THE LIBRARY

The Ontario Institute

for Studies in Education

Toronto, Canada

«.««» A^

LI BR ARY

^m IS 197?

THE ONTARiO INSTITUTE
FOR STUDIES IN EDUCATION

Be
s

Nature Study

ITS

PSYCHOLOGY

METHOD

AND

MATTER

By S. SILCOX, B. A., B. Paed.

For the Degree of Doctor of Pedagoi>y .

■^

ST. THOMAS, ONT.
Ti

HE Sutherland Printing Hoise ■^ \ /\

EXAMINERS' CERTIFICATE

To TiiK Rkcistkak of tiik rMvi:isSn\ oi- Tokonti> :

We beg' to report iliat tlie thesis of .Mr. S. Sileo.x and liis
verj- ereditable discussion of the questions set in Pliilosophy and Ethics, and
in tlie Science and .Art of Education, quality liirn tor tlie Degree ot" Doctor
of Peilagogy, with si-i'ond class lienors.

Joii.N Wat.so.n.
J. A. .McLellAN.

The Psychology of Nature Study^

" Mind groivs only in so far as it Jiiids expression for itself." —
HINSDALE.

" Educafio?i is a piocess of jemaking experience, giving it a more
socialized value, through the medium of individual efficiency " —
McLELLAX.

The process of remaking experience is inseparably united with expression.
This process is from the vajjne to the definite, from real to ideal. This latter
expression is apt to be misinterpreted imless restated in oilier words. We mean
by it heie that education is a i>rocess by wliicli the individual becomes moie and
more independent of material things as a sliimiliis to thought and in expressing
thought. Thought and expression cannot be divorced. The power of exjires-
sion, though conditioned by thought, is yet tlie ciieans b}- wliich thought is made
dv;tinite, and is thus conmiunicated to others.

The growth of mind is a process of analysis followed by synthesis. A
child should not be allowed to analyze anything without following up that mental
process by an act of sjnthesis, /. e., expression. The expiession is the \isible
sign by which we can v;ilue the thought, and it ilelermines the nature and the
extent of analysis of the material of stuily.

This correlation of analysis and synthesis is so fundainenlalU' important that
the psychology of any subject is necessarily depentlent upon it. .V basket may
be analyzed and if so, one shoidd be made like it. When natural objects are
analyzed, often the onl\- possible synthesis is a drawing of the objei't, but this
form of expression is possible to anv great extent, only after eight years of age.
To determine the extent of the analysis which may be made at atiy age, we have
only to determine the power of expression possible at that age. A child is quite
able to analj'ze, that is, to tear to pieces, mechanically, ;i delicate flower, but if
he is unable to represent this analj'sis, either by a drawing, by a model, or by
words, the analysis is a waste of time ; na}', woi-se, it gives the destructive bent
of the mind an impetus, which, unbalanced as it is by constructive ability, can
lead only to mental dissipation.

No one would think of asking a child of seven jears of age to model the
parts of a Hower nor all the sinuosities of a leaf margin, the indentations of bark,
nor the structure of a cell. Yet we often find teachers endeavoring to teach
very j'oung children all these details of form and structure. They are forcing
their pupils to analyze without possessing the power to synthesize and will fail in
securing proper development.

An example from the teaching of number in arithmetic will make clear the
necessity of both processes. Suppose a teacher is teaching the number seven.
She has taught six, and now hands each pupil seven sticks with instructions to
take a stick six times in the right hand and a stick one time in the left hand-
Would an}- teacher think of stopping there ? I think not. She will requiie that

4— THE PSYCHOLOGY

tlic stii-Us be put to_i;-etIier jigain aiul tlu> whole process described. A similar
anaUsis aiul synthesis is necessary in all mental activil}', hut we must acknow-
ledge that in too many cases we have neg^lected one-half of the operation.

And hiM-ein is the value of language. The teacher can never be sure that
the pupil iHM-forms the synthesis unless he is able to express himself in fairly
exact lanyfuage. At best, modelling, thawing, diagrams are limited, if not by
executive ability, then by stress of time and lack of equipment and space. Con-
sequently each step in analysis must be associated with descriptive terms of some
kind, technical or colloquial. If the pupil cannot make such a verbal s) nthesis,
the analysis is premature. On the other hand, the verbal synthesis may be
tested by demantling that it be put into the more concrete form of the drawing or
model.

The Modes of Expression.

Thought finds expression in the following ways :

(i) Gesture (including facial expression).

(2) Modelling,

(•5) Drawing (including form, color or shade, and proportion),

(-j) Diagranis (in whiih details are omitted).

(5) Language (oral or written).

(6) Singing, the social mode of expression.

(7) Calisthenics, also social in natme.

While it is true that all modes of expression have a social as well as an indi-
vidual side, singing and calisthenics are pre-eminently social, while the otljers
are pre-eminently individual ; that is, the first fiveare the expression ot individual
activity, while the last two are the expression of the social instinct.

Gesture may be made a means of communicating thought, but it is usually
an accompaniment of oral speech. Facial expression and bodily movement are
the signs of emotion, /. c, the personal element, while the language used repie-
sents the universal element of knowledge. So long as these two elements enter
into thought, we shall have gesture and speech together.

Gestui-e is perfect in the young and becomes less prominent ;is development
proceeds from real to ideal, because knowledge becomes more universal. At
least the individual recognizes the universal element more, whereas, at first he
recognizes only the personal element. The mechanical grind of learning by
rote will soon eliminate the personal element and will give rise to that vacant
stare and listless manner of the unfortunate spoon-fed pupil, who is taught not
to think, who takes no interest in the work of the class-room. Compare the
vivacity of that boy over a game of marbles with his listlessness in the school-
room and then think what the result in after life will be, when the fluctuations
of the stock market are more interesting than the beauty of nature and ot art.

Modelling.

Before a child learns to describe form and proportion, he can represent
these in models. There are all grades of representative ability in this, from the
model in crude clay to that of an intricate and complex machine There is

OF NATURE STUDY. — j

no stage of existence in which it is not an essential mode of expression, not-
withstandinj^ the fact that many educated (?) men can scarcely "whittle" with a
jack-knife. The perfection of the model depends upon the power of analysis,
accompanied by the power of synthesis. To become efficient in modcllinji;^
one must analyze the object. To become ;m efficient anaU'zer one must model,
«nust he not? It is in the attempt to model an object that one learns wherein his
analysis was defective, just as in the hig^her stage, defective expression in speech
discovers defective analysis of thought. During the presentative stage, the
child cainiot discover his faults of finalysis by any more ideal mode of express-
ion than modelling. The teacher may pomt out defects of analysis but this is
not cultivating the child's self-actvily.

Drawing.

Drawing is a more ideal form of exprission than modelling. The represent-
ation is limited to two dimensions in space (surface), though the third dimension
is represented b}' an illusion of perception. At first, however, the child's draw-
ings are somjjwhat diagrammatic in appearance, though by no means so in
reality. Instead of eliminating details as is done in a diagram, everv detail is
represented, even though it be not apparent from the point of view. The thaw-
ing is too rt?al at fnst. The child must learn to leave something to the idealizing
power of mind. The point we wish to emphasize, however, is tliat drawing is a
mode of expression of thought, and shoukl not be divorced there-from as it loo
often is. Also, every child in its life passes throu>;h a stage when drawing is the
predoniinant means of thought expression. It may be possible for a few to miss
this stage an^l still acquire the right mental development, but for the great
majority, the conmionplace men and women, it is essential that this mode of
expression receive attention at the proper time. This time will probably come
between the years of eight and twelve, during which time the moloi- centres of
the brain are developed. If not developed at this age, there must be serious
deficiency in mental equiiMnent.

Probably the most common mistake in connection with drawing and the use
of pictures in general in school, is the neglect to interpret illustrations. Just as
in studying Latin, it is essential to translate from Latin to English and from
English to Latin, so in making use of illustrations we must illustrate our thoughts
in drawing, and also interpret the thoughts of others as expressed in their draw-
ings. By such a process we make the transition from this stage of expression to
the higher stage of oral or written expression. This transition is quite as imijort-
ant in its time and place as is the transition frotn modelling to drawing.

Diagrams.

Here, again, is an important mode of expression which has been entirely
overlooked. Probably the majority of educationists w'ould consider it a con-
venience rather than a necessit}'. Yet, in the world of science, at least, it is more
important than drawing. It is scarcely possible to make a drawing that would
have any scientific value. At any rate, it is of far less value than a good diagram,
which expresses a general principle. The diagram is the concrete way of express-
ing a principle and is the logical method of introducing it, just as we begin to

6— THE PSYCHOLOGY

arouse nu^ntal activity by tlie use of objects. And liere asfain tlie child can dis-
cover its tViiiits of analysis by niakinij a diag^rani to represent the generalizatiion.

A gfood example of the use of a diagram is seen in representing the inflore-
scence of plants. No two modes of flovviM'ing are exactly alike, yet, neglecting
all other differences, we find that the}' agree in the order of imlblding either from
the centre outwards or from the outside to the centie. A diagram may be
readily constructed to siiow this one agreement. The agreement can be shown
most clearly by making dia wings of the flowering of different plants and then com-
paring these drawings. Thus the diagram is seen to be a more ideal representat-
ion than the drawing and is the necessary transition to the still more ideal
method of representation by pure symbols, which, as yet, are loo ideal for the
child to make extensive independent use of, as he may later. The greater con-
creteness of the diagram makes it possible for the child, at this period, to discover
his own errors of analysis by comparing the diagram with the drawings fiom
which it was constructed.

Language.

We are accustomed to think of oral and written language as tlie distinctive
acquirement which distinguishes man from the beast. But, except gesture, all
the other modes of expression are equally distinctive of man. There is no doubt
that animals possess a rudimentary gesture language, and also a language of
touch, of smell and sound, hut these are not ideal modes of expression, and no
attempts are made by animals lo represent their ideas by means of any kind
of symbolic language.

No more ideal method of communicating thought indirectly can be conceiv-
ed of. Some claim, however, to communicate thought directlv, but when
analyzed, all so-called thought-transference resolves itself into a more concrete
mode of expression than the use of symbols. Mind readers usuallj' have an ex-
treme susceptibilil}' to pressure, to gesture, or to sounds, which are inarticulate
to the ordinary ear.

Ideal language is more than the association of a particular sound with a
presented object or action. It expresses the mental relationship which results
from presentations, stimulating the mind, and as such is purely ideal. It can
scarcely be said that the sign bears any resemblance to the relationship which it
expresses. It might have been something else, though, doubtless, each symbol
has been evolved in an orderly and scieiitfic manner. This evolution is still
going on and in time we shall possess a still more ideal mode of expression.
Indeed we have it now in shorthand, whicli will become, eventually, the written
speech of educated people.

Singing and Calisthenics.

It has always been recognized that music has a powerful influence over the
individual emotions and character. But we usuallj' lose sight of the fact that the
rhythmical nature of singing and calisthenics is the bond which unites individuals
in these activities. They are peculiarly social activities ; in modem times, usually

OF NATURE STUDY. —?

associated with poetry. Hence the importance of including these activities in
educational life, especially in the lower years, which, according to the culture-
epoch theory, corespond more nearly to the tribal period of the race. The
Kindergarten is the only period in school life in which singing, accompanied bv
rhythmical motion, forms an integral part of the school exercises, but this
should extend far beyond the Kindergarten age. If singing has been found so
beneficial in religious exercises, surely it has a beneficial effect in educating the
moral sense.

Stages of Mental Development.

Nature Study must conform to these general principles, which underlie the
relation between thought and expression, but like other subjects must be adapted
to the stage of mental development of the students. There are three well
recognized stages in mental development, which corespond to three well marked
stages of physical growth. Close observation and study of children have shown
that the period of childhood up to eight years of age is one of rapid growtii, both
of mind and body. It is a period of great susceptibility to impressions but with
slight power of retention. It is, therefore, essentially an impressionist period.

From eight to twelve years of age, there is little growth but there is great
development, nevertheless, in at least the lower mental activities. Health is
good, muscles firm, the brain retentive. With, perhaps, diminished impressibility,
there is increased power of retention, which is very characteristic of the period.
It may be called the retentive or representative or more simply tiie secondary
stage. After twelve years of age, growth becomes rapid again, and in a year or
two sexual development becomes marked. This characterizes the period as one
of relationship. Relations of ideas develop ; relations of self to society ; of man
to God. It is the stage of thinking.

