildlife Service), Ashish Kothari (Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration), Dr B. S. Lamba (formerly Zoological Survey of India), David Mallon (formerly University of Manchester, UK), Thomas Mathew (WWF-India), J. K. Mehta (Arunachal Pradesh Forest Corporation), I. U. Mir (formerly Department of Wildlife Protection, Jammu & Kashmir), A. G. Oka (Department of Environment, Forests & Wildlife, Government of India), W. L. Oliver (formerly Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust), Sanjeeva Pandey (Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal Pradesh), H. S. Panwar (Wildlife Institute of India), Dr M. K. Ranjitsinh (Department of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Government of India), Dr T. M. Reed (Nature Conservancy Council, UK), Dr W. A. Rodgers (formerly Wildlife Institute of India), Graham Scott (University of Newcastle Kashmir Expedition 1988), Dr M. P. Searle (formerly University of Leicester, UK), Johara Shahabuddin (Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration), M. P. Sharma (Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal Pradesh), R. C. Sharma (Department of Forest Farming and Conservation, Himachal Pradesh), R. P. Sharma (Wildlife Preservation Organisation, Uttar Pradesh), Virinder Sharma (Simla), Ashok Singh (Corbett National Park), Dr Kh Shamungou Singh (D. M. College of Science, Manipur), N. Shamungou Singh (Department of Science, Technology and Environment, Government of Manipur), Dr Shekhar Singh (Environmental Studies Division, Indian Institute of Public Administration), R. C. Thanga (Department of Environment and Forests, Mizoram), Shane Winser (Expedition Advisory Service, UK). Myanmar Ron Cooksy (US National Park Service), the late H. G. Hundley (retired Conservator of Forests), Joanne Michalovic (US National Park Service), U Saw Han (formerly Wildlife and Sanctuaries Division, Forest Department, Myanmar), U Thein Lwin (Wildlife and Sanctuaries Division, Forest Department, Myanmar). Nepal Dr D. J. Bell (University of East Anglia, UK), Dr B. W. Bunting (WWF-USA), Professor S. Chalise (International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Nepal), R. J. Dobias (King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, Nepal), Dr J. M. Eddington (University College, Cardiff, UK), Carol Inskipp (UK), R. M. Jackson (California Institute of Environmental Studies, USA), B. E. Jeffries (formerly HMG/UNDP/FAO National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, Nepal), Dr A. R. Joshi (National Planning Commission, HMG Nepal), B. Kattel (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, HMG Nepal), A. D. Lelliott (formerly World Pheasant Association), P. H. C. Lucas (IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas), Dr H. R. Mishra (King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, Nepal), Dr N. Picozzi (Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, UK), Mathew Rowntree (Coventry Polytechnic, UK), Dr C. D. Schaaf (Zoo Atlanta, USA), I. S. Thapa (Department of Forest, HMG Nepal), G. P. Upadhyay (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, HMG Nepal), B. N. Upreti (Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, HMG Nepal), P. Wegge (Institute for Nature Conservation, Norway), Dr C. M. Wemmer (National Zoological Park, Conservation and Research Center, USA). Pakistan M. Hamid Ali (formerly National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Government of Pakistan), James Burt (formerly World Pheasant Association-Pakistan), Guy Duke (International Council for Bird Preservation), Mazhar Hussain (Capital Development Authority-Environment Directorate, Islamabad), Abeedullah Jan (Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives), Aban Marker Kabraji (IUCN, Pakistan), Mumtaz Malik North-West Frontier Province Forest Office), Dr Yasin J. Nasir (National Herbarium, Islamabad), Abdul Latif Rao (National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Government of XXil Acknowledgements Pakistan), Ghulam Rasul (Wildlife Warden, Northern Areas and compiler of a directory entitled National Parks and Equivalent Reserves in Northern Areas of Pakistan). USSR Dr N. G. Dobrynina (USSR Research Institute for Nature Conservation and Reserve Management), Baiba Klince (Ecological Centre, Latvian State University), Dr Roman Zlotin (Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences). A number of past and present staff of PADU have been involved in preparing this directory. The preliminary draft, presented at the International Workshop on the Management of National Parks and Protected Areas in the Hindu Kush—Himalaya, Kathmandu, 6-11 May 1985 was prepared by Sally Ward. Chapters on Afghanistan, Burma, China and USSR were prepared by Sara Day, James Paine, Peter Gorbutt, and Zbigniew Karpowicz, respectively, with secretarial support provided by Alison Suter and Deborah Rothera. Particular thanks are due to Jeremy Harrison in his role as Head of the Unit, Alison Suter for help with proof reading, and to Mike Adam, Simon Blyth, and Gillian Bunting for preparing the maps. Others who have contributed their expertise include Mark Collins, Steve Davis, Brian Groombridge, Tim Inskipp, Martin Jenkins, Duncan Mackinder, and Christina Smith from WCMC; Richard Grimmett and Tim Johnson from the International Council for Bird Preservation; and Derek Scott from the International Waterfowl and Wetlands Research Bureau. The support of our colleagues at IUCN headquarters, notably Vitus Fernando, Jeffrey McNeely, Jeffrey Sayer, and James Thorsell, is also acknowledged. Notwithstanding the significant contributions of those mentioned above, errors and omissions must remain the responsibility of the compiler. This directory is not a final statement but a review of the current conservation status of the mountains of Central Asia. There is a continual need to maintain and update this information as national protected areas networks change and as more documentation becomes available. With this directory goes a plea for corrections, comments and additional material to help WCMC carry out its mission as effectively as possible. By the same token, WCMC offers an information service that covers an increasingly wide range of topics concerned with nature conservation. All parties, from private individuals to state departments, are invited to contact WCMC with their enquiries at the address below. WCMC Protected Areas Data Unit 219 c Huntingdon Road Cambridge CB3 ODL United Kingdom Tel. 0223 277314 Fax 0223 277316 Tlx 817036 SCMU G XX1I1 oa co eas pmpet ys bis We sR Hay es We lethe Boia tags 4 Gee ps2 4 pray ri! “ae J poligaysts; | git te (reine aed ihe 4 ipetnigthk atayst! set) «ogy pad he ott ms agin: 7 Nei 3 5 put) —* Baaivn yeah ay ao ad r AAS. aah ut b tay’ - ez Ae i %. Ieeeiotlon So ag nas Dinnnh re ie baad 130! 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Tae: CRIM ain CEASE ALT: g Wep ner cat? rd Do lle a Ya St Te Ate AFGHANISTAN Area 636,265 sq. km. Population 16,557,000 (1990 estimate) Natural increase 2.6% per annum GNP_ No information. Policy and Legislation Conservation began in Afghanistan around 1900 with the establishment of hunting reserves for use by royalty (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). There is no enabling legislation to provide for the establishment and management of protected areas. A number of protected areas, such as Ab-i-Estada and Dashte-Nawar waterfowl sanctuaries, have been gazetted through government orders in response to petitions submitted to the Head of State (Sayer and van der Zon, 1981). A draft forests law exists but has not been legislated. It has been proposed that this draft forest law be revised to incorporate provisions for the establishment and management of a system of protected areas, with different management categories clearly defined (Sayer and van der Zon, 1981). International Activities Afghanistan ratified the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 20 March 1979. To date no sites have beerminscribed. Administration and Management The Department of Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform, established in 1957, is responsible for the management and protection of the country’s protected areas and wildlife. A Directorate of Wildlife and National Parks was established within the Department in 1973, then staffed by an administrative officer and two assistants to supervise a number of field officers. To date it lacks any specific and approved jurisdictional powers (FAO, 1978). Jurisdiction over Afghanistan’s only national park, Band-e Amir, is held by the Afghan Tourist Organisation which promoted its creation in 1973. Under a protocol agreement between this organisation and the Department of Forests and Range signed in June 1977, conservation and management became the prerogative of the Department, while all forms of economic utilisation were allocated to the Afghan Tourist Organisation (FAO, 1978). Nature Reserves of the Himalaya The Republican Guard, a cadre of the Afghan army directly linked to the presidential office, was given charge of former royal hunting reserves, such as Ajar Valley and Koie Hashmat Khan, when the monarchy was abolished in 1973. Its management activities have been limited (Shank, Petocz and Habibi, 1977). A training programme for wardens and conservation officers was established through a bilateral agreement with Iran in 1974. Some 34 students were trained prior to this programme being discontinued. A number of post-graduates have been trained in forestry and range management (FAO, 1978). Systems Reviews There is good evidence that the natural vegetation of large parts of Afghanistan was originally woodland and forest, the present steppes reflecting the cutting of wood by man and grazing and browsing by his domestic animals over millenia. According to Sayer and van der Zon (1981), approximately 54.7 million ha (84%) of the country are rangeland, 7.9 million ha (12%) arable and only 2.2 million ha (3.4%) forest. Rangeland, on which the majority of Afghans depend directly or indirectly, is being degraded and abused. In more arid regions dryland farming has exhausted soils and led to erosion. The few remaining forested areas are being destroyed at an alarming rate to meet the fuel requirements of the major cities, while shrubs and dried herbs meet the needs of the rural population and even those of quite large towns. The government requested the assistance of UNDP and FAO in the conservation and management of its wildlife and protected areas. Under a project running from 1972 to 1979, assistance was given to establish a system of protected areas, strengthening the Department of Forests and Range and contributing towards a conservation strategy (FAO, 1980). Some assistance was also received from the World Wildlife Fund for infrastructure developments in Ab-i-Estada and Dashte Nawar waterfow] sanctuaries. Conservation activities were brought to an abrupt halt in 1979 due to political unrest. Addresses Department of Forests and Range, Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reform, Kabul (Tel. 408415). References Rahim, A. and Larsson, J. (1978). A preliminary study of Lake Hashmat Khan with recommendations for management. UNDP/FAO, Kabul. 17 pp. (Unseen) Shank, C. C., Petocz, R. G., and Habibi, K. (1977). A preliminary management plan for the Ajar Valley wildlife reserve. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 35 pp. FAO (1978). National parks and utilization of wildlife resouces. Afghanistan. Project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 32 pp. FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife management. Afghanistan. Project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 22 pp. Sayer, J.A. and van der Zon, A.P.M. (1981). National parks and wildlife management. Afghanistan. A contribution to a conservation strategy. 2 vols. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 107 and 153 pp. uejsiueysyy Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Summary of Protected Areas of Afghanistan National designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference+ Category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Band-e Amir* Unassigned 41,000 1973 Total (% total land area)? 41,000 (0.1%) Waterfowl Sanctuaries 2 Ab-i-Estada* IV 27,000 1977 3 Dashte-Nawar* IV 7,500 1977 4 Kole Hashmat Unassigned 191 1973 Total (% total land area) 34,691 (0.1%) Wildlife Reserves 5 Ajar Valley* IV 40,000 1978 Total (% total land area) 40,000 (0.1%) Wildlife Sanctuaries 6 Pamir-i-Buzurg* IV 67,938 1978 Total (% total land area) 67,938 (0.1%) Proposed 7 Ab-i-Estada National Park* Proposed (27,000)* 8 Ajar Valley National Park* Proposed (40,000)* 9 Dargad (Takhar) Wildlife Managed Reserve Proposed 10 Hamun-i-Puzak National Park Proposed 35,000 11 Imam Sahib (Kunduz) Wildlife Managed Reserve Proposed 12 Northwest Afghanistan Game Managed Reserve Proposed 13 Nuristan National Park Proposed 14 Registan Desert Wildlife Managed Reserve Proposed Total (% total land area) 35,000 (0.1%) * Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map. * Site is described in this directory. * Sizes of proposed protected areas in brackets are excluded from total to avoid duplication with existing properties. Afghanistan AB-I-ESTADA WATERFOWL SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in south-east Afghanistan in Ghazni Province, approximately 130 km south of Ghazni Town. Access from Ghazni is via Noqur and Korawaddin, the latter lying 3 km from the western shore of the lake. Approximately 32°50’N, 67°50’E Date and History of Establishment Approved a wildlife sanctuary on 20 December 1977 (Order no. 707) by the Head of State, based on Petition no. 1765 dated 6 June 1977. In 1974, boundaries were drawn up and the area was declared a national flamingo and waterfowl sanctuary by the Directorate of Wildlife and National Parks (Shank and Roderburg, 1977). Proposed as a national park (FAO, 1981). Area Approximately 27,000 ha, including mud-flats but not cultivated land within a 2 km-wide belt of land (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). (NB An area of 10,000 ha, with a 2 km-wide border, is given in the original declaration.) Land Tenure State. Semi-nomadic people have traditional grazing rights (Shank and Roderburg, 1977). Altitude The lake lies at 2,100 m. Physical Features The lake lies on a gently rolling plateau in the southern foothills of Kohe Baba and Kohe Paghman ranges. It is a shallow, alkaline lake of about 13,000 ha, measuring 16 km at its broadest point. Its size and shape vary within and between years. During a normal year, the lake’s volume ranges from 270 million cu. m in spring to about 140 million cu. m in autumn, which results in a 1 m change in depth (Forstner and Bartsch 1970). Mud-flats surround the lake; these extend for 7 km in the east and less than 0.5 km on the western shore. The north-eastern shore is marshy around the mouth of an unnamed river formed by the confluences of the Gandez, Ghazni and Nahara rivers. Once a year there is an influx of water from this river, but during the rest of the year the water level of Ab-i-Estada is very much dependent on ground water. There are two small islands in the lake (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Climate Summers are dry and hot, and winters cold. Mean annual precipitation at Moqur, 40 km to the north-west of the lake, is 216.4 mm (1967-75), of which 92% falls as snow during the winter months of December through April inclusive. Mean monthly maximum temperature remains above freezing point year-round, but the lake freezes in winter, with only tiny pools remaining where waterfowl may concentrate (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Vegetation The only higher plant to be found in the lake itself is pondweed Ruppia maritima. The mud-flats are almost entirely devoid of plant life, the only conspicuous vegetation being colonies of Taraxacum monochlamydeum. Beyond the mud-flats is a sparsely vegetated Nature Reserves of the Himalaya transition zone before the steppe proper. This zone contains a diversity of small herbs such as common mat-forming Psylliostachys beldushistanica, which is usually associated with a Ranunculus sp., clumps of Asperugo procumbens in sheltered areas, and such common and widely dispersed species as Valerianella cymbicarpa, Veronica sp., Eremopyrum orientala, Papaver spp., and many species of the families Crucifereae and Papillionaceae. The steppe zone is represented by an Amygdalus shrubland community, with scattered, thorny shrubs and dispersed grasses with a ground cover of 15-25%. Shrubs such as Amygdalus sp., Cousinia sp., Tamarix laxa and Artemisa sp. are predominant. Bromus gracillimus, B. tectorum, B. danthoniae and Boissiera squarrosa are common grasses. Stream banks support a lush growth of Carex sp. (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Fauna Small mammals are numerous around Ab-i-Estada. Ground squirrel Citellus fulvus and jird Meriones libycus are common (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Red fox Vulpes vulpes, long-eared hedgehog Hemiechinus auritus and the only record of marbled polecat Vormela peregusna in the area are reported by Niethammer (1971). The lake is a very important breeding and feeding site for migratory waterfowl and waders. Greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus breeds at the site, arriving in spring (late March to April) and departing in early autumn (late September to early October). Other breeding species include avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus, slender-billed gull Larus genei, gull-billed tern Gelochelidon nilotica, shelduck Tadorna tadorna, Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus, and greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaultii (Niethammer, 1971). The lake is thought to be an important stop-over site for the very rare Siberian crane Grus leucogeranus (E). Amphibians are apparently absent, but several reptile species occur, including tortoise Testudo horsfieldii, lizard Agama agills, and a small skink Ablepharus sp. (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). There are no fish in the lake, but invertebrate and other aquatic organisms are various and periodically numerous. Cultural Heritage Ab-i-Estada is an important archaeological site, exhibiting intact stratigraphic sequences. Several mounds representing early dwellings have been discoverd with accompanying artefacts, which suggest occupation from Palaeolithic to Buddhist times (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Local Human Population Several modem villages are located nearby, with major population concentrations about 8 km to the north-east of the lake and 2 km from its western shore. There are more than 15 villages within 10 km of the lake, with a total human population of about 2,500. In addition, there are some 200-300 people living in scattered settlements and about 300 semi-nomadic people (muldar or kuchis), who temporarily reside on the rolling plains in summer to graze their livestock (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities The presence of vast flocks of greater flamingos at Ab-i-Estada was perhaps first documented in the memoirs of the Moghul Emperor, Babur the Great, who observed tens of thousands in 1504, since when research has been focused mainly on the ecology of this species (Akhatar, 1947; Niethammer, 1970; Nogge, 1971; Petocz and Habibi, 1975). More extensive work on the avifauna was conducted by Niethammer (1971) and Nogge (1974) Afghanistan Conservation Value Together with Dashte-Nawar to the north, Ab-i-Estada is a vital staging ground for migratory waterfowl and waders of the Siberian—Kazakhstan/Pakistan—India population, in particular Siberian crane, as well as an essential breeding ground for certain of these species, notably greater flamingo. The international importance of the two sites was recognised at the 1971 Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention, following which the Government of Afghanistan responded to pleas to protect both these areas. Ab-i-Estada is also an important archaeological site. Conservation Management Following its legal protection, a management plan was prepared (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Principal objectives outlined in the plan include protecting birds from adverse influences of human origin and initiating a monitoring programme upon which to base future management decisions. In 1975, assistance was received from WWF to provide quarters for a resident warden and research facilities. Work was subsequently interrupted in May 1979 (FAO, 1980). Management Constraints The greatest threat is from irrigation projects diverting water from the Ghazni and Gandez rivers which flow into the lake. The volume of water in the lake is thereby decreased, resulting in increased salinity levels. Should diversions continue, Ab-i-Estada might well become a sterile wasteland. Extensive grazing by domestic stock on the lake shores destroys the vegetation and disturbs the waterfowl. Egg collection, disturbance during the breeding season and hunting throughout the year are significant problems (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Staff Game guards in summer months (1974 onwards) Budget No information Local Addresses No information References Akhtar, S.A. (1947). Ab-i-Estadah, a breeding place of the flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) (Pallas) in Afghanistan. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 47: 308-14. (Unseen) FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife management, Afghanistan. Project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 22 pp. Forstner, U. and Bartsch, G. (1970). Die Seen von Banda-Amir, Datscht-i- Nawar, Ob-i-Istada and Humun-i-Puzak (Zentral und Siidwestafghanistan). Science, Kabul 6: 19-23. (Unseen) Klockenhoff, H. and Madel, G. (1970). Uber di Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) der Dasht-i-Nawar in Afghanistan. Journal fiir Ornithologie 111: 78-84. (Unseen) Niethammer, G. (1971). Vogelleben am Ab-i-Estada (Afghanistan). Die Vogelwarte 26: 221-7. (Unseen) Niethammer, J. (1970). Die Flamingos am Ab-i-Estada in Afghanistan. Natur und Museum 100: 201-10. (Unseen) Nogge, G. (1971). Afghanistan—the Ab-i-Estada: a vanishing breeding place of flamingos. IWRB Bulletin 31: 28-38. (Unseen) Nogge, G. (1974). Beobachtungen an den Flamingobrutplatzen Afghanistans. Journal fiir Ornithologie 115: 142-51. (Unseen) Petocz, R.G. and Habibi, K. (1975). The flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) of Ab-i-Estada and Dashte-Nawar, Ghazni Province, Afghanistan. UNDP/FAO, Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. (Unseen) - Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Shank, C.C. and Rodenburg, W.F. (1977). Management plan for Ab-i-Estado and Dashte-Nawar flamingo and waterfowl sanctuaries. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 43 pp. AJAR VALLEY WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Lies 55 km north-west of Bamiyan in Bamiyan Province, central Hindu Kush. Access to the area is from Kabul via Charikan, Doabi Mekh-i-Zarin and Karmard. Approximately 67°37’E, 36°40’N Date and History of Establishment Established as a wildlife reserve on 10 September 1978, but proposed as a national park (FAO, 1981). Previously used as a hunting reserve by royalty since the turn of the century and protected as such since the early 1950s, first by the former king and subsequently by the Republican Guard. Following the Revolution of July 1973, the area has been under the jurisdiction of the Guard-i-Jamhuriat, a cadre of the Afghan army, directly attached to the presidential office (Shank et al., 1977). Area 40,000 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from approximately 2,000 m to 3,800 m. Physical Features The terrain is mountainous and typical of the central Hindu Kush. East~west oriented ridges with precipitous peaks rise to 3,800 m and are interspersed with gently rounded vegetated mountain tops up to 3,200 m in elevation. Bisecting the reserve from east to west is the sheer-sided Jawzari Canyon (Darre Jawzari), formed aeons ago when the Ajar River eroded its way downwards through the soft limestone. In the recent geological past, the river became subterranean, leaving Darr Jawzari dry. The Ajar River now flows directly out of the rock wall into the canyon at the spring of Chiltan, located in the eastern portion of the reserve. The river flows out through the spectacular eastern extension of Darre Jawzari into the broad Ajar Valley. A major earthquake in the early 1960s caused the canyon sides to collapse, creating the tiny Lake Chiltan (Shank et al., 1977). There are five major geological formations. The youngest and overlying layer is the Lower Eocene Gazak Formation which consists of marly limestone shales, and bituminous shales. This formation is found along an east-west syncline which runs through Lachakhana and the western portion of Darre Jawzari as well as at the higher elevations of Kohe Jawzari. Underlying it are the massive limestones of the Badjgah Formation which are of Danian to Paleocene age and occur throughout much of the reserve. Beneath the Badjgah lies the Hajar Formation which contains marlstones and limestones. It is found only in a thin band surrounding the underlying terrestrial Red-Grit Formation of Lower Cretaceous age. The reddish conglomerates and sandstones of this formation are evident in the Kohe Surkhob Afghanistan Bowl and along the main Ajar Valley near the lodge. Lastly, the Saighan Formation of Jurassic age outcrops only along the stream draining the Ghawgasar Bowl in the extreme south-east. This formation consists of sandstones, conglomerates and shales. Tectonically, the mountains are of Oligocene and Miocene age (Weippert, 1964). Climate The closest meteorological station is at Bamiyan (2,500 m), which is probably representative of conditions in the central Hindu Kush. Data for 1969-75 indicate that the coldest month is January with mean minimum and maximum temperatures of —12.8 °C and 0.9 °C, respectively. The warmest month is July with mean minimum and maximum temperatures of 9.6 °C and 26.4 °C, respectively. Conditions are dry with a mean annual precipitation of 162 mm, most of which falls between February and May. Because of its vertical relief and higher elevation, conditions at Ajar Valley will generally be colder and wetter than at Bamiyan (Shank et al., 1977). Vegetation The flora corresponds roughly to the Amygdalus community type (Freitag, 1971a). Skogland (1976) recognises five associations within this community type: Carex stenophylla (Gilli, 1969), with a ground cover of 25—100% in moist areas; Stipa szowitsiana (Gilli, 1969), with a cover of 50-100% in slightly drier areas; Artemisia (Gilli, 1969), with a cover of 15-50% in yet drier areas; pure Amygdalus communis in very dry areas; and an association dominated by Cousinia polyneurae (Gilli, 1969) above 3,000 m. Along the Ajar River is a distinctive plant community dominated by willow Salix spp. The high proportion of shrubs and geophytic herbs present in all the plant communities is considered evidence that species assemblages have been greatly modified by overgrazing in the Ajar area (Skogland, 1976). Fauna This is an important area for ibex Capra ibex, urial Ovis orientalis and an introduced population of Bactrian deer Cervus elaphus bactrianus (E). Petocz counted 1,190 ibex in 1974 in the eastern part of the reserve but the total population is likely to be nearer 5,000 (Shank et al., 1977). The urial occurs mainly in the west where there is more typical sheep habitat with fewer cliffs and canyons (Shank et al., 1977). Bactrian deer were introduced in about 1955. From an original two there are now about 42 deer (FAO, 1981). Other large mammals include a population of about 70 feral yak Bos grunniens (E), snow leopard Panthera uncia (EB), leopard P. pardus (T), lynx Lynx lynx , which locals report is present, wolf Canis lupus (V), which is evidently common, jackal C. aureus, fox Vulpes vulpes, otter Lutra lutra, marten Martes foina and long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata (Shank et al., 1977). The avifauna is the most diverse yet recorded in the Hindu Kush, with 60 species identified so far (Shank et al., 1977). Chukar partridge Alectoris chukar, marsh warbler Acrocephalus palustris, isabelline wheatear Oenanthe isabellina, redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus, rock nuthatch Sitta tephronota and red-fronted serin Serinus pusillus breed in the Ajar Valley, and an additional 22 species are presumed to breed here. Other notable species are black stork Ciconia nigra, and a wide variety of warblers (Sylviidae) and chats, wheatears and redstarts of the family Turdidae. Amphibians and reptiles include the frog Rana ridibunda, common toad Bufo viridis, two species of racerunners Eremias velox persica and Eremias sp., skink Ablepharus sp., lizard Agama sp., and a piscivorous snake Natrix tessellata (Shank et al., 1977). Brown trout Salmo trutta was introduced into Lake Chiltan, probably about 15 years ago, and has successfully colonised the Ajar River to its mouth where the species comes into “) Nature Reserves of the Himalaya contact with the native milk fish (sher mohi) or carp of the family Cyprinidae (Shank et al., 1977). Cultural Heritage The spring of Chiltan, where the Ajar River flows out of the canyon wall is an important shrine. Long ago, according to local belief, it was entered by a famous saint who found himself in a large subterranean room among 40 people reading the Holy Koran. The shrine attracts many visitors from nearby areas (Shank et al., 1977). Local Human Population The people of the Ajar Valley are primarily of Tajik extraction and speak Dari. There are no permanent settlements, except for the village of Dehkan Qala inhabited by reserve staff and farmers. In Darre Jawzari, just east of the Surkhob Bowl, a family farms the canyon bottom during summer and fall while living in a cliff niche (Shank et al., 1977). East of the reserve, along the Ajar River, is a cluster of villages known as Dehe Tajik and Khargoshak, with a population of some 340 people, while 4 km to the west lies the village of Podinatu inhabited by 33 people. Domestic livestock, belonging to an undetermined number of semi-nomadic kuchis and the people of Saighan and Kahmard Woleswalis south and east of the reserve, respectively, are grazed along the reserve border on the Kohe Tabaqsar, Haftnawa and Zardnawa mountain slopes (Shank et al., 1977). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Prior to the 1973 revolution, there were about 500 visitors per year. Hunting safaris and other excursions, organised by the Afghan Tourist Organisation, attracted foreign visitors. Subsequently, there were plans to launch a trekking programme. A hunting lodge, built in the early 1900s by Amir Habibullah, is now in ruins (Shank et al., 1977). Scientific Research and Facilities | Most research has been concentrated on the ibex population (Skogland, 1976; Shank et al., 1977). Other work includes status surveys of the Afghan urial (Shank et al., 1977), Bactrian deer (Habibi, 1976; Shank et al., 1977) and avifauna (Shank et al., 1977). There are no scientific facilities. Conservation Value Ajar Valley represents the largest tract of land in Afghanistan with a history of effective environmental protection. Thus, it still supports large wildlife populations and a diverse avifauna. Conservation Management There is a preliminary management plan in which the primary objective is to ensure that the wildlife can thrive with as little interference from man as possible (Shank et al., 1977). Management practice follows the general pattern established in the 1950s: local people continue to refrain from hunting and grazing their domestic livestock in the reserve. Farmland, totalling 90 ha in the reserve, is leased by the Government for a percentage of the crop. Some 100 donkeys and cattle, owned by caretakers and farmers, and 200-300 sheep owned by the reserve authorities are grazed in the reserve.The Guard-i-Jamhuriat tends the 70 feral yak. Management Constraints Some livestock are grazed within the reserve and compete with wildlife for grazing. The position of the endangered Bactrian deer is particularly serious, with grazing competition from domestic livestock and, in winter, from feral yak. There is some illegal hunting and grazing (Shank et al., 1977; FAO, 1981). Management activities have been limited since 1979. Staff No information 10 Afghanistan Budget No information Local Addresses _ No information References Freitag, H. (1971a). In: Davies, P.H. , Harper P.C. and Hedge I.C. (Eds.), Study in the natural vegetation of Afghanistan. On plant life in south-west Asia. University Press, Aberdeen. Pp. 80-106. (Unseen) Freitag, H. (1971b). Die natiirliche Vegetation Afghanistans. Vegetatio 22: 285-344. (Unseen) Gilli, A. (1969). Afghanischen Pflanzengesellchaften. Vegetatio 16: 307-75. (Unseen) Petocz, R.G. (1973). The Bactrian deer (Cervus elaphus bactrianus) : A report of the March 1973 field survey in northern Afghanistan. Afghan Tourist Organisation, Kabul. Unpublished. 8 pp. (Unseen) Shank, C.C., Petocz, R.G., and Habibi, K. (1977). A preliminary management plan for the Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 35 pp. Skogland, T. (1976). Ecological reconnaissance of the Hindu Kush ibex (Capra ibex) in Ajar Valley. Bamiyan Province, Afghanistan. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. (Unseen) Weippert, D. (1964). Zur geologie des gebietes Doab-Saighan-Hajar (Nord-Afghanistan). Beih. geol. Jb 70: 153-84. BAND-E AMIR NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the Hazarajat mountains of the western Hindu Kush, Bamiyan Province, some 60 km west of Bamiyan Town. It is inaccessible from November to late April. The boundaries encompass the entire catchment area of the headwaters of the Band-e Amir. 67°05’-67°20’E, 34°45’-34°55’N Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park on 30 September 1973 in response to a petition from the Afghan Tourist Organisation. This declaration has not been published in the official Government Gazette by the Ministry of Justice and, therefore, has no legal status (Sayer and van der Zon, 1981). Area 41,000 ha. Land Tenure Lalmi (wheat fields) surrounding the lakes are state-owned, but farming rights are passed on by patrilineal descent. In 1974, the Yakowland waleswali decreed that no lalmi could be sold. Much of the land is considered de facto common land and is used to graze domestic livestock. Altitude The lakes lie at approximately 2,900 m, and surrounding peaks rise to 3,832 m. 1] Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Physical Features Consists of a chain of six lapis lazuli lakes nestled between 300 m-high magenta rock walls in the Band-e Amir Valley. From west to east these are: Gholaman, Qambar, Haibat, Panir, Pudina and Zulfigar. Travertine dams, about 10 m high and 3 m thick, and formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate, separate the lakes from each other in a series of terraces. The combined surface area of the lakes is 600 ha, of which the two largest comprise 490 ha and 90 ha, respectively. Band-e Panir is the smallest (100 m in diameter). Band-e Qambar is also of limited extent, but gastropod shells found beyond its present water level indicate that it used to be larger. After clearing the final travertine dam of Band-e Gholaman, the Band-e Amir flows down the slopes of the Hindu Kush to the burning wastes of the north where it peters out near the USSR border (Shank and Larsson, 1977; Matthews, 1988). The lakes’ waters are oligotrophic and calcareous with a pH of 7.8 (Foerstner and Bortsch, 1970). Their deep blue colour is a result of the water’s purity and high lime content. Surface water temperatures reach 14-17 °C during summer (Shank and Larsson, 1977). Around the lakes, the high rolling steppe rises steeply in the west to rugged limey schist and conglomerate peaks. Soils are shallow (usually 10-30 cm and rarely exceeding 60 cm) and have a pH of 7.0-7.9. They are essentially grey semi-desert types with little evidence of leaching (Jux and Kempf, 1971). Climate Conditions are strongly continental, with low air humidity, high evaporation, and extreme temperature variations. Annual precipitation reaches 400 mm, all of which falls between October and May, with 50% falling in April alone (Freitag, 1971). More extensive data are available from the nearest metereological stations at Bamiyan, Panjaw and Lal (see Shank and Larsson, 1977). Vegetation Located in the central highlands of Afghanistan, Band-e Amir belongs to the Irano-Turanian floral region, characterised by high steppes and deserts. The area contains four of eleven species endemic to Bamiyan Province. There are three types of plant community: lake shore, creek bank and steppe. Shorelines, where vegetated, are dominated by reeds Phragmites australis, Carex spp. and Scirpus spp., and cattail Typha laxmannit. Between the lake shore proper and the steep cliffs, the ground is covered in dense herb and grass meadows. These meadows have been invaded by nitrophilous plants due to grazing practices. Common meadow plants of more natural origin are mint Mentha longifolia, plantain Plantago gentianoides, gentians Gentiana spp., small reeds Calamagnostis spp., and sedges and rush. The Darae Sabzel and Darae Band-e Amir creeks downstream from the lakes are flooded each spring as a result of snow-melt. Vegetation on the creek banks, therefore, is dominated by pioneer species. Below spring water level, sedges and rush Juncus turkestanicus are found. Above normal spring water level, where flooding is only occasional, are shrubs, notably Myricaria germanica, willows Salix spp., and sea buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides. The alpine steppe is mainly of the Artemisia-Acantholimon dwarf-shrub types, believed to be of secondary origin due to centuries of over-grazing. The natural vegetation is believed to be grass-steppe with Stipa, Festuca, Herdeum and Poa species. Within the steppe community, three plant associations can be recognised. Artemisia occurs on the plateau of Dashte Menabard and Kutshe Mohammadjan. Characteristic species are Artemisia codringtonii, Eremostachys baminanica, Scariola orientalis and larkspur Delphinium latisquamatum. Vegetation cover is 30-60%. Soils remain moist underneath the dry surface and have a high humus content of 2-3%. These soils are favoured for dry cultivation. Semi-desert replaces the sage community on dry south-facing slopes. This community is characterised by two species, Krascheninnikovia pungens and Jurinea mallophora. Soils are of a whitish-grey semi-desert type and vegetation cover is 10-40%. On exposed ridges and hill tops, where snow is blown away in the winter, occurs a community of drought- and 12 Afghanistan frost-resistant plants, notably Astragalus microphypti and Fibigia membrancea. Vegetative cover varies from 10% to 80% (Dieterle, 1973; Shank and Larsson, 1977). Fauna The fauna is impoverished. No large mammals occur in the immediate vicinity of the lakes, due to the overwhelming presence of man. Nearby, Kohe Burocinal and Kohe Argosa, are seasonally inhabited by urial Ovis orientalis and ibex Capra ibex in summer. Populations have remained stable since at jeast the mid-1950s, according to local reports (Shank and Larsson, 1977). Wolf Canis lupus (V) and fox Vulpes vulpes are reportedly common in the Hazarajat mountains (Habibi, 1977). Small mammals include Afghan pika Ochotona rufescens, long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata and jerboa Allactaga williamsi (Niethammer, 1965; Habibi, 1977). A total of 46 bird species have been recorded around the Band-e Amir lakes, including little bitten /xobrychus minutus, black-winged stilt Himantopus himantopus, common sandpiper Tringa hypoleucos, rock and water pipit Anthus spinoletta and masked shrike Lanius nubiscus. A species of carp Cyprinidae, known locally as milk fish or shir moi, is abundant in the lakes. Cultural Heritage The creation of the lakes is attributed to Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed, the founder of Islam. There are several versions of this legend (Shank and Larsson, 1977; Matthews, 1988). A small mosque, built in 1904, commemorates the spot where Ali recited two ragats (cycles) of prayer on the shores of Band-e Haibat. Local Human Population The immediate banks of the lakes are quite densely inhabited by a predominantly Hazara population, estimated at 3,000—5,000 residents. Land surrounding the lakes is extensively farmed, while the outlying steppe is heavily stocked with 10,000 sheep and goats, 1,500 cattle and 200 horses belonging to residents, and a further 1,500—3,000 sheep owned by semi-nomadic kuchis and mulclan. The latter arrive from Jalalabad in May and remain for three or four months. The Bamiyan Provincial Government has recognised the grazing rights of three tribes, the Tanaki with about 100 families, the Amorkhil with 100 families and the Nurzai with about 60 families. Small numbers of Shinwari and Safis also use the area seasonally (Shank and Larsson, 1977). Visitors and Visitor Facilities For almost two decades, Band-e Amir has been a popular tourist attraction. Day tours from Bamiyan were operated by the Afghan Tourist Organisation. Present facilities are limited to local hotels in the bazaar (Shank and Larsson, 1977). Scientific Research and Facilities Preliminary surveys of the geology (Jux and Kemof, 1971), vegetation (Dieterle, 1973) and wildlife (Petocz and Skogland, 1974) have been carried out. Conservation Value Band-e Amir is without doubt one of the most beautiful natural landscapes in Afghanistan. Conservation Management Lack of legislation, planning and management make the continued existence of Band-e Amir as a place of beauty and national significance precarious. The Afghan Tourist Organisation maintains de facto control, although the Directorate of National Parks and Wildlife is willing to be responsible for conservation in national parks. No protocol agreement has yet been reached. A strategy for the establishment and development of the national park has been drawn up (Shank and Larsson, 1977). Long-term 13 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya objectives are to conserve the natural landscapes through a system of zonation and to develop the tourist potential of the area. Traditional land-use practices will continue within a buffer area which surrounds an inner core zone protecting the lakes and their immediate uplands. Management Constraints The national park lacks any legal status, and as yet there is no protocol agreement between the Afghan Tourist Organisation and the Directorate of National Parks and Wildlife over its jurisdiction. Unlimited grazing and uprooting of shrubs has lead to serious range degradation and soil erosion. Cultivation is excessive. Reeds are harvested and grazed, thus destroying waterfowl nesting habitat. The poor visitor facilities detract from the beauty of the park (Petocz and Skogland, 1974; Shank and Larsson, 1977). Staff In 1977 there was one park superintendent posted at Bamiyan and a soldier/policeman responsible for enforcement measures in the park. Budget No information. Local Addresses No information References Dieterle, A. (1973). Vegetationskundliche Untersuchungen im Gebiete von Band-i-Amir (Zentral-Afghanistan). Dissness bot. 24 pp. Sayer, J.A. and van der Zon, A.P.M. (1981). National parks and wildlife management. Afghanistan. A contribution to aconservation strategy. Vol. 1. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 107 pp Freitag, H. (1971). Die natiirliche Vegetation Afghanistans. Vegetatio 22: 283-344. (Unseen) Habibi K. (1967). Fading natural splendor of Bande Amir lakes. Kabul Times, 30 September. (Unseen) Jux, U. and Kempf (1971). | Stauseen durch Travertinabsatz im Zentralen ag oat Hochgebirge. Z. Geomorphological. Supplement 12: 107-37: (Unseen) Matthews R.O. (1988). Band-e-Amir Lakes. Jewels in the foothills of the Hindu Kush. The atlas of natural wonders. Facts on File Publication, New York. Pp. 85-7. Niethammer, J. (1965). Die Saugetiere Afghanistans (Teil II) Insectivora, Lagomorpha, Rodentia. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Kabul: 18-41. (Unseen) Petocz, R.G. and Skogland, T. (1974). Report on the status of Band-e Amir National Park. Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. Unpublished. (Unseen) Shank, C.C. and Larsson, S.Y. (1977). A strategy for the establishment and development of Band-e Amir national park. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 37 pp. DASHTE-NAWAR WATERFOWL SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in south-east Afghanistan, Ghazni Province, some 55 km north-west of Ghazni Town. Access from Ghazni is via Nawar. Dashte-Nawar is relatively isolated and accessible only in summer. Approximately 33°50’N, 67°45’E 14 Afghanistan Date and History of Establishment Approved a wildlife and waterfowl sanctuary on 20 December 1977 (Order no. 707) by the Head of State, on the basis of Petition no. 1765 dated 6 June 1977. This followed its declaration as a national flamingo and waterfowl sanctuary by the Directorate of Wildlife and National Parks in 1974 (FAO, 1978). Area 7,500 ha, including a 1 km-wide peripheral strip of land (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). (NB An area of 7,000 ha, including a 1 km-border of land, is given in the original declaration). Land Tenure State. Semi-nomadic people have traditional grazing rights. Altitude The lake lies at 3,200 m. Physical Features Dashte-Nawar is a high desert in the Kohe Baba Range of the Hindu Kush Plain. It is surrounded on all sides by mountains which rise above 4,800 m. Contained within Dashte-Nawar is a shallow, brackish lake, Ab-i-Nawar, which is approximately 14 km by 3 km and 3,500 ha in area. There are about 40 islands, varying in size from 35 sq. m to 500 sq. m, situated in the lake (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Ab-i-Nawar’s water volume may drop typically from nearly 20 million cu. m in spring to 2 million cu. m in autumn (Nogge, 1974) and completely dry up in winter. The water supply comes primarily from spring snow melt from the surrounding mountains. Climate Summers are hot and dry and winters cold. Mean annual precipitation at Nawar, 20 km west of Dashte-Nawar, is 184 mm (1967-75), 72% of which falls during the winter months. The temperature regime is harsh, with only three months of the year having a mean minimum temperature above freezing point (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Vegetation The lake bottom supports a dense cover of a higher alga belonging to the family Characeae. The mud flats surrounding Ab-i-Nawar are mostly devoid of vegetation, except at the outer edge where the herbs Glaux maritima, Crypsis aculeata and Polygonum sibiricum become common. The dashte consists of an extensive meadow of low grasses and herbs with a ground cover of up to 40%. Common grasses in this zone include Bromus gracillimus, Puccinellia stapfiana and Aelunopus littoralis. Herbs commonly encountered are Halocharis clavata, Polygonum paronychioides, Potentilla komaroviana, Gentiana kaufmanniana, Tragopogon sp. and Artemisia sp. Throughout the dashte are shallow, dry stream beds which support distinctive communities, with Taraxacum bessarabicum, Triglochin palustre, Ranunculus sp., Juncus bufonius and the grass Eremopoa bellula present. Where the dashte rises into the surrounding mountains, the terrain becomes rocky and the plant community correspondingly sparse, with Acantholimon spp. predominant (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Fauna Mammals recorded in and around Dashte-Nawar include long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata, ground squirrel Citellus fuivus, jackal Canis aureus, wolf Canis lupus (V) and fox Vulpes vulpes. The birds have not been intensively studied, but greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus, avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, redshank Tringa totanus, greater sandplover Charadrius leschenaultii and common tern Sterna hirundo breed here (Klockenhoff and Madel, 1970). There are no fish in the lake. Aquatic organisms are varied and periodically numerous. A toad Bufo andersoni and a skink Ablepharus sp. are the only cold-blooded vertebrates recorded (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Cultural Heritage Dashte-Nawar is an important archaeological site, exhibiting intact stratigraphic sequences. Several mounds representing early dwellings have been discovered 15 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya with accompanying artefacts, which suggest occupations from Palaeolithic to Buddhist times (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Local Human Population Dashte-Nawar is sparsely inhabited. Some 25 villages, with an estimated 1,200—1,500 residents, lie within the dashte. In addition, an estimated 1,300 semi-nomadic people (260 families) traditionally use the area as summer grazing grounds for approximately 5,000—7,000 sheep and goats and 700 camels (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities The avifauna, particularly greater flamingo, has been studied by Klockenhoff and Madel (1970) and Nogge (1974). Conservation Value Dashte-Nawar is an important breeding and feeding site for migratory waterfowl and waders. Its international importance was recognised at the 1971 Conference on the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention, following which the Government of Afghanistan responded to pleas to protect this area. Conservation Management Following its legal protection, a management plan was prepared (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Principal objectives outlined in the plan include protecting birds from adverse influences of human origin and initiating a monitoring programme upon which to base future management decisions. In 1975, assistance was received from WWF to provide quarters for a resident warden and research facilities. Management Constraints Grazing by domestic livestock disrupts almost all shore breeding by migratory birds. Egg collection and disturbance of nests by humans is a problem (Shank and Rodenburg, 1977). Staff Game guards in summer months only (1974 onwards) Budget No information Local Addresses No information References FAO (1978). National parks and utilization of wildlife resources. Afghanistan. Project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 43 pp. Forstner, U. and Bartsch, G. (1970). Die Seen von Banda-Amir, Datscht-i-Nawar, Ob-i-Istada and Humun-i-Puzak (Zentral und Siidwestafghanistan). Science, Kabul 6: 19-23. (Unseen) Klockenhoff, H. and Madel, G. (1970). Uber di Flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) der Dasht-i-Nawar in Afghanistan. Journal fiir Ornithologie 111: 78-84. (Unseen) Nogge, G. (1974). Beobachtungen an den Flamingobrutplatzen Afghanistans. Journal fiir Ornithologie 115: 142-51. (Unseen) Petocz, R.G. and Habibi, K. (1975). The flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber roseus) of Ab-i-Estada and Dashte-Nawar, Ghazni Province, Afghanistan. Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. (Unseen) Shank, C.C. and Rodenburg, W.F. (1977). Management plan for Ab-i-Estada and Dashte-Nawar flamingo and waterfowl sanctuaries. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 43 pp. 16 Afghanistan KOLE HASHMAT KHAN WATERFOWL SANCTUARY LAKE HASHMAT KHAN WATERFOWL SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Situated on the south-eastern outskirts of Kabul, in Kabul Province, just south of the Kabul-Gardez Highway. Approximately 34°30’N, 69°12’E d Date and History of Establishment Not yet formally gazetted, the lake has been under the jurisdiction of the Department of Forests and Range since 1978. Formerly (from 1973 to 1978), the area was under the jurisdiction of the Guard-i-Jamhouriat (Republican Guard). This jurisdiction implies a ban on all hunting except by a privileged few. The lake has been used as a hunting ground since Moghul times.. During the reign of Amin Habibullah Khan (1901-19) the lake was closed to all but the few privileged to hunt. In the 1930s, King Mohammed Zahir Shah took a personal interest in the area and declared it a waterfowl reserve. The area came under the protection of the royal garrison but has received little attention (Rahim and Larsson, 1978; Sayer and van der Zon, 1981). Area _ The lake extends over an area of 191 ha. Land Tenure The lake proper is state property and administered by the Department of Ceremonies of Arg-i-Jamjhouriat (Presidential Office). Fields to the south belong to the Public Bath, those to the north are privately owned. Altitude The lake itself lies at an elevation of 1,793 m. Physical Features Lake Hashmat Khan lies in a small basin on a large shelf in the Hindu Kush foothills. It is surrounded by hills on two sides and opens up into the Logar Valley to the north-east. The lake is fed by a tributary of the Logar River; it has no outlet except when the water level is exceptionally high. The'lake is L-shaped, about 2.5 km in length and 0.3-1 km in width, and shallow (no more than 1.5 m in depth). The water level has been reduced due to the development of irrigation systems which have tapped the Logar River. The lake level fluctuates seasonally, being high in winter and early spring and nearly drying up in summer. Some of its water is used to irrigate the surrounding fields. High evaporation creates slightly saline conditions (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Climate Meteorological data are from Kabul for the period 1967-76. Mean annual precipitation is 295 mm, with most occurring from February to April. August is usually the driest month. Precipitation normally falls as snow from December to March. Mean annual temperature is 11.8 °C. The warmest month is July with a mean of 24.9 °C; the coldest month is February with a mean of —2.6 °C. The lake is usually frozen for two to three months of the year (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). 17 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Vegetation The lake is strongly eutrophic and the open water is abundant with algae, Utricularia and Ranunculus spp. Approximately half of the lake is covered with high reeds Phragmites australis. A meadow-type halophytic plant community dominates the ground cover. It is strongly modified by grazing and fertilisation from animal droppings, presenting an impression of a semi-cultivated pasture. Among the plants recorded are meadow buttercup Ranunculus arvensis, brome grass Bromus danthoniae, knapweed Centaurea sp., Eleocharis and several species belonging to the families Cyperaceae, Crucifera and Compositae (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Fauna _ Voles Alticola roylei and Microtus afghans, jackal Canis aureus and fox Vulpes vulpes have been recorded from the lake surrounds (Niethammer, 1967). Other mammals known to occur in the general area are wolf Canis lupus (V), marbled polecat Vormela peregusna, Euphrate’s jerboa Allactaga euphratica and grey hamster Cricetulus migratorius (Niethammer 1965; Rahim and Larsson, 1978). The majority of birds are migratory (over 30,000), although several species actually breed on the lake, for example, pochard Aythya ferina, coot Fulica atra, moorhen Gallinula chloropus, black-necked grebe Podiceps nigricollis, little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis and black kite Milvus migrans. Thousands of ducks, coots and waders have been recorded. Rare sightings include greater flamingo Phoenicopterus roseus, spoonbill Platalea leucorodia, glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea and marbled teal Anas angustirostris. To date some 157 species have been identified from the lake and its surroundings (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). The lake itself contains a typical aquatic community of crustaceans, insects and some amphibians, notably toad Bufo viridis and trogs Rana spp. Golden carp has been introduced and thrives, together with common carp of the family Cyprinidae (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Cultural Heritage Near Kole Hashmar Khan is the shrine of Jubur Ansar, built in AD 645 in memory of soldiers killed in the effort to convert the Afghan population from Buddhism and Hinduism to Islam. It remains a prominent site among Kabul residents for performing religious rites. Remains of an old fort built during the reign of Amir Habibullah Khan lie in the lake itself, and nearby is the Quala-i-Hashmat Khan, formerly used as a royal guest house. (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Local Human Population A small Tujik village (300 houses) lies to the west of the lake. North-west of the lake are about 200 houses occupied mainly by Pansjirs and Sujis. Residents from both villages are mostly skilled workers. Between the lake and the Kabul-Gardez Highway are a dozen houses owned by farmers. In addition, there are a dozen houses near the cemetery occupied by religious men and caretakers, and a public bath (haman) where ten Hazara families live and work. At the base of the Khwaja Safa mountains are some 300 houses built by the Tara Khal tribals. Kuchis (nomadic pastoralists) utilise the area for one or two months in spring en route to the central Hindu Kush mountains (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Local people visit the shrines and the cemetery and come for purely recreational purposes. An environmental education centre has been proposed (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Afghanistan Scientific Research and Facilities A two-year study of the avifauna was conducted by Niethammer (1967). This was followed by an ecological survey of the lake to assess its conservation importance (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Conservation Value The lake lies on the Hindu Kush flyway and is a major staging ground for western Siberian waterfowl. Furthermore, it is the only remaining water body and marsh area of the formerly expansive marshlands of Kabul. It is also an important recreational site for the city population and is of religious and historical importance (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Conservation Management In 1978 the lake was placed under the Department of Forests and Range, but effective control remained with the Republican Guard. It has been recommended that the lake and its surrounds (up to high water level) be legally gazetted as a waterfowl sanctuary and placed under the administration of the Department of Forests and Range. The lake and its vicinity should be secured as a breeding/nesting area for waterfowl and steps should be taken to relieve human pressure on the habitat (Rahim and Larsson, 1978). Management Constraints The lake’s ecology is much affected by the surrounding human population. The Logar River is polluted. Domestic animals graze among the reeds and disturb the waterfowl whenever the water level is low. Reeds are cut and birds hunted. The shore is used as a playground by children. Clothes are laundered in the lake. Water channelled from the Logar River and lake for irrigation purposes contributes to the low lake level during drought periods (Rahim and Larsson, 1978; Sayer and van der Zon, 1981). Since 1979 the area has been restricted and management activites have not been sustained (FAO, 1980). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses No information References FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife management, Afghanistan. Project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 22 pp. Sayer, J.A. and van der Zon, A.P.M. (1981). National parks and wildlife management, Afghanistan. A contribution to a conservation strategy. Vol. 1. UNEP/FAO, Rome 105 pp. Niethammer, J. (1965). Die Saugetiere Afghanistans (Teil II) Insectivora, Lagomorpha, Rodentia. Journal of the Faculty of Science, Kabul: 18-41. (Unseen) Niethammer, J. (1967). Zwei Jahre Vogelbeachtungen an stehenden Gewd4ssern bei Kabul in Afghanistan. Journal fiir Ornithologie 108: 119-64. (Unseen) Rahim, A. and Larsson, J.Y. (1978). A preliminary study of Lake Hashmat Khan with recommendations for management. FAO/UNEP/Department of Forest and Range, Kabul. 17 pp. Nature Reserves of the Himalaya PAMIR-I-BUZURG WILDLIFE SANCTUARY BIG PAMIR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.37.12 (Hindu Kush Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the western part of the Wakhan Corridor on the border with the USSR, in Badakhshan Province. It is approximately 250 km east of Fayzabad. Access is from Kabul via Kunduz and Fayzabad to Zebak and Qala-i-Pandja and then by horse and yak to the Big Pamir. A description of the boundaries is given in Petocz (1978b). Approximately 73°00’E, 37°10’N Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a wildlife sanctuary on 10 September 1978. Originally what was established as a royal hunting reserve in the late 1950s in Tulibai Valley was enlarged by the Afghan Tourist Organisation following recommendations by Petocz (1971, 1973). It has been recommended that the wildlife sanctuary be designated a national park and World Heritage site (Petocz 1978b; FAO, 1981). Area 67,938 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 3,250 m to 6,103 m (Petocz, 1978b; FAO, 1981). Physical Features The term ‘Pamir’ itself refers to a mountain valley of glacial formation differing from adjacent or other mountain valleys in its superior altitude, and in the greater degree to which the trough has been filled up by glacial debris and alluvium. Its appearance approximates to a plain owing to the inability of the central stream to secure itself a deeper channel (Curzon, 1896). There are four main rivers (Sargaz, Tulibai, Manjulah, and Abakhan), all of which flow north-west into the Darya-i-Pamir on the northern border. The landscape has been shaped by frost shattering and heaving, glacial scouring and plucking, together with wind and stream erosion. The dominant rocks forming the mountains of the Wakhan are metamorphics and igneous intrusives. Sulphurous hot springs emanate from igneous rocks. Moist valley bottoms are composed of an alluvium with shallow (10-40 cm) but widespread peat deposits. A small icefield remains in the highest area of the Big Pamir whose generally retreating glaciers spill out into the heads of tributary valley floors above 4,600 m (Matthews, 1975; Petocz, 1978a) Climate Meteorological data are all but absent from the Pamir. The nearest government weather station is located at the provincial capital of Faizabad. Here the warmest temperatures occur from June to August, which can also be correlated with the period of lowest precipitation. This trend is believed analogous to the situation in the Pamir. Most precipitation in Faizabad falls largely as rain during March, April and May. In the Pamir, however, snow accumulation begins towards the end of October, probably peaks in late January to early February then 20 12 Kilometres =e ee © = Boundary of Pamir Wildlife Reserve \ Necuecars RESERVE 5736 / ak \ Pamir-i-Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary Nature Reserves of the Himalaya declines towards the end of March. Snow covers the Pamir region for six or seven months of the year, and is by and large the most important form of moisture. According to local people several metres may accumulate in the valleys of the Big Pamir (Petocz, 1978a). Vegetation The flora of the high Pamir belongs to the alpine vegetation community of Freitag (1971). Five habitat types are recognised by Petocz (1978b). 1. Sedge meadows occur on well-watered flats or depressions and are dominated by Kobresia and Carex. In many localities they feature hummocky surfaces overlaying peat deposits. 2. Alpine steppes occur on mountain slopes of all aspects where more xeric conditions predominate. The most conspicuous genera present are Artemisia, Acantholimon, Acanthophyllum, Nepeta, Hedysarum, Festuca, and species of the family Poaceae. Cousinia is also locally common. Cover may be less than 50% due to rocks and gravel. 3. Alpine heaths are generally found above 4,300 m on table-land and above valleys, as well as on wet, gravelly areas near glaciers. Vegetation is sparse and dominated by species of Festuca, Primula macrophylla, Poa, and Carex and such pioneer species as Waldheimia and Saxifraga. Cover is 50-60%; the rest is bare rock and gravel. 4. Slopes of rubble and scree are extensive and support limited vegetation. The most conspicuous plants are members of the family Compositae. 5. Gulleys, the product of stream erosion, are colonised by a mixture of both hydric and xeric types of vegetation. Fauna The most spectacular mammal in the region is Marco Polo sheepOvis ammon polii, which moves seasonally between the western and eastern ends of the Big Pamir, particularly in September and October. In 1973, 500 Marco Polo sheep were counted in the Big Pamir but the total population is estimated to have been double this number (Petocz et al., 1978b). Seventeen other mammal species have been recorded in the Wakhan Corridor (Petocz, 1978a) although not necessarily in the Big Pamir. The only other ungulate is ibex Capra ibex, which is widely distributed and numerous. Totals of 210 and 685 ibex were counted in the Big Pamir in 1971 and 1972, respectively. Carnivores include wolf Canis lupus (V), fox Vulpes vulpes, brown bear Ursus arctos, ermine Mustela ermina, lynx Lynx lynx, and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). Small mammals include cape hare Lepus capensis, long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata and several members of the family Cricetidae. Cultural Heritage The Afghan Pamir is one of history’s greatest crossroads and migration routes for travellers. It contains some valuable archaeological sites including petroglyphs probably dating back to pre-Islamic times in the Wakhan Valley (Naumann, 1973). Cemeteries containing gumbaz (Kirghiz graves) are reported from the Big Pamir, in addition to the well known sites in the Small Pamir (Petocz et al., 1987). Local Human Population The Wakhan Corridor is currently occupied by Mongol Karghiz in the east and Wakhis in the west. The Wakhis, a group of probably mixed origin, occur throughout the sanctuary. They have established permanent villages along the Wakhan River up to Sarhad, with about 4,000 inhabitants. The Wakhis are both agricultural and pastoral. They grow wheat, barley and peas in the Wakhan Valley and in spring and summer move up to the alpine pastures of the Big Pamir to graze their yaks, sheep and goats (Petocz, 1978a). An estimated 75 people, with a total of 3,550-4,550 sheep and goats, and 920 yaks and cows, are encamped inside the sanctuary in summer (Petocz et al., 1978). Apart from settlements along the Wakhan Valley, the main population centres are the villages of Qala-i-Panja and Khundud, located 38 km and 65 km, respectively, from the reserve (Petocz, 1978b). 22 Afghanistan Visitors and Visitor Facilities Entry to the entire Pamir region is restricted; foreigners require special permits from the Ministry of Interior. Tourism is limited mainly to guest clients participating in the hunting programme of the Afghan Tourist Organisation, which maintains a fully equipped base camp in the Tulibai Valley during the hunting season. Many of the recommendations proposed by Petocz (1973) have been incorporated into the organisation of the programme, including provision of medical facilities and a qualified doctor for tourists and free to local people. At Sargaz, in the Wakhan Valley, overnight accommodation is available for visitors en route to the sanctuary (Petocz 1978b). Scientific Research and Facilities Geological reconnaissance and mineral exploration have been carried out in the Wakhan Corridor by Russian scientists (Petocz, 1978b). The Big Pamir was included in an ecological reconnaissance of the entire Afghan Pamir (Petocz, 1978b). As part of this project the flora of the Tulibai Valley (Petocz, 1978a) and the biology of the Marco Polo sheep (Petocz, 1978b) were studied. Other work includes observations on mammals (Naumann and Niethammer, 1973; Naumann and Nogge, 1973) and avifauna (Neithammer and Nogge, 1973). Conservation Value The Pamirs are among the most spectacular landscapes of central Asia, with high mountains and beautiful rivers and lakes. The Wakhis still lead a traditional pastoral life. Archaeological sites include petroglyphs and graves. Conservation Management The sanctuary was established to protect Marco Polo sheep. Hunting restrictions were first imposed in the late-1950s by order of the former king. Part of the area was converted to a tourist hunting site in the mid-1960s and later enlarged, whereby protection of the rangeland from grazing by livestock was extended from the upper Tulibai Valley to other main headwaters. The Afghan Tourist Organisation has been involved in the management of the area since 1968, when the former king Mohammed Zahir Shah granted sole use of the then royal hunting reserve for hunting Marco Polo sheep. De facto control of the sanctuary rests with the Afghan Tourist Organisation. A protocol concerning the jurisdiction of wildlife concerns has since been agreed between the Afghan Tourist Organisation and the Department of Forests and Range, whereby hunting quotas are set by the latter authority. The primary objective outlined in the management plan is to ensure that the wildlife, particularly Marco Polo sheep and ibex, thrive in an ecological framework, in harmony with the local human population (Petocz, 1978b). Management Constraints The main problem is socio-economic: competition between livestock and Marco Polo sheep is severe, resulting in the deterioration of rangeland. While protection of rangeland in valley heads has benefited plant production there, it has served to concentrate and isolate livestock on the more fragile alpine steppes in the lower parts of valleys. Various remedial actions to eliminate or reduce domestic stock, while- maintaining the status quo of the local people, have been suggested (Petocz, 1978b). Staff No information. Budget No information Local Addresses No information 23 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya References Anderson, S.C. and Leverton, A.E. (1969). Amphibians and reptiles collected by the Street expedition to Afghanistan, 1969. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 4th series, 37(2): 25—56. (Unseen) Curzon, G.N. (1896). The Pamirs and the source of the Oxus. Bulletin of the Royal Geographical Society, London. 83 pp. Freitag, H. (1971). In: Davies, P.H., Harper, P.C. and Hedge, I.C. (Eds.), Studies on the natural vegetation of Afghanistan: On Plant life in South-west Asia. University press, Aberdeen. Pp. 89-106. (Unseen) Matthews, J.V. Jr. (1975). Arctic Steppe—an extinct biome. Terrain Sciences Division, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa. Unpublished. (Unseen) Naumann, C.M. (1973). Ein ehemaliges Wildyak-Vorkommen im Afghanischen Pamir. Bonn Zool. Beitr. 24: 254-69. (Unseen) Petocz, R.G. (1978a). Report on the Afghan Pamir: ecological reconnaissance. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 33 pp. Petocz, R.G. (1978b). Report on the Afghan Pamir: a management plan for the Big Pamir wildlife reserve. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range, Kabul. 33 pp. Petocz, R.G., Habibi, K., Jamilt, A. and Wassey, A. (1978). Report on the Afghan Pamir: biology of the Marco Polo sheep. UNDP/FAO/Department of Forests and Range. Kabul. 42 pp. Shor, J.B. (1955). After you, Marco Polo. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. (Unseen) Skogland, T. and Petocz, R.G. (1975). Ecology and behavior of Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammon poli) in the Pamir during winter. Report to the Government of Afghanistan. Unpublished. (Unseen) Wood (1941). Source of the River Oxus. Blackwood and Son, London. (Unseen) 24 BANGLADESH Area 144,000 sq. km Population 114,800,000 (1990) Natural increase 2.5% per annum GNP US $ 170 per capita (1988). Policy and Legislation Environmental policy in Bangladesh is based on the following three broad principles: precautionary, whereby harm to the environment is avoided; originator, whereby the costs of ameliorating damage to the environment are borne by those responsible; and co-operation, whereby relevant bodies are involved in planning for environmental protection (Rahman, 1983). The need for an explicit national policy on environmental protection and management has been repeatedly highlighted (BARC, 1987), and is presently under consideration by the government. The objectives of such a policy will be as follows: to create, develop, maintain and improve conditions under which man and nature can thrive in productive and enjoyable harmony with each other; to fulfill the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations; and to ensure the attainment of an environmental quality that is conducive to a life of dignity and well-being (Rahman, 1983). An environmental impact assessment for anticipating any adverse impacts has not yet been incorporated into the development planning process, nor is it a mandatory requirement of project-approving agencies. According to government policy, sanctioning agencies should ensure that project proposals contain adequate environmental safeguards but, in practice, this is not strictly followed (BARC, 1987). Bangladesh has completed the first phase of a national conservation strategy aimed at integrating conservation goals with national development objectives and overcoming identified obstacles to sustainable development (BARC, 1987). Some twenty sectors in the current Third Five Year Plan are identified for critical analysis during a second phase, including the conservation of genetic resources, wildlife management and protected areas. The Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council, Ministry of Agriculture is the lead agency for the implementation of Phase II which began in October 1989. There is no national wildlife conservation policy. The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order 1973, promulgated under Presidential Order no. 23 on 27 March 1973 and subsequently enacted and amended in two phases as the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) 25 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Act 1974, provides for the establishment of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, game reserves and private game reserves (see Annex). Under Article 23, wildlife sanctuaries enjoy a greater degree of protection than national parks. For example, entry or residence, introduction of exotic or domestic species of animals and lighting of fires is prohibited in wildlife sanctuaries, but not national parks. No specific rules are detailed for game reserves. The Article makes provision, however, for the government to relax any of these prohibitions for scientific, aesthetic or other exceptional reasons, and to alter the boundaries of protected areas. Under Article 24, provision is made for the establishment of private game reserves upon application by the landowner. The owner of a private game reserve may exercise all the powers of an officer provided under the Act. Proposals are being drawn up to strengthen the existing legislation, largely through raising fines and terms of imprisonment for offences. Conservation, use and exploitation of marine resources are provided for under the Territorial Water and Maritime Zones Act 1974. According to provisions in this Act conservation zones may be established to protect marine resources from indiscriminate exploitation, depletion pr destruction. At present, there is no legal provision for the management of coastal zones. The Forest Act 1927 enables the government to declare any forest or waste land to be reserved forest or protected forest (see Annex). Activities are generally prohibited in reserved forests; certain activities, such as removal of forest produce, may be permitted under license in protected forests while others, such as quarrying of stone and clearing for cultivation, may be prohibited. The rights of government to any land constituted as reserved forest may be assigned to village communities, with conditions for their management prescribed by government. Such forests are called village forests. Under the Forest (Amendment) Ordinance, 1989, penalties for offences committed within reserved and protected forests have been increased from a maximum of six months imprisonment and a fine of Tk 500 to five years imprisonment and a Tk 5,000 (US $ 1,700) fine. In accordance with the National Forest Policy, adopted in 1979, effective measures will be taken to conserve the natural environment and wildlife resources. The Policy does not, however, deal explicitly with the need to set aside special areas as protected forests, as distinct from productive forests, to preserve genetic diversity and maintain ecological processes within the context of sustainable development (BARC, 1987). Other environmental legislation less specifically related to protected areas is reviewed elsewhere (DS/ST, 1980; Rahman, 1983). International Activities Bangladesh is party to the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) which it accepted on 3 August 1983. No natural sites have been inscribed to date. Bangladesh participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Apart from a couple of reserved forests proposed as candidate sites by the Bangladesh MAB National Committee in the late 1970s, there does not appear to have been any significant development in recent years. A proposal to become a party to the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was submitted to the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry by the Forest Department and awaits approval. It is proposed to nominate the Sundarbans mangrove forests as a wetland of international importance, in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Convention (Rahman and Akonda, 1987). Administration and Management Wildlife conservation, including the management of protected areas, is the responsibility of the Forest Directorate within the new Ministry of 26 Bangladesh Environment and Forests formed in 1989. Previously, the Forest Directorate came under the Ministry of Agriculture and Forests while the former Department of Environmental Pollution Control, concerned iargely with environmental pollution, was under the Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development. In 1976 a Wildlife Circle was established within what was then known as the Forest Department, with specific responsibility for wildlife matters under the charge of a Conservator of Forests responsible directly to the Chief Conservator of Forests. A$ 13.3 million scheme, entitled ‘Development of Wildlife Management and Game Reserves’, was incorporated within the country’s First Five Year Plan, but reduced to $ 92,000 in the subsequent Two Year Approach Plan (Olivier, 1979). The Wildlife Circle was subsequently abolished in June 1983, allegedly in the interests of economy and following the recommendations of the Inam Commission. The post of Conservator of Forests (General Administration and Wildlife) remains but the incumbent has many other administrative duties unrelated to wildlife. Following its general down-grading within the Forest Department, wildlife conservation has become the theoretical responsibility of the various divisional forest officers (Blower, 1985; Husain, 1986). Separate staff are deployed for protection purposes in a number of national parks and wildlife sanctuaries (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). The Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)(Amendment) Act 1974 also provides for the establishment of a Wildlife Advisory Board, which was set up in 1976 under the chairmanship of the Minister of Agriculture. The Board is supposed to approve important wildlife management decisions and directives (Olivier, 1979). Although it still exists, it does not appear to be a dynamic force (Blower, 1985; BARC, 1987). In view of the low priority accorded to protected areas, a Task Force was formed by the Ministry of Agriculture in 1985 to identify institutional and other measures needed to improve current provisions for wildlife conservation. Recommendations of the Task Force, submitted to the government in July 1986, await approval by the competent authority. They include a plan to immediately revive the erstwhile Wildlife Circle, review Phase II of the Wildlife Development Project and secure protection of 5% of the total land area of the country for conservation purposes (Rahman and Akonda, 1987). The principal non-governmental conservation organisations within the country are the Society for Conservation of Nature and Environment (SCONE), which is mainly concerned with environmental pollution, and the Wildlife Society of Bangladesh. Pothikrit, based in Chunati, and Polli Unnayan Sangstha (POUSH), founded in 1984, are both involved in promoting the adoption of sound management practices in and around protected areas. Their efforts are presently focused on Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary and Teknaf Game Reserve. IUCN-The World — Conservation Union has a project office in Dhaka. Given that wildlife resources are vested largely in reserved forests, their conservation has in the past been diametrically opposed to forest management practices. Few, if any, protected areas are effectively managed and protected. Lack of personnel trained in wildlife conservation is a further handicap (Olivier, 1979; Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985). The very low priority apparently now accorded to wildlife conservation is reflected in the recent abolition of the Wildlife Circle, the reassignment of staff to normal duties, the lack of any separate financial provision within the Forest Directorate’s budget and the now moribund Wildlife Advisory Board (Blower, 1985). 