We shall use the terms primary, secondary, and tertiary, to indicate these
three stages instead of the more technical terms, which may arouse preconceived
notions.

We have to consider in each stage : (i.) how id->as are aroused ; (ii.) the
nature of the ideas aroused : (ill.) the mode of expressing the idea; (iv.) the
subjects of study best adapted to the stage.

The Primary Stage.

In all stages mental development must be associated with the constructive
activity of the child, hence, the ideas aroused and the mode of expression are
indissoluhly combined except for purposes of analytic discussion. In the prim-
ary stage, ideas should be aroused by direct stimulation of the senses. The
child should see, handle, taste the object and operate upon it in some way to
adapt it to his ideal end. In thus operating upon objects under the direction of
his teacher, he comes to recognize them, first as wholes, then as integrated
parts, and associates with them the symbols by which society knows them.
This recognition and association involves the higher mental activities, implicitly
but not explicitly, and thus lays a foundation for the discovery of more ideal
relationships in the higher stages.

8— THE PSYCHOLOGY

This brinifs us to a consideration ot the ideas aroused. Expressed in tech-
nical terms tliey are sensations and perceptions, but they are far from definite.
While eacli sensation is sufficiently clear to conve}- knowledge, it is not such
knovvledtje as the cliild will gain from later sensations. Memor}' is present in
the act of perception, but it is limited to the association between the former ex-
perience and the experience which recalls it. The child cannot continue a train
of associations beyond very simple associations by contiguity, though I knew a
child two years of age who carried out this train, beginning from a copper which
was in her hand: "copper — daddy — bank — nanny," meaning that her fatliei- was
in a bank where there were lots of coppers, whicl) could be be used in buying
bananas. Probably any image which arises in the child's mind at this age is
believed by the child to be aroused by an object or, at least, the child is
incapable of distinguishing those images which have been aroused b\' actual
stimulation of the nerve endings and those which are the product of the im-
agination. Instead, therefore, of saying that a child of this age is imaginative,
we contend that he does not as yet know the distinction between real and ideal.

Expression in this stag'e is most effectually and definitely made by gesture
and by modelling ; drawing- and oral description being- comparatively undeveloped
modes of expression, so much so, that they cannot be sufficiently accurate and
perfect modes of expression, to enable the child to make a synthesis in anyway
appropriate to the analysis which he makes. Wherever detailed expression is
desired, resort must be made to modelling.

It is a question whether the hig-her modes of expression will be adequate, if
this mode is omitted. I think they will not. As society becomes more complex,
there is less and less incidental expression by modelling- at the agfe when expres-
sion of this nature is essential ; hence the g-reater need of providing- for it in con-
nection with the reg'ular school work. Fortunately the play instinct, if unhampered,
will not let this mode of expression completely die out.

The modelling- in this primary stag-e will be the simpler process, in which the
ttiaterial remains unchang-ed, except in form, size and shape. Neither mind nor
bod}- has as yet been sufficiently differentiated to secure precise movements
such as are required where material has to be changed in structure, in order to
adapt it to particular use, e. g-. carpentry.

The subjects of study best adapted for this stage, are therefore, those subjects
which call for expression by g-esture and modelling- and which do not demand the
exercise oi' memorv, imag-ination, and the powers of thought, except incidentally.
The child should study objects which are associated with his daily life and which
he can observe in their natural relations. These objects should be comprehensive
in structure, not particular. They should appeal to the child's love of activity,
and of the novel in its relation to the familiar. This limits the child's study to
his immediate environment, and to thing's which appeal directly to his senses.
Evidently the phenomena and the things oi nature should be the basis of the
child's mental development in this period. In connection with these he may
measure and learn the rudiments of arithmetic and also beg-in the recog-nition of
the symbols which stand for these thing-s and thus learn to read. So exact and
ideal..a form of expression as writing should occupy a very unimportant place

OF NATURE STUDY. —9

while drawing' and oral expression should be gradually developed, as precision
of constructive activity makes these possible.

The Secondary Stage.

The secondary stage is one of great activity and the physiological condition
makes possible greater precision of movement. There should accordingly be A
better adaptation of means to end in his reaction upon his material environment^
which he will now begin to view in its relation to social life. Direct stimulation of
the senses must continue as before but indirect stimulation should gradually become
more important. Objects need not be actually present but may be represented by
pictures, diagrams, etc., assisted, of course, by oral description, which, however,
is still subsidiary. The nature of more remote things is conceived through his
increased power of idealization. Hence interest widens beyond the immediate
present, which is actual, and enters the domain of imaginative activity.

Ideas in this stage become more definite. Vague wholes, by the process of
analysis, are more clearly comprehended. Sensations and perceptions revive
images of objects not present, and images are constructed of experiences which
have not yet had existence in fact but which may be realized. There is, therefore^
a great advance in ideal development, and at the same time there is a different-
iation of what has been realized from that which still remains idi-al or merely
imaged.

The mode of expression will now be by reconstruction of material in the model
in wood or in metal and by drawing ; these two processes being complementary.
A model is made from a drawing and the object studied is represented for future
use and reference by a drawing. While irt the preceding stage, material was
studied as it affected the senses directly, it is now studied irt its relation to man ;
in its use as a factor in socializing the race ; for all this adaptation of material to
use has been the expression of higher social ideals.

The aim oi" drawing should not be to secure perfection of form so much as to
secure free expression of thought. The perfect form will everttually follow, if the
thought of the perfect form is there. Then by interpreting the drawing either irt
the concrete material, e. g. wood, or b}' a verbal description, both thought and
expression are made more definite.

The secret of correct drawing and exact making is comparison. The teachei*
will insist on the comparison of (l.) parts of an object with the whole ; (il.) parts
with each other; (ill.) wholes with each other. All such comparison and adapt-
ation is a process of abstraction, so that the pupil is being prepared for a higher
stage of mental development.

The subjects of study for this stage are, therefore, those which involve the
study of material and the processes by which this material has been made to serve
social progress. But as mental development has not yet reached the stage of dis-
covering laws and underlying principles, the study must be Hmited largely to gain-
ing information about these materials, and repeating hi a limited -way, some of the
t)'pical processes which have influenced social progress. The teacher will now
find memory and imagination active and need not depend upon actual presentation
of material, but may extend the field of operations by the use of pictures, etc.

lo— THE PSYCHOLOGY

The study of nature is evidently all important here It supplies all the materials,
which, by adaptation to human needs, have been the basis of progress. In con-
nection with these materials, g-eography becomes an important study. Arithmetic
must be studied in relation to adaptation of materials to suit man's increasing
needs. Present complex society can be understood only by the stud)' of former
simpler modes of living--history. Imag-inative literature finds a responsive chord
in the child's mental state. The foundations of tlie sciences should be laid in this
period by making the child acquainted througfh his own activities with the
fundamental facts.

The Tertiary Stage,

In the third stag-e, the child should become more independent of objects and
their representations and more proficient in the use of symbolic modes of expres-
ion. If the education up to the age of twelve or thirteen years of age has pro-
vided the pupil with a g-ood stock of fundamental facts, learned by his own
sense activity, and in connection with his constructive activity, he will be in a
position to use language extensively and to learn new facts through the medium
of languag-e. Then he should be occupied chiefly in discovering relations be-
tween facts rather than facts themselves ; at least his motive in discovering
facts is now for the sake of their relations. Reason becomes the arbiter of
what is and what is not. All experiences must be subject to rigid examination
in order to discover the true relations. Instead of comparing objects and their
features, which is of course, a relating, ideal process he must now compare
ideas, a still higher relating and more ideal mental process. He must classify,
judge, and reason.

The most important feature of this period, the age oi puberty, is the develop-
ment of the idea of social relationship. The child becomes conscious of self, as a
unit in a larger whole, just as he formerly became conscious of himself as an
individual, distinct from the whole. He also becomes conscious of the distinction
of sex and interest in the opposite sex occupies a large part of the mental field.

The ideas aroused are more abstract than in any preceding stage. Their
content is more ideal, less limited by time and space conditions. The relations
ot cause and effect become predominant. Hitherto this relation has been apt to
be determined by post hoc ergo propter hoc, but now such relations are seen to be
unimportant. He discovers the essential conditions of phenomena by a process of
abstraction and diagnosis by exclusion. Why becomes the all important question,
as how, what, and where have been important heretofore. The search for the
underlying principles of things has now begun.

The mode oi expression must accordingly b - more ideal than formerly and that
is by the use of arbitrary symbols, oral or written. Spoken and written language
should now become the thought medium in the final count. It is, in fact, impossible
to express the higher ideal relations of the higher mental state by those modes
which are sufficient in the lower. An ideal relation may be exemplified by a
model, drawing, or diagram, but cannot be fully expressed so. As language
is developed there will be less and less need of drawing and modelling, though
for purposes of communication it may be necessary to convert the symbolic ex-
pression into picture language, or the language of the model, in order to adapt it

OF NATURE STUDY. —n

to the mind which is to be acted upon by it. Hence the necessity of having
learned those modes of expression at the proper time, inasmuch as the majoritj*
of minds respond, adequately, only to the lower modes of expression. Our con-
stant aim as educationists should be to make our pupils independent of these
lower modes, not by ig-noringf them entirely as we have been doing, but by
arousing and developing them at the proper time.

The subjects of study for this stage, therefore, will be those which emphasize
the social side of life, and which demand the exercise of the thought powers.
The constructive activities should be exercised throughout as the basis of
"remaking experience." Subjects whii-h require classification are essential,
such as botany, geography, zoology, grammar. The deductive sciences, arith-
metic and grammar, will cultivate judgment and reason ; history, properly taught,
will also exercise the reasoning. Any series of related facts will furnish material
for the thought powers ; hence, any of the above subjects will cultivate thought.
The attempt to explain the various phenomena of nature will bring into operation
all the thought-powers, hence, elementary science shotild be a subject of study
in this stage.

The Subjects of Study.

If we now make a list of the subjects oi' public school study and place op-
posite each study the mode or modes of expression usually associated therewith
in the class-room, we shall be able to see more clearly the relative value of each
subject in the three stages of education up to the age of sixteen.

Subjects of Stidv Mode of Expression

Arithmetic . . Diagrams and Speech

Grammar ... "

Literature . . Speech

History . . . Speech
Geography . . All the modes

Physiology . . . "

Nature Study . . '*

Though history and literature are usually associated with speech only, it is
quite easy to cultivate all the modes in these subjects.

The remaining subjects, usually placed on a curriculum as subjects of study,
are not properly speaking subjects of study for public school pupils at all. There
is a scientific study of these modes of expression as they are related to the
regular branches of study, but such a study is not suitable for public school
pupils. These so-called subjects of study, reading, writing, drawing, and com-
position, are simplv modes of expression for thought. Having failed to recognize
the absolute necessity of making use of these modes of expression, except reading
and writing, we have thought it necessary to give them a distinct place in the
school curriculum as subjects of stud}'. By this act of placing them on the
curriculum so, the evil has been intensified, and we are compelled to witness
meaningless exercises in combining sentences, filling blank spaces, correcting false
syntax, changing the forms of sentences, the conjugation oi the verb, under
the name of composition. The composition has been accomplished already in

T2— THE PSYCHOLOGY

such exercises. We are simply asking- y.>\.\v jnipils to shift counters on the surface
oi their paper. It is just as mechanical as making- pothooks, right and left curves,
straight lines, etc.

In addition to these subjects there are also manual training, domestic science,
music and calisthenics, and cominercial transactions. There is no reason why the
elementary operations in connection with commerce should not be taught as a
part of arithmetic, and take the place of purelj-^ abstract problems which so often
find a place there. The chang-e would be beneficial in all respects. Music and
calisthenics have been sufficiently discussed. They are not subjects of study but
social activities. Manual training and domestic science should not be considered
as independent subjects of study any more than composition, reading, and draw-
ing. In one sense they are modes of expression, but in reality are the underlying-
activities of all education. Under these headings are arrang-ed a series of ac-
tivities typical of the development of the race, and as the race, in this reaction
upon materials from which food, clothing- and shelter have been obtained, has
learned to adjust environment to its needs,- so must the child react in a more ideal
wav upon material, to learn how to adjust environment to its needs. The
processes by which the race has developed must be repeated by the individual.

Geog-raphy is advanced nature study and physiolog-y a branch of it. Practic-
ally, therefore, nature study is the one subject which demands all the modes of ex-
pression and is therefore adapted to each stage oi education. Yet this is the sub-
ject which we have omitted from our curriculum, putting in its stead as independent
subjects the very modes of expression which must of necessity be cultivated it
the subject be properly taug-ht. This is worse than asking a child to learn a
foreig-n tongue to the negflect of his vernacular. W'e ask our pupils to pass by the
wonders of creation at their very door and learn about ''African lions, Roman
emperors, mountains in the moon, and ang-els in heaven.'" What the Port Royal-
ists did for the child in emphasizing; the importance oi the vernacular, the advocates
of nature study are doing for the child of today. We discuss learnedly a Greek
ode but fail to discern the gfreat epic of creation writ largfe on every leaf, and
twig-, on field and wood, in sky and plain.

Once properly correlated with the other subjects of our school curriculum,
the proper study of nature will revolutionize reading, drawing-, and composition,
if not writing- and other school subjects. History is but the ordsrl}- account of
Nature's masterpiece in his social relations, and literature is the product of a
complex organization, which has its counterpart in the lowest organism. No
other study is so comprehensive as nature and none is so accessible. It requires
neither building;, books, nor equipment, except such as nature has provided for us.

" Music in trees, books in the running brooks.
Sermons in stones, and good in everything."

Nature has been and still is the immediate environment of the majority ot the
human race, and the senses have been adapted to detect its variations just so far
and as long- as necessary. The sense of smell has ceased to be an educative
sense and taste has been reduced to a position of unimportance but all the
other senses are still of vital importance.

In the evolution of the race natural objects were first of interest — utilitarian
interest, and I think we are safe in saving that all interest is based on the

OF NATURE STUDY

'3

use of thing's. In time the savag-e learned to modify his natural environment.
Instead of accepting- the shade of the natural tree, he lopped off branches and
enclosed himself in an artificial lodg^e. Thus beg-an the art of architecture, the
lowest mode of thoug-ht expression (modelling.) But the cop\' from which he
modelled was an ideal one. The natural object — tree, cave or bank — sug-g^ested
to his potential mind a more perfect structure. This ideal structure was eventually
realized in tlie wigwam, tepee or artificial cave. These, in turn, suggested more
perfect structures, and as these were realized there were development and
progress. Those races which have not had ideals, or which have not progressively
realized them, have ceased to progress. Why should the child pass through a
similar process? What is to be gained by placing before the child the natural
object, whicli is irregular and comprehensive, ratiier than the regular and
particular manufactured form, e. g., sphere, cube, cylinder? Why should the
child repeat the experience of the race ? There are two reasons, (i) If the child
proceeds from the irregular to the regular, he must put into the process a personal
element, an individual factor, and there will be progress. (2) As a result the
child will be encouraged, since he has produced something "ail his own" —
something which, to him at least, is an improvement on the natural object,
inasmuch as it has the element of individuality about it, which the original has not.

If the opposite course be pursued, and the ciiild be given a perfect cube to
examine, he cannot imagine a more perfect form, hence his individuality is not
exercised to any extent. If he attempts to make a model of it, he cannot possibly
make as perfect a form and will be discouraged. The study of the perfect
geometric solids in the Kindergarten is plainly not in accord with sound
educational principles. However, the nature study in the Kindergarten probably
counteracts the evil.

The first argument, then, for nature study is that it furnishes suggestive
and varied forms, in observing which the imagination is exercised and developed,
and in modelling which, or the more readily suggested ideal forms, the child
mal<es mental progress. This progress in turn makes the c">bserving powers more
acute and hungr}- for material to act upon. Dr. G. Stanley Hall, at the X. E. A.,
injuly, 1901, said : "Less time should be devoted to arithmetic and reading before
eight years of age, and more to nature study." If nature study is taught in the
lower forms there will be no loss of time on account oi it in the higher forms. W'e do
not propose to lessen the training in literature, mathematics, etc., but to
supplement it. The basis of composition, literature, geography, drawing, and
reading, is the stud\' of nature. The addition oi' this subject of study to the
curriculum will not really increase the work, but will secure better .results in the
above subjects than was formerly secured without it, and with the expenditure oi'
less energy.

In the secondary stage of education, nature study has a claim to our attention
based on sound psychological principles. Drawing- should be based on natural
forms. Trees, flowers, and animals should be the concrete material for the first
two or three years of instruction in drawing. Form, color, and proportion are all
there in far more interesting combination than can possibly be made in the most
expensive set of models obtainable. The mental activitv required in selecting
and relating the material at hand is the best possible kind of training.

14— THE PSYCHOLOGY

As previously pointed out, the use of diagrams is made clear from the study
of natural objects. The construction of diag-rams is the first step in classification.
\Ve select one peculiarity which we find common to several objects. We express
this in a diagram. We then use this as the type to which we find other objects
conform, and conclude that all these belongs to the same class.

Having- laid a firm foundation throug-h the use of objects, drawingfs, and
diagrams, we shall have prepared our pupils" for the hig-hest stage of mental
development — the study of relations, which, in itself, is purely ideal, for
relationship exists only in the mind. Education may now depend principally on
the use of mere s3'mbols. The dominant mode oi expression should be 03^ symbols
arrang-ed systematically in what is known as written composition. What has
nature study to furnish here? Simply the subjects for composition. Half the
field of composition, i. e., narrative and descriptive, is bound up in nature. It
forms the setting of more than half the literature for all time. What makes the
charm of Parkman's history' ? It is the description of natural scenery- and spirited
narrative of the contest of man with man, and man with nature. There is,
therefore, no stage of education in which nature study is not an important subject
of study. It is all important in the first stag-e ; equallv important as an)' other in
the second, and scarcely subsidiary- in the third stag-e.

Of course, there can never be a divorce of any^ one stage of education from
the others. In the first stag-e relations yvill be noted, and svmbols used, and in
the third stag-e, objects, drawing's, and diagr.ams mustahvays be in evidence. But
each stag-e has its predominant mental activity, means of instruction, and iViode
of expression, to yvhich the others are merely complementary.

OF NATURE STUDY. — ij

What Human Needs are Satisfied by the

Study of Nature ?

I. INHERITED TENDENCIES AND INSTINCTS

Primeval man was entirely cle|)eiulent upon nature, and we are still dependent,
thouj;li often indiieetly. Hence we need to study nature to understand her laws
and thus preserve our lives.

Since the life of" the individual is a repetition in miniature of the life of the
race, it is desirable that, in each stage, the environment should be an ideal copy
of that in which the race has made the most proj»'ress. Up till ten or twelve
years of ajje, the child's synipathies are with animate and inanimate nature, and
he should come in close touch with these. .At the ag'e of |)uberty interest in self
and in the opposite sex occupies the mental field, and an ideal social enviromiient
should be created for his proper development.

Certain instincts of man are essential for the contiiuied existence of the race.
If these are not nourished at the proper time in a suitable environment, thev
perish. A siiituhle enviorniuent is o/if thut is similar to that in -d'liich the iustiiirt
was first developed. To improve the instinct the environment must become more
ideal.

A squirrel in captivity, on a hard floor, will attempt to bury a nut, it will
scratch at the floor and leave the nut exposed. Under such conditions the
impulse to bury nuts soon dies and cannot thereafter he aroused. So it is in the
child. " In all [ledagojjy, the great thing is to strike the iron while hot, and to
seize the wave of the pupil's interest in each successive subject before its ebb has
come, so that knowledge may be got and habit of skill acquired — a headway of
interest, in short, secured, on which afterwards the individual may float. There
is a happy moment for fixing skill in drawing, for making boys collectors in
natural histor\', and piesently dissectors and botanists, then for initiating them
into tiie harmonies of mechanics and the wonders of phjsical and chemical law."
— James.

Suppose the instinct were the fishing instinct, could it be aroused and
developed in the vitiated atmosphere of a schoolroom, conning over a description
of some fishing expedition of past ages ? No, of course not. At the age when
this instinct stirs the blood, the boy must bend a pin, attach it to a cotton string,
and with worm well set and properly mounted, go forth and sit in the glorious
spring sunshine on a dry bank, at the base of a foaming rapid, beside some semi-
trans|>arent stream, and feel ibe exultant tug, experience the delight of hauling
out the finny dweller of the stream, count up his store and even enjoy the weary
homeward trudge, happy in his knowledge of something accomplished.

Why does the balmy spring air seem to invite me to far away streams and
sunny banks, to the sugar woods, the camp, and the swing-pole? Because the

i6~ THE PSYCHOLOGY

instinct was im[)Ianted by actual experit-nce in Tiature's own envifonment, at the
at^e when these desires first stirred the l^lood.

Inherited teiulencies denianti that we should come near to nature's heart ii>
our ciiiidhocd if we are not to lose entireK', in a genei-ation or t wo, the God-given
love of freedom in God's {\t:-e air and sunshine.

We are "heirs of all the ages," but, as a lace, are in danger of losing' our
heritage, the result of centuries of honest toil. Reaction upon environment to
adapt it to human needs has become, to a certain extent, instinctive. Unless the
children are iDade to repeat tlie ideal constructive acts before the age of fourteen
the constructive powers will weaken and in a few generations die out.

2. ACTIVITY OF THE SENSES, AND MUSCLES.

In their normal healtln' stfite, the senses and ntuscles desire activit}- in
response to stimulations, and the pleasurable experience of such activity is the
basis of the child's interest in t)ie world about him. This interest is especially
intense for moving things or for changing' things. The former includes animal
life and physical force; the latter, growing things, plants and animals, and
material things, acted on by some force, pln'sical or chemical, which produces
change in shape, volume, appearance, hardness, or some other propert}-. These
form the basis of the sciences — zoology, botaii)', plu'sics, and chemistry. Theag'e
during which the activitv of these senses is most pleasurable and niofitable in
forming clear perce[)tions ;md in rousing mental activity, is from the age of three
to the age of fourteen }ears, the end of public school life. If thev are not
exercised during that perioil, you will find what is too often found in our public
school graduates, a lack of intei"est in things of sense or a want of confidence in
the efficiency of the sense organs ; or fimong teachers, a hick of the sense of the
importance of cultivating the senses. The latter is painfully evident, but is the
natural result of the public school training. Of course, training the senses is not
an end in itself, but a means to a higher social life.

3. THE DISCOVERY OF RELATIONS.

In the third stage of education, the particular benefit of nature study is in
furnishing material for the relating activity of mind. This activitv is as normal
and as pleasurable as the activitj' of the senses, but the latter is the necessary
basis of the former. I am aware that the joy of discover}' does not seem to
animate tlie majority of our advanced pupils. But how can it exist when there is
no basis for discovery and when the senses and constructive activities, have not
been systematically exercised for a period of eight or ten j^eais? The effort to
arouse them to living activity after these A'ears of arresteil development is either
an impossible task, or is more than most teachers have patience to do. The
very same lack of desire to use an}' part of the bod\' will result from non-exercise
of it, and the victim of non-use is ever conscious of his weakness.

4. THE DISCOVERY OF THE UNITY OF ALL NATURE.

When the relating aclivit}- has operated for a number of years, the conscious-
ness of the unity of all things begins to manifest itself, but is a product of mature
life rather than of school life.

OF NATURE STUDY. — /;

5. PRACTICAL ADVANTAGES OF NATURE STUDY.

Herbert Sc)eiicer has shown ihi- value of a kiiowlocljfe ot nature in all the
activities of Ufe : — tiiose whirli directly minister to self preservation ; tliose wiiich
indirectly minister to self ]>reservatioii ; liiose which concern the rearingf and
disci|>lining' of olTspriiijj ; those which concern political ;ind social relations ; and
finally, those which have to do with llie leisure perioil of life.

While Spencer's view is certainly extrenx", the foice of his arg^nment carries
conviction to all.

6. CONQUEST OF THE \v'CRLD.

The activity of miiul on I'livironment is ;i proi-ess of desli-o)'inj; it and thereby
building' itself up. This means that tiie unrelated becomes related, tiie strange,
familiar. As our physical organism acts upon food, destroys it as such, and
reariaiiges its elements to foiMii a part of itself, so the mental organism acts upon
phenomena. A particular fact coresponds to food. The miiul seizes il, destroys
its particularity and makes it a part \.^'( ilsi-lf. This |>owt'r of the mind is essential
to successful existence.