27 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Systems Reviews Some 80% of Bangladesh is lowland, comprising an alluvial plain cut by the three great river systems (Ganges-Padma, Brahmaputra-Jamuna and Meghna) that flow into the Bay of Bengal. Typically, at least one-half of the land is inundated annually, with one-tenth subject to severe flooding. The entire flood plain was well-vegetated, but much of the forest has been replaced by cultivations and plantations in recent decades due to mounting pressure from human populations. Here, the only extensive tract of forest remaining is the Sundarbans. Hills are confined chiefly to the east and south-east, notably the Chittagong Hills where forest cover is among the most extensive in the country. According to the 1987 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, forests cover 2.1 million hectares or 14.7% of total land area but this represents neither the area under forest nor that under the control of the Forest Department (Rashid, 1989). In 1980, Gittins and Akonda (1982) estimated remaining natural forest to be 4,782 sq. km (3.3%) and scrub forest 9,260 ha (6.5%). Actual forest cover is presently estimated to be 1 million hectares or 6.9% of total land area, a reduction of more than 50% over the past 20 years (WRI/CIDE, 1990). The major forest types are mangrove, moist deciduous or sal Shorea robusta, restricted to the Madhupur Tract and northern frontier with Meghalaya, and evergreen forests found in the eastern districts of Sylhet, Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts. A small amount of freshwater swamp occupies the basins of the north-east region. Wetlands, variously estimated as covering between seven and eight million hectares or nearly 50% of total land area, support a variety of wildlife, as well as being of enormous economic importance (Scott, 1989). The only known coral reef is around Jinjiradwip (St Martin’s Island) in the Bay of Bengal. It is reputed to be a submerged reef but little is known about it (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). Conservation efforts began in 1966, prior to independence, when the Government of Pakistan invited the World Wildlife Fund to assess its wildlife resources and recommend measures to arrest their depletion. Two expeditions were mounted (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968) and the severity of the situation confirmed, whereupon the Government was urged to appoint its own Wildlife Enquiry Committee. The committee was established in 1968 and by 1970 had drafted a report. That part relating to East Pakistan was published as a separate report (Government of East Pakistan, 1971). Considerable progress was made with the establishment of several protected areas (Mountfort, 1969), research undertaken on the Sundarbans tiger population of East Pakistan (Hendrichs, 1975), and technical input from UNDP/FAO (Grimwood, 1969). Then, in 1971, came the War of Liberation which inevitably disrupted subsequent progress. In spite of political instability, however, the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order was promulgated in 1973 and an ambitious programme of wildlife management developed, followed by the formation of a Wildlife Circle in 1976 and further technical assistance from UNDP/FAO (Olivier, 1979). Economic constraints, however, have subsequently been responsible for the loss of much of this initiative (Blower, 1985). The existing system of protected areas has recently been reviewed (Green, 1989). It is not comprehensive, having been established with little regard to ecological and other criteria, and falls well below the target of 5% recommended by the erstwhile Ministry of Agriculture Task Force. Some effort has been made to include representative samples of the major habitats but, for example, marine and freshwater areas have been largely neglected (Olivier, 1979; Gittins and Akonda, 1982; Khan, 1985; Rahman and Akonda, 1987). Priorities to develop 28 Bangladesh the present network of protected areas are identified in the IUCN systems review of the Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and further recommendations are made in the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985), many of which are based on earlier recommendations by Olivier (1979). More recently, wetlands of conservation value have been identified (Scott, 1989). Of outstanding importance is the need to prepare a plan for the development of the country’s protected areas network. Addresses Office of the Chief Conservator of Forests (Conservator of Forests, Géneral Administration and Wildlife), Bana Bhawan, Gulsham Road, Monakhali, Dhaka 12 (Cable FORESTS; Tel. 603537). Forest Directorate (Chief Conservator of Forests), Ministry of Environment and Forests, Bana Bhaban, Gulshan Road, Monakhali, Dhaka 12 (Cable FORESTS) IUCN-The World Conservation Union (Country Representative), 35 B/2 Indira Road, Dhaka 1215 (Tlx 671054 FRCBJ; Fax 813466; Tel. 815601) Polli Unnayan Sangstha, 43 New Eskaton Road, Dhaka (Tlx 642639 OCNBJ; Tel. 402801, 406628). Pothikrit, Chunati Village, Chittagong District The Society for Conservation of Nature and Environment (Secretary General), 146 Shanti Nagar, Dhaka 17 (Cable ENVIRON DHAKA; Tel. 409119) . Wildlife Society of Bangladesh (General Secretary), c/o Department of Zoology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka 1000 References BARC (1987). National conservation strategy for Bangladesh. Draft prospectus (Phase I). Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council/IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 154 pp. Blower, J.H. (1985). Sundarbans Forest Inventory Project, Bangladesh. Wildlife conservation in the Sundarbans. Project Report 151. ODA Land Resources Development Centre, Surbiton, UK. 39 pp. DS/ST (1980). Draft environmental profile on Bangladesh. Science and Technology Division, Library of Congress. Washington, DC. 98 pp. Gittins, S.P. and Akonda, A W. (1982). What survives in Bangladesh? Oryx 16: 275-81. Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub-committee for East Pakistan of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca. Green, M.J.B. (1989). Bangladesh: an overview of its protected areas system. World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. 63 pp. Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife Conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research and Training Project Report No. 17. FAO, Rome. 31 pp. Hendrichs, H. (1975). The status of the tiger Panthera tigris (Linne, 1758) in the Sundarbans mangrove forest (Bay of Bengal). Saugetierkundliche Mitteilungen 23: 161-99. Husain, K.Z. (1986). Wildlife study, research and conservation in Bangladesh. Eleventh Annual Bangladesh Science Conference Section 2: 1—32. IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Furture conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 114—22. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas system in the Indo-Malayan Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland Cambridge, UK. 284 pp. Mountfort, G. (1969). Pakistan’s progress. Oryx 10: 39-43. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished report. 27 pp. 29 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservaiion and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project No. BGD/72/005. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Rahman, S. (1983). Country monograph on institutional and legislative framework on environment, Bangladesh. UN/ESCAP and Government of Bangladesh. 76 pp. Rahman, S.A. and Akonda, A.W. (1987). Bangladesh national conservation strategy: wildlife and protected areas. Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Dhaka. Unpublished. 33 pp. Rashid, H. Er (1989). Land use in Bangladesh: selected topics. Bangladesh Agriculture Sector Review. UNDP Project No. BGD/87/023. Pp. 106-55. Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Protected areas of Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 36-8. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral reefs of the world. Vol. 2: Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Gulf. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambidge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 389 pp. WRI/CIDE (1990). Bangladesh environment and natural resource assessment. Draft for review. World Resources Institute/Centre for International Development and Environment, Washington DC. 86 pp. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration. Title (English title): Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act Date: 1974 Brief description: Provides for the preservation, conservation and management of wildlife in Bangladesh. Administrative authority: Forest Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forests. Designations: National park — A comparatively large area of outstanding scenic and natural beauty, in which the protection of wildlife and preservation of the scenery, flora and fauna in their natural State is the primary objective, and to which the public may be allowed access for recreation, education and research. 30 Bangladesh — Hunting, killing or capturing any wild animal within a national park or one mile (1.6 km) of its boundaries, causing any disturbance (including firing of any gun) to any wild animal or its breeding place, felling, tapping, burning or in any other way damaging any plant or tree, cultivation, mining or breaking up any land, and polluting water flowing through a national park are not allowed. Such prohibitions may be relaxed for scientific purposes, aesthetic enjoyment of the scenery or any other exceptional reason. — Construction of access roads, rest houses, hotels and public amenities should be planned so as not to impair the primary objective of the establishment of a national park. Wildlife sanctuary — An area closed to hunting and maintained as an undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the protection of wildlife including all natural resources such as vegetation, soil and water. — Entry or residence, cultivation, damage to vegetation, killing or capturing wild animals within one mile (1.6 km) of its boundary, introduction of exotic or domestic species of animals, lighting of fires, and pollution of water are notallowed, but any of these prohibitions may be relaxed for scientific reasons, or for the improvement or aesthetic enjoyment of the scenery. Game reserve — An area in which the wildlife is protected to enable populations of important species to increase. Capture of wild animals is prohibited. — Hunting and shooting may be allowed on a permit basis. Private game reserve — Area of private land set aside by the owner for the same purpose as a game reserve. On application by the owner, such an area may be notified as a private game reserve. — The owner shall excercise all the powers of an officer under this Act. Source: Original legislation Title (English title): Forest Act Date: 1927 Brief description: An Act to consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. Administrative authority: Forest Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forests Designations: Reserved forest — Any forest land or wasteland belonging to the Government, or to which it has proprietary rights, may be constituted a reserved forest subject to completion of notification and settlement procedures provided under the Act. — Prohibited activities include: making fresh clearings or breaking up land for cultivation; kindling or carrying firé; trespass and cattle grazing; felling or otherwise damaging any 31 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya tree; quarrying stone, burning lime or charcoal; removing forest produce; and hunting, shooting, fishing, trapping and poisoning water. Village forest — Any land constituted as reserved forest that has been assigned to a village community by the Government. — Rules for regulating the provision of timber, other forest produce or pasture to the community, and their duties for protecting and improving such forest may be prescribed by the Government. — All provisions of the Act relating to reserved forest apply to village forest, in so far as they are consistent with the rules. Protected forest — Any forest land or wasteland not included in a reserved forest and belonging to the Government, or to which it has proprietary rights, may be declared a protected forest provided that the nature and extent of rights of Government and of private persons in or over such land have been recorded. — Any trees or class of trees may be reserved; any portion of forest may be closed for up to 30 years; and quarrying of stone, burning of lime or charcoal, collection and removal of any forst produce, and breaking up or clearing of any land for any purpose may be prohibited. — Rules may be made to regulate collection and removal of forest produce, granting of licences to inhabitants of nearby settlements to remove forest products for domestic consumption, granting of licences for commercial extraction of forest products, clearing or breaking up of land for cultivation or other purposes, and the protection from fire of timber lying in such forests and of trees reserved under the Act. Source: Original legislation 32 Existing Proposed Eastern Bangladesh Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Summary of Protected Areas of Bangladesh National designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference* Category (ha) notified Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts* 1,972,800 National Parks 1. Himchari* Unassigned 1,729 1980 Total (% total land area) 1,729 (0.1%) Wildlife Sanctuaries 2. Chunati* IV 7,764 1986 3. Pablakhali* IV 42,087 1938 Total (%total land area) 49,851 (0.3%) Game Reserves 4. Teknaf* VIII 11,615 1983 Total (% total land area) 11,615 (0.6%) Proposed 5. Hazarikhil Wildlife Sanctuary* Proposed (2,903) 6. Rampahar-Sitapur Wildlife Sanctuary* Proposed (3,206) Total (% total land area) 5,929 (1.5%) * Locations of protected areas are shown in the accompanying map. * Site is described in this directory. * Former districts. 34 Bangladesh CHUNATI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies about 70 km south of Chittagong Port, Chittagong and Cox’s Bazaar districts. The eastern boundary is formed by the Chittagong—Cox’s Bazaar Highway. 22°08’—22°53’N, 91°58’-92°05’E Date and History of Establishment Formerly part of the reserved forests of Chittagong Forest Division, the area was designated a wildlife sanctuary on 8 March 1986 (Notification no. XII/For-I/84/174). Area _ 7,763.97 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Up to 90m Physical Features The sanctuary is bisected along its north-south axis by a range of hills, some 60-90 m high. Spurs projecting from this range are separated by deep ravines. The area is drained by four major streams. Climate No information Vegetation The area used to support subtropical semi-evergreen forest, dominated by garjan Dipterocarpus spp. Associates were ratkan Lophopetalum spp., jam Syzygum spp., uriam Mangifera spp., chapalish Artocarpus spp., simul Salmalva spp., korai Albizia spp. and toon Cedrela spp. Bamboos and grasses were profuse. Much of the original vegetation has been heavily disturbed through commercial exploitation, illegal felling and encroachment (Jalil, n.d.). Fauna Wildlife populations are depleted due to heavy disturbance to the habitat. Some 26 species of mammals are reportedly present, including rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, common langur Presbytis entellus, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), dhole Cuon alpinus (V), fox Vulpes bengalensis, leopard Panthera pardus (7), tiger P. tigris (E), Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor (Ahmed, n.d.). A resident herd of 15 to 30 elephant is present, as well as a dozen of the nationally rare serow Capricornis sumatraensis. Tiger Panthera tigris (E), last recorded in 1983, may also be present (IUCN, 1990). Some 40 species of birds have been recorded, including a variety of birds of prey, pheasants and fish-eating species (Ahmed, n.d.). 35 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Cultural Heritage ‘Chuna’ means chosen and, according to legend, Chunati was chosen by members of Shah Shuja’s caravan who remained in the area while the Prince continued his journey to Arakan to flee from his brother, Aurangzeb. The history of the region has since been recorded in Persian by scholars from the region (Rahman, 1989). Local Human Population Surrounding areas are settled. About 500 households distributed among 10-12 villages depend on the sanctuary’s wood resources as a source of income (IUCN, 1990). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities A preliminary inventory of the mammals and birds has been compiled (Ahmed, n.d.). Conservation Value Chunati lies at the northern edge of one of the most dense tropical rain forests in Bangladesh. It supports a rich flora and fauna and its diminishing resources are vital for the poor and landless (Rahman, 1989; IUCN, 1990). Conservation Management A citizens committee, known as Pothikrit, was responsible for persuading the government to declare the area a wildlife sanctuary. Since then, Pothikrit has been raising the level of awareness among the poor and landless farmers about the need to conserve forest resources. For example, poor people dependent on the sanctuary’s wood resources have been engaged in forestry activities in peripheral areas to plant and raise trees. In time, this may ease pressure on the sanctuary and adjacent forests (Anon., 1990; IUCN, 1990). Chunati has not been subject to any management regime since its inception. Plans have been drawn up, however, to restore the sanctuary to its original condition but await sanctioning. Priorities include the provision of adequate staffing and quarters, development of pasturc. and waterholes for wildlife, and construction of visitor facilities (Jalil, n.d.). Management Constraints Encroachment has been a persistent problem in and around the sanctuary. The forest has been cleared for cultivation by wealthy land-owners. Timber and firewood resources have been legally and illegally extracted for many years, this being the major cause of depletion and loss of wildlife habitat. Timber traders represent a strong vested-interest group and are located near the sanctuary. Impoverished fuelwood gatherers have also traditionally depended on the resources of the sanctuary, as it represents their major source of income, particularly outside the agricultural season. In addition, wildlife is under constant threat from chronic hunting and poaching. The Forest Department has so far proved to be ineffective in arresting deforestation and the decline of wildlife within the sanctuary and, at present, there is no management plan. Unless new management measures are implemented soon, it is anticipated that the sanctuary will be destroyed within 15 years. These constraints are addressed in a project proposed by IUCN (1990) to assess the forest resources in Chunati and the dependence of the local people on them, and to prepare a management plan. Staff Presently staffed by one honorary wildlife warden but one assistant conservator of forests, one forest ranger, one forester, forest guards and honorary wildlife wardens are proposed (Jalil, n.d.). ” 36 Bangladesh Budget No information Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Chittagong Forest Division References Ahmed, M. (n.d.). Introducing the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary. Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. Unpublished report. 6 pp. Anon. (1990). Participatory forestry. Bangladesh Environmental Newsletter 1(1): 5. IUCN (1990). Applied research and management plan for Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, Chittagong. Bangladesh. Project Proposal. 8 pp. Jalil, S.M. (n.d.). Chunati Game Sanctuary. Chittagong Forest Division. Unpublished report. 4 pp. Rahman, S.H. (1989). About Pothikrit and Chunati. Unpublished paper presented at the Seminar on Forest Resources Management, Chittagong, February 1989. 4 pp. HAZARIKHIL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category Proposed Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies in the Ramgarh-Sitakunda forests, 45 km north of Chittagong Port in south-east Bangladesh. 91°40’E, 22°40’N Date and History of Establishment Proposed as a wildlife sanctuary in 1967. Maintained since the mid-1970s by the Forest Directorate. Area 2,903 ha. According to a report by the Divisional Forest Officer, the proposed area is 2,033 ha (Olivier, 1979). Land Tenure State Altitude Mean altitude is 350 m. Physical Features The terrain is irregular, comprising ridges from which numerous spurs protrude in various directions. Soils vary from clay to clay-loam on level ground, and from sandy loam to coarse sand on the hills. The sandy soil is often impregnated with iron. Climate Conditions are moist tropical. Mean annual rainfall is 3000 mm, falling mainly between June and September (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Predominant tree species are Dipterocarpus spp., Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Cedrela toona, Mesua ferrea, Eugenia spp., Ficus spp., and Albizia procera. The undergrowth is dominated by bamboos and Eupatorium odoratum (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Stl Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Fauna Mammals known to be present include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, capped langur Presbytis pileata, dhole Cuon alpinus (V), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), wild boar Sus scrofa, and Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), leopard Panthera pardus (T), and Phayre’s leaf monkey Presbytis phayrei may also be present (Olivier, 1979), as may sambar Cervus unicolor (S.M. Saheed, pers. comm., 1989). Indian python Python molurus (V) is reported to be present but low in number (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information. Local Human Population No information. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. Scientific Research and Facilities Limited census of the wildlife has been undertaken (Olivier, 1979). Conservation Value The area is reportedly rich in wildlife (Olivier, 1979). Conservation Management Though not yet notified a wildlife sanctuary, forestry operations have been suspended (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985) and some 12 km of the boundary demarcated (Olivier, 1979). Management Constraints No information. Staff Quarters for staff have been constructed (Olivier, 1979) but the present level of staffing is not known. Budget No information Local Addresses No information. References Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Hug, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp. HIMCHARI NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category Unassigned. Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest). 38 Bangladesh Geographical Location Lies 1.5 km to the south of Cox’s Bazar township in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Forms part of Cox’s Bazaar Peninsular Reserved Forest. 21°22’N, 92°02’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park in 1980 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974. Previously established as a reserved forest under the Forest Act 1927 and subsequently declared a game reserve, with an area of 2,331 ha. Area 1,729 ha Land Tenure State Altitude No information Physical Features The terrain is irregular with steep-sided hills aligned in a north-to-south direction, and bounded on the west by the Bay of Bengal. Soils comprise clay loams and loams on hills, and sands along beaches. Climate Conditions are moist, humid and maritime, with little temperature variation. Rainfall is high, falling mainly between May and October. Vegetation Characteristically comprises tropical semi-evergreen forest, which is dense and multi-storeyed. Deciduous trees predominate in the upper canopy, common species including Albizia procera, Artocarpus chaplasha, Salmalia malabarica and Sterculia alata. The sub-canopy is dominated by a great variety of evergreen species including Quercus, Castanopsis, Eugenia, Lannea, Lagerstroemia and Amoora spp. The undergrowth consists mainly of bamboo (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Fauna Mammals include gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), capped langur Presbytis pileatus, rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, leopard Panthera pardus (T), dhole Cuon alpinus (V), leopard cat Felis bengalensis, jungle cat F. chaus, fishing cat F. viverrina, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), elephant Elephas maximus (E), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and wild boar Sus scrofa (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985). Hog-badger Arctonyx collaris and pangolin Manis sp. may also be present (S.M. Saheed, pers. comm., 1989). There are many species of birds. The reptile fauna is rich and includes Indian python Python molurus (V) (Sarker and Fazlul Hug, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information. Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities No information Conservation Value Limited due to the poor quality of the habitat and its isolation (Olivier, 1979). Conservation Management Blocks 34, 35 and 37 (totalling 2,331 ha) were originally recommended as a ‘Class A’ national park (Government of East Pakistan, 1971). In the event, 39 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Blocks 35 and 37, which still contained commercially valuable forest, were rejected in favour of Blocks 30, 32 and 33, which consisted of poor-stature, partially-logged, semi-swamp forest whose further exploitation had been abandoned. Thus, not only does the area afford poor habitat for wildlife, but it is isolated from all other forests within the division (Oliver, 1979). A development scheme prepared for the park and to be executed by the Divisional Forest Officer has not yet been approved (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Management Constraints The park is encroached by hundreds of villagers entering daily to cut timber (Rashid, 1990). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Divisional Forest Officer, Cox’s Bazaar Forest Division References Government of East Pakistan (1971). Report of the Technical Sub- committee for East Pakistan of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee. Dacca. Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Rashid, H. Er (1990). Note on an environmental study visit to Cox’s Bazar in February 1990. Unpublished. Polli Unnayan Sangstha, Dhaka. 5 pp. Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Hug, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp. PABLAKHALI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Lies at the northern end of Kaptai Reservoir in the south-eastern part of Kassalong Reserve Forest in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, some 112 km from Rangamati Town. The western boundary is formed by Kassalong River. 23°08’N, 92°16’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1983 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974. First established as a game sanctuary in June 1962. Area 42,087 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 100 m to 300 m. 40 Bangladesh Physical Features The topography comprises a complex of hills and valleys aligned north-south, with spurs branching from the ridges. The hills are rugged and steeply sloping to the north, and smaller with gentler slopes to the south. Some 3,885 ha in Working Unit I have been under water since 1963, following the construction of a dam at Kaptai as part of the Karnafuli hydfo-electric project (Olivier, 1979). Soils are typically clay or clay loams in the valleys, and pale brown to yellow-red (acidic) clay loams and loams in the hills with localised concretions of iron-manganese. Climate Conditions are typically sub-tropical with a long dry season lasting from November to May. Mean annual rainfall is 2500 mm. Mean temperature ranges from 23 °C in December to 35 °C in May. Humidity is high throughout the year. Vegetation Three forest types can be distinguished. Tropical wet evergreen forest commonly occurs in valleys and on sheltered slopes with a plentiful water supply. The irregular canopy, characterised by emergent trees, is dense and rich in species. Typical trees include civit Swintonia floribunda, garjan Dipterocarpus spp., Pterygota alata, Quercus spp. and Castanopsis spp. Tropical semi-evergreen forest, the most extensive forest type in the sanctuary, includes a significant proportion of deciduous canopy species. The predominant tree genera are Dipterocarpus, Mangifera, Amoora, Cinnamomum, Syzygium, Tetrameles, Artocarpus, Salmalia, and Albizia. Tropical moist deciduous forest is confined to new alluvial areas near rivers and streams. The trees are scattered and interspersed with extensive patches of khagra and nal grassland and stands of wild banana. Characteristic tree genera include Albizia, Salmalia, Terminalia and Ficus. Bamboo grows beneath the canopy of all three forest types (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Fauna According to reports in old district gazetteers, Kassalong Valley used to be rich in wildlife, with tiger Panthera tigris (E), two species of rhinoceros Rhinocerotidae spp., gaur Bos gaurus (V) and banteng B. javanicus (V) present in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Tiger, gaur and banteng were last seen in the early 1970s (Khan, 1985), but tiger and also leopard Panthera pardus (T) are reported to still occur (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Most important is the small population of Asian elephant Elephas maximus (E) that commonly uses the southern part of the sanctuary, probably because of the mosaic of habitats and permanent water supply (Olivier, 1979). Many other large mammals are present, including rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, capped langur Presbytis pileata, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), dhole Cuon alpinus (V), small cats, otters and wild boar Sus scrofa (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985), and also Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and sambar Cervus unicolor (Olivier, 1979). Hague (1989) lists 61 species of mammals recorded in the late 1970s. Some 133 bird species have been recorded from the sanctuary (Husain, 1975). This total includes 25 species previously reported by Mountfort (1969). Following the formation of Kaptai Reservoir and with the continuing reduction of former wintering grounds in Sylhet and Mymensingh, the sanctuary supports increasing numbers of resident and migratory waterfowl (Olivier, 1979), notably little grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis, a variety of herons and egrets, common moorhen Gallinula chloropus, common coot Fulica atra and Asian openbiil stork Anastomus oscitans (Scott, 1989). White-winged wood duck Cairina scutulata (V) used to be common but the population has declined in recent years, most probably due to systematic clear-felling of primary forest and its replacement with commercially viable timber species (Khan, 1986). Some five pairs were present up to 1979, but the status of the species has since become uncertain owing to political disturbances (Khan, 1985). Khan (1986) estimates there to be some 20 pairs within an area of 240 sq. km in and around the sanctuary. 41 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Of the reptiles, Indian python Python molurus (V) is common (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Part of the sanctuary has been allotted to settlers from the plains. Rebel tribal groups operate in the area (Khan, 1985). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Access to the Chittagong Hill Tracts has been restricted since 1982 for security reasons. There are two rest houses. Scientific Research and Facilities The elephant population was surveyed by the Forest Directorate in 1978 (Olivier, 1979; Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). The status of white-winged wood duck was first investigated by Husain (1975, 1977) and subsequently by Khan (1986) between 1978 and 1981. Its population dynamics and breeding behaviour were examined by an university student in 1976-7 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Conservation Value Pablakhali contains some of the finest lowland forest remaining in Bangladesh and is also an important wetland site (Scott, 1989). Conservation Management Under the working plan, due to expire in 1988-9, the sanctuary is divided into two working units. Some 25,900 ha are allotted to Working Unit I, in which wildlife is protected and forestry operations are prohibited. In the remaining area allotted to Working Unit II, it is intended that wildlife preservation proceed alongside normal forestry operations. Working Unit I comprises some 3,885 ha of reservoir, 1,554 ha of teak plantation and 20,461 ha of natural forest. This is nowhere more than 5 km wide and runs north-south along the eastern edge of Working Unit II; to the east is unclassed state forest, which has been heavily disturbed by local hill tribesmen. Conversion of Working Unit II to plantations has been proceeding steadily (Olivier, 1979). Some 7,770 ha (Compartments 23-30) within Working Unit I were proposed as an elephant sanctuary, but the area was considered far too small and devoid of much suitable habitat. This proposal is thought to have arisen as a result of the Technical Sub-Committee of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee having originally proposed Compartments 23-30 as Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary (Olivier, 1979). Management prescriptions include strict protection of the wildlife and provision of artificial feeding sites, waterholes and salt-licks. It was planned to limit forestry operations to thinning of existing plantations and impose a three-year cycle for the collection of bamboo (Olivier, 1979). Management Constraints Few of the original management prescriptions have proved possible to implement. Rice was cultivated beside the reservoir, grass cut for fodder and thatching material, and cattle roamed freely inside the sanctuary. Most serious is the encroachment on the narrow strip of natural forest running north-south. In many places, this had either gone or been reduced to a few hundred metres in width, thereby isolating the smaller southern part of the sanctuary from the rest and threatening the free movement of elephants to and from preferred feeding areas (Olivier, 1979). In the mid-1980s the government began to lease out forest lands, both within the sanctuary and neighbouring areas, to plains-dwellers for settlement at the rate of 2.5 ha per family, as a counter-measure to tribal insurgency. This policy is very detrimental to wildlife, and much encroachment has 42 Bangladesh resulted. Locals hunted white-winged wood ducklings with dogs in 1981 and this practice may be continuing (Khan, 1986). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Divisional Forestry Officer, Chittagong Hill Tracts (North) Forest Division. References Haque, M.N. (1989). The mammalian fauna of Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. In: Karim, G.M.M.E., Akonda, A.W. and Sewitz, P. (Eds.), Conservation of wildlife in Bangladesh. German Cultural Institute/Forest Department/Dhaka University/Wildlife Society of Bangladesh/Unesco, Dhaka. Pp. 133-9. Husain, K.Z. (1975). Birds of Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary. (The Chittagong Hill Tracts). Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 3: 155-7. Husain, K.Z. (1977). The white-winged wood duck. Tiger paper 4(1): 6-8. Khan, M.A.R. (1985). Future conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.) Conserving Asia’s natural heritage: the planning and management of protected areas in the Indomalayan Realm. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 114—22. Khan, M.A.R. (1986). The threatened white-winged wood duck Cairina scutulata in Bangladesh. Forktail 2: 97-101. Mountfort, G. (1969). The vanishing jungle. Collins, London. 286 pp. Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangaladesh. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Sarker and Fazlul Hug, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game-reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp. RAMPAHAR-SITAPAHAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category Proposed Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies 48 km north-east of Chittagong Port. Approximately 22°30’N, 92°20°E Date and History of Establishment Presently classified as reserved forest, Rampahar-Sitapahar has not yet been designated a wildlife sanctuary under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation)(Amendment) Act 1974 but has been maintained as such by the Forest Department since 1973 (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Area 3,026 ha Land Tenure State 43 ‘ Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude No information. Physical Features Comprises low, gently sloping hills which are steeper in Sitapahar block than Rampahar block. The Karnaphuli River flows through the area. Soils are clays or clayey loams in valley bottoms and mostly pale brown (acidic) clay loams and loams on hills (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Climate Conditions are typically sub-tropical with a long dry season from October to May. Mean temperatures vary from 24 °C in December to 35 °C in May. Mean annual rainfall is 2500 mm. Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen forests. Predominant tree species are Dipterocarpus spp., Artocarpus chaplasha, Tetrameles nudiflora, Cedrela toona, Mesua ferrea, Eugenia spp., Ficus spp., and Albizia procera (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Fauna Mammals include capped langur Presbytis pileatus, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor. Reptiles include python Python molurus (V) (Sarker and Fazlul Huq, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities No information Conservation Value No information Conservation Management Maintained as virgin forest by the Forest Department. Management Constraints No information. Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses No information References Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Hug, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp. 44 Bangladesh TEKNAF GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category VIII (Multiple Use Management Area) Biogeographical Province 4.04.01 (Burman Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies 80 km south of Cox’s Bazaar in the Teknaf Peninsula of south-eastern Bangladesh. Stretches from Thainkhali in the north to Teknaf township in the south, all of which is within Cox’s Bazaar Forest Division. 21°00’N, 92°20’E Date and History of Establishment Teknaf is a reserved forest which was declared a game reserve in 1983 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) (Amendment) Act 1974. It includes an area formerly referred to as the Thainkhali Game Reserve (7,770 ha) (Government of Bangladesh, 1973). Area 11,615 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 5 m to 700 m. Physical Features The terrain is rugged, with undulating hills aligned in a north-to-south direction and bordering the Bay of Bengal to the west. Soils on the hills are predominantly pale brown (acidic) clay loams and loams developed from shales and siltstones. Perennial water courses, known as ’charas’, in the forested hilly areas are the only dependable source of water for elephants in the vicinity. Climate Moist tropical maritime conditions prevail, with a mean annual rainfall of 4060 mm and mean humidity of 81.2% (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Vegetation Comprises evergreen and semi-evergreen secondary forests, which have regenerated following clear-felling, and teak Tectona grandis plantations. The tropical wet evergreen forest is characterised by chapalish Artocarpus chaplasha, telsur Hopea odorata, chundul Tetrameles nudiflora, pitraj Amoora wallichii, uriam Mangifera longipes, civit Swintonia floribunda, toon Toona ciliata and jam Syzygium spp. It is now confined to deep valleys and shaded slopes with good water supplies. The dense multi-storeyed semi-evergreen forest, typical of the peninsula, ranges in height from 20 m to 45 m. The top canopy, which includes several deciduous species, is characterised by baitta garjan Dipterocarpus scaber, telya garjan D. turbinatus, dulya garjan D. alatus, koroi Albizia procera, chukka k’oroi A. chinensis, chapalish, uriam, civit, shimul Bombax ceiba and B. insigne, bandarholla Duabanga grandiflora, and narikeli Sterculia alata. The second storey is dominated by evergreens, such as batna Quercus sp., jam, Castanopsis sp., jarul Lagerstroemia speciosa, bena Macaranga denticulata, kKamdeb Calophyllum polyanthum, hargoza Dillenia pentagyna, dharmara Pterospermum personatum, moos P. paniculata, Sterculia villosa, S. colorata, konak Schima wallichii, nageshwar Mesua ferrea, bahera Terminalia bellerica, haritaki T. chebula, champa Michelia champaca, gamar Gmelina arborea, and bot Ficus spp. Saplings predominate below 45 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya the second storey, together with adaliya Meliosma pinnata, naricha Musa ramentacea, dormala Callicarpa arborea, goda Vitex glabrata, kestoma and kechua Glochidion spp., sheora Streblus asper, jalpai Elaeocarpus spp. and bela Semicarpus anacardium. The undergrowth of both evergreen and semi-evergreen forests is dominated by bamboo, the commonest species being muli Melocannia bambusoides, mitenga Bambusa tulda, kaliserri Oxytenanthera auriculata, daloo Teinostachyum dulooa and orah Dendrocalamus longispathus (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Fauna Teknaf Peninsula still has quite a rich fauna. Moreover, it provides a vital refuge for elephant Elephas maximus (E), estimated in 1982-3 to number 101, of which 71 resided within an area of 55,000 ha and the rest came from the Arakan area of Burma (Reza Khan and Rashid, 1983). Other mammals include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, capped langur Presbytis pileata, Hoolock gibbon Hylobates hoolock (V), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), hog-badger Arctonyx collaris, crab-eating mongoose Herpestes urva, civets (Viverridae), small cats Felis spp., flying squirrel Petaurista sp. and Malayan giant squirrel Ratufa bicolor (Khan, 1985a). Ungulates present in that part of the park which used to be known as Thainkhali Game Reserve include Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor and wild boar Sus scrofa (Olivier, 1979). Leopard Panthera pardus (T) and possibly dhole Cuon alpinus (V), are also present (Olivier, 1979). The avifauna is diverse and includes kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelana, fruit pigeons, hornbills and woodpeckers (Khan, 1985a). Reptiles include Malayan box turtle Cuora amboinensis, uncommon in Bangladesh, Indian python Python molurus (V), and monitor Varanus sp. (Khan, 1985a). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population There are 25 to 30 villages within the forests of the Peninsula and some 50 villages on their peripheries. Local people, who are largely dependent on forest resources for their livelihood, grow rice, millet, vegetables and pan in the valleys (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve has potential for tourism, particularly since Cox’s Bazaar, renowned as being the only health resort in the country, is a tourist centre (Khan and Rashid, 1983). There are two rest houses in the vicinity, at Inoni and Teknaf (Olivier, 1979). Scientific Research and Facilities The elephant population was studied between May 1982 and April 1983 (IUCN/WWF Project 3038) and a management strategy developed to conserve the species (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Conservation Value Teknaf Peninsula contains the most important tracts of evergreen and semi-evergreen forests in south-eastern Bangladesh (Khan and Rashid, 1983) and about one third of the country’s total elephant population, estimated at 300 animals (Khan, 1985b). The Peninsula is also an important wetland site (Scott, 1989), although the wetlands themselves lie outside the reserve. Conservation Management The reserve was established to protect the elephant population, but the Forest Department continues its operations in the area. Preliminary recommendations for elephant management include: replacing clear-felling with selective felling; replanting 46 Bangladesh cleared areas with indigenous species of trees; establishing corridors to facilitate movement of elephants and other wildlife between cleared areas; and controlling encroachment, grazing by livestock and extraction of bamboo (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Management Constraints There has been considerable pressure on minor forest products from the coastal people who either fished or grew pan Piper betle. Removal of the forest understorey, to meet local demands for timber, firewood and bamboo, has interfered with natural regeneration. Large areas of forest have been turned into plantations (teak) and, since 1976, Burmese refugee camps have had a severe local impact on forests (Womersley, 1979). Most accessible areas on the Peninsula have been clear-felled or subjected to shifting cultivation, with the result that little virgin forest remains. Regeneration is hindered, due to the pressure of livestock and other forms of disturbance, and the vegetation is changing towards a drier scrub-forest or savannah, characterised by sungrass /mperata cylindrica, bhat Clerodendrum infortunatum, Lantana camara, Eupatorium odoratum, Melostoma sp. and others. The main elephant food, bamboo, has largely been extracted and replaced by unpalatable plants, such as Lantana and Eupatorium. This has probably been responsible for the increased raiding of crops, particularly by solitary elephants. Oil palm has recently been introduced to a 4,000 ha area but is damaged by migratory elephants and, to a much greater extent, by porcupines. In 1978-83, over 400 ha of forested land was encroached by villagers with the authority of the Forest Department and others. Bamboo is extracted at an estimated rate of 10,000 canes per week, and some 8,000 cattle and water buffalo are taken daily into the forests for grazing, except possibly from January to April (Khan and Rashid, 1983). Staff Forest guards. Budget No information Local Addresses No information References Government of Bangladesh (1973). Development of wildlife management and game reserves. Forest Department, Dacca. Olivier, R.C.D. (1979). Wildlife conservation and management in Bangladesh. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 121 pp. Khan, M.A.R. (1985a). Future conservation directions for Bangladesh. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.) Conserving Asia’s natural heritage: the planning and management of protected areas in the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 114—24. Khan, M.A.R. (1985b). Mammals of Bangladesh. Nazma Reza, Dhaka. 92 pp. Khan, M.A.R. and Rashid, S.M.A. (1983). Development of an elephant management plan for the Cox’s Bazar Forest of Bangladesh. Report to WWF/IUCN, Gland. Unpublished. 13 pp. Sarker, N.M. and Fazlul Huq, A.K.M. (1985). Country report on national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and game reserves of Bangladesh. Prepared for the 25th Working Session of IUCN’s Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas. Corbett National Park, India. 4-8 February 1985. 5 pp. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A Directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Womersley, J.S. (1979). Botanic Garden Dacca, commercial horticultural forest botany and national parks. UNDP/FAO Project BGD/72/005. FAO, Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. 71 pp. 47 Bangladesh WWFE/IUCN (n.d.) Project No. 3033. Bangladesh, Cox’s Bazar Forest, elephant management plan.. Unpublished. 48 BHUTAN Area 46,620 sq. km Population 1,600,000 (1990) Natural increase 2.1% per annum GNP US $ 150 per capita (1988) Policy and Legislation Government policy on environmental conservation is strong, with the emphasis consistently given to nature conservation and careful management of natural resources. National development plans have stressed the potential for ecological damage from exploitation of the nation’s natural resources, particularly its forests (World Bank, 1988; Blower, 1989). A. National Conservation Strategy is being formulated by the newly created National Environment Secretariat, formed under the National Planning Committee (MacKinnon, 1991). The existing National Forest Policy of 1974 emphasises the importance of maintaining adequate forest cover, with a minimum of 60%, in order to prevent soil erosion and maintain climatic equilibrium. It recognises the problems caused by grazing and shifting cultivation, and the need to regulate both practices. A new National Forest Policy was prepared in 1985 at the express command of His Majesty the King, but this has yet to be adopted. The new policy lays even greater stress on conservation, its basis being that the nation’s forest resources should be regarded more in terms of their conservation value and less as a source of revenue. Prescriptions include: designation of all forest land above 2,700 m or on slopes exceeding 60° as protection forest; establishment of a protected areas network (including biosphere reserves) to conserve representative samples of the diverse fauna and flora in their pristine state; control of shifting cultivation and its prohibition on slopes of 45° and more; and the total banning of grazing in forests reserved for protection or conservation (Blower, 1986, 1989). The Bhutan Forest Act of 1969 is the only legislation covering environmental conservation. Under this Act, all forested land other than any privately owned, is declared as government reserved forest. Activities prohibited within reserved forest are annexed. The maximum penalty for any offence under the Forest Act is one month’s imprisonment or a fine of Nu. 200 (US $ 13) or both. There is no specific provision in the Forest Act for the establishment or management of any other category of protected area, although it is mentioned that ‘nothing shall be done to fell or damage trees or clear forests in the area of a National Park or Game Sanctuary or the shooting grounds of His Majesty the King.’ Protected areas, other than reserved forests, have been established by notification, notably no. TIF-11/74 of 1 November 49 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya 1979 under which three wildlife sanctuaries, one game reserve, one national park and three reserved forests were designated. A further six sites were declared under Notification no. TIF/FAO/111-8/83/7049. The provisions of the Forest Act apply to these areas (see Annex), together with additional restrictions. These include: prohibition of entry except for Bhutanese officials or visitors with written permission from the Divisional Forest Officer; felling of trees or cutting of other vegetation, except under the provision of a Forest Department Working Plan; no use of land for agricultural, horticultural or other purposes; and no grazing by domestic cattle without permission from the Forest Department. Penalties prescribed for infringements are up to six months’ imprisonment or a fine of up to Nu. 1,000 (US $ 65). While the present forestry legislation covers many of the essential requirements for conservation, there are serious omissions with respect to such matters as the criteria for different categories of protected area and procedures for their establishment and management. New legislation entitled the Bhutan Wildlife (Protection) Act, based on the Indian Wild Life (Protection) Act, was drafted in 1985 but it was considered to be unnecessarily lengthy and complicated. Blower (1986) recommended that new conservation legislation be formulated to provide the basis for an effective conservation programme. This should take the form of a basic enabling act with more emphasis on the broader aspects of environmental conservation, rather than merely on the protection of wildlife and control of hunting. A new Forest and Nature Conservation Act has since been prepared which will replace the Forest Act of 1969. The new law expands on the forestry policy to include related aspects of wildlife and biological diversity (Adams, 1989). It was due to have been presented to the National Assembly in 1988 (H. Wollenhaupt, pers. comm., 1988). International Activities Bhutan is not as yet party to any international convention concerned with protecting natural areas, such as the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl] Habitat (Ramsar Convention), nor does it participate in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme. Administration and Management The Forest Department, under the Ministry of Agriculture, is responsible for the management of reserved forests in particular. It is headed by a Director-General and divided into various functional divisions (e.g. planning, management) at its headquarters in Thimphu and a number of territorial divisions. These coincide with the administrative districts or Dzongkhags and are headed by a divisional forest officer (Blower, 1989). Forestry has a recent origin in Bhutan, beginning in 1952 with the establishment of the first administrative unit at Samchi. Further divisions were established at Sarbhang in 1961 and Thimphu in 1967 but funding was very limited until the Third Development Plan (1971-6) when forest development activities gathered momentum. A forest guard school was established at Kalikhola in 1971, later shifted to Taba in 1977 and upgraded in 1982 for training foresters. Officials and rangers are trained in India (Tenzing, 1989). Nature conservation is the responsibility of the Wildlife Division established within the Forest Department in 1984. The Division consists of two wildlife circles, each under the charge of a deputy director. The Northern Wildlife Circle, with its headquarters at Thimphu, is nominally responsible for the whole of northern Bhutan including the vast Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary. With a staff of only one forest ranger and three guards, this is obviously an impossible task. The Southern Wildlife Circle, based at Sarbhang, is responsible for southern Bhutan, including the management of 10 protected areas. Staff include two forest rangers, nine foresters and 36 guards under the charge of a deputy director. The budget for the 50 Bhutan Northern and Southern Wildlife Circles in 1988-9 was Nu. 420,000 (US $ 27,300) and Nu. 1,708,000 (US $ 110,000), respectively. In addition, WWF has contributed US $ 300,000 for the development of Manas Wildlife Sanctuary over a three-year period (Blower, 1989). The Royal Society for the Protection of Nature is the first non-governmental conservation organisation in the country, established in 1987 with assistance from WWF. Its principal aim is to promote conservation and wise management of natural resources through raising public awareness, instituting programmes and acting as an information centre. Due to the Society’s efforts, two areas (Phobjikah Valley and Bomdiling) have been declared by the government as sanctuaries for cranes (Adam, 1989; Bunting, 1989). The Forest Department is short of trained personnel and this has led to a reduction of field staff in its Wildlife Division from 66 in 1986 to 53 in 1989. The Wildlife Division is so inadequately staffed as to be virtually ineffective as far as the country as a whole is concerned (Blower, 1989). Systems Reviews Bhutan is a small kingdom in the Eastern Himalaya similar in size to Switzerland, but with a much wider altitudinal range (200 m to over 7,500 m) and only one-fifth of the population density. There has been almost no industrial development in the country: about 95% of the population is primarily dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry. The Himalayan chain runs along the northern border and the interior of the country is made up of a series of six major north-south aligned mountain ranges. The largest of these, the Black Mountains, rise to nearly 5,000 m and form a substantial physical barrier between eastern and western Bhutan. Four of the seven river valleys merge to form the Manas and all of them flow southwards across the plains of West Bengal and Assam into the Brahmaputra. The enormous altitudinal range and varied climatic conditions are reflected in the country’s great ecological diversity, ranging from tropical moist deciduous forest along the southern foothills, through extensive temperate broad-leaved and coniferous forests across the middle of the country, to alpine scrub and meadows up to the permanent snow-line to the north. Bhutan’s most valuable natural resources are its forests and its major river systems. Most of the original forest remains. Analysis of LANDSAT 2 imagery for 1978 shows that some 53% of Bhutan is forested, of which 19% is broad-leaved evergreen forest and 34% coniferous and deciduous. The remaining landcover comprises snow/water/scree (19%) and pasture/scrub/arable (28%) (Sargent, 1985; Sargent et al., 1985). This is lower than the official estimate of 64% forest cover (Negi, 1983), which is based on visual inspection of LANDSAT images without recourse to objective ground surveys (Sargent et al., 1985). There was extensive commercial exploitation of forest resources up until 1979, when logging operatives were nationalised and severe restrictions imposed on the export of timer in the interests of sound forestry management and ecological stability (World Bank, 1984, 1986). The conservation importance of major rivers (Torsa/Ammo Chu, Paidak/Wong Chu, Sankosh/Mo Chu and Manas) are reviewed by Scott (1989). Rivers are generally rocky and fast-flowing, with marshes restricted to flat valley bottoms in the inner valleys. Most marshes have been drained for agricultural purposes but some of those remaining are internationally important for black-necked crane. Isolated for centuries by its remote geographic location and latterly by its resistance to outside influence, Bhutan has maintained a relatively pristine environment along with a strong cultural 51 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya heritage. Following its membership of the United Nations in 1971, a more open foreign policy has emerged but, acutely aware of mistakes made in neighbouring countries and elsewhere, the government has proceeded cautiously with its development programme. Recognising the need to promote economic growth while sustaining the natural resource base, the government has maintained a strong traditional conservation ethic as the basis of its forest and other policies (Bunting, 1989; Tenzing, 1989). In the case of tourism, for example, the number of foreign visitors is strictly limited to minimise erosion of the Bhuddhist culture (Hickman and Edmunds, 1988; Singh, 1989). Bhutan’s oldest protected area is Manas, maintained as a royal hunting reserve for many years prior to being notified a wildlife sanctuary in 1966 and more recently (1988) upgraded to a national park. The bulk of the protected areas network, covering nearly 19% of the country, was established in 1974 and subsequently expanded by a further 2% in 1984. The entire north of Bhutan, comprising nearly 17% of the total area, is protected within the 790,495 ha Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary. While such provisions are impressive, exceeding those of all other countries in South Asia and many elsewhere, the protected areas system is unevenly distributed, with inadequate representation across the middle of the country. Moreover, the relative conservation value of protected areas varies enormously, as does the effectiveness of their protection (Blower, 1985). The only areas considered to be under any form of effective management in 1986 were Manas and the adjacent Nangyal Wangchuk (now combined within Royal Manas National Park), and Mochu Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1986). These deficiencies are being addressed, partly through various internationally assisted development projects. WWF is presently financing a co-operative nature conservation programme to the extent of Nu. 9,120,000 for the period 1988-93 (Bunting, 1989; Tenzing, 1989). This includes assistance for the institutional development of the Wildlife Division and infrastructural support for Royal Manas National Park. Under the UNDP/FAO Integrated Forest Management and Conservation Project (1987-91), priorities for nature conservation have been identified, including the strengthening of the protected areas system through the establishement of two large protected areas in the middle of the country (Blower, 1989). These and other priorities have been incorporated within a national conservation plan, recently formulated as part of the Master Plan for Forestry Development (MacKinnon, 1991). Bhutan’s natural resources are becoming increasingly threatened. While less pronounced than in other parts of the Himalaya, there is substantial evidence that uplands in Bhutan are being degraded at accelerating rates (Thinley, 1989; Denholm, 1990). The main conservation problem is the conversion of forests to other forms of land use as a result of human settlement, high domestic consumption of fuelwood and timber, shifting cultivation, overgrazing and encroachment, all of which reflect the rising human population (Jackson, 1981; Blower, 1985; Mahat, 1985; Sargent, 1985). Forests are grazed by excessive numbers of domestic livestock and are burnt, while the wildlife is declining due to habitat destruction, grazing competition with domestic livestock and, in some southern areas, organised poaching (Blower, 1985). The southernmost forest belt has been almost completely cleared for human settlement (Mahat, 1985). People are concentrated in the fertile valleys and, in the south-western foothills, at densities approaching an upper limit given present production methods, which are unlikely to change in the near future (Jackson, 1981). 52 Bhutan Addresses Northern Wildlife Circle (Deputy Director of Wildlife), Forest Department, Thimphu (Cable: BHUFOREST; Tel. 22452; Fax: 22395). Forest Department (Director-General of Forests), Ministry of Agriculture, Royal Government of Bhutan, PO Box 130, Thimphu (Cable: BHUFOREST,; Tel. 22487; Fax: 22395). Royal Society for the Protection of Nature (President), Thimphu (Tel. 22056; Fax: 22578). References Adams, J. (1989). Bhutan: right from the start. World Wildlife Fund Letter 1989(6): 1-8. Blower, J.H. (1985). Nature conservation and wildlife management in Bhutan. FAO, Rome. Unpublished. 23 pp. Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Blower, J.H. (1989). Nature conservation in northern and central Bhutan. FO: BHU/85/016. FAO, Rome. 48 pp. Bunting, B. (1989). A strategy for environmental conservation in Bhutan: a WWF/RGOB cooperative programme. Tiger Paper 16(4): 5-12. Denholm, J. (1990). Bhutan must protect its green health. Himal 3(1): 24. Hickman, K. and Edmunds, T.O. (1988). Tourism in Bhutan: ‘The serpent in paradise’. The Geographical Magazine 60(11): 18-23. Jackson, P. (1981). Conservation in Bhutan. Unpublished. 15 pp. Mahat, G. (1985). Protected areas of Bhutan. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 26-9. MacKinnon, J. (1991). National conservation plan for Bhutan. Annex report no.1. Master Plan for Forestry Development. Department of Forestry, Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu. 94 pp Sargent, C. (1985). The forests of Bhutan. Ambio 14: 75-80. Sargent, C., Sargent, O., and Parsell, R. (1985). The forests of Bhutan: a vital resource for the Himalaya? Journal of Tropical Ecology 1: 265-86. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Singh, M.M. (1989). Controlled growth in Bhutan. Himal 2(3): 11. Tenzing, D. (1989). Forestry in Bhutan: policies and programmes. Forest News 3(4): 5-9. Thinley, S. (1989). Upland conservation in Bhutan. Forest News 3(4): 10-15. World Bank (1984). Bhutan, development in a Himalayan kingdom. World Bank, Washington, DC. (Unseen) World Bank (1986). Bhutan Forestry II Development Project. Preparation Mission Report. FAO/World Bank Co-operative Programme Investment Centre, FAO, Rome. (Unseen) World Bank (1988). Bhutan, development planning in a unique environment. Report No. 7189-BHU. World Bank, Washington DC. (Unseen) ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration. Title (English title): The Bhutan Forest Act Date: 1 November 1969 Brief description: To amend the law relating to forests, forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. 53 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Administrative authority: Forest Department (Director-General of Forests) Designations: Reserved forest: — Any land under forest to which no person has acquired a permanent, heritable and transferable right of use and occupancy is declared as government reserved forest. — Prohibited activities include: any fresh clearing or breaking up of land for cultivation or other purpose; burning or leaving a fire unattended; felling; girdling; tapping, lopping or otherwise injuring any tree; quarrying of minerals, rocks and sand; poisoning water; hunting and fishing, or setting traps or snares; grazing cattle in new plantations, regeneration areas, catchments reserved for supply of drinking water and hydro-electric projects, and such areas as may be restricted by His Majesty’s Government. — Shifting cultivation is allowed in areas where it was practised prior to issue of this Act, but this concession may be withdrawn if highways or public property are endangered. Fresh clearance for shifting cultivation is strictly prohibited. — All forest operations are prohibited within catchments that supplywater to townships or are sites of hydro-electric projects. — Only His Majesty the King of Bhutan maygranta ‘special permit for any forest produce’. —Rights and concessions of the local people include: cattle grazing (except in areas defined above., subject to payment of taxes; collection of timber for domestic consumption from dead, dying and fallen trees (or from thinnings aad cuttings if such firewood is not available); and collection of leaf-litter, boulders, stones and sand for domestic consumption provided their removal does not accelerate erosion. Source: Original legislation. 54 pasodolg mm BULISIX] wy WN 06 «66 v Ww SNS @ ee WW Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Summary of Protected Areas of Bhutan National designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference * Category (ha) notified National Parks 1 Doga* Unassigned 2,176 1974 2 Royal Manas* II 65,800 1988 Total (%total land area) 67,976 (1.5%) Wildlife Reserves 3 Dungsum* IV 18,000 1984 4 Mochu* IV 27,843 1984 5 Shumar* Unassigned 16,000 1984 Total (%tetal land area) 61,843 (1.3%) Wildlife Sanctuaries 6 Jigme Doryji* IV 790,495 1974 7 Neoli* IV 4,000 1984 Total (% total land area) 794,495 (17.0%) Reserved Forests 8 Khaling ; Vill 23,569 1974 9 Pochu Vill 14,193 1974 10 Sinchula Vill 8,000 1984 11 Zhoshing Vill 500 1984 Total (% total land area) ; 46,262 (1.0%) Proposed 12 Black Mountains National Forest* Proposed 13 Thrumsing La National Park Proposed + Locations of protected areas are shown in the accompanying map. * Site is described in this directory. 56 Bhutan BLACK MOUNTAINS NATIONAL FOREST IUCN Management Category Proposed Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in central Bhutan between the Sankosh Chu in the west and the Tongsa in the east. Approximately 27°20’N, 90°25’E Date and History of Establishment Mostly classed as reserved forest. Area No information Land Tenure Land is mostly state owned, but subject to customary rights of grazing and collection of forest produce? Altitude Ranges from about 1,500 m to 4,925 m. Physical Features The Black Mountains are a southern spur of the main Himalayan range, forming the watershed between the Sankosh to the west and the Mangde Chu to the east. The highest part of the range includes a series of rocky peaks from 3,800 m to over 4,900 m, with some areas of permanent snow (BloWer, 1989). The proposed area includes Phobsikha Valley, a wide glacial valley. The entire valley floor is an extensive marsh, perhaps the largest in Bhutan (Scott, 1989). Climate Conditions are dry temperate, with a mean annual rainfall of 1000 mm and temperatures ranging from —7 °C to 20 °C. Frosts, low cloud and fog are frequent in winter; snowfall is moderate in winter. Strong winds are common in summer; the rainy season is from June to September (Scott, 1989). Vegetation The main vegetation types are broad-leaved semi-evergreen forest on the lower slopes, coniferous forest (blue pine Pinus wallichiana is predominant), mixed with birch Betula sp. and rhododendron Rhododendron sp. on the middle slopes, and extensive alpine pasture and scrub above the tree-line. There is a small amount of subtropical forest rich in palms and Pandanus (Blower, 1989). The marsh vegetation of Phobsikha Valley is dominated by Arundinaria maling (Scott, 1989). Wollenhaupt (1988) provides a vegetation map (1:250,000) for Phobsikha Valley. Fauna The high altitude fauna is not as varied as that of the main Himalayan range but it includes musk deer Moschus chrysogaster and serow Capricornis sumatraensis. Other large mammals include Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, golden leaf monkey Trachypithecus geei (R), leopard Panthera pardus (T), the occasional tiger Panthera tigris (E), numerous wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak and sambar Cervus unicolor (Blower, 1989). a7 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Phobsikha Valley is important as one of Bhutan’s three known wintering grounds for black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R), with about 100-140 over wintering from October to March. Temminck’s tragopan Tragopan temminckii, not previously recorded from Bhutan, has been seen in the Upper Hara Chu on the western flanks of the Black Mountains (Blower, 1989). Cultural Heritage Gangte Gompa, towards the head of Phobsikha Valley, is an important religious centre (Blower, 1989). Local Human Population There are a few settlements in the Phobsikha, Hara and Shiligung valleys. Terraced (at lower altitudes) and shifting (at higher altitudes) cultivation, and pastoralism are the main forms of land use. Large numbers of cattle from Bumthang winter in the upper Shiligung Valley. Visitors and Visitor Facilities _Gangte Gompa attracts large numbers of devotees (Scott, 1989). There is a guest house in the Phobsikha Valley (Wollenhaupt, 1988). Scientific Research and Facilities Observations of black-necked crane have been made by Gole (1987), and Clements and Bradbear (1986). Conservation Value The existing protected areas network does not cover the subtropical, temperate and subalpine forests of central Bhutan, which are well-represented in the Black Mountains. The area also includes important feeding grounds of black-necked crane (Blower, 1989; Scott, 1989). Conservation Management The black-necked crane population in Phobsikha Valley is legally protected. Under the proposed new legislation, it is recommended that the Black Mountains be established as a strictly protected national forest in which limited exploitation of timber and other forest produce would be allowed (Blower, 1989). Management Constraints The main problem is overgrazing which in many areas is preventing natural regeneration. Biga yak pasture in the north-west, for example, is seriously degraded, with severe surface and gully erosion. Shifting cultivation is spreading up the Hara Valley. The chir pine Pinus roxburghii forest between the lower Hara Chu and Chirang is slowly being destroyed by burning and excessively severe resin tapping (Blower, 1989). Staff None. Budget None. Local Addresses None References Blower, J.H. (1989). Nature conservation in northern and central Bhutan. FO: BH/85/016. FAO, Rome. 48 pp. Clements, F.A. and Bradbear, N.J. (1986). Status of wintering black-necked cranes (Grus nigricollis) in Bhutan. Forktail 2:103-7. Gole, P. (1981). Status survey of the black-necked crane wintering in Bhutan: February 1981. WWF-India Report. Unpublished. 58 Bhutan Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Wollenhaupt, H. (1988). Report of a field trip to the wintering area of the black-necked crane (Grus nigricollis) in the Phubjekha region (14.3.88—-15.3.88). UNDP/FAOForest Management and Conservation Project, Thimphu. Unpublished. 6 pp. DOGA NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies immediately south of the confluence of the Paro Chu and Thimphu Chu, adjacent to the main Thimphu-Phumtsholing road which follows the Wang Chu and forms the eastern boundary. The western boundary is formed by the road from Ha, via Sira Gampa Chu, to the Paro/Thimphu confluence, and the southern boundary by the Susuna Chu. 27°13’—27°18’N, 89°30’-89°33’E Date and History of Establishment 1 November 1974 Area 2,176 ha Land Tenure State Altitude 2,000 m to 2,600 m Physical Features Occupies part of the west bank of the Wang Chu Valley. Climate No information. Vegetation Apart from a few scattered patches of blue pine Pinus wallichiana forest, the area is largely deforested from burning and overgrazing, and comprises mostly grassland and scrub. Wollenhaupt (1988) provides a vegetation map (1:250,000). Fauna Well-known for its population of goral Nemorhaedus goral, the park no longer provides a permanent refuge for this species (Wollenhaupt, 1988). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population There are a number of small settlements and timber yards inside the park and much of the landscape is terraced for cultivation. Visitors and Visitor Facilities None Scientific Research and Facilities None. 59 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Conservation Value Doga was declared a national park ostensibly for the protection of goral. Why it was designated a national park rather than a wildlife sanctuary, which might have been more appropriate, is not known. The park, which is undemarcated and has no staff, is so degraded as to be of doubtful conservation value. It has been recommended that it should be redesignated as reserved forest and reafforested under the Forest Department’s planting programme (Blower, 1986). Conservation Management There is no management (Wollenhaupt, 1988). Management Constraints The park is almost completely degraded and exploitation of its natural resources remains uncontrolled (Blower, 1986). Logging, cultivating and grazing by livestock are excessive (Wollenhaupt, 1988). Staff None Budget The total budget for the Northern Wildlife Circle, which is responsible for Doga NP and Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary, was Nu. 384,000 (US $ 32,000) in 1984-5. Local Addresses Deputy Director of Forests, Northern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry , Thimpu. References Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Wollenhaupt, H. (1988). Report of a field trip to Doga National Park. UNDP/FAO Forest Management and Conservation Project, Thimphu. Unpublished. 3 pp. DUNGSUM WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Lies on the Indian border and extends from the Samdrup Jongkhar—Tashingang road in the west to the valley of the Bar Nadi in the east. It is bisected by the Deothang-Bhangtar road. Approximately 26°49’-26°54’N, 91°32’-91°42’E Date and History of Establishment 13 February 1984 Area 18,000 ha. Lies adjacent to Shumar Wildlife Reserve (16,000 ha). Land Tenure State Altitude Rises from about 200 m on the Indian border in the south to 1,800 m on the northern boundary. 60 Bhutan Physical Features The terrain is broken and hilly. A number of perennial streams drain the reserve in a north-south direction, often through steep rock gorges. Climate No information. Vegetation Moist evergreen/semi-evergreen forest and dry mixed deciduous woodland are extensive on the southernmost foothills (Blower, 1986). Fauna The area provides good wildlife habitat for tiger Panthera tigris (E), Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor, gaur Bos gaurus (V), and cther large mammals which are reported to be present (Blower, 1986; Mahat, n.d.). Cultural Heritage No information. Local Human Population There is extensive settlement, particularly along the recently completed Deothang—Bhangtar road (Blower, 1986; Mahat, n.d.). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. Scientific Research and Facilities None. Conservation Value The area has good potential for a small national park in view of its fairly extensive areas of excellent forest, large mammals and easy road access from Deothang, provided that it can be saved from further encroachment (Blower, 1986). Conservation Management No information. Management Constraints Extensive settlement, shifting cultivation and livestock grazing have caused serious damage to parts of the reserve. Boundaries are undemarcated and no staff are available to protect the area. The Forest Department is apparently undertaking a timber extraction and land clearance project in the reserve (Blower, 1986). Staff None. Budget The total budget for the Southern Wildlife Circle in 1984-5, which then administered 10 (including Dungsum) of Bhutan’s 12 protected areas, was Nu. 1,278,000 (US $ 107,350). Local Addresses Deputy Director of Forests, Southern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry, Sarbhang References Blower J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Mahat, G. (n.d.). A study tour of forest belt in southern Bhutan. Department of Forestry, Thimphu. Unpublished. 10 pp. 61 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya JIGME DORJI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY (INCLUDES LAYA AND GASA WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES) IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Extends over the whole of northern Bhutan up to the border with Tibet in China. The boundaries of the three wildlife sanctuaries are described in the original notification (Royal Government of Bhutan, 1974). 27°30’-28°21’N, 89°08’-91°41’E Date and History of Establishment 1 November 1974 (Notification no. TIF-11/74). Originally declared as three separate but contiguous wildlife sanctuaries (Laya, Gasa and Jigme Dorji) which later became known collectively as Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary (Blower, 1986). Area 790,495 ha. Comprises Laya Wildlife Sanctuary (147,708 ha), Gasa Wildlife Sanctuary (271,795 ha) and Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary (370,992 ha). Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from about 2,000 m to 7,554 m. Physical Features Forming part of the Great Himalaya, the sanctuary includes Chomo Lhari (7,314 m) and Kula Kangri (7,554 m) and all other high peaks along the border with China. Perpetual snow, glaciers and barren land above the tree-line constitute 70-80% of the area (Blower, 1985). Bhutan’s major rivers rise in the area and flow southwards, eventually draining into the Brahmaputra River south of the border with India. Climate There is no meteorological data. In general, rainfall is known to increase eastwards in the Himalaya due to the effects of the south-east monsoon. Vegetation Forests, comprising 20-30% of the sanctuary, are found in the upper catchments of the major river systems in the southern sector (Blower, 1985). It is not certain if the ‘area extends into the subtropical zone. Temperate forests, extending from about 2,000 m to 3,000 m, are dominated by blue pine Pinus wallichiana with evergreen oak Quercus semecarpifolia in the west and appear to be replaced by deciduous oak Quercus griffithii east of 90° E. Xeric montane forests, which extend up to approximately 4,000 m, consist of fir Abies densa or spruce Picea spinulosa, giving way to and often in association with juniper Juniperus pseudosabina. Mesic forests of the montane zone are dominated by spruce, with hemlock Tsuga dumosa and larch Larix griffithiana, in the west; fir with hemlock and birch Betula alnoides is common in the east. Hemlock with birch and maple Acer spp., which occurs in slightly lower drier areas, and evergreen oak are also present (Sargent et al., 1985). Above 4,000 m there are extensive areas of alpine pasture. Further details of the vegetation are given by Wollenhaupt (1988a, 1988b), including vegetation maps (1:250,000) for the Upper Mo Chu and Pho Chu catchments. 62 Bhutan Fauna The area is important for Himalayan wildlife, with Palaearctic and Indomalayan elements represented. Notable species include snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, takin Budorcas taxicolor, and blue sheep Psuedois nayaur (Blower, 1985). Brown bear Ursus arctos, Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus and serow Capricornis sumatraensis (Blower, 1989), and sambar Cervus unicolor, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and wild boar Sus scrofa are also present (Wollenhaupt, 1988b). Wolf Canis lupus (V), kiang Equus kiang (hemionus) (V) and Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata are reported to have been seen in the extreme north (Jackson, 1981), but the presence of kiang and Tibetan antelope is considered unlikely (J.H. Blower, pers. comm.; H. Wollenhaupt, pers. comm.). Both shou Cervus elaphus wallichi (E) and great Tibetan sheep Ovis ammon hodgsoni (1) occurred in northern Bhutan (and hence the sanctuary) until comparatively recently (Blower, 1989). The sanctuary is probably the most secure area in the Himalaya for snow leopard, although some are poisoned by yak herdsmen in retaliation for stock lifting (Jackson, 1981). The catchment basins of ‘the Mo Chu include both the summer and winter ranges of one of Bhutan’s few known takin populations (Blower, 1986); a second population occurs in the Lunana region (Blower, 1989). The avifauna is rich, particularly in pheasants which include blood pheasant /thaginis cruentus, Himalayan monal Lophophorus impejanus and satyr tragopan Tragopan satyra (Blower, 1989). Cultural Heritage Among the numerous holy mountains is Masang Khang, sacred to the legendary Masang people who may have originated from southern Tibet. The inhabitants of Laya differ significantly in their language and costume from other Bhutanese peoples, and practise the B6n religion (Wollenhaupt, 1988a). Local Human Population There are numerous human settlements within the sanctuary. Permanent settlements occur up to about 3,800 m in some parts of the sanctuary, notably in Gasa District to the north of Thimphu. There are no roads, villages being connected by a network of paths. Large numbers of yak and other domestic livestock are grazed on the alpine pastures in the summer months (Blower, 1986; Wollenhaupt, 1988a). Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a limited amount of trekking, the main destinations being Chila La and Chomo Lhari (Gibbons and Ashford, 1982). There are no visitor facilities. Scientific Research and Facilities The vegetation has been sampled at a number of sites within the sanctuary, as part of a survey of the forests of Bhutan (Sargent et al., 1985). Preliminary reconnaissances of the Mo Chu and Pho Chu catchments have been carried out by Blower (1989) and Wollenhaupt (1988a, 1988b). There are no scientific facilities. Conservation Value This northern region of Bhutan is unique and merits highest priority in conservation planning because: it includes the upper catchment areas of all the country’s major rivers, the maintenance of forest cover being of vital importance to agricultural communities downstream; some of its valleys still contain areas of pristine montane and subalpine forest of a richness and beauty unparallelled elsewhere in the entire Himalaya; and it provides habitat for certain species of Himalayan wildlife, such as the snow leopard, musk deer, blue sheep and takin, which could become seriously threatened in the foreseeable future unless more effectively protected (Blower, 1986, 1989). 63 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Conservation Management It has been recommended that the sanctuary be given the highest priority in conservation planning, with two or three smaller areas of outstanding ecological value and scenic beauty selected and managed as effective national parks or nature reserves. One such area is the upper catchment of the Mo Chu, which fulfils all the criteria for a superb national park, and has only a few small settlements, with which it should be unnecessary to interfere, and which is a nationally important area for takin (Blower, 1986, 1989). Another is the area immediately north of Punakha, between the Mo Chu and Pho Chu, which is virtually uninhabited and largely undisturbed because of its difficult access. Boundaries would need to be readjusted because only the northern part of this area presently lies within the sanctuary (Wollenhaupt, 1988b). Jigme Dorji is not managed at present (H. Wollenhaupt, pers. comm., 1988). Management Constraints None of the people living in the area seems to be aware of its special status, although the prohibition on hunting appears to be respected. Over-grazing, burning and damage to trees are widespread, resulting in serious degradation of the habitat in some areas. There are only a few Forest Department staff to control such activities. Consequently, the majority of trees at higher altitudes are over-mature, many are fire-damaged, and regeneration in many areas is almost totally absent (Blower, 1985, 1986). Numbers of livestock are increasing (10% per annum in the case of yak), leading to degradation of existing grazing grounds and extension of pastures through deforestation (Wollenhaupt, 1988a; Blower, 1989). Staff One deputy director, three guarcs and one administrative staff, all of whom are stationed at the headquarters in Thimphu (H. Wollenhaupt, pers. comm., 1988). Budget The total budget for the Northern Wildlife Circle (which administers both Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary and Doga National Park) for 1984—5 was Nu. 384,000 (US $ 32,000). Local Addresses Deputy Director, Northern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry, Thimphu References Blower, J.H. (1985). Nature conservation and wildlife management in Bhutan. Preliminary report. FAO, Rome. 23 pp. Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Blower, J.H. (1989). Nature conservation in northern and central Bhutan. FO: BH/85/016. FAO, Rome. 48 pp. Gibbons, B. and Ashford, B. (1982). The Himalayan kingdom: Nepal, Bhutan and Sikkim. B.T. Batsford Ltd, London. Pp. 139-41. Jackson, P. (1981). Conservation in Bhutan. Unpublished. 15 pp. Royal Government of Bhutan (1974). Creation of wildlife sanctuaries, parks/forest reserves. Department of Forestry, Thimphu. 12 pp. Sargent, C., Sargent, O., and Parsell, R. (1985). The forests of Bhutan: a vital resource for the Himalayas? Journal of Tropical Ecology 1: 265-86. Wollenhaupt, H. (1988a). Report of a field trip to the upper catchment area of the Mo Chu (26.3.1988—12.4.1988) . UNDP /FAO Forest Management and Consvation Project, Thimphu. Unpublished. 19pp. Wollenhaupt, H. (1988b). Report of a field trip to the upper catchment area of the Pho Chu. UNDP /FAO Forest Management and Conservation Project, Thimphu. Unpublished. 8 pp. 64 Bhutan ROYAL MANAS NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category II (National Park) Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies on the southern international border with the Indian state of Assam, and extends from the Aigunmari River on the east to the Sukuntaklai River in the west. 26°47’-26°56’N, 90°30’-91°22’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a national park in 1988 by the amalgamation and upgrading of the former Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Reserve. Manas was originally declared a wildlife sanctuary on 11 July 1966 (Government Order no. F-13(4)/MWL/66/4549), having previously been protected for many years as a royal hunting reserve. It was subsequently enlarged to 4,385 ha following the notification of an eastern extension of 2,000 ha on 13 February 1984 (vide TIF/FAO/111-8/83/7049). Namgyal Wangchuk (19,709 ha, of which 1,200 ha was allocated to the Army Welfare Association for cultivation of sugarcane) was originally established on 1 November 1974 as Goley Game Reserve (Notification no. TIF-11/74) and subsequently renamed in memory of His Royal Highness, Namgyal Wangchuk, then Minister of Trade, Industry and Forests. Area 65,800 ha. To the east, Manas is separated from Shumar Wildlife Reserve (16,000 ha) by a strip of settled land several kilometres in width. Across the international border with India to the south, the park abuts Manas Sanctuary (39,100 ha) which is both a World Heritage Site and part of a tiger reserve. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from about 200 m to 2,310 m. Physical Features Lying in the Outer Himalaya, the park has a variety of habitats ranging from forested hills in the north to open savannah in the south. It is well-watered by the Manas River itself and various smaller perennial rivers flowing southwards through it. In the west, the Kanamakra River cuts through the northern hills as a deep narrow valley and emerges in the lowlands as a broad stony bed several hundred metres wide. The main geological formations are: the Siwalik series (Miocene-Pliocene) consisting of bedded sandstones and grey to green claystones along the southern boundary; the Phuntsholing series (mid-Palaeozoic), comprising mostly folded successions of purple phyllites, quartzites and silicon limestones with epidiozite sills along the length of the park; and the Buxa series (Permo-Triassic), represented by isolated formations of feldspar, sandstone, phyllites and slates with coal. Soil of the Bhabar formation lies over mixed layers of boulders and gravels along the foothills. Recent alluvial deposits cover the floodplain, above which are older soils of brown loam and sandy loam (Lahan, 1986). 65 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Climate The climate is governed by the south-east monsoon which lasts from late May until mid-September. Annual rainfall is about 3000 mm. Mean monthly temperatures range from 4°C to 28°C (Lahan, 1986). Vegetation Three zones can be recognised: tropical (below 1,000 m), subtropical (1,000—2,000 m) and montane (2,000—3,000 m), within which occur a variety of vegetation types (Lahan, 1986). Tropical semi-evergreen forests are found in the foothills along the southern boundary and occur in well-drained soils of the hill slopes up to altitudes of 760 m or more. Important species are Phoebe hainesiana, Eugenia spp., Castanopsis spp., Michelia spp., Elaeocarpus spp., Tetrameles nudiflora, Ailanthus grandis, Quercus spp., and Schima wallichii. East Himalayan moist mixed deciduous forests occur between 500 m and 650 m in lower areas. Typical species are: Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. reginae, Sterculia villosa, Bombax ceiba, Schima wallichii, Careya arborea, Amoora wallichii, A. rohituka, Terminalia myriocarpa, Pterospermum acerifolium, Duabanga sonneratioides, Ailanthus grandis and Chukrasia tabularis. Subtropical wet forests cover the hill slopes from about 1,000 m to 2,000 m. Typical species are: Betula alnoides, Castanopsis spp., Cedrela toona, Albizia spp., Schima wallichii, Alnus nepalensis and Engelhardtia spicata. Fresh alluvial deposits along the river banks are colonised by grasses, such as Saccharum spontaneum, S. arundinaceum, Imperata cylindrica, I. arundinacea, Erianthus filifolius, and succeeded by woody pioneer species, such as Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo. The drier soils of the Bhabar formation support tall reed grasses, such as Phragmites karka, Saccharum ravennae and Typha elephantina. A preliminary list of the flora is given by Lahan (1986). The former Namgyal Wangchuk sector contains evergreen and semi-evergreen forest and extensive areas of fire climax savannah woodland in the south. Dry mixed deciduous hill forest and evergreen/semi-evergreen forest occurs along the watercourses in the north. Much of the forest in the south is degraded as a result of past exploitation and fire (Blower, 1986). Fauna Manas contains an interesting variety of mammals including golden leaf monkey Trachypithecus geei (R), recently discovered and endemic to the Bhutan/India border region, wolf Canis lupus (V), wild dog Cuon alpinus (V), tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard P. pardus (T), clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), golden cat Felis temmincki (1), Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E), water buffalo Bubalus bubalis (V) and nowhere else present in Bhutan (Blower, 1986), gaur Bos gaurus (V) and hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus (E). Otter Lutra sp., wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, hog deer Cervus porcinus, spotted deer C. axis, sambar C. unicolor, and serow Capricornis sumatraensis are also present (Jackson, 1981). Ganges dolphin Platanista gangetica is still reported to occur in the Manas River. Populations of golden leaf monkey, wild boar, muntjac, sambar and gaur appear to be healthy but little sign of tiger and rhinoceros was found in 1985-6 (Blower, 1986). In 1988 there were reported to be 30 tigers in the park (Dorji and Santiapillai, 1989). The golden leaf monkey population is estimated to total at least 100 individuals (Santiapillai, 1988; Subba, 1989). A small herd of water buffalo was seen by the Gobarkunda River in September 1985 (J.H. Blower, pers. comm.). Elephant occurs in small groups, which are subject to seasonal movements and are probably to be found mostly in the hills to the north in the dry season (Blower, 1986). Pygmy hog Sus salvanius (E) has not been recorded (Blower, 1986) although it does occur on the Indian side of the international border. Gharial Gavialis gangeticus (E) used to be present but is now probably extinct. An apparently unsuccessful attempt was made to reintroduce this species a few years ago (Blower, 1986). Santiapillai (1988) provides tentative estimates of certain large mammal populations based on a limited survey. 66 Bhutan The avifauna is rich and includes both plains and hill species, as well as migrants (Jackson, 1981). A wide variety of waterfowl has been recorded, including cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, great white egret Egretta alba, grey heron Ardea cinerea, black stork Ciconia nigra, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, teal Anas crecca, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, and merganser Mergus merganser. Ibisbill Ibidorhyncha struthersii is a regular winter visitor in small numbers. Resident birds include Asiatic stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, lesser adjutant stork Leptoptilos javanicus, water cock Gallicrex cinerea, great stone-curlew Esacus recurvirostris, and spur-winged lapwing Vanellus spinosus. Faunal lists are given in Lahan (1986) but that for the avifauna is based on records for Manas Tiger Reserve in India. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population About 100 people resided in the former Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (Jackson, 1981). There are old established settlements on the Kakulong River in the south, and at Udigaon and Shilingtot in the north. There is more recent encroachment in the valley of the Udang Nadi, near the northern boundary, and on the Chaimari River in the eastern extension, where a further area of about 100 ha was recently cleared and settled by Sharchops people. They have apparently been permitted to remain there, together with their livestock which are grazed further into the sanctuary. There is one village, Chengba, in the former Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Reserve. This lies on the Sukuntaklai River (Blower, 1986). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Manas has considerable tourist potential but receives few visitors and hardly any foreign tourists due to the difficulty of access, which involves a lengthy detour through India for which Restricted Area Permits are requested. To obviate this difficulty, the Wildlife Division has begun constructing a fair-weather road between Galypug and Manas Headquarters to provide direct access. The Bhutan Tourist Corporation manages an attractively-sited, three-bedroomed guest house at Manas Headquarters (Blower, 1986; Santiapillai, 1988). Scientific Research and Facilities Scientific studies are limited to preliminary status surveys of the wildlife (Dorji and Santiapillai, 1989; Subba, 1989). There are no scientific facilities. Conservation Value Manas is the richest of Bhutan’s protected areas and, together with India’s Manas Sanctuary, forms a trans-frontier reserve of immense importance for the conservation of many rare and threatened plants and animals (Blower, 1986). It is also an important staging and wintering area for waterfowl (Scott, 1989). Conservation Management Agreement was reached in 1974 between Bhutan and India for joint management of the adjacent Bhutanese and Indian Manas properties. Under the aegis of the Directorate of Project Tiger, India, a management plan for Bhutan’s Manas was prepared for the period from 1975-6 to 1978-9 (Anon., 1979) but the joint management agreement has since been allowed to lapse (Jackson, 1981). Subsequently, a master development plan was prepared under an FAO consultancy (Lahan, 1986), in which it was recommended that Manas should be amalgamated with Namgyal Wangchuk and developed as a national park. This recommendation has since been implemented. The establishment of an intensive use zone, covering 5% of the area, buffer 67 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya zones on the eastern and western flanks, and a wilderness zone, covering the rest, has been proposed as the basis of management (Lahan, 1986). Removal of shifting cultivation and agricultural settlement (including the sugarcane plantation on the Kakumari River, the recent settlement on the Chaimari River and in the Udang Nadi), boundary adjustments (e.g. to exclude Chengba Village) and demarcation, an increase in staff and the provision of essential equipment (including vehicles and radios), are all urgent requirements (Blower, 1986), some of which are receiving attention (Santiapillai, 1988). Other recommendations are outlined by Santiapillai (1988). Management Constraints Owing to its original establishment as a royal hunting reserve, the former Manas Wildlife Sanctuary is the only protected area in the south of Bhutan which has not been extensively exploited and where the natural ecosystem remains relatively intact. Nevertheless, there has been some encroachment, particularly in the north. To date, the Army Welfare Association has cleared 500 ha of forest on the west bank of the Kanamakra River for a sugarcane plantation. This is in direct contravention of the National Forest Policy and, apart from the serious damage to the habitat, the sugarcane inevitably attracts elephants, which the army then wants to shoot to protect its crop (Blower, 1988). This project is running at a loss and the Army Welfare Association would consider abandoning it if adequately compensated (Santiapillai, 1988). Other problems include poaching (mainly from across the Indian border but also from the Sharchops settlements), the deliberate setting of fires, and theft of timber, particularly the valuable agar wood Aquilaria agallocha which is used in medicine and for making incense (Blower, 1986). A proposal by the Indian Government to build two dams in the upper reaches of the Manas and Sankosh rivers for flood control and electricity production has been rejected. The former dam would have had a serious impact on the whole Manas ecosystem, completely altering the hydrology of the region at the expense of the wildlife (Jackson, 1981; CNPPA, 1985). Staff Prior to the amalgamation of Manas and Namgyal, the total complement was 55 field staff. Manas had a warden of forest ranger rank, two foresters and 16 wildlife guards, in addition to mahouts, boatmen and other administrative personnel. Namgyal Wangchuk was under the charge of the warden at Manas, with a field staff consisting of a forester and three guards stationed at Kanamakra (Lahan, 1986). Budget The total budget for the Southern Wildlife Circle in 1984—5, which administered 10 (including Manas and Namgyal Wangchuk) of Bhutan’s 12 protected areas, was Nu. 1,287,000 (US $ 107,350). Additional support is being received from WWF (Santiapillai, 1988). Local Addresses Warden, Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, c/o Forest Department, PO Box 130, Thimphu References Anon. (1979). A management plan of Bhutan Manas Tiger Reserve 1975-6 to 1978-9. Director of Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan, Thimphu. Unpublished. Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. CNPPA (1985). Another dead dam. IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas Members Newsletter 33. Dorji, D.P. and Santiapillai, C. (1989). The status, distribution and conservation of the tiger Panthera tigris in Bhutan. Biological Conservation 48: 311-19. 68 Bhutan Jackson, P. (1981). Conservation in Bhutan. Unpublished. 15 pp. Lahan, P. (1986). Report on ecological reconnaissance of Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Reserve, and Phipsoo Wildlife Reserve and an outline master development plan for the reserves. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. Field Document no. 9. FAO, Rome. 110 pp. Royal Government of Bhutan (1974). Creation of wildlife sanctuaries, parks/forest reserves. Department of Forestry, Thimphu. 12 pp. Santiapillai, C. (1988). Management of the proposed Royal Manas National Park, Bhutan. WWE, Gland, Switzerland. 24 pp. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Subba, P.B. (1989). The status and conservation of the golden langur (Presbytis geei Khajuria, 1956) in the Manas National Park, Bhutan. Tiger paper 16(4): 16-18. WWE/YIUCN Project no. 1022. Operation tiger, Bhutan, Manas Tiger Reserve. MOCHU WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.03.01 (Bengalian Rainforest) Geographical Location Lies on the Indian border, from where it extends northwards to the crest of the first range of Himalayan foothills. It is bounded by the Samatung and Sankosh rivers to the east and west, respectively, (Royal Government of Bhutan, 1974). 26°42’—26°51’N, 89°56’-90°12’E Date and History of Establishment Established as Mochu Reserved Forest on 1 November 1974 (Notification no. TIF-11/74) but, subsequently, referred to in all official cgmmunications the area as the Phipsoo Wildlife Reserve (Lahan, 1986). Created a wildlife reserve in 1984. Area 27,843 ha. Contiguous with Kachugaon Game Reserve in Assam, India (Lahan, 1986). Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 180 m to 400 m on the south and south-eastern portions to 600 m to 1,200 m in the north. Physical Features The southern portion is undulating, rising abruptly northwards to steep ridges separated by deep rocky gorges that drain either north and west to the Sankosh or southward. A prominent feature of these watercourses is the number of natural salt licks, where mineralised soil has been exposed by erosion of the river banks. The main geological formations are: the Siwalik series (Miocene-Pliocene), consisting of bedded sandstones and grey to green claystones along the southern boundary; the Phuntsholing series (mid-Palaeozoic), comprising mostly folded successions of purple phyllites, quartzites and silicon limestones with epidiozite sills along the length of the reserve; and the Buxa series (Permo-Triassic), represented by isolated formations of feldspar, sandstone, phyllites and slates with coal. Soil of the Bhabar formation lies over mixed layers of boulders and gravels 69 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya along the foothills. Recent alluvial deposits cover the floodplain, above which are older soils of brown loam and sandy loam (Lahan, 1986). Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal, governed by the south-east monsoon which lasts from late May until mid-September. Annual rainfall is about 3000 mm. Mean monthly temperatures vary from 4 °C to 28 °C (Lahan, 1986). Vegetation Three zones can be recognised: tropical (below 1,000 m), subtropical (1,000-2,000 m) and montane (2,000—3,000 m), within which occur a variety of vegetation types (Lahan, 1986). Tropical semi-evergreen forests are found in the foothills along the southern boundary and occur in well-drained soils of the hill slopes up to altitudes of 760 m or more. Important species are Phoebe hainesiana, Eugenia spp., Castonopsis spp., Michelia spp., Elaeocarpus spp., Tetrameles nudiflora, Ailanthus grandis, Quercus spp., and Schima wallichii. Sal forests occur along the lower slopes in the southern boundary. East Himalayan moist mixed deciduous forests occur between 500 m and 650 m in lower areas. Typical species are: Lagerstroemia parviflora, L. speciosa, Sterculia villosa, Bombax ceiba, Schima wallichii, Careya arborea, Amoora wallichii, A. rohituka, Terminalia myriocarpa, Pterospermum ascerifolium, Duabanga sonneratioides, Ailanthus grandis and Chikrassia tabularis. Sub-tropical wet forests cover the hill slopes from about 1,000 m to 2,000 m. Typical species are: Betula alnoides, Castanopsis spp., Cedrella toona, Albizia spp., Schima wallichii, Alnus nepalensis and Engelhardtia spicata. Fresh alluvial deposits along the river banks are colonised by grasses, such as Saccharum spontaneum, S. munja, Imperata cylindrica, I. arundinacea, Erianthus filifolius, and succeeded by woody pioneer species, such as Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo. The drier soils of the Bhabar formation support tall reed grasses, such as Phragmites karka, Brianthus ravanae and Typha elephantina. A preliminary list of the flora is given by Lahan (1986). The southern part was heavily logged some 20 years ago when there was a sawmill at Phipsoo. Accessible slopes have been denuded and sal Shorea robusta trees of exploitable girths have been removed. There are some 800 ha of forest plantations owned by the Forest Department (Blower, 1986; Lahan, 1986). Fauna Large mammals include substantial numbers of the locally endemic golden leaf monkey Trachypithecus geei (R) at the western extremity of its range, rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, wild dog Cuon alpinus (V), tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard P. pardus (T), Asiatic black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, hog deer Cervus porcinus, sambar C. unicolor, and gaur Bos gaurus (V). Spotted deer C. axis is reportedly an infrequent visitor from the Indian side of the border. There is also a rich avifauna (Blower, 1986). Faunal lists are given by Lahan (1986) but that for the avifauna is based on records from Manas Tiger Reserve in India. A wide variety of waterfowl is found in the flood plains of the Sankosh River. Species include cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, great white egret Egretta alba, grey heron Ardea cinerea, black stork Ciconia nigra, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, teal Anas crecca, mallard A. platyrhynchos and merganser Mergus merganser. Resident waterbirds include Asiatic stork Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, lesser adjutant stork Leptoptilos javanicus, water cock Gallicrex cinerea, great stone-curlew Esacus recurvirostris, and spur-winged lapwing Vanellus spinosus (Scott, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information 70 Bhutan Local Human Population § There are several villages, mostly in the south-west near the Sankosh River, but including Pinkhua with 25 houses on the southern border and Phipsoo with 17 houses. All of these communities cultivate land and graze cattle extensively in the reserve (Blower, 1986). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The reserve contains viable populations of several large mammal species and is also important as habitat for the golden leaf monkey. The marshes of the Sankosh River are an important staging and wintering area for waterfowl (Scott, 1989). Conservation Management Although not meriting national park or nature reserve status, Mochu (Phipsoo) has traditionally been protected as a royal hunting reserve. Mochu warrants protection as a wildlife sanctuary, subject to revision of its western boundary to exclude those villages near the Sankosh River (Blower, 1986). At present, cattle are allowed to be grazed within a | km radius of villages (Lahan, 1986), but this concession would appear to be infringed. Management Constraints In addition to various forms of exploitation by local communities, there is reported to be extensive poaching by armed gangs from the Indian side of the border. This probably accounts for the apparent paucity of wildlife in the lowland areas (Blower, 1986). Staff The present complement is 42 field staff, consisting of one warden of forest ranger rank, four foresters and 16 wildlife guards, plus mahouts and other administrative personnel (Lahan, 1986). Budget The total budget for the Southern Wildlife Circle in 1984-5, which then administered 10 (including Mochu) of Bhutan’s 12 protected areas, was Nu. 1,287,000 (US $ 107,350). Local Addresses Deputy Director of Forests, Southern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry, Sarbhang ; References Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Lahan, P. (1986). Report on ecological reconnaissance of Manas Wildlife Sanctuary, Namgyal Wangchuk Wildlife Reserve and Phipsoo Wildlife Reserve and an outline master development plan for the reserves. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. Field Document no. 9. FAO, Rome. 110 pp. Royal Government of Bhutan (1974). Creation of wildlife sanctuaries, parks/forest reserves. Department of Forestry, Thimphu. 12 pp. 71 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya NEOLI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Extends from the valley of the Bar Nadi, near Bhangtar township, eastwards along the border with India to the Neoli Khola, and northwards to the valley of the Dighlai Nadi. Approximately 26°49’-26°53’N, 91°32’-91°38’E Date and History of Establishment 13 February 1984 Area 4,000 ha. Contiguous with Barnadi Sanctuary (2,622 ha) in Assam, India.. Land Tenure State Altitude Approximately 200 m to 700 m Physical Features The area is very broken, with steep-sided ridges separated by narrow winding stream valleys and rocky gorges. Most streams are seasonal although some, including the southward-flowing Nalpara and Koila Kata, are perennial. There are some natural salt licks to which the wildlife is attracted. Climate No information Vegetation Forest cover consists of dry mixed deciduous hill forest with much bamboo in some areas, and semi-evergreen forest along the watercourses (Blower, 1986). Fauna Pygmy hog Sus sylvanius (E), which is not known from elsewhere in Bhutan, is reported to occur in Neoli and the adjacent Barnadi Sanctuary. Other large mammals are reported to include langur Presbytis entellus, tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard P. pardus (T), Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, sambar Cervus unicolor, gaur Bos gaurus (V), and wild boar Sus scrofa (Blower, 1986). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population There are three small villages in the western and southern parts of the sanctuary and a number of cattle camps both in the south, along the Indian border, and in the north. The sanctuary is heavily settled on all sides (Blower, 1986). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The sanctuary was established primarily for the protection of the rare pygmy hog (Blower, 1986). 72 Bhutan Conservation Management In view of its importance for pygmy hog, it is essential that Neoli be maintained as a wildlife sanctuary and protected more effectively than at present. Demarcation of boundaries, removal of cattle camps, the provision of an adequate guard force and a status survey of the pygmy hog and other wildlife, are all priorities (Blower, 1986). Management Constraints There is some encroachment and other forms of human disturbance, with extensive poaching from the Indian side of the border and illegal felling of timber. The forest is much degraded in areas near settlements (Blower, 1986). Staff None Budget The total budget for the Southern Wildlife Circle in 1984—5, which then administered 10 (including Neoli) of Bhutan’s protected areas, was Nu. 1,287,000 (US $ 107,350). Local Addresses Deputy Director of Forests, Southern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry, Sarbhang. References Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. SHUMAR WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 4.09.04 (Burma Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Lies on the Indian border about 10 km east of the eastern boundary of Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and extends as far east as Samdrup Jongkhar township. Approximately 26°46’-26°57’N, 91°20’-91°32’E. Date and History of Establishment 13 February 1984 Area 16,000 ha. Lies adjacent to Dungsum Wildlife Reserve (18,000 ha). Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from about 300 m on the Indian border in the south to over 2,000 m in the north. Physical Features Broken hilly country Climate No information Vegetation Little of the original forest remains, apart from a few remnants on hilltops (Blower, 1986). 73 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Fauna Tiger Panthera tigris (E), Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E), wild boar Sus scrofa, sambar Cervus unicolor, and gaur Bos gaurus (V) are present and there is an interesting variety of birdlife (Blower, 1986; Mahat, n.d.). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Several villages and cattle camps occur within the boundaries, and shifting cultivation is practised extensively. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value There seems to be little justification for Shumar’s designation as a wildlife reserve rather than reserved forest, in view of the degraded state of most of the remaining forest and the extensive encroachment (Blower, 1986). Conservation Management It has been recommended that Shumar should be redesignated as reserved forest and be given high priority for demarcation and reafforestation under the Forest Department’s planting programme (Blower, 1986). Management Constraints Encroachment from shifting cultivation and domestic livestock is widespread. The Indian Army artillery range at Parkejuli, on the southern boundary, adds further to the general disturbance (Blower, 1986). Staff One beat officer and two guards are stationed at a guard post on the southern boundary (Blower, 1986). Budget The total budget for the Southern Wildlife Circle in 1984-5, which then administered 10 (including Shumar) of Bhutan’s 12 protected areas, was Nu. 1,287,000 (US $ 107,350). Local Addresses Deputy Director of Forests, Southern Wildlife Circle, Department of Forestry, Sarbhang References Blower, J.H. (1986). Nature conservation in Bhutan: project findings and recommendations. FO: DP/BHU/83/022. FAO, Rome. 55 pp. Mahat, G. (n.d.). A study tour of forest belt in southern Bhutan. Department of Forestry, Thimphu. Unpublished. 10 pp. THRUMSING LA NATIONAL FOREST IUCN Management Category Proposed Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) 74 Bhutan Geographical Location Lies south of Jakar in east-central Bhutan and comprises several watersheds between the Mangda Chu in the west and Kuru Chu in the east. Thrumsing La (3,780 m) is the pass by which the road from western Bhutan to Mongar and Tashigang crosses the watershed. Approximately 27°20’ N, 90°55’E. Date and History of Establishment Mostly classed as reserved forest’ Area No information Land Tenure Land is mostly state owned, but subject to customary rights of grazing and collection of forest produce(?). Altitude Up to about 5,000 m. Physical Features In the west, the area is drained by the Ghizam Chu which, below its confluence with the Bumthang Chu, flows through a deep gorge. The watershed between the Bumthang Chu and Mangda Chu rises to a series of rocky peaks at 4,000 m to 5,000 m. Eastwards from the crest of the main watershed on which lies Thrumsing La, the terrain falls away steeply to the beautiful valley in which lies Sengor village and beyond it the valley of the Kuru Chu. Climate No information Vegetation The higher slopes of the Thrumsing La watershed are mostly covered with fir Abies sp., and rhododendron Rhododendron sp. understorey. Lower down are mixed conifers including Cupressus, blue pine Pinus wallichiana, spruce Picea sp., and hemlock Tsuga dumosa. Relatively undisturbed broad-leaved forest occurs along both sides of the Bumthang Chu (Blower, 1989). Fauna Little specific information is available. Wild boar Sus scrofa and Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak are present, and probably Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, and sambar Cervus unicolor (Blower, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population There is no settlement in the main watershed itself, which is too high. The nearest villages are Ura on the western slope and Sengor on the eastern slope, both lying at about 3,350 m. There are pastures on the Wantha La (3,750 m), a western spur of the main watershed between the Ura and Ghizam valleys, and in the lower Ghizam Valley. Visitors and Visitor Facilities None. Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value Contains relatively undisturbed tracts of coniferous and temperate broad-leaved forest which, in central Bhutan, is not represented in the existing protected areas network (Blower, 1989). 75 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Conservation Management Under the proposed new legislation, it is recommended that Thrumsing La be established as a strictly protected national forest in which limited exploitation of timber and other forest produce would be allowed (Blower, 1989). Management Constraints There is a proposal to log the Thrumsing La area under a project to be financed by the Austrian government. This forest lies on a major watershed at 3,500 m to 3,800 m where the soil is relatively unstable, as is evident from the unhealed erosion scars and landslips remaining from the construction of the road there some 20 years ago (Blower, 1989). Staff None. Budget None. Local Addresses None References Blower, J.H. (1989). Nature conservation in northern and central Bhutan. FO: BH/85/016. FAO, Rome. 48 pp. 76 CHINA Area 9,597,000 sq. km Population 1,119.9 million (1990) Natural increase 1.4% per annum GNP US $ 300 per capita (1988) Policy and Legislation Nature conservation is incorporated in Articles 9, 10, 22 and 26 of the new constitution adopted on 12 December 1982 in which it is stipulated that, “The State protects the environment and natural resources and prevents and eliminates pollution and other hazards to the public’. The Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China, adopted in principle as Decree no. 2 at the eleventh meeting of the Standing Committee of the Fifth National People’s Congress on 13 September 1979, was passed on 26 December 1989 by China’s National People’s Congress (Anon., 1990). The law comprises seven chapters and 33 articles covering nature conservation areas, forests, grasslands, historic sites and scenic spots. In Article 15 the need to protect, develop and rationally utilise wildlife and wild plant resources is noted, and protection extended to rare animals and precious trees. Articles 6 and 7 of the law make provision for environmental impact assessments to be instigated by the Environment Protection Bureau and other relevant departments. The first nature reserves were declared in 1956 under Proposal no. 92 passed at the Third Conference of the First National People’s Congress (Yuging, 1987). Under this proposal both the State Council and the provinces and autonomous regions may designate nature reserves, and declare non-hunting areas and closed seasons within them. National and provincial nature reserves are classified into six types according to the administrative system, ecological character of the area and the objectives of protection. The first type is directed towards preservation of natural ecosystems; the second towards protection of rare or endangered fauna; the third towards protection of rare relict plants and special types of vegetation; the fourth towards conservation of natural landscapes; the fifth towards preservation of special geological sections and geomorphological features; and the sixth towards protection of the natural environment and natural resources of the coastline (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). The criteria used in the selection of nature reserves include the degree of naturalness, biological diversity, rarity and size of the area. Lucas (1987) differentiates between national nature reserves and provincial nature reserves, the latter being created at the provincial level of government (see Annex). Of the national nature reserves, a selected number have historically held an additional title which is more precisely transliterated from the Chinese as ‘key’ national nature reserves, a practice which continues to date. This tends to cover those under the jurisdiction of the iY Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Ministry of Forestry and entitles them to obtain central government funding. National nature reserves can be zoned into core, buffer and experimental areas. Articles 4, 11, 20 and 21 of the Forest Law of 1979 provides for the establishment of forest reserves and reserves (see Annex), the management and administration of forests and prevention of hunting in forests (Richardson, 1990). In 1982, a Marine Environmental Protection Law was adopted, covering a wide range of issues and is administered by the Environmental Protection Department under the State Council. In 1983, there were proposals for coastal zone protection legislation, aimed at conserving mangrove forests in south-east China (UNEP/IUCN, 1988). International Activities The Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) was ratified on 12 December 1985 and three natural sites have since been inscribed on the World Heritage List. There are currently seven Unesco Man and Biosphere reserves, three designated in 1979, one in 1986, two in 1987 and one in 1990. Co-operative efforts in nature conservation were agreed between the US and China under a special protocol signed in 1986. Earlier, in 1979, WWF signed an agreement on co-operative activities including natural resources management, environmental policy and legislation. There is also a bilateral agreement (1981) covering migratory species between China and Japan. China and Nepal have both established protected areas on their respective sides of Mount Everest (Sagarmatha/Chomolangma). Management plans are being formulated under co-operative agreements with the Woodlands Mountain Institute in the case of both countries. Administration and Management The Ministry of Urban and Rural Reconstruction and Environmental Protection (an amalgamation of various offices and commissions, including the Environmental Protection Office) shares responsibility with the Ministry of Forestry for the management of nature reserves (Ratcliffe, 1982). The Environmental Protection Office (also referred to as the Environmental Protection Bureau or Agency) was set up by the State Council under the Environmental Protection Law in 1979 and covers nature conservation and protected areas, while the Bureau of Surveying and Mapping deals with research. The Environmental Protection Office supervises the implementation of legislation concerning environmental protection as well as having scientific and educational roles. In 1986 it had 10 divisions, with bureaux in 324 cities, employing 30,000 people, of which 7,000 were research workers (Thornback, 1986). The Chairman of the Environmental Protection Office is the Vice-President of the Republic. The Commission for Nature Conservation (a part of the Environmental Protection Office) is responsible for the coordination of national and international conservation activities, and for reviewing nature conservation resources. The People’s governments of the 22 provinces, five autonomous regions and three municipalities are obliged to establish environmental protection bureaux under the Law. In the counties, autonomous counties and prefectures, environmental protection organisations may be set up (Anon., n.d.). The Ministry of Forestry retains responsibility for co-ordinating protection of all protected areas located on forest lands (estimated to be 90% of the total). The Ministry of Forestry functions as an economic ministry operating at state level below the planning and economic commissions. The Ministry is responsible for research (through the Academy of Forestry), education (at three universities and four colleges), and the administration of state forestry throughout China. It administers nature reserves and ‘forest farms’ (through the Forest 78 China Department) covering 50 million ha. The provincial arm of the Ministry replicates that at the centre, including research and training activities, which is maintained in simplified form at district (prefecture and county) levels. In Heilongjiang, forest production is overseen by a quasi-autonomous Forest Industries Bureau (Richardson, 1990). A master plan has been prepared for the entire 29,500 sq. km range of the giant panda (MacKinnon, 1989a) and management plans for major reserves under a WWF/China joint agreement, which also provides training for Chinese reserve staff. In addition, there is specialist training in wetland management and education project work. Datian Nature Reserve was added to the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas List of Threatened Protected Areas of the World in November 1990 due to the declassification of 25% of the reserve for cattle ranching purposes. Fu Tien Nature Reserve was removed from the list in 1988 after the proposal for a new airport had been dropped. Nature reserves are maintained in near natural conditions as far as possible and are extensively used for research and as resources of plant genetic material (Ratcliffe, 1982), but many lack adequate funding and trained personnel (MacKinnon, 1989b). Systems Reviews China’s topography ranges from high mountains, undulating plateaux and rolling hills to broad basins and plains. In the west, the relief is high and steep, while in the east it is low and flat. The Qinghai-Tibet plateau in the west comprises a series of east—west aligned mountains ranging in altitude between 5,000 m and 8,848 m, and includes the Himalaya of which Qomolangma (Mount Everest) is a part. The three main rivers flowing across China are the Yellow (Huang), Yangtze (Chang) and Amur (Heilong). Much of China experiences a monsoon climate due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, but conditions become much drier in the west (Ji et al., 1990). Tropical evergreen rain forest occurs in the lowlands of Yunnan and Guangdong Provinces and on the eastern side of Hainan Island. Along the southern coast of China are mangrove forests. Temperate deciduous forests and subtropical broad-leaved deciduous forests exist on limestone in the tropical and subtropical zones of the south. Various types of subarctic coniferous forests (taiga) and cold temperate mixed forests are found in the north. The most extensive tracts of natural forest are in the north-east and in the south-western provinces of Sichuan and Yunnan. Much of western China, the vast plains of the north-east and Inner Mongolia, is arable land. Northern Dongbei is mostly steppe grassland. Fuelwood cutting, overgrazing and deforestation has left little primary forest, even in remote areas and steep terrain. In 1980, forests and woodlands accounted for 58 million ha, grassland and pasture 778 million ha, and croplands 134 million ha (Repetto, 1988). According to FAO (1988) natural forest covers 115,047,000 ha (12% of total land area). Smil (1983) estimates that China has lost 24% of its forested area since 1949. Other comparisons between natural forest cover in the 1950s and the 1980s reflect decreases from 52% to 35% in north-eastern provinces; from 54% to 21% in southern Yunnan Province; and from 20% to 12.5% in mid-western Sichuan Province (ADB, 1987). Initiatives to establish a wildlife preservation programme were interrupted during the Cultural Revolution from 1966 to 1976, when conservation practices were abandoned and protected areas misused. The protected areas network has expanded progressively from 45 nature reserves in 1979 (Wang Huen-pu, 1980), to 73 in 1981 and 273 in 1984 (Boswell, 1983). According to Forest Department statistics, by 1986 there were 333 nature reserves covering a total area in excess of 19,330,000 ha (2.0%) of China. Of these, 31 are ‘key’ national nature reserves. By the end of 1989, there were 600 protected areas of various kinds covering 79 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya 3% of the country (Chongqi, 1991). Much of the work associated with developing the protected areas network has been carried out at the local level through universities or local branches of the National Academy (Lucas, 1987). Soil erosion is a major problem in China with 50 billion tons of soil washed away annually due to the degradation of the natural vegetation. An associated problem is desertification, which is increasing at a rate of 6,660 sq. km per year.. Another problem facing China is pollution from improper discharge of waste water, waste gas and industrial residues (Ji et al., 1990). Acid rain in the south is being caused by coal burning (Smil et al., 1982). A comprehensive national plan to improve land management and increase afforestation, drafted in 1985, has led to extensive planting schemes covering nearly four million sq. km in the border desert regions (Richardson, 1990). Addresses Division of Nature Conservation (Director), National Environmental Protection Agency, Ministry of Urban and Rural Construction and Environmental Protection, 115 Xizhimennei Nansciaojie, Beijing (Tel. 86 1 8992211; T1x: 22477) Forest Department (Director), Ministry of Forestry, Hepingh, Beijing (Tel. 86 1 22237) References Anon. (n.d.). The Environmental Protection Law of the People’s Republic of China (For Trial Implementation). 32 pp. ADB. (1987). Environmental and natural resources briefing profile, People’s Republic of China. Asian Development Bank, Manila. 11 pp. FAO. (1988). An interim report on the state of forest resources in the developing countries. FAO, Rome. 18 pp. Anon. (1990). Governments: China.. Bruntland Bulletin. P. 33. Boswall, J. (1983). Visit to China. Unpublished. 10 pp. Chongqi, L. (1991). Nature reserves in China. Tiger Paper 18: 2-5. Ji, Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W., and Jialin, X. (1990). The Natural History of China. Collins, London. 224 pp. Lucas, B. (1987). Notes on trip to China. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 4 pp. MacKinnon, J. (1989a). National conservation management plan for the giant panda and its habitat. China Alliance Press, Hong Kong. 157 pp. MacKinnon, J. (1989b). The selection of nature reserves in China. Paper prepared for Beijing Pheasant Symposium. 4 pp. Ratcliffe, D.A. (1982). Philosophy and practice of nature conservation in China. Nature Conservancy Council, London. Unpublished. Pp. 34-44. Repetto, R. (1988). The forest for the trees ? Government policies and the misuse of forest resources. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. P. 4. Richardson, S.D. (1990). Forests and forestry in China. Island Press, Washington, DC. 352 pp. Smil, V., Goodland, R., and Toh, G. (1982). _The People’s Republic of China: Environmental Aspects of Economic Development. World Bank, Washington, DC. 76 pp. Smil, V. (1983). Deforestation in China. Ambio 12: 226-31. Thornback, J. (1986). Report of a visit to China 22 June—5 July. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Unpublished. 7 pp. UNEP/IUCN (1988). Coral Reefs of the World. Vol. 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK/UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya. 329 pp. Wang Huen-pu (1980). Nature Conservation in China: the present situation. Parks 5(1): 1-10. 80 China Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. Pp. 11-16. Xuezhi, X. (1987). Wildlife management in China. Paper presented at International Conference on Wildlife Conservation in China, 14-19 July, Beijing. Pp. 153-61. Yuging, W. (1987). Natural conservation regions in China. Ambio 16: 326-31. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities r responsible for their administration. Title (English title): Proposal no. 92 passed at the Third Conference of the First National People’s Congress. Date: 1956. Brief description: Provides for the declaration and classification of nature reserves. Administrative authority:. Division of Nature Conservation, Ministry of Urban and Rural Reconstruction and Environmental Protection Designations: — National nature reserve -Preserves the flora and fauna in their original state. — Designated by the State Council Provimcial nature reserve — Designated by the provincial government Source: Yuging 1987 Title (English title): Forestry Act. Date: 1979, amended 1984 Brief description: Provides for the establishment and administration of forest reserves. Administrative authority: Forest Department, Ministry of Forestry Designations: Forest reserve — Designated for the protection of typical forest ecosystems and forests of great value. Reserve — Designated areas for the protection of rare and precious animals, as well as their habitats and breeding grounds. Source: Richardson (1990) 81 Existing China Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Summary. of Protected Areas of China National/International designation Name of area and map reference* Gansu Province Nature Reserves Annanba Anxi Gobi Desert Meadow Baishu River Changling Mountain Dongda Mountain Gahai* Ganhaizi* Great Suhai Lake Guozhagou 10 Hei River 11 Kontong Mountain 12 Lesser Suhai Lake 13 Liangucheng 14 Lianhua Mountain 15 Maichogou 16 Shoulu Mountain 17. Tou’ersantan 18 Xinglong Mountain 19 Yanchiwan OMmANANKHNDUNFWN Subtotal (% total land area) Qinghai Province Nature Reserves 20 Bird Island (Niao Dao)* 21 Longbao* 22 Mengda Subtotal (% total land area) Sichuan Province (western)* Biosphere Reserves 34 Wolong Nature Reserve* Nature Reserves 23 Fengtongzai 24 Gar Qu 25 Huanglongsi 26 Jinfo Mountains 27 Laba River 28 Mabian Dafengding 29 Meigu Dafengding 30 Tangjiahe* IUCN Management Category Area (ha) IV IV IV 53,000,000 72,100,000 53,550 10,000 9,544 73,094 c.33,000,000 207,210 (2.5%) (0.1%) Year notified 1982 1985 1963 1980 1980 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1982 1980 1982 1982 1982 1975 1984 1980 1979 1978 1963 1983 1979 1963 1978 1978 1978 National/International designation Name of area and map reference* 31 32 33 34 Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu Autonomous Region IUCN Management Category Tiebu Tukou Cycas Wanglang* Wolong* Subtotal (% total land area) Biosphere Reserve 54 Bogdhad Mountain Biosphere Reserve* Nature Reserves 35 Xizang Zizhiqu Autonomous Region A Er Jin Shan (Arjin Mountains)* Bayanbulak* Black Bees Bulgan River Bunge Ash Chinese Walnut Fuhai Jengsetas Ganjia Lake Hanas* Huocheng Kalamaili Mountain Lake of Heaven Mount Tomur Naz-Quelute Qitai Schrenk Spruce Tacheng Tarim Taxkorgan* Tianchi Urumdi Geological Subtotal (% total land area) Nature Reserves Gang Jiangcun* (now part of 60) Medog* Pagyi Qomolangma* Zayu Zham (now part of 60) Subtotal (% total land area) Ix 85 Area (ha) 23,000 310 27,700 200,000 457,910 (1.4%) 164,680,000 217,000 4,512,000 100,000 5,000 1,400 1,180 9,767 1,042,000 250,000 35,000 1,700,000 38,069 100,000 16,400 12,333 28,000 1,500 387,000 1,500,000 38,063 200,000 9,978,612 (6.1%) 122,160,000 4,600 62,620 8 3,500,000 101,400 3,668,628 (3%) China Year notified 1965 1983 1963 1975 1985 1985 1985 1985 1989 1985 1985 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya National/International designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference Category (ha) notified Yunnan Province 43,620,000 Nature Reserves 63 Ailao Mountain IV 50,360 1986 64 Baima Mountain IV 180,000 1983 65 Bitahai* IV 14,133 1984 66 Cangshan Erhai IV 70,000 1981 67 Daxue Mountain IV 15,787 1986 68 Dialin Mountain IV 613 1984 69 Erhai Lake IV 24,976 = 70 Gaoligong Mountain IV 123,333 1983 71 Haba Mountain IV 21,907 1984 72 Heaven Lake IV 6,667 1983 73 Huanglian Mountain IV 13,835 1983 74 Jizu Mountain IV 2,000 1983 75 Kunming IV 143,000 1981 76 Long Mountain IV 54 1986 77 Lugu Lake IV 8,127 1986 78 Nangun River IV 7,000 1980 79 Napahai* IV 2,067 1984 81 Pudu River . IV 11 1984 82 Songhuaba IV 60,000 1981 83 Stone Grove IV 9,000 1981 84 Tianchi IV 7,000 1981 85 Tongbiguan IV 34,160 1986 86 Wuliang Mountain IV 23,353 1986 87 Xishuangb:nna* IV 207,000 1958 88 Yulong Mountain IV 26,000 1984 Subtotal (% total land area) 1,425,816 (3.3%) TOTAL Nature reserves (% total land area) 16,989,241 (3.5%) + Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompaning map. * Site is described in this directory. # Comprises Aba (Ngawa) Zangzu Zizhizhou, Garze Zangzu Zizhizhou, Leshan, Wenjiang, Xichang and Yaan counties. 86 China A ER JIN SHAN (ARJIN MOUNTAINS) NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category Absolute Conservation Zone: I (Strict Nature Reserve) Relative Conservation Zone: IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.23.08 (Tibetan) Geographical Location The reserve is located within the Bayan Gor Autonomous District of Ruogiang County. It is situated in the extreme south-east corner of the region bordering Xizang Zizhiqu Autonomous Region (Tibet) to the south and Qinghai Province to the east. The northern border follows the Chimen Tagh Mountains and the western border extends to the Chimen Tagh mountains. The nearest town is Ruogiang, approximately 150 km to the north (340 km by road). 36°14’—37°53’N, 87°22’-91°20’E. Date and History of Establishment Declared a national nature reserve in March 1985 by the State Council, Beijing. Previously notified a nature reserve by the State Council of Xinjiang Uygur Zizhiqu Autonomous Region in May 1983, having first been proposed as a conservation zone in 1979. In July 1983 the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) established a regional administration office in Ruogiang and a first checkpost at Duckspring. Area 4,512,000 ha. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 3,100 m in the northern valleys of the reserve to 7,725 m at the summit of Mount Muztag in the south-west corner. There are more than 100 peaks over 5,000 m. Physical Features The reserve consists of a series of mountain ranges, generally rising to 5,000—6,000 m, and intervening valleys lying at 3,100-4,600 m. The major mountain ranges are Chimen Tagh in the north and a section of the Kunlun Shan, stretching from Achik Lake in the central-west to the south-east of the reserve. Large alluvial fan and apron deposits are extensive in the valleys; Aeolion deposits in the form of sand dunes and blankets are also common. There are active dunes south of Yixiekepati Lake and eastwards from there to Karquka Lake; these rise 300 m above the valley floor. The geology of the reserve is poorly known and geological maps are not available. In other parts of the reserve, such as the Karton area, dunes have been stabilised by vegetation. The reserve is located on the nothern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, which was formed during orogenic events beginning in the Mesozoic period 120 million years ago. Being furthest north, the reserve was one of the first areas to emerge from the Tethys Sea and it continues to rise at perhaps several centimetres per year. A band of limestone bedrock, containing early-stage karst features, extends south-east from Achik Lake along the Arka Tagh. Igneous intrusions are noted in the Karton Karquka areas. It has been suggested that Muztag is a volcanic peak, although this is disputed. Hot springs, which are usually associated with igneous activity, may occur in the southern part of the reserve. Drainage is primarily into two internal basins: Achik Lake in the west and the other, including Ayak Kum Lake, in the east and north. Smaller drainage basins occur in the 87 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya south-east and along the northern boundary. River and stream flow is seasonal, with daily variation occurring when influenced by glacial melt. There are five large lakes in the reserve: Achik and Ayak Kum are brackish, Yixiekepati and Karquka are fresh, and the fifth, on the south-central border, is partly fresh and partly salt. The two salt lakes are shrinking, probably having attained a maximum size during the Pleistocene. There are many glaciers at high altitudes in the Chimen Tagh and Kunlun Shan, those on Mount Muztag being the most extensive and spectacular (Butler et al., 1986). Climate Conditions are continental, arid and cold. Mean annual temperature at lower altitudes is probably about 0 °C. Summers are cool, typically with daily maxima of 7-9 °C and daily minima of —2 °C to 2 °C in July at the lowest altitudes. Winters are very cold. Total annual precipitation, which occurs mostly in summer, is estimated to be 100-200 mm at the lowest altitudes (Butler et al., 1986). Vegetation Ten vegetation types have been recognised. 1. Wet saline meadow is dominated by Elymus secalinus and Achnatherum splendus. These meadows occur near springs, lakes and rivers in the northern and eastern parts of the reserve. 2. Wet marshland meadow occurs around springs, lakes and rivers in eastern and southern parts. Dominant species are Carex spp. and Blysmus sp. 3. Sand hills vegetation is found in the central part and is dominated by Carex moorcroftii, Trisetum spicatum, Stipa basiplumosa, and Elymus spp., with Salsola spp. on moist lower slopes. 4. Low semi-shrub desert is found at 4,050—4,200 m in northern and eastern valleys and is dominated by Salsola abrotanoides. 5. Cold desert, dominated by Salsola abrotanoides and Ceratoides compacta, occurs on low hills at 4,200—-4,350 m in the north and north-east parts. This is a transition zone between low semi-shrub desert below and very cold desert above. 6. Very cold desert occurs on mountain slopes above 4,350 m and is dominated by Ceratoides compacta. 7. Desert grassland, dominated by Stipa glareosa and Salsola abrotanoides, is found in eastern and central parts on low hills and valley bottoms at 4,050-4,200 m. 8. Cold, dry grassland (steppe) is dominated by Stipa glareosa and occurs in the central region at 4,200-4,350 m. 9. Very cold grassland occurs in central and eastern parts, at 4,200-4,400 m and is dominated by Stipa glareosa, Carex spp., Leontopodium sp., Potentilla sp., Artemisia sp., and Astragalus sp. 10. High mountain herb mat occurs at 4,400-5,000 m on mountain slopes in the central part. It is dominated by Leontopodium sp., Potentilla sp., Aster sp., Astragalus sp., Poa sp., Gogen sp., and Arenaria monticola (Butler et al., 1986). The flora currently consists of more than 240 species and contains elements of both Central Asian Desert and Tibetan Plateau floras, but taxonomists have found possibly half a dozen new species in the reserve and more are likely. A preliminary list of vascular plans is given in Butler et al., 1986. A more complete list is available from Professor Cui Nai Ran at Xinjiang Normal University, Urumqi. No studies have been made of lichens or bryophytes. Fauna Consists of Central Asian species, most prominent in the north, and Tibetan Plateau species which are most common in the south. Of the ungulates, the most numerous species are: Tibetan antelope Pantholops hodgsoni, with an estimated 70,000—100,000 distributed throughout the reserve; Tibetan wild ass Equus hemionus (V), with an estimated 30,000 fairly evenly distributed; and wild yak Bos grunniens (E), with over 10,000 mostly in the south. There are also some 10,000 bharal Pseudois nayaur, and similar numbers (less than 10,000) of Tibetan gazelle Procapra picticaudata and argali Ovis ammon hodgsoni. The presence of ibex Capra sibirica has not been confirmed although the species occurs just to the north in the Chimen Tagh. Carnivores include wolf Canis lupus (V), brown bear Ursus arctos, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), steppe cat Felis manul, and lynx F. lynx. Other mammals include 88 dAIOSOY oNIeN (uIejUNO|, ulf1y) UeYS UL 10 VY Aepunog jeuoz = = = = a seceecccee Asepunog aviasay Auepunog |22)!|(0 === cam 0989 are cam, . Ne es = 2» oo oe” one pore ree ae J Buay ueqepeyng ** dene aOR Ea a as Eas weseeeee jUNe~eWa & he Lo N.”n 1 ° N ‘ ( ee NOILVAYASNOD Sa-e at aANaSae ALMIOSEV NH [0xyx!bby SNIVLNNOW i” eos JAILV 14a ; ae PE NITY a INOZ NOILVAYISNOD IPE © o8E £8 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya four species of pika Ochotona spp., Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak, and five species of smaller rodents (Butler et al., 1986). The avifauna is similar to that of other east-west mountain ranges in Central Asia; its diversity (42 species recorded to date) is very much limited by the absence of trees and the extensive nival zone with perpetual snows. A high degree of endemism at the subspecies level is expected because of the isolation and climatic-geological history of the area. The high altitude grasslands contain a distinct group of species with restricted distributions, such as desert wheatear Oenanthe deserti, lesser short-toed lark Calandrella ‘rufescens, and long-billed calandra lark Melonocorypha maxima, which are confined to western China, Tibet and Inner Mongolia. Many Palaearctic birds are likely to migrate through the reserve en route to and from wintering grounds on the coastal plains. Of special concern is the black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (V), which formerly bred in wet meadows near Yixiekepati Lake but appears to have been displaced by shepherding activities. Other threatened species are cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus (V) and Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus (R) (Butler et al., 1986). Only one reptile, lizard Phrynocephalus vilangaalii has been recorded and currently no amphibians are known to be present. An unidentified snake and toad Bufo sp. have been recorded near Ruogiang. More than 250 species of insects are known from the reserve, based on collections made in 1984. One new species and two new subspecies have been described, and perhaps ten other new species are under investigation (Butler et al., 1986). A list of fauna, excluding invertebrates, is given by Butler et al., 1986). Cultural Heritage Stone tablets have been found in the Karton area near Dadu Dam and in the mountains to the east. The tablets are inscribed with an old form of Tibetan. Other features include carved stones, cairns, stone rings and a Kazakh cemetery from at least the 19th century located 30 km south-east of Earthen House. Local Human Population Nearly 60% of Xinjiang’s 13 million population are members of national minorities. Prominent in and near the reserve are the Uygurs and Kazakhs, who are Muslims and of Turkic descent (Butler et al., 1986). There is no information on the number and size of settlements within the reserve. Mongyaichen, an asbestos mine and mill, is the closest community to the reserve (140 km by road). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve is accessible by road and there are tracks within it suitable only for four-wheel drive vehicles. There are no visitor facilities and it is unlikely to cater for tourists in the near future. Visitors require a permit from the EPA (Butler et al., 1986). Scientific Research and Facilities Before the establishment of the reserve, no systematic scientific studies had been conducted and the only information was anecdotal, mainly from travellers’ accounts. These include Nikolai Przewalski (1879-80), Gabriel Bonvalot and Prince Henri d’Orleans (1889), Roborovski (1890), Jules Dutriel de Rhins (1893), George Littledale (1895-6), Sven Hedin (1900-1) and Ella Maillart and Peter Fleming (1935). Following its establishment, the EPA made at least one field trip each summer. Extensive collections and observations were made in 1984 by scientists from universities and institutes; a film ‘Scenes of the Arjin Mountains Nature Reserve’ was also made that year. The breeding 90 China biology of the bar-headed goose in the reserve has been studied by Liu Wei, based at Ruogiang EPA office in 1986. In July 1986, an IUCN/WWF China joint expedition made an inventory of the resources in the reserve and advised on planning and management (Butler et al., 1986). Planned studies include research on the vegetation, animal numbers and migration patterns, rodents, karst landform distribution, collection of climatic data and cultural sites. Conservation Value The reserve is the highest and largest protected area in China, with a wide range of physical and biological features that are of international significance. Furthermore, the area has been little disturbed by human activities.. To date, it is the only protected area in the northern region of the Tibetan Plateau (Butler et al., 1986). Conservation Management The reserve is currently divided into two zones: a large absolute conservation zone, in which all types of use, except authorised scientific research, are prohibited; and a smaller relative conservation zone, in which a variety of human uses are permitted, in addition to resource protection. The main resource use in the relative conservation zone, in the north-eastern corner of the reserve, is pastoralism. This occurs primarily in the Yixiekapati Lake area where there were an estimated 20,000 animals in July 1986. Steps are being taken to reduce this population, in view of possible conflict with native species. It has been recommended that the reserve should be nominated as a biosphere reserve (Butler et al., 1986). Management Constraints Grazing by domestic livestock, the primary impact, needs to be properly controlled in the relative conservation zone. Vast areas of the reserve are not patrolled regularly due to the limited administrative facilities. Given the difficult access, this is not a major deficiency at present. Staff No precise information Budget No information. Local Addresses Managing Bureau, Arjin Mountains Nature Reserve, Xinjiang EPA, Ruogiang, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region References Butler, J., Achuff, P. and Johnston, J. (1986). Arjin Mountains Nature Reserve, Xinjiang Management Recommendations and Resource Summary. TUCN/WWF China Joint Expedition, 1986. IUCN/WWF Gland, Switzerland. 59 pp. BAYANBULAK NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed nature reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) 91 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Geographical Location Located in the Yurdus Basin of Hejing County, 200 km north-west of Kuerle. The reserve is difficult to reach, being accessible only by two rough trails. 42°50’N, 84°00’E. Date and History of Establishment Approved as a nature reserve in 1980 by the Regional People’s Government in Document 101 (Anon., n.d.), and officially established in 1981 (Xiyang, 1988). Area_ 100,000 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 2,430 m to 4,800 m. Physical Features Occupies the Yurdus Basin which is surrounded by the snow-capped Tian Shan whose peaks rise up to 4,800 m. The basin is vast and flat, and includes a complex of small freshwater lakes, ponds and marshes fed by numerous rivers and streams from the surrounding hills which drain east through a gorge into Bosten Hu and Bo Hu marshes (Jianjian, 1989). Climate The climate is distinctly influenced by the topography of the basin and the Tian Shan, with cold air currents descending from-the mountains. Summers are short (June to August) but warm, with temperatures averaging 10 °C and reaching 20 °C in July (Yusheng, 1984). Mean annual temperature is -4.7 °C, with no more than 12 frost-free days during the year. Winters are long and extremely cold with temperatures as low as —20° C (Xiyang, 1988). Mean annual rainfall is 276 mm (Yusheng, 1984). Vegetation The lakes support reed-beds dominated by Phragmites communis and sedge marshes dominated by Carex muliensis (Jianjian, 1989). Other species found near the waters edge include Typha latifolia, bulrush Scirpus validus, and sorrel Rumex spp; submerged plants occur in the lake (Xiyang, 1988). In the surrounding areas, the vegetation is predominantly grassland (Yusheng, 1984) because trees and shrubs are unable to tolerate the extreme climatic conditions. Notable species include Scirpus tabernaemontani and nut grass, on which swans feed (Xiyang, 1988). Fauna Mammals include grey wolf Canis lupis (V), and corsac fox Vulpes corsac (K) which preys on the waterfowl. The avifauna totals 72 species including, cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus (V), whistling swan Cygnus columbianus, mute swan Cygnus olor, whooper swan Cygnus cygnus which occurs in large numbers, white-bellied sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster, black stork Ciconia nigra, bar-headed goose Anser indicus, brown-headed gull Larus brunnicephalus, mallard Anas platyrhynchos, common redshank Tringa totanus, great egret Egretta alba, and common crane Grus grus which uses the reserve as a breeding, staging and wintering area (Xiyang, 1988). Cultural Heritage About 200 years ago the area was inhabited by a Mongolian tribe. The swans are believed by the local people to be angelic symbols of loyalty and good fortune, which is an important factor in their protection. Local Human Population Due to the inaccessibility of the reserve, the area is sparsely populated mostly by Mongolian herdsmen (Yusheng, 1984). 92 China Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities A team of scientists from Xinjiang Institute of Biology, Sand and Soil Sciences surveyed the avifauna in 1987 (Yusheng, 1984). There are no scientific facilities. Conservation Value The reserve provides an important source of freshwater for the surrounding area, as well as for waterfowl, particularly swans (Jianjian, 1989). Conservation Management There are regulations against the hunting and removal of swans from the reserve (Xiyang, 1988). The Environmental Protection Agency supervises the running of the reserve but it is administered by the Bazhou Forestry Department (Jianjian, 1989). Regular patrols are made around the lake to ensure that swans are not disturbed by either human activity or predators, especially during the moulting period (Yusheng, 1984). The local police are actively involved in the protection of swans by generating publicity and by investigating cases of harrassment (Xiyang, 1984). Management Constraints There have been a number of cases in which cygnets have been removed from within the boundaries of the reserve (Xiyang, 1984). Staff No information Budget No information. Local Addresses No information. References Jianjian, L. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 249-50. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. P. 185. Xiyang, T. (1988). Living Treasures. An odyssey through China’s extra ordinary nature serves. Pp. 95-106. Yusheng, W. (1984). The real swan lake—a bird sanctuary. China Reconstructs, August: 8-11. BIRD ISLAND (NIAO DAO) NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.22.08 (Takla-Makan-Gobi Desert) Geographical Location The reserve is one of five islets lying furthest in the west in Qinghai Lake, which is situated on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau of Gangchu County, 90 km west of Xining. 36°59’N, 99°51’E Date and History of Establishment Niao Dao Nature Reserve was approved in 1975 by the Provincial Revolutionary Committee (Orr, n.d.). 93 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Area_ The reserve was enlarged from 7,850 ha to its present size of 53,550 ha in 1975. Land Tenure Provincial government Altitude 3,185 m Physical Features Bird Island is connected to the mainland by a narrow isthmus of marshes and salt flats. The reserve incorporates part of the lake in an inland drainage system surrounded by bare salt flats, shingle and sand beaches. Along the south-western shore are brackish marshes and extensive wet meadows (Dehao et al., 1989). The lake is fed by the Boha and Shalu rivers, numerous streams and hot springs. Its soil is barren with pebbles and gravel deposits predominant (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). The lake has a high salinity of 12.49 grams per litre (Ji et al., 1990). Climate The influence of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau gives rise to arid, cold, windy conditions with little rainfall and high variations in daily temperatures (Wenhua and Xiangying, 1989). Winters are long and cold with temperatures falling to —-35 °C in January but little snowfall. Summers are short and hot, with most of the precipitation occurring during this period (Dehao et al., 1989). Vegetation Due to the climatic conditions, the vegetation is sparse and of low stature as the growing season is extremely short (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). There is no aquatic vegetation in the lake other than algae, while adjacent marshes are brackish with halophytic vegetation, or fresh with an abundant growth of emergents, such as Typha sp. Bordering the marshes are wet grasslands and a rich alpine meadow plant community, with low Salix scrub growing along the rivers. The surrounding area is grassy steppe, with some stunted woodland on north-facing s!opes (Dehao et al., 1989). Fauna _ Bird Island is an extremely important breeding area for a number of waterfowl including 500 pairs of great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo, 2,300 pairs of bar-headed goose Anser indicus, 6,500 pairs of brown-headed gull Larus brunnicephalus, several hundred pairs of ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, common coot Fulica atra, Kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus, great black-headed gull Larus ichthyaetus, and smaller numbers of great-crested grebe Podiceps cristatus, gadwall Anas strepera, mallard A. platyrhynchos, spotbill duck A. poecilorhyncha, northern shoveller A. clypeata, red-crested pochard Netta rufina, pochard duck Aythya nyroca, northern lapwing Vanellus vanellus, common redshank Tringa totanus and common tern Sterna hirundo. Small numbers of migranting black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R) spend the summer in the wet meadows by the lake and tiere is a breeding population of Pallas’s sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus (R). The reserve also supports 1,000—1,250 whooper swans Cygnus cygnus, teal duck Anas falcata, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, and goosander Mergus merganser. Swans arrive in October and stay until late March and early April. The lake is also used as a stop-over by migratory birds during spring and autumn; for example, in April 1986 over 1,000 bar-headed geese, 400 northern pintail, 150 common goldeneye, €00 ruddy shelduck, 2,000 tufted duck, and 25 smew were recorded. Migrants present during mid-May 1987 included lesser sand plover Charadrius mongolus, wood sandpiper Tringa glareola and Temminck’s stint Calidris temminckii, plus small numbers of six other species of shorebirds (Dehao et al., 1989). The only known species of fish in the lake is naked carp Gymnocypris przewalskii (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information 94 China Local Human Population Several villages occur on the lakeshore. The area is also used by nomadic pastoralists from the region. Fishing and domestic livestock grazing takes place inside the reserve. Outside the reserve, hunting and the removal of birds eggs for human consumption is widespread (Dehao et al., 1989). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve attracts a large number of both national and foreign visitors each year. Extensive new visitor facilities, including observation hides, were built in 1987 (Dehao et al., 1989). Scientific Research and Facilities Biologists from the North-West Plateau Institute of Biology in Xining have been involved in research on the lake, its meadows and wildlife. In 1983, the National Bird Banding Centre began ringing waterfowl, especially Anser indicus and Larus brunnicephallus. Liao et al. (1984) have studied the behaviour of Larus ichthyaetus. Located at the reserve headquarters is the Bird Island Management Research Station, constructed in 1987 (Dehao et al., 1989). Conservation Value Bird Island is an important wetland for waterfowl, as well as being a valuable natural laboratory for scientific research (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). It is economically important for fishery and tourism (Dehao et al., 1989). Conservation Management The reserve is supervised by the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing, but is administered locally by the Agriculture and Forest Department of Qinghai Province (Anon., 1986), who maintain a Wildlife Management Office on site (Dehao et al., 1989). No management plan currently exists. Management Constraints Overgrazing of marshes and meadows has reduced nesting habitat for waterfowl (Dehao et al., 1989). The lake is over-fished: all unlicensed fishing needs to be stopped (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Agriculture and Forestry Department, Xining, Qinghai Province References Anon. (1986). Chinese wetland inventory. China Wildlife Conservation Association, Beijing. Unpublished. 2 pp. Dehao, L., Jianjian, L., Olsson, U., Robson, C., Scott, D.A., Xiao-di, Y. and Zhi-yen, Z. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 236-8. Ji, Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W. and Jialin, X. (1990). The natural history of China. Collins, London. P. 106. Orr, I. (n.d.). Some Chinese reserves. Unpublished report. P. 3. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. Pp. 106—7. 95 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya BITAHAI NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve). Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Szechwan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated in the Hengduan Mountains of Zhongdian county, 20 km east of Zhongdian and 245 km north of Xiaguan. 27°46’N, 99°54’E Date and History of Establishment Established in 1984 as a nature reserve. Area 14,133 ha, of which 159 ha comprises a lake and associated marshes. Land Tenure Provincial government Altitude 3,540 m Physical Features Bitahai is a small, shallow, freshwater lake with associated marshes, fed by streams and run-off from the north-south orientated Hengduan Mountains (Scott, 1989). Climate Conditions are temperate and montane, with a mean annual precipitation of 620 mm and a mean annual temperate of 5.4 °C (Scott, 1989). Vegetation The lake and marshes are surrounded by mountains which support coniferous forests (Scott, 1989). Species include spruce Picea asperata, firs Abies sp., and Rhododendron spp. (Ji et al., 1990). Fauna The avifauna includes black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R), with over 100 recorded, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, common pochard Aythya ferina, and tufted duck A. fuligula which uses the lake as a wintering area. Fish species found in the lake include Brachymystax lenok (Scott, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The lake is fished and surrounding pastures, both inside and outside the reserve, are grazed (Scott, 1989). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Studies on the fauna and flora have been carried out by biologists from Yunnan Forest Department (Scott, 1989). Conservation Value The reserve’s alpine coniferous forests and waterfowl are characteristic of the region (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). The lake is an important source of water for surrounding areas. It also provides opportunities for scientific research, conservation education and nature tourism (Scott, 1989). 96 China Conservation Management Bitahai was initially set up to protect the coniferous forests in the region, but it now includes the wetland. Hunting is prohibited. The reserve is locally administered by the Yunnan Forest Department. A comprehensive management plan is being prepared. Proposals include the setting up of an environmental education centre in the reserve (Scott, 1989). Management Constraints Excessive fishing and grazing are threatening the wetlands within the reserve (Scott, 1989). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Yunnan Provincial Forestry Bureau, Kunming, Yunnan Province References Ji, Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W. and Jialin, X. (1990). The natural history of China. Collins, London. Pp. 144-6. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. P. 233. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. P. 187. BOGHDAD MOUNTAIN BIOSPHERE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IX (Biosphere Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) 2.22.08 (Takla-Makan-Gobi Desert) Geographical Location Lies in Fukang County, Changji Hui Autonomous Prefecture, about 50 km north-east of the city of Urumqi. 