N'atuie forms most of our en\ir*innienl in e;irl\' lifo, as il loriiu'd the wlioje
environment oi primeval man. 0\w I'onquesI of il is ;is necessarv to progress
as it was to him. The sa\age, wliose conquest of his environment is limiteil to
things of sense, anil who has not reallj- conquered il, views it as a mysterious
juiwer which rules him in some mysterious way. Such is the view of all super-
stitious people, and their superstititm remains, because they are not conquerors
of nature.

" 1^0, the poor hulian, with untutoied mind

Sees God in clouds and hears him in the winii. '

How different the view of him who has conquei"ed nature :

" I ilo not own an inch of land,

Hut all I see is mine —
The orchards and the mowing fields,

The lawns, and gardens fine.
The winds my tax-collectors are,

They bring me tithes divine,
Wild scents and subtle essences —

A tribute rare and free ;
Ami, more magnificent th.'in all.

My window keeps for me
A glimpse of blue innnensily,

A little strip of sea." — LlCY Larco.M.

What a fickle being is God to the " untutored mind " which fails to conquer
environment, to destroj- strangeness, and to see behind phenomena, laiv.

There is still a more disastrous result than this. The onward nuirch of
civilization demands lapid and accurate adaptation to environment. Lacking
this power to control circumstances, man feels that nature is too powerful for him>
and casts about for a remedy. By chance, he partiikes of some narcotic, e. g.
tobacco, alcohol, hasheesh, etc. , and immediately the world seems less formidable,
because the senses are less acute in reacting to stimulation. He feels that he can
conquer this new world. Humanity is prone to deception ; the unreal seems real

i8^ THE PSYCHOLOGY

and the victim of the paralyizing drug' believes it to be an efificient stimulant.
How nuu-li of our intemperance is due to our helplessness in the face of natural
phenomena? The .i;Tailual extinction of the Indians, the Maoris, the Sandwich
Islandeis, ami otheis, I?, due to their inability to adapt themselves to changing'
environment. Even co[)ing with our fellow-men is an advanced phase of nature
study, and the best preparations for any conling-ency is the development of the
power of adaptation to envii-onment now. What are our inventors continually
living to do but to conquer the opposing forces of natuie ; the inertia of matter;
the opacity of solids ; the inertness of the conducting ether? And when one
inventor succeeds in conquering time and space, do we not all share in the sense
of power over nature? The thrill of satisfaction experienced in talking across a
continent cannot but make us more courageous, and confident of our power to
conquer.

The absurdity of attempting the conquest of nature by thus modifying our
conception of it, is at once apparent, and the method which looks to mental
development as the basis of conquest will be accepted by all true educationists.
Yet there are visionaries who propose just such absurdities, comparable with
that of benumbing the senses with alcohol, hasheesh, opium, or tobacco. These
men would make the work so easy as to reduce it to play. They would not have
the child realize that there is an end which it should consciously strive to attain,
but hope that through jilay this end may be obtained. If the end be attained
through pla)', i. e, activity not consciously directed to an end, there will not he
the essential development which can come onlj' by a consciousness of (i) a
difficulty to be met ; {z) the means to meet it ; (3) the will to use these means.
The day must come in the natural order of events when the chikl, grown to
man's estate, must face difficulties, and it will be a costly experience for him
and perhaps for others, if he has, hitherto, failed to develoji those activities which
will enable him to adapt himself to them. I\'vt by decreasing resistance but by
i?icreasing nientdl poiver must conquest be made.

What is the Process in Nature Study?

The mental process is the same whatever may be the subject of study. It
beg'ins with an undefined, homogeneous whole, which the mind, if interested,
immediately beg'ins to analyze into particular parts, aided, oi course, by previous
experience which has left in the mind notions of these or of similar parts.
Comparing these fixed notions with the new particulars, the mind establishes new
relations, by which the fixed notion is still further elaborated and the new particular
is broug'ht into a familiar relation. It becomes a part oi mind. The process of
comparison is carried o\\ betw-een the parts o'i the whole, or more properly between
the mental images of these parts, until all are properly related so far as this can
be accomplished by the mind in its existing state of development. The farther
this relating- process is carried, the more clearly will the thitigs related be defined,
and the original undefined, homogeneous whole becomes a defined, heterogeneous,
yet related whole. We may describe this mental prc")cess by saying that within the
undefined whole mind moves in two directions, (i) towards the particular ; (2)
towards the universal. The teacher is apt either to stop with the particular; that is,
stop with analysis without securing a corresponding synthesis, or is apt to force

OF NATURE [STUD V. '— tg

upon her pupils universals which have not resulted from active mental process in
1he pupil's mind.

In nature study the order of mental process is, therefore, as follows:

(i.) Undefined notions of individual wholes.

(2.) Learning- their names, uses, and important characteristics. Animate
nature is first of interest, while, later, inanimate nature becomes interesting- by
the same process.

(3.) Recognition of likenesses and differences.

(4.) Grouping objects according- to these likenesses and differences.

(5.) Summarization of facts learned into a connected life history. Unimportant
details are here omitted.

(6.) Study of embryonic development.

(7.) Relation of object to whole kingdom. This is classification on a scientific
basis.

Kach step, as here stated, is an advance in the discovery oi relations, ending
in an ideal sVaW — a knowledge of all relations, A fully rounded course in nature
.study is not complete without classification, but this is necessarily preceded by years
o'i observing and comparing in preparation for this classification.

1. The child should upon entering school continue that course which he has
been following in his previous experience. He should extend his acquaintance
with nature, but under more ideal conditions than have hitherto obtained.
Distracting influences will be removed, and the material for stimulation will be
.selected and adapted to a systematic course of development. The study of
individual wholes will be followed immediately by analysis, and this in turn must
be tollowed by synthesis. As stated under the general principles of psychology,
analysis and synthesis must go hand in hand, and the extent of the analysis will
be determined by the power of synthesis. Since the principal mode of synthesis
in this stage is modelling, we should not demand minute analysis of objects, nor
should we attempt to analyse very complex objects.

2. This study of individuals as wholes will be followed by the study of parts,
the uses of the whole and of the parts and the prominent characteristics which
will attract the attention of all young pupils. As soon as a clear notion of each
part is obtained, the name should be given and the pupil should discover the use
of each part by observing the object in its natural surroundings. Naturally a
child is first interested in moving things, because his attention is compelled to
change from point to point by the external object moving over the field of vision ;
just as later active attention is secured by moving the eye from point to point of the
object. The child delights in activity, but the teacher must see that the child's
own activitv is developed and not merely his observation of others' activity. The
former means development ; the latter arrested development. The child viust
express itself by the mode best fitted to its stage of mental power.

3. Some claim that differences are first noticed by children ; others that
i-esemblances are. The fact seems to be that both are phases of one mental process.
Two things would not be recognized as two unless they differed, at least, in
position, in time, or in space ; hence, in recognizing anything we have two
judgments, implicit or explicit, i. e., this is not the same object as that ; this object
is like that. Since the notions of space and time are necessary judgments, we

20

THE PSYCHOLOGY

have the recognition o'i rosemblanco as llu> actual mental process. The child is
constantly looking for resemblances, as is shown by his calling all four-legged
animals "'dogs;'" all moving mechanisms "toot-toots;" all coins "dollars."
When adults see a strange face, they immediateh' see a likeness to some familiar
face, which those familiar with both, fail to see at all. Hence, mental process
seems to jiroceed from noting resemblances to noting differences. In the study
of natvne, therefori', we will begin with noting resemblances, and later differences.
How is the squirrel like the rabbit? How does it differ? Carry the comparison
from whcile to part.

4. This recognition o^ likenesses leads to a grouping of objects which are
more like each other than like all otlieis. This grouping is rudimentary and
tentative. With increase of analysis and compaiison, classification will became
more intensive as to species, and more extensive as to characteristics. At fiist,
objects are classed into two classes, with owo distinguishing characteristic. For
example, plants are either Phanerogams or Cryptogams, the one distinguishing
charateristic being the presence of a flower-. When we continue the classification
to the species, we have reduced the nunibei- of plants to one, which has many
characteristics distinguishing it from others. Hence, classification is seldom, if
ever, final. In nature study, therefore, we begin with large classes based on one
distinguishing characteristic, e. g. : Plants diviiied according to habitat ; plants
growing in swamps, in water, etc. After a fullei- analj'sis, we group them in
Orders, then in Genera, and finallj' species. At first we classify fiom exteinal,
concrete features ; later we base our classification on more ideal fedtures, such
as relationship of parts, etc.

5. Whenever a phase of any object has been completely studied, the
knowledge gained should be arrangeil in an orderly way, either as a drawing,
diagram, or written composition. This will constitute a life historAot the subject
of study to date. Each life histoiy should be arranged in the same way so as to
expedite comparison. In any such summary unimportant details, whicli were
necessarily noted in the first analysis, will be omitted, whether the summary be
in one or other t>f the above forms. Such a summary is a preparation for the
process of genei-alization. In fact, advance in mode of expression from modelling
to the written symbol is a process of omitting details. The mode of expression
becomes more comprehensive, more being left lo be supplied by mental imager)-.
At this stage, therefoie, nature study is particularly associated with com|iosilion.

6. Embryonic- development, in its relation to Science, is apart of nature
stud)-, which is moie properl}' part of High School work, but the development c>f
the frog, toad, fish, or slug may be observed b)' yoimg pupils comparativelj- well,
and makes a subject of intense interest. Second Hook pupils can stud)- the whole
life history of the frog or of the toad, from egg to adult, as easily as they can
.observe any other natural process. The study of the life history of the butterfly
is very easy, as is also that of the mosquito. C)flen only a part of the development
may be observed, but this observation may be supplemented by pictures and
verbal descriptions. However, the true bearing of such stud)' does not become
clear until an advanced stage of mental progress is reached.

7. The highest stage of nature study is classification on a scientific basis.
This means that the discovery of relations amorig particulars has been carried to

OF NATURE STUDY. —21

a fitialitv, so that each individual is distinguished from all others. When an
object has been classified, then, and not till then, can it be defined. The fullness
and finality of the definition depend upon the completeness and correctness of
the classification. Such a classification can be made only after years of study.
This does not mean that a [lupil cannot be taught to use a key and thus find the
name of an individual, but such a mechanical operation, though based on the
analysis of the object, does not mean what is meant here by classification. We
mean by it the actual comparison of the individuals, and the grouping of them
into branches, famifies etc., according to their lesemblances and differences,
ivitliout the aid of a key. The key should be constructetl by each .t.ludent for
iiimself, at least in part.

Course in Nature Study.

The clearest exeniplification of the preceding |)rinci])les can be shown most
clearly by giving a course of nature study adaplei.1 to the different grades in
public schools. Tiie course here given has been prepared by the author for a certain
system of schools in a Canadian city, and has been in o[)eralion fora sufficienll}' long
time (nearly three yeais) to prove its practicability. It is assumed thioughout
that the course will be directly lelated to reading, drawing, and composition, as
motles of expression and to geogra[)hy and physiology. Teachers are also
expected to limit the analysis of any object of study according to the power of
synthesis of her pupils. Accordingly when we say in grade \\. " Review work of
[)receding grade," we mean that the analysis will be extended in the higher
giade. This will be exemplified later in the outline of a lesson o\\ a parliculai-
object, the butterfiy, adapted to eacii of the three slagt!s of mental development,
primary, secondary and tertiary.

FIRST CLASS, Parts I and II.

Position and appearance of sun, moon and larger stars, observid throughout
the year.

Color of sky at different times under varying conditions.
General color o'i landscape at different seasons.

WINTER.

Ice and snow, Jack Frost, wind,

Winter birds, crow, sparrow, chickadee.

Trees in winter. Comparison of evergreens and deciduous trees.

Study the domestic animals during the winter.

At Christmas study holly and mistletoe.

SPRING .\ND SLMMER.

Study sap and making maple sugar.
Melting of snow and ice.
Return of the birds — keep a bird calendar.
Food of birds and their actions — singing, nesting.

Common flowers, e. g., trillium, hepatica, spring beauty, etc.— Names, color,
place of growth, time of flowering.

22

THE PSYCHOLOGY

Plant seeds, and observe geriniiiatio!i and growth.
Observe squirrels, rabbits.

FALL TKKM.

A few coniinon plants, seeds and fruits.

Dissemination of such seeds as thistle, burr, dandelion, milkweed, maple.

SECOND READER.

More details about sun, moon, and stars. Color continued. Eclipse of sun or
moon if one occurs. Need of sunligfiit for plants and animals. Movements of
plants towards sun.

WINTER.

Study forms of snowflakes.

Different forms of water — ice, water, vapor, steam.

Change from one form to another.

How much of a piece of ice floats below the surface of water? Compare
large and small pieces.

Observe twigs, of apple, maple, horse chestnut, spruce. Does spruce shed its
leaves? How?

Impress the fact that trees are alive all winter but sleeping. What do birds
do in winter? Wlmt do bears, squirrels, coons and frogs do?

SPRING AND SUMMER.

Add details to course in Parts I. and II.

Continue bird and plant calendars. Begin a butterfly and moth calendar.

Keep tadpoles in glass jars for two or three months and observe development
to adult frog. Write story of its life.

F~ish — external teatures, scales, fins, eyes, mouth, gills. How they swim
and breathe.

Young mud turtles — observe them bury themselves in the fall.

Collect larva? from milkweed, parsley, carrots tomatoes, etc. Keep until
they change to chrysalis.

FALL.

Observe emergence of butterflies from chrysalids. Write story of the butterfly.
Later observe cocoons and chrysalids which live through winter. Collect coccoons
and keep in cool place through winter.

Observe date of departure of common birds. Why do they leave ? Use oi
birds, and why we should protect them.

Look for buds on the trees before the leaves fall.

Observe falling of leaves, change in color, mode of falling. Observe ever-
ereens. What becomes of the fallen leaves if not burned ?

Common fall plants : evening primrose, butter-and-eggs, and asters golden-
rod, gentians.

Fruits and seeds — dissemination of seeds by various agents, wind, water,
birds, etc.

Fruits of apple, horse chestnut and maple, etc., should be examined throughout
the year.

Observe plants mentioned in second reader.

OF NATURE STUDY.

— 23

THIRD READER.

Motions of sun, moon, earth, and planets, as they appear. Eclipses more
fully. Observe different constellations of stars — position of sun at different
seasons — effect — position of moon in various months. Observe wind each day —
prevailing- direction — -when strongest — effect on trees. Soil of different kinds,
water.

WINTER.

As before passing to consideration of glacier, iceberg, avalanche, Arctic
region, its plants and animals. Effects of freezing water on soil, rock, etc.

Observe shapes of trees, nests in them.

Examine structure of buds, twigs.

Winter condition oi former animals, also flies, mosquitoes, crayfish, snails,
clams, spiders, coccoons and chrysalids.

Study seeds and fruits collected previous fall.

SPRING AND SUMMER.

Collect plants — preserve a few properly named.

Group plants according to place \:>'( growth — in water, in swamps, in moist
soil, in sand.

Begin to compare plants and find those which resemble each other most —
bulbs, root stocks, corms, etc.

Observe leaves, bark, wood, and general appearance of forest trees. Use
and relation to soil. Compare a tree growing in a forest with one of the same
kind growing in the open, away from other trees.

Extent o'l forests in Canada now and in former years. How to preserve
forests — pulpwood.

Birds and animals continued more in detail, passing from local to foreign
species by means oi pictures and descriptions.

Different kinds offish — whitefish, herring, perch.

Butterflies and moths. Collect larva; and note transformation. Injurious
species. How to destroy them by spraying.

Lite history' of a few common insects, e. g., fl\', mosquito, butterfl}-, dragon-
fly, codling moth.

FALL.

Collect cones of evergreens — keep till seeds discharge. Observe those
which remain o\\ tree all winter. When do they fall ?

Plants, especially of sunflower type, (composites). Detailed study of two or
three.

Crayfish, spiders, snail, slug, clam, bee — Instinct.

Comparison of the two great types of plants, bean-type and wheat-type.
Compare leaves, stems, flowers and seeds.

Improvement of species by grafting, cultivating, selecting seed.

FOURTH CLASS.
Previous course more fully studied, inquiring into causes.

THE PSYCHOLOGY

WINTER.

Discover causes of cold weather — g-lacial action.

Summarize knowledge in compositions on " Our Winter Birds ;" " The Sleep
of Plants ;" " Hibernation of Animals ;" " How Plants shed their Leaves."
Simple ph3'sical and chemical experiments.

SPRING AND SIMMER.

Collection and classification of plants.

Prepare first a rudimentarv key before making" use of the botanical keys.

Special study o'i injurious plants throughout the year, and how to destroy
them.

Diseases of plants — cause and cure — rust, smut, black-knot, apple scab,
blight.

Studv of fungi, mosses, lichens, ferns, externally. Poisonous plants, parasites.

Relation of plants to insects.

Compositions — "Cross Fertilization;" "Plant Enemies;" "Movement of
Plants ; ' " Relation of Plants to Soil ; ' " How Insects Benefit Plants."

ANIMALS.

Classifv animals into branches, thus :

Back-boned animals — squirrel type — Vertebrata.

Soft-bodied, boneless — snail type — Mollusca.

Legs, man^-jointed — crayfish type — Arthropoda.
Classify Vertebrata in classes.

Cat type — ]\lamvtalia.

Bird type — Aves.

Lizard type — Reptilia.

Frog type — Amphibia.

F"ish tvpe — Pisces.

Study smaller forms of animal life, e. g., plant lice and related pests, buffalo
carpet beetle, caddice-flies, clothes moth.

Make an extended study of one class of animals, birds, fish, butterflies, moths,
spiders.

Let pupils develop individuality.

Summarize as under plants.

Relations of animals to man.

History of certain forms, when introduced, how spread, loss to countr\-
annually, directly and indirectly.

Our dutv towards animals.

OF NATURE STUDY, — ^5

Method of Nature Study.

"/I method is derived from a principle." — HARRIS.

After so iniicli has been s;iid alxnit tlie i)iim.:ii)le of constructive activity and
its action upon environment, tliere is little to he said on the question of method,
except to show the practical application of the principle to each sta;<e of child
life. It is evident that our method must vary in these three stages. In each
stage we have to consider : (i) the matter of study and how to obtain it ; (2) the
teacher's work ; (3) the pupil's vvoik. •

In the first stage the matter of nature study is that with. which the pupil can
and does come in contact. Tlie immediate environment of the child is the field
of study. The extent of the analysis of the matter studied will be determined as
heretofore stated by the child's power of synthesis. How shall this matter be
obtained ? In this primary stage we cannot depend to an\- gieat extent upon
the pupil's ability to collect, unless under the direct supervision oi tlie teacher.
Consequently, teacher and pupils must make excursions together. But frequent
excursions aie impraiticahK', if not impossible, and as we cfinnot take children
to nature, we must bring nature to the children. The remarks which follow con-
cerning school gardens, etc., are applicable to all three stages of child-lite.

A part of the school yard must be set apart for llie reception of plants of
diPferenl kinds. The limit of the kinds of plants will be determined by the extent
of the garden space, and by the nature of the soil, and the jiossibilty of varying
the conditions. If one part can be kept shady, another sunny, another damp ; if
one part is loamy soil, another sandy, another reeky, we can successlully cultivate
all varieties of plants, which, ordinarily, wouKI not be found within a radius of
many miles. In stocking this garden with root stocks, bulbs and small trees ; in
planting seeds, and i-i caring for all, the most important facts about plants will
be learned. While a school garden will furnish material lor the study of plants
and will bring within reach the insects and birds whicii constantly visit them, it
is necessary to have some more limited s[iace in which living animals and plants
may be brought into the class-room. There should be a cage, in which rabbits,
squirrels, birds, etc., can be kept for a few days, observed, and then set free
again.

A " terrarium " for a class-room is an essential part ofa museum equipment,
and may be stocked from time to time with the proper food plants of the insects
which are to be studied. A few young cabbage plants on which the eggs of the
cabbage butterfly have been laid ; a young potato plant with the eggs of the
Colorado beetle, "potato bug;" a carrot, with the eggs of the Eastern swallow
tail ; all may be used to stock the terrarium and furnish matter for nature study,
for weeks, at the proper season. Small animals, e. g., toad, mud-turtle, may be
kept in the terrarium and their habits observed, especially their burrowing when
cold weather comes on. A small terrarium may be arranged to open to the outer

26— • THE PSYCHOLOGY

air and boos can be kept ami observed in safety. One moth, kept in a cage on
window sill will attract others of its kind of the opposite sex.

Then there nuist be an aquarium, small enough to be carried about, yet large
enough to accommodate small sized fish, cray fish, mud-turtles, etc. A little
care in observing and collecting water-plants will soon enable the teacher and
inipils to keep a balance between plant and animal life without any further care
than to keep the vessel clean, in a favorable light, and to replenish the water as
it evaporates. Care must be taken to put just enough food in the aquarium so
that none will remain. If too much is put in, the surplus must be carefully
removed.

All these are for living things. But there is a place for dead things and
pictures of living things, especially if the pictures are in colors. There should be
stufted specimens of representative birds and mammals and preserved specimens
of insects and plants for reference and ior the purpose of showing how this work
should he done. But avoid trying to have a complete set of specimens, and,
above all things, do not think that the study of dead specimens, especiallj' dead
birds, is natuie study. It is better to get 3'our specimens of birds and mammals
from a regular taxidermist, rather than to accept them from pupils, who should
rather be discouraged fiom collecting birds and birds' eggs, because of the im-
portance of preserving our birds from complete destruction. Encourage your
pupils to expend their collecting energy on insects and plants.

A few life histories of butterflies, moths, and beetles, should be jirepared lor
reference and for review work. Several typical specimens of plants, especially
of those more difficult to obtain, should be pressed, dried, mounted, and properly
named, in order to show how this work should be done. Specimens from remote
districts very properly find a place in the museum, as they will arouse interest in
their native country and extend the knowledge of familiar nature.

Finally, although these should not be studied very extensively until the third
stage of school-life is reached, specimens of all the common minerals and rocks
of the country should be in every museum. If, corresponding to each mineral,
pictures of the mines, of mining machinery and of the mining country can be
procured, geography may be made a profitable study. Sections of wood, in its
natural state and also polished and stained should be obtained. Correspomling
to these, pictures of the whole tree in its natural environment should be secured.

The Work of the Teacher and Pupils.

The teacher will first of all select the material for study. Having done this
and provided suitable quarters for it, she must direct the analj'sis and the
expression of the pupils in each stage in an orderly vva}'. She must not allow the
material to be so great in quantity as to confuse the pupil or to cause dissipation
of energy and yet must sustain interest by allowing the pupil's love of activity
and discover}' to find free play. The chief work of the teacher, at first, is wise
questioning suited to the pupil's capacit}'. We shall illustrate the work of
teacher and pupils, in all three stages, in a lesson or series of lessons on the
butterflj'.

OF NATURE STUDY. —27

FIRST STAGE, (5 to 8 years of age.)

Material: Larva, chr_\salis, and butterfly— alive.

Home; Pupils will state where tliey have seen each. After observing in
Ihe class-room, they may observe in tlieir gardens at home.

Movements : Observe the larva crawl and eat. Tell how it does these.
What does it do when disturbed ? Observe it moult and tell what change in
appearance results. Observe it pass into the chrysalis state. Does the chrysalis
move? How is it fixed? Observe 'he butterfly emerge from the chrysalis.
What does it look like? How does the butterfly move about? Can it walk?

Food: What does the larva eat? Does the chrysalis eat? Supply wild
fljwers and observe the butterfly get nectar. Feed the butterfly with honey and
sugar. Tell how it " drinks." How long is its tongue ?

Color : What is the color of each form?

Structure : Wiiat does the larva look like ? Has it a head ? How many
legs has it? Are they all alike? How many are alike? How, and for what
purpose does it use theTiu What does the chrysalis look like? Has it a head ?
What does the butterfly look like? How many divisions in its body? How
many wings has it ? How many legs has it ? Observe its head, eyes, antennse
and tell what they are like.