43°50’-44°30’N, 87°45’-88°0S’E Date and History of Establishment Designated as a biosphere reserve in 1990. It comprises Tian Chi Nature Reserve, Reaumuria Reserve and part of Haloxylon ammodendron Reserve. Various parts of the reserve are protected under national or provincial legislation (MAB China, 1990). Area 217,000 ha, comprising a core area of 15,000 ha, a buffer zone of 173,000 ha and a transition area of 29,000 ha (MAB China, 1990). Land Tenure Tian Chi Nature Reserve is state owned and an area is also owned by the Academia Sinica (MAB China, 1990). Altitude Ranges from 450 m to 5,445 m. 97 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Physical Features The altitude decreases fairly uniformly from south to north, with the snow- and ice-covered Boghdad Mountain at one extreme and the Kurbantonket and Sacsaoul deserts on the lower, northern edge. Boghdad is the highest peak in the eastern part of the Tian Shan and is on the edge of the Zhungeer Basin desert. Three main rivers drain the area, including the Sangonghe River which flows from Tian Chi (heavenly) Lake. These rivers peter out in a number of distributaries at the edge of the desert. The region was glaciated four times during the Quaternary. Rocks have also been subjected to strong upwarping in the Permian, Jurassic, Cretaceous and Quaternary. Quaternary deposits, at least 300 m thick, have accumulated on the plains and there are also deposits of loess. The plains have mainly saline and desert soils (MAB China, 1990). Climate Conditions are arid, continental of the temperate zone. Annual precipitation is over 700 mm in the mountains but only 150 mm in the plains. At 1,911 m a mean annual precipitation of 530 mm has been recorded. Evaporation can be as high as 1960 mm per annum. Maximum mean temperature of the warmest month is 25.8°C and minimum mean temperature of the coldest month is —19 °C (MAB China, 1990). Vegetation Below the snow and ice region of the peak there are alpine meadows with Festuca, Stipa, Rosa alberti, and Artemisia. Forests below this are dominated by Picea schrenkiana. The main species planted or managed for forestry are poplar Populus diversifolia, elm Ulmus pumila, and Eleagnus angustifolia. Desert vegetation is sparser but includes Reaumuria, and Haloxylon ammodendron in areas of dunes. Nationally threatened species which have been recorded include Saussurea involucrata, Fritillaria walujewii, Haloxylon ammodendron, and H. persicum (MAB China, 1990). Fauna’ An estimated 21 species of mammals have been recorded. Internationally or nationally threatened species include brown bear Ursus arctos, marten Martes foina, otter Lutra lutra, lynx Felis lynx, Pallas’s cat F. marul, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), Sikkim stag Cervus elaphus, Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus (V), E. przewalskii (Ex?), Gazella subgutturosa, Capra sibirica, argali Ovis ammon, and saiga antelope Saiga tatarica. Among the birds are black stork Ciconia nigra, black kite Milvus migrans, long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus, European sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus, booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus, griffon vulture Gyps fulvus, European hobby Falco subbuteo, common kestrel F. tinnunculus, and Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis (MAB China, 1990). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Very few people live in the core area but there are several hundred in the buffer zone, some of whom are nomadic. About 120,000 live in the transition area (MAB China, 1990). Visitors and Visitor Facilities There are about 500,000 visitors per year (MAB China, 1990). Scientific Research and Facilities There are 30 research staff supported by eight technical staff. Academia Sinica has the Fukang Desert Ecosystem Research Station which is managed by Xinjiang Institute of Biology, Pedology and Desert. Foreign scientists also participate in research at this site. An integrated study involving the effects of population and resource use on the environment in the Sangonghe Valley is planned. Sustainable grazing and artificial improvement of grassland is being studied in the buffer zone. It is hoped that a botanic 98 China garden of economically useful desert plants can be set up, as well as a facility for breeding wild animal species, particularly Saiga tatarica and Equus przewalskii, for return to the wild (MAB China, 1990). Conservation Value The reserve is typical of the eastern part of the Tian Shan Mountains and extends over a wide altitude range (5,000 m), from snow and ice zones, through alpine meadows and various forest communities to desert at the foot of the mountains. The fauna is varied and includes several threatened species. Conservation Management The reserve is zoned into core, buffer and transition areas (MAB China, 1990). Management Constraints Wood-cutting and animal husbandry, particularly grazing of the alpine meadows, are the major disturbances in the core area and grazing by domesticated sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, and camels in the desert areas. A variety of crops (cereals, melons, alfalfa, and hops), are cultivated in the desert, contributing to the destruction of Haloxylon ammodendron and Reaumuria, the former species being scarce in Xinjiang. There is tourist activity in the forested parts, and oil and gas developments in the buffer zone (MAB China, 1990). Staff Total of 60, including 30 for administration, protection and resource management, six for education and training, and 30 for research (MAB China, 1990). Budget RMB 6 million Local Addresses Boghdad Mountain Biosphere Reserve, Xinjiang Institute of Biology, Pedology and Psammology, Beijing Road, Urumqui, Xinjiang 830011 References MAB China (1990). Boghdad Mountain Biosphere Reserve. Biosphere Reserve Nomination Form. GAHAI NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Szechwan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated on the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, 240 km south-west of Lanzhou, in the extreme south of Gansu Province. 34°12’N, 102°20’ Date and History of Establishment Established as a nature reserve in 1982. Area 3,500 ha Land Tenure The wetland is state owned; surrounding areas are under collective ownership. 99 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude Ranges from 1,200 m to 3,320 m Physical Features The wetland lies on a small plain almost entirely surrounded by peaks, some of which attain 4,150 m. Local run-off and ten springs feed a complex of shallow, freshwater lakes and marshes which drain north into the Tao He, a tributary of the Yellow River (Huang Ho). Water levels remain stable throughout the year, with a maximum depth of 1.2 m and pH of 8.6 (Jianjian, 1989). Soils are mostly podzolic with alpine meadow soils occurring at higher elevations (Richardson, 1990). Climate Mean annual temperatures is 1.1 °C, ranging from 10.5°C in July to -9.9 °C in January. Mean annual rainfall is 637 mm (Jianjian, 1989). Vegetation The area surrounding the wetland is covered in steppe vegetation. The wetland supports algae and wet alpine meadows (Jianjian, 1989). Fauna The reserve, and especially the wetland, supports a large number of mammals, avifauna and fish species. Mammals comprise European otter Lutra lutra (V) and marmot Marmota sp. Birds include great cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo (400 recorded), whooper swan Cygnus cygnus (110), greylag goose Anser anser, bar-headed goose A. indicus, Anas Spp., common crane Grus grus, black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R), and ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea (1,000) (Jianjian, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Land is not used inside the reserve but domestic livestock graze in the surrounding areas (Jianjian, 1989). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. Scientific Research and Facilities Studies have been made on the behaviour of black-necked crane. The reserve has basic research facilities (Jianjian, 1989). Conservation Value The reserve is an important wetland, noted for its birds. Of botanical interest is the rich alpine meadow flora (Jianjian, 1989; Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management A number of regulations have been drawn up by the local government to control waterfowl hunting and protect their habitats (Jianjian, 1989). The Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing supervises the running of the reserve (Achuff et al., 1986) but it is administered locally by the Gansu Forest Department (Anon, 1986). A number of measures have been proposed for the management of the reserve by the Zhangzhu Autonomous Prefecture Congress, which include the improvement of research facilities and the development of a summer resort for the encouragement of nature tourism (Jianjian, 1989). Management Constraints None (Jianjian, 1989) Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Gansu Forest Department, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 100 China References Achuff, P., Butler, J.. Maw, R. and Johnson, J. (1986). Heilongjiang, China—Alberta Canada, Scientific Exchange 1986, concerning: Wildlife, parks and nature reserves. University of Alberta. P. 5. Anon. (1984). Chinese wetland inventory. China Wildlife Conservation Association, Beijing. Unpublished. 2 pp Jianjian, L. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands D. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 235-6. Richardson, S.D. (1990). Forests and forestry in China. Island Press. Pp. 80-3. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press. P. 162. GANHAIZI NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.22.08 (Takla-Makan-Gobi Desert) Geographical Location Lies on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, 75 km north-east of Yumen City in north-western Gansu Province. 40°24’N, 98°03’E Date and History of Establishment Ganhaizi Nature Reserve was established in 1982. Area 300 ha Land Tenure Provincial government Altitude 1,203 m. Physical Features The reserve is part of an inland drainage system amidst sandy plains and consists of a small, permanent, brackish lake and riverine marshes. The lake is fed by a small river. It is maintained at a mean depth of 1 m for most of the year by local run-off and underground water sources, but during the wet season the water level rises by 1 m to 2 m. The pH of the lake is 9.0 (Jianjian, 1989). Climate Conditions are semi-arid and continental, with a mean annual precipitation of 618 mm falling mostly during the wet summer season. Summers are usually hot with a maximum temperature of 36.7 °C, while winters are cold with a minimum temperature of —28.7 °C (Jianjian, 1989). Vegetation Reed beds of Phragmites communis are predominant, with Salix and other shrubs in the surrounding areas (Jianjian, 1989). Fauna Feeding species of waterfowl include great crested grebe Podiceps cristatus, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, great egret Egretta alba, grey heron Ardea cinerea, spotbill duck Anas poecilorhyncha, and common pochard Aythya ferina (Jianjian, 1989). The goitred gazelle Gazella subgutturosa (E) is present. 101 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The reserve is uninhabited (Jianjian, 1989). - Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities There are no research facilities (Jianjian, 1989). Conservation Value The reserve is an important breeding area for over 20 species of waterfowl, as well as gazelle (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management The reserve is administered locally by Yumen City Forestry Department under the supervision of the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing. Hunting and cultivation are prohibited. Proposals include plans for the construction of research facilities. There is no management plan (Jianjian, 1989). Management Constraints Illegal hunting occurs within the reserve (Jianjian, 1989). Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Yumen City Forestry Department, Yumen City, Gansu Province References Jianjian, L. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands. 1UCN, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. P. 236. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. P. 162. HANAS NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed nature reserve). Biogeographical Province 2.30.11 (Mongolian-Manchurian steppe) Geographical Location Centred on the Altay Mountains in Burgin County, approximately 130 km north of Burgin. 48°25’N, 86°50’E Date and History of Establishment Established in 1980 on approval by the Regional People’s Government in Document 167 (Orr, n.d.). Area 250,000 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,500 m to 3,000 m. 102 China Physical Features Comprises the southern slopes of the Middle Range, formed by the continuous process of faulting and upheaval. Glaciation has created a number of lakes within the reserve, including Hanas Lake in the north-west of the Altay Mountains formed during the Quaternary period (Ji et al., 1990). Soils include chestnut and grey forest types, depending on altitude (Richardson, 1990). Climate Conditions are generally cold, with mean annual air temperature between 3 °C and 4°C. Summers are short. Annual precipitation ranges from 250-350 mm at 1,500 m to 500 mm at 1,500—3,000 m, creating fairly humid conditions (Ji et al., 1990). Vegetation Due to severe conditions, a coniferous deciduous forest (light taiga) predominates (Richardson, 1990). Species include many Siberian representatives such as Siberian larch Larix subirica, Siberian spruce Picea obovata, Siberian pine Pinus sibirica, and Siberian fir Abies sibirica. Other broad-leaf species are Swedish birch Betula verrucosa, David poplar Populus davidiana, and bay-leaf willow Salix pentandra, being of both commercial and scientific value (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Fauna Mammal species include snow leopard Panthera unica (E), lynx Felis lynx, red deer Cervus elaphus, sable Martes zibellina, ibex Capra ibex, argali sheep Ovis ammon, and Arctic hare Lepus timidus. Birds include capercaillie Tetrao spp., Eurasian hazel grouse Bonasia bonasia, and European black grouse Tetrao tetrix (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The reserve is largely inaccessible (Ji et al., 1990) and, therefore, has not been exploited (Richardson, 1990). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve has been virtually untouched by tourism due to its relative inaccessibility (Ji et al., 1990). Scientific Research and Facilities No information. Conservation Value The reserve lies in the main glacial region of China, and includes features such as Hanas Lake (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). It contains valuable examples of Siberian flora and fauna (Xiyang, 1988). Conservation Management The_aim of the reserve is to preserve the natural ecosystem (Yuqing, 1987). Administration of the reserve is supervised by the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing (Achuff et al., 1986). Management Constraints No information. Staff No information. Budget No information Local Addresses Chief, Division of Nature Conservation, National Environmental Protection Agency, Beijing. 103 References Achuff, P., Butler, J.. Maw, R. and Johnson, J. (1986). Heilongjiang, China—Alberta, Canada. Scientific exchange 1986 concerning: wildlife, parks and nature reserves. University of Alberta, Alberta. Unpublished. P. 5. Ji, Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W, and Jialin, X. (1990). The natural history of China. Pp. 40-1, 137. Orr, I. (n.d.). Some Chinese reserves. Unpublished. P. 4. Richardson, S.D. (1990). Forests and forestry in China. Island Press, Washington DC. Pp. 78-9. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. P. 76. Xiyang, T. (1988). Living treasures. An odyssey through China’s extraordinary nature reserves. P. 170. Yuqing, W. (1987). Natural conservation regions in China. Ambio 16: 326. Nature Reserves of the Himalaya : : JIANGCUN NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Located on the southern slopes of the Himalaya in Gyirong County. Access is by road from Lhasa to Gyirong and by track. 28°57’N, 85°12’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a nature reserve in 1985 but now forms part of Qomolangma Nature Reserve. Area 34,060 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,850 m to 3,000 m. Physical Features The reserve is bisected by the Gyirongzangbo River which runs from west to east and flows into Nepal. Yellow-brown soils are predkminant but at higher altitudes (2,000—3,000 m) medium humus-brown soil and soils formed from micacite, shale and gneiss are present (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Climate Wet and warm conditions prevail, with a mean annual temperature of 10 °C. Annual precipitation ranges between 900 mm and 1700 mm. Annual relative humidity exceeds 60% (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Vegetation Long-leaf pine Pinus palustris predominates at 1,850—2,600 m, being best suited to yellow-brown soils, and is mixed with Bhutan pine Pinus griffithii, oak Quercus tungmaiensis, and poplar Populus ciliata. On the forest floor, species are sparse with rhododendron, Lyonia ovalifolia, sumac Rhus punjabensis, cotoneaster Cotoneaster microphyllus, Elaeagnus umbellata, Desmodium, jasmine Jasminium humile, and bamboo. 104 China The herbaceous layer is poorly developed, with Apluda mutica and Streptolirion being the most common. Other less common herbs include, Asparagus filicinus, Polygonatum cirrhifolium, Smilacina oleracea, and Galium triflorum. Himalayan spruce occurs at 2,000 m to 3,000 m, mixed with oak and Bhutan pine. The lower forest layer is well-developed, with maples Acer caesium, A. campbellii, A. tetramerum, and Toxicodendron succedaneum. Shrubs include honeysuckle Lonicera japonica, jasmine Jasminium humile, Desmodium cotoneaster, Spiraea bella, Berberis sp., Pieris formosa, bamboo, and Viburnum. Herbs include Thalictrum macrorhynchum, Asparagus cochinchinensis, Geranium, Ophiopogon japonicus, and violet Viola philippica. Climbing vines include Himalayan creeper Parthenocissus himalayana, Smilax sp., Schisandra grandiflora, and ivy Hedera nepalensis (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Fauna Mammals include Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (V) and masked palm civet Paguma larvata. Birds include rufous-vented tit Parus rubidiventris, grey-crested tit P. dichrous, Tibetan snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus, and sunbirds Nectariniidae. Amphibians include tree frogs Rhacophoridae (Ji et al., 1990). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Gyirong lies within the reserve (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Wenhua and Xianying (1989) have made a preliminary study of the flora. There are no scientific facilities. Conservation Value The reserve is now part of Qomolangma Nature Reserve. It is important for long-leaf pine, a commercially valuable timber species (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management The reserve was supervised by the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing and administered locally by the Ministry of Forestry (Achuff et al., 1986). Overall authority now lies with the Working Commission of the Qomolangma Nature Reserve. A management plan is due to be completed in 1991 (Working Commission, 1991). Management Constraints _Indiscriminate felling has taken place (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Staff No information Budget No information : Local Addresses _ Director, Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Shigatse, Xizang Zizhiqu _ Autonomous Region. . : References _ Achuff, P., Butler, J., Maw, R. and Johnson, J. (1986). Heilongjiang, China—Alberta, Canada. | Scientific Exchange 1986 concerning: wildlife, parks and nature reserves. University of | Alberta, Alberta. Unpublished. P. 5. | 105 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Ji., Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W. and Jialin, X. (1990). The natural history of China. Collins, London. Pp. 70, 149. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. Pp. 125-7. Working Commission. (1991). The Qomolangma Nature Preserve of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The Working Commission, Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Unpublished. 61 pp. LONGBAO NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.23.08 (Tibetan). Geographical Location Situated on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau in Yushu County, 40 km west-north-west of Yushu, southern Qinghai Province. 33°10’N, 96°35’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a nature reserve in 1984 by the local government of Qinghai (Anon., n.d.). Area_ 10,000 ha. Land Tenure Provincial government. Altitude 4,200 m. Physical Features Longbao is a marsh (25 km by 2-3 km) lying in a high east-west oriented mountain valley, with adjacent peaks rising to 5,270 m. The marsh lies in an upper tributary of the Tongtian River, itself a tributary of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River). Numerous springs and streams supply the marsh. There are a number of freshwater ponds contain grassy islands - formed by wave action. The maximum depth of the ponds is 2.5 m, their bottoms being covered by a deep layer of silt (Zhi-yen, 1989). Climate Conditions are cold and dry due to the influence of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Diurnal variations in temperature are large, with temperatures in May and June varying from —12°C to 19 °C. Mean annual temperature is 5.0°C. Mean annual rainfall is less than 300 mm and mean relative humidity is 55% (Zhi-yen, 1989). Vegetation The alpine marshes and meadows support Cartex spp., Eleocharis sp., Polygonum sibiricum, Kobresia reyleana, K. tibetica, Primulailla amscrina, and Taraxacum spp. (Zhi-yen, 1989). Fauna The marsh has a rich fish and arthropod fauna, and is an important breeding area for waterfowl. Over 1,000 black-necked cranes Grus nigricollis (R) use the reserve as a breeding and staging area (Anon, n.d.). Some eight breeding pairs and ten non-breeding pairs remain in the reserve throughout the summer, while the others move to other breeding sites in the vicinity. The marsh is also an important breeding area for bar-headed goose Anser 106 China indicus: the population increased from several dozen breeding pairs in 1980 to 2,000 pairs in 1986. Other breeding species include great-crested grebe Podiceps cristatus, ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, goosander Mergus merganser, common coot Fulica atra, common redshank Tringa totanus, and common tern Sterna hirundo (Zhi-yen, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information. Local Human Population No information. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities A number of studies have been carried out on the breeding of black-necked crane (Zhi-yen, 1989). Conservation Value The reserve is particularly important for the protection of black-necked crane, and other species of waterfowl and their habitats (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management The reserve is administered locally by the Agriculture and Forestry Department in Qinghai Province under the supervision of the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing (Anon, 1986). No management plan exists for the reserve. Management Constraints None (Zhi-yen, 1989) Staff No information. Budget No information Local Addresses Agriculture and Forestry Department, Xining, Qinghai Province. References Anon. (n.d.). Fifteen new nature reserves for Qinghai Province. Xinhua. Anon. (1986). Chinese wetland inventory. China Wildlife Conservation Association, Beijing. ‘Unpublished. P. 1. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Language Press, Beijing. P. 178. Zhi-yen, Z. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 240-1. MEDOG NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve). Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated at the eastern edge of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, south-west of Mainling in Medog County. 29°20’N, 95°23’E 107 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Date and History of Establishment Designated as a nature reserve in 1985. Area 62,620 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 600 m in the valley bottoms to 7,756 m on the peaks over a distance of 45 km, with an mean altitude of 4,000 m on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. Physical Features The reserve encompasses Mount Namcha Barwa and part of the Yarlungzangbo River on the windward slopes of the Himalaya. The valley of the Yarlungzangbo River lies below 800 m and is flanked by mountain slopes. Scree slopes formed near the mountain peaks and ridges by continual erosion and weathering are devoid of soil (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Elsewhere, soils are predominantly podzolic, merging with alpine meadow soils (including lithosols and tundra soils) at higher altitudes (Richardson, 1990). Climate Temperature and precipitation are influenced by the windward slopes of the Himalaya exposed to the south-west monsoon, radiation from the Qinghai-Tibet plateau and the east-west mountain range to the north of the plateau acting as a buffer to cold air currents. The terrain influences temperature within the valleys: for every 100 m rise in altitude there is a corresponding decrease of 0.58 °C in the mean annual temperature. The temperature is generally higher than other areas at the same latitude and altitude in south-east China. Below 800 m, the mean annual temperature reaches 20 °C, while that for the coldest month does not fall below 13 °C. Between 2,400 m and 3,800 m the mean annual temperature ranges between 3 °C and 11 °C, conditions being cool and wet. Annual precipitation exceeds 2000 mm, mostly brought by humid air currents from the Gulf of Bengal. Winter rainfall is scarce but mists occur in the river valleys (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Vegetation Four altitudinal zones can be distinguished. Below 800 m, river valleys support tropical forest, including groves of bananas and wild citrus trees. Adjacent slopes support tropical forest, with a canopy of Terminalia myriocdrpa, Lagerstroemia subcostata, Homalium cochinchinense, Sloanea sinensis, Garcinia morella, Fissistigma oldhamii, and tall broad-leaf evergreens such as figs. A second tree layer consists of Actinodaphne laucifolia, Altingia sp. and Cryptocarya chinensis. On the forest floor are shrubs and small trees such as Psychotria rubra and Lasianthus chinensis, and herbaceous plants and pteriodophytes such as Phrynium capitatum, Alpinia japonica, and Anglopteris sp. Climbers include arums (Araceae), orchids (Orchidaceae) , peppers (Piperaceae), and palms (Palmae). Epipremnum pinnatum grows alongside (Leguminosae) and bottle gourds Lagenaria spp. At 2,400 m, there is a central zone of montane subtropical evergreen broad-leaf forest comprising Cyathea spinulosa, Podocarpus sp., Amentotaxus argotaenia, magnolia, Tetracentron sinense, laurel, ginseng, and witch-hazel (Hamamelidaceae). Shrubs and herbaceous plants include Eurya japonica, and Myrsine semiserrata, interspersed with dense bamboo groves. Commercially important trees are pine Pinus griffithii, camphor Cinamomum camphora, Castanopsis sp., and Phoebe spp. The montane temperate zone (2,400—3,800 m) comprises coniferous forest, with Chinese hemlock Tsuga chinensis and, at higher altitudes, fir Abies fabri and spruce Picea asperata. Other woody species include Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica, maple, bird cherry Prunus padus, raspberry Rubus sp., currant Ribes sp., and the endemic fountain bamboo Sinarundinaria nitida. Alpine scrub and meadow occur between 3,800 m and 4,700 m, above which is perpetual snow. Alpine shrubs include rhododendrons and willows, growing 108 SS ee China alongside dwarf clubmoss Cassiope selaginoides, Potentilla fruticosa, Sibiraea sp., blueberry Vaccinium bracteatum, wintergreen Gaultheria cumingiana. Herbs include Primula spp., Saxifraga stolonifera, Japanese buttercup Ranunculus japonicus, gentian Gentiana scabra, poppies Mecanopsis spp., mountain sorrel Oxyria sp., and Leontopodioides. On alpine scree slopes are found Saussurea involucrata, Mecanopsis sp., monkshood Aconitum carmichaeli, stone crop Hylotelephium erythrostictum, and sandwort Arenaria serpyllifolia. Rare species include Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Gynocardia odorata, Cordia sp., and Pyrularia edulis. Details of medicinal and economically important plants are given by Wenhua and Xianying (1989). Fauna Forty-two species of mammals have been recorded. Nationally threatened species include leopard Panthera pardus (T), snow leopard P. uncia (E), clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), lynx Felis lynx, large Indian civet Viverra zibetha, small Indian civet Viverricula indica, Assam macaque Macaca assamensis, thesus macaque M. mulatta, lesser panda Ailurus fulgens (K), red deer Cervus elaphus, tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, serow Capricornis sumatraensis, takin Budorcas taxicolor (R), langur Presbytis entellus, bharal Pseudois nayaur, and hare Lepus timidus. Birds include Sclater’s monal Lophophorus sclateri (I), Blyth’s tragopan Tragopan blythii (I), Cabot’s tragopan T.caboti (R), crimson-bellied tragopan T. temminckii, white-eared pheasant Crossoptilon crossoptilon, grey peacock-pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum, Tibetan snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus, golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus, blood pheasant Ithaginis cruentus, and hornbills Bucerotidae spp. (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Medog Village lies within the reserve (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information. Scientific Research and Facilities No information. Conservation Value Medog contains the most northerly tropical ecosystem in the world, with a number of species of flora and fauna from the South Asian tropics. Many species are economically important, such as medicinal plants (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management The main aim is to protect the montane forest and its fauna. The reserve is supervised by the Tibetan Environmental Protection Agency and is administered locally by the responsible management agency (Achuff et al., 1986). Management Constraints No information Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses No information 109 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya References Achuff, P., Butler, J., Maw, R. and Johnson, J. (1986). Heilongjiang, China—Alberta, Canada. Scientific exchange 1986 concerning: wildlife, parks and nature reserves. University of Alberta, Edmonton. Unpublished. P. 5. Richardson, S.D. (1990). Forests and forestry in China. Island Press, Washington, DC. Pp. 80-3. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. Pp. 67-74. NAPAHAI NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Szechwan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the Hengduan mountains, 250 km north-north-west of Xiaguan in Zhongdian county. 27°49’-27°SS’N, 99°37’-99°40’E Date and History of Establishment Designated in 1984 as a provincial nature reserve. Area 2,067 ha j Land Tenure The wetland is state-owned with surrounding areas under the control of the local communities. Altitude Ranges from 3,255 m to 3,260 m. Physical Features Napahai comprises a complex of fresh water ponds, marshes and swamps in the north-south oriented Hengduan mountains (Ji et al., 1990). Eight small streams from the surrounding hills feed the marshes. A shallow lake is formed during the rainy season but gradually dries out during the dry season. Water drains out of the system into the Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) through nine natural sink holes. The size of the lake has decreased from 1,000 ha in the 1950s to several hundred hectares at present (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Climate A temperate montane climate predominates with a rainy season lasting from May to August. Mean annual precipitation is 620 mm. Mean annual temperature is 5.4 °C, with a maximum of 25.1 °C and a minimum of —25.4 °C. There are 125 days of frost every year and occasional snow from September to May (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Vegetation Coniferous forests surround the lake and its marshes (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Species include spruce Picea asperata, fir Abies sp., bamboo and Rhododendron spp. (Ji et al., 1990). Fauna The wetland is an important wintering area for black-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R). There were 63 present in the 1984-5 winter and 58 in the 1985-6 winter, but as many as 130 have been recorded in the past. Japanese crane Grus japonensis (V) and common crane Grus grus occur in small numbers. Other bird species include bar-headed goose Anser 110 China indicus (maximum of 800 in December 1985), ruddy shelduck Tadorna ferruginea (up to 315), mallard Anas platyrhynchus, northern pintail A. acuta, and goosander Mergus merganser (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The reserve is used for grazing by domestic livestock during the dry winter season. The surrounding areas are cultivated and grazed (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). . Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Studies include preliminary research on the waterfowl, especially cranes, by biologists from the Yunnan Forest Department and Kunming Institute of Zoology (1984-6). There are no scientific facilities (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Conservation Value Napahai is an important wetland for the protection of black-necked crane and other rare birds (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). Conservation Management The reserve is administered locally by Yunnan Forest Department under the supervision of the Environmental Protection Agency in Beijing (Achuff et al., 1986). Hunting is prohibited and measures have been taken to prevent pollution. It has been proposed that several small dams be constructed to manipulate water levels and improve the water supply to the marshes (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Management Constraints The diversion of water supplies for other uses is resulting in a lowering of the water level and the loss of wetland habitat. The marsh vegetation is overgrazed (Lan and Jianjian, 1989). Staff No information Budget No information. Local Addresses Yunnan Provincial Forestry Bureau, Kunming, Yunnan Province References Lan, Y. and Jianjian, L. (1989). In: Scott, D.A. (Ed.), A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. P. 234. Ji, Z., Guangmei, Z., Huadong, W. and Jialin; X. (1990). The natural history of China. Collins, London. Pp. 144-6. Wenhua, L. and Xianying, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. P. 188. rt 111 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya QOMOLANGMA NATURE RESERVE! IUCN Management Category IV (Managed nature reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the Rikize (Shigote) Prefecture of southern Tibet. The reserve includes Dingri (Tingri), Nelamu (Nyelam) and part of Dingjie (Dinggue) and Jilong (Kyirong) counties. It extends from the easternmost bend of the Pengga (Punychu or Arun) River near Dingqye to the Jilongzangbu (Trisuli) River near Jilong in the west. The reserve is accessible by the Friendship Highway linking Lhasa with Kathmandu, Nepal. The northern boundary roughly parallels the 29°N latitude line just south of Lhasa, and the southern boundary is delimited by the international border with Nepal. 28°30’N, 86°10’E Date and History of Establishment Established in 1989 by the Government of the Xizang Zizhiqu Autonomous Region. Two regions within Jilong and Zhangmu valleys had previously been gazetted as nature reserves in 1985, namely Jiangcun and Zham. Area 3,500,000 ha. The reserve is part of a 4,008,800 ha protected areas complex, being contiguous to Nepal’s Langtang and Sagarmatha national parks, as well as the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area. Land Tenure State Altitude Range from 1,433 m to 8,848 m. Physical Features The southernmost boundary comprises the High Himalaya which is an east-west oriented, geologically young and seismically active range formed through the collision of the Indian shield and Eurasian mainland plate at the beginning of the Tertiary (BP 63 million years). The presence of antecedent rivers, such as the Pengqu, glacial advances and retreats, and physical and chemical weathering processes have created the present topography, with schist, gneiss, granite and limestone peaks. The rate of uplift of the High Himalayan and Tibetan Plateau is estimated to be 0.7—-10 mm per year. Five valleys penetrate the Himalaya: these are, from east to west, Pengqu (Chentang), Rongxia (Rongshan), Poqu (Nielamu), Jilong and Gongdang. North of the High Himalayan chain is a plateau with numerous lakes, such as the 26,800 ha Peikucuo, Meteli Tso and Duqian Tso. Large lake basins occur from west to east, including Jilong, Selong, Jenmu, Dingri, Dingjie and Takexun. Extensive plains are found along the northern slopes of Mount Xixiabangma (Shishapangma), the basin surrounding Peikucuo and the river valley of the Yarlung Tsangpo. To the west are steeply dissected mountains. The southern region is drained by the Pengqu River, which flows 275 km river westward from its headwaters near Siling and the northern slopes of Mount Xixiabangma to become the Arun River as it cuts southwards through the High Himalaya (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991). Climate Conditions are influenced by the Himalaya which acts as a meteorological barrier to the south-west monsoon. Mean annual precipitation ranges from 2,000—2,500 mm on the "See map on p. 363. 112 China southern aspects of the Himalaya exposed to the monsoon and 600-800 mm in the Pengqu catchment to less than 250 mm in the northern plateau region, where conditions are continental and semi-arid. There is a north-south temperature gradient, with lower mean annual air temperatures of 2—3 °C north of the Himalayan chain (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991). Vegetation The vegetation is summarised by Jackson (1991c) and comprises: an upper subtropical zone evergreen broad-leaf forest, dominant species including Castanopsis hystrix, Engelhardia sp., and Machilus sp.; lower temperate zone of mixed evergreen oak forest, with Quercus oxydon, C. hystrix, Engelhardia sp., and Machilus sp.; upper temperate zone of oak, hemlock Tsuga dumosa, blue pine Pinus wallichiana, and chir pine P. roxburghii; subalpine zone of spruce Picea smithiana, silver fir Abies spectabilis, larch Larix griffithiana, birch Betula utilis, perennial grassland Stipa/Pennisetum spp., and riverine scrub Hippophae spp.; alpine zone of grassland Orinus thoroldii, low sage Artemisia spp., rhododendron Rhododendron spp., juniper Sabina spp., birch/willow Betula/Salix spp. and wet meadow Kobresia-Carex spp.; and a nival zone of pincushion plants, dominated by species of Androsace and Arenaria. In the southern region, subtropical forests occur between 1,100 m and 1,800 m, dominated by Castanopsis hystrix, C. tribuloides, Lithocarpus spp., Schima sp., Machilus sp.,. Michelia sp., Engelhardia sp., and Olea sp. Understorey shrubs include Ardisia sp., Vaccinium sp., Symplocos sp., and Viburnum sp. Some areas support rich stands of laurel Machilus yunnanensis. Where oaks have adapted to moist conditions, species include Quercus oxydon and Q. annulata. The Kama Valley in the south-west is renowned for its coniferous forests, dominated by blue pine Pinus wallichiana, spruce Picea smithiana, and silver fir Abies spectabilis. Chir pine Pinus roxburghii occurs in the forests of Jilong, while at Chentang deciduous larch Larix griffithiana is found as high as 4,000 m. Hemlock Tsuga dumosa occurs in the more humid valleys and mountain slopes. In the northern region, vegetation in the semi-arid plateau consists of steppe grassland and shrub trees, dominated by grasses such as Stipa purpurea, Orinus thoroldii, and Pennisetum flaccidum, and shrubs such as Artemisia spp., Potentilla fruticosa, and Caragana versicolor. River valleys and high mountain basins support a lush growth of the sedges Kobresia pymaea, Carex moorcroftii, and C. montis-everestii. Fauna Primates include langur Presbytis entellus, Assam macaque Macaca assamensis, and thesus macaque M. mulatta. Carnivores include Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (V), brown bear Ursus arctos, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), leopard Panthera pardus (T), clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), Pallas’s cat Felis manul, wolf Canis lupus (V), Asiatic cat Felis temmincki (1), jungle cat Felis chaus, wild dog Cuon alpinus (V), leopard cat Felis bengalensis, and jackal Canis aureus. Lynx Felis lynx is found in lower forested valleys, while fox Vulpes vulpes and Tibetan fox Vulpes ferrilata are widespread. Mountain weasel Mustela altaica, Siberian weasel M. sibirica, beech marten Martes foina, and yellow-throated marten M. flavigula are present, and European otter Lutra lutra (V) occurs in rivers at lower elevations (Jackson, 1991c). Herbivores include red panda Ailurus fulgens (K) and Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus (V), of which 50 now roam the plains surrounding Pegu Tso (Jackson, 1991b), Tibetan gazelle Procapra piticaudata, bharal. Pseudojs nayaur, serow Capricornis sumatraensis which is common in forested gorges, goral Nemorhaedus goral, Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and musk deer Moschus chrysogaster. Other species include Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak, black-lipped pika Ochotona curzoniae, Moupin pika O. thibetana, Royle’s pika O. roylei, Stoliczka’s mountain vole Alticola stoliczkanus, Sikkim vole Pitymys sikkimensis, Blyth’s vole P. leucurus, Hodgson’s flying squirrel Petaurista magnificus, and Himalayan striped squirrel 113 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Callosciurus macclellandi. Orange-bellied Himalayan squirrel Dremomys lokriah is found in low elevation forests, together with wild boar Sus scrofa (Jackson, 1991c). Birds are distributed according to habitat and altitude. Species include peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus, lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, Eurasian griffon vulture Gyps fulvus, Himalayan monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, satyr tragopan Tragopan satyra, blood pheasant Ithaginis cruentus, koklass pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha, Tibetan snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus, and Himalayan snowcock T. himalayensis. West of Peku Tso a small freshwater lake supports oriental white stork Ciconia ciconia boyciana (R), blacked-necked crane Grus nigricollis (R), and brown-headed gull Larus brunnicephalus. Python Python molurus (V) is present (Jackson, 199 1c). Cultural Heritage Qomolangma is rich in cultural sites and artifacts, human activities having been traced back 50,000 years with the discovery of Palaeolithic stone tools near Dingri. Recorded history in the region dates back to before AD 700, based upon the mention of the Xiangxiong culture in Tibetan literature. Several monasteries (gompas) occur within the reserve, including Lapchi, Tho-sam-ling, the 575-year old Laangkhor, Ronbuk (Dzasong) and Milarepa’s hermitage in the village of Changdong (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991). Local Human Population Tibetan is the major ethnic group, accounting for 99% of the population (Working Commission, 1991). Approximately 12,000 families (total population 67,468) live within the reserve, involved mainly in agriculture and animal husbandry. The livestock population totalled 182,518 animals in 1989, with yak grazed seasonally in summer pastures by semi-nomadic groups of pastoralists (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Since 1985, tourism has expanded significantly, with lodges and hotels now located in Dingri, Neilamu, Pazhuo (Paljor), Rongbu, Xegar, and Zhangmar (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991). Scientific Research and Facilities A number of scientific surveys have been carried out, including floral studies by Zhang et al. (1988). Scientific expeditions have been conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Surveys have been instigated by the participating agencies and include a socio-economic survey by the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences, vegetation mapping and geographical surveys by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, a cultural survey by the Culture Department, a health survey by the Health Department, an education survey by the Education Department, a tourism survey by the Tibet Mountaineering Association, an environmental pollution survey by the Environmental Protection Bureau, and a management survey by the Management Bureau, resulting in a number of reports being published in 1989 (Working Commission, 1991). Conservation Value Qomolangma is among the world’s largest protected areas and, together with three adjacent protected areas in Nepal, protects much of the Everest ecosystem. It has a high biological diversity due to its location at the juxtaposition of the Palaearctic and Oriental biogeographical realms. Species diversity is particularily high in the temperate forests of the Karma and Kyirong valleys, and pristine forests occur in Chentang and Kyirong valleys. Other habitats range from grassland to wetland and alpine shrubland, and from cliffs to large lakes and rivers. Its spatial continuity with three Himalayan parks in Nepal enhances the long-term genetic viability of otherwise isolated plant and animal populations. The reserve also presents an opportunity to implement management using a participatory model of land 114 China management which integrates the needs of local people with the protection of the environment (Woodlands Mountain Institute, 1991; Jackson, 1991c). Conservation Management The reserve was established through the efforts of the Working Commission of the Qomolangma Nature Reserve and Woodlands Mountain Institute, in conjunction with the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Tibet Academy of Social Sciences, under a co-operative agreement signed on 26 October 1989 and effective until 31 December 2000. Overall authority lies with the Working Commission which includes representatives from 13 governmental departments holding executive powers. An eight-member ’Expert Group’ of key scientists, planners and administrators, appointed by the Working Commission, is responsible for the project’s applied research and planning needs. A management bureau, established in Xikeze Prefecture, is responsible for the administration of the reserve. Officials from the Bureau of Agriculture, Animal Husbandry and Forestry, run the management bureau through each county government. Two branch offices have been established: one in Xegar, the administrative centre of Dingri County, and one in Jilong (Working Commission, 1991). In Kyirong a system of recruiting village leaders as forest and wildlife guards has been successfully employed to protect the forests. Other employment opportunities include training Tibetans and Chinese as tour guides and support staff (Jackson, 1991c). A management plan is due to be completed in 1991 and will cover management, research, community development, cultural conservation and tourism development. Six core zones of minimally disturbed and largely intact ecosystems are proposed within the reserve: Shishapangma (Xixiabangma), Xuebugang, Jiangum, Gongdang (Guntan), and Qomolangma (Jackson, 1991c). Immediate management objectives include regulating hunting by terminating all predator bounty programmes, banning the hunting of snow leopard and lynx, and protecting native ungulate populations. Management Constraints Hunting is a major problem and has led to the decimation of populations of snow leopard, lynx, wolf, argali, and brown bear. This is partly due to financial incentives: for example, a snow leopard is worth 400 yuan (US $ 85). Also herdsmen protect their livestock from predation, and from crop damage by wildlife such as wild boar, black bear, monkey, and pheasant (Jackson, 1991c). Staff Over 40 people were employed during 1989-90. Budget In 1989 the allocated budget was US $ 224,821 (838,582 yuan), of which capital costs accounted for US $ 61,293 (228,623 yuan) and recurrent costs US $ 163,528 (609,959 yuan). In 1990 the planned budget totalled US $ 428,700 (1,599,051 yuan) with capital costs of US $ 131,000 (488,630 yuan) and recurrent costs US $ 297,700 (1,110,421 yuan). The budget for 1991 is US $ 604,000 (2,252,920 yuan), with capital costs of US $ 192,500 (715,025 yuan) and recurrent costs US $ 425,000 (1,585,250 yuan). The reserve has received funding from international donors such as International Development Research Centre (Canada), Funding Exchange, Needmor Foundation, Sequoia Foundation, International Fund for Animal Welfare (England), and the Miflin Trust (Working Commission, 1991). Local Addresses Director, Qomolangma Nature Reserve, Shigatse, Xizang Zizhiqu Autonomous Region References Jackson, R. (1991a). Snow leopards on the roof of the world. Cat News (14): 16-17. 115 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Jackson, R. (1991b). Snow leopards and other wildlife in the Qomolanga Nature Preserve of Tibet. Snow Line 9(1): 9-12. Jackson, R. (1991c). A wildlife survey of the Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region, People’s Republic of China. Report prepared for Working Commission, Qomolangma Nature Preserve and Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing. 15 March. 35 pp. Woodlands Mountains Institute (1991). The Qomolangma Nature Preserve physical setting, culture, and contemporary environmental and community issues. Woodlands Mountain Institute, Franklin , USA. Unpublished.10 pp. Working Commission. (1991). The Qomolangma Nature Preserve of the Tibet Autonomous Region of China. The Working Commission, Qomolangma Nature Preserve, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. Unpublished. 61 pp. TANGJIAHE NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Sichuan Highlands) Geographical Location Located in Qingchuan County, north-central Sichuan Province, and bordered by Gansu Province to the north. It lies some 360 km from the provincial capital, Chengdu. The borders of the reserve follow the watersheds of large rivers, and make excellent natural boundaries. 32°32’-32°41’N, 104°37’-104°53’E. Date and History of Establishment Ratified as a nature reserve by the provincial government in December 1978 and, subsequently, as a national nature reserve by the State Council in July 1986. Area 28,000 ha. Some 40,000 ha were included under the original proposals but the boundaries were later revised, due to extensive damage by farmers to the southern Majiagou and Pinggouli valleys and the shortage of agricultural land in the county. The reserve borders on Baishu River Nature Reserve (95,292 ha) in Gansu Province. Land Tenure Central Government Altitude Ranges from about 1,200 m in valley bottoms to 3,837 m in the Dacaoping area. Physical Features Lying at the eastern end of the Min Shan, the main mountain range separating the fertile Sichuan basin to the south from the drier ranges of Gansu Province to the north, the reserve comprises a series of rugged ridges and narrow valleys of two main drainages, the Beilu and Motiangling rivers. Tributary valleys are steep and V-shaped, with streams falling in a series of rapids and waterfalls. Lower down are gorges, while higher up the valleys broaden out and their floors are covered with accumulated fallen rocks and alluvium. Rock strata eonsist primarily of granite, exposed as high peaks along the Gansu border and surrounded by a great variety of metamorphic rocks and limestone. Bedrock is commonly exposed on ridges and valley sides, and soil development is poor. Four soil types 116 China are recognised by Seidensticker et al. (1984), namely: mountain yellow, mountain brown, mountain green, and mountain grassland. Climate The area falls within the Qinghai-Tibetan climatic belt, which is characterised by a long winter, with snow falling from November to March, and a relatively cool summer. Recordings taken at Baixiongping Meteorological Station (1,790 m) indicate that January is the coldest month, with mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures of 1.8 °C and —5.3 °C, respectively, and an absolute range from 8 °C to —11 °C. The warmest months are June to August, with mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures of 22.6-24.7 °C and 13.1-14.2 °C, respectively, and an absolute range from 30° C to 10° C. Mean annual precipitation is 1,100—1,200 mm, with over 90% of precipitation falling in the rainy season of the south-east monsoon between May and October (Bi et al., 1986). Vegetation Much of the original vegetation has been affected by extensive logging up to 2,200 m and some selective logging above that. Five main types of vegetation are recognised by Bi et al., (1986), namely: areas cleared for pasture and cultivation that now support early seral communities, with colonisers including poplars Populus spp. and shrubs such as Salix, Spiraea, Deutzia, Rosa, Rubus and Buddleia; evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forest (up to 1,700 m) dominated by the evergreen trees Lindera communus and Cyclobalanopsi oxyodon, together with deciduous oak Quercus glandulifera and beech Fagus longipetiolata mixed coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved forest (1,700—2,100 m), with pine Pinus armandii favouring dry southern slopes, and hemlock Tsuga chinensis and spruce Picea brachtyla found mainly on moist northern ones; subalpine coniferous forest (from 2,100—2,300 m to the tree-line at 3,200—3,300 m), dominated by fir Abies faxoniana at higher altitudes, and with birch Betula utilis and rhododendrons Rhododendron spp. as the main broad-leaved trees; and alpine tussock grassland up to 3,500—3,800 m, where it merges with rock outcrops on the highest peaks. Bamboo, which is of particular importance to the ecology of the giant panda, occurs in extensive patches in the temperate and subalpine zones. Fargesia scabrida and, at higher altitudes, F. denudata, are predominant, but few mature stands remain after a period of mass-flowering and die-off in the 1970s (Bi et al., 1986). The flora is diverse owing to the varying topography, climate, soil and hydrology. The reserve has an estimated 2,000 species of plants. Of interest are some relics of the Tertiary Palaeotropical flora of the Western Chinese Mountains. These include the katsura tree Cercidiphyllum japonicum., dove tree Davidia involucrata, rhododendrons Rhododendron spp., Xylosma japonicum, and Abies fabri (Bi et al., 1986; MOF, 1989). Fauna Tangjiahe straddles the border between subtropical lowlands and temperate uplands, hence its fauna is allied to both the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. The forest fauna at low-to-medium altitudes is mainly Oriental in origin (e.g. stump-tailed macaque Macaca Speciosa, giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca (R), clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus, serow Capricornis sumatraensis, bamboo rat Rhizomys sinensis, and golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus), while that of the subalpine coniferous forest and particularly that above the tree-line is characterised by Palaearctic species (e.g. musk deer Moschus berezovskii, blue sheep Pseudois nayaur, pika Ochotona thibetana, and Tibetan snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus). Some 90 species of mammals and 200 species of birds have been recorded (Bi et al., 1986). Of these, 25 are nationally protected species, which include golden snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus roxellanae (V), Sichuan takin Budorcas taxicolor tibetana (1), giant panda, red panda Ailurus fulgens (K), blue-eared pheasant Crossoptilon auritum, and Temminck’s tragopan Tragopan temminckii. 117 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Evidence of some 100—140 giant pandas was found during a census conducted in 1975 by the Rare Animal Resources Investigation Team, an estimate which is considered by Bi et al. (1986) to be more realistic than that of 200 based on a previous survey (Seidensticker et al., 1984). The giant panda population has since declined to an estimated 50—60 (Hu et al., 1980) following the flowering of much of reserve’s bamboo in the mid-late 1970s. The red panda, formerly scarce in the reserve, may have died out as a result of the bamboo flowering but could still exist in Motianling Valley. Otter Lutra lutra is very rare with possibly only one family in the whole reserve. While much of the large mammal fauna (e.g. macaques and leopard) has been disturbed by past hunting and other activities, human disturbance has favoured other species ‘such as takin, which feeds in abandoned agricultural land, and Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (V), which feeds on Rubus berries in secondary clearings and raids old apple orchards (Bi et al., 1986). Other groups have not been systematically surveyed but show great richness. In particular, the butterfly fauna appears to be extemely varied (Bi et al., 1986). Cultural Heritage Motianling Valley has been used as a travel route across the mountains separating Gansu and Sichuan provinces for hundreds of years. Historical records go back to the Three Kingdom Period (AD 220-80) when General Deng Ali rode the Yangping Trail through Motianling Valley (MOF, 1989). Local Human Population — It was not until early this century that farmers settled in the lower Beilu and Motianling valleys to extract timber and cultivate the less steep slopes. Large-scale logging commenced in 1965, with the construction of a highway to the area, and a sawmill was built at Maoxiangba, now the reserve headquarters. There are no longer any settlements in the reserve. In 1986, the residential population (61 farmers and their families totalling 301 people) was resettled and absorbed into local communities in return for compensation paid by the Ministry of Forestry both to the local government and to the villagers to relinquish their rights to orchards, trees and other natural resources left behind in the reserve (Bi et al., 1986). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve is becoming increasingly popular among visitors. The exact number of visitors is not known but in 1983 there were 600 in May, 400 in June and 300 in July. Over a thousand students visit it each year for practical botanical and other studies. A few foreigners come on specialised bird-watching tours or to see the home of the giant panda. New visitor accommodation, with provision for 50 beds, is being constructed at the reserve’s headquarters at Maoxiangba, at 1,430 m (Bi et al., 1986). Scientific Research and Facilities Research conducted under a joint agreement made between the Department of Forestry and World Wide Fund for Nature in 1983 includes ecological studies of the giant panda, bear and takin by G.B. Schaller and the regeneration of bamboo after flowering (Taylor, 1984). Work continues in all of these fields (Bi et al., 1986). A scientific research camp was established at Baixiongping (1,790 m) in 1984. Training courses for protection and research staff are held regularly (Laurie, 1986). Conservation Value Tangjiahe is of great importance for its biological variety, with a number of threatened mammals, a rich avifauna and a diverse flora that is high in regional endemics and species of medicinal and horticultural value to man. Furthermore, in terms of immediate economic rationale, the hydrological importance of the reserve as a water catchment 118 China is one of the strongest justifications for protecting the area, reforesting bare slopes and removing human settlements. The reserve also has a rare scientific facility, being strategically located in a site of key biological significance. Conservation Management In the wake of the great concern aroused over the fate of the panda as a result of the mass-flowering of bamboo and subsequent die-off of both bamboo and giant pandas, during which 138 panda corpses were found in the Min Shan, the area was selected as one of the first panda reserves with the stated management objective, ‘... to conserve the giant panda, takin, and golden monkey—the rare and precious animals of China.’ Tangjiahe probably still holds the second largest protected giant panda population after Wolong, with nearly 10% of the entire world population. In view of the logging that occurred in 1965-78 over most of the reserve up to an altitude of about 2,200 m and its fairly small size, it is recommended in the draft management plan that as much lost habitat as possible be returned to the giant panda and that all remaining giant panda habitat be linked by bamboo corridors and given reserve status. In particular, Tangjiahe should be extended eastwards to Sanguo and Haoxi communes, where some national forest remains, in line with the originally proposed area of 40,000 ha (Bi et al., 1986, Wang and Hu, 1989). A system of zonation is proposed, with the bulk of the reserve designated as a fully protected area or sanctuary zone. Furthermore, current pressure on the reserve for fuelwood should be reduced by establishing fuelwood plantations in peripheral buffer zones. The management plan, first drafted in November 1986, has still to be approved. The government is considering the creation of one large reserve in the Minshan by connecting Tangjiahe, Baishu River (95,292 ha), Jiuzhaigou (60,000 ha), and Wanglang (27,700 ha) nature reserves through the creation of the proposed 90,000 ha Wujiao reserve (Schaller et al., 1985, MacKinnon and Qiu, 1986), and modified in the light of recent proposals for a reserve system in the northern Minshan (Wang and Hu, 1989). Villagers living adjacent to the reserve are encouraged to sign a joint contract with the reserve authority to protect the panda and its habitat (MOF, 1989). Management Constraints The biggest constraint to reserve management has been the damage to giant panda habitat from logging and the activities of former residents. This has reduced the amount of habitat available for giant pandas as well as destroyed corridors of habitat linking the different parts of the population. It probably also contributed to the severity of flooding experienced in Sichuan in 1981. The mass-flowering and die-off of bamboo in the 1970s has placed additional hardship on the giant panda population, considerably reducing its size, but this is a natural effect from which the species should recover in the absence of added human pressures. The small size of the reserve is a further constraint, making it difficult to maintain a giant panda population of viable size but this can be overcome by maintaining links with adjacent populations. Poaching, largely for musk deer, is a continuing but minor problem (Bi et al., 1986). Staff The reserve is managed for the provincial Department of Forestry by a director and an assistant-director, who direct 33 employees, including 28 ‘work’ staff (1987). Budget The annual allocation from Sichuan Provincial Government is Yuan 40,000 to 50,000 (US $10,800 to US $13,500) for recurrent expenditure (1987). 119 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Local Addresses Director, Tangjiahe Natural Reserve Headquarters, Maoxiangba, Qingchuan County, Sichuan Province References Bi Fengzhou, Jiang Mindas, Qiu Minjang, Laurie, A., and Reid, D. (1986). Draft Management plan for Tangjiahe Natural Reserve. Sichuan Forest Bureau/World Wildlife Fund. Unpublished. Hu Jinchu, Deng Qixang, Yu Zhiwei, Zhou Shoude and Tian Zhixiang (1980). Biological studies of giant panda, golden monkey, and some other rare and prized animals. Journal of Nanchong Teachers’ College 1980(2): 1-39. Laurie, W.A. (1986). Training for panda reserves staff. WWF Monthly Report November 1986: 313-16. MOF (1989). The habitats of the giant panda: Wolong, Tangjiahe, Wanglang nature reserves. World Heritage nomination. Ministry of Forestry, People’s Republic of China. 60 pp. Schaller, G.B., Teng, Q., Johnson, K., Wang, X., Shen, H. and Hu Jinchu (1989). Feeding ecology of giant panda and Asiatic black bear in Tangjiahe Reserve, China. In: Gittleman, J. (Ed.), Carnivore behaviour, ecology and evolution. Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. Seidensticker, J., Eisenberg, J.F, and Simons, R. (1984). The Tangjiahe, Wanglang, and Fengtongzhai giant panda reserves and biological conservation in the People’s Republic of China. Biological Conservation 28: 217-51. Taylor, A H., (1984). The ecology of bamboos and their role in forest dynamics in the Wolong and Tangjiahe nature preserves, Northern Sichuan Province, China. World Wildlife Fund, Gland. Unpublished. Wang, M. and Hu, T. (Eds.) (1989). National conservation management plan for the giant panda and its habitat: Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces, The People’s Republic of China. Ministry of Forestry, Beijing and WWF, Gland, Switzerland. 157 pp. WWE/YIUCN (n.d.) Project 3027. Ecology of giant panda, Tangjiahe Reserve. TAXKORGAN NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve). Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands). Geographical Location Situated in the south-west corner of the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, at the juncture of the China, Pakistan, USSR and Afghanistan borders. The centre of the reserve lies about 265 km south of Kashi (Kashgar). The south-western boundary follows the Pakistan border from the vicinity of Kilik Pass south-eastwards to just beyond K2. The northern and eastern boundaries trace various tributaries of the Yarkant River (Schaller et al., 1987). 35°40’N-37°25’N, 74°30’E-76°50’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a nature reserve in 1984. Area_ 1,500,000 ha. According to Schaller (1987), the area is 1,400,000 ha. Taxkorgan is contiguous to Khunjerab National Park (226,913 ha) in Pakistan. 120 China Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from below 3,000 m to the peak of K2 at 8,611 m. Physical Features The reserve is mountainous, about half of it is above 4,500 m, including the northern flanks of the Karakoram, the western edge of the Kunlun Shan, and eastern rim of the Pamir Mountains. It is drained by the Yarkant River and its tributaries. This flows north through the eastern part of the reserve. The western part is drained by the Chalachigu River, a branch of the Taxkorgan River which meets the Yarkant River north of the reserve. The south-eastern section of the reserve includes the Karakoram and extensive glaciers, the Aghil Range and the Oprang (Shaksgam) Valley, a region well described by Shipton (1938). This area is very remote, whereas the west has been an international travel route for centuries. Flat and in places more than 5 km wide, the Taxkorgan Valley was part of the ancient Silk Road which continues into the Chalachigu Valley and over the Mintaka Pass into Pakistan. The westernmost part of the reserve represents mainly ’pamirs’, broad valleys and steeply rolling hills above 3,500 m and flanked by rugged ranges. Between the eastern rim of the Taxkorgan Valley and the Yarkant River is a complex of mountains, broken cliffs and sharp ridges cut by gorges. Near the junction with the Yarkant River, the Raskam, Mariang and other drainages lie below 3,000 m, the lowest part of the reserve. On the eastern bank of the Yarkant are the Taxkuzuke Mountains, a discrete, rough range (Schaller et al., 1987). Climate Conditions are cool and dry. Mean monthly minimum temperature at Taxkorgan Town (3,090 m) to the north of the reserve was —16 °C to 17 °C during the coldest months of December and January in 1984, and mean daily maximum reached 22 °C to 23 °C during the warmest months from June to August. Only 75.4 mm of precipitation fell in 1984, 81% of it between May and September (Schaller et al., 1987). Vegetation Much of the terrain is too high or arid to support much vegetation. Below 3,000-3,200 m there are usually cliffs, screes, sand and silt, a desert that is so dry that few plants survive except along streams. The only native trees are found in low-lying valleys: willow Salix and tamarisk Tamarix below 3,400 m, and cottonwood Populus, and birch Betula below 3,300 m, a few being as tall as 10 m. At 4,400 m, near the upper vegetation limit, plants grow mainly along seepages and rivulets, and at4,500 m bare rock dominates, although hardy species of Rhodiola, Saussurea and Tanacetum may occur as high as 4,600-4,700 m. Vegetation has been greatly modified by human and livestock use (Schaller et al., 1987). Fauna Three wild ungulate species inhabit the reserve; a fourth, Asiatic wild ass Equus hemionus (V), once occurred along the upper Yarkant and Oprang rivers, but has not been seen since the 1950s (Schaller et al., 1987). The presence of the species on the Pakistan side of the border has recently been confirmed (Wegge, 1988). According to Schaller et al. (1987), the last known viable population of Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii in China is confined to the western part of Chalachigu Valley, where 48 were recorded in June 1986, but more recent reports suggest that 100-200 winter in the Chopdur area, 2 km east-south-east of the Khunjerab Pass (Wegge, 1988). Schaller et al. (1987) estimates the total population in the area, which extends north of the reserve boundary, to be below 150, but more recent information presented by Wegge (1988) suggests that this figure may be too low. Ibex Capra ibex is found in the west of the reserve, where there are an estimated 1,000 animals. Bharal Pseudois nayaur is present in all eastern and south-eastern ranges of the reserve, its distribution overlapping with that of ibex in the north. A few thousand bharal are thought to be present. Among carnivores, brown bear Ursus arctos and wolf Canis lupus (V) are rare. Some 50 to 121 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya 75 snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) are thought to frequent the reserve (Schaller et al., 1987, 1988). Information on the avifauna is not available. Cultural Heritage Part of the Silk Road, an ancient travel route, follows the Chalachiga Valley along the northern border of the reserve and over the Mintaka Pass into Pakistan. The Karakoram Highway, completed in the 1960s, now follows this route. Local Human Population In 1985, four communes and a breeding farm, totalling about 7,750 Kirgiz and Tajik people with 70,000 head of livestock, used the reserve at least seasonally in 1985. About 80% of the livestock is sheep and goats and the rest comprises donkeys, horses, cattle, camels and yaks. Where land is flat and irrigation possible, barley and a few other crops are grown. Most fields are at low elevations, although a few occur as high as 3,900 m (Schaller et al., 1987). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The western part is accessible by the Karakoram Highway. There are no visitor facilities. Scientific Research and Facilities A status survey of large mammals in the western half of the reserve was conducted by Schaller et al. (1987, 1988) in May—June 1985 and June-July 1986. The more remote south-eastern part has been visited only twice by foreign expeditions (Younghusband, 1896; Shipton, 1938)-. Conservation Value Taxkorgan and the adjacent Khunjerab National Park in Pakistan constitute one of the most important wildlife areas in the mountains of Asia. Their establishment provides the foundation for an international peace park in the region. Taxkorgan has important populations of large ungulates and carnivores, notably Marco Polo sheep and snow leopard (Schaller et al., 1987). Conservation Management Management is in its infancy. In 1987 two guards were posted at Mintaka to protect Marco Polo sheep. There are plans to set up a committee of commune, county and forest department representatives to propose, execute and enforce conservation measures (Schaller et al., 1987). Management Constraints Taxkorgan cannot become a viable reserve until the activities of human residents and their livestock are modified, and hunting is controlled. Overgrazing by livestock and the removal of shrubs and trees for fuelwood has greatly reduced the carrying capacity of the land, and turned low-lying slopes and valley flats into desert. Traditionally, — ibex, blue sheep and Marco Polo sheep were hunted to supplement the diet, but this has intensified with the construction of the Karkoram Highway. Predators, particularly wolves and snow leopards, kill large numbers of livestock (partly a reflection of depleted wild ungulate ~ populations) and are in turn killed in retribution (Schaller et al., 1987, 1988). Staff No precise information. Budget No information Local Addresses Forest Department, Kashi, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region 122 China References Schaller, G.B., Talipu, L.H., Hua, L., Junrang, R., Mingjiang, Q., and Haibin, W. (1987). Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological Conservation 42: 53-71. Schaller, G.B., Talipu, L.H., Junrang, R., Mingjiang, Q. (1988). The snow leopard in Xinjiang, China. Oryx 22: 197-204. Shipton, E. (1938). Blank on the map. Hodder and Stoughton, London. (Unseen) Wegge, P. (1988). Assessment of Khunjerab National Park and environs, Pakistan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. Younghusband, F. (1896). The heart of a continent. John Murray, London. (Unseen) WANGLANG NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Sichuan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Pingwu County of northern Sichuan, about 430 km north of the provincial capital of Chengdu. Mountain ridges provide natural boundaries on all sides of the reserve. 32°49’-33°02’N, 103°55’-104°10’E Date and History of Establishment Ratified as a nature reserve by the People’s Committee (provincial government) of Sichuan in September 1963. Area 27,700 ha. The reserve borders on Jiuzhaigou Nature Reserve (60,000 ha) in the north-west. Land Tenure Provincial government Altitude Ranges from about 2,400 m to 4,983 m. Physical Features Situated on the north-eastern escarpment of the Min Shan, the reserve is a steep-sided basin encompassing the headwaters of the Fu Chiang, a major tributary of the Chang Jiang (Yantze). The main river is the Baima Ho, which drains to the south-east. Rock formations date back mainly to the Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian periods. Parent rock material is limestone. Soils are described as yellow-brown, grey and meadow. Earthquakes are a frequent if irregular occurrence at the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, the last serious one in 1976 (7.2 on the Richter scale) being responsible for extensive landslides in the reserve. Sometimes, where streams have been blocked by landslides, lakes have been formed. Climate The reserve lies in the subtropical monsoon climatic belt. Annual precipation is up to 1800 mm, most of which falls in summer. Mean monthly temperatures range between approximately —7° C in January and 18-20 °C in July. Vegetation The vegetation is vertically distributed. Below 2,600 m are mixed montane forests, the main conifers being hemlocks Tsuga chinensis and T. yunnanensis and pine Pinus 123 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya armandii, and broad-leaved trees represented by birch Betula spp., beech Fagus longipetiolata, thododendrons Rhododendron spp., and oak Quercus aquifolioides. Between 2,600 m and 3,800 m are coniferous forests of fir Abies fabri, spruce Picea asperata and larch Larix potanini, and broad-leaved forests of birches Betula platyphylla, B. albo-sinensis, rhododendrons, and Lonicera tangutica. Above 3,800 m are alpine shrubs and herbs. The bamboos Fargesia denudata and F. nitida, which are the staple food of the giant panda, are plentiful in the mixed montane and coniferous forests. F. scabrida, another favoured species, is regenerating following mass flowering and die-back in 1975. According to Seidensticker et al. (1984), forest covers 44%, mountains 19% and rocks 37% of the surface area. Of the tree flora, Tetracentron sinense, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, and Larix mastersiana are nationally protected on account of their rarity. Over 150 species of medicinal plants have been recorded (MOF, 1989). Fauna Some 63 species of mammals, 89 species of birds, eight species of reptiles, and eight species of amphibians are reported to be present. Those legally protected at national level include golden snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus roxellanae (V), Pallas’s (steppe) cat ~ Felis manul, Asiatic golden cat F. temmincki, clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca (R), red panda Ailurus fulgens (K), musk deer Moschus berezovskii, Sichuan takin Budorcas taxicolor tibetana (1), and several of the 11 species of pheasant in the reserve (e.g. Temminck’s tragopan Tragopan temminckii, Chinese monal pheasant Lophophorus lhuysii (E), blue-eared pheasant Crossoptilon auritum, and golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus). The Giant Panda Expedition (1974) estimated that in 1968—9 there were 196 pandas in 122.5 sq. km, but ten years later only 10-20 remained. Of those that had disappeared, some had Starved with the mass-flowering of bamboo in over 80% of the reserve in 1975-6 (13 were found dead), some may have emigrated and others may have been killed in landslides during the 1976 earthquake (Schaller et al., 1985). Evidence of 20 pandas was found during a survey conducted in 1984 (MOF, 1989). Cultural Heritage The people of the ancient Longan Prefecture (now Pingwu County) are said to have presented a giant panda to King Yu who saved Cathay from a catastrophic deluge some 4,000 years ago. Wanglang is named after a legendary Tibetan youth who settled down and became a hermit (MOF, 1989). Local Human Population Although no longer inhabited, the reserve is surrounded by settlements, including the Beima commune for Tibetan minorities, with a total population in excess of ten thousand people. Traditional activities include collection of medicinal herbs and hunting both in and around the reserve. Visitors and Visitor Facilities Information about visitor numbers is not available. Roads provide access to two valleys and, in 1983, a hotel was under construction (Schaller, 1983). Scientific Research and Facilities The mammals and birds of Pingwu County were first surveyed by naturalists and missionaries from Russia, France and Great Britain in 1870-85. A census of the reserve’s giant panda population was undertaken in 1968-9 (Giant Panda Expedition, 1974). Brief surveys have also been carried out by Schaller (1983) and Seidensticker et al. (1984). 124 China Conservation Value The reserve was established for the protection of the giant panda and several other rare and nationally prestigious animal species (Seidensticker et al., 1984). Conservation Management Logging ceased in the 1950s, since when secondary forest has regenerated on most slopes (Schaller, 1983). Following the mass-flowering of bamboo in 1983, a giant panda rescue operation was launched. Giant pandas found starving were captured, taken to villages to be fed and, subsequently, transferred to a holding centre built inside the reserve by the Chinese authorities. The usefulness of this operation is difficult to assess as details are not readily available, but it is doubtful if it made a significant contribution to saving the species (MacKinnon and Qiu, 1986). A management plan is being prepared by the Sichuan Forest Department and reserve authority. Villagers living near the reserve are encouraged to sign a joint agreement with the reserve authority to protect the panda and its habitat. Management Constraints The giant panda population within the reserve has declined markedly, largely due to habitat removal and disturbance but more recently exacerbated by the mass-flowering of bamboo in 1975-6 (80% die-back) and again in 1983. Hunting and the collection of minor forest products are minor constraints. Staff The reserve is managed by a staff of 15 persons, three in management and 12 ‘work’ staff. Budget Sichuan Provincial Government allocates Yuan 30,000 (US $ 8,000) annually for recurrent expenditure (1987). Local Addresses No information References Giant Panda Expedition (1974). A survey of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in the Wanglang Natural Reserve, Pingwu, northern Szechuan, China. Acta Zoologica Sinica 20: 162-73. (In Chinese.) MacKinnon, J., and Qiu, M. (1986). Masterplan for saving the giant panda and its habitat. Preliminary draft. Ministry of Forestry, People’s Republic of China/World Wildlife Fund. MOF (1989). The habitats of the giant panda: Wolong, Tangjiahe, Wanglang nature reserves. World Heritage nomination, Ministry of Forestry, People’s Republic of China. 60 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1983). Panda Project. Report to World Wildlife Fund. P. 8. Schaller, G.B., Hu Jinchu, Pan Wenshi and Zhu Jing (1985). The giant pandas of Wolong. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 298 pp. Seidensticker, J., Eisenberg, J.F. and Simons, R. (1984). The Tangjiahe, Wanglang and Fengtongzhai giant panda reserves and biological conservation in the People’s Republic of China. Biological Conservation 28: 217-51 WOLONG NATURE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Sichuan Highlands) 125 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Geographical Location Lies in Wenchuan County, Sichuan, some 130 km from the provincial capital of Chengdu. Mountain ridges provide natural boundaries on all sides. 