There is very little that the />«/>// can do here beyond making oral descrip-
tions of each observation. Cut out a butterfly from paper, and color it to match.
The puiiil must learn each of the above facts through iiis own sense-activity.
Mould the chrysalis in clay.

SECOND STAGE, (S to J2 years of age.)

Material : Ii(?gs, larva, chrysalis, butterfly. Illustrations of others, or others present.
The child is now capable of depending partly on memory and can also
imaglMC new forms, if aided by the teacher's description.

Home: Where are the eggs laid? Does the mother watch over them?
Upon what plants does the larva feed ? What plants will it not eat ? Observe
at difterent times of day.

WMiere is the chrj'salis usually found? Gather information about this from
different sources.

What flowers does the butterfly prefer? Where does it go at night? In
winter? Obtain information from other sources.

Movements: Review. Describe its mode of walking, moulting, and eating,
definitely. What changes are observed in its activity before and after moulting?
Observe it breathe. Compare with our own breathing.

Food: Review. What does it eat most ? When does it do most damage?
On what does the chrysalis live ? Compare the chrysalis with hibernating
animals.

Color: Review. How does its color harmonize with its surroundings ?
Compare color of different specimens. How do they vary.

Structure: Count the numbei- of rings, (segments), in the larva behind the
head. On which one are the legs situated? On which segments are the flesh\-
pro-legs situated? Compare larva; of different species, actually present or
pictured, and decide if they agree in these particulars. Draw the larva.

28-^ THE PSYCHOLOGY

Comp.-uv (ho i.-liry,s;ilis with the larva, ami toll how they resemble each other.
Make a drawing of" the chrysalis. Compare different chrysalids.

How many parts in the butterfly? How many wing-s and legs? Where are
lhe\- attached? Make a drawing of the whole and of the parts. Compare with
larva and with chrysalis.

Hi:ad and Sknse Organs: Examine the eyes with a lens and describe.

Examine the antenna?. Compare with other butterflies and moths. Draw.

Examine the tongue and compare with the mouth parts of the lar\'a.

Can it hear? Experiment to discover.

Can it smell ? Experiment to discover.

Eggs: Observe a butterfly deposit its eggs. Where are they deposited?
Why? How many are deposited in a place? Keep in a box until they hatch.
How long before they hatch ? Observe development of the larva and compare
different stages with each other, and with other larvre. Make drawings of each
stage to keep for reference.

THIRD STAGE, (12 to J6 Years of Age.)

The aim of the third stage should be to discover relations. Whereas we have
been more concerned about the where, how and the what, we now become
concerned with the why. Finally, we classify the specimen as minutely as possible.

Material: As before and in addition v;M-bal descriptions of different forms of
animal life and an analytical key of each branch, partly, at least, the pupil's own
work.

Home: In addition to what has been learned before the student should now
determine what effect the larva has on its food plant. Does it destroy it entirely
or in part ? How does the butterfly benefit the flowers? Why has the butterfly
so long a tongue? What relation is there between the length of its tongue and
the flowers it visits? What relation exists between the time ot appearance of
certain butterflies and of certain flowers ?

Movements: Why does it moult its skin ? Why does it become restless
before moulting? Of what benefit is this restlessness to the larva ? Has it any
movements which are protective? Read about the migration of butterflies, and
what they do in winter. Compare with other insects, and with birds.

Food: Why are not certain butterflies found in Canada?

What determines their range?

Which is most easily killed by poisoning, the larva; or the butterfly? Why?

If you find larva; on different plants, find from your botany if there is any
relationship between these plants. They will probably belong to the same family.

Color: Observe if the different forms are protected by their color?

Compare the color of the larvae in different conditions.

Compare the color of the chrysalis with the surface on which it rests.

Structl'RE; Compare all the butterflies studied with one another, and with
other insects, spiders, etc.

Tell what is characteristic of all butterflies which distinguishes them from
moths, beetles, etc. Group the different species studied according to their
resemblances. How are they adapted to their mode of living?

Life History : Write a complete account of its life.

OF NATURE STUDY. — 2g

Thus the teacher's work is in selecting' the material and in directing- the pupil's
analysis, while the pupil's work is to discover facts about this material, and" to
give expression to each fact in some way, finally summarizing- all these facts in a
composition which is virtually the story oi the life of the animal studied. In doing
this work the mental power is increased in all directions, and the power of
expression is incidentally cultivated in an interesting- way.

The teacher can do a great deal lo correlate nature study with other subjects
of school study, e. g., geography and physiology, and should base all training
in expression — reading, drawing, and composition, upon it. This phase of the
work has been already fully discussed.

It is impossible in view of the relation between the constructive activities of
the child and its development to escape the conclusion that manual training and
domestic science should occupy an important place in elementary education,
especially in the secondary and following stages. Such statements as "social
life which does not have its root and background in nature is blind and unregu-
lated ;" " nature, apart from the place which it plays in giving instruments by
which social life maintains itself, is empty and dead;" "the study of nature is the
study of the materials ami o'i the processes by which society maintains itself;'
" education is a ]irocess of remaking experience, giving it a more socialized value
through the medium of increased individual efficiency;" "the aim of the school is to
socialize the child; " go to prove that only by repeating typical acts which have
operated in the development of the race can the child "remake experience " and
thereb}^ interpret his environment.

Now, as before stated, development oi the race resulted from the reaction of
man upon environment in adaptitig it to his needs and aims. To adapt himself to
the present complex environinent it is necessary that lie should repeat typical ex-
periences of the race such as carpentering, metal work, cooking, etc. This does
not mean that he must master every phase of social experience any more than he
needs lo own every industrial mechanism in order to feed and clothe himself. But
he must know enough about them to be able to interpret them and adapt himself to
changing conditions. In the field of literature and art the same typical activities
must have been experienced in order that he may appreciate the beauty of expres-
sion and form. Hence what is ordinarily designated manual training and domestic
science should be considered as the basis of all the school studies. Instead of
placing these on the curriculum as separate subjects they should be viewed as
modes of expression o\' the constructive activity of the child, just as reading,
writing, drawing, and composition are modes of expression, not separate subjects
of study.

Progressive development would lead from the constructive activities to the
underlying principles governing the growth of material, the processes o( develop-
ment, the application of force necessary to act upon them; in a word to the
sciences, while in later lite all would culminate in the highest expression of social
experience, literature and art. A complete course in nature study must be
correlated with manual training and domestic science.

^^_ THE PSYCHOLOGY

Study of a Plant in Different Stages of School Life.

Plant — Butter-and-Eggs, or Toad Flax.

SpeciiiuMis oi' the whole plant slunild be obtained by the pupils. They should
dig up a few and transplant them in the school garden, or, in absence of an
appropriate place, in a box, which may be kept in the school-room. The earlier
in the season these plants are obtained the more likely they are to flourish. Try
to imitate in the school-room or yard the natural conditions of soil, light, and
moisture.

Pupils should obser\'e while collecting, the kind of soil, the location, amount
of moisture generally present, all surroundings, and the date of collection. \\ ere
there few or many plants together ? Did they pull up easily or not ? Were there
bees or other insects about the flowers? Were there any larva feeding upon the
plants ? Do cattle or other animals eat the plant ? How do bees or other insects
enter and leave the flowers ? Were there any insects about the plants which cannot
get at the nectar in the flowers ?

In the class-room, root, stem, and leaves may be observed in detail. Every-
thing should be discovered by the pupils themselves, if possible, without waste of
time and eftbrt, but there are always certain related facts w^hich may be conveyed
to the pupils through pictures or by words, especially in higher classes. The one
thing to avoid is the attempt to force the pupils to learn mere forms without actual
assimilation. The method of arousing mental activity varies in the difterent stages
as previously stated, and the same holds in the study of plants as in any other
study.

FIRST STAGE.

What part of the plant grows above ground? What is the nature of the
underground part ? Where was this particular specimen found ? Tell whether
it grew in shade or in sun, in dry, moist or in wet soil, or in water. How many
plants grew where the specimens were found? How close together did they
grow ? Were anv of the plants eaten off by animals ? What insects were noticed
about the flowers ? What were they doing ?

PART OF PLANT ABOVE GROUND.

How high does it grow ? How wide ? Are there branches ? What kind of
leaves are there? Do all the plants bear flowers ? What color are the flowers ?
What odor ? How many on each plant ? How^ are they arranged ? Are all the
flowers open at the same time ? What do they look like ? Cut out paper flowers
and leaves to look like the real ones. Color them.

PART OF PLANT UNDERGROUND.

What kind of structure do the branches grow from ? (Give name root-stock.)
How many branches grow from one root-stock ? How long is a root-stock ?
Find the fibrous parts growing downward from the root-stock. How many are
there ? How long ? Cut up the root-stock into several pieces and plant all the
pieces.

OF NATURE STUDY. —ji

FRIIT.

What is the shape of the fruit ? Is it g-ood to eat ? Do animals eat it ?
How many seeds are there in it ? Mould clay to the shape of the fruit ?

SECOND STAGE.

Review conditions of jfrowth as in first stage. What other plants are growing
near it ? Compare conditions of plants found in different localities. Do the
plants vary with conditions ? Compare plants which grow in shade and in sun.
Compare plants which grow in moist soil with those in dry soil. What kind of
soil seems most favorable to the plant? Why are the plants found in patches?
If animals will not eat them, discover why. Observe how bees enter and leave
the flowers. What insects cannot enter ? Why ? What do the bees get from
the flowers ? What do they carry from one flower to another?

PART OF PLANT ABOVK C'.KOlNn.

Review work of first stage. Where does it grow higher, in sun or in shade ?
In sand or in clay? In moist or in dry soil? What are the highest plants
observed ? The widest? Look at the plant from above. Describe the
appearance of the leaves. How are they attached to the stem? Why
are they not placed one above the other ? Do the leaves change posi-
tion in sunlight and at night. Make drawings of whole plant to show various
points observed. Describe a leaf fully, and draw. Compare with leaves of other
plants. Why are the leaves narrow? Compare the number of leaves with the
numlier on the sunflower or other large leaved plant. Make a diagram showing
the order in which the flowei-s open. What advantage is it to the plant to have
flowers open successively? Make a drawing of a flower.

FLOWER.

Observe the different floral organs, calyx, corolla, stamens, pistil. How
many parts in each? Show by diagram where each partis situated. How is the
corolla adapted to invite the bee to visit it ? What attracts the bee ? Observe one
light on the flower and tell just what happens as the bee lights, enters, and leaves.
What part oi the bee becomes covered with pollen? What becomes of this
pollen ? Where is the nectar found ?

FRlIT.

Review — Is it dry or flesliy ? How long does it take to mature ? Does it split
open when ripe ? How? Why? How many cavities in the fruit? How many
seeds? Where are the seeds attached in the fruit? How are the seeds discharged
from the pod? Examine a seed and make a drawing. How is it made so as to
be carried away? What agent will carry it? Preserve some seeds and plant
next spring. Compare with other seeds in shape, size, color, etc.

PART OF PLANT I NDERGROLND.

Review — Account for the plant growing in patches. How does the root-stock
grow in length each year? What becomes of the old part? What happens to
the plant in winter? Preserve root-stocks and plant them in spring. (Give name
perennial, for plant which lives from year to year, after pupils have discovered

j2— THE PSYCHOLOGY

this fart.) Compare root-stock with potato tuber, bulb cii onion, comi of Indian
lunii|->. Is tho root-stock a stem or a root? Why? Compare roots with
brandies, in size, shape, structure, as far as possible. Compare roots with those
of other plants.

THIRD STAGE.

Under the head of each, review work of preceding- stag-es.

\Vh\- do the plants grown in different condi-tions vary? In what kind of soil
would a plant of this nature spread most rapidly? How should plants that grow
in patches be destroyed? What other plants grow in patches? Compare with
this one after inferring' in what respects they should ag"ree. What is the relation
of the structure of the flower to that of the bee?

PART OF PLANT ABOVE GROLND.

Determine the exact leaf arrang-ement of the leaves on the stem. Why
arrantfcd in this way? Is the stem woody or soft? Are the leaves net veined or
parallel-veined? Write a full description of stem, leaf, and mode of flowering,
using technical terms. What other flowers resemble this fjne in mode of flowering?
(Inflorescence.) Is the plant an exogen or endogen?

FLOWER.

Write a full description according to some prescribed fonn, stating the number
of parts in each whorl, and the relation of each whorl to each other. Do this first
in simple language, and gradually introduce technical terms, such as gamopetalous,
etc. Determine the relation between the position of stamens and stigma, which
favors cross fertilization by bees. What other flowers have closed corollas?
Why? Why is the corolla spurred? What other flowers hav'e spurred corollas?
Compare the lengths of the spurs. By what other means do plants favor visits by
bees? What other insects cross-fertilize flowers? Obtain further information
from books on Nature, by Darwin, Gibson, Grant, etc.

Classify the plant.

FRIIT.

Write a full description of the fruit. Compare with other dry dehiscent fruits.
In what ways does the fruit favor the preservation of the plant?

PART OF PLANT UNDERGROIND.

Compare the structure of the root-stock with that of the stem above ground.
What is the difference between root-stock and root? Determine the age of the
root-stock by counting the rings of wood. Examine the root-stock in the fall
and see what preparation has been made for next gear's growth. Compare with
annuals and biennials.

OF NATURE STUDY. ~jj

Matter of Nature Study^

INTRODUCTION TO PLANTS.
OUTLINE OF NATURE-STUDY WORK WITH PLANT LIFE.

Children can be introduced to the study of plants as easily as to any other
subject. Just as they learn to know their playmates, so thej' may learn to know
their friends of the woods and fields. When they are interested in a plant because
of any feature of it, and ask "what it is?" the teacher should hasten to jfive
them a formal introduction.

" Why, that is a Wake Robin, who lives in the woods over there," or " that
is iny Lad3''s Slipper, which was lost many years ago in the forest.

A touch of reality is added by this personification, which is really more
strictly in accord with the truth than to consider a plant as so much dead matter.
'Fancy introducint;;' a chilii oi' fourteen \ears, or less, to a living' incarnation of
beauty in the terms of a dead language Cypripediuin pitbescens.

The flower should be first treated and studied as a living thing, and after-
wards used as material for drawing lessons and for color study. In which is a
child more interested, a strip of yellow paper, one by two inches, or the yellow of
the Lady's S!i|iper ? And what if it is not pure color ? We never think of be-
ginning ail}- oilier study with the faultlessly perfect in every detail. At any rate,
the colors of flowers are never cheap.

We may learn something from Nokomis in Longfellow's " Hiawatha." She
was grandmotlier and teacher to him.

" Many things Nokomis taught him
Of the stars that shine in heaven ;
Showed him Ishkotniah, the comet,
Ishkooilah, with fiery tresses ;
Showeil the death-danie of the spirits.
Warriors with their plumes and war-clubs,
Flaring far away to northward
In the frost}' nights of winter ;
Showed the broad white road in heaven,
Pathway of the ghosts, the shadows,
Running straight across the heavens.
Crowded with the ghosts, the shadows."

" Saw the rainbow in the heaven.
In the eastern sky, the rainbow.
Whispered, ' What is tha^, .\okomis? '
And the good Nokomis answered :
' 'Tis the heaven of fiowers you see there ;
All the wild-flowers of the forest,
All the lilies of the prairie,
W'hen on earth the)" fade and perish.
Blossom in that heaven above us.'"

34— ■ THE PSYCHOLOGY

"Of all beasts lie learned the language,
Learned their names, and jdl their secrets,
How the beavers built their lodges.
Where the squirrels hid their acorns,
Mow the reindeer ran so swiftly.
Why the rabbit was so timid,
Talked with them, when e'er he met them.
CfiHed them, Hiawatha's brothers."

Here was an ideal teacher of nature. There was no dissecting but an
interest in what they did.

By some such simple method, the child should, in the course of an ordinary
school life, become ticquainted with the names of all ourconimon trees and plants.
As soon as he is able, he should note likenesses and differences, beginning- with
the grosser and gradually extending to the finer details, but the teacher must
keep within the limits of inteiest, direct his efforts, yet see that knowledge is
acquired through his Own self-activity. Classification into orders, genera, and
species, should be left for advanced public school work or for introduction to high
school work.

While becoming acquainted with the names of trees and plants, quite 3'oimg-
pupils can begin systematic work which requires only keen eyes and an interested
mind to accomplish. They should note where the plants grow ; the kind of soil;
the color, etc., and prepare lists of plants Jiccording to habitat :

Plants growing in water, sagittaria, eel grass ; plants growing in sandy soil,
clotbur, evening- primrose ; plants g-rowing in woods, lily, anemone.

If such work as this is begun in a second form and continued throughout the
school course, the child would have a store of information about plants which
would be of the g^reatest value, whatever his future might be.

Another line ot work, similar in nature, is grouping plants according to time
of flowering;, at first by seasons, then bj- months, and later by definite limiting^
dates, showing earliest and latest appearance in bloom.

As a guide to teachers, and as an indication of the work that might be done
by the pupil in the course of seven or eight years, a list of common plants is given
in the appendix, grouped according to habitat and color of flowers, with the time
of flowering indicated by figures, denoting the month, and letters denoting the
seasons.

The study of plants so far, in the schools of Canada, has been almost entirely
limited to minute descriptions of individual plants with a view to their exact classifi-
cation. While this work is quite in place for the advanced student, it is quite unsuit-
edtothe younger classes. Furthermore, thebasisof classification hasbeen the flower
to the exclusion of the leaf. As the latter is a much more permanent part of the
plant than the flower, a classification based upon it has many advantages. In
any case children should be trained to recognize plants by their leaves and
general appearance, so that they can gather them at any time during the season
and examine them.

After a class has once learned to know a plant, it should be collected at
regular intervals, say every month, and its development and changes noted. The
im[)ortance of such examination may be seen in the case of the dandelion, which
immediately after flowering season should be examined daily, until the fruit is

OF NATURE STUDY. —35

full}' formed. Then the W^e story of it may be written just as we would Write the
life story of a frog, or other animal.

This periodic examination will lead up to the formation and development of
fnuit, and the dispersal of seeds. Tlie seeds should be preserved in labelled
packages, planted in the following spring, and their germination and early growth
noted, thus completing the observation of the life-cycle.

While lioing such work as the above, the pupil will discover the distinction
between annuals, biennials, and j>erennials. Usually this distinction is brought be-
fore the student after a few months' study, but, evidenth-, no one can appreciate
the distinction until a type of each class has been studied for two or more years.
Thus, the study of plants, "in the large," will be followed by the study of
4heir more particular structure : the buds, leaves, flowers, fruit, and seeds. Each
of these may be taken in turn, aud studied minutely.

Bring into \our school-room, in March, branches of diflferent trees, e. g.,
maple, apple, horse-chestnut. Keep their cut ends immersed in water, or in moist
soil (culling the ends occasionally,) and observe the development of the bud.
What becomes of the brown scales? JIow is llie bud protected? Where are the
buds situateil':' Wliiih buiis dcM'lop (irstV Are there any which will not
develoi) in the room? Observe the develo[)inent of buds on the tree later. What
is a bud? How does it grow? Find the buds which become flowers. Which
appear first, the leaves or the flowers?

In the maple, the flowers are noticeable first, in the apple both develop
together, while in the horse-chestnut the tree is in full foliage befoie the flowers
appear. Try to discover other trees like each of these types in respect to the
appearance of the flowers, compared with the leaves.

Following the plan suggested in a preceding paragraph, observe these trees
at least o.ice a month throughout the season. The development oi the fruit
should be followed closely and a record of observations kept. Does each blossom
produce a fruit? If not, about how many of the blossoms do produce fruit? Oi
fruits which set how many mature ? What causes some of the fruit not to develop ?
Open those fruits which fall early to discover the cause of their non-development.
Study the structure of the fruits of the trees mentioned. (Third book pupils
can do this.) In the maple fruit, the peculiar wing and the iTianner of falling are
noticeable; in the horse-chestnut, the burr or shell, and the richly colored brown
nuts; in the apple, the fleshy fruit and seed cavities. How many seed cavities
are there? How many seeds in each cavity? Look for other fruits like each of
these types. Thus the ash and the elm have winged fruits; the chestnut and
beech-nut have burrs; the pear and quince are fleshy. Why are fruits green
while immature, and brown when ripe? Do these colors protect them in any
way ?

In higher classes, the study of butls maj' be continued, in order to find when,
where and how, new buds are formed each year. Examine the branches closely
each month. You will find that the buds are formed earlj" in the season before
the leaves fall. Where are they formed ? How and when are they coated with
resin? What other protection have they? Open one to see. Trj' to discover
all that is contained in a bud. Study the mark (scar) left by the leaf after it
has fallen from the tree; also the ring-like marks of the scales of a bud. The

j6— THE PSYCHOLOGY

distance heluocii these ring-like marks represents a year's growth, hence the age
of a slioot can he determined by observing tliese. The little spots scattered over
\h^' surface of the stem are breathing pores (lenticels. ) Where are they most
nunuTOiis ?

Tlie teiiniiial Inuls continue the growth o^ the stem next year. Some of the
axillarv buds develop and produce lateral branches. But many of the axillary
buds never develop imless some accident happens to the terminal buds. Break
off the terminal buds of healthy branches on a tsee and note the result.

A few years ago the tussock moth larva? destroyed the entire foliage of shade
trees in Toronto ami elsewhere. Later in the season the trees were not only
covered with leaves but flowers as well. Sometinies in spring, trees leaf out
early and have their leaves totally destroyed by late frosts, but the reserve buds
are sufficient to renew the foliage and prevent the defith of the trees.

During the winter, trees and shrubs should be observed as to outline, habit of
branching, nature of bark, etc. Leafless trees are especially valuable as objects
tor drawing lessons, and birds' nests can then be observed, which escaped
detection in the summer.

The nature oi the wood itself should be studied, so that unscrupulous dealers
can not pass off black ash for oak, or stained pine for mahogany.

In autumn, studv the falling of the leaves. Some trees shed their leaves sudden-
ly, e. g., horse-chestnut, walnut; some shed them gradually, e. g., maple, poplar;
some retain a few brown and withered leaves throughout the winj^er, e. g., oak,
beech. When do these latter leaves fall? Why? Group the trees according to
these different ways of shedding their leaves.

Study the evergreens. Do they shed their leaves? One is apt to answer
" No;" but is immediately reminded of the bed of pine needles which carpet the
ground under the old pines. Cut off" a branch oi' a pine or spruce which has a
leafless portion. Observe the different years' growth. Examine the leaves on
each year's growth. Which year's growth is entirely leafless ? What portions
have lost part oi' the leaves ? What portions have lost no leaves ? Compare
different evergreens, as some shed ther leaves in a different way from others.
Xotice the Scotch pines and yellow pines in October. Certain groups of the
leaves are noticeably yellow and falling. Which ^-ear's growth is this ? In what
way are evergreens better adapted to withstand winter weather than maples ?
Which kind o'l tree will flourish better far to the north ?

The cause oi the falling of leaves is not, as is generally supposed, due to frost,
though a frost mav hurry the process of falling. The leaves would die if there
were no frosts, as you may observe man}- do early in the season. Examine the
point oi' connection between the leaf and the tree at different times during the
vear, and try to discover the cause of falling.

ROOTS.

There are many interesting facts about roots, which may be made the subject
of nature study. They must be distinguished from underground stems, which
bear buds. In origin they grow from the descending axis of the plant. Ob-
serve sprouting seeds and distinguish the ascending axis (stem) from the
descending axis (root.) Examine the small rootlets for the root-hairs, which

OF NATURE STUDY. —37

absorb water. Where are these root-hairs most numerous ? Why are roots so
irregular, unlike stems? How would the soil affect the reg'ularity of a root?

Each root has a root-cap at its tip, which is constant!}' renewed as it is worn
off by the soil, throuj^h which it forces its way. This root-cap is a very
important part of the root.

Examine the roots of clover and other members of that family of plants
(bean, pea, etc.) You will find small enlarg-emonts called "nodules." These
nodules play a very important [lart in the nourishment of these plants, as they are
tenanted by minute forms of plant life (bacteria), which have the ]iowi'i- of
assimilating;- nitroi>^en liirectly from the air, wiiich [ilants and animals cannot
do. Thus the plants of the clover family are rich in nitrogen, and are valuable
fertilizers of the soil, as farmers have long known. A crop of clover ploughed
under is the ver\' best |)re[>aration for a cro[i of wheal. In dermany, tiiese
bacteria have been cullivatetl anil |)rei)ared for sale, jusi as phosphates are sold
as fertilizers.