30°45’-31°25’N, 102°52’-103°24’E Date and History of Establishment Ratified as a national nature reserve by the State Council in March 1975. Dashuigou and other tributary valleys of the upper Pitiao in Wolong were first designated as a nature reserve in March 1963 and covered an area of 20,000 ha. Wolong was accepted as a biosphere reserve in November 1979. Area 200,000 ha. Extended from its original area of 20,000 ha in the same year (1975) that it was designated a national nature reserve. Almost continuous with Fengtongzhai Nature Reserve (40,000 ha) to the south. Land Tenure Land is under Government ownership except for 434 ha along the Pitiao and Erher rivers which are owned and cultivated by the communities of Gengda and Wolong. Altitude Ranges from about 1,200 m at Mujiangping to 6,250 m (Mt. Siguniang). Physical Features Lying between the Sichuan Basin and the Tibetan Highlands, the mountains of Wolong have been so warped, crumbled and folding during the Tertiary, when the Himalaya and neighbouring ranges began to be uplifted, that the topography is spectacular. Mountains and rivers generally run parallel with the Longmen Mountain Fault, which transects the area in a north-east to south-west direction. The terrain descends progressively from the north-west to south-east, with the Pitiao River forming a natural dividing line. Peaks to the east of the Pitiao are mostly below 3,200 m, those to the west mostly over 4,000 m and about 60 are over 5,000 m. Intense tectonic activity and erosion have created deep, V-shaped valleys, flanked either by cliffs or steep river banks, where landslides and mud floors are common. Other features including hanging valleys and cirques. The gradient of rivers is steep and the water turbulent, often laden with silt in the summer rains. The river water is slightly saline (mean pH 8.2, range 7.7 to 8.6), low in salinity (mean 160.4 mg/l, range 102.0 to 265.7) and generally soft (mean 6.4, range 3.7 to 11.2, German system). According to the Chengdu Geographic Institute of Academica Sinica, the rock strata consist primarily of sandstone, slate, schist, siltstone, gneiss, quartzite, dolomite, limestone, and phyllite and they range in age from Silurion to Triassic. Limestone and phyllite are most abundant. There are also igneous intrusions of serpentine, granite, and granodiorite. Soils are typical of those developed in subtropical, glacial conditions. On the slopes between 2,000 m and 3,100 m are many small plateaux or stripped plains (horizontal strata from which weaker rocks have been eroded) where deep brown and dark brown soils provide excellent conditions for forest and bamboo growth. Climate Wolong lies in the Qinghai-Tibetan climatic belt, characterised by a long winter, with snow lasting from November to March, and relatively cool wet summers. The south-east monsoon lasts from June until October. According to recordings from Shawan Meteorological Station at 1,920 m within the reserve, mean annual maximum and minimum temperatures are 29°C and —8 °C, respectively. Mean annual precipitation is 888 mm and relative humidity 80.3% (MOF, 1989). Conditions are more extreme at higher altitudes. Total annual precipitation recorded by Schaller et al. (1985) at Wuyipeng (2,520 m) in 1981 was 1511 mm, of which 37.9% fell as snow between late October and April. Mean daily minimum temperature was below freezing point from November through March, the coldest day 126 ¥ SHAANXI ™ 7.) 5 ; =] 6 13 Min Shan @7 SICHUAN @ Chengtu Reserves °° Foping Baishuijiang Baihe Jiuzhaigou Wanglang o 11 12 Tangjiahe r Xiaozhaizigou 100 200 Kilometres : ‘ Liang Shan pe A a focaioan Labahe Meigu Dafengding SP Panda Mountain Ranges Mabian Dafengding 106° Huanglongsi —<— — — Provincial Boundary Wolong Nature Reserve and associated panda reserves Nature Reserves of the Himalaya registering —12.5 °C. The warmest months were June, July and August when mean daily maxima reached 16 °C—29 °C. Vegetation The vegetation is altitudinally distributed into a number of zones that have been described by Hu (1981). Subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest grows below 1,600 m in the south-east and extend over some 3,300 ha (2% of the total reserve area). Cinnamomum inunctum, Lindera sp., and Phoebe sp., are prominent trees. A mixed evergreen and deciduous broad-leaved forest, covering 26,600 ha (13% of the reserve), lies between about 1,600 m and 2,000 m. Cyclobalanopsis oxyodon and oak Quercus sp., are common evergreens, and birch Betula sp., beech Fagus longipetiolata, maple Acer sp., and walnut Juglans cathayensis, conspicuous deciduous trees. Dogwood Cornus controversa, Pterocarya insignis, Sophora sp., and Tetracentron sinense are also prominent forest trees. Mixed coniferous and deciduous broad-leaved forest, covering 28,400 ha (14%) of the reserve, extends from 2,000 m to 2,600 m. Hemlock Tsuga sp., spruce Picea sp., and larch Larix mastersiana are the main conifers, and birch, maple, basswood Tilia chinensis, and cherry Prunus sp., among the most common broad-leaved trees. Subalpine coniferous forest extends from 2,600 m to 3,600 m and covers 31,700 ha (16%) of the total area. Fir Abies sp., is dominant but rhododendron Rhododendron sp., and birch are also abundant. Above the tree limit, thickets of fir, juniper Juniperus squamata, oak, and rhododendron merge with alpine meadows. Still higher, the vegetation becomes sparse until plant growth ceases at about 4,400 m. About half of the reserve lies above the tree limit (Schaller et al., 1985). Variable conditions of topography, hydrology, soil and climate are responsible for a diverse flora. Some 4,000 species of plants are present (including 700 medicinal species), representing about 40% of the total number of species in Sichuan. Some are relicts of the Tertiary palaeotropical flora, for example Cercidiphyllum japonicum, dove tree Davidia involucrata, rhododendrons, oaks, and firs (Schaller et al., 1985). Both C. japonicum and D. involucrata are nationally protected on account of their rarity, as well as Larix mastersiana, Kingdonia uniflora, Tetracentron sinense, Salix magnifica, and Gastrodia elata (Lucas, 1987). Fauna Wolong straddles the border between the tropical lowlands to the south and east and the temperate uplands to the north and west, hence its fauna is allied to both the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. The forest fauna at low-to-medium altitudes is mainly Oriental in origin (e.g. stump-tailed macaque Macaca speciosa, giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca (R), clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa (V), large Indian civet Viverra zibetha, tufted deer Elaphodus cephalophus, serow Capricornis sumatraensis, bamboo rat Rhizomys sinensis, and golden pheasant Chrysolophus pictus, while that of the subalpine coniferous forest and particularly that above the tree-line is characterised by Palaearctic species (e.g. Pallas’s (steppe) cat Felis manul, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), musk deer Moschus berezovskii, pika Ochotona thibetana, and Tibetan snowcock Tetraogallus tibetanus). The reserve supports many kinds of vertebrates, 96 species of mammals (52% of the provincial total), 300 species of birds, 20 species of reptiles, 14 species of amphibians, 6 species of fish and 1,700 species of insects having been noted so far. Among these are 30 species that China prizes and to which it has given complete legal protection, including Chinese monal Lophopho- rus lhuysii (E) and Temminck’s tragopan Tragopan temminckii, golden snub-nosed monkey Rhinopithecus roxellanae (V), white-lipped deer Cervus albirostris (1), Sichuan takin Budorcas taxicolor tibetana (1), snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), red panda Ailurus fulgens (K), and, of course, giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca (K), for whom the reserve was established and whose presence has assured the survival of all other species there. 128 China Evidence for 145 giant pandas was found during a census conducted in 1974 by the Rare Animal Resources Investigation Team. Based on independent data for 1981-2, Schaller et al. (1985) concluded that these census results are of the correct order of magnitude and, in the Choushuigou study area, at an estimated the ecological density to be 1.25 sq. km per animal. Numbers have since declined to an estimated 72 pandas, based on a census conducted in 1986 (MacKinnon and Qiu, 1986). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The forests of Wolong were in virgin condition prior to the 20th century, with only a small number of Tibetans subsisting on farming and hunting. Immigrants entered in the early part of this century to grow opium in Pitiao Valley and in 1916 timber merchants began logging, primarily along the banks of rivers and streams which were used for transporting the timber. A highway to Wolong was opened up in the 1960s to improve access for timber production (MOF, 1989). There are two townships, Wolong and Gengda, and six villages within the reserve, which has a residential population of some 3,854 farmers distributed among 675 households. Many of them are Qiang of Tibetan stock, but other national minorities include Tibetan, Han and Hui. ‘Divided into two communes, most of them inhabit the main valley of Wolong, where they grow potatoes, maize, beans and other crops within a cultivated area of 434 ha. Many mountainsides have been denuded below an altitude of 2,400 m, the forest converted into fields and pasture or reduced to scrub. Villagers penetrate even higher up the slopes to collect wood for fuel and to cut timber for house beams arid roof shingles. Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a visitor centre with exhibition hall, which is used extensively by students. Tourist accommodation is needed. Scientific Research and Facilities Following a census of the giant panda conducted throughout the reserve from April to July 1974 by the Expedition of Rare Animal Species in Sichuan (1977), the Chinese initiated panda research in the Choushuigou Valley in March 1978. The original breeding station at Yingxionggou was abandoned after several fruitless years and a new complex, fully equipped with research laboratories and veterinary facilities, was established at Hetauping. There are 11 resident pandas (five males, six females), including the first captive-born panda, born on 12 August 1986. Late in December 1980 a collaborative China—World Wildlife Fund panda research project began its work in the same valley. The first two and a half years of work have been summarised by Hu et al. (1980) and Hu ( 1981), while research undertaken between January 1981 and June 1982 is reported on by Schaller et al. (1985). Since 1984, an investigation into the life cycle of the giant panda’s main food plant, bamboo, has been underway (Taylor, 1984). The effects of selective cutting on forest regeneration to meet local needs for wood products has also been examined in panda habitat (Taylor and Qin, 1989). Training courses for protection and research staff are held regularly (Laurie, 1986). Conservation Value Wolong is of great importance for its biological diversity, having a particularly rich flora and avifauna. It holds the world’s largest protected population of giant panda. It is considered to be an outstanding natural area which merits inscription on the World Heritage List on the basis of criterion (iv) as a significant area of natural habitat for the best known of the world’s endangered species, the giant panda (IUCN Technical 129 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Evaluation, 1987). Inscription has been deferred, however, until the management plan is fully operational. Conservation Management Wolong was established for the protection of the giant panda and a number of other rare and nationally prestigious animal species. Extensive areas within the reserve have been logged during this century, beginning in 1916 and reaching a peak after the establishment of the Wolong Forest Industry Bureau at Shawan in 1961. In 1975 it was stopped abruptly to preserve giant panda habitat (Schaller et al., 1985). Subsequently, in 1983, the provincial government approved the establishment of the Wolong Special Administration Zone in which tree-felling, hunting and land reclamation are strictly prohibited (Chen, 1985). Together with the Wolong Nature Reserve Authority, this administration is responsible for conserving natural resources within the reserve and meeting the livelihood requirements of its resident human population. A management plan has been drafted (MacKinnon et al., 1988) but still awaits approval. At present, a core area of some 50,000 ha is strictly protected from all activities other than scientific research. The remaining 150,000 ha constitutes a buffer zone. Various conservation initiatives are underway. Two hydropower stations have been installed over the Pitiao and Gengda rivers to make available cheap electricity to replace the former vast consumption of fuelwood (MOF, 1989). One commune, totalling about 1,900 people, is scheduled to be moved out of the upper Pitiao Valley and, in view of the reserve’s designation as a biosphere reserve, resettled in a multiple-use enclave further downstream in the reserve’s Gengda Valley. However, it is now considered more appropriate to resettle these people completely outside the reserve, together with the 2,000 already living at Gengda. If this cannot be done, it is recommended that 20,000 ha of forest and village land be excised from the reserve and returned ‘to the management of Wenchuan County government (Wang and Hu, 1989). Management Constraints The main constraint to reserve management has been the damage to giant panda habitat from logging and the activities of the resident human population. The mass-flowering and die-off of bamboo in the mid-1970s and again in 1983 has imposed additional hardship on the giant panda population, but this is a natural phenomenum with which the species is able to cope in the absence of added human pressures. A major discontinuity exists between giant pandas north and east of the Zheng/Gengda Valley and those south of the Pitiao Valley. A quiet corridor, in which no further cultivation or wood cutting is permitted, needs to be created to link these populations. Moreover, as the Wolong population cannot be regarded as viable in the long-term, it needs to be linked with other populations in the Qionglai Mountains through extensions to the panda reserve system (see Wang and Hu, 1989). Hunting and the collection of forest products are minor constraints. . Staff 330 staff, comprising 176 supervisory/management staff and 154 ‘working’ staff (1987). Budget Being a ‘key’ national nature reserve, funding is provided by the Ministry of Forests, Central Government. The allocation for recurrent expenditure in 1987 was Yuan 0.8-0.9 million (US $ 0.215 to US $ 0.240 million). Local Addresses Wolong Nature. Reserve, Management Office, Wenchuan Country, Sichuan 623006. 130 China References Chen Gengtao (1985). China establishes more nature reserves. Biological Conservation 31: 1-5. Expedition of Rare Animal Species in Sichuan (1977). A report on the rare animal species in Sichuan. The Sichuan Forest Bureau. (In Chinese.) Hu Jinchu (1981). Ecology and biology of the giant panda, golden monkey and takin. Sichuan People’s Publishing House. (In Chinese.) Hu Jinchu, Deng Qixang, Yu Zhiwei, Zhou Shoude and Tian Zhixiang (1980). Biological studies of giant panda, golden monkey, and some other raré and prized animals. Journal of Nanchong Teachers’ College 1980(2): 1-39. Laurie, W.A. (1986). Training for panda reserves staff. WWF Monthly Report November 1986: 313-16. Lucas, B. (1987). Notes on trip to China. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 7 pp. MacKinnon, J., Qiu Minjang, Bi Fengzhou and Zhang Kewen (1988). Draft management plan for Wolong Natural Reserve. World Wildlife Fund, Gland, Switzerland. MOF (1989). The habitats of the giant panda: Wolong, Tangjiahe, Wanglang nature reserves. World Heritage nomination, Ministry of Forestry, People’s Republic of China. 60 pp. Schaller, G., Hu Jinchu, Pan Wenshi and Zhu Jing (1985). The giant pandas of Wolong. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 298 pp. (Contains an extensive bibliography.) Taylor, A.H., (1984). The ecology of bamboos and their role in forest dynamics in the Wolong and Tangjiahe nature reserves, northern Sichuan Province, China. World Wildlife Fund. Unpublished. Taylor, A.H. and Qin Zisheng (1989). Structure and composition of selectively cut and uncut Abies-Tsuga forest in Wolong Nature Reserve and implications for panda conservation in China. Biological Conservaton 47: 83-108. WWFE/IUCN (n.d). Project no. 1929.China, giant panda research. XISHUANGBANNA NATURE RESERVE (INCLUDES MENGYANG, MENGLA, SHANGYONG, MENGAO AND MENGLUN NATURE RESERVES) IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.39.12 (Szechwan Highlands) Geographical Location The Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve is divided into a network of five separate nature reserves isolated from each other. They are Mengyang, Mengla, Shangyong, Mengao, and Menglun, all within Xishuangbanna Prefecture in Yunnan Province. Mengyang is in northern Jinghong County, Menglun is in the centre of the Prefecture, Mengla and Shangyong are in Mengla County in the south-east, and Mengao is in Menghai County in the north-west. Access to the reserves is limited to roads, small trails and paths. 21°10’—22°24’N, 100°16’-101°55’E Date and History of Establishment Mengyang, Menghin, Mengla and Menglong were established as nature reserves by the Provincial People’s Government in 1958. Their total area was 6,000 ha, but in 1980 they were combined with Shangyong Nature Reserve to form Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve for administrative purposes (Wenhua and Xianying, 1989). 131 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Area _ The total area is officially cited as 200,000 ha, but that of the constituent reserves is 207,000 ha (Anon., 1985a):Altitude Ranges from 420 m to 2,300 m. Mengyang: 90,000 ha Mengla and Shangyong: 100,000 ha Mengao: 8,000 ha Menglun: 9,000 ha Land Tenure Provincial government Physical Features Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve lies in the Lancang (Mekong) River basin. The terrain is mostly (95%) mountainous (Wachtel, 1984). Limestone formations account for 18,000 ha. Mengla is a limestone mountain, formed during the Permain and subsequently weathered to form a karst landscape. The geology of the remaining area comprises granites and sandstones. Soils covering 60% of the area are mostly leached and acidic with a marked lack of phosphorus. On better soils, the pH range is 4.5 to 5.4 (Anon., 1985a). Climate Conditions are tropical monsoonal due to the warm and wet air currents created by the south-western monsoon from the Indian Ocean and the south-eastern monsoon from the Pacific Ocean. Cold air from the north is intercepted by mountain ranges (Wenhua and Xianging, 1989). There is a distinct wet and dry season: the dry season lasts from November to March, and the wet season from April to October. Annual precipitation ranges from 1194 mm to 2492 mm, of which 80% falls during the wet season (Anon., 1985a). There are 170-195 rainy days each year. Mean annual temperature is 15.1 °C to 21.7 °C, depending on altitude (Qinsong, 1985). Fog (115 to 145 days per year) occurs mostly in the dry season (Wenhua and Xianging, 1989). 4 Vegetation The flora is diverse with more than 60 species of trees per 100 sq. m of tropical forest. There are 3,500 species of higher plants of which 300 species are rare. There-are 200 species of food plants, 100 species of oil plants, 20 species of aromatic oil plants, 100 species of rapid-growing trees, 50 species of bamboo, 300 species of medicinal plants, and 30 species of ‘living fossils’. Valuable genetic resources include wild types of rice, wild tea Camellia sinnensis, wild litchi Litchi sinnensis, and wild tea-oil Camellia confusa. Four main types of vegetation are distinguished by the North-East Forestry Institute. Tropical rain forest (13,900 ha) is found below 800 m. Dominant species include Parashorea sinnensis, Cattica fleuryana, Tetrameles nudiflora, Pometia tomentosa, Nephelium chryseum, Terminalia myriocarpa, Knema_ surfuracea, Horsfieldia glabra, Cryteronia paniculata, Homalium laoticum, Garuga pinnata, Gironniera subaequalis and Bacaurea ramiflora. Above 800 m is tropical monsoon rain forest (3,000 ha), with Stereospermun tetragonum, Pterospermum acerifolium, Dolichandrons stipulata, Mayodendron igneum, Chukrasia tabularis, Gmelina arborea, Bombax insigne, Anthocephalus sinnensis, Bauhinia variegata, Bischofia javanica, ‘ Cleistanthus sumatranus, Duabanga grandiflora. Bamboo has emerged where the forest has been destroyed. Above 1,000 m are 179,830 ha of south subtropical monsoon broad-leaved evergreen forest. The main components of woody flora are Lauraceae, Fagaceae, Magnoliaceae and Theaceae. Species include Castonopsis mekongensis, C. hystrix, C. argyrophylla, C. ferox, Lithocarpus fenestratus, L. mohaiensis, Pygium topengii, Erythroxyllum kunthianum, Magnolia hennji, and Elaeocarpus austro yunnanensis. Mossy broad-leaved evergreen forest is found above 1,800 m on Nangang Mountain. Predominant tree species include Cyclobalanopsis rex, Lithocarpus inuensis, Lindera moghaiensis, Phoebe 132 China macrocarpus, Heliciopsis terminalis, Caryota urens, and Podocarpus wallichii (Qinsong, 1985), The Yunnan Institute of Tropical Botany classifies the vegetation into wet seasonal rain forest, dry seasonal rain forest, monsoon forest, and a monsoon forest limestone sub-type. Shifting cultivation has lead to a fire-climax grassland (Anon., 1985a). Fauna Mammals total 102 species and include tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard Panthera pardus (T), binturong Arctictis binturong, slow loris Nycticebus coucang, gibbon Hylobates concolor (V), grey langur Presbytis pileata, Asian elephant Elephas maximus (E), gaur Bos gaurus (V), pangolin Manis pentadactyla, and sambar Cervus unicolor. Since the establishment of the reserve, elephant and gaur populations have increased (Anon., 1985b). Birds total 427 species and include rufous-necked hornbill Aceros nipalensis (R), green peacock Pavo muticus (V), great barbet Megalaima virens, thick-billed green pigeon Treron curvirostra_nipalensis, thick-billed flowerpecker Dicaeum agile, crimson sunbird Aethopyga siparaja, peacock-pheasant Polyplectron bicalcaratum, olive-backed sunbird Nectarinia jugularis, silver pheasant Lophura nycthemera, red jungle fowl Gallus gallus, melodious laughing thrush Garrulax canorus, eastern blossom-headed parakeet Psittacula roseata, coppersmith barbet Megalaima haemacephala, and silver-eared mesia Leiothrix argentauris (Qinsong, 1985). Other species include Asian barred owl Glaucidium cuculoides, beach stone-curlew plover Esacus magnirostris, black-crested bulbul Pycononotus melanicterus, blue-throated barbet Magalaima asiatica, baya weaver Ploceus philippinus, Pitta spp., and Zoothera spp. (Watt, 1990). Amphibians total 38 species and reptiles 60 species, including python Python molurus (V), fish salamander I/cthyophis glutinous, black-webbed tree frog Rhacophorus rainwardtii, flat-breated tortoise Platysternon meacephalus, naked-eared flying dragon Draco blanford, flying lizard D. maculatus, and water monitor Varanus salvator. Over 1,437 different species of insects exist, the dominant genera being Lepidoptera, Colepteroidae and Hemipteroidae. White ant nests 3 m tall have also been recorded (Qinsong, 1985). Cultural Heritage The reserve is home to a number of minority groups, including Han (30%) and Dai (30%). The remainder belong to Hani, Lagu, Bulang, Jimio, Yao, Bai, Miao, Hui, Zhuang, Va, and Yi. They live in the more hilly areas, using slash and burn techniques to cultivate land. These groups have strong cultural identities, maintaining traditional beliefs and customs (Bamford, 1988). Local Human Population The resident population has increased from 12,000 in 1980 to 20,000 in 1985, due to both natural growth and immigration. Some 93 villages are distributed throughout the reserve (Anon., 1985a). Shifting cultivation and permanent agriculture extend over 13,000 ha, while 30% of the reserve is forested (Anon., 1989). Other activities include hunting, grazing and tea cultivation. The surrounding areas have been used for shifting cultivation, rubber plantations and fuelwood (Santiapillai, 1990). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Between 3% to 5% of foreign visitors to Kunming (Yunnan Province) visit the reserve (3,000 or more per year), whilst nationals number at least 6,000 per year. Accommodation and other tourist facilities are available at the ranger stations. Accommodation at Kunming and Jinghong includes hotel facilities (Bamford, 1988). Scientific Research and Facilities Studies of the vegetation have been made by the Yunnan Institute of Tropical Botany and the North-Eastern Forestry Institute. The South-Western 133 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Forestry College (1982) has inventoried the fauna. Santiapillai (1990) has studied of the management of elephants. A team from WWF-International and WWF-Hong Kong (1990), “led by John MacKinnon, carried out a survey of bird numbers and their relationship to forest of various sizes. Human impact on the reserve and its flora and fauna was also examined. The Botanical Gardens at Menglun have carried out research into tropical rain forests. Tourism has been examined by Bamford (1988). Facilities include field management stations for each reserve. Conservation Value Xishuangbanna is an extremely important reserve complex which supports a rich and diverse flora and fauna, representative of tropical, subtropical and temporate zones. It provides a refuge for a number of threatened species such as Asian elephant, gaur, green peacock and tiger, and supports a wealth of economically important plant species (Wenhua and Xiangying, 1989). Conservation Management Hunting is prohibited and a permit from the reserve bureau must be obtained before visiting or conducting scientific research. The reserve is administered by the Protection Division of the Prefectual Forestry Bureau, responsible to the Prefectual Government and Yunnan Provincial Forestry Bureau under the supervision of the Ministry of Forestry in Beijing. A statement of objectives has been issued jointly by the authorities and includes: the total protection of ’core areas’ within each component reserve; removal and resettlement of 10,000 people (1,700 families) living in the proposed core areas; improvement of living standards; removal of a further 10,000 people from within the boundaries of the reserve; planting economic crops in areas of shifting cultivation within and adjacent to the reserve; registration of all firearms; demarcation of boundaries of.each component reserve; and construction of additional forest management stations and control posts, access roads and paths to facilitate control and administration of the separate units. Beijing has formulated a two-stage project: Stage | (duration two-three years) includes the development of management plans for the separate reserves; and Stage 2 (duration five years) covers resettlement, road and path construction, boundary demarcation and the improvement of agricultural land. It is proposed to upgrade Xishuangbanna to a national reserve to facilitate funding from outside the province (Anon., 1985a). The reserve headquarters are located in Jinghong. A one-month training course for reserve guards and managers was held in Xishuangbanna in 1988 and a draft management plan for Mengyang Reserve has been prepared. Butterfly farming and agroforestry developments were initiated in 1990. The road joining Menglun, Menglan and Jinghong is currently under construction (Bamford, 1988). Management Constraints Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve is in a fairly remote and politically sensitive area due to its proximity to Laos, Myanmar and Vietnam. This will impede foreign assistance to some reserves. The above average population growth has led to increased pressure on land in and around the reserve. Prevention of shifting cultivation, the traditional form of agriculture practised by minority groups, has caused further problems due to shortage of flat agricultural land. Effective control of the reserve is unlikely until the resident agricultural population is resettled. Major constraints are the very limited development funds and lack of technical staff. Enforcement of existing regulations on hunting and grazing is inadequate due to the shortage of field staff (Anon., 1985a). Staff The Protection Division has 90 personnel, including both technical staff and labourers of whom only four are forestry graduates. 134 China Budget The annual budget for 1985 was 420,000 Yuan (US $ 112,600) of which 70% was provided by the Provincial Government and 30% by the Ministry of Forestry. Most of the budget was assigned to salaries and wages. Local Addresses Protection Division, Xishuangbanna Forestry Bureau, Jinghong, Yunnan References Anon. (1985a). Xishuangbanna. Consultant’s report. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 11 pp. Anon. (1985b). Elephant herds increase in China. Oryx 19: 241. Anon. (1989). WWF Project no. 3194. Xishuangbanna Reserve, Tropical Forest Conservation. WWF-Year Book. Pp. 53-4. Bamford, D. (1988). WWF Project no. 3194. China, Xishuangbanna reserves nature tourism consultancy. Tourism Resource Consultants (New Zealand). 28 pp. Qinsong, K. (1985). In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. 1UCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Pp. 32-5. _ Santiapillai, C. (1990). Management of elephants in the Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve. People’s Republic of China: a case study (Abstract). FAO Regional Office For Asia And The Pacific, Bangkok. 2 pp. Wachtel, P. (1984). Trip report to Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China. WWF-International, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 7 pp. Watt, N. (1990). The Dragon Hills of Xishuangbanna. WWF Features February: 1-4. Wenhua, L. and Xianging, Z. (1989). China’s nature reserves. Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. Pp. 52-67. 135 = : — “pag ert abide 5 (RS RE eee ‘PLAS 228 rea woes hi athst ae sonnet Lyerbepiert is Artetgsityl heat wv POS dirs weganarr red) Ueyg whe eo , bby ete cl an ey of pheogaiatn agli P? aman Hh Yas oY yan HM eeCewS and ity Tt na-fkina wes ule) an ite ene 4 ows ‘ Carries Oot resend ise § répice! ra raia nat ae t Mat DORA eeeoine “asst in vec guido? nmestgnesytt aban foe 2 past, - fi vi ee Ae bale salad 9° srmaliver rc ey. muppN a orn dtul Tobied x porst provides 23S Mabou sede 7 SHPO) F ee ee evant y: ms Find PARA en i ol. = rien Pe | with eaves y , ~ meio! gnutin 27 widialaraaualy ~fftd ) PCIE ion ajorl Ty “F Riser Pali Lone Mornin, iy iD) nition, TIN ON Fe sone Fame ; MAG) — toyiit Nope cs « ae psn Oho} ALL tare) aoe he te Fomiogn Divaitdr of the Pr hi gs ipltins. iM avers ) OWN ssatetifmictK ori age yea 4 | RI abide yee a yeu Anomyee ernariae tA f PA ce ; * wala - are a : oveatriat ap Atatlons ~ pete 4 | Ces rod : nq ri % tr itag S Sere sens (ae: ‘ levies ~ ulesjey5 sek ee O£ob8 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya 1984. The habitat had been well protected as a royal hunting reserve from 1846 to 1951 during the Rana regime. An area south of the Rapti River was first proposed as a rhinoceros sanctuary in 1958 (Gee, 1959), demarcated in 1963 (Gee, 1963; Willan, 1965) and later incorporated into the national park. Chitwan was designated as a World Heritage site in November 1984. Area Chitwan was enlarged from 54,400 ha to its present size of 93,200 ha in 1977. Parsa Wildlife Reserve covers 49,900 ha. There was a proposal to further enlarge the protected areas complex by establishing the 25,900 ha Bara Hunting Reserve (Wegge, 1976; Smith and Mishra, 1981), adjacent to and east of Parsa Wildlife Reserve, but this has been dropped (B.N. Upreti, pers. comm., 1986). Land Tenure State Altitude Altitude ranges from 150 m to 815 m on the Churia Range. Physical Features Chitwan is situated in a river valley basin or dun, along the flood plains of the Rapti, Reu and Narayani rivers. The Someswar and the Dauney hills form the southern catchment and both drain into the Narayani. The Churia Hills bisect the park, their northern face falling within the catchment of the Rapti and southern side forming the catchment of the Reu. The Rapti is bounded by the Mahabharat Range on the north. Both the Rapti and Reu flow westwards and drain into the Narayani, which meanders southwards for about 25 km through a narrow gorge between the Someswar and Dauney hills until it reaches the Nepal-—India border. Here it-is dammed near Tribenighat. The Narayani is also called the Gandaki and is the third largest river in Nepal. It originates in the high Himalaya and, after joining the Ganges in India, drains into the Bay of Bengal. The Churia, Someswar and Dauney hills constitute part of the Siwaliks which are characterised by outwash deposits carried from the north. All the rocks are of Pliocene or Pleistocene, fluviatile origin, and consist mainly of sandstones, conglomerates, quartzites, shales and micaceous sandstone. The Siwaliks show a distinctive fault pattern that has produced steep cliffs on the south-facing slopes, where vegetation cover is poorer than the northern slopes. The Mahabharat Range consists of severely eroded pre-Siwalik quartzites, phyllites, and sandstones. The flood plains comprise a series of ascending alluvial terraces laid down by the rivers and subsequently raised by Himalayan uplift. The terraces are composed of layers of boulders and gravels set in a fine silty matrix. There is a rough gradient from the higher-lying boulders and gravels to sands and silts and then to the low-lying silt loams and silty clay loams (Bolton, 1975; Laurie, 1978). The wetlands are described by Scott (1989). Climate Conditions are subtropical with a summer monsoon from mid-June to late-September, and a relatively dry winter. Mean annual rainfall is 2,400 mm with about 90% falling in the monsoon from June to September. Monsoon rains cause dramatic floods and changes in the character and courses of rivers. Temperatures are highest (maximum 38 °C) during this season and drop to a minimum of 6 °C in the post-monsoon period (October to January), when dry northerly winds from the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau are prevalent (Bolton, 1975; Laurie, 1978). Vegetation The climax vegetation of the Inner Terai is sal Shorea robusta forest, which covers some 70% of the park (Laurie, 1978). However, floods, fires and riverine erosion combine to make a continually changing mosaic of grasslands and riverine forests in various stages of succession. Purest stands of sal occur on better drained ground such as the lowlands 364 Nepal around Kasra in the centre of the park. Elsewhere, sal is intermingled with chir pine Pinus roxburghii along the southern face of the Churia Hills and with tree species such as Terminalia bellerica, Dalbergia latifolia, Anogeisus latifolia, Dillenia indica, and Garuga pinnata on northern slopes. Creepers, such as Bauhinia vahlii and Spatholobus parviflorus are common. The understorey is scant with the exception of grasses such as Themeda villosa. Riverine forest and grasslands, which form a mosaic along the river banks, are maintained by seasonal flooding. Khair-sissoo Acacia catechu-Dalbergia sissoo associations predominate on recent alluvium deposited during floods and in lowland areas that escape the most serious flooding. Semal-bhellar Bombax ceiba-Trewia nudiflora, with understorey shrubs Callicarpa macrophylla, Clerodendrum viscosum, and Phyllanthus emblica, represent a later stage in succession. Two other types of riverine forest (Eugenia woodland and tropical evergreen forest) occur in areas outside the present boundary of the park. Laurie (1978) identified seven major grassland types, which consitute about 20% of the park’s area: Themeda villosa forms a tall grass cover in clearings in the sal forest; Saccharum-Narenga associations grow as mixed and pure stands of tall grass (Saccharum spontaneum is one of the first species to colonise newly created sandbanks); Arundo-Phragmites associations form dense tall stands along stream beds on the flood plain and around lakes; /mperata cylindrica grows prolifically in areas within the park which were occupied by villages prior to their evacuation in 1964; various short grasses and herbs grown on exposed sandbanks during the dry months and become much more prolific with the outset of rain in May (e.g. Polygonum plebeium, Persicaria spp. and sedges such as Cyperus, Kyllinga, and Mariscus spp.); Cynodon dactylon and Chrysopogon aciculatus and other short grasses grow in highest areas near riverine forest all the year round; and low-lying stands of Saccharum spontaneum, which are destroyed by repeated flooding early in the monsoon. A list of plant species is given by Laurie (1978). Fauna A detailed account of the park’s fauna is given by Gurung (1983). Over 40 species of mammals have been recorded. Prior to its reintroduction to Royal Bardia National Park in 1986, the park contained the last Nepalese population of the Indian rhinoceros Rhinoceros unicornis (E). This had increased from about 300 in 1975 (Laurie, 1978, 1982) to about 350 in 1986 (Anon., 1986). It is currently estimated at 375-400 (Dinerstein, 1989). Tiger Panthera tigris (E) is present and has been the subject of a long-term study begun in 1974. The population increased from an estimated 25 in 1974 to 70-110 in 1980, of which 24-30 are resident breeders at any one time (Smith et al., 1983), but has recently crashed. Half of the resident tigers in the western portion of the park disappeared during the 1990 monsoon and two-thirds of dependent young were also missing (McDougal, 1991). Leopard Panthera pardus (T) is widespread and other threatened mammal species include wild dog Cuon alpinus _ (¥), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (1), Ganges river dolphin Platanista gangetica (V), and gaur Bos gaurus (V). Hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus (E) is also present (Oliver, 1985). The sloth bear population totalled 50-60 in 1979 (Laurie and Seidensticker, 1977). The river dolphin population may have declined following the construction of a dam towards the Indian border. Seven were recorded in 1980 but none in 1990 (T.M. Maskey, pers. comm.). Wild elephant Elephas maximus (E) occasionally pass through the Churia Hills. Other mammals include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta and common langur Presbytis entellus, smooth-coated otter Lutra perspicillata, yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula, ratel Mellivora capensis, spotted linsang Prionodon pardicolor, large Indian civet Viverra zibetha, small Indian civet Viverricula indica, common palm civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Himalayan palm civet Paguma larvata, mongoose Herpestes spp., fishing cat Felis viverrina, leopard cat F. bengalensis, jungle cat F. chaus, jackal Canis aureus, striped hyena Hyaena hyaena, Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis, sambar Cervus unicolor, hog deer C. porcinus, spotted deer C. axis, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, wild boar Sus scrofa, Chinese pangolin 365 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Manis pentadactyla, five-striped palm squirrel Funambulus pennanti, Indian porcupine Hystrix indica, and Indian hare Lepus nigricollis. The wild ungulate biomass within riverine/tall grass habitats has been estimated at 18,590 kg/sq. km. (Seidensticker, 1976), far exceeding that reported anywhere else in the Indian subcontinent. Most mammals found in the park also occur in the Parsa Wildlife Reserve with the exception of hog deer. Four-horned antelope Tetracerus quadricornis occur in Parsa, on the southern slopes of the Churia Hills, and the reserve contains Nepal’s only reproducing herd of about 21 elephants (Smith et al.; 1983). A larger number of bird species has been recorded in Chitwan (489 in total) than in any other protected area in Nepal. This is attributed to the park’s wide range of habitat types and location within the tropical lowlands of Central Nepal where eastern and western species overlap in their distributions. There are ten breeding species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations including Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis (E) and rufous-necked laughing-thrush Garrulax ruficollis. It is the only locality in the country for striped buttonquail Turnix sylvatica, bristled grass warbler Chaetornis striatus and slender-billed babbler Turdoides longirostris. In addition, Chitwan is the only protected area where the following species considered to be at risk in Nepal have been found: yellow bittern Ixobrychus sinensis, black baza Aviceda leuphotes, laggar falcon Falco jugger, blue-breasted quail Coturnix chinensis, thick-billed green pigeon Treron curvirostra, mountain imperial pigeon Ducula badia, vernal hanging parrot Loriculus vernalis, red-winged crested cuckoo Clamator coromandus, banded bay cuckoo Cacomantis sonneratii, tawny fish owl Ketupa flavipes, white-vented needletail Hirundapus cochinchinensis, deep blue kingfisher Alcedo meninting, white-browed piculet Sasia ochracea, long-tailed broadbill Psarisomus dalhousiae, hooded pitta Pitta sordida, white-throated bulbul Criniger flaveolus, lesser necklaced laughing-thrush Garrulax monileger, greater necklaced laughing-thrush G. pectoralis, ruby-cheeked sunbird Anthreptes singalensis, and little spiderhunter Arachnothera longirostra. Chitwan is very important for wintering birds (about 160 in total)—both for winter visitors from outside Nepal and for the many altitudinal migrants which descend to the lowlands outside the breeding season—as well as being a valuable staging point for numerous passage migrant species (Inskipp, 1989). Details of the waterfowl are given by Scott (1989). Some 19 species of snake occur in the park including king cobra Ophiophagus hannah, green pit viper Trimeresurus albolabris, common krait Bungarus caeruleus, and Indian python Python molurus (V). Other notable reptiles are mugger Crocodylus palustris (V) (having declined from at least 200 in 1978 to 70 in 1986-8), gharial Gavialis gangeticus (E), Indian starred tortoise Geochelone elongata, and monitor lizards Varanus spp. Some 113 species of fish have been recorded, including Barilius spp., Tor tor, T. putitora, and Puntius spp. (Edds, 1986). Cultural Heritage The indigenous Tharus have lived in the Chitwan area for centuries, but they are out-numbered by settlers from the hills who poured into the Inner Terai following the eradication of malaria in the 1950s. There are two Hindu religious sites, Bikram Baba at Kasara and Balmiki Ashram at Tribeni, which are very significant to both the local people living around the park and visitors from India (B.N. Upreti, pers. comm., 1989). Local Human Population Padampur Panchayat, located immediately to the south of the Rapti River, is a heavily populated area as well as providing some of the last remaining 366 Nepal habitat for tiger, rhinoceros, and gharial. With the fall of the Rana regime and the eradication of malaria from the area, the human population of Chitwan rose dramatically from 36,000 to 100,000 between 1950 and 1960. By 1980 there were 261,300 people in 320 settlements around the park (Milton and Binney, 1980; Mishra, 1982a). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Chitwan is one of the most popular tourist destinations outside Kathmandu and Pokhara. Visitor numbers have risen from less than 1,000 in 1974 to 31,446 in 1989. Tiger Tops operates a Jungle Lodge and Tented Camp in the west of the park, and Tharu Village Resort peripheral to the park. Its Jungle Lodge pre-dates the park, having been set up by John Coapman in the mid-1960s (Willan, 1965). Other concession lodges inside the park are Chitwan Jungle Lodge and Machan Wildlife Resort in the east, and Tiger Temple in the west. Similar luxury lodges on the edge of the park are Gaida Wildlife Camp and Elephant Camp at Sauraha, and Island Resort and Narayani Safari. There are over 30 low-budget lodges and guest houses outside the park. Sauraha has a good visitor information centre (Berkmiiller, 1979). There are no provisions for visitors in Parsa Wildlife Reserve, and no visitors were recorded in 1989. Scientific Research and Facilities Chitwan is one of the best studied protected areas in the subcontinent. A programme of research concerning the ecology of the tiger and its prey species was initiated in 1973 by His Majesty’s Government, the Smithsonian Institution and WWE (Sunquist, 1981; Wemmer et al., 1983). This was superseded in 1984 by the Smithsonian-Nepal Terai Ecology Project, the scope of which encompasses broader aspects of ecology, including the relationship between habitats, invertebrate, vertebrate, and human populations. Further details of its research activities can be found in the project’s newsletter. McDougal (1977) also studied the tiger in the west of the park. The ecology of the Indian rhinoceros has been studied by Laurie (1978, 1982) and more recently by Dinerstein (1989). Other mammals studied include chital (Mishra, 1982b), hog deer (Dhungel, 1985) and muntjac (Oli, 1986). The avifauna is well documented (Gurung, 1983; Inskipp, 1989), with research including surveys of wetland species (Halliday, 1983). A gharial breeding centre, funded by the Frankfurt Zoological Society, was established at Kasara Durbar in 1977. More than 200 young have been reared and reintroduced to the wild (Dhungel, 1987). T.M. Maskey has Studied the survival and dispersal of gharial released in the Narayani River. Aberdeen University Expedition to Nepal (1980) surveyed fish resources in the Narayani River system with respect to the endangered gharial population. Studies on grassland ecology have been carried out by Lemkuhl et al. (1988). A proposal to establish the Nepal Conservation Training and Wildlife Institute has been made by the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Tribhuvan University and the Institute of Forestry (B.N. Upreti, pers. comm., 1989). The Smithsonian—Nepal Terai Ecology Project has its field station at Sauraha, where accommodation and facilities for scientists are available. Conservation Value Chitwan National Park and the adjacent Parsa Wildlife Reserve constitute the largest and least disturbed example of sal forest and associated communities of the Terai, with a long history of protection dating back to the early 1800s in the case of Chitwan. Species diversity is high, notably for mammals and birds which are well documented. Chitwan supports the world’s second largest population of Indian rhinoceros and is also an | important refuge for tiger and gharial. Its tall grasslands and riverine forest support a very high wild ungulate biomass which greatly exceeds that reported elsewhere in the Indian | Subcontinent. Large numbers of visitors are attracted to the area because of its exceptional | natural beauty, with the distant Himalaya providing a spectacular backdrop to views of forested ) 367 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya hills, grasslands, and great rivers. Research on the natural history of the area has been an important contribution to understanding ecological systems in the Terai (IUCN Technical Evaluation of World Heritage Nomination, 1984). Conservation Management Chitwan was identified as the priority area in the Terai for conservation due to its important faunal elements, particularly Indian rhinoceros which had been extirpated from its former range elsewhere in Nepal (Bolton, 1975). Development of the then proposed national park began in 1971 with a modest budget provided by the Forest Department and supplemented by a grant from WWF. Conservation measures have been an outstanding success, as indicated by the substantial increase in wildlife populations and regeneration of vegetation along the Rapti River over subsequent years (Mishra, 1982). Much of this success can be attributed to several resettlement schemes. Some 22,000 people were resettled from the Rapti area, including 4,000 from the former rhinoceros sanctuary, following the creation of a Land Settlement Commission in 1964. Subsequently, 7,000 people from 10 of the 16 villages in Padampur Panchayat on the eastern side of the park were resettled to more fertile lands devoid of wild herbivores, based on recommendations from a study by the International Centre for Environmental Renewal (Milton and Binney, 1980). The scheme met with local support but further relocation of any of the other 310 villages that surround the park is not politically or economically feasible (Mishra, 1982a). There is a park management plan for the period 1975-9 (Bolton, 1975) but it needs to be completely revised. The establishment of Parsa Wildlife Reserve as an eastern extension to the park has increased the area under protection by about 60%. This extension was also intended to prevent possible isolation of the proposed Bara Hunting Reserve from the park (Smith and Mishra, 1981). The main concession to local people is the annual harvesting of tall grasses, a valuable building material which is not readily available elsewhere (Mishra, 1982). In 1987, an estimated 11,132 tonnes of grass were removed by 60,000 people during the fifteen-day grass-cutting period, valued at approximately NRs 9.9 million (US $ 450,000). The net contribution to the local economy, after subtraction of labour and permit costs, is NRs 5.5 million (US $ 250,000) (Lehmkuhl et al., 1988). The opening of the Bhrikuti Paper Mill at nearby Gaidakot is introducing a new dimension to local requirements for grass. In view of Chitwan’s importance as a tourist attraction, the park authorities, in collaboration with Peace Corps/Nepal, run a two-week training programme annually for tour guides. In future, it is planned to permit only licensed guides who have attended and passed the course to operate in the park (Heinen, 1990). Management Constraints The park was listed as a Threatened Protected Area of the World © by the IUCN Commission on National Parks and Protected Areas in 1990 in view of the proposed establishment of a hydroelectric barrage on the Narayani River upstream of the park and the East Rapti Irrigation Project, which would reduce the base flow by 75%. Both projects would result in changes to the riverine ecosystems, and could seriously affect aquatic and terrestrial faunal populations (Sharma, 1990;‘Anon., 1991). In a recent assessment of the East Rapti Irrigation Project for the Asian Development Bank, Talbot (1991) concludes that environmental risks from the project are unacceptably high and recommends that it be reformulated or replaced by one or more lower-cost projects. Considerable antagonism has long existed between the park and local people, particularly residents of Padampur Panchayat. The main areas of conflict are loss of life (three to five 368 Nepal people are killed each year by rhinoceros and tiger), loss of livestock (domestic cattle may consititute up to 30% of tiger kills in settled areas peripheral to the park), damage to crops (estimated to range from 10% to 100%) and restrictions concerning the use of the park’s resources (hunting, fishing, grazing, and collection of timber, fuelwood, and other forest products for food and medicine are prohibited within the park) (Milton and Binney, 1980; Mishra, 1982). Sixteen people were killed by tigers in and around the park between October 1980 and early 1989 (McDougal, 1989). Such conflicts will escalate as the local human population continues to increase and remnant forest and grassland areas outside the protected areas complex decline, but they are being addressed by the park authorities and local people are beginning to appreciate the value of the park for managed natural resources (Lehmkuhl et al., 1988). Illegal collection of fuelwood during the grass-cutting season is a hindrance to the proper management of the programme and, in the long-term, will need to be resolved by establishing community fuelwood plantations around the park (Lehmkuhl et al., 1988). Collection of tall grasses is well controlled but has inevitably led to changes in the floral composition of the grassland communities. Annual burning seems to maintain the grasslands but semal Bombax ceiba, the only fire resistant tree, is encroaching this habitat (Troth, 1976). Overgrazing along Padampur Panchayat’s riverine boundary is seriously accelerating the already extensive erosion of the river bank. Consequently, valuable crop lands are being lost. The development of tourist facilities (hotels and teashops) on the eastern side of the park has not been controlled. In general, the rapid increase in the number of foreigners visiting Chitwan has led to locally inflated prices for basic foods and household products. This problem is compounded by the fact that few local people are employed in the park so that the local population is poorer as a result of the park’s presence (Mishra, 1982). Poaching has increased recently. At least eight rhinos were killed between August 1990 and March 1991 and three tigers poisoned since November 1990 (M. Rowntree, pers. comm.). Staff A chief warden, 1 warden, 2 assistant wardens, 11 rangers, 11 senior game scouts, 44 game scouts, and 29 office staff. One battalian of the Royal Nepal Army is stationed in the park for enforcement duties. Elephant staff total 67 at Chitwan and 34 at Birganj. Budget Expenditure was NRs 2,447,353 (US $ 81,578) and income NRs 13,449,910 (US $ 448,330) in 1989-90. Income was derived from entrance and camping fees (65.4%), elephant rides (14.4%), hotel concessions (12.2%), grass-cutting permits (2.3%) and various other sources (5.6%). The budget for 1990-1 is NRs 2,970,000 (US $ 99,000). Local Addresses Chief Warden, Chitwan National Park Headquarters, Kasra Durbar, Narayani Zone References Aberdeen University Expedition to Nepal (1980). Expedition report. Unpublished. 120 pp. Anon. (1986). The 1986 Rhino Census for Chitwan National Park. Smithsonian—Nepal Terai Ecology Project Newsletter 4: 3-5. Anon. (1991). World Heritage site in danger. Wildlife Nepal January/ February: 1. Berkmiiller, K. (1979). Visitor information center at Nepal’s Royal Chitwan National Park. Parks 4(2): 17-19. Bolton, M. (1975). Royal Chitwan National Park Management Plan 1975-79. Project Working Document no. 2. HMG/UNDP/FAO National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, Kathmandu. 105 pp. Dhungel, S.K. (1985). Ecology of the hog deer in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D. thesis. University of Montana, USA. Unpublished. 369 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Dhungel, S.K. (1987). Reintroduction of gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) in Nepal. Tiger Paper 14(4): 11-15. Dinerstein, E. (1989). King of the marsh. /nternational Wildlife 19(2): 5-8. Edds, D. (1986). The fishes of Royal Chitwan National Park. Department of Zoology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater. 14 pp. (Unseen) Gee, E.P. (1959). Report on a survey of the rhinoceros area of Nepal. Oryx 5: 59-85. Gee, E.P. (1963). Report on a brief survey of the wildlife resources of Nepal, including the rhinoceros. Oryx 7: 67-76. Gurung, K.K. (1983). Heart of the jungle: the wildlife of Chitwan, Nepal. Andre Deutsch, London. 197 pp. Halliday, J.B. (1983). A study of the ecological distribution of resident and migratory birds along the Rapti and Narayani rivers in the Royal Chitwan National Park. November/December 1982. A report to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Nepal. 35 Heinen, J.T. (1990). The design and implementation of a training program for tour guides in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Tiger Paper 17(2): 11-15. Inskipp, C. (1989). Nepal’s forest birds: their status and conservation. /nternational Council for Bird Preservation Monograph no. 4. 184 pp. Laurie, W.A. (1978). The ecology and behaviour. of the greater one-horned rhinoceros. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge. 450 pp. Laurie, W.A. (1982) Behavioural ecology of the greater one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Journal of Zoology, London 196: 307-41. Laurie, A. and Seidensticker, J. (1977). Behavioural ecology of the sloth bear (Melursus ursinus). Journal of Zoology, London 182: 187-204. Lehmkuhl, J.F., Upreti, R.K., and Sharma U.R. (1988). National parks and local development: grasses and people in Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Environmental Conservation 15: 143-8. McDougal, C. (1977). The face of the tiger. Rivington-Deutsch, London. 180 pp. McDougal, C. (1989). Tiger attacks around Chitwan National Park. Cat News 11: 13. McDougal, C. (1991). Chitwan tiger numbers crash. Cat News 14: 8-9. Milton, J.P. and Binney, G.A. (1980). Ecological planning in the Nepalese Terai. Threshold, International Centre for Environmental Renewal, Washington, DC. 35 pp. Mishra, H.R. (1982a). Balancing human needs and conservation in Nepal’s Royal Chitwan National Park. Ambio 11: 246-51. Mishra, H.R. (1982b). The ecology and behaviour of chital (Axis axis) in the Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Ph.D. thesis, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh. 233 pp. Oli, M.K. (1986). Studies on stereotyped behavior of barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak). Report submitted to the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, Kathmandu. 67 pp. Oliver, W.L.R. (1985). The distribution and status of the hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus—with some additional notes on the pigmy hog Sus salvinius. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey. 94 pp. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Seidensticker, J. (1976). Ungulate populations in Chitwan Valley, Nepal. Biological Conservation 10: 183-210. Sharma, U.R. (1990). The disaster that is ERIP. Himal November/December: 32-3. Smith, J.L.D. and Mishra, H.R. (1981). Management recommendations for the Chitwan tiger population: the Parsa Extension and Bara Hunting Reserve. Smithsonian Institution/WWF Project 1051. 28 pp. 370 Nepal Smith, J.L.D., Mishra, H.R., and Jordan, P.A. (1983). Population level management: a step in developing a tiger conservation strategy. Paper presented at Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Seminar on Conservation in Developing Countries. Indian Institute of - Technology, Powai, Bombay. 6-10 December 1983. 13 pp. Sunquist, M.E. (1981). The social organisation of tigers (Panthera tigris) in Royal Chitwan National Park. Smithsonian Contributions in Zoology 336: 1-98. Talbot, L.M. (1991). Nepal: East Rapti Irrigation Project (ERIP) (Loan no. 867): environmental impact asssessment for the project reformulation. Final Report. Asian Development Bank, Manila. Unpublished. 12 pp. Troth, R.G. (1976). Successional role of Bombax ceiba in savannas in Nepal. Smithsonian Institution/W WF Tiger Ecology Project, Nepal. Unpublished. Wegge, P. (1976). Himalayan shikar reserves; surveys and management proposals. Field Document no. 5. FAO/NEP/72/002 Project, Kathmandu. 96 pp. Wemmer, C., Simons, R., and Mishra, H.R. (1983). Case history of the co-operative conservation program: the Nepal Tiger Ecology Project. Paper presented at Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Seminar on Conservation in Developing Countries. Indian Institute of Technology, Powai, Bombay. 6-10 December. Willan, R.S.M. (1965). Rhinos increase in Nepal. Oryx 8: 156-60. ROYAL SUKLA PHANTA WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Lies in the extreme south-western section of Nepal’s Terai in Kanchanpur District. The reserve shares a common boundary with the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh in the south and west which is formed by the Mahakali (Sarda) River, a major tributary of the Ganges. It is bordered on the eastern side by the Chaudhar River and to the north by a forest belt and cultivations. 28°49’-28°57’N, 80°07’—80°15’E Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a wildlife reserve in July 1976, having formerly been decreed a royal shikar (hunting) reserve in 1965. . Area 15,500 ha. There are plans to extend the reserve by about 15,500 ha as far eastwards as Sayali River to include Dhaka Block, a former hunting reserve of approximately 3,700 ha. Plans are being delayed owing to problems of resettlement (M. Weaver, pers. comm., 1990). Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 90 m to 270 m. Physical Features The area is generally flat, with occasional gently rolling hills. Rani Tal, a small lake, is situated inside the eastern border. The reserve lies south of the bhaber zone, a broad alluvial flood plain that slopes gently away from the foothills (Churia Range) of the Himalaya. Bhaber deposits are a conglomerate of boulders, gravel and sand washed down from the foothills. 37] Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Climate Conditions are monsoonal, with over 90% of the annual precipitation (1000—2000 mm) falling between June and September. Mean maximum temperatures are 40 °C-42 °C in summer (April-May), when hot westerly winds of up to 160 km per hour have been recorded, and 10 °C—12 °C in winter (Balson, 1976). Vegetation Some 54.7% of the reserve is covered by mixed deciduous forest, grassland and marsh in the south-west where soils are of recent alluvium. The rest is moist deciduous forest and savanna, supported by the better drained soils on higher terrain in the north-east (Balson, 1976). The main vegetation types distinguished by Schaaf (1978a, 1978b) are: sal Shorea robusta forest; sal savanna, which is part of a continuum between climax forest and grassland that is maintained by fire or floods; mixed deciduous forest, which is patchily distributed among the more extensive grasslands in the south-west (sal is absent); grasslands, which may be dry (locally known as phantas) or wet in the case of areas inundated during the monsoon; lowland savanna, which occurs on the fringes of all main grasslands and covers most of Karaiya Phanta; khair-sissoo forest, dominated by Acacia catechu and Dalbergia sissoo, and forming an early succession in riverine areas; and marsh, in which tall dense grasses are predominant (e.g. Phragmites karka, Saccharum spontaneum, and Sclerostachya fusca). Fifty-four species of grass and sedge were collected by Schaaf (1978b). Fauna_ A total of 24 mammal species was recorded by Schaaf (1978b), to which can be added hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus (E) (Oliver, 1985; Bell, 1987) and Kashmir flying squirrel Hylopetes fimbriatus (Bell, 1987). An unconfirmed report of pygmy hog Sus salvanius (E) (Oliver, 1985) has not been substantiated (Bell, 1987). The reserve harbours Nepal’s largest remaining population of swamp deer Cervus duvauceli (E), estimated at a minimum size of 908 in 1976 (Schaaf, 1978a) and currently in excess of 3,000 (T.M. Maskey, pers. comm., 1990). Other ungulate species are spotted deer Cervus axis (numerous), sambar C. unicolor (scarce), hog deer C. porcinus (common), Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak (few), and nilgai Boselaphus tragocamelus (50-60) (D.J. Bell, pers. comm., 1988). Other mammals include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, common langur Presbytis entellus, tiger Panthera tigris (E), leopard P. pardus (T), jungle cat Felis chaus, small Indian civet Viverricula indica, Indian grey mongoose Herpestes edwardsi, jackal Canis aureus, Indian fox Vulpes bengalensis, sloth bear Melursus ursinus (I), smooth-coated otter Lutra perspicillata, porcupine Hystrix indica, rufous-tailed hare Lepus nigricollis caudatus, and Indian elephant Elephas maximus (E). The avifauna comprises 268 species of which 180 are breeding species (Inskipp, 1989). Sukla Phanta is important for grassland birds, particularly swamp francolin Francolinus gularis (V), Bengal florican Houbaropsis bengalensis (E), grass owl Tyto capensis, large grass warbler Graminicola bengalensis, and striated marsh warbler Megalurus palustris. The reserve supports the largest population of Bengal florican in Nepal (17 were recorded by D. Weaver in 1990) and it is the only locality where black bittern Dupetor flavicollis regularly occurs. There are 22 breeding species at risk in Nepal, including Pallas’s fish eagle Haliaeetus leucoryphus, lesser fishing eagle [chthyophaga nana, grey-headed fishing eagle /. ichthyaetus, changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus, brown fish owl Ketupa zeylonensis, oriental pied hornbill Anthracoceros coronatus, and great slaty woodpecker Mulleripicus pulverulentus. Several specialities of the western lowlands occur such as sarus crane Grus antigone, brown-headed barbet Megalaima zeylanica, white-naped woodpecker Chrysocolaptes festivus, and Tickell’s blue flycatcher Cyornis tickelliae. Rani Tal is visited by large numbers of wintering and migratory wildfowl and waders (Scott, 1989). a72 Nepal Reptiles include Indian python Python molurus (V) and mugger Crocodylus palustris (V), which occurs in Rani Tal as well as in Bawani River. Bhatt and Shrestha (1977) provide an annotated list of 14 species of fish, including mahseer Tor tor, snake heads Ghanna spp., and catfish Mystus spp. Schaaf (1978b) recorded 10 species of ectoparasites and biting flies, including a new species of Haematopinidae (Solenopotes sp.) and Tabanidae (Haematopota sp.). Cultural Heritage The aboriginal Tharus, agro-pastoralists, were until recently almost the only inhabitants of the remote western Terai, including what is now the reserve (Schaaf, 1978b). Singa Pal is an important religious site. Local Human Population Less than three decades ago the area was mostly pristine wilderness interspersed with occasional meadows and Tharu villages. Following the control of malaria in the 1950s, with help from World Health Organisation, settlers moved down from the nearby Mahabharat Lekh in large numbers during the early 1960s. Visitors and Visitor Facilities The reserve was first opened up to tourists in 1985. In 1989 there were 42 visitors. There is an airport near Mahendranagar which has weekly scheduled flights to Kathmandu, but these are irregular during the monsoon season. The reserve is also accessible by road from Kathmandu, or road and rail from India. Elephants can be hired for viewing wildlife. Scientific Research and Facilities An ecological study of swamp deer was undertaken in 1974-6 (Schaaf, 1978b). The status of Bengal florican in the reserve was investigated in 1982 (Inskipp and Collar, 1984). A comparative ecological study of hispid hare and rufous-tailed hare was carried out in 1986 (Bell, 1987). There are no research facilities. Conservation Value Sukla Phanta contains a rich mosaic of habitats and is particularly important for its phantas or open grasslands which support several threatened species of mammals and birds, notably swamp deer and Bengal florican (Schaaf, 1978a; Inskipp, 1989). Conservation Management The reserve was established largely on account of its phantas, refuge for the endangered swamp deer, and also because of its healthy resident population of tiger. Excellent progress has been made since 1976. The reserve is adequately staffed and the necessary infrastructure has been provided. Poaching has been reduced to a minimum, other illegal activities are being brought under control and two villages have been removed (FAO, 1980). Sukla Phanta itself, covering about 400 ha, and other areas of short grassland are maintained by regular controlled burning in January and repeated in April or May. Other grasslands in the reserve are cut for thatch and subsequently burnt. Grass cutting is restricted to a period of 21 days between mid-December and mid-January. Approximately 23,000 permits are issued annually, each permit being valid for one person for one week (Oliver, 1985; D.J. Bell, pers. comm., 1988). Management Constraints There are problems associated with the resettlement of eight villages from the proposed Dhaka extension to the reserve (Oliver, 1985). Illegal cattle grazing and burning are major problems. Over 1,000 cattle graze in the reserve each day. The clearance of a 3-4 km belt of forest buffering the reserve’s northern boundary, under the World Bank funded Mahakali Irrigation Project, will add to existing pressures on the reserve. 373 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya A further 150 ha of forest within the reserve may be lost to this project. The project could also interfere with hispid hare habitat. The present management policy of harvesting tall grasslands for thatch during the dry season also threatens the survival of the hispid hare, which is restricted to the tall riverine grasslands during this season. A strategy of controlled rotational burning may help to alleviate the immediate risk to this species (Bell, 1987). Staff One warden, one assistant warden, six rangers, six senior game scouts, twenty-four game scouts, and, eighteen office staff (1991). One company of the Royal Nepal Army is posted in the reserve for enforcement duties. Budget In 1989-90, expenditure was NRs 1,466,273 (US $ 48,876) and revenue NRs 1,747,659 (US $ 58,255), of which 13% originated from tourist concessions and fees and 87% from other sources. The budget for 1990-1 is NRs 1,666,000 (US $ 55,533). Local Addresses Warden, Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve Headquarters, Majhagaon, Kanchanpur District, Mahakali Zone References Bhatt, D.D. and Shrestha, T.K. (1977). The environment of Suklaphanta. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu. Unpublished. Balson, E.W. (1976). General report on the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve. HMG/UNDP/FAO National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Project, Kathmandu. Unpublished. 46 pp. Bell, D.J. (1987). A study of the biology and conservation problems of the hispid hare. School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich. Unpublished. 38 pp. FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife conservation, Nepal: project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO Terminal Report, Rome. 63 pp. Inskipp, C. and Collar, N.J. (1984). The Bengal florican: its conservation in Nepal. Oryx 18: 30-5. Inskipp, C. (1989). Nepal’s forest birds: their status and conservation. /nternational Council for Bird Preservation Monograph no. 4. 184 pp. Oliver, W.L.R. (1985). The distribution and status of the hispid hare Caprolagus hispidus—with some additional notes on the pigmy hog Sus salvanius. Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust, Jersey. 94 pp. Schaaf, C.D. (1978a). Some aspects of the ecology of the swamp deer or barasingha (Cervus d. duvauceli) in Nepal. In: Threatened Deer. IUCN, Morges, Switzerland. Pp. 65-86. Schaaf, C.D. (1978b). Population size and structure and habitat relations of the barasingha deer (Cervus d. duvauceli) in Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve. Ph.D. thesis, Michigan State University, Michigan. 111 pp. Schaaf, C.D. (1981). Royal refuge. Animal Kingdom 84(4): 29-33. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. 374 Nepal SAGARMATHA NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category II (National Park) X (World Heritage Site; Criteria: i, ii, iii, plus cultural) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the Solu-Khumbu District of the north-eastern region of Nepal. The park encompasses the upper catchment of the Dudh Kosi River system, which is fan-shaped and forms a distinct geographical unit enclosed on all sides by high mountain ranges. The northern boundary is defined by the main divide of the Great Himalayan Range, which follows the international border with the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. In the south, the boundary extends almost as far as Monjo on the Dudh Kosi. The 63 settlements within the park are technically excluded as enclaves. 27°45’—-28°07’N, 86°28’-87°07’E Date and History of Establishment Created a national park on 19 July 1976 and inscribed on the World Heritage List in 1979. Area 114,800 ha. The park lies adjacent to the Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area (233,000 ha). Land Tenure State. Many of the resident Sherpas have legal title to houses, agricultural land and summer grazing lands (Jefferies, 1984). Altitude Ranges in altitude from 2,845 m at Jorsalle to 8,848 m at the top of Mt. Everest (Sagarmatha), the world’s highest mountain. Physical Features This is a dramatic area of high, geologically young mountains and glaciers. The deeply-incised valleys cut through sedimentary rocks and underlying granites to drain southwards into the Dudh Kosi and its tributaries, which form part of the Ganges River system. The upper catchments of these rivers are fed by glaciers at the head of four main valleys, Chhukhung, Khumbu, Gokyo and Nangpa La. Lakes occur in the upper reaches, notably in the Gokyo Valley, where a number are impounded by the lateral moraine of the Ngozumpa Glacier (at 20 km the longest glacier in the park). There are seven peaks over 7,000 m. The mountains have a granite core flanked by metamorphosed sediments and owe their dominating height to two consecutive phases of upthrust. The main uplift occurred during human history, some 500,000—800,000 years ago. Evidence indicates that the uplift is still continuing at a slower rate, but natural erosion processes counteract this to an unknown degree (Garratt, 1981). Climate On average, 80% of the annual precipitation occurs in the monsoon season from June to September and the remainder of the year is fairly dry. Precipitation is low as the park is in the rain shadow of the Karyalung-Kangtega range to the south. Annual precipitation is 984 mm in Namche Bazar,-733 mm in Khumjung and 1,043 mm in Tengboche (Garratt, 1981). The climate of Namche Bazar can be classified as humid and tropical, based on the seasonal occurrence of rains, range in annual precipitation, number of rainy days per year 375 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya and the length of the dry season (Joshi, 1982). The mean temperature of the coldest month, January, is —0.4 °C. Some 56% of years experience a tropical regime (summer rain), 35% are bixeric (two dry periods), and 1% are trixeric (three dry periods) or irregular. Vegetation Most of the park (69%) comprises barren land above 5,000 m, 28% is grazing land, and nearly 3% is forested (Sherpa, 1985). Six of the eleven vegetation zones described by Dobremez (1975) for the Nepal Himalaya are represented in the park: lower subalpine, above 3,000 m, with forests of blue pine Pinus wallichiana, fir Abies spectabilis, and fir—juniper Juniperus recurva; upper subalpine, above 3,600 m, with birch-rhododendron forest (Betula utilis, Rhododendron campanulatum, and R. campylocarpum), lower alpine, above the tree-line at 3,800-4,000 m, with scrub (Juniperus spp., Rhododendron anthopogon, and R. lepidotum); upper alpine, above 4,500 m, with grassland and dwarf shrubs; and sub-nival zone with cushion plants from 5,500 m to 6,000 m. Oak Quercus semecarpifolia used to be the dominant species in the upper montane zone but former stands of this species and Abies spectabilis have been colonised by Pinus sp. Rhododendron arboreum, R. triflorum, and yew Taxus baccata wallichiana are associated with pine at lower altitudes and shrubs include Pieris formosa, Cotoneaster microphyllus, and R. lepidotum. Vine Parthenocissus himalayana and clematis Clematis montana are also common, and other low altitude trees include maple Acer campbellii and whitebeam Sorbus cuspidata. Abies spectabilis occupies medium to good sites above 3,000 m and forms stands with Rhododendron campanulatum or Betula utilis. Towards the tree-line, R. campanulatum is generally dominant. Juniperus indica occurs above 4,000 m, where conditions are drier, along with dwarf rhododendrons and cotoneasters, shrubby cinquefoil Potentilla fruticosa var. rigida, willow Salix sikkimensis, and Cassiope fastigiata. In association with the shrub complex are a variety of herbs such as Gentiana prolata, G. stellata, edelweiss Leontopodium stracheyi, Codonopsis thalictrifolia, Thalictrum chelidonii, lilies Lilium nepalense and Notholirion macrophyllum, Fritillaria cirrhosa, and primroses, Primula denticulata, P. atrodentata, P. wollastonii, and P. sikkimensis. The shrub layer diminishes as conditions become cooler, and above 5,000 m Rhododendron nivale is the sole representative of its genus. Other dwarf shrubs in the dry valley uplands include buckthorn Hippophae tibetana, horsetail Ephedra gerardiana, juniper J. indica, and cinquefoil Potentilla fruticosa. Associated herbs are gentians, Gentiana ornata and G. algida var. przewalskii, edelweiss Leontopodium jacotianum, and Himalayan blue poppy Meconopsis horridula. Above this and up to the permanent snow line at about 5,750 m, plant life is restricted to lichens, mosses, dwarf grasses, and sedges and alpines, such as Arenaria polytrichoides and Tanacetum gossypinum (Garratt, 1981). Fauna In common with the rest of the Nepal Himalaya, the park has a comparatively low number (28) of mammalian species, apparently due to the geologically recent origin of the Himalaya and other evolutionary factors. The low density of mammal populations is almost certainly the result of human activities. Larger mammals include common langur Presbytis entellus, jackal Canis aureus, a small number of wolf Canis lupus (V), Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (V), red panda Ailurus fulgens (K), yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula, Himalayan weasel Mustela sibirica, masked palm civet Paguma larvata, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, serow Capricornis sumatraensis, Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, and goral Nemorhaedus goral (Garratt, 1981; Jefferies and Clarbrough, 1986). Sambar Cervus unicolor has also been recorded. The tahr population is estimated to total at least 300 individuals. Both goral and serow appear to be uncommon (Lovari, 1990). Results from recent surveys suggest that populations of both tahr and musk deer have increased substantially since the park was gazetted and could lead to a recovery in the snow leopard population, 376 Nepal probable signs of which were seen in the Gokyo Valley by Jackson (1987). Smaller mammals include short-tailed mole Talpa micrura, Tibetan water shrew Nectogale elegans, Himalayan water shrew Chimarrogale himalayica, bobak marmot Marmota bobak, Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei, woolly hare Lepus oiostolus, rat Rattus sp., and house mouse Mus musculus (Garratt, 1981). Inskipp (1989) lists 152 species of birds, 36 of which are breeding species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations. The park is important for a number of species breeding at high altitudes, such as blood pheasant /thaginis cruentus, robin accentor Prunella rubeculoides, white-throated redstart Phoenicurus schisticeps, grandala Grandala coelicolor, and several rosefinches. The park’s small lakes, especially those at Gokyo, are used as staging points for migrants and at least 19 water bird species have been recorded (Inskipp, 1989; Scott, 1989). A total of six amphibians and seven reptiles occur or probably occur in the park. Documentation of the invertebrate fauna is limited to common species of butterfly. Of the 30 species recorded, orange and silver mountain hopper Carterocephalus avanti has not been recorded elsewhere in Nepal, and the common red apollo Parnassius epaphus is rare (Jefferies and Clarbrough, 1986). Cultural Heritage The Sherpas are of great cultural interest, having originated from Salmo Gang in the eastern Tibetan province of Kham, some 2,000 km from their present homeland. They probably left their original home in the late 1400s or early 1500s, to escape political and military pressures, and later crossed the Nangpa La into Nepal in the early 1530s. They separated into two groups, some settling in Khumbu and others proceeding to Solu. The two clans (Minyagpa and Thimmi) remaining in Khumbu are divided into twelve subclans. The introduction of the potato to Khumbu in about 1850 revolutionised the economic life of the Sherpas. Until then, the high-altitude Sherpas had lived mainly on barley. Both the population and the growth of the monasteries took a dramatic upturn soon after that time. Another significant influence on Sherpa life has been mountaineering expeditions, which have been a feature of life in the Khumbu since the area was first opened to westerners in 1950. The Sherpas belong to the Nyingmapa sect of Tibetan Buddhism, which was founded by the revered Guru Rimpoche who was legendarily born of a lotus in the middle of a lake. It is to him that the ever-present prayers and mani wall inscriptions are addressed: ‘Om mani padme hum’—‘hail to the jewel of the lotus’, (Garratt, 1981). There are several monasteries in the park, the most important being Tengpoche. However, on 19 January 1989 the main building and courtyard of Tengpoche was burned to the ground (Sassoon, 1989). A Reconstruction Committee has been formed and it was planned to commence reconstruction work in 1990 (B.N. Upreti, pers. comm., 1989). Further details about the Sherpa culture are given by Fiirer-Haimendorf (1975, 1985), and Jefferies and Clarbrough (1986). Local Human Population There were approximately 3,000 Sherpas residing in the park in 1987, mainly in the south and distributed among 63 settlements. However, there has not _ been an accurate census since the park was established. The traditional economy is subsistence agro-pastoralism, supplemented by barter trading with Tibet and the middle hills of Nepal. The main activities include potato and buckwheat cultivation, and raising yaks for wool, : meat, manure, and transport. Cattle and yaks are also hybridised locally for trading purposes. | Cattle numbers remained constant at about 2,900 between 1957 and 1978 but the numbers _ of sheep and goats increased from very few to 641 (Bjoness, 1979). Goats have since been | removed from the park. More recently tourism has become an integral part of the local | 377 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya economy, including activities such as the provision of guides, porters, lodges, and trekking services (Garratt, 1981; Jefferies, 1982, 1984; Sherpa, 1985, 1987). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The number of visitors has increased from about 1,400 in 1972-3 (Jefferies, 1984) to 7,492 in 1989. There is an airstrip at Lukla, south of the park boundary, which has a regular air service from Kathmandu, and is the most popular means of access to the park. Everest View Hotel and associated Shyangboche airstrip above Namche Bazar are the most sophisticated tourist facilities developed in the park but they do not account for a high proportion of visitor use. A national park lodge has been built at Tengpoche providing sleeping accommodation, with detached cooking and toilet facilities, as well as basic food and drinks. Other accommodation is available in ‘Sherpa hotels’ and some villagers take in guests. An imposing visitor centre, providing information and interpretative services, has been constructed on the hill adjoining Namche Bazar. Further facilities, by way of park accommodation and campsites, are planned. A handbook has been produced for the park (Jefferies and Clarbrough, 1986). Scientific Research and Facilities | Considerable research in various fields has been undertaken over many years. The Sherpa culture and changes that have taken place over the last decade or more have been extensively documented (Fiirer-Haimendorf, 1964, 1975, 1985). Under the HMG/Government of New Zealand Co-operation Project, the impact of pastoralism and tourism on the natural resource base has been assessed (Bjonness, 1979, 1980a, 1980b, 1983). Research into alternative sources of energy has focused on hydropower, solar heating, and developing more efficient methods of cooking (Coburn, 1982). A WWF-funded study of the ecology of Himalayan musk deer has been carried out in the park (Kattel, 1987). A proposal has been made for forest research and management, focused primarily on the protection of representative samples of ecosystems, reaf forestation, and the introduction of alternative energy sources to minimise human impact on natural forests (Sherpa, 1987). Conservation Value Sagarmatha (‘Mother of the Universe’) and its surroundings, as the highest point of the Earth’s surface, are of international importance, representing a major stage of the Earth’s evolutionary history and one of the most geologically interesting regions in the world. Its scenic and wilderness values are outstanding. As an ecological unit, the Dudh Kosi catchment is of biological and socio-economic importance, as well as being of major cultural and religious significance (Blower, 1972). Conservation Management The creation of a national park in the Sagarmatha area was proposed by the FAO Wildlife Management Adviser in March 1971 and approved in principle by His Majesty’s Government in January 1972. Funds for its development were made available by the Government of New Zealand over a five year period, commencing May 1975 (Lucas, 1977; FAO, 1980; Jefferies, 1984). Normally accepted criteria for the management of national parks have been substantially modified in the case of Sagarmatha in order to reconcile the requirements of the resident Sherpa population with those of conservation objectives and to accommodate special demands made on the area by tourism and mountaineering. The objectives outlined in the management plan (Garratt, 1981) seek to ensure the protection of wildlife, water and soil resources, not only because of the park’s national and international significance but also to safeguard the interests of the resident Sherpa population, as well as the many other people in Nepal and India whose welfare is affected by the condition of the Dudh Kosi catchment. At the same time, every effort is required to enable the Sherpas to determine their own lifestyle and progress, while insulating their cultural 378 JOQIL ‘AAJOSOY oINJeNY PUIZUR;OWOD pur ‘yJeg [eUONeN une g-nyeyeyy ‘ye [euONeN Suesuey ‘yleg [BUOTIBN (ISAI9Aq “IAL) BYIBULIESeS WIVd IWNOILVN J NNIVE-NIWIVW L 4 C SP dog . 4 Be phe wavd 2 TVNOILVN (1S3989A2 “LW) _——— = — -"——— VOY-ONHZvd NVD ( Nganx ewe Owe ow MYVd IWNOILVN SNVLONVI oe | ™ eS 07 1 ae see uejue7 ~ ~ ARPUNOG AAI8SOY em emmy ot Aepunog |PUONeUJa}U] ee ee Pally pauyapun Japsog au07 Alaydiiag 9u0Z Jayng au0oz 310 PAITSIig BUNSEN SoJ}QWO}Iy Nature Reserves of the Himalaya and religious heritage from the adverse impacts of tourism and mountaineering. Park regulations do not apply to the 63 settlements within the park. Two strict nature protection areas have been identified in the south of the park, to be managed as undisturbed areas free from human interference (Hinrichsen et al., 1983). An integrated strategy for achieving self-sufficiency in resources and nature conservation has been developed (Sherpa, 1985). Various recommendations are being implemented. A Park Advisory Committee, consisting of local leaders, village elders, head lamas and park authority representatives, was re-established in 1987 and has been instrumental in achieving more co-operation and support for the park (Sherpa, 1985). Shinga nawa—a system of forest guardians traditionally responsible for controlling use of forest resources—has been reinstated. The duties of the nawas include the prevention of greenwood cutting, protection of plantations, and reporting of wildlife poaching. Nawas are authorised to prosecute and collect limited penalties from violators of the forest protection rules, and to use the fines for community purposes (Sherpa, 1987). Indigenous plant nurseries have been established at Namche Bazar and Trashinga; seedlings are used to re-establish forest on hill slopes near Namche Bazar, Phortse, and Khumjung (Garratt, 1981). The Himalayan Trust, established by Sir Edmund Hillary, has sponsored several school, hospital and bridge construction projects. In 1982 the Trust purchased and removed the 400 goats in the park in an effort to protect the mountain vegetation (Jeffries and Clarbrough, 1986). Goats were banned from the park the following year (Sherpa, 1985). Several steps have been taken to help meet the energy needs of the increasing numbers of tourists, including regulations regarding firewood collection, reafforestation, and the increased use of kerosene. The Namche Hydroelectric scheme provides 27 kilowatts of electricity to local houses and lodges, and has proven to be cost effective and useful in reducing firewood scarcity (Coburn, 1985). Management Constraints The loss of forest cover in the region began some 500 years ago, with the arrival of the first settlers. Destruction rapidly accelerated following the influx of Tibetan refugees during 1959-61 and the large-scale growth of trekking and mountaineering from 1963 onwards. Increased affluence from tourism has also resulted in greater ecological degradation. In line with the custom of many ethnic Nepalese groups, acquired wealth in a Sherpa family is generally invested in additional livestock, which consequently leads to overgrazing of high mountain pastures around villages. Heavy pressure from tourism and mountaineering expeditions has placed large demands on natural resources and has introduced problems with waste disposal. Demand for construction timber and firewood, another result of visitor pressure, has impoverished the forests to an alarming degree; consequent soil erosion has made reafforestation difficult, pastures at lower altitudes are being overgrazed and water is becoming unfit for drinking (Garratt, 1981; Jefferies, 1981, 1982; Luhan, 1989). An assessment of landscape change using repeat photography (Byers, 1987), however, indicates that most forests in the Namche-Kunde-Khumjung region appear to be relatively unchanged, although juniper woodlands have been thinned in the period 1962-84. Diminishing habitat is adversely affecting some species of wildlife. The traditional culture of the Sherpas is being changed due to foreign influences, but perhaps with better social integrity than nearly any other tribal group known to the modern world (Garratt, 1981). Limited poaching of musk deer persists (Mingma Norbu Sherpa, pers. comm., 1987). Popular accounts of some of the environmental issues in the park are given by Coburn (1983), Bishop (1988), Brook (1988). and Kohl (1988). 380 Nepal Staff One chief warden, two assistant wardens, one veterinary surgeon, seven rangers, seven senior game scouts, twenty-five game scouts, and fourteen office staff (1989). One company of the Royal.Nepal Army is deployed for protection purposes. Budget In 1989-90 expenditure was NRs 2,003,800 (US $ 66,793) and income NRs 2,262,050 (US $ 75,402). The budget for 1990-1 is NRs 1,982,000 (US $ 66,067). Local Addresses Warden, Sagarmatha National Park Headquarters, Namche Bazar, Solu-Khumbu District, Sagarmatha Zone References The World Heritage nomination includes an extensive bibliography. Bishop, B.C. (1988). A fragile heritage: the mighty Himalaya. National Geographic 174: 624-31. Blower, J.H. (1972). Establishment of Khumbu National Park: outline project proposal. HMG/UNDP/FAO Project NEP/72/002, Kathmandu. Unpublished. Bjonness, I.M. (1979). Impacts on a high mountain ecosystem: recommendations for action in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park. Unpublished. 38 pp. Bjonness, I.M. (1980a). Animal husbandry and grazing, a conservation and management problem in Sagarmatha National Park. Norsk Geogr. Tidskr. 33: 59-76. Bjonness, I.M. (1980b). Ecological conflicts and economic dependency on tourist trekking in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. An alternative approach to park planning. Norsk Geogr. Tidskr. 34: 119-38. Bjonness, I.M. (1983). External economic dependency and changing human adjustment to marginal environment in the high Himalaya, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development 3: 263-72. Brook, E. (1988). Through Sherpa eyes. Geographical Magazine 60(8): 28-34. Byers, A. (1987). An assessment of landscape change in the Khumbu region of Nepal using repeat photography. Mountain Research and Develoment 7: 77-81. Coburn, B. (1982). Alternate energy sources for Sagarmatha National Park. Park techniques. Parks 7(1): 16-18. Coburn, B.A. (1983). Managing a Himalayan world heritage site. Nature and Resources 19(3): 20-5. Coburn, B.A. (1985). Energy alternatives for Sagarmatha National Park. In: People and protected areas in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation/International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 71-2. Dobremez, J.F. (1975). Le Nepal, écologique et phytogéomorphique. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. Dobremez, J.F. and Jest, C. (1972). Carte écologique du Nepal. Région Kathmandu-Everest 1/250,000. Documents de Cartographie Ecologique, Grenoble. FAO (1980). National parks and wildlife conservation, Nepal: project findings and recommendations. UNDP/FAO Terminal Report, Rome. 63 pp. Firer-Haimendorf, C. von (1964). The Sherpas of Nepal. John Murray, London. 298 pp. Fiirer-Haimendorf, C. von (1975). Himalayan traders. John Murray, London. 316 pp. Fiirer-Haimendorf, C. von (1985). The Sherpas transformed. Sterling, New Delhi. 197 pp. (Unseen) 381 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Garratt, K.J. (1981). Sagarmatha National Park management plan. HMG/New Zealand Co-operation Project. Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand. Hinrichsen, D., Lucas, P.H.C., Coburn, B., and Upreti, B.N. (1983). Saving Sagarmatha. Ambio 12: 203-5. Inskipp, C. (1989). Nepal’s forest birds: their status and conservation. /nternational Council for Bird Preservation Monograph no. 4. 160 pp. Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1987). Snow Leopard surveys in Nepal. Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park. Cat News 7: 24-5. Jefferies, B.E. (1982). Sagarmatha National Park: the impact of tourism in the Himalayas. Ambio 11: 274-81. Jefferies, B.E. (1984). The Sherpas of Sagarmatha. In: McNeely, J.A. and Miller, K., National Parks, conservation and development. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC. Pp. 473-8. Jefferies, M. and Clarbrough, M. (1986). Sagarmatha: mother of the universe. The story of Mount E verest National Park. Cobb/Horward Publications, Auckland, New Zealand. 192 pp. Joshi, D.P. (1982). The climate of Namche Bazar: a bioclimatic analysis. Mountain Research and Development 2: 399-403. Kattel, B. (1987). Himalayan musk deer ecology project, Nepal. Annual Report. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation/WWF-US Project no. 6076. 10 pp. Kohl, L. (1988). Heavy hands on the land. National Geographic 174: 633-51. Lovari, S. (1990). Some notes on the wild ungulates of the Sagarmatha National Park, Khumbu Himal (Nepal). Caprinae News 5(1): 2-4. Lucas, P.H.C. (1977). Nepal’s park for the highest mountain. Parks 2(3): 1+. Luhan, M. (1989). Following the toilet paper trail. Himal 2(2): 18-19. Sassoon, D. (1989). The Tengboche fire: what went up in flames. Himalayan Research Bulletin 8(3): 8-14. Sherpa, M.N. (1985). Conservation for survival: a conservation strategy for resource self-sufficiency in the Khumbu region of Nepal. M.Sc. dissertation, Natural Resources Institute, University of Manitoba, Canada. 175 pp. Sherpa, L.N. (1987). A proposal for forest research and management in Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Working Paper no. 8. East-West Center, Hawaii. 47 pp. Smith, C. (in press). Commoner butterflies of Sagarmatha National Park. In: National Park Handbook. MAPS 1:100,000 Mount Everest Region. Royal Geographical Society, London, 1975. 1:50,000 Mount Everest. National Geographic Society, Washington DC, 1988. SHEY-PHOKSUNDO NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category II (National Park) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated in the Dolpo and Mugu districts of north-west Nepal. The northern boundary, stretching from the mountain pass of Namja in the west to that of Marim 382 Nepal in the east, borders on the Tibetan Autonomous Region of China. 29°08’-29°45’N, 82°33’-83°20’E Date and History of Establishment Gazetted as a national park on 6 August 1984. Area 355,500 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 2,000 m to 6,883 m at the peak of Kanjiroba South. Physical Features Much of the park lies north of the Great Himalayan Range, locally represented by Kanjiroba Himal, at the southern edge of the transhimalayan region of the Tibetan Plateau. Here the landscape is near-desert. The heavily folded strata consist primarily of gneisses belonging to Tibetan Tethys sediments of Jurassic and Protoerozoic ages, with | intrusive Tertiary tourmaline granites. Soils are poorly developed, with substantial expanses of bedrock. The high Dolpo Plateau in the north-east of the park is drained by the Langu (Namlang) River, which flows westwards until its confluence with the Mugu Karnali. South of Kanjiroba Himalaya, conditions remain fairly dry as much of the area is in the rain-shadow of Hiunchuli Patan (5,916 m) to the south. The southern catchment of the park is drained by the Jagdula and Suli rivers, which flow south and eventually drain into the Beri River. Phoksundo, Nepal’s second largest lake, lies at 3,660 m in the upper reaches of the Suli Gad, which falls from a height of 150 m, the highest waterfall in Nepal (Jackson, 1986; Upreti, 1989). Climate Conditions are extremely variable as the park encompasses both north and south sides of the main Himalayan divide. Annual precipitation is about 500 mm in the north and 1,500 mm in the south (Sherpa, 1990). Jackson and Ahlborn (1986) recorded a mean annual precipition of 542 mm at Eding Base Camp (2,875 m) in 1982-5 (n.b. no data for November in any year). Mean daily temperatures ranged from 1 °C in January to 17.5 °C in June. Diurnal temperature ranges of more than 25 °C were not uncommon, especially in winter. Snow rarely remained more than a few days on southern slopes, in contrast to northern slopes which retained their winter snow cover for up to several months. The nearest weather station is at Mugu, about 18 km north-east of Eding. Vegetation Probably less than 5% of thé park is forested, the rest comprising steppe communities and barren lands (R. Jackson, pers. comm., 1986). A diverse range of vegetation types is present, representative of the South Himalaya, Inner Himalaya, and transhimalaya. The South Himalaya is characterised by temperate and subalpine forests with oaks Quercus semecarpifolia and Q. incana, blue pine Pinus wallichiana, spruce Picea smithiana, birch Betula utilis, juniper Juniperus recurva, rhododendron Rhododendron arboreum, fir Abies spectabilis, and bamboo Thamnocalamus sp. The Inner Himalaya may have floral affinities to the South Himalayan region, but birch is predominant on the lower northern flanks of Kanjiroba Himal. Fir, prostrate juniper J. sqguamata, and Sorbus cuspidata are occasional. Upper reaches are predominantly meadows up to 4,800 m. The transhimalaya is devoid of forest. Sparse scrub covers the hillsides, the main species being rhododendrons R. nivale and R. lepidotum, Caragana sp., and honeysuckle Lonicera sp. (Yonzon, 1990). The vegetation of the Southern Himalaya and Inner Himalaya (Langu Valley) is described in more detail by Sherpa (1990) and Jackson and Ahlborn (1986), respectively. A map of the potential vegetation has been prepared by Shrestha (1982). 383 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Fauna _ Includes many Tibetan species. Yonzon (1990) provides an annotated list of 20 mammal species known or reported to occur in the park. Threatened species are wild dog Cuon alpinus (V) (unconfirmed), wolf Canis lupus (V), leopard Panthera pardus (T), and snow leopard P. uncia (E). The density of snow leopards in Langu Valley is 5-10 animals per 100 sq. km (Jackson and Ahlborn, 1986), and that around Shey and Phoksundo Lake is 1.2 per 100 sq. km (Schaller, 1977). Other mammals include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, langur Presbytis entellus, fox Vulpes vulpes, Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula, Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster, goral Nemorhaedus goral, serow Capricornis sumatraensis, Himalayan tahr Hemitragus jemlahicus, bharal Pseudois nayaur, Himalayan marmot Marmota bobak, Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei, ‘and Tibetan hare Lepus oiostolus. Jackal Canis aureus, red panda Ailurus fulgens (K), Himalayan weasel Mustela sibirica, and beech marten Martes foina are also reported to be present. Nayaur Ovis ammon hodgsoni occasionally cross from China over Ladakh Himal and into the park according to local reports (Jackson, 1978). Shey-Phoksundo is important for avifaunal species typical of transhimalayan Nepal, such as Tibetan partridge Perdix hodgsoniae, brown accentor Prunella fulvescens, Hume’s ground jay Pseudopodoces humilis, and crimson-eared rosefinch Carpodacus rubicilloides. Western specialities include white-throated tit Aegithalos niveogularis, spot-winged black tit Parus melanolophus, white-cheeked nuthatch Sitta leucopsis, and Kashmir nuthatch S. cashmirensis. Out of a total of 105 species recorded in the park, 18 are breeding species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations (Inskipp, 1989). The avifauna is under-recorded, as demonstrated by a recent survey of that portion of the park lying in Mugu District, as a result of which the total number now stands at 121 species (Yonzon, 1990). The butterfly fauna, although not diverse, includes a large proportion of rare species not commonly found elsewhere in Nepal. A total of 28 species has been recorded, including the rare Parnassius acdestic (Yonzon, 1990). Cultural Heritage Shey, at 4,480 m, is one of the highest inhabited areas on earth. Its people are of pure Tibetan stock, with a way of life that cannot differ much from that of the Ch’ang Tartars out of Central Asia who are thought to have been the original Tibetans. Shey Gompa is a monastery of the Kagyu Sect, which was established in the 11th century as a departure of the Kalachakra Tantrism of the Old Sect or Nyingma. The monastery lies at the foot of Crystal Mountain, a shrine for pilgrims from all over Dolpo and beyond who come to attend a holy festival at Shey in July (Snellgrove, 1961; Matthiessen, 1978). A detailed account of the people is given by Jest (1975). Local Human Population There are 19 villages with a total population of 1,483 people within the park (R. Jackson, pers. comm., 1986). Dolphu, at the entrance to the Namlang Valley and with 208 residents, is the only village in Mugu District that is in the park, the rest are in Dolpo District. Residents are entirely dependent on the park’s natural resources for their livelihood. Further details are given by Sherpa (1990). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The park is very inaccessible, but the southern portion was first opened to tourists in May 1989. Only organised trekking groups sufficiently equipped with food, tents and fuel are allowed to visit the park (Basnet, 1989; Sherpa, 1990). The number of visitors totalled 275 in 1989. The nearest airstrip is at Jufal in Dolpo. 384 Nepal Scientific Research and Facilities The Shey-Phoksundo area was surveyed in 1973 to assess its suitability as a wildlife reserve and to study the behaviour of the blue sheep (Schaller, 1974). Namlang Valley was surveyed in 1976-7 (Jackson, 1978) and subsequently its snow leopard population was the subject of a three-year investigation (Jackson and Ahlborn, 1984, 1986, 1988). There are several popular accounts of this study (Jackson and Hillard, 1986; Jackson, 1987; Jackson and Ahlborn, 1987). The main prey species (blue sheep and Himalayan tahr) of the snow leopard have been studied by K.B. Shah. Floral surveys were carried out by the Department of Forest and Plant Research in 1966 and 1986. In 1990, a wildlife survey of that portion of the park falling within Dolpo District was carried out by Yonzon (1990), and a socio-ecological survey of Phoksundo, Saldang and Vijer panchayats was conducted by Sherpa (1990). Conservation Value Shey-Phoksundo is the largest of Nepal’s protected areas and contains many unparalleled features, of which the most important is its representation of the transhimalaya, including floral, faunal, and cultural elements. Inner Himalayan and South Himalayan zones are also represented, providing a wide range of vegetation types (Upreti, 1989; Yonzon, 1990). The park is particularly important for snow leopard and its prey populations (Jackson and Ahlborn, 1986). The Langu Valley, described as among the most forbidding and rugged areas in the Himalaya (Tyson, 1969), is atypical for the Himalaya because it is essentially unpopulated by humans and ungrazed by livestock (Jackson and Ahlborn, 1986). Conservation Management The area around Shey and Phoksundo Lake was first proposed as a wildlife reserve in 1974 (Schaller, 1974). No further action was taken until 1984, when a very much larger area was established as a national park. A park headquarters has since been established at Sumduwa. As yet, there is no management plan but a number of recommendations have been made by Upreti (1989). These include: demarcation of all villages and cultivations; a ban on stone quarrying, cutting of trees and bushes, and cultivation around Phoksundo Lake where the natural environment has been disturbed by the expansion of agricultural activities; opening up of trekking corridors to Lake Phoksundo; and the protection of Shey Gompa and surroundings as a strict nature reserve in view of its cultural importance and blue sheep population. Management Constraints The main problems are over-grazing by domestic livestock (leading to erosion, a lowered carrying capacity, and adverse competition with bharal), pervasive hunting of wildlife (except in a few areas such as Shey Gompa) and clearing of forests (Phokundo Lake area). Hunting still occurs in the Langu Valley, and especially to the south in the Sisne/Jagdula/Kagmara area. Musk deer are still heavily hunted in the Karnali Zone (R. Jackson, pers. comm., 1986). Further details are given by Sherpa (1990) and Yonzon (1990). Measures are being introduced to address these issues (Upreti, 1990). Staff One warden, one assistant warden, five rangers, five senior game scouts, twenty game scouts, ten office staff (1991). One company (234 soldiers) of the Royal Nepal Army is deployed for protection purposes. Budget Expenditure was NRs 1,257,608 (US $ 41,920) and income NRs 69,993 (US $ 2,333) in 1989-90. The for 1990-1 is NRs 1,395,000 (US $ 46,500). Local Addresses Warden, Shey-Phoksundo National Park Headquarters, Sumduwa, Dolpo District 385 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya References Basnet, D. (1989). Opening up Dolpo. Himal 2(3): 9. Jackson, R. (1978). A report on wildlife and hunting in the Namlang (Langu) Valley of West Nepal. National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office, Kathmandu. Unpublished. 20 pp. Jackson, R. (1979). Aboriginal hunting in West Nepal with reference to musk deer Moschus moschiferus moschiferus and snow leopard Panthera uncia. Biological Conservation 16: 63-72. Jackson, R. (1987). Snow cats of Langu Gorge. Snow leopard research: a project of Wildlife Conservation International. Animal Kingdom 90 (4): 44-53. i Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1984). A preliminary habitat suitability model for the snow leopard, Panthera uncia, in West Nepal. International Pedigree Book of Snow Leopards 4: 43-52. Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1986). Himalayan snow leopard project. Final progress report: Phase 1. California Institute of Environmental Studies. 17 pp. Jackson, R. and Ahiborn, G. (1987). Snow leopards of Langu Gorge. Sanctuary, Asia 7: 114-25. Jackson, R. and Ahlborn, G. (1988). A radio-telemetry study of the snow leopard Panther uncia in West Nepal. Tiger Paper 15(2): 1-14. Jackson, R. and Hillard, D. (1986). Tracking the elusive snow leopard. National Geographic 169: 792-809. Jest, C. (1975). Dolpo: communautés de langue Tibetaine du Nepal. Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris. 481 pp. Matthiessen, P. (1978). The snow leopard. Chatto and Windus, London. 312 pp. Sakya, K. (1978). Dolpo: the world behind the Himalayas. Sharda Prakashan Griha, Kathmandu. 198 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1974). A wildlife survey of the Shey Gompa area in Dolpo District, Nepal. New York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished. 5 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1977). Mountain monarchs: wild sheep and goats of the Himalaya. Chicago University Press, Chicago. 425 pp. Sherpa, N.W. (1990). Natural features and vegetation of Shey-Phoksundo National Park, Dolpo. Progress report. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu. Unpublished. 9 pp. sf Shrestha, T.B. (1982). Ecology and vegetation of north-west Nepal (Karnali Zone). Silver Jubilee Publication Series no. 23. Royal Nepal Academy, Kathmandu. 121 pp. (Unseen) Snellgrove, D. (1961). Himalayan pilgrimage. Cassirer, Oxford. Stainton, J.D.A. (1972). Forests of Nepal. John Murray, London. 181 pp. Tyson, J. (1969). Return to the Kanjiroba. Himalayan Journal 29: 96-104. Upreti, B.N. (1989). Shey-Phoksundo National Park. Summary report. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation. Unpublished. 15 pp. Yonzon, P.B. (1990). The 1990 Wildlife Survey of Shey-Phuksundo National Park, Dolpo, West Nepal. Nepal Conservation Research and Training Centre, The King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation, Kathmandu. Unpublished. 15 pp. 386 Nepal SHIVAPURI WATERSHED AND WILDLIFE RESERVE IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies on the north side of Kathmandu Valley about 12 km from Kathmandu City. Date and History of Establishment Established as a wildlife reserve in 1985 under the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project. Measures to protect the watershed began in 1975 under the Shivapuri Watershed Development Board. Area_ The watershed extends over 14,487 ha, of which 11,200 ha falls within the wildlife reserve and is demarcated by a 114 km-long boundary wall. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,366 m to 2,732 m at Shivapuri Dada. Physical Features Shivapuri, the second highest hill surrounding Kathmandu Valley, is the main source of water for domestic consumption in Kathmandu. Streams on the north of the watershed drain into the Likhu Khola, and those on the south into the Bagmati River which flows through Kathmandu Valley. The summit is a large flat area commanding excellent views of the Himalaya. Rocks are mostly gneisses. Southern slopes, with their sandy soils, are unstable and prone to erosion (Anon., 1986; Joshi, 1986). ; Climate Mean annual precipitation ranges from less than 1,800 mm to more than 3,200 mm, about 90% of which falls during the monsoon between May and October. Temperatures are highest, up to 23 °C, in August (Joshi, 1986). Vegetation About 50% of the watershed is still forested (Joshi, 1986). Subtropical pine Pinus roxburghii forests are predominant on southern slopes below 1,600 m, while Schima wallichii, Castonopsis indica, Alnus nepalensis, and Prunus ceresoides occur on northern aspects. Mixed temperate forests of oak (Quercus lanata, Q. semecarpifolia) and rhododendron Rhododendron arboreum predominate at higher elevations (Anon., 1986). Important medicinal plants include patpate or dhasingar Gaultheria fragrantissima, bajradanti Potentilla fulgens, aryili Edgeworthia gardneri, kurkure ghans or ankhali ghans Equisetum dubile and bokri lahara or dhude lahara Hedyotis scandens (Joshi, 1986). Fauna Mammals include common langur Presbytis entellus, leopard Panthera pardus (T), sloth bear Melursus ursinus (V), yellow-throated marten Martes flavigula, wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and orange-bellied Himalayan squirrel Dremomys lokriah (Anon., 1986; Joshi, 1986). 387 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya The avifauna comprises 149 species, of which 100 are breeding species. Shivapuri supports 26 breeding species for which Nepal may hold internationally significant populations, and is important for birds of Quercus semecarpifolia forest, notably yellow-bellied bush warbler Cettia acanthizoides and grey-sided laughing-thrush Garrulax caerulatus. The reserve is also important for wintering birds, of which 36 species have been recorded (Inskipp, 1989). Most noteworthy is the relict Himalayan dragonfly Epiophlebia laidlawi (V), whose distribution is restricted to the eastern Himalaya, from Kathmandu Valley to Darjeeling in Sikkim (Wells et al., 1983). Healthy populations of the dragonfly were found between 1,860 m and 2,380 m during a recent status survey (Saville et al., 1990). Cultural Heritage Places of religious significance to Hindus and Buddhists include Baghdwar, Tareswar Mahadev, Manichur, Naghi Monastery, Vishnudwar, and Shivapuri Mahadev. On the Nepalese New Year’s Day, pilgrims flock to Baghdwar and Vishnudwar, sources of the sacred Bhagmati and Vishnumati rivers, respectively (Anon., 1986). Local Human Population An estimated 5,000 people reside in the reserve and there are a further 15,000 nearby. They live by subsistence agriculture (Joshi, 1986). Visitors and Visitor Facilities The summit is popular with tourists, many of whom camp overnight in order to see the Himalaya at sunrise. No records are kept of visitor numbers. Scientific Research and Facilities A land use map (1:50,000) has been prepared under the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project (Anon., n.d.). The dependence of villagers from Chaubas on the reserve’s natural resources has been assessed, in conjunction with the effect of tourism on the local economy (Joshi, 1987). Socio-economic studies have also been conducted by Dahal and Sutihar (1986). The status of the relict Himalayan dragonfly was surveyed in 1988 (Saville et al., 1990). Conservation Value Shivapuri is an important watershed, providing Kathmandu with its main supply of water. Its avifauna is diverse and it is a vital refuge for the relict Himalayan dragonfly (Anon., 1986; Inskipp, 1989; Saville et al., 1990). Conservation Management The reserve is managed by an eleven-member board under the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project. The main conservation objectives of the project are to protect the natural environment, ensure a reliable and high-quality supply of drinking water for Kathmandu and local people, minimise degradation of land by applying appropriate corrective measures, improve the standard of living of the resident and adjacent rural populations, and establish fuelwood and fodder plantations. Disturbance to the vegetation or wildlife and grazing by livestock are prohibited within the reserve. Activities undertaken or underway include the construction of a 114 km-long boundary wall and a 95 km-long motorable road, the construction and improvement of 82 km of footpaths, the reafforestation of 2,684 ha of land, the construction of 106 check-dams as well as gully control and landslide protection measures at twelve localities, and provision of guard posts (Anon., 1986). Utis Alnus nepalensis, used as timber and fodder, and the exotic Napier grass Panisetum purpureum, also valuable as fodder, are widely used for reafforestation and control of gully erosion (H. Stennet, pers. comm., 1986). On completion of the project, it is planned to hand over management of the reserve to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation. 388 Nepal Management Constraints Deforestation, reclamation, grazing by livestock, and tourism have proved deleterious to natural communities in the area. Forest resources, mostly in the form of fuelwood, have been overexploited to meet local, tourist, and urban needs (Joshi, 1986). In a recent study of Chaubas Village, it has been demonstrated that forest resources are adequate to meet local fuelwood requirements but insufficient for export to Kathmandu (Joshi, 1987). Problems of overexploitation are being addressed by the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project, and the improvement in forest condition and water quality are already apparent to the local people. The benefit of the new road in providing better communications between Kathmandu and the villages in the west of the reserve is questionable since it is little used by local people. Moreover, the road, as well as the boundary wall, are constantly in need of repairs (M. Rowntree, pers. comm., 1991). Concern has been expressed about the potential impact of the road on relict Himalayan dragonfly populations (Asahina, 1982). In the event, the road is almost entirely below 2,000 m and will have minimal impact on the species which occurs mainly in mature forests at higher altitudes (Saville et al., 1990). Staff Seventy staff under the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project. A battalion (742 soldiers) of the Royal Nepal Army is stationed in the reserve for protection duties. Budget Rs 11,014,000 (US $ 367,133) in 1990-1. Local Addresses National Project Chief, Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project, Department of Soils and Water Conservation, Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, Kathmandu References Anon. (n.d.). Watershed development plan of the Shivapuri Watershed Management and Fuelwood Plantation Project. Unpublished. 3 pp. Anon. (1986). Shivapuri Watershed and Wildlife Reserve Project. Asahina, S. (1982). Survey of the relict dragonfly Epiophlebia laidlawi Tillyard in Nepal, May 1981. Reports of the Odonata Specialist Group no. 1. TUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 6 pp. Dahal, K.K. and Sutihar, D.N. (1986). The study of Shivapuri watershed environment: an evaluation of socio-economic impact. The Economic Journal of Nepal 9(2): 35-44. Joshi, A.R. (1986). Shivapuri watershed and wildlife reserve. Unpublished. 2 pp. Joshi, A.R. (1987). A study of the environment relationships of certain village communities in the Central Development Region of Nepal. Ph.D. thesis, University College, Cardiff. 189 pp. Saville, N., Northcott, P., Tufton, T., and Jones, N. (1990). Report of the Cambridge Entomological Expedition to Nepal 1988. University of Cambridge, Cambridge. 47 pp. Wells, S.M., Pyle R.M., and Collins, M.N. (1983). The JUCN invertebrate red data book. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 339-40. 389 ATION TT we >= 3 7 4 , ~ ‘ ‘ J F" ' 4 ‘ ; at) emetic - 7) ‘ . ay » - ' rT oo t wietr ‘ ’ aw . = P c ae 3 : “= aa f] J < » ‘ ' a ‘ ee ? ‘ : i - v4 a ? Ab o- a au 77) neu in af : J it ‘ re = ' f is +e 7 Fy ¢ > Seu tia eiD : 8 4 at ! me, "wor » Ty ha) ae Sheets: aha boygug. By boguelaut. lo. graul 3 Ly dinate AAT Bthp, (ORAL + sisupoht” (T20 | Adeote 1 OTE AAcT Ag AA svilaup Tape SOUS oUTEnNGS wood | sunie oidseokesige ARTE he “ashy baa off IRQ Ot haeacattae do Rh woe 4h) 10 Raggageres lngosvtiele, OCCT Mn 29 siliva’ Niiereare ag inte ylesvs2 ig iistead A 194 rn ~4 i ory tS » : Merit) ow re yas ils oi 44 ] vr 3 at «bho 4 tl Ar hs P) > { aS oF a” y ¢ ~ - Mn, PAKISTAN Area 803,940 sq. km Population 114,600,000 (1990) Natural increase 3.0% per annum GNP US $ 350 per capita (1988) Policy and Legislation Environmental protection and ecology are included in the concurrent legislative list of Pakistan’s 1973 constitution. This initiative, together with the formation of an Environment and Urban Affairs Division in 1973, was largely responsible for enactment of the Environment Protection Ordinance 1983. The Ordinance is a landmark in Pakistan’s legislation and represents official recognition of a holistic approach to environmental issues. It provides for the control of pollution and preservation of a comprehensive national environmental policy, and filing of detailed environmental impact statements by proponents of projects likely to adversely affect the environment. The main drawback of the Ordinance, however, is its much narrower scope—focusing on anti-industrial pollution—than was envisaged in the original draft, which included legal provisions for the protection of Pakistan’s natural resource base (Mumtaz, 1989). A significant step towards meeting the environmental challenge was taken in 1988, with the support of IUCN, in initiating the National Conservation Strategy development process. A secretariat has been set up in the Environment and Urban Affairs Division (Ministry of Housing and Works), which reports to a high-level steering committee comprising representatives of eight ministries directly concerned with natural resources, and five representatives from the private sector. The NCS development process represents an unique policy review of economic issues and their collective impact on the environment. Public consultations are an integral part of this review and planning exercise (Kabraji, 1986, Mumtaz, 1989). As part of the review process, a national workshop was held in 1986 (IUCN/GOP, 1987). The first phase of the development process, namely the formulation of Pakistan’s NCS, was completed in 1990 (JRC, n.d.). Early Hindu and Muslim rulers, recognising the inadvisability of uncontrolled hunting, were the first to set aside game reserves wherein hunting was restricted during breeding seasons. By the late 16th century, the Mughals had codified regulations pertaining to hunting and these policies were adopted by succeeding Sikh and British administrations (ALIC, 1981). Indiscriminate exploitation of forest resources during the 19th century led to the realisation of the need for a forest policy. Although not of direct relevance to Pakistan, the first forest policy directive issued by the Government of India was in the form of a Memorandum 391 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya (3 August 1855) for the protection and extraction of teak. It restricted the rights of forest dwellers to conserve the forests. Government of India Circular no. 22-F (19 October 1894) represented a more comprehensive forest policy statement, which emphasised management of forests for timber production, watershed protection and maintenance of productive capacity. It also provided guidelines on basic principles associated with rights of people living adjacent to forest lands (Mumtaz, 1989). Among the first pieces of legislation that directly benefited wildlife were the rules and regulations formulated in Sind under the Indian Forest Act in 1887 and later incorporated in the Bombay Forest Manual. Under this legislation, forests were protected from grazing by livestock but hunting was not legally controlled. Hunting and other forms of resource exploitation were subsequently controlled within areas declared as reserved or protected forests under the Indian Forest Act 1927, the title of which was changed to Pakistan Forest Act 1927 following Pakistan’s adoption of the Act after partition in 1947 (Ferguson, 1978; Rao, 1984). The 1927 Act sought to ‘consolidate the law relating to forests, the transit of forest produce and the duty leviable on timber and other forest produce.’ It further ‘empowers the government to set aside forest reserves, appoint officers charged with the management of those territories, enforce rules governing the use of forests, determine the degree to which timber and other products may be exploited, and regulate the movement of cattle upon these lands. Moreover, the Act authorises the Government to punish violators of the stipulations contained in it.” The 1927 Act has since been amended by the West Pakistan Goats (Restriction) Ordinance of 1959 and the West Pakistan Goats Restriction Rules of 1961, which enable the government to protect rangelands from grazing damage by goats through limiting their numbers and movements. The 1927 Act is not conservation oriented, commercial forestry interests being foremost. Subsequent forest policy, under the directives of 1955, 1962, and 1980, has attempted to bring forests under sound scientific management and included provisions for the creation of national parks to conserve major ecosystems, but it has not been successful (Mumtaz, 1989). The need to reassess and redefine policy is being addressed by the Forest Department, following on from a recent evaluation of Pakistan’s forest policy at an international seminar organised by the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives in 1989. Existing forest legislation is regulatory in nature. It needs to be revised to meet the requirements of development and extension forestry, with more persuasive rather than punitive provisions (Shekh and Jan, n.d.). Wildlife conservation legislation inherited from British India was superseded by the now obsolete West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1959 and the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Rules 1960 issued under that ordinance. Apart from prohibiting the killing of certain species of fauna, this legislation made provision for the declaration of game sanctuaries in which hunting was prohibited, and game reserves in which hunting was controlled under license, but did not protect the habitat against settlement, cultivation, grazing, and other forms of exploitation. Furthermore, both the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance and the Pakistan Forest Act applied only to the settled areas of Pakistan (i.e. the flood plains of the Kabul and Indus rivers and all the land to the east of them); neither were applicable to the Special/Tribal Areas, which constituted most of the mountainous half of the country to the west of the Indus and where much of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife was to be found (Grimwood, 1969). S92 Pakistan A Wildlife Enquiry Committee was set up in 1968 to review inter alia the existing conservation legislation, based on recommendations by the World Wildlife Fund (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). Legislation was drafted by this committee (Government of Pakistan, 1971) and, with minor modifications, was subsequently adopted at provincial level through the provision of various acts and an ordinance, namely: Sind Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1972, Punjab Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act 1974, Baluchistan Wildlife Protection Act 1974, and North-West Frontier Province Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Act 1975. Separate laws were passed for the Northern Areas, Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, and Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad. These are the Northern Areas Wildife Preservation Act 1975, Azad Jammu and Kashmir Wildlife Act 1975, and the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Preservation, Conservation and Management) Ordinance 1979 (Rau, 1984). This is the first time in the history of Pakistan’s wildlife legislation that an attempt has been made to provide for the conservation of habitat (although limited to protected areas) and species other than game species. All of these statutes provide for the creation and management of national parks, wildlife sanctuaries (synonymous with wildlife reserves in the Northern Areas Act), game reserves (synonymous with controlled hunting areas in the Northern Areas Act) and, in the case of the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Islamabad legislation, private game reserves. A national park is a comparatively large area of outstanding scenic merit and natural interest, wherein the primary objective is to protect the landscape, flora, and fauna in its natural state and to which the public are allowed access for purposes of recreation, education and research. No hunting or trapping of animals or birds is permitted. Harvesting of forest produce on a sustained basis is allowed, provided national park values are not jeopardised. Construction of access roads, accommodation facilities, and public amenities should be carefully planned sO as not to impair the primary objective of a park’s establishment. A wildlife sanctuary is an area set aside as an undisturbed breeding ground, primarily for the protection of all natural resources, to which public access is prohibited or regulated. Whereas settlement and grazing by domestic livestock is allowed in national parks (see Grimwood, 1972, for a discussion of the implications arising from this aspect of the legislation), such activities are prohibited within wildlife sanctuaries. A game reserve is an area wherein controlled hunting and shooting is allowed on a permit basis. A private game reserve is an area of private land set aside by its owner for the same purpose as a game reserve. Parts of areas protected under some statutes may be denotified under pressure for agricultural extension or land development (Ullah, 1970; Government of Pakistan, 1971; Rao, 1984; Khan and Hussain, 1985). To date, there are no notified private game reserves, but a number exist in Baluchistan (e.g. Goth Raisani, Serajabad, Nasirabad area) and Sind (e.g. Khairpur), where there is no legal provision for their establishment, and in Punjab (e.g. Kalabagh). Existing wildlife legislation is reviewed by Rao (1984). Model legislation (Pakistan Wildlife Protection Act) is currently being prepared by the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (Rao, 1987). International Activities Pakistan ratified both the Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) and the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) on 23 July 1976. No natural sites have been inscribed to date under the World Heritage Convention. Nine wetlands were designated at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention, of which two (Kandar Dam and Kheshki Reservoir) are no longer considered to be of international importance (Scott, 1989). Pakistan participates in the Unesco Man and Biosphere Programme, but there does not appear to have been any significant 393 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya development in recent years. Pakistan also participates in the South Asian Co-operative Environmental Programme. Administration and Management Originally, the Game Department was responsible for administering the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance up until 1967, when it was absorbed into the Forest Department (Grimwood, 1969). Following the recommendations of the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (Government of Pakistan, 1971), a National Council for Conservation of Wildlife was established on 7 July 1974 within the then Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture. It has an advisory board, and is responsible for co-ordinating central and provincial government effort in the formulation and implementation of wildlife policies. The Inspector General of Forests is assisted by a Conservator of Wildlife, who acts as an adviser on wildlife, but the actual management of wildlife is handled by the provincial forest (wildlife) departments. Punjab and Sind have separate wildlife administrations, but in the Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, Baluchistan, Northern Areas and North-West Frontier Province, wildlife is administered by branches of the respective forest departments. In practice, forest staff look after wildlife in reserved or protected forests, and wildlife staff are responsible for protecting wildlife in other protected areas and elsewhere. In North-West Frontier Province, wildlife staff are solely responsible for wildlife. Within the Federal Capital Territory of Islamabad, the Directorate of Environment is responsible for the administration of protected areas. Legal provision has been made for the creation of wildlife management boards to approve wildlife policies and monitor development activities in Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province, and Islamabad. Sind has an effective wildlife management board, while those of North-West Frontier Province and Punjab are progressing. Boards exist in Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, Baluchistan, and Northern Areas, but only in an advisory capacity. That for Islamabad is not yet active. Provision has also been made for the appointment of honorary officers to help implement wildlife legislation in all political units except Baluchistan and Islamabad. The idea was first introduced in Sind in the 1970s and proved to be very successful in Kirthar National Park, resulting in the recovery of markhor and other large mammal populations. It has since been adopted in Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir and Punjab with the appointment of local dignitaries as honorary game wardens invested with considerable legal power to help enforce the law within protected areas (Ferguson, 1978; NCCW, 1978; Roberts, 1983; Rao, 1984; Mumtaz, 1990, 1991). The allocation of funds to the forestry subsector has increased from 10.2% in the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1983-8) to 12.5% in the Seventh Five-Year Plan (1988-93). Of the Rs 2 billion allocated to the subsector under the Seventh Plan, Rs 332 million (16.6%) is earmarked for wildlife conservation (Sheikh and Jan, n.d.). Within the wildlife sector, the total budget allocated to the federal units in 1990-1 is Rs 93.4 million (US $ 4.3 million), of which 52.5% represents recurrent expenditure and 47.5% capital development costs. The total number of staff within the wildlife sector is 3,206: 121 are administrative and executive, 2,375 are protection and operational, and 710 are supporting staff (Malik, 1990). The Environmental Protection Ordinance is enforced by the Pakistan Environment Protection Council, but this has not yet been formed. The Council is also responsible for establishing a national environmental policy, providing direction to conserve renewable and expendable resources and ensuring that environmental considerations are incorporated within national development plans and policies. Administration of the Ordinance is the responsibility of the Pakistan Environment Protection Agency. Provincial Environment Protection Agencies have been set up, but other implementation procedures have yet to be streamlined (Mumtaz, 1989). 394 Pakistan Among the non-governmental organisations involved with conservation is the Pakistan Wildlife Conservation Foundation, a registered charity established in 1979. Its president is appointed by a resolution of the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. A main objective is to promote wildlife conservation activities through provision of funds in accordance with the policies of the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources-The World Conservation Union has a regional office in Karachi. Field programmes concerned with protected areas management issues are focused on Korangi/Phitti Creek in the Indus Delta, juniper forests in Baluchistan, and Khunjerab National Park in the Northern Areas. World Wide Fund for Nature-Pakistan (formerly World Witdlife Fund-Pakistan) has offices in Lahore and Karachi. Two bodies are concerned specifically with promoting the conservation of pheasants, namely the World Pheasant Association (Pakistan) and the Pheasant Conservation Forum. The management of national parks has given emphasis to the development of recreation facilities for tourists rather than nature conservation, as in Lal Suhanra and Margalla Hills national parks. Management categories need to be modified (Grimwood, 1972; Rao, 1984), perhaps by the introduction of nature reserves and country parks to replace wildlife sanctuaries. Protected and reserved forests continue to be managed under forest working plans after being designated national parks or wildlife sanctuaries, thereby undermining the purpose of their renotification. Hunting in game reserves is not controlled on a sustained yield basis, permits being issued arbitrarily and subject to political influence (Rao, 1984). The Government of Punjab, however, has restricted the number of shoots under an amendment to the Punjab Wildlife Act (Khan and Hussain, 1985). Weak enforcement of the law is an overall constraint, but safeguards against habitat degradation within protected areas are also inadequate (Rao, 1984). This is largely a reflection of the inadequate financial and technical resources. In addition, except in Punjab, the present administrative arrangements handicap wildlife and protected areas management due to the lack of independence of the wildlife adminstrations within the federal units (Mumtaz, 1990, 1991). Systems Reviews Predominantly arid and semi-arid, Pakistan is a land of great contrasts. Nearly 60% of the country consists of mountainous terrain and elevated plateaux; the rest is lowland, generally below 300 m. The highlands comprise: the Himalaya and adjacent mountain ranges to the north, rising to 8,611 m at the top of K2, the world’s second highest peak; the central Sulaiman Range and its southern extensions (Ras Koh, Siahan and Kirthar ranges); and the western Baluchistan Plateau. The lowlands comprise the Indus River plain and a narrow stretch of coastline bordering the Arabian Sea. A profile of the environment has been prepared by the Government of Pakistan (1989). Pakistan did not inherit a very rich forest resource base, a reflection of its arid climate and the incessant cutting of trees throughout much of the country over the last few centuries. Under extensive reafforestation schemes and extension programmes, forest coverage has increased from 1.4 million ha at the time of independence to 4.6 million ha (5.2% of total land area) by 1984. One million ha of forest, for example, was planted in North-West Frontier Province with the co-operation of the people. Forest cover is most extensive in Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir (27.7%), North-West Frontier Province (13.9%), and Northern Areas (13.4%); in the other three states it is below five per cent. There are two types of forest in Pakistan: production forest managed for commercial extraction of timber; and protection forest which has no commercial value and is primarily for soil protection. Only 27.6% of 395 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya forest is commercially used, the bulk (72.4%) of this resource being under protection (Sheikh and Jan, n.d.; JRC, 1989). Most of Pakistan’s remaining wildlife is to be found in the mountainous country west of the Indus, where human pressures have not been as great as in the plains. The two regions of outstanding importance are’the Himalayan and Karakoram massifs in the extreme north and the desert in the south-west of the country (Grimwood, 1969). To the east of the Indus, Hazara Division in North-West Frontier Province and several areas in Punjab have a considerable amount of wildlife (M.M. Malik, pers. comm., 1987), as does the Neelum Valley in Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir (G. Duke, pers. comm., 1990). Wildlife resources and their exploitation have been reviewed for Baluchistan (Roberts, 1973; Mian and O’Gara, 1987; Groombridge, 1988) and Sind (Roberts, 1972). Major irrigation systems, built to tap_ the water resources of the Indus and its tributaries to meet the demands of an increasing human population, have resulted in the disappearance of extensive tracts of the original tropical thorn scrub, riverine swamp, and forest in the plains (Roberts, 1977). In a recent review of critical ecosystems in Pakistan, Roberts (1986) identifies the Indus riverine zone, and the Chaghai Desert and juniper forests of Baluchistan as being of unique ecological interest and international conservation importance. Pakistan possesses a great variety of wetlands distributed throughout much of the country. Inland waters cover 7.8 million ha, over half of which comprises waterlogged areas, seasonally flooded plains and saline wastes. Coastal mangrove swamps cover at least 260,000 ha. Pakistan’s wetlands are important for waterfowl, particularly those of the Indus Valley—a major wintering ground for a wide variety of central and northern Asian species, as well as being of socio-economic value (Scott, 1989). Prior to 1966, Pakistan had taken no significant steps towards establishing a protected areas network. That year, at the invitation of the Government of Pakistan, the World Wildlife Fund carried out a survey of the country’s wildlife resources and recommended measures to arrest their deterioration (Mountfort and Poore, 1967, 1968). These included the establishment of two large national parks and eight wildlife sanctuaries. This initiative was followed by the constitution of a Wildlife Enquiry Committee in 1968, which made further recommendations for the establishment of 4 national parks, 18 wildlife sanctuaries and 52 game reserves (Government of Pakistan, 1971). These recommendations have been substantially exceeded: 4 national parks, 44 wildlife sanctuaries and 65 game reserves had been declared by 1978 (ALIC, 1981). During the period 1968-71, various techincal assistance was received from the Food and Agricultural Organisation of the United Nations, which latterly included the appointment of an adviser to the Wildlife Enquiry Committee (Grimwood, 1969, 1972). The network currently comprises 10 national parks, over 80 wildlife sanctuaries and over 80 game reserves, covering 7.2 million ha (9% of the total land area). Although extensive, given Pakistan’s human population, only a fraction of the network is protected. Game reserves, in particular, which are often on private land, receive minimal protection due to the lack of legal provisions to control land use. Wildlife sanctuaries enjoy better protection but, in practice, legal restrictions are seldom enforced other than in preventing hunting. Most sanctuaries have been designated in reserved forests of commercial value, where timber and minor forest products are harvested. Enforcement is better in national parks but only Kirthar currently has a management plan. Plans for some of the other national parks are due to be prepared, although that for Khunjerab has met with difficulty due to land ownership disputes between the Government and local people (Malik, 1990, 1991). 396 Pakistan Protected areas have been created haphazardly, often in the absence of any criteria for their selection, and boundaries drawn with little or no ecological basis. Priorities to develop the existing network of protected areas are identified in the IUCN systems review of the Indomalayan Realm (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986) and further recommendations are made in the Corbett Action Plan (IUCN, 1985). Malik (1990, 1991) recommends a doubling of protected areas coverage. While most major habitats are represented within the existing protected areas system (MacKinnon and MacKinnon, 1986), a comprehensive systems review has never been carried out at the national level. Clearly, this is a priority in order to plan the further development of Pakistan’s protected areas network. Other Relevant Information Federal Capital Territory The Directorate of Environment, within the Capital Development Authority, is responsible for protected areas management. It is headed by a Director, who is supported by a Deputy Director, two Assistant Directors, a field staff of sixty-eight and thirty other staff. The Directorate is well organised and enjoys good support from other government agencies by virtue of being in the capital (Malik, 1990). Northern Areas The Northern Areas Forest Department manages the protected areas in its jurisdiction. Apart from Khunjerab National Park, which is independently managed under a Park Director, wildlife staff are attached to the territorial forest divisions under Divisional Forest Officers. The total number of wildlife staff is 87, of which 60 are operational/protection personnel. The budget allocated for 1990-1 is Rs 1.8 million, of which 83.3% is recurrent expenditure, the rest (16.6%) being for development costs (Malik, 1990). North-West Frontier Province Protected areas management has been assigned to an independent Wildlife Wing within the Forest Department, headed by a Conservator of Wildlife. The province is divided into six wildlife divisions, each headed by a Divisional Forest Officer, Wildlife. A wildlife ranger is allocated to each of the fourteen districts, as well as to each of the two national parks. The total number of wildlife staff is 502, of whom 357 are operational/protection personnel. Although the Wildlife Wing enjoys considerable independence in its operations, policy and financial constraints are a source of conflict. The budget allocated for 1990—1 Rs 9.9 million, of which 67.7% is recurrent expenditure, the rest (32.3%) being for development costs (Malik, 1990). Addresses National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (Conservator, Wildlife), Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 Islamabad (Tel. 829756; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives (Inspector-General of Forests), Room 323, Block B, Pakistan Secretariat, Islamabad (Tel. 825289; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) Forest Department—Wildlife Wing (Wildlife Warden), Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir, Muzaffarabad (Tel. 18) Forestry & Wildlife Department, (Divisional Forest Officer, Wildlife), Government of Baluchistan, Spinny Road, Quetta (Tel. 71298) Environment Directorate (Director), Capital Development Authority, Sitara Market, Islamabad (Tel. 826397) Forest Department (Conservator of Forests), Northern Areas, PO Box 501, Gilgit (Tel. 360) 397 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Forest Department—Wildlife Wing (Conservator, Wildlife), Government of North-West Frontier Province, Shami Road, Peshawar (Tel. 73184) Wildlife Department, (Conservator of Forests, Parks & Wildlife), Government of Punjab, 2 Sanda Road, Lahore (Tel. 61798, 63947) Sind Wildlife Management Board, (Conservator of Forests, Wildlife), Aiwan-e-Saddar Road, PO Box 3722, Karachi 1 (Tel. 523176) IUCN-The World Conservation Union (Country Representative), 1 Bath Island Road, Karachi 75530 (Tel. 573046/79/82; Tlx 24154 MARK PK) Pakistan Wildlife Conservation Foundation, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 Islamabad (Tel. 829756; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) Pheasant Conservation Forum (Secretary), c/o National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Co-operatives, 485 Street 84, G-6/4 Islamabad (Tel. 829756; Tlx 5844 MINFA PK; Cable AGRIDIV) World Pheasant Association-Pakistan (Chairman), 7 Aziz-Bhatti Road, The Mall, Lahore WWFE-Pakistan, 1 Bath Island Road, Karachi 75530 (Tel. 573046/79/82; Tlx 24154 MARK PK) WWFE-Pakistan (Director), P.O. Box 5180, Lahore (Tel. 851174, 856177; Fax 370429; Tix 44866 PKGS PK). References ALIC (1981). Draft environmental profile: the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. US Agency for International Development/US National Park Service/US Man and the Biosphere Secretariat. Arid Lands Information Centre, Office of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson, USA. 227 pp. Ferguson, D.A. (1978). Protection, conservation, and management of threatened and endangered species in Pakistan. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington DC. Unpublished. 62 pp. Government of Pakistan (1971). Summary of Wildlife Enquiry Committee Report. Printing Corporation of Pakistan Press, Islamabad. 44 pp. Government of Pakistan (1989). Environmental profile of Pakistan. Environment and Urban Affairs Division, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 248 pp. Grimwood, I.R. (1969). Wildlife conservation in Pakistan. Pakistan National Forestry Research and Training Project Report no. 17. UNDP/FAO, Rome. 31 pp. Grimwood, I.R. (1972). Wildlife conservation and management. Report no. TA 3077. FAO, Rome. 58 pp. Groombridge, B. (1988). Baluchistan Province, Pakistan: a preliminary environmental profile. IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, UK. Unpublished. 104 pp. IUCN (1985). The Corbett Action Plan for protected areas of the Indomalayan Realm. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 23 pp. TUCN/GOP (1987). Towards a national conservation stategy for Pakistan. Proceedings of the Pakistan Workshop 1986. Asian Art Press, Lahore. 367 pp. JRC (n.d.) Towards sustainable development: the Pakistan National Conservation Strategy. Journalists’ Resource Centre for the Environment, IUCN Pakistan, Karachi. Kabraji, A.M. (1986). A national conservation strategy for Pakistan. In: Carwardine, M. (Ed.), The nature of Pakistan. \UCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 69-71. Khan, A. and Hussain, M. (1985). Development of protected area system in Pakistan in terms of representative coverage of ecotypes. In: Thorsell, J.W. (Ed.), Conserving Asia’s natural heritage. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Pp. 60-8. MacKinnon, J. and MacKinnon, K. (1986). Review of the protected areas systems in the Indo-Malayan realm. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 284 pp. 398 Pakistan Malik, M.M. (1990). Management status of protected areas in Pakistan. Paper presented at Regional Expert Consultation on Management of protected areas in the Asia—Pacific Region. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, 10-14 December 1990. 40 pp. Malik, M.M. (1991). Management status of protected areas in Pakistan. Tiger Paper 18 (1): 21-8. Mian, A. and O’Gara, B.W. (1987). Baluchistan and wildlife potentials. University of Baluchistan, Quetta, Pakistan and University of Montana, Missoula, USA. Unpublished. 32 pp. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1967). The conservation of wildlife in Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished. 27 pp. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. Mumtaz, K. (1989). Pakistan’s environment: a historical perspective. In: Shirkat Gah-Women’s Resource Centre, Pakistan’s environment: a historical perspective and selected bibliography with annotations. Journalists’ Resource Centre for the Environment-IUCN Pakistan, Karachi. Pp. 7-38. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife (1978). Wildlife conservation strategy: Pakistan. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad, Pakistan. Unpublished. 73 pp. Rao, A.L. (1984). A review of wildlife legislation in Pakistan. MSc. thesis, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. 66 pp. Rao, A.L. (1987). Nature conservation in Pakistan. In: Towards a national conservation strategy. Pp. 223-50. Roberts T.J. (1972). A brief examination of ecological changes in the province of Sind and their consequences on the wildlife resources of the region. Pakistan Journal of Forestry DE 89-96. Roberts, T.J. (1973). Conservation problems in Baluchistan with particular reference to wildlife preservation. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 23: 117-27. Roberts, T.J. (1977). The mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Benn, London. 361 pp. Roberts, T.J. (1983). Problems in developing a national wildlife policy and in creating effective natural parks and sanctuaries in Pakistan. Paper presented at Bombay Natural History Society Centenary Seminar. Powai, Bombay, December 1983. 9 pp. Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. Sheikh, M.I. and Jan, A. (n.d.). Role of forests and forestry in national conservation strategy of Pakistan. Draft for comment. National Conservation Strategy Secretariat, Islamabad. Unpublished. 86 pp. Ullah, Ch. I. (1970). National parks, past, present and future. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 20: 361-8. 399 Northern Pakistan Summary of Protected Areas of Pakistan National/International designation Name of area and map reference+ Federal Capital Territory National Park 1 Margalla Hills* Subtotal (% total land area) Wildlife Sanctuary 2 Islamabad Subtotal (% total land area) Game Reserve 3 Islamabad Subtotal (% total land area) Northern Areas National Park 4 Khunjerab* Subtotal (% total land area) Wildlife Sanctuaries 5 Astore* 6 Baltistan* 7 Kargah* 8 Naltar* 9 Satpara* Subtotal (% total land area) Game Reserves 10 Askor Nallah* 11 Chassi/Baushdar* 12 Danyor Nallah* 13 Kilik/Mintaka* 14 Nar/Ghoro Nallah* 15 Nazbar Nallah* 16 Pakora* 17 Sher Qillah* 18 Tangir* Subtotal (% total land area) North-West Frontier Province Ramsar Wetlands 19 Thanadarwala Game Reserve* IUCN Management IV Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned Unassigned 401 Category Pakistan Area (ha) 90,700 17,386 17,386 7,000 7,000 69,800 69,800 7,033,600 226,913 (19.2%) (7.7%) (77.7%) 226,913 (3.2%) 41,472 41,457 44,308 27,206 31,093 185,536 12,955 37,053 44,308 65,036 7,255 33,425 7,515 16,842 14,251 238,640 7,452,100 4,047 (2.6%) (3.4%) Year notified 1980 1980 1980 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1975 1976 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya National/International designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference+ Category (ha) notified National Parks 20 Ayubia Vv 1,684 1984 21 Chitral Gol* II 7,750 1984 Subtotal (% total land area) 9,434 (0.1%) Wildlife Sanctuaries 22 Agram Basti IV 29,866 1983 23 Borraka IV 2,025 1976 24 Manglot IV 715 1976 25 Manshi* IV 2,321 1977 26 Sheikh Buddin IV 15,540 1977 ’ Subtotal (% total land area) 50,467 (0.7%) Game Reserves 27 Bagra Unassigned 2,560 1987 28 Bilyamin Unassigned 4,047 1974 29 Darmalak Unassigned 9,788 1987 30 Drosh Gol Unassigned 2,061 1979 31—Gehrait Gol Unassigned 4,800 1979 32 Ghorazandi Unassigned 6,649 1987 33 Goleen Gol Unassigned 49,750 1982 34 Indus River Unassigned 44,200 1974 35 Jabbar Unassigned 13,288 1987 36 Kacha Marai Unassigned 5,300 1984 37 Makhnial Unassigned 4,148 1977 38 Maraiwam Unassigned 5,300 1984 39 Nizampur Unassigned 780 1976 40 Purit Gol/Chitral Chinar Gol Unassigned 6,446 1979 41 Qalandar Abad Unassigned 8,490 1980 42 Rakh Sardaran Unassigned 4,200 1986 43 Rakh Topi Unassigned 17,600 1984 44 Resi Unassigned 5,050 1976 45 Shewaki-Chukhtoo Unassigned 11,379 1987 46 Shina-Wari Chapri Unassigned 1,000 1974 47 Sudham Unassigned 11,500 1984 48 Swegali — Unassigned 1,820 1984 49 Teri/Isak Khumari Unassigned 19,966 1987 50 Thanadarwala* Unassigned 4,047 1976 51 Tooshi Unassigned 1,545 1979 52 Totalai Unassigned 17,000 1984 53 Zarkani Unassigned 12,800 1984 Subtotal (% of total land area) 275,514 (3.7%) TOTALS National parks (% total land area) 253,733 (1.7%) Wildlife sanctuaries (% total land area) 243,003 (1.7%) Games reserves (% total land area) 583,954 (4.0%) * Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map. * Site is described in this directory. 402 Pakistan ASKOR NALLAH GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated in Baltistan District, 105 km and 137 km by road from the towns of Skardu and Gilgit, respectively. Approximately 35°10’N, 75°04’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve in 6n 22 November 1975. Area 12,955 ha. Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,424 m to 4,242 m. Physical Features Occupies the entire Askor Nallah and contains rugged and precipitous slopes. The area is composed of meta-sedimentary, sedimentary and various types of igneous rocks. Schistose, quartzite and other Quaternary lake deposits, alluvium, and stream gravels are present (Rasul, 1985). Climate Mean annual precipitation ranges from 76 mm to 102 mm, mostly in the form of snow. Winters are dry and severe, while summers are mild (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Includes species of juniper Juniperus, birch Betula, and willow Salix. Ground flora comprises Artemisia and a variety of grasses (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex, C. ibex, and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). Avifauna includes chukar partridge Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value No information Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy concessions to collect fallen dead wood, to cut grass, and to graze livestock (Rasul, 1985). 403 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Management Constraints Poaching is a problem due to the shortage of manpower (Rasul, 1985). Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. ASTORE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the catchment area of Astore Nallah, between Nanga Parbat (8,126 m) to the west and the Plains of Deosai to the east, and about 11 km from the town of Bunji. Approximately 35°38’N, 74°40’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975. Area 41,472 ha. The sanctuary is contiguous to Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary (41,457 ha) to the north-west. > Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,212 m to 6,060 m Physical Features Comprises rugged and precipitous terrain, mostly composed of meta-sedimentary rocks, schistose gneiss, and quartzite intruded by some basic dykes. The area contains a sequence of sedimentary and meta-sedimentary, and several types of igneous rocks. Late cretaceous sediments overlay the green stone complex, while quaternary deposits, lake deposits, stream gravel, and alluvium cover the bed rock in valleys (Rasul, 1985). Climate Mean annual precipitation is 254-381 mm, most of which falls as snow from November to January. Rain falls during the months of March, April, and May, whilst August, September, and October are the driest months. July and August are the hottest months (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Fraxinus, Olea, Juniperus, kail, Picea, Julgoza, Lonicera, and Rosa. Artemisia is prominent among the herbs, along with a variety of grasses. 404 : | | | Pakistan Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C: ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, lynx Felis lynx, wolf Canis lupus (V), and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, raptors, and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The site was originally proposed as part of a much larger national park on account of the spectacular scenery and large mammal populations (Mountfort and Poore, 1968). Conservation Management There is no management plan. Local people enjoy concessions to extract timber and firewood, to graze livestock, and to cut grass (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and encroachment (Rasul, 1985). Staff One range forest officer, one game inspector and one game watcher (1985). Budget Rs 66,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. WWF, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. BALTISTAN WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, 193 km and 48 km from the towns of Skardu and Gilgit, respectively. Approximately 35°36’N, 75°08’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975. 405 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Area 41,457 ha. The sanctuary is contiguous with Astore Wildlife Sanctuary (41,472 ha) to the south-east. Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas). Altitude Ranges from 1,515 m to 5,527 m. Physical Features The sanctuary lies in Rondu Valley where the terrain is rugged, with precipitous mountain slopes. Rocks are meta-sedimentary, schistose, and quartzite, and also include a sequence of sedimentary, meta-sedimentary, and igneous types. Quaternary lake deposits, stream gravel, and alluvium are present in valleys. The major source of water is glacial meltwater, springs, and snow (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102 mm, most of which falls as snow during the months of November, December, and January. Winters are severe (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Juniperus, Olea, Fraxinus, Lonicera, and Artemisia (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), urial Ovis vignei, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, wolf Canis lupus (V), and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., raptors, and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The sanctuary supports populations of a variety of threatened animal species. Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. No management plan exists for the area. People living within an 8 km radius of the sanctuary enjoy concessions to extract timber and firewood, to graze livestock, and to cut grass (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching, and encroachment. Staff One range forest officer, one game inspector and one game watcher (1985). Budget Rs 66,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information 406 Pakistan References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. CHASSI/BAUSHDAR GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 160 km by road from the town of Gilgit. Approximately 36°11’N, 72°55’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game sanctuary on 22 November 1975. Area 37,053 ha. Contiguous to Nazbar Nallah Game Reserve (33,177 ha). Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 2,878 m to 5,151 m. Physical Features The terrain is generally flat, with barren cliffs and scree slopes. Sedimentary and meta-sedimentary rocks, and a sequence of quartzite, schistose, and limestone are present. Baushter Nallah is perennial. Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation ranges from 127 mm to 254 mm, most of which falls as snow. Winters are severe and long, while summers are short and mild. Vegetation Trees and shrubs include stunted Juniperus, Fraxinus, Betula, Salix, and Rosa. Herbs include Artemisia, Stipa, and other grasses. Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, and fox Vulpes vulpes. Of the avifauna, there are a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value No information 407 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and the reserve is completely closed to hunting and shooting. No management plan exists at present. Local inhabitants enjoy concessions to extract firewood, to graze livestock, and to cut grass (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. CHITRAL GOL NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category [II (National Park) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Chitral, the northernmost district of North-West Frontier Province, about 3 km west of Chitral Town. Approximately 35°50’N, 71°47’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park in 1984. Originally established as a private hunting reserve in 1880 by the Mehtars, the ruling family of the former State of Chitral. Subsequently declared a wildlife sanctuary on 23 December 1971 (Akbar, 1974). Area 7,750 ha Land Tenure The entire Chitral Gol became state property in 1975, except for 8 ha of cultivated land and several houses which still belong to the ex-Mehtar (Malik, 1985). Altitude Ranges from about 1,500 m at Hyrankot to 4,979 m above Dunduni Gol. Twenty-four peaks exceed 3,000 m. Physical Features Chitral Gol is a narrow valley, its gorge running for some 18 km before broadening out into a basin surrounded by high peaks. Numerous tributaries drain into the Chitral Gol, which flows southwards into the Kunar River. Parent rock comprises shale and limestone from which are derived fairly fertile soils of up to a metre in depth on gentle slopes. The soil is porous and fragile, easily eroded by rainwater. Climate Conditions are dry temperate and not influenced by the monsoon. Climatic data is available from Chitral Town (1,436 m) where mean annual rainfall is 462 mm, with a range of between 218 mm (1905) and 675 mm (1931). Mean annual temperature is 16.8 °C, ranging 408 Pakistan from a maximum of 43.3 °C to a minimum of 12.2 °C. Most of the park is under snow from December until March (Akbar, 1974; Malik, 1985). Vegetation The dry temperate oak Quercus ilex forest of lower altitudes merges into temperate coniferous forest above 2,400 m, with the addition of Cedrus deodara and Pinus gerardiana. At higher altitudes, pine is replaced by Juniperus macropoda scrub. Above the tree-line at 3,350 m occur Salix spp., Viburnum ‘cotinifolium, and Juniperus communis, along with numerous herbs (Akbar, 1974; Aleem, 1977a). Fauna Chitral is famous for its markhor Capra falconeri (V). Schaller and Mirza (1971) estimated 100-125 in 1970, and Aleem (1976) 225 in 1975. A more recent estimate indicates a population size of 650 (Malik, 1985). Other ungulates, such as ibex Capra ibex and urial Ovis vignei, occur in very small numbers, as do black bear Selenarctos thibetanus (Aleem, 1977a; Malik, 1985). The status of snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) changed from tenuous security in 1970 to seriously threatened by 1974 (Schaller, 1976). The species does not appear to be resident, visiting the park occasionally (Malik, 1985). Wolves Canis lupus (V) are seen less frequently following restrictions on grazing by livestock (Malik, 1985). Game birds include Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis, a small remnant population of Himalayan monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, and rock partridge Alectoris graeca (Akbar, 1974; Khan, 1976; Malik, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population None—the five families remaining in the park with their 40 cattle and 500 goats were evicted in December 1984. Seven villages with 300 families occur on the periphery of the park but their associated 100—150 cattle and 3,000-4,000 sheep and goats are no longer allowed to seasonally graze inside the park (Malik, 1985). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Include two hunting lodges, originally built by the Mehtars. Scientific Research and Facilities Large mammal populations were surveyed in the 1970s (Schaller and Mirza, 1971; Aleem, 1976; Schaller, 1976). The impact of grazing by domestic livestock on the vegetation, soil, and wildlife has been examined (Aleem, 1977a). There are no research facilities. Conservation Value The park is representative of an ecosystem that is unique in Pakistan. Conservation Management Originally declared a wildlife sanctuary in order to protect the markhor. Objectives are to: preserve the landscape in its natural state, along with indigenous flora and fauna; manage wildlife populations, particularly the markhor, to maximise their production; and to develop facilities for research and tourism. Top priority has been given to controlling poaching and the government has decided to acquire all private lands and houses within the park. Concessions for firewood have been withdrawn in the case of inhabitants of villages peripheral to the park. Persons affected by these measures are receiving financial and other compensation to help offset losses, and former residents are being given preference for employment opportunities in the park. A special project to develop the park is planned to last until June 1988 at a cost of 4.8 million rupees. Apart from improving facilities (roads, footpaths, and visitor accommodation), game reserves will be established in areas adjacent to the park to act as buffer zones (Malik, 1985). 