One of the best nature study exercises is to have each pupil plant a tUizen or
moi'e seeds of various kiiuls, (wheat, bean, pea, corn, melon,) anil report eaih
week or oltener u|)on their growth. The teacher should keep a few seeds of the
same kind growing for class demonstration, to correct errors and suggest new
work.

TREKS THAT SHED Tlli;iU BARK.

We ai-e all familiar with the iihenomenon of trees shedding their leaves. We
know, too, that in spring tlu'\- slu'il the scales which enclosed the Iniils all winter.
Later they shed most of the parts of the flower, the calyx, the corolla, and the
stamens. Then, usually, at the close of the season, the fruit falls. There are
exceptions to nearly all these statements, but generally speaking they aie true.

Most of our trees shed their bark also. This is most evitlent on the s\camores
and birches, hut it is none the less true of otliei- trees. In winter the branciies of
the svcainore glistrn along the river vallejs, <'ind the hiteness of the leaves in
spring marks these trees distinctly against the sui'iounding greenness.. This
process of shedding the bark is quite evident in tlie while pine, from which the
bark scales in rather regular four-sided patciies. The shag-bark hickory sheds
its bark in striivs, which gives the name to the tree, while the rough surfaces ot
the maple, oak, walnut, and other trees shows that the same process is going on
there though less regulaily. It is, in fact, a necessity of their mode of growth.

Thegrowtii of our common trees takes place in the area just under the bark, or
between the bark and the wood. This area is called the cambium. It grows both
inwards and outwards, forming wood on the inside and bark on the outside. As
the tri;e increases in circumference, the hark of jirevious years' growth is sho\'ed
outward, but being too small to cover the increased circumference it splits more
or less irregularly, and eventually scales off verj' quickly and completely in the
sycamore, and more slowly in the maple and other trees.

Some trees, e. g. , palm, and some plants, e. g. , corn, lih', do not grow as
above described, and in these there is no t:)ark, although the outer layers of cells
are somewhat different from the inner ones. These trees and plants have points
of growth throughout the stem, and the wood is formed at these points in bundles.

In the more adviinced classes the pupils should observe the relation between

j8 — THE P SYCHOLOG Y

(ilaiits and tlio soil. Some plants flourish best in sandy soil, and are likely to crowd
otliers out ofsueh soil, thougli these others mig^ht be able to grow there, if not in'
competition with those natives, as they may be called. Other plants grow in water,
and cannot possibly live on dry land. Others grow in swamps, others in shady
woods, some in sunny places,, and some prefer m-ineral soil. Thus, of trees,
evergreens j>refer sandy or gravelly soil, wliile the hardwood trees, oak, maple,
beech, need a heavier soil, clay loam. Willow and sycamore grow beside flowing
streams, and tamarack in- cold, wet soils. The study of these groups of tree*
may be carried on \oy sevei^al 3'earsr

Modern botany places great stress upon the study of the adaptation of plants-
to environment, which is known as ecology. Plants are found to grow in societies,
according to the nature of the soil, moisture and climate. Thus, we have peat
bog societies, swanvp societies, forest societies^ desert societies, fence-corner,,
and roadside societies.

Four great societies are now recognized : (r) Water plants, i. e., those which
grow where water is abmidant, (Hydrophytes); (2) Drought plants, i. e., those
which grow in extremely dry soil, and in a dry atmosphere, (Xerophytes) ; (3)
Plants that grow where there is a medium water supply, (Mesophytes.); (4) Plants
that grow in soil which contains a large amount of mineral matter, (Halophytes),

OF NATURE STUDY, —39

Appendix,

The numbers stand for the months of flowering ; S — summer ; A. S. — al
summer ; L. S. — late summer.

PLANTS OF ROADSIDE, BANKS, ETC.

FLOWKKS WHITE.

Shepherd's Purse, 4-1 1. Mayweed, ()ellow disk), 7-9

Virginia Creeper, 7. Roneset, 8-9.

Hedge Bindweed, A. S. Yarrow, 7-9.

Bouncing Bet, S. Asters, 6-0.

Musk-Mallow, 6-9 Rib Grass, (Eng. Plantain, ) 3.

White Sweet Clover, 7-9, Round-leaved Mallow, 6-10.

Wild Carrot, 6-9.

FLOWKRS YELLOW.

Cliarlock, 6-8. Tansy, 6-10.

Mustard, 6-9. Elecampane, S.

Wood Sorrel, A. S. Mayweed, (white ray,) 7-9.

Butter and Eggs, 6-10. Mullein, 7-9.

Yellow Sweet Clover, 7.9. Wild Sunflower, L. S.

FLOWERS PINK, RED, ETC.

Sweet Brier, 6-9. Musk .Mallow, 6-9.

Apocynum, 6-7. Yarrow, 7-9.

Bouncing Bet, S. Teasel, 5-8.
Catnip, 7-9.

FLOWERS BLUE, PURPLE.
Common Speedwell, 6-8. Asters, S.

Wild Toad Flax, 7-9. Beggars Lice, 6-8.

Clue Vetch, 7-9. Blue Vervain, 5-6.

Chicory, (also white, or pink,) 7-0. Self-Heal, 6-9.

Viper's Bugloss, 6-8.

PLANTS OF DEEP WOODS

FLOWERS WHITE.

Solomon's Seal, 5-6, Mitrewort, 5.

False Solomon's Seal, 5. False Mitrewort, 5.

False Lily of the Valley, 5-6. Bunch Berry, 6.

Wake Robin, 4-5. Shin- Leaf, 5-7.

Painted Trillium, (crimson veins,) 4-5. Indian Pipe, 6-7.

Canada Violet, S. Dutchman's Breeches, 4-5.

Blood Root, 4-5 Squirrel Corn, 4-5.

Toothwort, 4-5. Wood .Sorrell, 6-7.
Leek, 6

/G>-— THE PSVCriOLOGV

FLOWERS YKI.I.OW.
Wild Giiiiier, 4-5. Blue C'liliosh, 4-5.

Yellow Lad\'s Slipp«'i% 7; Yellow Woo*.! Soriell, 5-9..

Kl.OVVKR.S PINK, OR RED,

Wild Oranj^-e-red Lily, 6-8. Herb Robert, 6-8.

Sliiii-Leat, 6-7.- I'iivk Lady's Slipper 6.

Twill Flower. 6-.

PHLOX I L0\VT-;KS, BLIK, OR PLn<PLE,

Twisted Stalk, 5-6. Ill-seei)tei.l Wake Robin, 4-5_

Jack ill the Pulpit .

Asters, 5-

PLANTS GREEN.

PLANTS OF SANDY SOIL

FLOWERS WHITLV

BLOWERS \ E I. LO W.
Rock Rose, 7-8'. YelUnv Kveninj;- Primrose, 6-Q>

Hairy Puccooii, 6-7, Gokinrbiiie, 6-7.

Sw^eet Golden Rod, 8, St. John's Woit, 6-9

Stone-Crop. 6-8.

FLOWER'S PINK, RED.

American Sea Rotket, 7-8. Clotbur, L, S.

Bush Clover, L. S, Bird's-eye Primrose, 5-6,

FLOWERS BLl'E OR PLRFLE.

Wild Lupine, 6-7^ Asters. 7.

Purjile Gerardia, 7.

PLANTS OF OPEN WOODS, AND GROVES,

FLOWERS WHITE.

Hepafica, 3-4. May Ajjple, 5

Wood Anemone, 4.-5, Star Flowe-i-, 5.

Rue Anemone, 4-5. White Avens, 5-8.

Thimble Weed, A. S. Five-leaved Ginseng", 6-8,

Twin Leaf", 4-5. Wild Sarsaparilla, 6.

FLOWERS VELLOAV.

Downj' Yellow Violet. 5 Dog's-Tootli Violet, 4-5.

FLOWERS PINK, RED, ETC.

Spring- Beaut\', 4-5. Loiisewort, (also yellow, ) 5-7-

Wild Geranium, 5-7, Piir[>le-flowei"ing Raspberr\', 6-8.

PLANTS OF DRY SOIL.

FLOWERS WHITE.

Thorn Apple, 6-9. Everlasting', 4-5.

Dodder, (parasitic) J-S. Fleabane, (yellow disk) 6-7.

Wild Carrot, S-9. Ox-Eye Daisy, (yellow disk) 6-7.

!0 F NATURE STUDY.

— 41

PLOWERS VF.LLOAV.

iBiitterciip, 6-9.
Five-I" ing'er, 5-8.
Shrubby Cinquefoil, A ..S.
Silvery Cinquefoil, A. S.
Evening' Primrose, 6-9.
Harberrj', 5-6-

St. John's Wort, S.
Mullein, 7-9.
"Black-Eyed Susan, S.
T)andelion, A S,
■Golden Rod, 8-9.
Prickli' Lettuce, 6-9.

'Great Willow Herb, 7.9,
Milkweed, 6-8.

n.ouKRS h-ixK. r<En, i:tc.

Canada Thistle* S-
AVild RerjJi^aniot, 7-8.

FLOWERS KI-l E OR PI RPI.E.

Blue Violet, 4-5.
Viper's Bug-loss, 6-8.
Ground Iv}-, 4-5.
Indian Tobacco, 6-8.
Sell- Heal, 6-9.

Poison \\y, 6-7,

llounil's Tongue, 5-7,
Corn Cockle, 7-9.
Thistle, 7-10.
Wild Berganiot, 7-8,

FLOAVERS tiREENlSII WHITE

PLANTS OF MOIST SOIL,

FLOWERS WIHTK,

Choke Cherry, 4-5,
Dogwood, 6-7.
•Cut-leaved Toothwort, 4-6.
Plantain, (about dwellings) S,
I'oisoii Hemlock, 6-8,

Dog's Tooth Violet, 4-5.
Meadow I'arsiiip, 5-6,

White X'iolel, 5.
Elderberr)', 6-7.
Chickweed, A. S.
\'irgin's'Bower, 7-8,

Small Willow Herb, S.
Turtle Head, L. S.
Cardinal Flower, 8,

Blue Flag, 5-6.
Blue-Eyed Grass, 6-8.
Common Harebell, 6-9.
Forget-me-not, 6-8.
Ground Ivy, 5-6.

I-l,OWEKS VEELOW.

Jewel W'eed, S,
Money Wort, S.
Loosestrife, 6-7.

ELOWERS PINK OR RED.

Mint, 8-9,
Oswego Tea, S.

FLOWERS BLCE OR PI RPLE,

Nightshade, 7-9>
Blue \'ervain, 6-8.
Fringed Gentian, 8-9v
Closed Gentian, 9-10.

42

THi. PSYCHOLOGY

Gold Thread, 5-6.
Round-leaved Sumlew, 6-7.
Poison Sumach, 6.
Water HemkHk, 6-8.

Marsh Marigold, 4-5.

American Cranberr}-, 6.
Showy Lady's Slipper, 5.

PLANTS OF SWAMPS.

FLOWERS WIllTK.

White Swamp Honeysuckle, 6-7.
Creeping' Snowberry, 5
Grass of Parnassus. 9
Water Parsnip, 7-9.

FLOWERS YELLOW

Bur Marig-old, S.

FLOWERS PLN'K, RED, ETC.

.Swamp Milkweed, S.

FLOWERS BLIE OR PLRPLE.

Pitcher Plant, (varies) 6.

Skunk Cabbag-e, (variegated) comes up through ice sometimes, 3-4.

Purple Avens, 5-7.

Asters, 7-9. Marsh Five-Finger, S.

PLANTS IN WATER,

FLOWERS WHITE.

Wild Calla, 6.
White Water Lily, A. S.
White Water Crowfoot, A. S.
Water Hemlock, A. S.
Water Parsnip, .\. S.

Yellow Pond Lily, 5-8.

Yellow Nelumbo, 7-8.

Yellow Water Crowfoot, A. S.

American Brooklime, 5-9.

Arrow Head, A. S.
Water Plantain, L. S.
Eel Grass, 8.
Water Cress, 5-6,

FLOWERS YELLOW.

I Potomageton, 7-8.

FLOWERS BLUE.

1 )

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Silcox # Nature study

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Nature study

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Silcox

Nature study

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