409 = Nature Reserves of the Himataya Management Constraints Former management problems associated with land tenure, livestock grazing, firewood collection, and poaching have largely been alleviated (Malik, 1985). There is some concern about the markhor population, which is presently managed for trophy hunting. In the 1985-6 winter, four permits (at US $ 10,000 each) were issued to Shikar Safari Club International by the Conservator of Wildlife (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm.). Staff One ranger, twelve wildlife guards (1990). Budget No information Local Addresses . Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife), Chitral Gol National Park, Chitral, North-West Frontier Province References Akbar, A. (1974). Chitral Gol Sanctuary for markhor. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 24: 209-12. Aleem, A. (1976). Markhor in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 26: 117-28. Aleem, A. (1977a). The ecological impact of domestic stock on Chitral Gol Game Sanctuary, Pakistan. Tiger Paper 4(3): 26-9. Aleem, A. (1977b). Population dynamics of markhor in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 27: 86-92. Beg, A.R. and Ilahi Bux (1974). Vegetation of scree slopes in Chitral Gol. Pakistan Journal of Forestry 24(4). (Unseen) Khan, Y.M. (1976). A comprehensive report on wildlife resources (wildlife population census) of Chitral. Forest Department, Peshawar. Unpublished. 11 pp. Malik, M.M. (1985). Management of Chitral Gol National Park, Pakistan. In: McNeely, J.A., Thorsell, J.W., and Chalise, S.R. (Eds.), People and protected areas in the Hindu Kush-Himalaya. King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation and International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development, Kathmandu. Pp. 103-6. Schaller, G.B. (1976). Mountain mammals in Pakistan. Oryx 13: 351-6. Schaller, G.B. and Mirza, Z.B. (1971). Observations on urial and markhor in West Pakistan. New York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished. 4 pp. WWF/IUCN. Project no. 562. Chitral Gol Reserve, Pakistan. DANYOR NALLAH GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 6 km from the town of Gilgit. It is accessible only by bridle path. Approximately 35°55’N, 74°07’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 44,308 ha 410 Pakistan Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,454 m to 7,575 m. Physical Features The topography is undulating and rugged. In some places there are steep, precipitous slopes, becoming gentler at their upper limits. There are sedimentary, meta-sedimentary, and igneous rocks with schist, quartzite, and limestone. Alluvial deposits and stream gravels are also present in valleys (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Mean annual precipitation is 76-102 mm, most of which falls as snow during the months of November, December, and January. Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Salix, Juniperus, Olea, Pistacia, Hippophae, Fraxinus, Rosa, and Betula. Ground flora comprises Artemisia, Haloxylon, Stipa, and other grasses (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, urial Ovis vignei, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), and fox Vulpes vulpes. Avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value No information Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and hunting is banned. No management plan exists for the area. Local people have concessions to collect firewood and timber and to also graze livestock. Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. 411 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya KARGAH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in the Northern Areas, 5 km from the town of Gilgit. Approximately 35°56’N, 74°06’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975. Area 44,308 ha Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,515 m at the mouth of Kargah Nullah to 4,242 m at Chilali. Physical Features The sanctuary comprises the catchment area of the Kargah Nullah. The meta-sedimentary and sedimentary sequence includes slates, quartzites, limestone, and gneiss of pre-Carboniferous age. There are granodiorite and horn-blended granite intrusions. Igneous rocks are post Permo-Carboniferous in age (Rasul, 1985). Climate Annual precipitation in the valley is 152-203 mm, most of which falls as snow during the severe winter months of December and January. June and July are the hottest months (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Fraxinus, Salix, Olea, Pistacia, Juniperus, kail, Picea, Betula, Rosa, and Daphnes oleides. Ground cover consists of Artemisia, Stipa, Haloxylon, and other grass species. Fauna’ Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). The avifauna includes chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, and snowcock Tetraogallus sp. Monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus is seen occasionally (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The sanctuary provides a refuge for a variety of threatened mammals. 412 Pakistan Conservation Management No management plan exists. Wildlife is afforded full protection. People living near the forest and in the town of Gilgit enjoy concessions to extract firewood and to graze livestock. Residents of Kargah benefit from timber for domestic use (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching, and agricultural encroachment. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. KHUNJERAB NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category II (National Park) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated 269 km north-east of Gilgit in the former Hunza State. The park lies in the upper Khunjerab and Shimshal valleys in the extreme north-east of the Northern Areas. Its northern and eastern boundaries follow the Pakistan—China border, its southern boundary is delineated by the divides between the upper Shimshal Valley and Hisper and other glaciers, while its western boundary is more irregular. Starting at the northern end, the western boundary includes the Dhi Valley and the mouth of the Ghujerab Valley, then runs eastwards along the divide between the Ghujerab and Shimshal drainages, finally dipping southwards to include the upper Shimshal Valley. 36°50’N, 75°35’E Date and History of Establishment Designated a national park on 29 April 1975. Area Officially cited as 226,913 ha but this figure is considered to be an underestimate (Wegge, 1988). It is recommended that the park be enlarged in the south-west to include the whole of the Shimshal Valley (Wegge, 1988). The park is adjacent to Taxkorgan Natural Reserve (1,400,000 ha) in China. Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas). Local people enjoy traditional grazing rights. Altitude Ranges from about 3,200 m at the entrances to the park to over 6,000 m. Over half of the park is above 4,000 m (Wegge, 1988). Khunjerab Pass, the gateway to China via the Karakoram Highway, is at 4,934 m. 413 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Physical Features The physiography of the park can be divided into three main parts: in the north, the Khunjerab Valley with its narrow nullahs opens out into open, undulating meadows near the Pass; in the centre, the Ghujerab River drains the high mountain massifs and glaciers of the Chapchingal and Ghujerab; and in the south, the Shimshal Valley with its many impressive glaciers. The main Khunjerab, Shimshal, and Ghujerab rivers flow westwards and drain into the Hunza River. All the waterways are perennial but the upper reaches freeze during the winter fall in temperature. There is a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks. Soils are generally shallow and immature, containing fragments of rocky material, drifted sand, and clay. They are formed mainly by the deposition of glacial material carried downstream in large quantities. Soils are deeper in the upper Khunjerab Valley and support good meadows. Cloudbursts and ice-falls from glaciers frequently wreak havoc in the area. Rivers and streams become blocked by debris, and subsequent flooding occurs when the water breaks through these blockades. Climate The nearest meteorological station is at Misgar, which is about 32 km from the park entrance in a separate valley towards the south-west. Conditions vary considerably with altitude. Winter is long and severe and summer is cold and dry. The minimum temperature during winter (December and January) is -12 °C. July and August are the hottest months, with a mean temperature of 14 °C. Most precipitation falls during the winter. Vegetation Following the classification of Beg (1975) and Roberts (1977), four main vegetation types can be distinguished. Permanent snowfields and cold desert cover an estimated 25%—30% of the park, mainly above 4,000 m. The latter is very sparsely vegetated by species such as Salix spp., Potentilla desertorum, Mertensia tibetica, and a few grasses and sedges. Alpine meadows (20% of total cover) are confined to level ground and depressions above 3,500 m and along glaciers. They are generally rich in plant biomass due to an adequate moisture regime and are therefore important food habitats for both domestic and wild herbivores. Sedges and grasses dominate, but forbs such as Potentilla spp., Saxifraga sibirica, Primula macrophylla, Sedum spp., and Polygonum spp. are also common. Subalpine scrub and birch forest (20% of total cover) occur as narrow belts along stream bottoms and in ravines throughout most of the altitudinal range of the park. Characteristic species are birch Betula utilis, willow Salix spp., tamarisk Myricaria germanica, buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides, and water-dependent forbs and graminoids. Alpine dry steppe (15%-20% of total cover) is found at medium and low elevations on south-facing and dry slopes not covered by subalpine scrub and forest. It is sparsely vegetated by junipers Juniperus spp. and Artemisia spp. Fauna _ A total of 15 mammal species is known to reside in the park and several others are likely to be present (Wegge, 1988). Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii (I), now one of the rarest mammals in Pakistan, occurs in the vicinity of Khunjerab Pass. According to the Mir of Hunza, the population was around 400 but had dropped to beiow 180 by the time of the completion of the Karakoram Highway (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1988). A herd of almost 75 Marco Polo sheep was recorded in the spring of 1984 (Islam and Islam, 1984) and park staff Saw at least 50 crossing the Pass in May 1989 (P. Wegge, pers. comm.). The species also occurs in the headwaters of Karchanai Nullah in the north-west corner of the park, where 28 females and young were sighted in June 1986 (Nissar Ullah Beg, cited in Wegge, 1988). Pakistan’s only population of bharal Pseudois nayaur occurs at the western limit of its range in the upper Ghujerab and Shimshal valleys (Schaller, 1974). The Shimshal population had declined to an alarming extent because of hunting (Rasool, 1981), but it has responded to subsequent protection measures and a total of 170 was tallied in 1986 (Rasul, 1986). Wegge 414 Pakistan (1988) recorded 133 bharal within less than 40 sq. km of the Chatpert drainage, and estimates a total population of 1,500-2,000 animals for the upper Ghujerab, Pamir, and Chatpert. Kiang Equus kiang used occasionally to visit the Shimshal Pass area from China (Schaller, 1974). There are reliable reports of a small population of 20-25 animals between the lower Baraldo and Mustagh rivers on the Pakistan side of the border (Rasul, 1988; Wegge, 1988). Snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) is considered to be common. There is recent indirect evidence that the park supports one of the densest snow leopard populations in Asia (Wegge, 1988). Also present are fox Vulpes vulpes, wolf Canis lupus (V), which preys on Marco Polo sheep and domestic livestock, brown bear Ursus arctos, considered to be threatened with extinction in Pakistan (Schaller, 1974), alpine weasel Mustela altaica, over 2,000 ibex Capra ibex, widely distributed and abundant in the park but absent from neighbouring China, brown hare Lepus capensis, and a variety of rodents including long-tailed marmot Marmota caudata (Rasool, 1981; Mallon, 1987; Wegge, 1988). There are local reports indicating that wild dog Cuon alpinus (V) is present (P. Wegge, pers. comm., 1989). Mallon (1987) recorded 66 bird species from the park and adjacent area. Additional records are given by Wegge (1988) and T.J. Roberts (pers. comm., 1988). Game birds such as Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis and chukar Alectoris chukar are common (Rasool, 1981; Wegge, 1988). Cultural Heritage A useful account of Hunza culture and history is given by Bamber et al. (1984). The economy has always been primarily based on subsistence-level farming. With the completion of the Karakoram Highway the degree of acculturation has been considerable. Since 1970, many people have resettled in Gilgit and men have sought employment elsewhere, some 40% spending five years or more away from the Hunza Valley, often in the army. The Aga Khan Foundation, which aims to benefit the religious and secular life of Ishmaeli muslims and the wider community, is having an increasing role in the development of the region and has essentially replaced that of the Mir who traditionally played a central part in Hunza life. Local Human Population § There are no permanent settlements, although a few shepherds move between different localities inside the park throughout the year. The nearest village is Shimshal on the park boundary, with 120 households and 1,000-1,200 people. Road maintenance gangs live more or less permanently along the Karakoram Highway, inside the park. Some 8,000 domestic stock from seven villages south of the park graze its pastures during the summer. Grazing rights in the Dih and Barakhun valleys in the north are allocated by the former Mir. In the Shimshal catchment, there are an estimated 8,000 goats, 2,000 sheep, 1,500 cattle and 500 yaks at a density of 10 animals per sq. km during the three-month summer (Wegge, 1988). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Khunjerab Valley, accessible from the Karakoram Highway, receives more and more visitors each year, but numbers are still low. Shimshal Valley remains relatively inaccessible and receives 30—5SO tourists annually. There are three economy-style lodges/hotels at Passu on the Karakoram Highway. An access road to Shimshal is under construction; when finished, this attractive mountain valley is expected to become very popular among tourists (Wegge, 1988). Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife was surveyed in 1974 (Schaller, 1974, 1976). Censuses of large mammal populations have been conducted on a regular basis since 1978 (Rasool, 1981). In autumn 1987 the park was included in a preliminary survey of the 415 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya large mammals of northern Hunza, as part of Operation Raleigh (Mallon, 1987). Recently, in October-November 1988, Wegge (1988) assessed the status of natural resources and land use practices with a view to identifying management priorities. Conservation Value The park was established primarily to protect Marco Polo sheep and snow leopard, besides preserving a high mountain environs in a near undisturbed condition. It is also the only known refuge for kiang in Pakistan. With the construction of the Karakoram Highway over the Khunjerab Pass and the establishment of Taxkorgan Natural Reserve across the border in 1984, the foundation for an international peace park was laid, giving Khunjerab added conservation significance. Conservation Management A 12 km zone in the vicinity of Khunjerab Pass was closed for domestic stock grazing in order to protect Marco Polo sheep (Rasool, 1981). Little or no development of park infrastructure or management took place until 1988 when a Directorate of Khunjerab National Park was formed as a semi-autonomous organisation within the Forest Department of the Administration of Northern Areas (Wegge, 1988). A workshop was held in the park in 1989 to draft a managment plan; this has yet to be finalised. There are plans to develop the park, including 162 ha of reafforestation (Rasul, 1985). Wegge (1988) suggests that the park be zoned into core, protected and hunting areas, with all activities prohibited in the core zone, grazing and fuelwood collection allowed in protected zones, and controlled hunting and other activities permitted in the hunting zone. The establishment of a hunting programme, including subsistence hunting, would help compensate for restrictions on previous grazing rights. High priority actions identified by Wegge are: co-operating with Chinese authorities for the joint protection of Marco Polo sheep and kiang, controlling hunting and grazing in the 12 km protection zone by the Pass, instigating a ‘no-stop’ regulation for motorists travelling between Kuksil and the Pass (to reduce disturbance to Marco Polo sheep), providing adequate transport and equipment for field staff, and undertaking thorough field studies of Marco Polo sheep and kiang to assess their status and habitat requirements. IUCN is developing a sustainable forestry project in the upper Hunza Valley as part of the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (IUCN, 1987). In the long term, this should help to reduce the depletion of forest resources in and around the park. Management Constraints Some 66 km of the Karakoram Highway runs through the park. This has contributed to the decline of Marco Polo sheep, largely as a result of hunting and general disturbance. Further disturbances are anticipated now that Pakistan and China have signed an agreement to establish a trade-free zone on the Chinese side of the Khunjerab Pass. Some pastures are overgrazed, including those within the 12 km protected zone where restrictions on livestock have been violated. Illegal hunting still takes place but at insignificant levels, that of Marco Polo sheep by Pakistanis having stopped. Over-collection of fuelwood has also contributed to degradation of vegetation cover in some areas. Snow leopard accounts for a significant offtake of livestock, thought to be about 10% annually. Relatively few snow leopards are killed in retaliation because to do so is difficult and time-consuming (Wegge, 1988). The construction of a motorable road up the Shimshal Valley will have an enormous impact on the bharal population unless protection measures are adequately enforced. The presence of a permanent police quarters within the park is a source of friction, particularly as police regularly hunt ibex (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1988). Staff The total field staff is fourteen, comprising one park ranger, six game watchers and seven chowkidars (Wegge, 1988). 416 Pakistan Budget Rs 0.3 million (1985) Local Addresses Director, Directorate of Khunjerab National Park, Gilgit (Field staff are stationed at Dih under the charge of a field ranger) References Bamber, J., Bishop, K., Holmes, R., Mayers, J., and Thomas, P. (1984). The Cambridge Karakoram Expedition 1984. Final report. Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge. Unpublished. 92 pp. Islam, S-U and Islam, Z. (1984). Sighting of Marco Polo sheep in Khunjerab. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter 3: 11-13. IUCN (1987). Sustainable forestry development in the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme, Northern Areas, Pakistan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 85 pp. Mallon, D. (1987). A survey of the large mammals of northern Hunza. Unpublished. 8 pp. Rasool, G. (1981). Khunjerab National Park. Divisional Forest Office, Gilgit. Unpublished. 5 pp. Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. Rasul, G. (1986). Population status of blue sheep in Shamshal Valley. WWF-Pakistan Newsletter 5: 1-2. Rasul, G. (1988). Tibetan wild ass—verging on extinction. Unpublished. 4 pp. (Unseen) Schaller, G.B. (1974). The Marco Polo sheep in Pakistan. New York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished. 5 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1976). Mountain mammals in Pakistan. Oryx 13: 351-6. Schaller, G.B., Li Hong Talipu, Lu Hua, Ren Junrang, Qiu Mingjiang, and Wang Haibin (1987). Status of large mammals in the Taxkorgan Reserve, Xinjiang, China. Biological Conservation 42: 53-71. Wegge, P. (1988). Assessment of Khunjerab National Park and environs, Pakistan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. KILIK/MINTAKA GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Hunza, Gilgit District, on the Pakistan—China border, 225 km from the town of Gilgit. The northern boundary runs along the international border between Kilik and Mintaka passes. Access is from Misgar Village by bridlepath. Approximately 36°56’N, 75°04’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 65,036 ha Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) 417 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude Ranges from 4,545 m to 6,060 m. Physical Features The main north-south oriented vailey is forked, with the Kilik and Mintaka passes lying at the head of each branch. The terrain is rugged and mountainous. There is a variety of sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks, and a mixture of rock and mineral deposits (Rasul, 1985). Climate Temperatures at higher elevations remain below freezing point for most of the year. Winters are severe, and summers cold and dry. Most precipitation is in the form of snow. Vegetation Higher altitudes are devoid of higher plants. Lower areas contain patches of Juniperus, Artemisia, Haloxylon, Salix and a variety of grasses (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include Marco Polo sheep Ovis ammon polii (I), ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, wolf Canis lupus (V), and fox Vulpes vulpes (Rasul, 1985). In 1974, only a few Marco Polo sheep from neighbouring China were reported to frequent the vicinity of Kilik Pass. At that time, ibex were the most numerous ungulate, with 59 recorded between Murkshi and Kilik Pass (Schaller, 1974). The avifauna includes a variety of game birds, such as chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, and snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population In 1974, the Kilik Rass area was frequented by some 3,000 head of livestock belonging to the Mir of Hunza and people of Misgar (Schaller, 1974). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities The Kilik Pass area was surveyed by Schaller (1974) in November 1974. Conservation Value The reserve is particularly important as a refuge for Marco Polo sheep, in view of which it has been recommended that the reserve be included within Khunjerab National Park (P. Wegge, pers. comm., 1989). Conservation Management The area was first proposed as a game reserve, with provision for licensed hunting of Marco Polo sheep and ibex, in an attempt to conserve these species (Schaller, 1974). Wildlife is now afforded full protection. Local people enjoy concessions to collect firewood and to graze livestock. There is no management plan, but limited manpower is available for protecting the area (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Marco Polo sheep, in particular, and also ibex populations had dwindled by the early 1970s due to severe hunting pressures. In addition, the habitat of the former species was heavily disturbed and overgrazed by domestic livestock (Schaller, 1974). Staff The staff of Khunjerab National Park are responsible for the game reserve. Budget Included in annual budget for Khunjerab National Park (Rs 0.3 million in 1985). 418 Pakistan Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. Schaller, G.B. (1974). The Marco Polo sheep in Pakistan. New York Zoological Society, New York. Unpublished. 5 pp. MANSHI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Kaghan Valley on the east bank of the Kunhar River, 12 km north of Paras Village in Hazara District, North-West Frontier Province. It is close to the border with Azad State of Jammu & Kashmir. The sanctuary is accessible via Paras along a very poor track, which is impassable during winter snow. 34°48’N, 73°34’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. Originally designated a reserve for a five-year period ending 1973. Area 2,321 ha. Forms part of Manshi Reserved Forest. Land Tenure State (Government of North-West Frontier Province) Altitude Exceeds 4,000 m. Physical Features The Kaghan Valley, through which flows the Kunhar River, is steep-sided and aligned north-south. Surrounding ridges form a natural amphitheatre, opening to the south and broken only in the north-west where a side valley leads up to Mt. Musa-ka-Mussallah. Climate No information Vegetation Lower Kaghan Valley is characterised by Himalayan moist temperate forest, with oak Quercus dilatata, sycamore Acer caesium, poplar Populus ciliata, yew Taxus baccata, and walnut Juglans nigra predominant, and some scattered blue pine Pinus wallichiana, cedar Cedrus deodara, spruce Picea smithiana, and silver fir Abies alba. This vegetation type is replaced by dry temperate coniferous forest in the upper reaches, where blue pine forest is interspersed with cedar, spruce, and silver fir. Above 2,500 m are alpine meadows, with a rich herbaceous flora, including an abundance of peony Paeonia sp. (Wayre, 1971; Roberts, 1977). Fauna The mammals have not been surveyed, but are known to include common langur Presbytis entellus and Royle’s pika Ochotona roylei (Wayre, 1971). Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), and occasionally 419 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya leopard Panthera pardus (T) are also present (M.M. Malik, pers. comm., 1987). The avifauna is rich in species. There is prime habitat for koklass pheasant Pucrasia macrolopha and _monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus, both of which are numerous (Wayre, 1971; T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). The sanctuary is one of the few known breeding locations in Pakistan for white-bellied redstart Hodgsonius phoenicuroides. Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus and lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus also breed here (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Five species of fish occur in Kaghan Valley but their distribution within the sanctuary is not specified (Mirza and Hussain, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population There are no permanent settlements within the sanctuary but Gujars live lower down in the valley. These graziers spend the summer (June-July) in the sanctuary with their cattle, buffalo, goats, and sheep (Wayre, 1971). Visitors and Visitor Facilities There is a Forest Department rest house and youth hostel at Sharan. Scientific Research and Facilities Parts of Manshi Forest Reserve were surveyed for pheasants in 1971 (Wayre, 1971). Conservation Value This part of Manshi Forest Reserve was recommended as being the most suitable area in Kaghan Valley for protecting high-altitude pheasants. The relative inaccessibility of the valley, coupled with the presence of snow during winter facilitates protection of the sanctuary. Conservation Management No information Management Constraints The lower reaches of Kaghan Valley are the site of a West German-funded project to produce virus-free seed potatoes. A large area of forest has been cleared within the forest reserve and camps established for imported local labour, all of which are jeopardising the integrity of the sanctuary (T.J. Roberts, pers. comm., 1986). Grazing by domestic livestock is not controlled. Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Range Officer, Balakot Range, NWFP Forest Department References Mirza, M.R. and Hussain, S. (1985). A note on the fish fauna of Kaghan Valley, Pakistan, with the record of Schistura nalbanti. Pakistan Journal of Zoology 17: 101. Roberts, T.J. (1977). The Mammals of Pakistan. Ernest Benn, London. Pp. 6-7. Wayre, P. (1971). Pheasant conservation in Pakistan. WWF Project no. 1563. Pp. 17-21. 420 Pakistan MARGALLA HILLS NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category V (Protected Landscape) Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Comprises the hill ranges immediately to the north of the Federal Capital of Islamabad. 33°48’N, 73°10’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a national park on 27 April 1980 under Section 21(1) of the Islamabad Wildlife (Protection, Conservation and Management) Ordinance 1979. Prior to 1960 much of the area was reserved forest. Subsequently, it was declared a wildlife sanctuary under the West Pakistan Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1959. Area 17,386 ha. The park comprises compartments 2—5, 7-23, 28, 30—8(i) and 41(ii) of Margalla Forest Reserve, compartments 1-25 of the Military Grass Farm and various other lands making a total area of 14,786 ha, together with Rawal Lake and a surrounding buffer area of 2 km from the high water mark. Rawal Lake is not contiguous with the rest of the park, the intervening area constituting part of Islamabad Game Reserve (69,800 ha). Land Tenure State (Federal Government). The land transferred to the Capital Development Authority in 1961, when Islamabad was declared the capital of Pakistan, includes 4,794 ha of reserved forest, 3,315 ha managed by the Military Farm Authorities, and 3,636 ha under private ownership (Masud, 1979). Altitude Ranges between 456 m and 1,580 m. Physical Features The topography is rugged, with numerous valleys and many steep and even precipitous slopes. The area is drained by the River Kurang and its tributaries, which flow into the River Soan. Rocks are Jurassic and Triassic in age, limestone being characteristic of the Margalla Range (though shales, clays, and sandstones are also present). Soils are dark, with a high mineral content, and are capable of supporting good tree growth despite being shallow. Climate Lying in the monsoon belt, the area experiences two rainy seasons. Winter rains last from January until March and summer rains from July until September. Based on climatic data from Rawalpindi for 1951 to 1965, mean annual rainfall is 951 mm and mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures range from 16.9 °C to 40.1 °C and from 3.1 °C to 24.7 °C, respectively (Masud, 1979). Vegetation The two distinct types of vegetation are subtropical dry semi-evergreen forest and subtropical pine forest. The former is dominated by phulai Acacia modesta and kao Olea ferruginea, associated with sanatha Dodonaea viscosa, granda Carissa spinarum, and ber Zizyphus jujuba, and having an undergrowth of bhekar Justicia adhatoda, gunger Sageratia thea, mullah Zizyphus nummularia, and khokhal Myrsine africana. About 50 species of grass are present, the most common being dhauloo Chrysopogon serrulatus, palwan Bothrichloa 421 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya pertusa, survala Heteropogon contortus, maniara Pennisetum orientale, and loonder Themeda anthera. Introduced ornamental tree species include: silver oak Grevillea robusta, gulenishtar Erythrina suberosa, jacaranda Jacaranda mimosoefolia, bottle brush Callistemon viminalis, sakar Ehretia laevis, chir pine Pinus roxburghii, Cassia glauca, Porgania glabra, and Eucalyptus sp. Subtropical pine forest occurs above 1,000 m, chir pine Pinus roxburghii being the characteristic canopy species with an undergrowth of Myrsine africana, Woodfordia fruticosa, Berberis lycium, and granda Carissa spinarum. Forests are well-stocked on cooler aspects but those on the hotter southern slopes with poor soils are sparse and mixed with scrub. Fauna Margalla Hills are unique in Pakistan, being rich in Sino-himalayan fauna, some species (especially birds) of which are at the western extremity of their distribution. Larger mammals are known to include rhesus macaque Macaca mulatta, leopard Panthera pardus (T), wild boar Sus scrofa, Indian muntjac Muntiacus muntjak, and goral Nemorhaedus goral. Noteworthy birds include white-eyed buzzard Butastur teesa, lannar falcon Falco biarmicus, black-shouldered kite Elanus caeruleus, kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelana, black partridge Francolinus francolinus, sirkeer cuckoo Taccocua leschenaultii, jungle nightjar Caprimulgus indicus, long-tailed nightjar C. macrurus, lesser golden-backed woodpecker Dinopium benghalense, and lanceolated jay Garrulus lanceolatus. A list of mammals and birds believed to be found in the park is given in the master plan (Masud, 1979). Further details of the avifauna can be found in Corfield (1983). Cheer pheasant Catreus wallichii (E), reared at Dhok Jewan and Jabri, are being released into the park. The reintroduction programme is being carried out by the World Pheasant Association in collaboration with the Capital Development Authority (Howman, 1985; Anon., 1987). Cultural Heritage There are a number of historical and religious sites but their importance needs to be evaluated. Shah Faisal Mosque lies outside the southern boundary of the park. Local Human Population Shadarah is the only village remaining in the park; it is due to be relocated. Formerly, there were over a dozen villages inside the park, and the residents of Phulgran retained traditional rights to graze cattle in compartments | and 6 of Margalla Reserved Forest (Masud, 1979). Visitors and Visitor Facilities Large numbers of residents from Islamabad and Rawalpindi, as well as foreigners, visit the park due to its proximity to the capital. There is a small zoo near the park entrance which will eventually be transferred to Islamabad Zoo and located in Islamabad Game Reserve. A visitor centre is planned for Daman-E-Koh, providing lounge accommodation and an information service. Lodges, camping grounds and picnic sites are also planned and the provision of a chair lift may be considered. Scientific Research and Facilities The wildlife was surveyed in December 1977 by WWF in collaboration with the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife. The avifauna is well-documented (Corfield, 1983). Conservation Value In its report of 1971, the Wildlife Enquiry Committee recommended that the park should be established in the interests of the people of Islamabad. It is also an extremely important watershed for the capital. With regard to its fauna, Margalla Hills is one of the richest areas for birds in Pakistan. 422 Pakistan Conservation Management Margalla Hills has been managed by the Capital Development Authority since 1961 when it was declared a ‘green’ area. Reserved forests, rakhs (military grass farms) and chaks (private holdings) have since been taken over by the Authority. Much of the original forest has been removed, even prior to the transferral of the forests to the Forest Department in the late 19th century (Elahi, 1970), but is gradually reverting to its original condition under the present management regime. The loss of grass habitat on southern slopes (former rakhs) is likely to be associated with the disappearance of cheer pheasant and the difficulties experienced in trying to reintroduce it (Young, 1986). The objectives outlined in the master plan include restoring the vegetation and wildlife to its previous condition, stopping erosion, conserving the water supply and meeting the increased demand for outdoor recreation through the development of proper. visitor facilities (Masud, 1979). A system of zonation, based on areas of varying intensities of visitor use, has been proposed to facilitate management. This includes a 3,100 ha enclosure for captive breeding and reintroduction purposes, and wilderness areas (comprising 70% of the park area) in which development is permitted. It is proposed that the park be surrounded by a buffer zone of 8 km, in which shooting is to be prohibited. An enclosure, with a 14 km perimeter, is due to be sited in Dhoke Jewari Valley, as part of a plan to reintroduce muntjac and goral to the park. Management Constraints Being adjacent to Islamabad, the park is subject to very high levels of use by visitors. Illegal grazing and collection of fuelwood are persistent problems. The large-scale planting of ornamental trees by the Horticultural Directorate detracts from the integrity of the area (Masud, 1979). Staff One deputy director, one assistant director, one veterinary officer, six range officers, eleven foresters, forty-three forest guards, approximately sixty permanent labourers, and an additional one hundred and twenty casual labourers in April—June for fire-control work (1986). Budget Recurrent expenditure (including upkeep of the zoo) of Rs 4.7 million is met by the Capital Development Authority; capital expenditure of Rs 2 million for the reintroduction of goral, chinkara, cheer pheasant, and development of public amenities is met by this Authority and the National Council for Conservation of Wildlife in equal proportions (1986). Local Addresses Deputy Director, Margalla Hills National Park, Capital Development Authority, Sitara Market, Islamabad References Anon. (1987). Summary of radio tracking of cheer pheasants in the Margalla Hills, Pakistan. World Pheasant Association News 15: 16-17, 20-1. Corfield, D.M. (1983). Birds of Islamabad, Pakistan and the Muree Hills. Asian Study Group, Islamabad. Elahi, M. (1970). Working plan for the scrub forest of Rawalpindi District: 1966-67 to 1975-76. Government Printing Press, Lahore. (Unseen) Howman, K.C.R. (1985). Cheer pheasant release project Margallah Hills, Pakistan. Review of cheer pheasant reintroduction programme in Margallah Hills, Islamabad, Pakistan. World Pheasant Association News 7: 8-10. Masud, R.M. (1979). Master plan for Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan 1979 to 1984. National Council for Conservation of Wildlife, Islamabad. 48 pp. 423 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Roberts, T. (1984). Pakistan’s wildlife today. World Wildlife Fund Monthly Report. January. Young; L. (1986). Forest history of the Margalla Hills. Draft. Unpublished. 3 pp. NALTAR WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies close to Hunza Valley in northern Pakistan, 45 km from the town of Gilgit. Approximately 36°07’N, 74°14’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975. Area 27,206 ha. Contiguous to Sher Qillah Game Reserve (16,842 ha) and Pakora Game Reserve (7,515 ha). 4 Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,972 m to 5,926 m at Shanni Glacier. Physical Features Naltar Valley lies at about 3,000 m and is aligned in a north-west to south-east direction, with mountains on either side rising to about 5,800 m (Winser and Winser, 1985). This fluvio-glacial valley follows the southern limbs of the Kailas Range for about 24 km until its confluence with the Hunza River. The profile of the upper portion is glacial and typically U-shaped, while that of the lower portion 1s V-shaped due to river erosion. The meta-sedimentary and sedimentary sequence includes slates, quartzites, limestone, and gneiss of pre-Carboniferous age. There are green stone, granodiorite, and horn-blended granite intrusions. Igneous rocks are post Permo-Carboniferous in age. Late Cretaceous sediments overlay the green stone complex in Yasin Valley. The upper reaches of the Naltar River freeze during winter (Rasul, 1985). Climate Annual rainfall ranges from 254 mm to 381mm. Winter is severe (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation The area falls within the dry temperate zone, but because of high rainfall supports luxuriant forests and ground cover (Rasul, 1985). Trees and shrubs include species of Pistacia, Olea, Fraxinus, Sageratia, Eurotia, Juniperus, Picea, Betula, Salix, and Populus. Herbs include Artemisia, Stipa and Haloxylon. Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, fox Vulpes vulpes, wolf Canis lupus (V), stone marten Martes foina, and leopard cat Felis bengalensis (Rasul, 1985). Some 35 species of birds have been recorded (N. MacCallum, pers. comm.). Cultural Heritage No information 424 Pakistan Local Human Population There are a number of settlements in Naltar Valley, those higher up being used only in summer (Winser and Winser, 1985). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities An expedition from Aberdeen University carried out ecological studies on the pika Ochotona roylei and choughs Pyrrhocorax spp., and made collections of mosses, spiders, and pseudo-scorpions (Winser and Winser, 1985). Conservation Value Naltar is part of a protected areas complex which is important for a variety of threatened mammal species. Conservation Management Wildlife is given complete protection. People residing within an 8 km radius of the sanctuary enjoy concessions to extract timber and firewood, graze livestock and cut grass. A conservation management plan and plan for the establishment of a mini-zoo are being prepared (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower, poaching and agricultural encroachment (Rasul, 1985). Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. Winser, N. and Winser, S. (Eds.) (1985). Expedition Yearbook 1984. Expedition Advisory — Centre, London. Pp. 111-12. NAR/GHORO NALLAH GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, about 26 km by road from the town of Skardu. Approximately 35°06’N, 75°12’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 7,255 ha Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) 425 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude Ranges from 2,424 m to 4,242 m. Physical Features The terrain is rugged and precipitous. Stream deposits of alluvium and gravel cover valley bottoms. Sedimentary, meta-sedimentary, and igneous rocks are present (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102 mm, with most falling as snow. Winters are severe and summers mild (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Juniperus, Betula, Salix, and Fraxinus. Ground flora consists of Artemisia and various grass species (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), and snow leopard Panthera uncia (E). The larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and various raptor species (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value No information Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection and the reserve is closed to hunting. Local people enjoy concessions to collect firewood, graze livestock, and cut grass. Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. NAZBAR NALLAH GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) 426 Pakistan Geographical Location Lies in Yasin Tehsil of Gilgit District, 137 km by bridle path from Gilgit Town. Approximately 36°22’N, 73°19’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 33,177 ha. The reserve is contiguous to Chassi/Baushdar Game Reserve (37,053 ha). Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 2,039 m to 5,212 m. Physical Features The Nazbar catchment area includes numerous side nullahs with rugged, undulating topography. Climate The climate is dry, with an annual precipitation of 127 -254 mm, most of which falls as snow. Winters are severe and summers mild (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees include Juniperus (sporadic and stunted), Salix, Rosa, Fraxinus, and Populus. Ground flora includes Artemisia, Stipa, and other grasses. Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), lynx Felis lynx, and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and various raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Local inhabitants cultivate in the lower part of the reserve and graze livestock in the upper part (Rasul, 1985). Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value No information Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy concessions to extract firewood and timber for domestic use, to graze livestock, and to cut grass. There is no management plan (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information 427 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. PAKORA GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Gilgit District, 97 km by road from the town of Gilgit. The reserve is located in Ishkuman, 47 km from Gakuch Punial. Approximately 36°24’N, 73°33'E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 7,515 ha. The reserve is contiguous to Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary (27,206 ha). Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 2,333 m to 4,848 m. Physical Features Pakora Nullah is very narrow at its mouth, which is flanked by steep slopes. Higher up it opens out, giving way to gentle slopes. Schist, quartzite, and limestone are present in sedimentary, meta-sedimentary, and igneous rocks (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation ranges from 127-254 mm, most of which is in the form of snow. Winters are severe and summers cool (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Juniperus, Fraxinus, Olea, and Rosa, Artemisia, Stipa, and other grasses are present (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), wolf Canis lupus (V), and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and various raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The reserve is part of a protected areas complex which is important for a variety of threatened mammal species. 428 Pakistan Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local inhabitants enjoy concessions to extract firewood and timber and to graze livestock,. The reserve is completely closed for hunting. No management plan exists. Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. SATPARA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY IUCN Management Category IV (Managed Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Baltistan District, 3 km from the town of Skardu. Approximately 35°12’N, 75°07’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a wildlife sanctuary on 22 November 1975. Area 31,093ha Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 2,691 m to 4,242 m. Physical Features The site consists of the catchment area of Satpara Nullah and lake, and borders on the Deosai Plains. The terrain is rugged with scree slopes. Sedimentary and meta-sedimentary rocks with schist and quartzite, as well as various types of igneous rocks, are found in the area. Stream deposits of alluvium and gravel occur in valley bottoms (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation is 76-102 mm, most of which falls as snow in December and January. Winters are dry and severe, while summers are mild (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Comprises stunted juniper Juniperus, birch Betula and Rosa (Rasul, 1985). 429 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Fauna Large mammals include ibex Capra ibex, musk deer Moschus chrysogaster (V), and urial Ovis vignei. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and a variety of raptors and vultures. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The site was originally proposed as part of a much larger national park, on account of its spectacular scenery and large mammal populations (Mountfort and Poore, 1968). Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Local people enjoy concessions to collect fallen dead wood for fuel and graze livestock. No management plan exists for the area (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include a shortage of manpower. Staff One game watcher under the control of a Forest Range Officer (1985). Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses Forest Range Officer, Wildlife Headquarters, Skardu References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. Mountfort, G. and Poore, D. (1968). Report on the Second World Wildlife Fund Expedition to Pakistan. World Wildlife Fund, Morges, Switzerland. Unpublished. 25 pp. SHER QILLAH GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Ghizer Forest Division, about 48 km from the town of Gilgit. Approximately 36°24’N, 73°53’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 16,842 ha. The reserve is contiguous to Nalter Wildlife Sanctuary (27,206 ha). 430 Pakistan Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas) Altitude Ranges from 1,983 m to 5,818 m. Physical Features The terrain is rugged and mountainous. Sedimentary, meta-sedimentary, and a sequence of quartzite, slate, and limestone rocks are present, all with intrusions of granodiorite and horn-blended granite of Tertiary age (Rasul, 1985). Climate Conditions are dry temperate. Annual precipitation varies from 254 mm to 381 mm, most of which falls as snow during the severe winter. Vegetation Trees and shrubs include kail, Picea, Juniperus, Betula, Salix, Fraxinus, and Olea. Herbs include Haloxylon, Artemisia, and Stipa (Rasul, 1985). Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), ibex C. ibex, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, lynx Felis lynx, and fox Vulpes vulpes. Larger birds include chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., and a variety of raptors and vultures (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The reserve falls within a pretected areas complex which is important for a variety of threatened mammal species. Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded complete protection and the area is closed to hunting. Local people enjoy concessions to collect firewood and timber for domestic use and for livestock grazing. No management plan exists at present. Management Constraints Include shortage of manpower and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. 431 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya TANGIR GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 2.38.12 (Himalayan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies in Diamer District on the boundary with Swat, some 113 km and 274 km from the towns of Chilas and Gilgit, respectively. It is accessible only by foot. Approximately 35°36’N, 73°24’E Date and History of Establishment Declared a game reserve on 22 November 1975. Area 14,251 ha Land Tenure State (Administration of Northern Areas). Some land is privately owned. Altitude Ranges from 1,515 m to 4,545 m. Physical Features Terrain is mostly mountainous with rugged, steep slopes. Rocks are igneous, sedimentary and meta-sedimentary, with schist, quartzite, and limestone deposits. Climate Annual rainfall ranges from 254 mm to 381mm. Snow falls during the severe winter months of November and December, and light showers are characteristic of the summer monsoon season. Summers are mild (Rasul, 1985). Vegetation Trees and shrubs include Olea, Quercus, Pistacia, Lonicera, Salix, Betula, Juniperus, Pinus gerardiana. Cedrus deodara, and Rosa, Ground flora comprises Ferula, Artemisia, Stipa, and other herbs. Fauna Large mammals include markhor Capra falconeri (V), snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), Himalayan black bear Selenarctos thibetanus, fox Vulpes vulpes, wolf Canis lupus (V), and lynx Felis lynx. Of the avifauna, there are a variety of pheasants, including chukar Alectoris chukar, snow partridge Lerwa lerwa, snowcock Tetraogallus sp., ard monal pheasant Lophophorus impejanus (Rasul, 1985). Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities None Conservation Value The reserve supports a variety of threatened mammal species. 432 Pakistan Conservation Management Wildlife is afforded full protection. Hunting is banned. Local inhabitants enjoy concessions to graze livestock, cut grass, and to collect firewood and timber for domestic use. There is no management plan (Rasul, 1985). Management Constraints Include shortage of staff and poaching. Staff One game watcher (1985) Budget Rs 10,000 p.a. (1985) Local Addresses No information References Rasul, G. (1985). National parks and equivalent reserves in northern areas of Pakistan. Wildlife Division, Northern Areas, Forest Department, Gilgit. 36 pp. THANADARWALA GAME RESERVE IUCN Management Category Unassigned Biogeographical Province 4.08.04 (Indus-Ganges Monsoon Forest) Geographical Location Lies at the junction of Gambilla and Kurram rivers, 15 km east of Lakki in Bannu District. 32°37’N, 71°05’E Date and History of Establishment Thanadarwala was declared a game reserve in 1976, and subsequently designated a Wetland of International Importance at the time of Pakistan’s ratification of the Ramsar Convention on 23 July 1976. Area 4,047 ha Land Tenure The wetland is under communal ownership; surrounding areas are owned by local villagers Altitude 303 m Physical Features Thanadarwala comprises a shallow, fresh to brackish seepage lagoon and an extensive marshy area. The depth of water fluctuates from 0.1 m to 1.5 m according to the supply of flood water from the two rivers, their levels rising in March and again in July-September. The pH value is 9.0. Surrounding areas are mostly saline. Climate Conditions are dry subtropical, with a mean annual rainfall of 250 mm. Temperatures range from 4 °C to 18 °C in winter, and from 25 °C to 47 °C in summer. Vegetation The marsh vegetation includes Tamarix dioica, Typha angustata, Phragmites karka, Cyperus laevigatus, Kochia indica, Desmostachya bipinnata, Imperata cylindrica, and species of Chara, Launaea, Phoenix, Potamogeton, Ranunculus, and Saccharum. Much of 433 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya the surrounding area is cultivated for wheat and other crops. The natural vegetation of the region is tropical thorn forest, with dominant species including Prosopis cineraria, Tamarix aphylla, Zizyphus nummularia, Calligonum polygonoides, Rhazya stricta, Aerua javanica, Chenopodium album, Cassia obovata, Heliotropium sp., Tribulus terrestris, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Cenchrus ciliaris, and Dactyloctaenium scindicum. Fauna The reserve is a wintering area for great egret Egretta alba and Anatidae, notably shelduck Tadorna ferruginea, teal Anas crecca, mallard A. platyrhynchos, shoveler A. clypeata, pochard Aythya ferina, and ferruginous duck A. nyroca. Waterfowl recorded during the mid-January censuses in 1987 and 1988 included up to 600 shorebirds of eight species and small numbers of three species of Ardeidae, white stork Ciconia ciconia, three species of Anatidae, and purple swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio. Other fauna includes agamid Uromastix sp. and common monitor Varanus bengalensis. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population Activities include the cutting of Typha and Saccharum for a local cottage industry, and the hunting (shooting and trapping) of waterfowl. Surrounding areas are cultivated and grazed by livestock. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Mid-winter waterfowl counts were carried out by the Pakistan Forest Institute in 1979-81, and have been undertaken annually since then by the Zoological Survey Department. Conservation Value Thanadarwala is important for waterfowl! and under proper management could become important for fish conservation. Conservation Management Information about the management of the property is not available. Proposals have been made for the reclamation of saline soils for agriculture, and for the afforestation of saline and water-logged areas. There are also plahs for a watershed management project to control erosion and reduce siltation. Management Constraints Include hunting, cutting of aquatic vegetation, and excessive grazing by domestic livestock (goats, sheep, cattle, and camels). Salinity levels are increasing, and there is a possibility that the wetland will be drained if public pressure for the reclamation of land continues to increase. Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses No information References Information is taken directly from: Scott, D.A. (Ed.) (1989). A directory of Asian wetlands. YUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 1,181 pp. 434 UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS Area 22,402,200 sq. km Population 288,595,000 (1990) Natural increase 1.0% per annum GNP US §$ 8,375 per capita (1988) Policy and Legislation Several articles in the 1977 Constitution of the USSR reflect the growing prominence given to environmental protéction. Under Article 18 it is a primary duty of the State to protect and make scientific use, of natural resources, and to ensure air and water quality, while under Article 67 all Soviet citizens are obliged to protect nature and to conserve its riches. This is augmented by the 1985 Decree on the enforcement of nature conservation laws and the rational use of natural resources. A draft law to update and encompass all forms of environmental protection was prepared and submitted to the Council of Ministers in 1989 (Anon., 1988). The draft Treaty on the Union of Soviet Soveteign Republics (USSR) is now under discussion and may have a bearing on the administration of environmental protection (Dobrynina, pers. comm., 1991). Legislation relevant to the protection of areas appeared in Imperial Russia during the 1880s in the form of hunting, land use, and forestry regulations (Karpowicz, 1988), followed by the first conservation measures in 1909. The first legislation of an environmental nature, however, was adopted as early as the 11th—12th centuries: the core of the Beloveshskaya Pushia was set aside in the 13th century and forests along the southern boundaries of the Russian state were granted protection in the 14th—17th centuries (Dobrynina, pers. comm., 1991). Protected areas legislation appeared in 1921 in the form of a decree of the Council of People’s Commissioners entitled ‘Protection of Natural Monuments, Gardens and Parks’ and signed by V.I. Lenin. In 1957 a series of acts addressing conservation was passed in the wake of the Conservation of Nature Act in Estonia. This was followed in 1968 by the Principles of Land Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics. In 1972 a decree was passed by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the USSR Council of Ministers to strengthen nature conservation and improve the use of natural resources. This led to the current Law on Wildlife Protection and Use which is based on the State regulations of 25 June 1980 (coming into force on 1 January 1981). This law includes regulations on protected natural areas and measures to ensure wildlife protection (Articles 21-6) approved by the State Planning Committee and the State Science and Technological Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers (Kolbasov, 1981; Karpowicz, 1988). In 1985 the decree of the USSR Supreme Soviet covered nature conservation legislation and rational use of natural resources. 435 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya The legislative status of state nature reserves (zapovednik) is based on Article 21 (Section 6 on creating preserves and reserves) and Article 25 (on protection of animals in preserves, reserves, and other protected areas) of the 1981 Law on Wildlife Protection and Use, following the earlier two acts of the Supreme Soviet: Principles of Land Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics (adopted on 13 December 1968), and Principles of Water Legislation of the USSR and Union Republics (adopted on 10 December 1970). Under the Principles of Land Legislation, any activity disturbing natural ecosystems within state nature reserves, or threatening the conservation of natural objects of special scientific or cultural value is prohibited both within state nature reserves and their surrounding protected zones. The state regulations entitled The Status of State Nature Reserves enacted by the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 27 November 1951, together with the relevant regulations of the Republics, has been revised in the 1981 Act. There are approximately 60 different categories of protected area which provide for nature conservation to varying extents. The six main categories of nature conservation areas, represented both at national and republic levels are: state nature reserve (Zapovednik), national park (Natsional’nyi park), nature sanctuary or partial reserve (Zakaznik), national hunting reserve (Zapovedno-okhotnich' ye khozyastvo) and nature reserve or natural monument (Natsional’nyi pamyatnik). The principal category, and the most rigorously protected, is the state nature reserve. In addition, there are protected seashore areas, sea islands, and sea shelves, set up to protect the environment, conserve gene pools, and to provide for the restoration of resources, recreation, and education. State forests and forest reserves protect watersheds, provide windbelts, and control erosion. There are also green zones and forest parks which tend to be protected green belts around cities and health resorts. They have limited nature conservation value, usually being managed landscapes with a high recreation priority (Borodin et al., 1984). International Activities In a Pravda article entitled “The Reality and Guarantee of a Safe World’, the President, Mikhail Gorbachov identified the need to develop a global strategy for environmental protection and rational use of natural resources. This highlights present policy within the Soviet Union towards international conservation (Anon., 1989). In 1988, the USSR participated in 55 international conventions and agreements concerning environmental protection, several of which related to protected areas (Anon., 1989). A network of wetlands of international importance has been established under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention), which was ratified by the USSR on 11 October 1976. In 1990 there were 12 sites. A further 16 are proposed adding 8,000,000 ha to the network. The USSR is also actively involved in developing a network of biosphere reserves under the Unesco MAB programme, 19 sites having been established by 1990. The USSR signed the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention) on 12 October 1990. No natural sites are inscribed on the World Heritage List as yet. International co-operation between the USSR and the USA has extended to the twinning of biosphere reserves for comparative research and management purposes. Negotiations are underway with the USA and Finland to establish transfrontier parks on the shores of the Bering Straits and adjacent to Kostomukhskiy, respectively. Multilateral co-operation between the members of the Warsaw Pact is implemented within the framework of a Permanent Commission on Co-operation in Environmental Protection. This ceased to exist after the Pact was disbanded in 1991. Co-operation with Sweden has 436 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics been implemented within the framework of a Joint Working Group on Environmental Protection under the Soviet-Swedish Intergovernmental Commission on Economic and Scientific and Technical Co-operation. Among the primary areas of co-operation is the conservation of ecological systems and individual floral and faunal species (Anon., 1989). Administration and Management Until 1988 the supreme authority for broad and comprehensive environmental issues (executive and management roles in nature conservation) was the central government’s Council of Ministers, and its representatives within each republic. Administration was handled by national bodies such as: the State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Natural Environmental Control (concerned with nature conservation, forestry and game management), and the USSR Agro-Industrial Trust (formerly USSR Ministry of Agriculture) with committees at republic level. In January 1988 the administrative bureaucracy was streamlined and simplified by the creation of the USSR State Committee for Nature Conservation (Goskompriroda), which was responsible for co-ordinating conservation activities throughout the entire USSR. Goskompriroda has offices at the Republic level, further divided into 200 oblast (district) offices each with some 200 staff. Its main tasks include: monitoring the use and conservation of natural resources (including hunting activities), management of nature reserves, registration of threatened fauna and production of the USSR red book, and dissemination of information about the environment. In 1991 the structure was revised with the creation of the USSR ministry of Nature Use and Environmental Protection (Dobrynina, pers. comm., 1991). The relationship between this ministry and the republican authorities will only be defined once the Treaty on the Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics (USSR) has been agreed. As from 1 January 1975 state nature reserves were under the-direct or indirect supervision of the Department of Nature Conservation, and Game Management of the USSR Ministry of Agriculture. The majority of state nature reserves were managed by the departments or committees of nature conservation in the republics, but some fell under the supervision of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Final approval for the establishment of state nature reserves was given by Gosplan, the State Planning Committee (Braden, 1986). By 1988 most state nature reserves had come under the administration of the Chief Administration for Nature Conservation, Nature Reserves, Forestry and Game Management (Glavpriroda). By 1990, 135 of 168 state nature reserves were under Goskompriroda, now the Ministry, and the rest under the USSR Academy of Sciences and the republics. National parks, however, remain under the USSR State Committee for Forestry. Most state nature reserves have 5 to 20 scientific staff, additional research being undertaken by the Academy of Sciences, universities and other institutions (Braden, 1986). In the RSFSR, national hunting reserves are administered by the Chief Administration for Hunting and Nature Reserves (Glavokhota). Rangers are responsible for controlling poaching, and hunting is limited to sustainable levels. In 1985, 4.4 million roubles were spent on national parks and 27.8 million roubles on the state nature reserve system by 28 different administrative bodies employing over 1,000 specialists. In 1988 a budget of 10,000 million roubles was earmarked for use by the State for environmental protection, as compared with a total of 60,000 million roubles spent during the previous decade (Karpowicz, 1988). A long-term programme for environmental protection and rational utilisation of natural resources has been formulated for the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan (1991-5) and up to the year 2005 by the former USSR State Committee for Nature Protection and other key institutions. Total investment for the period 1991-2005 is estimated 437 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya at 240-335 billion roubles, increasingly from 48-55 billion roubles for the Thirteenth Plan to 120-180 billion roubles for the Sixteenth Plan (IUCN, 1991). The oldest and largest nature conservation organisation in the USSR is the All Russian Society for Nature Conservation. Founded in 1924, it is reputed to be the largest in the world, with 38 million members active in local groups, collectives and state farms, factories, offices, and schools. In all Soviet republics there are national nature conservation societies which work within the framework of the peace council of the USSR. Other societies include the USSR Geographical Society, USSR Theriological Society, and the USSR Ornithological Society. The basis of nature conservation is taught both in schools and in universities and other institutions of higher education (Kaystautas, 1987). A union of environmental protection societies was set up in early 1989. Systems Reviews The USSR is the world’s largest country covering one sixth of the globe’s land surface. For the most part it is lowland, with only 5% lying above 1,500 m. There are four distinct vegetation zones: tundra, forest (broad-leaf woodland and coniferous taiga), steppe and desert. The deserts and semi-deserts (Central Asia) fringing the southern borders give way to steppe and temperate grasslands, which in turn are replaced by a great zone of broad-leaf woodland and conifer taiga forest stretching for more than 11,250 km east—west, and by treeless cold desert and tundra along the northern coasts. Forests now cover 7.47 million sq. km (33% of the USSR) with vast areas of forest remaining virgin in the far north, parts of Siberia, and in the high mountains. The main centres of plant diversity include the Carpathian mountains, southern shores of the Crimea, western and eastern Transcaucasus region, western Kopet, Tien-Shan, the Pamirs, and the Primorskiy region (Davis et al., 1986). Protected areas play an important role in the conservation of rare faunal species, containing 39% of mammal species, 55% of bird species, 56% of fish species, 68% of reptile species, and 90% of amphibians listed in the Red Book of the USSR. Moreover, they have proved to be vital for the conservation of a number of species such as tiger and Bactrian deer (Anon., 1989). Strict protection is afforded to about 1.5% of total land area in the USSR under the existing network of national parks and state nature reserves. There are plans to establish 40 national parks over the next 10 years, mainly in the Far East (N. Zabalina, pers. comm.., 1991). Overall, it is planned to extend the protected areas network to at least 2% of total land area by 1995, 4% by 2000, and to at least 6% by 2005 (IUCN, 1991). In the past, even designated protected areas were not completely secure from short-term economic exploitation, with reserves temporarily removed from the system. A total of 88 state nature reserves were thus removed between 1940 and 1950. The protected areas system has been threatened over time by a number of activites such as oil prospecting, livestock grazing, over-fishing, uncontrolled tourism, illegal building schemes, and hunting by the privileged few (Braden, 1986; Karpowicz, 1988). The Dneprovsko-eterevskoe National Hunting Reserve lies partly within Zone A (total evacuation) of the Chernobyl reactor accident site. Addresses USSR Ministry of Nature Use and Environmental Protection, Nezhdanovoi St 11, Moscow 103 009 (Tel. 95 229 5759; Tlx: 411258 zerno su) 438 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics References Anon. (1988). Resolution on the formation of USSR State Committee for the Protection of Nature. Pravda 17 January. Anon. (1989). Report on the state of the environment in the USSR, 1988. USSR State Committee for the Protection of Nature, Moscow. 151 pp. Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969). Zapovedniki Sovetskogo Soyuza. Kolos, Moscow. 552 pp. Borodin, A.M., Isakov, Y. and Krinitsky, V.V. (1984). The system of natural protected areas in the USSR: biosphere reserves as part of this system. In: Conservation, Science and Society. Unesco, Paris. Pp. 221-8. Borodina, A-G. and Syroechkovskogo, I.Y.Y. (Ed.) (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, Moscow. 248 pp. Braden, K. (1986). Wildlife reserves in the USSR. Oryx 20: 165-9. Cerovsky, J. (1988). Nature conservation in the socialist countries of East Europe. East-Europe Committee, IUCN Commission on Education/Ministry of Culture of the Czech Socialist Republic, Prague. Davis, S. D., Droop, S. J. M., Gregerson, P., Henson, L., Leon, C. J., Lamlein Villa-Lobos, J., Synge, H., and Zantovska, J. (1986). Plants in danger, what do we know? Threatened Plants Unit. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 461 pp. Karpowicz, Z.J. (1988). Conservation and environment protection. In: M.J. Berry (Ed.), Science and technology in the USSR. Longmans, London. Pp. 361-79. Kolbasov, O.S. (1981). Two new environmental laws. Environmental Policy and Law 7: 79-100. Knystautas, A. (1987). The natural history of the USSR. Century, London. 224 pp. Nikalaevskiy, A.G. (1985). Natsional’ nye parki. Agropromizdat, Moscow. 189 pp. Sokolov, V.Y. and Syroechkovskogo, Y.Y. (Eds.) (1985). Zapovedniki SSSR. 11 vols. Mysl, Moscow. IUCN (1991). Environmental status report 1991. Vol. 3. USSR. QTUCN-East European Programme, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. ANNEX Definitions of protected area designations, as legislated, together with authorities responsible for their administration Title (English title): Law on Wildlife Protection and Use Date: 25 June 1980 (entered into force 1 January 1981) Brief description: No information Administrative authority: Goskompriroda (USSR State Committee for Nature conservation Designations: Zapovednik (State nature reserve) — Typical or unique plot of natural land used by ‘scientific institutions . . . and studied for its natural complexes and established on land excluded from economic utilisation’. Both protect threatened flora and fauna, and serve as an outdoor laboratory for field study. As far as possible, maintained in its natural condition unchanged by man. 439 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya — Prohibited activities include building construction, any economic activities, such as agriculture or industry, and unrestricted entry. — Main management objectives include: (1) protection of wildlife and its habitats, including maintenance of entire ecosystems; (2) scientific research; and (3) strictly limited recreational activities or, in some cases, controlled tourism.- — Surrounded by an area of semi-protected land which provides a buffer to the adjacent countryside. Existing economic activities are allowed to continue, providing they are not harmful. Natsional’nyi park (National park) — Protected natural area established in natural wilderness or altered landscapes (including arable land), although mainly on state forest property. Designated for recreation as well as nature protection and, as in the case of a protected lakeshore, differs from a state nature reserve in that tourism is allowed. — Legislation for national parks is complex. Parks are zoned into: areas in which economic activities are controlled; nature reserves, containing the finest examples of original natural habitat, where economic activities and public entry is forbidden; nature sanctuaries where tourists are allowed but economic activities are strictly prohibited; and peripheral buffer areas of economic activity, where habitation and sustainable levels of exploitation of natural resources (including fishing) are permitted. Zakaznik (Nature sanctuary or partial reserve) — Natural area partly withdrawn from economic utilisation because of its outstanding landscape, rare plants, or breeding colonies of threatened species. Controlled hunting is sometimes allowed. — Established to enable certain floral and faunal populations to recover within a specified time period. Exploitation is prohibited during this period, unless it does not interfere with management objectives. — May only be fully protected in certain seasons when all economic activities and entry is banned. Status and administration varies in the different republics of the USSR. Zapovedno-okhotnich’ ye khozyastvo (National hunting reserve or reserved hunting unit). — Highly protected, and provides vital refuges for wildlife. Numbers of some game species is regulated by controlled hunting. Natsional’nyi pamyatnik (Nature monument or national monument) — Limited area surrounding isolated natural features such as geological sites or exceptionally old trees. Sources: Braden (1986), Kynstautas (1987), Cerovsky (1988). 440 yussn JSBOYINOS Sunsixg Wi Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Summary of Protected Areas of USSR National/International designation IUCN Management + Name of area and map reference Biosphere Reserve 7 Chatkal Mountains Biosphere Reserve” IX Kazakhstan SSR (southern® ) State Nature Reserves 1 Aksu-Dzhabagly I 2 Alma-Atinskiy* I Subtotal (% total land area) Kirghizia SSR Ramsar Wetlands 5 Issyk-Kul Lake* Unassigned National Parks 3 Ala-Archa* II Subtotal (% total land area) State Nature Reserves 4 Besh-Aral’skiy 5 Issyk-Kul’skiy* 6 Narynskiy 7 Sary-Chelekskiy* — Subtotal (% total land area) Tadzhikistan SSR State Nature Reserves 8 Dashti-Dzhumskiy I 9 Ramit* I 10 Tigrovaya Balka* I Subtotal (% total land area) Turkmenistan SSR (south-eastern*) State Nature Reserves 11 Badkhyzskiy I 12 Repetekskiy I Subtotal (% total land area) 442 Category Area (ha) 71,400 271,730,000 75,094 73,342 148,436 (0.1%) 19,850,000 629,800 19,400 19,400 (0.1%) 116,732 18,999 18,260 23,868 177,859 (0.9%) 14,310,000 19,700 16,168 49,700 85,568 (0.6%) 48,810,000 87,680 34,600 122,280 (0.3%) Year notified 1978 1927 1961 1976 1976 1979 1948 1983 1959 1983 1959 1938 1941 1928 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics National/International designation IUCN Management Area Year Name of area and map reference* Category (ha) notified Uzbekistan SSR (south-eastern’) 44,740,000 State Nature Reserves 13° Chatkal’skiy* I 35,686 1947 14 Gissarskiy (Kyzylsuyskiy & Mirakinskiy) I 87,538 1983 15 Kitabskii I 5,378 1979 16 Zaaminskiy I 15,600 1959 17 Zeravshanskiy I 2352, 1975 Subtotal (% total land area) 146,554 (0.3%) TOTALS State nature reserves (% total land area) 680,697 (0.2%) National parks (% total land area) 19,400 (0.0%) * Locations of most protected areas are shown in the accompanying map. * Site is described in this directory. = Consists of Sary-Chelekskiy and Chatkal’skiy state nature reserves in Kirghizia and Uzbekistan, respectively. © Comprises Taldy-Kurgan, Alma-Ata, Dzhambul, and Chimkent oblast’iy. ¥ Comprises Chardzhou and Mary oblast’ iy. * Comprises Andizhan, Namangan, Tashkent, Syrdar’in, Dzhizak, Samarkand, Kashkadar’in and Surkhandar’in oblast’ iy. 443 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya ALA-ARCHA NATIONAL PARK IUCN Management Category II (National park) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian Shan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated on the northern slopes of the Kirghizian Range (Tian Shan) in the upper Ala-Archa Valley, approximately 30 km from Frunze. Approximately 43°10’N, 75°10’E Date and History of Establishment Established in April 1976. Area 19,400 ha Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,579 m to 4,855 m. Fifty peaks are above 4,000 m. Physical Features The relief is typically mountainous with peaks, glaciers, canyons, gorges, cliffs, and rich vegetation in the valleys. Climate No information. Vegetation According to 1984 data, there are 967 species of plants of which three rare species are included in the Red Data Book of the Soviet Union. There are about 70 species of trees and shrubs. The land is covered by sparse growth of archa trees up to 3,000 m. In some places there are fir, birch and willow trees. Fauna According to 1983 data, there are 16 species of mammals including snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), brown bear Ursus arctos, mountain goat Capra sp. (more than 300), porcupine Hystrix sp. marten Martes sp., and ermine Mustela sp. Wolf Canis lupus (V) and wild sheep occasionally visit the park. There are 120 species of birds, including golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos and bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus, and two species of fish. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The park has never been inhabited, but the valleys have been used for cattle grazing. There are no roads, and the nearest village is 8 km outside of the park. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Limited to preliminary observations and censuses of mammal and bird populations. Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Conservation Value The landscape is impressive and provides important habitat for a number of rare species. It is also important for scientific research and recreation, including mountaineering. Conservation Management The park is divided into three zones: strict reserve (2,200 ha), breeding zone and zone of intensive recreation (5%). Unorganised tourism and driving cars in the park are both prohibited. Management Constraints No information. Staff Thirty-five and twenty-two forestry staff (1983). Budget Approximately 100,000 roubles is allocated by the state annually. Income is generated from tourism and mountaineering. Local Addresses _ No information References Nickolaevskiy, A.G. (1985). Nazionalny parky. Agropromizdat, Moscow. 96 pp. ALMA-ATINSKIY ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies 25 km east of Alma-ata, capital of Kazakhstan, in the central part of the Zailiisky Alatau Range. Three-quarters of the territory consists of the northern Kailiisky alatan. Its boundary follows the River Leviy Jalgar in the west, the River Pravy Talgar in the north, and in the east, the ridge separating the valleys of the Issyk and Jurgen rivers. The distance from the west to the east is 32 km. The rest of the reserve is in southern Zailiisky alatan, where the southern border of the reserve extends from near the Toguzak mountain pass, down the Zugo-Vossochniy, Talgar and Chilik rivers, to the Koshulak and Jamchi rivers. Approximately 43°N, 78°E Date and History of Establishment First established in May 1931 and designated a state nature reserve in 1935, but ceased to exist in 1951. It was re-established as a state nature reserve in 1961. Between 1966 and 1983 the Kalkany mountain semi-desert zone (17,800 ha) was included in the reserve, together with an unique natural object, the ‘Singing Sands’. In 1983 this site was transferred to Kapchagayskiy Hunting Reserve. Area 73,342ha. The reserve was extended from 13,000 ha in 1931 to 600,000 ha in 1935 and reached 1,000,000 ha during the following five years, but after World War II it was reduced. Land Tenure State 445 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude Ranges from 4,000 m to 4,973 m at the peak of Talgar mountain, the highest point. Physical Features Forms part of a northern ridge of the Tien-Shan Mountains and consists of the northern Zailiisky Alatau and the Illissky Depression. The former is characterised by a network of peaks culminating in Mt Talagar, and has strongly dissected relief resulting from intense erosion. It includes stretches of the fast-flowing Talgar and Issyk rivers which ultimately drain into Lake Balkash. Soils range from degraded chernozems to black earths. The latter is the desert and consists of a tectonic trough, through which the Ili River flows. Climate Conditions are continental. The mean annual temperature is 6.8 °C in the valleys and 0.8 °C on the mountains. Temiperatures in the valleys vary from —4.3 °C in January to 18.1 °C-in July, and from —9.7 °C to 10. 6 °C on the mountains. The annual number of frost-free days varies from 145 in the valleys to 90 on the mountains. Mean annual precipitation is 830-870 mm. Snow cover lasts for 160-190 days and is 600-800 mm deep. Vegetation The forest-meadow steppe (1,300—2,600 m) comprises conifers, mixed forest, grasslands, and forest grasslands with spruce Picea schrenkiana and feather grasses Stipa capillata, Phleum phleoides, and Festuca ganeschinii. The subalpine belt (2,600—3,000 m) supports evergreen scrub, Juniperus turkestanica, steppe, and mixed grasslands. In the alpine zone (3,000—3,600 m), meadows are interspersed with rock outcrops. Other species present include apple Malus sieversii, honeysuckle Lonicera altmanii, and representatives of the genera Armeniaca, Crataegus, Rosa, Artemisia, Geranium, Myosotis, Gentiana, and Kobresia. Some 950 species have been recorded, including 13 trees, and 63 shrubs. Fauna Mammals include red and large-eared pikas Ochotona rutila and O. macrotis, marmot Marmota bobak, vole Clethrionomys frater, birch mouse Sicista concolor, wolf Canis lupus (V), stoat Mustela erminea, stone marten Martes foina, lynx Felis lynx, red deer Cervus elaphus, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, and ibex Capra ibex. Snow leopard Panthera uncia (E) is a rare visitor to the high mountains. Birds include lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis, and chukar Alectoris chukar. Of the passerines, there are whistling thrush Myiophonius caeruleus, grosbeak Mycerobas carnipes, and Guldenstadt’s, blue-headed and Eversmann’s redstarts Phoenicurus erythrogaster, P. caeruleocephalus and P. erythronotus. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities The system of reserve trails is used for specialist scientific and educational excursions, with guides drawn from local researchers. Scientific Research and Facilities Includes research on preservation of montane landscape and vegetation. Conservation Value No information Conservation Management The reserve is buffered by a 200 ha protected zone. Management Constraints The introduction of red squirrel is a problem. 446 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, Alma-Ata Region, Talgar, Lebedinka 48334 References ‘ Anon. (1963). Works of the Alma-Atinskiy Reserve. In: Reserves of Kazakhstan (Essays), 2nd edition. Kazakh State Publishing House, Alma-Ata. Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969).. Nature Reserves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 459-63. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House, Mysl’, Moscow. Pp. 234-5. Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, Moscow. Pp. 163-6. Proskuryakov, M.A. (1967). The Alma-Atinsky Reserve. Agriculture of the Kazakhstan. P. 12. CHATKAL’SKIY ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) IX (Biosphere Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan. Highlands) Geographical Location Lies 70 km south-east of Tashkent in Tashkent oblast’. Occupies the south-western end of the Chatkal’skiy Range in the western Tien-Shan Mountains. The reserve is 183 km south-west of its twinned cluster reserve Sary—Chelek. Approximately 41°08’N, 69°59’E Date and History of Establishment Established in 1947 by Act of Council of Ministers of Uzbek SSR no. 2020. Twinned as a ‘cluster reserve’ with Sary—Chelek State Nature Reserve in Kirghizia, and designated as part of Chatkal Mountains Biosphere Reserve in April 1978. Area 35,809 ha, having been enlarged from its original size of 22,000 ha. The biosphere reserve component covers 47,500 ha. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,110 m to 4,000 m. Physical Features Encompasses the ridge and spurs of the Chatkal’skiy Range, with the smaller Bashkyzylsaya sector occupying the southern slopes and the larger Maydantalu sector the northern slopes. Rocky outcrops of Devonian and Carboniferous age are common, with thin deluvial and eluvial deposits lying on shallow bed rocks, and valleys are deeply entrenched. Soils are various browr earths. 447 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Climate Conditions are sharply continental, with mean temperatures (at 1,200 m) of —16 °C during the coldest months of January and February, and of 20 °C—25 °C during the warmest month, July. At low altitude, mean annual temperature is 11.5 °C. Maximum and minimum temperatures are 37.9 °C and —21°C, respectively. Annual precipitation is 680-900 mm, with a mean of 656 mm at 1,200 m. The frost-free period is 190-200 days. Vegetation The reserve consists of 6,833 ha of forest, 11,001 ha of rocks and scree, 6,126 ha of meadows, 1,938 ha of sandy areas, and 23 ha of water bodies. Three vegetation belts can be distinguished: mountain Turanian-type semi-savanna, forest/shrub (mostly juniper and hardwood with the notable presence of wild fruit tree species), and alpine steppe. River valleys are characterised by turgai-type landscapes. Forests of junipers (Juniperus turkestanica, J. semiglobosa, and J. seraphsenanica), and deciduous trees such as Prunus sogdiana, Acer turkestanicum, Crataegus turkestanica, and Malus kirghisorum are present. South- and west-facing slopes support mountain steppe and sclerophytic communities, including groves of Pistacia vera. Highland areas have meadows. There are records for 1,100 species of plants, including 40 species of trees and shrubs. Some 72 are rare and endemic. Fauna A total of 32 mammal species, 146 species of birds and four species of fish has been recorded. Characteristic but rare species are: brown bear Ursus arctos, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), roe deer Capreolus capreolus, ibex Capra ibex, and Menzbier’s marmot Marmota menzbieri (E) (endemic to the western Tien Shan). Birds include: snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis at higher altitudes and numerous chukar partridge Alectoris chukar, as well as golden eagle Aguila chrysaetos, booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus, saker falg¢on Falco cherrug, \ammergeier Gypaetus barbatus, and black stork Ciconia nigra. Cultural Heritage In 1963, ancient drawings were discovered on the cliffs along the Tereksay River in Karasau, 2,000 m above sea level in the southern part of the Maydontalskiy plot. Ancient hunters recorded different events, mostly depicting animals, especially turs (goats), which still exist and deer which do not. It appears that they lived in the mountains of Chatkala. The earliest drawings are thought to date back to 2000-1000 Bc. Later drawings of riders, houses and dogs also exist, indicating that people have inhabited the area since ancient times. Local Human Population § There are no settlements within the reserve. Visitors and Visitor Facilities Visits can be made only by special arrangement and must be guided along specific predetermined routes. Scientific Research and Facilities Research has been co-ordinated by the USSR Academy of Sciences since 1958 and includes the biology of wood-producing plants and of rare animal species, such as marmot and snow leopard. Research is focused on studying the complex structure and dynamics of the western Tien Shan, including an inventory of flora and fauna, and on developing techniques to reafforest the mountains, especially the nut-tree forest areas. There are equipped laboratories, experimental plots, and climatic stations. Accommodation is available for scientists. Conservation Value The reserve is representative of the western Tien Shan and harbours a variety of rare and threatened species of plants and animals. It is also an important cultural site, with cliff drawings dating back to prehistoric times. 448 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Conservation Management Managed as a strict nature reserve, with a core zone of 35,200 ha split into two sections, Bashkyzylsayu (11,100 ha) and Maydantalu (24,200 ha). A surrounding buffer zone covers 12,200 ha. Within the core area, 2,339 ha are zoned for conservation and plant community restoration and another 34 ha for the administrative centre. Management Constraints Before its establishment, part of the reserve was used for hunting and grazing, and for mineral prospecting. Staff Seventy-two, of which twenty-five are in administration, protection and management, and twenty-six are researchers. Budget Total 271,200 roubles: operational expenses 162,200 roubles (including 90,700 roubles for wages), capital costs 58,000 roubles, capital repairs 28,000 roubles, and equipment purchase 23,000 roubles (1980). Local Addresses Uzbek SSR, Tashkent Region, Verkhnechirchiksky District, Parkent Village References Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969). Nature Reserves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 486-94. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House Mysl’, Moscow. 235 pp. Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. ‘Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, Moscow. Pp. 159-61. ISSYK-KUL’SKIY ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) Geographical Location Situated on the shores of Lake Issyk-Kul’ in the Issyk’Kul’ oblast of Kirghizia SSR, some 75 km due south of Alma-Ata. The reserve lies in the eastern part of the Tian-Shan range within the territory of Issyk-Kul’sk, Tyupsk, Dzhety-Oguzsk and Tonsk rayons. 42°30’N, 77°00’E. The lake itself lies at 42°09’-42°45’N, 76°09’-78°23’ Date and History of Establishment Issyk-Kul’skiy, meaning ‘hot lake’ in Kirgizky, was established as a state nature reserve in December 1975 within its present boundaries, but was first created in 1948. In 1959 the site was managed as two separate hunting sanctuaries, called Teploklyuchenski and Dzhety-Oguzskiy. In the late 1960s the reserve included the whole of the lake and covered 762,000 ha. Declared a Ramsar site on 11 October 1976. Area Enlarged from 17,310 ha to. 18,999 ha beginning in 1986. The area of the Ramsar site is 629,800 ha. Land Tenure State 449 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Altitude The lake lies at 1,607 m. Physical Features Lake Issyk-kul’ occupies a tectonic basin between the ranges of Kusgei Alatau to the north and Terskei Alatau to the south. The lake is 178 km long, 60 km wide and, on average, 270 m deep, but less so in the eastern part. It is a highland water body, fed by over 80 inlets but with no outlet. All of these are fed by snow melt, and many have reduced flows in the months of June and July. Only six rivers have an average flow greater than 5 cu. m per second. The lake is brackish and oligotrophic, and winter water temperatures never fall below 4.0 °C. It is the largest highland lake in the world and, besides Baykal and the Caspian, is the deepest in the world, 702 m at its extreme. The relief is folded, and consists of two main forms: the floodplain and the foothills. Soils vary throughout the valley. In the western floodplain they are grey-brown; in the centre light chestnut, whilst in the east they are predominantly dark-chestnut. Soils in the west are of low fertility, in the east they are fertile, while the foothills provide good agricultural land. The lake occupies a tectonic basin between the ranges of Kusgei Alatau to the north and Terskei Alatau to the south. Climate Conditions vary greatly from east to west and can differ from north to south. Mean monthly temperature in July is 18.6 °C, and in the northern floodplain, 17 °C; in January it is —3 °C and —2 °C, respectively. In the west mean temperature in January is —4 °C, whilst in the east it is -8 °C to—-11° C. Major fluctuations in temperature are due to the presence of the large body of water. The lowest recorded temperatures of —23 °C to —26 °C occur in January, with —28 °C in the west and —33 °C to —38 °C in the east. The highest recorded temperature is 35 °C. There are between 226-250 days with temperatures suitable for plant growth. Mean annual precipitation is 100-120 mm in the west and 350-400 mm in the east, with most rain falling in May to August. In winter 2% of all precipitation occurs in the west, 8% in the centre, and 13% in the east. Winds called ulan or boom in the west are characteristically strong and reach 30-40-m per second. Vegetation There are 687 ha of forest and, 1,329 ha of meadows. The vegetation is varied. In the western parts of the floodplain there is steppe, whilst along the lake shore and river valleys there are meadows. Towards the east the vegetation is more species-rich, acquiring the character of dry steppes, and in the easternmost parts of the valley are steppe meadows. Marsh vegetation appears in the wettest’ floodplain areas. In total, 250 species have been recorded, of which 12 are rare. The shallow waters support a rich submerged and floating vegetation of Charophyta, Potamogeton, and Myrtophylium spp. Fauna There are records of 23 species of mammals, and 140 species of birds. Mammals include boar Sus scrofa, hare Lepus tolai, steppe polecat Mustela eversmanni, weasel Mustela nivalis, red deer Cervus elaphus, roe deer Capreolus capreolus, and Siberian ibex Capra sibirica. Birds include pheasant Phasianus colchicus, red-crested pochard Netta rufina, and coot Fulica atra, and rarer species such as white-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla, mute swan Cygnus olor, and great white heron Egretta alba. The lake is a wintering ground for around 60,000-70,000 wildfowl of 98 species, including whooper and mute swan Cygnus cygnus and C. olor, pochard Aythya ferina, and pintail Anas acuta. There is a rich zoobenthos with over 150 species of molluscs, oligochaetae, gammaridae, and chironomidae, an important food source for the bird populations. Fish include zander Stizostedion lucioperce and introduced carp Cyprinus carpio. Cultural Heritage No information 450 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Local Human Population There is a fishery for zander and carp. Visitors and Visitor Facilities A health resort is located on the lakeshore by the hot springs at Aksu. Scientific Research and Facilities Research has been focused on wintering wildfowl, including regular winter counts, as well as on game birds such as pheasant. Limnological research continues and there is a special research ship. Conservation Value No information Conservation Management The reserve consists of nine individual units, ranging in size from 5 ha to 11,584 ha, and including shoreline elements and an aquatic section consisting of a 2 km lakeside strip. The other units are located on the northern and southern shores of the western and eastern ends of the lake, respectively, with one section of 5 ha on the northern shore. In addition, there are two areas on the slopes of the Terskey Ala Tau: Dzhaty-Oguzsky and Tyeploklyuchevsky. Commercial fishing is controlled. Management Constraints Changes in the forest cover of the surrounding mountain slopes may produce changes in the rate of inflow into the lake. Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses State Committee for Forest Economy of Kirghizia, Issyk-Kul’skiy t-n, S. Anan’evo References Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969). Nature Reserves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 475-80. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House Mysl’, Moscow. 235 pp. Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (Eds.). (1983) Zapovedniki SSSR. Moskva ‘Lesnaya ’ Promyshlennost’. Pp. 214—15. IUCN (1987). Directory of wetlands of international importance. TUCN, Gland., Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 371 pp. RAMIT ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) Geographical Location Lies on the southern slopes of the Gissarsky Mountains, approximately 200 km north-east of Dushanbe and 250 km south-east of Tashkent. Approximately 39°N, 69°E 451 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Date and History of Establishment October 1959 Area 16,139 ha Land Tenure State Altitude The highest point is in the north at 3,195 m; the lowest is in the south at 1,176 m. Physical Features The reserve lies in the upper reaches of the Kafirnigan River basin, and features river terraces, medium slopes and a higher area. It is triangular in shape and bounded to the north-west by the Sardan-Miena River, to the east by the Sorbo River and to the north by the Surkhab and Ushrut rivers, all of which have deeply dissected valleys with steep slopes. Soils are a cinnamon-coloured mountain type. Climate Mean monthly temperatures range from —1.8 °C in January, to 14.7 °C in July, with 210 days below freezing point and snow cover lasting from late-November to mid-March. Total rainfall is estimated at 1,500—1,000 mm. Rapid changes of temperature occur, with the maximum at 38 °C, and minimum at —30 °C. Vegetation Three vegetation zones are present: mountain steppe (1,300—1,800 m), mountain forest steppe (1,800—2,800 m) and uplands (2,800-3,200 m). The reserve is important for its groves of nut-producing species, such as walnut Juglans regia and pistachio Pistacia vera, and for fruit species such as cherry Cerasus mahaleb (Prunus mahaleb), C. pontica, Prunus divaricata, apple Malus sp., and Amygdalus buharica. Other trees include Rhus coriaria, Populus sp., and Betula sp. Herbs include Tulipa, Iris and Fritillaria. Fauna Mammals include hare Lepis tolai, marmot Marmota caudata, forest dormouse Dryomus nitedula, vole Microtus juldaschi, rat Rattus turcetanicus, crested porcupine Hystrix cristata, wolf Canis lupus (V), red fox Vulpes vulpes, brown bear Ursus arctos isabellinus, beech marten Martes foina, snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), and ibex Capra ibex. Birds include Himalayan snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis, dippers Cinclus cinclus and C. pallasii, hawfinch Coccothraustes coccothraustes humii, golden oriole Oriolus oriolus, blue whistling thrush Myiophonius caeruleus, Himalayan accentor Prunella himalayana, and Siberian ruby-throat Luscinia calliope. Reptiles include lizards such as Agama sp., skinks Ablepharus spp., and whip snakes Coluber rhodorhachis and C. ravergiesi. Cultural Heritage No information. Local Human Population No information Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Include development of methods to protect of walnut and fruit tree forests and research into ecosystems of the Gissarski mountain range. Conservation Value No information. Conservation Management No information. Management Constraints Introduction of red deer Cervus elaphus is a problem. 452 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Tadzik SSR, Ordjonikidzebadsky District References Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.). (1969). Nature Reserves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 497-9. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House, Mysl’, Moscow. 235 pp. Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. ‘Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, Moscow. Pp. 218-20. SARY CHELEKSKIY ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) IX (Biosphere Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36.12 (Pamir-Tien-Shan Highlands) Geographical Location Occupies the north-eastern slopes of the Chatkal’skiy Range in Osh oblast’. The reserve is surrounded by the Chatkal’skiy Range and its spurs on all but its south side which borders Fergana Valley. The main farmstead is in Arkit Village. Lies 60 km from Karavan Village, the centre of the district, and 130 km from the nearest railway station at Namangan. Approximately 41°47’N, 71°54’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a state nature reserve in 1959 by order of the Kirgiz SSR Council of Ministers. Twinned as a ’cluster reserve’ with Chatkal’skiy State Nature Reserve in Uzbekistan. Designated as part of Chatkal Mountains Biosphere Reserve in April 1978. Area 23,868 ha. The area of the biosphere reserve component is given as 23,900 ha in the nomination. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 1,200 m to 4,247 m Physical Features Lying on the southern spurs of the Chatkal Range, the greater part of the reserve comprises a high moutain basin protected to the north, west, and east by mountain ridges. The higher mountains have rocky spike-like summits, with ridges separated by narrow and deep gorges. Where the mountains are lower, the peaks assume a soft cupola-like character. Within the reserve lies the moutain lake Sary-Cheiek at about 2,000 m, 470 ha in area and 245 m deep, and a further six small shallow lakes. The central and lower region is strongly dissected and covered by nut-fruit forests, which owe their origin to the favourable 453 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya microclimate, a reflection of the local relief. The western Tien Shan is a zone of high tectonic activity. Climate Due to the protection afforded by the surrounding mountain ranges, winters are relatively mild with plenty of snow, and summers are warm and wet. Mean temperature in January is —7.2 °C, but temperatures may drop to —-27 °C. Mean temperature in July is 21.3 °C, rising to a maximum of 38 °C. Frosts occur from late-September, to the end of April. Annual precipitation is relatively high at 930—1,100 mm or more, with 42% falling in spring, 30% in winter, 20% in summer, and 8% in autumn. The snow cover lasts from the end of December to mid-March; it is 900—1,000 mm thick in forests and 500-600 mm thick in open areas. Vegetation Forests cover 8,229 ha, meadows and steppe 8,022:ha, rocks and screes 4,902 ha, and water bodies 601 ha. The flora comprises 1,071 plant species including 32 species of trees, 80 shrubs, and 886 grasses, typical of the entire south Kirghiz protected forest. The alpine forests are diverse, with representatives of the north and south such as relict walnut Juglans regia, fir Abies semenovii, spruce Picea schrenkiana, and grape Vitis silvestris. The subalpine belt stretches from 2,100—2,200 m to 2,500—3,000 m, with juniper woodlands and spruce-fir replacing meadows in lower regions. At lower altitudes, nut-fruit forests predominate with walnut covering 50% of the reserve. Associates include apple Malus spp., prangos Prangos pabularia, pear Pyrus spp., and an understorey of Prunus divaricata, Abelia corumbosa, Exochorda spp., and juniper Juniperus spp. Fauna A total of 42 mammal species (including five which are naturalised), 157 species of birds (including 118 nesting species such as golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos, lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus and snowcock Tetraogallus himalayensis), five species of reptiles, two species of amphibians, and five species of fish have been recorded. The fauna is best represented in the forest belt, the most charcateristic species being wild boar Sus scrofa and roe deer Capreolus capreolus, the latter present in large numbers. In autumn, brown bear Ursus arctos frequents the nut-fruit forests. The fauna of the alpine and subalpine belts is distinctive and includes snow leopard Panthera uncia (E), lynx Lynx lynx, ibex Capra ibex, and argali Ovis ammon. Ermine Mustela erminea and stone marten Martes foina are ubiquitous. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population The nearest town is Namangan, 70 km to the south. Visitors and Visitor Facilities More than 10,000 people visit the reserve and its museum annually. Scientific Research and Facilities The flora and fauna are currently being surveyed and the ecology of individual species of large mammals and birds investigated. Special attention is being given to the structure of the vegetation, the biological features of the main species of fruit trees and shrubs and other commercially valuable species, and methods of conservation and reafforesting the mountains with nut-forests. As part of an international research programme, this district may serve as a natural control for monitoring background levels of pollution. Biotic and abiotic parameters are measured periodically and include dust content, sulphur dioxide, mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic carbohydrates, and litter decomposition rates. Research has been carried out since 1977 by the Natural Environment and Climate 454 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Monitoring Laboratory and since 1980 by the Middle Asia Research Institute. Facilities include experimental plots, a climatic station, and accommodation for scientists. The museum has a good collection of specimens. Conservation Value Together with Chatkal’skiy, the reserve is representative of the western Tien Shan and supports a diverse flora and fauna. Many plants are of socio-economic value. The reserve is also important for scientific research and tourism. Conservation Management The reserve is at present zoned. All farming activities in the core area ceased in 1960. There is some environmental education work. Management Constraints Before the creation of the reserve, selective logging of the forest, grass cutting and grazing of cattle were practised. There is no local participation in management decisions taken by the reserve authorities. Management is limited to fire protection and enforcement measures. Serious problems arise from recreational activities, unorganised tourism, the thoroughfare through the reserve, and construction work on the banks of Sary Chelek Lake. Staff 105 with 20 administrative, control and resources management staff and 5 researchers. Budget No information Local Addresses Sary-Chelek Reserve, p/o Arkit, Dzhangi-dzhol’ District, Osh Region, Kirgiz SSR 716705 References Anon. (n.d.) Research Publication of the Sary-Chelek Reserve. No. 1-4. Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969). Nature Reserves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 481-5. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House Mysl’, Moscow. 235 pp. Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. Moskva ‘Lesnaya Promyshlennost’. Pp. 215-17. Pryde, P.R. (1984). Biosphere reserves in the Soviet Union. Soviet Geography 25: 398-408. Rovinsky, F.Y., Cherkhanov, Y.P., and Chicheva, T.B. (1983). Background monitoring in Sary-Chelek Biosphere Reserve. USSR State Committee for Hydrometeorology and Control of Natural Environment. USSR Academy of Sciences Natural Environment and Climate Monitoring Laboratory. Moscow. 7 pp. Yanushevich, A.I. and Chichikin, Y.N. (1960). The Sary-Chelek Reserve. In: The Reserves of the Soviet Union. Kolos Publishing House, Moscow. TIGROVAYA BALKA ZAPOVEDNIK (STATE NATURE RESERVE) IUCN Management Category I (Strict Nature Reserve) Biogeographical Province 2.36:12 (Pamir-Tian-Shan Highlands) 455 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Geographical Location Situated in the south-western part of Tadzhikistan near the border with Afganistan on the fluvial plain of the Vaksh and Pjandzh rivers. The reserve stretches for 40 km along the Buritay Hills and southern part of the Aktay Range-Hodzha-Kazian Hills. It is approximately 200 km from Alma-Ata. Approximately 37°15’N, 68°30’E Date and History of Establishment Established as a state nature reserve in 1938. Area 49,700 ha. In the early 1940s the reserve was reduced by 5,000—7,000 ha, but increased to 52,000 ha the following year. In 1976 it was again slightly reduced. Land Tenure State Altitude Ranges from 320 m to approximately 1,000 m. The banks of the Pjandzha and the Vaksh rivers are 320-325 m above sea level; the Kashkakum Desert lies at 530 m, Buritay Hills at about 1,000 m; and the Hodzha—Kazian Hills rise to 550 m. Physical Features Geomorphologists distinguish six terraces in the Vaksh River Valley, three of which lie within the reserve. There are small rises and falls, as well as the old river beds with lakes, on the first terrace. The second terrace is 1.5—2m higher than the first and has not been flooded by the waters of the Vaksh River for a long time. The third terrace lies 3—4 km from the river on the border of the reserve. It descends steeply to one of the largest lakes of the reserve, Lake Dar’ya-Kul’. The sands of Kashkakum Desert lie to the south on the left bank of the river. The first and the third terraces, and in some places even the fourth terrace of hills, lie on the right bank of the river. Flooding is common on the left bank, leaving many former river beds and alluvial soils of varying thicknesses. The upper terraces of floodlands, which evolved as a result of lowering of the river’s erosion base, are covered with sand and clay. The southern ranges of the Aktau Mountains are situated on the right bank of the River Vaksh. Floods usually occur in July and August when snow and ice melts in the mountains. Water level rises to 2—2.5 m, and sometimes up to 44.5 m when the lower terrace is flooded. The last large floods occurred in 1956, 1958, and 1959. Now the water level is controlled by Nurekskoy and Baypazinskoy hydroelectric power stations. Approximately 40 lakes (former river-beds) up to 5—6 m deep are scattered in the Vaksh Valley. The waters of these rivers are slightly mineralised. Soils are alluvial and saline, due to the high water table which lies only 0.8—3.0 m below the surface. Climate Conditions are sharply continental and dry. Mean annual temperature is 14 °C-17 °C; mean temperature of the coldest month (January) is 2 °C—0 °C and of the hottest month (July) 28 °C-32 °C. The highest temperature in July is 46 °C-48 °C. Temperatures are above freezing point on 250—310 days per year, and above 10 °C on 200—250 days. Summer begins in May and lasts until mid-September. Strong, dry western winds with sand storms are characteristic. Autumn sets in at the end of September. Annual precipitation is about 200 nm. Humidity ranges from 40% to 25%-30% in spring~summer, in autumn it is drier, and in winter it reaches 70%-80%. Vegetation Comprises riverine forest, with poplars Populus prunosa and P. diversifolia, tamarisk Tamarix hispida, and oleaster Elaeagnus angustifolia, reeds Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum, and some liquorice Glycyrrhiza glabra. The aquatic flora includes Scirpus spp., Myriophyllum spp., Potamogeton pectinatus, P. crispus, and P. perfoliatus, and Naja spp. Saline areas of solonchak soils contain saltwort Salsola richteri and some ephemeral vegetation. 456 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Fauna Mammals include jackal Canis aureus, hyaena Hyaena hyaena, Bactrian deer Cervus elaphus bactrianus (E), goitred gazelle Gazella subgutturosa, and Bokhara sheep Ovis ammon bocharensis. Avifauna includes whooper swan Cygnus cygnus, gadwall Anas strepera, tufted duck Aythya fuligula, goldeneye Bucephala clangula, goosander Mergus merganser, pheasant Phasianus colchicus, striated scops owl Otus brucei, stone curlew Burhinus oedicnemus, black-bellied sandgrouse Pterocles orientalis, and little owl Athene noctua. Reptiles include Central Asian monitor Varanus griseus caspius (V), Lebetina viper Vipera lebetina, Central Asian cobra Naja oxiana (E), and little carpet viper Echis carinatus. Cultural Heritage No information Local Human Population At the beginning of the century the Vaksh Valley was one of the most sparsely populated and scantily explored regions of Middle Asia. Kishlaks (villages) were far away from each other. Intensive agricultural exploitation of land in the valley began in the 1930s and the population increased accordingly. Visitors and Visitor Facilities No information Scientific Research and Facilities Work has been concentrated on building up stocks of Bactrian deer, gazelle, pheasants and overwintering, migratory birds. ‘Turgai’ vegetation has been studied. There are equipped laboratories. Conservation Value No information Conservation Management The nature reserve can be divided into four ecological zones, each requiring specific management regimes. The southern part of the reserve comprises the Vaksh Valley which contains the only wilderness. The northern part is a wetland complex, . which can be managed for scientific and experimental purposes. The Pjandzha River area experienced many fires and, therefore, serves for research into the effects of fire and regeneration. Experiments on the reintroduction of several faunal and floral species have been carried out in hilly areas. Management Constraints Increasing levels of pesticides in the water, due to unregulated farming in neighbouring areas, is a problem. Staff No information Budget No information Local Addresses Tadzhik SSR, Kumbangirsky District, Dusti village References Publications relating to research undertaken in the reserve are issued by the Academy of Sciences of Tadzhik SSR. Bannikov, A.G. (Ed.) (1969). Nature Rese;ves (Zapovedniki) in the Soviet Union. Publishing House, Kolos, Moscow. Pp. 432-7. Bannikov, A.G. (1974). Around the reserves of the USSR. 2nd Edition. Publishing House Mysl’, Moscow. Pp. 233-4. 457 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Borodin, A.M. and Syroechkovski, E.E. (1983). Zapovedniki SSSR. ‘Lesnaya Promyshlennost’, Moscow. Pp. 220-1. 458 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX A Er Jin Shan Nature Reserve, 87 Ab-i-Estada Waterfowl Sanctuary, 5 Afghanistan, 1 Ajar Valley Wildlife Reserve, 8 Ala-Archa National Park, 444 Alaungdaw Kathapa National Park, 301 Alma-Atinskiy Zapovednik, 445 Annapurna Proposed Conservation Area, 329 Arjin Mountains, see A Er Jin Shan Nature Reserve Astore Wildlife Sanctuary, 404 Balphakram National Park, 164 Baltistan Wildlife Sanctuary, 405 Band-e Amir National Park, 11 Bangladesh, 25 Bardia, see Royal Bardia National Park, 357 Bayanbulak Nature Reserve, 92 Big Pamir Wildlife Sanctuary, 20 Bhutan, 49 Bird Island Nature Reserve, 94 Bitahai Nature Reserve, 96 Black Mountains National Forest, 57 Bogdhad Mountain Biosphere Reserve, 97 Burma, see Myanmar Buxa Sanctuary, 166 Chail Sanctuary, 168 Chassi/Baushdar Game Reserve, 407 Chatkal’skiy Zapovednik, 447 China, 77 Chitral Gol National Park, 408 Chitwan, see Royal Chitwan National Park Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, 35 Churdhar Sanctuary, 176 Corbett National Park, 170 Dachigam National Park, 178 Dampa Sanctuary, 182 Danyor Nallah Game Reserve, 410 Daranghati Sanctuary, 184 Dashte-Nawar Waterfowl Sanctuary, 14 Dhorpatan Hunting Reserve, 334 Doga National Park, 59 Dungsum Wildlife Reserve, 60 Everest, see Sagarmatha National Park Gahai Nature Reserve, 99 Gamgul Siahbehi Sanctuary, 187 Ganhaizi Nature Reserve, 101 Gasa Wildlife Sanctuary, 62 Gobin National Park, 191 Gobind Sagar Sanctuary, 189 Govind Pashu Vihar Sanctuary, 191 Great Himalayan National Park, 195 Gulmarg Sanctuary, 198 Gya-Miru Proposed Sanctuary, 200 Hanas Nature Reserve, 102 Hazarikhil Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary, 37 Hemis National Park, 202 Himchari National Park, 38 Hirapora Sanctuary, 208 Hokarsar Sanctuary, 210 Hygam Game Reserve, 212 India, 137 Issyk-Kul’skiy Zapovednik, 449 Jaldapara Sanctuary, 215 Jiangcun Nature Reserve, 104 Jigme Dorji Wildlife Sanctuary, 62 Kais Sanctuary, 218 Kalatop-Khajjiar Sanctuary, 220 Kanawar Sanctuary, 222 Kanji Game Reserve, 224 Kargah Wildlife Sanctuary, 412 Kedarnath Sanctuary, 226 Keibul Lamjao National Park, 230 Khangchendzonga National Park, 234 459 Khaptad National Park, 337 Khunjerab National Park, 413 Kilik/Mintaka Game Reserve, 417 Kishtwar National Park, 237 Kole Hashmat Khan Waterfowl Sanctuary, 17 Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, 340 Kugti Sanctuary, 240 Kyatthin Game Sanctuary, 304 Lachipora Sanctuary, 242 Lakd Hashmat Waterfowl Sanctuary, 17 Langtang National Park, 343 Laya Wildlife Sanctuary, 62 Limber Sanctuary, 244 Lippa Asrang Sanctuary, 245 Longbao Nature Reserve, 106 Lung Nag Game Reserve, 247 Majathal Sanctuary, 249 Makalu-Barun Conservation Area, 350 Makalu-Barun National Park, 350 Manali Sanctuary, 251 Manas, see Royal Manas National Park Manshi Wildlife Sanctuary, 419 Margalla Hills National Park, 421 Medog Nature Reserve, 107 Mengao Nature Reserve, 131 Mengla Nature Reserve, 131 Menglun Nature Reserve, 131 Mengyang Nature Reserve, 131 Mochu Wildlife Reserve, 69 Myanmar, 291 Naina Devi Sanctuary, 189 Naltar Wildlife Sanctuary, 424 Namdapha National Park, 253 Nanda Devi National Park, 257 Napahai Nature Reserve, 110 Nar/Ghoro Nallah Game Reserve, 425 Nazbar Nallah Game Reserve, 426 Neoli Wildlife Sanctuary, 72 Nepal, 315 Niao Dao, see Bird Island Nature Reserve Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Nokrek National Park, 262 Overa Sanctuary, 264 Overa-Aru Sanctuary, 264 Pablakhali Wildlife Sanctuary, 40 Pakistan, 391 Pakora Game Reserve, 428 Pamir-i-Buzurg Wildlife Sanctuary, 20 Parsa Wildlife Reserve, 362 Pidaung Game Sanctuary, 308 Pin Valley National Park, 267 Pong Dam Sanctuary, 268 Qomolangma Nature Reserve, 112 Rajaji National Park, 271 Ramit Zapovednik, 451 Rampahar-Sitapahar Proposed Wildlife Sanctuary, 43 Rangdum Proposed Sanctuary, 274 Rara National Park, 354 Rizong Proposed Sanctuary, 278 Royal Bardia National Park, 357 Royal Chitwan National Park, 362 Royal Manas National Park, 66 Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, 371 Rupi Bhabha Sanctuary, 280 Sagarmatha National Park, 375 Sary-Chelekskiy Zapovednik, 453 Satpara Wildlife Sanctuary, 429 Sechu Tuan Nala Sanctuary, 282 Sher Qillah Game Reserve, 430 Shey-Phoksundo National Park, 382 Shivapuri Wildlife Reserve, 387 Shumar Wildlife Reserve, 73 Shwe u Daung Game Sanctuary, 310 Simla Water Catchment Sanctuary, 283 Sukla Phanta, see Royal Sukla Phanta Wildlife Sanctuary Surkhab Wildlife Sanctuary, 431 Tamanthi Game Sanctuary, 312 Tangir Game Reserve, 432 Tangjiahe Nature Reserve, 116 Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, 120 Teknaf Game Reserve, 45 Thanadarwala Game Reserve, 433 Tirthan Sanctuary, 195 Thrumsing La National Forest, 74 Tigrovaya Balka Zapovednik, 455 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 435 Valley of Flowers National Park, 286 Wanglang Nature Reserve, 123 Wolong Nature Reserve, 125 Xishuangbanna Nature Reserve, 131 TAXONOMIC INDEX Abelia corumbosa, 454 Abies, 75, 96, 110, 128 Abies alba, 419 Abies densa, 62, 235 Abies fabri, 108, 117, 124 Abies faxoniana, 117 Abies pindrow, 179, 192, 196, 199, 209, 218, 227, 238, 240, 243-4, 251, 259, 265, 284, 338 Abies semenovii, 454 Abies sibirica, 103 Abies spectabilis, 113, 185, 335, 338, 345, 351, 355, 376, 383 Ablepharus, 6, 9, 15, 452 Aborichthys tikadari, 255 Abroscopus hodgsoni, 351 Acacia, 189 Acacia catechu, 66, 70, 167, 215, 272, 341, 358, 365, 372 Acacia modesta, 421 Acantholimon, 12, 15, 22, 206, 279 Acantholimon lycopodioides, 201, 205, 275 Acanthophyllum, 22 Acanthospermum hispidum, 172 Accipiter nisus, 98 Acer, 62, 128, 185, 192, 235, 238, 243-4 Acer caesium, 105, 419 Acer campbellii, 105, 376 Acer caperdocicum, 199 Acer pictum, 338 Acer tetramerum, 105 Acer turkestanicum, 448 Aceros nipalensis, 133, 255 Achnatherum splendus, 88 Aconitum carmichaeli, 109 Aconitum heterophyllum, 282 Aconogonum tortuosum, 205-6 Acridotheres tristis, 173 Acrocarpus fraxinifolium, 312 Acrocephalus concinens, 213 Acrocephalus dumetorum, 276 Acrocephalus palustris, 9 Acrocephalus stentoreus, 213 Actinodaphne laucifolia, 108 Actinodura nipalensis, 338 Adhatoda vasica, 172, 272 Adina cordifolia, 172, 302 Aegithalos niveogularis, 355, 384 Aegypius monachus, 90, 92 Aelunopus littoralis, 15 Aetua javanica, 434 Aesculus indica, 185, 192, 238, 243-4, 252, 265, 280 Aethopyga siparaja, 133 Agama, 9, 452 Agama agills, 6 Agama himalayana, 206 Agama tuberculata, 346 Agropyron repens, 275 Agrostis canina, 275 Ailanthus grandis, 66, 70 Ailuropoda melanoleuca, 117, 124, 128 Ailurus fulgens, 109, 113, 117, 124, 128, 235, 255, 330, 336, 345, 351, 355, 376, 384 Albizia, 35, 41, 66, 70, 167, 183, 215 Albizia chinensis, 45 Albizia odoratissima, 302 Albizia procera, 37, 39, 44-5, 167 Alcedo atthis, 211, 213 Alcedo meninting, 366 Alcippe chrysotis, 330 Alectoris chukar, 9, 219, 225, 403, 405-7, 411-2, 415, 418, 426-8, 430-2, 446, 448 Alectoris graeca, 409 Allactaga euphratica, 18 Allactaga williamsi, 13 Alnus, 187, 282 Alnus nepalensis, 66, 70, 387-8 Alphia alughas, 216 Alpinia japonica, 108 Alticola roylei, 18, 227 Alticola stoliczkanus, 113 Altingia, 108 Amentotaxus argotaenia, 108 Amoora, 39, 41, 183 Amoora rohituka, 66, 70 Amoora wallichii, 45, 66, 70 Amphiesma parallela, 227 Amygdalus, 6, 9 461 Amygdalus buharica, 452 Amygdalus communis, 9 Anas, 100 Anas acuta, 111, 211, 269, 450 Anas angustirostris, 18 Anas clypeata, 94, 211, 434 Anas crecca, 67, 70, 206, 211, 269, 355, 434 Anas falcata, 94 Anas penelope, 211 Anas platyrhynchos, 67, 70, 92, 94, 111, 211, 269, 355, 434 Anas poecilorhyncha, 94, 101 Anas querquedula, 211 Anas strepera, 94, 211, 457 Anastomus oscitans, 41 Ancistrodon himalayensis, 227 Andropogon nardus, 216 Androsace, 113 Anemone rupicola, 275 Anglopteris, 108 Anhinga rufa, 173 Anogeisus latifolia, 172, 272, 365 Anser anser, 100, 211 Anser indicus, 92, 94, 95, 100, 106, 110, 359 Anthistiria gigantea, 167, 216 Anthocephalus cadamba, 216 Anthocephalus sinnensis, 132 Anthracoceros coronatus, 359, 372 Anthreptes singalensis, 366 Anthus spinoletta, 13 Antilope cervicapra, 359 Apluda mutica, 105, 172 Aquila chrysaetos, 444, 446, 448, 454 Aquila rapax, 269 Aquilaria agallocha, 68 Aquilegia moorcroftiana, 205 Arachnothera longirostra, 366 Araizanthu, 275 Arborophila, 263 Arborophila rufogularis, 330 Arborophila torqueola, 192 Arctictis binturong, 133, 235, 263 Arctonyx collaris, 39, 46 Ardea cinerea, 67, 70, 101, 211 Ardisia, 113 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Arenaria, 113 Arenaria monticola, 88 Arenaria polytrichoides, 376 Arenaria serpyllifolia, 109 Armeniaca, 446 Arnebia euchroma, 205 Artemisia, 6, 12, 15, 22, 88, 98, 113, 201, 205-6, 275, 276, 279, 403, 404, 406-7, 411-2, 414, 418, 424, 426-8, 431-2, 446 Artemisia codringtonii, 12 Artemisia scoparia, 431 Artemisia vesitita, 179 Artocarpus, 35, 41, 183 Artocarpus chaplasha, 37, 39, 44-5 Arundinaria, 330 Arundinaria maling, 57 Arundinaria spathiflora, 196 Arundinella brasiliensis, 216 Arundo, 365 Arundo donax, 174, 216, 431 Askor Nallah Game Reserve, 403 Asparagus cochinchinensis, 105 Asparagus filicinus, 105 Asperugo procumbens, 6 Asphodelus tenuifolius, 434 Aster, 88 Astragalus, 88, 205 Astragalus microphypti, 13 Astragalus zanskaransis, 275 Athene noctua, 457 Aviceda leuphotes, 366 Axis axis, see Cervus axis Axis porcinus, see Cervus porcinus Aythya ferina, 18, 96, 101, 211, 269, 434, 450 Aythya fuligula, 94, 96, 355, 457 Aythya nyroca, 94, 211, 434 Bacaurea ramiflora, 132 Balitora brucei, 227 Bambusa, 165, 183, 330 Bambusa tulda, 46, 302 Barbus, 359 Barbus conchonius, 211 Barbus putitora, 167 Barilius, 227, 366 Barilius bendilisis, 190 Barilius jayarami, 255 Batrachostomus hodgsoni, 255 Bauhinia malabaria, 272 Bauhinia purpurea, 216 Bauhinia racemosa, 172 Bauhinia vahlii, 365 Bauhinia variegata, 132, 272 Berberis, 105, 185, 205 Berberis gambleana, 431 Berberis lycium, 179, 422 Bergenia stracheyi, 205 Betula, 57, 113, 121, 124, 128, 235, 263, 403, 407, 411, 412, 424, 426, 429, 431-2, 452 Betula albo-sinensis, 124 Betula alnoides, 62, 66, 70, 252 Betula platyphylla, 124 Betula utilis, 113, 117, 179, 185, 205, 209, 218, 225, 227, 238, 243-4, 259, 265, 275, 286, 330, 335, 345, 351, 355, 376, 383, 414 Betula verrucosa, 103 Biebersteinia odora, 205 Bischofia, 183 Bischofia javanica, 132, 215 Bistorta, 252 Blysmus, 88 Blythipicus pyrrhotis, 346 Boissiera squarrosa, 6 Bombax ceiba, 45, 66, 70, 215, 358, 365, 369 Bombax insigne, 45, 132 Bonasia bonasia, 103 Bos gaurus, 41, 61, 66, 70, 72, 74, 133, 165, 167, 216, 255, 263, 302, 308, 310, 313, 342, 365 Bos grunniens, 9, 88, 246 Bos javanicus, 41, 306, 308 Boselaphus tragocamelus, 272, 341, 359, 372 Bothrichloa pertusa, 421 Brachymystax lenok, 96 Brachypteryx leucophrys, 255 Brachypteryx stellata, 346 Brianthus ravanae, 70 Bromus, 205 Bromus danthoniae, 6, 18 Bromus gracillimus, 6, 15 Bromus tectorum, 6 Bubalus bubalis, 66, 165, 255, 341 Bubo coromandus, 341 Bubo nipalensis, 359 Bucephala clangula, 457 Buceros bicornis, 167, 255, 302, 359 Buchanania latifolia, 358 Buddleia, 117 Budorcas taxicolor, 63, 109, 235, 255 Budorcas taxicolor tibetana, 117, 124, 128 Bufo, 90 Bufo andersoni, 15 Bufo himalayanus, 346 Bufo viridis, 9, 18 Bungarus caeruleus, 190, 366 Burhinus oedicnemus, 457 Butastur teesa, 422 Butea monosperma, 167 Buteo rufinus, 98, 420 Butomus umbellatus, 211 462 Cacomantis sonneratii, 366 Cairina scutulata, 41, 255, 306 Calamagnostis, 12 Calandrella rufescens, 90 Calidris temminckii, 94, 269 Callacanthis burtoni, 330 Callicarpa arborea, 46 Callicarpa macrophylla, 365 Calligonum polygonoides, 434 Callistemon viminalis, 422 Callosciurus macclellandi, 114 Calophyllum, 183 Calophyllum polyanthum, 45 Camellia confusa, 132 Camellia sinnensis, 132 Canis aureus, 9, 15, 18, 113, 188, 211, 220, 223, 227, 250, 263, 272, 338, 355, 358, 365, 372, 376, 384, 457 Canis lupus, 9, 13, 15, 18, 22, 63, 66, 88, 92, 113, 121, 188, 201, 205, 223, 225, 248, 267, 275, 279, 335, 376, 384, 405-6, 409, 415, 418, 424, 428, 432, 444, 446, 452 Cannabis, 174 Capparis spinosa, 205 Capra, 444 Capra falconeri, 209, 238, 243-4, 282, 403, 405-6, 409, 411-2, 424, 431-2 Capra ibex, 9, 13, 22, 103, 121, 185, 188, 196, 205, 223, 225, 240, 246, 248, 252, 267, 275, 279, 281-2, 403, 405-7, 409, 411-2, 415, 418, 424, 426-8, 430-1, 446, 448, 452, 454 Capra ibex sibirica, 238 Capra sibirica, 88, 98, 450 Capreolus capreolus, 446, 448, 450, 454 Capricornis sumatraensis, 35, 57, 63, 66, 109, 113, 117, 128, 165, 179, 183, 185, 188, 190, 192, 196, 220, 223, 227, 235, 238, 240, 252, 259, 281-2, 302, 310, 330, 335, 345, 351, 355, 376, 384 Caprimulgus indicus, 422 Caprimulgus macrurus, 422 Caprolagus hispidus, 66, 358, 365, 372 Caragana, 201, 205-6, 225, 383 Caragana ambigua, 431 Caragana pymaea, 278 Caragana sukiensis, 345 Caragana versicolor, 113 Carex, 6, 12, 22, 88, 106, 205, 213, 2315975 Carex lacta, 227 Carex montis-everestii, 113 Carex moorcroftii, 88, 113 Carex muliensis, 92 Carex munda, 227 Carex stenophylla, 9 Careya arborea, 66, 70, 167 Carissa spinarum, 421-2 Carpodacus, 259 Carpodacus edwardsii, 345 Carpodacus rhodochlamys, 206 Carpodacus rhodopeplus, 338 Carpodacus rubicilla, 206 Carpodacus rubicilloides, 206, 384 Carpodacus vinaceus, 346 Carterocephalus avanti, 377 Carya arborea, 172 Caryota urens, 133 Casearia graveolens, 216 Cassia fistula, 172 Cassia glauca, 422 Cassia obovata, 434 Cassiope fastigiata, 376 Cassiope selaginoides, 109 Castanopsis, 39, 41, 45, 66, 70, 108, 312, 351 Castanopsis argyrophylla, 132 Castanopsis ferox, 132 Castanopsis hystrix, 113, 132 Castanopsis indica, 344, 387 Castanopsis mekongensis, 132 Castanopsis tribuloides, 113 Catreus wallichii, 169, 186, 192, 196, 219, 221, 241, 250, 330, 336, 355, 422 Cattica fleuryana, 132 Cedrela, 35, 312 Cedrela toona, 37, 44, 66, 70, 216 Cedrus deodara, 169, 185, 187, 192, 196, 218, 220, 238, 240, 243-4, 251, 280, 282, 284, 409, 419, 432 Cenchrus ciliaris, 434 Centaurea, 18 Cephalostachyum, 312 Cephalostachyum pergracile, 302 Cepithipedium, 231 Cerasus mahaleb, 452 Cerasus pontica, 452 Ceratoides compacta, 88 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 117, 124, 128 Cercotrichas galactotes, 431 Certhia nipalensis, 227, 338 Cervus albirostris, 128 Cervus axis, 66, 70, 167, 216, 272, 341, 359, 365, 372 Cervus duvauceli, 172, 183, 216, 358, 372 Cervus elaphus, 98, 103, 109, 169, 446, 450, 452 Cervus elaphus bactrianus, 9, 457 Cervus elaphus hanglu, 179, 187, 238, 265 Cervus elaphus wallichi, 63 Cervus eldi eldi, 231 Cervus eldi thamin, 306 Cervus porcinus, 66, 70, 172, 216, 231, 306, 308, 341, 359, 365, 372 Cervus unicolor, 35, 38, 41, 44, 46, 57, 61, 63, 66, 70, 72, 74-5, 133, 165, 167, 169, 183, 190, 192, 216, 227, 250, 272, 302, 306, 313, 359, 365, 372, 376 Ceryle rudis, 211 Cettia acanthizoides, 388 Cettia major, 330 Chaetornis striatus, 366 Chaimarrornis leucocephala, 302 Channa punctatus, 231 Channa strictus, 231 Chara, 433 Charadrius alexandrinus, 6, 94 Charadrius leschenaultii, 15 Charadrius mongolus, 94, 276 Charadruis leschenaultii, 6 Charophyta, 450 Chenopodium album, 434 Chikrassia tabularis, 70 Chimarrogale himalayica, 377 Chlidonias hybrida, 213 Chrysococcyx maculatus, 235 Chrysocolaptes festivus, 359, 372 Chrysolophus pictus, 109, 117, 124, 128 Chrysopogon aciculatus, 365 Chrysopogon echinulatus, 179 Chrysopogon serrulatus, 421 Chukrasia tabularis, 66, 132, 312 Chukrasia velutina, 312 Cicer microphyllum, 275 Ciconia ciconia, 434 Ciconia ciconia boyciana, 114 Ciconia nigra, 9, 67, 70, 92, 98, 448 Cinamomum camphora, 108 Cinclus cinclus, 452 Cinclus pallasii, 452 Cinnamomum, 41 Cinnamomum inunctum, 128 Circus aeruginosus, 269 Cissus adnata, 216 Citellus fulvus, 6, 15 Citrus indica, 263-4 Clamator coromandus, 366 Cleistanthus sumatranus, 132 Clematis montana, 376 Clerodendrum infortunatum, 47 Clerodendrum viscosum, 172, 358, 365 463 Index Clethrionomys frater, 446 Clupisona montana, 190 Coccothraustes coccothraustes humii, 452 Codonopsis thalictrifolia, 376 Coix lecryma-jobi, 231 Colebrookea oppositifolia, 172, 358 Coluber ravergiesi, 452 Coluber rhodorhachis, 452 Conostoma aemodium, 338 Convolvulus spinosus, 431 Cordia, 109 Cornus controversa, 128 Corvus monedula, 279 Corylus cornuta, 238 Corylus jacquemontii, 192 Cotoneaster, 185, 205 Cotoneaster microphyllus, 104, 376 Coturnix chinensis, 366 Coturnix coromandelica, 183 Cousinia, 6, 22 Cousinia polyneurae, 9 Crataegus, 446 Crataegus turkestanica, 448 Crepis flexuosa, 205 Cricetulus migratorius, 18 Criniger flaveolus, 366 Crocodylus palustris, 173, 272, 366, 373 Crosso cheilus, 211 Crossoptilon auritum, 117, 124 Crossoptilon crossoptilon, 109 Crotalaria, 172 Crypsis aculeata, 15 Cryptocarya chinensis, 108 Cryptolepis buchanani, 172 Cryteronia paniculata, 132 Cuon alpinus, 35, 38-9, 41, 46, 66, 70, 113, 165, 172, 201, 205, 23 112353:295,) 2035272302, 306, 308, 313, 335, 345, 355, 358, 365, 384, 415 Cuora amboinensis, 46 Cupressus, 75, 223 Cutia nipalensis, 330 Cyathea spinulosa, 108 Cyclemys mouhati, 255 Cyclobalanopsis oxyodon, 117, 128 Cyclobalanopsis rex, 132 Cygnus columbianus, 92 Cygnus cygnus, 92, 94, 100, 450, 457 Cygnus olor, 92, 450 Cymbogon nardus, 167 Cynodon dactylon, 365 Cynopterus sphinx, 359 Cyornis tickelliae, 359, 372 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Cyperus, 365 Cyperus laevigatus, 433 Cyprinus carpio, 211, 231, 450 Dactyloctaenium scindicum, 434 Dactylorhiza hatagirea, 205 Dalbergia latifolia, 365 Dalbergia sissoo, 66, 70, 167, 171, 215, 272, 341, 358, 365, 372 Danio horae, 255 Danthonia cumminsii, 227 Daphnes oleides, 412 Davidia involucrata, 117, 128 Delphinium cashmerianum, 205 Delphinium latisquamatum, 12 Dendrocalamus brandisii, 302 Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, 302, 312 Dendrocalamus longispathus, 46 Dendrocopos auriceps, 213 Dendrocopos himalayensis, 336, 355 Desmodium, 104, 172 Desmodium cotoneaster, 105 Desmostachya bipinnata, 433 Deutzia, 117 Dicaeum agile, 133 Dicaeum cruentatum, 255 Dicaeum melanoxanthum, 346 Dicerorhinus sumatraensis, 309, 310, 313 Dicrurus annectans, 359 Dillenia indica, 216, 365 Dillenia pentagyna, 45, 167, 302 Dinopium benghalense, 422 Dipterocarpus, 35, 37, 41, 44, 183, 254, 256 Dipterocarpus alatus, 45 Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, 254, 312 Dipterocarpus scaber, 45 Dipterocarpus tuberculatus, 302, 305 Dipterocarpus turbinatus, 45, 312 Dodonaea viscosa, 421 Dolichandrons stipulata, 132 Draco blanford, 133 Draco maculatus, 133 Dremomys lokriah, 114, 345, 387 Dryomus nitedula, 452 Duabanga grandiflora, 45, 132 Duabanga sonneratioides, 66, 70 Dubanga, 183 Ducula badia, 255, 366 Ducula senex, 255 Dupetor flavicoilis, 372 Dysoxylum binectariferum, 312 Echinops cornigerus, 205 Echis carinatus, 457 Edgeworthia gardneri, 387 Egretta alba, 67, 70, 92, 101, 434, 450 Egretta garzetta, 211 Ehretia laevis, 272, 422 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 456 Elaeagnus umbellata, 104 Elaeocarpus, 46, 66, 70 Elaeocarpus austro yunnanensis, 132 Elanus caeruleus, 422 Elaphe mandarina, 255 Elaphodus cephalophus, 109, 117, 128 Eleagnus angustifolia, 98 Eleocharis, 18, 106 Eleocharis palustris, 211, 213 Elephas maximus, 35, 39, 41, 46, 61, 66, 72, 74, 133, 165, 167, 172, 183, 216, 255, 263, 272, 302, 308-9, 310, 342, 358, 365, 372 Elymus, 88 Elymus nutans, 275 Elymus secalinus, 88 Emblica officinalis, 172 Engelhardia, 113 Engelhardtia spicata, 66, 70 Enicurus, 302 Ephedra gerardiana, 201, 205, 225, 275, 282, 345, 376 Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus, 67, 70 Epiophlebia laidlawi, 388 Epipremnum pinnatum, 108 Equisetum dubile, 387 Equus, 205 Equus hemionus, 88, 98, 113, 121, 235 Equus kiang, 63, 415 Equus przewalskii, 98-9 Eragrostis uniloides, 172 Eremias, 9 Eremias velox persica, 9 Eremopoa bellula, 15 Eremopyrum orientala, 6 Eremostachys baminanica, 12 Erianthus elephantinus, 167, 216 Erianthus filifolius, 66, 70 Erianthus ravennae, 358 Erithacus pectoralis, 259 Eritrichium, 205 Erythrina suberosa, 422 Erythroxyllum kunthianum, 132 Esacus magnirostris, 133 Esacus recurvirostris, 67, 70 Estrilde amandava, 173 Eucalyptus, 190, 422 Eugenia, 37, 39, 44, 66, 70, 358, 365 Eugenia jambolana, 358 464 Eulaliopsis binata, 172 Eulophia, 172 Eupatorium, 47, 216 Eupatorium odoratum, 37, 47 Euphorbia royleana, 227, 344 Euphrasia, 205 Eurotia, 424 Eurya japonica, 108 Exochorda, 454 Fagus longipetiolata, 117, 124, 128 Falco biarmicus, 422 Falco cherrug, 448 Falco chicquera, 341 Falco jugger, 366 Falco peregrinus, 114 Falco subbuteo, 98 Falco tinnunculus, 98 Fargesia denudata, 117, 124 Fargesia nitida, 124 Fargesia scabrida, 117, 124 Felis, 46 Felis bengalensis, 39, 113, 167, 172, 188, 220, 223, 227, 241, 263, 338, 345, 365, 424 Felis chaus, 39, 113, 183, 185, 188, 190, 223, 250, 252, 263, 282, 302, 330, 338, 341, 355, 359, 365, 372 Felis lynx, 88, 98, 103, 109, 113, 201, 205, 223, 225, 335, 405, 427, 431-2, 446 Felis manul, 88, 98, 113, 124, 128, 279 Felis marmorata, 235 Felis temmincki, 66, 113, 124, 165, 255, 263, 302 Felis viverrina, 39, 302, 341, 365 Ferula, 432 Festuca, 12, 22, 98 Festuca ganeschinii, 446 Fibigia membrancea, 13 Ficus, 37, 41, 44-5, 303 Ficus racemosa, 358 Fimbristylis, 355 Fissistigma oldhamii, 108 Francolinus francolinus, 183, 422 Francolinus gularis, 341, 372 Francolinus pondicerianus, 359 Fraxinus, 187, 243, 265, 404, 406- 7, 411-2, 424, 426, 428, 431 Fraxinus cornuta, 238 Fritillaria, 196, 452 Fritillaria cirrhosa, 376 Fritillaria walujewii, 98 Fulica atra, 18, 41, 94, 107, 211, 355, 450 Funambulus pennanti, 359, 366 Gagea, 196 Galium triflorum, 105 Gallicrex cinerea, 67, 70, 341 Gallinula chloropus, 18, 41, 173, 211 Gallus gallus, 133, 165, 167 Gambusia affinis, 211 Gamilax canorus, 133 Gammarus lacustris, 355 Gampsorhynchus rufulus, 255 Gara, 227 Garcinia morella, 108 Garra graveli, 255 Garra tirapensis, 255 Garrulax caerulatus, 388 Garrulax delesserti, 255 Garrulax monileger, 366 Garrulax pectoralis, 366 Garrulax proeniceus, 255 Garrulax ruficollis, 255, 366 Garrulax subunicolor, 346 Garrulus lanceolatus, 422 Garuga pinnata, 132, 365 Gastrodia elata, 128 Gaultheria cumingiana, 109 Gaultheria fragrantissima, 387 Gavialis gangeticus, 66, 173, 272, 341, 359, 366 Gazella subgutturosa, 98, 101, 457 Gelochelidon nilotica, 6 Gentiana, 12, 205, 446 Gentiana algida, 376 Gentiana kaufmanniana, 15 Gentiana ornata, 376 Gentiana prolata, 376 Gentiana scabra, 109 Gentiana stellata, 376 Gentianella, 205 Geochelone elongata, 366 Geranium, 105, 446 Ghanna, 373 Gironniera subaequalis, 132 Glaucidium cuculoides, 133 Glaux maritima, 15 Glechoma tibetica, 205 Glochidion, 46 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 456 Glyptothorax, 227 Gmelina arborea, 45, 132, 216 Gogen, 88 Gracula religiosa, 302 Graminicola bengalensis, 372 Grandala coelicolor, 377 Grevillea robusta, 422 Grewia, 272 Grewia laevigata, 216 Grus antigone, 359, 372 Grus grus, 92, 100, 110, 211 Grus japonensis, 110 Grus leucogeranus, 6 Grus nigricollis, 58, 90, 94, 96, 100, 106, 110, 114 Gymnocypris przewalskii, 94 Gynocardia odorata, 109 Gypaetus barbatus, 114, 420, 444, 446, 448, 454 Gyps fulvus, 98, 114 Haematopota, 373 Haematospiza sipahi, 346 Halcyon smyrnensis, 211 Haliaeetus albicilla, 450 Haliaeetus leucogaster, 92 Haliaeetus leucoryphus, 90, 94, 173, 211, 269, 372 Halocharis clavata, 15 Haloxylon, 411-2, 418, 424, 431 Haloxylon ammodendron, 97-8, 98-9 Haloxylon persicum, 98 Harpactes erythrocephalus, 235, 255 Hedera nepalensis, 105 Hedyotis scandens, 387 Hedysarum, 22 Heliciopsis terminalis, 133 Helicteres isora,-i72 Heliotropium, 434 Helobdella stagnalis, 355 Hemidactylus flaviviridis, 190 Hemiechinus auritus, 6 Hemitragus jemlahicus, 63, 113, 185, 188, 192, 196, 218, 223, 227, 235, 240, 252, 259, 281-2, 288, 330, 335, 345, 351, 376, 384 Heracleum pinnatum, 205 Herdeum, 12 Herpestes, 365 Herpestes edwardsi, 190, 338, 358, 372 Herpestes urva, 46 Heteropogon contortus, 422 Hieraaetus kienerii, 359 Hieraaetus pennatus, 98, 448 Himantopus himantopus, 6, 13 Hippophae, 113, 205, 225, 411 Hippophae rhamnoides, 12, 205-6, 278, 414 Hippophae tibetana, 345, 376 Hirundapus cochinchinensis, 366 Hodgsonia macrocarpa, 109 Hodgsonius phoenicuroides, 420 Holarrhena antidysentrica, 272 Holoptelea integrifolia, 172, 272 Homalium cochinchinense, 108 Homalium laoticum, 132 Homalium tomentosum, 302 Homo anomalous, 288 Hopea odorata, 45 Hoplopterus indicus, 302 465 Index Horsfieldia glabra, 132 Houbaropsis bengalensis, 216, 341, 359, 366, 372 Hyaena hyaena, 272, 359, 365, 457 Hydrophasanius chirurgus, 211 Hylobates concolor, 133 Hylobates hoolock, 35, 38-9, 41, 46, 165, 183, 254, 313 Hylopetes fimbriatus, 372 Hylotelephium erythrostictum, 109 Hystrix, 167, 444 Hystrix cristata, 452 Hystrix indica, 169, 172, 177, 188, 190, 220, 223, 227, 284, 345, 359, 366, 372 Ibidorhyncha struthersii, 67, 235, 345 Ichthyophaga humilis, 255 Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus, 372 Ichthyophaga nana, 173, 372 Icthyophis glutinous, 133 Ilex dipyrena, 185 Imperata, 302 Imperata arundinacea, 66, 70 Imperata cylindrica, 47, 66, 70, 167, 358, 360, 365, 433, 456 Indicator xanthonotus, 346 Indigofera, 185 Indigofera heterantha, 179, 243-4, 252 Inula obtusifolia, 205 Iris, 196, 452 Isodon heterantha, 179 Isodon plecantranthoides, 179 Ithaginis cruentus, 63, 109, 114, 235, 330, 377 Ixobrychus minutus, 13, 211, 213 Ixobrychus sinensis, 366 Jacaranda mimosoefolia, 422 Jasminium humile, 104-5 Juglans cathayensis, 128 Juglans nigra, 419 Juglans regia, 185, 187, 192, 238, 243-4, 252, 265, 278, 280, 282, 452, 454 Julgoza, 404 Juncus, 355 Juncus bufonius, 15 Juncus turkestanicus, 12 Juniperus, 185, 209, 235, 248, 265, 275, 345, 351, 376, 403-4, 406- 7, 411-2, 414, 418, 424, 426-9, 431-2, 454 Juniperus communis, 252, 409 Juniperus indica, 205, 335, 355, 376 Juniperus macropoda, 205, 409 Juniperus pseudosabina, 62, 259 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Juniperus recurva, 179, 335, 376, 383 Juniperus semiglobosa, 448 Juniperus seraphsenanica, 448 Juniperus squamata, 128, 335, 383 Juniperus turkestanica, 446, 448 Jurinea macrocephala, 282 Jurinea mallophora, 12 Justicia adhatoda, 421 Ketupa flavipes, 366 Ketupa zeylonensis, 341, 359, 372 Kingdonia uniflora, 128 Knema surfuracea, 132 Kobresia, 22, 275, 446 Kobresia pymaea, 113 Kobresia reyleana, 106 Kobresia tibetica, 106 Kochia indica, 433 Krascheninnikovia ceratoides, 205 Krascheninnikovia pungens, 12 Kryptoterus indicus, 255 Kydia calycina, 172 Kyllinga, 365 Labeo, 227 Labeo dero, 190 Labeo dyocheilus, 190 Lactuca, 172 Lagenaria, 108 Lagerstroemia, 39 Lagerstroemia parviflora, 66, 70; 172, 216 Lagerstroemia reginae, 66 Lagerstroemia speciosa, 45, 70 Lagerstroemia subcostata, 108 Lanius excubitor, 206 Lanius nubiscus, 13 Lannea, 39 Lannea grandis, 302 Lantana, 47, 172, 174 Lantana camara, 47, 169, 190, 272 Larix griffithiana, 62, 113, 235 Larix mastersiana, 124, 128 Larix nepalensis, 345 Larix potanini, 124 Larix subirica, 103 Larus, 173 Larus brunnicephalus, 92, 94, 95, 114 Larus genei, 6 Larus ichthyaetus, 94, 95, 269 Lasianthus chinensis, 108 Launaea, 433 Leersia hexandra, 231 Leiothrix argentauris, 133, 359 Leontopodioides, 109 Leontopodium, 88, 205 Leontopodium jacotianum, 376 Leontopodium stracheyi, 376 Lepis tolai. 452 Leptopoecile sophiae, 206 Leptoptilos javanicus, 67, 70 Lepus, 306 Lepus capensis, 22, 225, 279, 415 Lepus nigricollis, 169, 190, 359, 366 Lepus nigricollis caudatus, 372 Lepus oiostolus, 201, 205, 267, 377, 384 Lepus timidus, 103, 109 Lepus tolai, 450 Lerwa lerwa, 403, 405-7, 409, 411- 2, 418, 426-8, 431, 432 Lilium nepalense, 376 Lindelofia anchusoides, 205 Lindera, 128 Lindera communus, 117 Lindera moghaiensis, 132 Litchi sinnensis, 132 Lithocarpus, 113 Lithocarpus fenestratus, 132, 351 Lithocarpus inuensis, 132 Lithocarpus mohaiensis, 132 Lonchura punctuta, 173 Lonicera, 185, 201, 225, 275, 383, 404, 406, 432 Lonicera altmanii, 446 Lonicera glauca, 205 Lonicera japonica, 105, 108 Lonicera spinosa, 205 Lonicera tangutica, 124 Lophopetalum, 35 Lophophorus impejanus, 63, 114, 179, 185, 192, 196, 199, 219, 221, 227, 238, 241, 252, 265, 288, 330, 405, 409, 412, 420, 432 Lophophorus lhuysii, 124, 128 Lophophorus sclateri, 109 Lophura leucomelana, 46, 169, 185, 192, 196, 219, 221, 227, 250, 263, 284, 330, 422 Lophura nycthemera, 133 Loriculus vernalis, 366 Luscinia calliope, 452 Lutra, 66, 302 Lutra lutra, 9, 98, 100, 113, 118, 173, 205, 209, 211, 231, 272 Lutra perspicillata, 341, 358, 365, 372 Lycodon laoensis, 255 Lynx lynx, 9, 22, 454 Lyonia ovalifolia, 104, 344 Macaca, 306 Macaca assamensis, 109, 113, 165, 238, 250, 302 Macaca mulatta, 35, 38-9, 41, 46, 70, 109, 113, 167, 169, 177, 466 183, 188, 190, 196, 199, 209, 223, 227, 243-4, 252, 272, 284, 338, 345, 355, 358, 365, 372, 384, 422 Macaca speciosa, 117, 128 Macaranga denticulata, 45, 216 Machilus, 113 Machilus yunnanensis, 113 Madhuca indica, 172 Magalaima asiatica, 133 Magnolia hennji, 132 Mallotus philippinensis, 172, 272, 358 Malus, 452, 454 Malus kirghisorum, 448 Malus sieversii, 446 Mangifera, 35, 41 Mangifera longipes, 45 Manis, 39 Manis crassicaudata, 172, 183 Manis pentadactyla, 133, 366 Mariscus, 365 Marmota, 100, 265 Marmota bobak, 90, 113, 201, 205, 225, 267, 377, 384, 446 Marmota caudata, 9, 13, 15, 22, 179, 188, 275, 415, 452 Marmota menzbieri, 448 Martes, 444 Martes flavigula, 113, 185, 188, 190, 209, 223, 227, 241, 250, 252, 284, 288, 330, 338, 345, 355, 365, 376, 384, 387 Martes foina, 9, 98, 113, 201, 205, 345, 384, 424, 446, 452, 454 Martes zibellina, 103 Mayodendron igneum, 132 Mecanopsis, 109 Meconopsis horridula, 376 Megalaima, 359 Megalaima haemacephala, 133 Megalaima virens, 133 Megalaima zeylanica, 372 Megalurus palustris, 341, 372 Melanochlora sultanea, 255 Meliosma pinnata, 46 Mellivora capensis, 365 Melocanna bambusifolia, 165 Melocanna bambusoides, 46 Melonocorypha maxima, 90 Melostoma, 47 Melursus ursinus, 38-9, 44, 46, 167, 173, 183, 216, 263, 272, 358, 365, 372, 387 Mentha longifolia, 12 Mergus merganser, 67, 70, 94, 107, 111, 276, 457 Meriones libycus, 6 Mertensia tibetica, 414 Mesua, 183 Mesua ferrea, 37, 44-5 Michelia, 66, 70, 113, 183 Michelia champaca, 45 Microtus, 355 Microtus afghans, 18 Microtus juldaschi, 452 Mikania cordata, 216 Milletia auriculata, 172 Milletia pendula, 302 Milvus migrans, 18, 98 Montifringilla blanfordi, 201 Morchella esculenta, 197 Morus alba, 179 Moschus berezovskii, 117, 124, 128 Moschus chrysogaster, 57, 63, 75, 109, 113, 177, 179, 185, 188, 192, 196, 199, 218, 220, 223, 227, 235, 238, 243-4, 246, 252, 255, 259, 265, 281-2, 284, 288, 335, 338, 345, 351, 355, 376, 384, 405-6, 412, 419, 426, 430 Mucuna prurita, 216 Mulleripicus pulverulentus, 235, 359, 372 Muntiacus, 167 Muntiacus muntjak, 35, 38-9, 41, 44, 46, 57, 61, 63, 66, 70, 72, 75, 113, 165, 169, 173, 177, 185, 188, 190, 192, 196, 216, 218, 220, 223, 227, 235, 238, 250, 252, 272, 281, 284, 302, 306, 308, 313, 330, 335, 338, 345, 351, 359, 365, 372, 376, 387, 422 Murraya koenigii, 358 Mus musculus, 345, 377 Musa ramentacea, 46 Muscicapa striata, 206 Muscicapella hodgsoni, 330 Musicappa westermanni, 227 Mustela, 444 Mustela altaica, 113, 205, 415 Mustela altaica temon, 345 Mustela ermina, 22 Mustela erminea, 275, 446, 454 Mustela eversmanni, 450 Mustela nivalis, 450 Mustela sibirica, 113, 185, 188, 223, 355, 376, 384 Mustela sibirica subhemachalana, 345 Mycerobas, 259 Mycerobas melanozanthos, 346 Mycerobas carnipes, 446 Myiophonius caeruleus, 446, 452 Myosotis, 446 Myricaria, 225, 275 Myricaria germanica, 12, 278, 414 Myricaria rosea, 345 Myricaria squamosa, 205 Myriophyllum, 355, 450, 456 Myrsine africana, 421-2 Myrsine semiserrata, 108 Mystus, 373 Myzornis pyrrhoura, 346 Naja, 456 Naja naja, 190, 216, 269 Naja oxiana, 457 Narenga, 365 Narenga porphyrochroma, 167, 231 Natrix punctuata, 255 Natrix tessellata, 9 Nectarinia jugularis, 133 Nectogale elegans, 377 Nemorhaedus goral, 59, 113, 165, 169, 173, 177, 183, 185, 188, 190, 192, 196, 218, 220, 223, 227, 235, 240, 246, 250, 252, 259, 272, 281-2, 284, 330, 335, 345, 351, 355, 376, 384, 422 Neofelis nebulosa, 66, 109, 113, 117, 124, 128, 167, 235, 254, 263, 345 Neomacheilus, 227 Nepeta, 22, 205, 205 Nepeta glutinosa, 205 Nephelium chryseum, 132 Netta rufina, 94, 211, 355, 450 Niltava grandis, 346 Noemacheilus rudippinis, 255 Notholirion macrophyllum, 376 Nyctanthes, 272 Nycticebus coucang, 133, 165 Nycticorax nycticorax, 211 Nymphaea alba, 213 Nymphaea stellata, 213 Nymphoides pellata, 213 Ochotona, 90 Ochotona curzoniae, 113 Ochotona macrotis, 205, 446 Ochotona roylei, 113, 177, 188, 201, 209, 223, 227, 267, 279, 282, 330, 345, 377, 384, 419, 425 Ochotona rufescens, 13 Ochotona rutila, 446 Ochotona thibetana, 113, 117, 128 Oenanthe deserti, 90 Oenanthe isabellina, 9 Olea, 113, 404, 406, 411-2, 424, 428, 431-2 Olea ferruginea, 421 Ompac bimaculatus, 359 Ophiocaphalus marulius, 269 Ophiophagus hannah, 366 Ophiopogon japonicus, 105 467 Index Oplismenus compositus, 172 Orinus thoroldii, 113, 113 Oriolus oriolus, 452 Otus brucei, 457 Ougenia oogenensis, 272 Ovis ammon, 98, 103, 454 Ovis ammon bocharensis, 457 Ovis ammon hodgsoni, 63, 88, 201, 205, 235, 384 Ovis ammon polii, 22, 121, 414, 418 Ovis orientalis, 9, 13 Ovis orientalis vignei, 201, 205, 279 Ovis vignei, 406, 409, 411, 430 Oxygraphis polypetala, 355 Oxyria, 109 Oxytenanthera auriculata, 46 Padus cornuta, 199, 238, 265 Paeonia, 419 Paguma larvata, 105, 185, 188, 223, 250, 252, 263, 338, 365, 376 Pandanus, 57 Pandion haliaetus, 269 Panisetum purpureum, 388 Panthera, 265 Panthera nebulosa, 165 Panthera pardus, 9, 35, 38-9, 41, 46, 57, 66, 70, 72, 109, 113, 133, 165, 167, 169, 177, 179, 183, 188, 190, 192, 196, 199, 216, 218, 220, 223, 227, 231, 238, 241, 243-4, 246, 250, 252, 254, 259, 263, 272, 280, 284, 302, 306, 308-9, 310, 313, 330, 335, 338, 341, 345, 351, 355, 358, 365, 372, 384, 387, 420, 422 Panthera tigris, 35, 41,57, 61, 66, 70, 72, 74, 133, 165, 167, 172, 183, 216, 254, 263, 272, 302, 308-9, 310, 313, 341, 358, 365, 372 Panthera uncia, 9, 22, 63, 88, 98, 103, 109, 113, 122, 128, 179, 192, 201, 205, 225, 227, 235, 238, 248, 252, 254, 259, 267, 275, 279-80, 282, 288, 330, 335, 345, 351, 376, 384, 403, 405-7, 409, 411-2, 415, 418, 424, 426-8, 431-2, 444, 446, 448, 452, 454 Pantholops hodgsoni, 88 Papaver, 6 Paradoxornis fulvifrons, 346 Paradoxornis unicolor, 330 Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, 250, 365 Parashorea sinnensis, 132 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Parnassius acdestic, 384 Parnassius epaphus, 377 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, 179, 244 Parthenocissus himalayana, 105, 376 Parus dichrous, 105 Parus melanolophus, 355, 384 Parus rubidiventris, 105 Paspalidium punctatum, 216 Pavo cristatus, 167 Pavo muticus, 133, 309, 310, 313 Pedicularis bicornuta, 205 Pedicularis longiflora, 205 Pennisetum, 113 Pennisetum flaccidum, 113 Pennisetum orientale, 422 Pentacme siamensis, 302, 305 Perdicula asiatica, 183 Perdix hodgsoniae, 384 Persicaria, 365 Petaurista, 46, 355 Petaurista magnificus, 113 Petaurista petaurista, 188, 190, 220, 223, 227, 284, 359 Phalacrocorax, 173 Phalacrocorax carbo, 67, 70, 94, 100 Phanera vahlii, 172 Phasianus colchicus, 263, 450, 457 Philautus namdaphaensis, 255 Philautus shyamprupus, 255 Phlieum phleoides, 446 Phodilus badius, 255 Phoebe, 108, 128 Phoebe hainesiana, 66, 70 Phoebe macrocarpus, 132 Phoenicopterus roseus, 6, 15, 18 Phoenicurus, 259 Phoenicurus caeruleocephalus, 446 Phoenicurus erythrogaster, 206, 446 Phoenicurus erythronotus, 279, 446 Phoenicurus phoenicurus, 9 Phoenicurus schisticeps, 377 Phoenix, 433 Phoenix acauliea, 172 Phragmites, 355, 365 Phragmites australis, 12, 18 Phragmites communis, 92, 101, 211; 213 Phragmites karka, 66, 70, 167, 216, 231, 372, 433 Phrynium capitatum, 108 Phrynocephalus theobaldi, 206 Phrynocephalus vlangaalii, 90 Phyllanthus emblica, 365 Phylloscopus, 259 Phylloscopus fuligiventer, 346 Picea, 75, 128, 404, 406, 411-2, 424, 431 Picea asperata, 96, 108, 110, 124 Picea brachtyla, 117 Picea obovata, 103 Picea schrenkiana, 98, 446, 454 Picea smithiana, 113, 179, 185, 192, 199, 209, 218, 243, 244, 252, 284, 344, 355, 383, 419 Picea spinulosa, 62, 235, 280 Picea wallichiana, 238 Pieris formosa, 105, 376 Piliostigma malabaricum, 172 Pinus, 376 Pinus armandii, 117, 123 Pinus excelsa, 335 Pinus gerardiana, 238, 409, 432 Pinus griffithii, 104, 108, 179, 199, 209, 238, 243, 244, 265 Pinus kesiya, 302 Pinus palustris, 104 Pinus roxburghii, 58, 113, 169, 172, 192, 227, 250, 269, 272, 284, 338, 344, 365, 387, 422 Pinus sibirica, 103 Pinus wallichiana, 57, 59, 62, 75, 113, 169, 185, 187, 192, 196, 220, 251, 280, 282, 284, 344, 355, 376, 383, 419 Piper betle, 47 Pipistrellus coromandra, 359 Pistacia, 411-2, 424, 432 Pistacia vera, 448, 452 Pitta, 133 Pitta sordida, 366 Pitymys leucurus, 113 Pitymys sikkimensis, 113, 345 Plantago gentianoides, 12 Platalea leucorodia, 18 Platanista gangetica, 66, 341, 358, 365 Platysternon meacephalus, 133 Plegadis falcinellus, 18 Ploceus bengalensis, 173 Ploceus philippinus, 133, 173 Poa, 12, 22, 88, 275 Podiceps cristatus, 94, 101, 107, 355 Podiceps grisegena, 269 Podiceps nigricollis, 18, 355 Podocarpus, 108 Podocarpus wallichii, 133 Pogostemon benghalensis, 358 Polygala, 172 Polygonatum cirrhifolium, 105 Polygonum, 289, 355, 414 Polygonum paronychioides, 15 Polygonum perfoliatum, 231 Polygonum plebeium, 365 Polygonum sibiricum, 15, 106 468 Polyplectron bicalcaratum, 109, 133, 165, 255, 263 Pomatorhinus ferruginosus, 351 Pometia tomentosa, 132 Populus, 117, 121, 248, 278, 424, 427, 431, 452 Populus ciliata, 104, 179, 238, 419 Populus davidiana, 103 Populus diversifolia, 98, 456 Populus euphratica, 205 Populus prunosa, 456 Porana paniculata, 172 Porgania glabra, 422 Porphyrio porphyrio, 434 Porzana pusilla, 213 Potamogeton, 433, 450 Potamogeton crispus, 456 Potamogeton pectinatus, 456 Potamogeton perfoliatus, 456 Potentilla, 88, 414 Potentilla desertorum, 414 Potentilla fruticosa, 109, 113, 205, 376, 376 Potentilla fulgens, 387 Potentilla komaroviana, 15 Prangos pabularia, 454 Presbytis entellus, 35, 72, 109, 113, 167, 169, 177, 179, 183, 188, 190, 192, 196, 218, 220, 223, 227, 235, 238, 241, 243-4, 250, 252, 259, 272, 282, 284, 288, 330, 338, 345, 355, 358, 365, 372, 376, 384, 387, 419 Presbytis phayrei, 38 Presbytis pileata, 38, 39, 41, 44, 46, 133, 165, 302 Primula, 109, 196 Primula atrodentata, 376 Primula denticulata, 376 Primula macrophylla, 22, 414 Primula sikkimensis, 376 Primula wollastonii, 376 Primulailla amscrina, 106 Prinsepia utilis, 185 Prionodon pardicolor, 365 Procapra picticaudata, 63, 88, 113, 267 Propyrrhula subhimachala, 346 Prosopis cineraria, 434 Prunella fulvescens, 206, 384 Prunella himalayana, 452 Prunella rubeculoides, 206, 377 Prunus, 128, 280 Prunus armanica, 278 Prunus ceresoides, 387 Prunus cornuta, 185 Prunus divaricata, 452, 454 Prunus jacquemontii, 431 Prunus mahaleb, 452 Prunus padus, 108, 252 Prunus sogdiana, 448 Psarisomus dalhousiae, 235, 366 Pseudois nayaur, 63, 88, 109, 113, 117, 121, 185, 192, 196, 201, 205, 223, 225, 227, 235, 238, 246, 248, 259, 267, 275, 281-2, 288, 330, 335, 384, 414 Pseudopodoces humilis, 384 Pseudostachyum polymorphum, 312 Psittacula roseata, 133 Psychotria rubra, 108 Psylliostachys beldushistanica, 6 Pterocarpus macrocarpus, 302 Pterocarya insignis, 128 Pterocles orientalis, 457 Pterospermum acerifolium, 66, 70, 132 Pterospermum paniculata, 45 Pterospermum personatum, 45 Pterygota alata, 41 Ptyas mucosus, 190, 235 Puccinellia stapfiana, 15 Pucrasia macrolopha, 114, 179, 185, 192, 196, 219, 221, 227, 238, 241, 252, 265, 284, 288, 330, 420 Puntius, 366 Puntius sarana, 190 Puntius sophus, 231 Puntius ticto, 190 Pycononotus melanicterus, 133 Pygium topengii, 132 Pygmae opremna herbacea, 172 Pyrrhocorax, 425 Pyrularia edulis, 109 Pyrus, 185, 454 Pyrus lanata, 265 Python molurus, 38-9, 42, 44, 46, 114, 133, 183, 216, 269, 366, 373 Python molurus bivittatus, 306 Quercus, 39, 41, 45, 66, 70, 128, 185, 192, 192, 284, 312, 432 Quercus annulata, 113 Quercus aquifolioides, 124 Quercus dilatata, 196, 220, 227, 284, 419 Quercus floribunda, 338 Quercus glandulifera, 117 Quercus griffithii, 62 Quercus ilex, 409 Quercus incana, 169, 196, 220, 227, 250, 284, 383 Quercus lamellosa, 235, 330, 344 Quercus lanata, 344, 387 Quercus leucotrichophora, 338 Quercus lineata, 235 Quercus oxydon, 113 Quercus pachyphylla, 235 Quercus semecarpifolia, 62, 185, 196, 218, 227, 251, 335, 338, 345, 355, 376, 383, 388 Quercus tungmaiensis, 104 Radis auricularia, 355 Rallus aquaticus, 211, 213 Rana, 18 Rana polunii, 346 Rana ridibunda, 9 Randia dumentorum, 167 Ranunculus, 6, 15, 18, 355, 433 Ranunculus arvensis, 18 Ranunculus japonicus, 109 Rattus, 345, 377 Rattus rattus, 359 Rattus turcetanicus, 452 Ratufa bicolor, 46 Reaumuria, 97-9 Recurvirostra avosetta, 6, 15 Rhacophorus maximus, 255 Rhacophorus namdaphaensis, 255 Rhacophorus rainwardtii, 133 Rhazya stricta, 434 Rhinoceros unicornis, 66, 216, 359, 365 Rhinopithecus roxellanae, 117, 124, 128 Rhizomys sinensis, 117, 128 Rhodiola, 121 Rhododendron, 57, 75, 96, 110, 113, 117, 124, 128, 185, 192, 235, 345, 351 Rhododendron anthopogon, 179, 345, 376 Rhododendron arboreum, 169, 220, 227, 330, 335, 338, 344, 355, 376, 383, 387 Rhododendron barbatum, 338, 345 Rhododendron campanulatum, 179, 185, 209, 218, 227, 238, 252, 259, 286, 335, 345, 376 Rhododendron campylocarpum, 376 Rhododendron lepidotum, 345, 376, 383 Rhododendron nivale, 376, 383 Rhododendron triflorum, 376 Rhus. coriaria, 452 Rhus javanica, 252 Rhus punjabensis, 104 Rhus succedanea, 179, 265 Ribes, 108 Ribes alpestre, 205 Robinia, 169 Robinia pseudoacacia, 187, 280, 282 Rosa, 117, 209, 225, 404, 407, 411-2, 427-9, 432, 446 469 Index Rosa alberti, 98 Rosa brunonii, 179 Rosa moschata, 185 Rosa webbiana, 179, 201, 205, 248, 275 Rubus, 108, 117-8, 185 Rumex, 92 Rumex nepalensis, 252 Ruppia maritima, 5 Sabina, 113 Saccharum, 310, 365, 433-4 Saccharum arundinaceum, 66, 167 Saccharum munja, 70, 231 Saccharum procerum, 167, 216 Saccharum ravennae, 66 Saccharum spontaneum, 66, 70, 167, 216, 358, 365, 372, 456 Sacciolepis myosuroides, 216 Sageratia, 424 Sageratia thea, 421 Saiga tatarica, 98-9 Salix, 9, 12, 94, 101, 113, 117, 121, 185, 187, 205, 213, 225, 235, 248, 259, 275, 278, 280, 282, 345, 403, 407, 409, 411-2, 414, 418, 424, 426-7, 431-2 Salix alba, 211 Salix caprea, 179 Salix karelinii, 205 Salix magnifica, 128 Salix pentandra, 103 Salix sikkimensis, 376 Salix viminalis, 431 Salmalia, 41 Salmalia malabarica, 39, 167 Salmalva, 35 Salmo trutta, 9, 179 Salsola, 88 Salsola abrotanoides, 88, 88 Salsola abrotonoides, 88 Salsola richteri, 456 Sanctum sanctorum, 221 Sasia abnormis, 235 Sasia ochracea, 366 Saussurea, 121 Saussurea gnaphalodes, 205 Saussurea involucrata, 98, 109 Saussurea jacea, 205 Saussurea obvallata, 286 Saussurea sudhanshui, 259 Saxifraga, 22 Saxifraga sibirica, 414 Saxifraga stolonifera, 109 Scariola orientalis, 12 Schima, 113, 183, 351 Schima wallichii, 45, 66, 66, 66, 70, 70, 70, 344, 387 Schisandra grandiflora, 105 Schizothorax, 227 Nature Reserves of the Himalaya Schizothorax hodgsoni, 355 Schizothorax plagiostomus, 346 Schizothorax progastus, 355 Schizothorax richardsonii, 190 Schleichera toleosa, 302 Scincella ladacensis, 206 Scirpus, 12, 456 Scirpus lacustris, 213 Scirpus palustris, 213 Scirpus tabernaemontani, 92 Scirpus validus, 92 Sclerostachya fusca, 372 Scotophilus heathi, 359 Sedum, 414 Seicercus poliogenys, 227, 330 Selenarctos thibetanus, 57, 63, 70, 72, 75, 105, 113, 118, 165, 169, 177, 179, 183, 185, 188, 192, 196, 218, 220, 223, 227, 238, 241, 243-4, 246, 250, 252, 259, 263, 265, 280, 282, 288, 302, 308, 330, 335, 338, 345, 351, 355, 376, 384, 409, 419, 432 Semicarpus anacardium, 46, 172 Semiplotus modestus, 255 Serinus pusillus, 9 Shorea, 308 Shorea assamica, 254 Shorea oblongifolia, 302, 305 Shorea robusta, 70, 167, 172, 216, 271, 330, 344, 351, 358, 364, 372 Sibiraea, 109 Sicista concolor, 446 Silene longicarpophora, 205 Sinarundinaria nitida, 108 Sitta cashmirensis, 355, 384 Sitta leucopsis, 355, 384 Sitta tephronota, 9 Skimmia laureola, 199 Sloanea sinensis, 108 Smilacina oleracea, 105 Smilax, 105 Solenopotes, 373 Sophora, 128 Sorbus, 286 Sorbus cuspidata, 376, 383 Soriculus, 227, 345 Sparganium erectum, 213 Spatholobus parviflorus, 365 Spelaeornis formosus, 351 Spiraea, 117 Spiraea arcuata, 345 Spiraea bella, 105 Spizaetus cirrhatus, 341, 359, 372 Spizaetus nipalensis, 255 Stachys tibetica, 205-6 Staphylea emodi, 179 Sterculia alata, 39, 45 Sterculia colorata, 45 Sterculia villosa, 45, 66, 70 Stereospermun tetragonum, 132 Sterna hirundo, 15, 94, 107 Sterna paradisaea, 276 Stipa, 12, 98, 113, 205, 407, 411-2, 424, 427-8, 431, 432 Stipa basiplumosa, 88 Stipa capillata, 446 Stipa glareosa, 88 Stipa purpurea, 113 Stipa szowitsiana, 9 Stizostedion lucioperce, 450 Streblus asper, 46 Streptolirion, 105 Suncus murinus, 345 Sus salvanius, 66, 72, 372 Sus scrofa, 38-9, 41, 46, 57, 61, 63, 66, 70, 72, 74, 75, 114, 165, 167, 169, 173, 177, 179, 190, 192, 216, 227, 231, 238, 250, 272, 302, 306, 309, 313, 335, 338, 341, 345, 351, 355, 359, 365, 387, 422, 450, 454 Swintonia floribunda, 41, 45 Sylvia mystacea, 431 Sylvia nisoria, 276 Symplocos, 113 Sypheotides indica, 359 Syringa emodi, 179 Syrrhaptes tibetanus, 201 Syzygium, 35, 41, 45, 312 Syzygium cerasoides, 167 Syzygium cumini, 172 Taccocua leschenaultii, 422 Tachybaptus ruficollis, 18, 41, 211 Tadorna, 67 Tadorna ferruginea, 18, 70, 94, 96, 100-1, 107, 111, 211, 276, 434 Tadorna tadorna, 6 Talpa micrura, 377 Tamarix, 121, 431 Tamarix aphylla, 434 Tamarix dioica, 358, 433 Tamarix hispida, 456 Tamarix laxa, 6 Tanacetum, 121 Tanacetum gossypinum, 376 Tanacetum gracile, 205 Taraxacum, 106, 205 Taraxacum bessarabicum, 15 Taraxacum monochlamydeum, 5 Tarsiger cyanurus, 206 Tarsiger hyperythrus, 346 Taxus baccata, 185, 192, 196, 419 Taxus baccata wallichiana, 376 Taxus wallichiana, 238 Tectona, 311-2 Tectona grandis, 45, 302 Teinostachyum dulooa, 46 470 Terminalia, 41, 308 Terminalia alata, 358 Terminalia bellerica, 45, 365 Terminalia chebula, 45 Terminalia myriocarpa, 66, 70, 108, 132 Terminalia tomentosa, 302 Tesia olivea, 351 Testudo horsfieldii, 6 Tetracentron sinense, 108, 124, 128 Tetracerus quadricornis, 366 Tetrameles, 41, 183 Tetrameles nudiflora, 37, 44-5, 66, 70, 132 Tetrao, 103 Tetrao tetrix, 103 Tetraogallus, 403, 405-7, 411-2, 418, 426-8, 430-2 Tetraogallus himalayensis, 98, 114, 179, 192, 225, 409, 415, 446, 448, 452, 454 Tetraogallus tibetanus, 105, 109, 114, 117, 128, 201 Thalictrum chelidonii, 376 Thalictrum macrorhynchum, 105 Thamnocalamus, 338, 383 Thamnocalamus dumosa, 338 Themeda anthera, 179, 422 Themeda arundinacea, 172 Themeda villosa, 365, 365 Thermopsis inflata, 205 Thylacospermum caespitosum, 205 Thysanolena maxima, 172 Tilia chinensis, 128 Toona ciliata, 45 Tor putitora, 190, 366 Tor tor, 227, 269, 346, 359, 366, 373 Toxicodendron succedaneum, 105 Trachypithecus geei, 57, 66, 70 Tragopan, 255 Tragopan blythii, 109 Tragopan melanocephalus, 179, 185, 192, 196, 219, 238, 241, 243, 252, 265 Tragopan satyra, 63, 114, 235, 330, 336, 338, 345 Tragopan temminckii, 58, 109, 117, 124, 128 Tragopogon, 15 Trapa natans, 211, 213 Trema orientalis, 216 Treron apicauda, 255, 359 Treron curvirostra, 366 Treron curvirostra nipalensis, 133 Trewia nudiflora, 216, 365 Tribulus terrestris, 434 Trichastoma abbotti, 341 Trichodesma indicum, 172 Triglochin palustre, 15 Trimeresurus albolabris, 366 Trimeresurus macrosquamatus, 255 Tringa glareola, 94 Tringa hypoleucos, 13, 269 Tringa nebularia, 211, 269 Tringa ochropus, 269 Tringa totanus, 15, 92, 94, 107, 276 Trisetum spicatum, 88 Tsuga, 128 Tsuga chinensis, 108, 117, 123 Tsuga dumosa, 62, 75, 113, 335, 338, 345 Tsuga yunnanensis, 123 Tulipa, 452 Turdoides longirostris, 366 Turdus ruficollis, 206 Turnix sylvatica, 366 Typha, 94, 434 Typha angustata, 211, 213, 433 Typha elephantina, 66, 70 Typha latifolia, 92 Typha laximanii, 12, 211 Tyto capensis, 372 Ulmus pumila, 98 Ulmus wallichiana, 179, 185, 252 Uromastix, 434 Ursus arctos, 22, 63, 88, 98, 113, 121, 179, 185, 188, 192, 196, 199, 218, 223, 238, 240, 243-4, 246, 252, 259, 265, 275, 280, 282, 288, 405-7, 415, 418, 424, 431, 444, 448, 452, 454 Utricularia, 18 Vaccinium, 113 Vaccinium bracteatum, 109 Valerianella cymbicarpa, 6 Vallaris solanacea, 172 Vanellus spinosus, 67, 70 Vanellus vanellus, 94 Varanus, 46, 366 Varanus bengalensis, 190, 269, 434 Varanus griseus caspius, 457 Varanus salvator, 133, 216 Veronica, 6 Vetiveria zizanioides, 172, 358 Viburnum, 105, 113, 185, 243-4 Viburnum cotinifolium, 179, 199, 409 Vicoa indica, 172 Viola philippica, 105 Viper russelli, 235 Vipera lebetina, 457 Vitex glabrata, 46 Vitis, 216 Vitis silvestris, 454 Viverra zibetha, 109, 128, 231, 235, 263, 358, 365 Viverricula indica, 109, 231, 263, 358, 365, 372 Vormela peregusna, 6, 18 471 Index Vulpes bengalensis, 35, 190, 358, 365, 372 Vulpes corsac, 92 Vulpes ferrilata, 113 Vulpes vulpes, 6, 9, 13, 15, 18, 22, 113, 185, 188, 199, 201, 209, 211, 223, 225, 227, 235, 265, 267, 279-80, 335, 338, 345, 355, 384, 405-7, 411, 415, 418, 424, 427-8, 431-2, 452 Waldheimia, 22 Wallago attu, 231, 269 Wallichia densiflora, 172 Wendlandia heynei, 172 Woodfordia fruticosa, 172, 422 Wrightia tomentosa, 272 Xanthium strumericum, 172 Xylia dolabriformis, 302 Xylosma japonicum, 117 Yuhina nigrimenta, 338 Zeuxine, 172 Zizania latifolia, 231 Zizyphus jujuba, 421 Zizyphus mauritiania, 172, 216, 272 Zizyphus nummularia, 421, 434 Zoothera, 133 Zoothera marginata, 351 Zoothera monticola, 346 Zoothera wardii, 338 Nat Schi Schi Schi Schi Sch] Scin Scir Scir Scir Scir Scir Scle Sco Sed Seic Sele “~"A'TAININININMDNNADHOnNW Balkhash Lake IUCN—THE WORLD CONSERVATION UNION Founded in 1948, |UCN—the World Conservation Union—is a membership organisation comprising governments, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), research institutions, and conservation agencies in 120 countries. 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